THE ANNALS

AND

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY,

INCLUDING

ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, ann GEOLOGY.

(BEING A CONTINUATION OF THE ‘ANNALS’ COMBINED WITH LOUDON AND

CHARLESWORTH 'S ‘MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY. )

CONDUCTED BY

PRIDEAUX JOHN SELBY, Esq., F.LS.,

CHARLES C. BABINGTON, Esq., M.A., F.B.S., F.L.S., F.G.S.,

JOHN EDWARD GRAY, Ph.D., F.R.S.; F.LS., V.P.Z.S. &.,

ARTHUR HENFREY,F.B.S., F.L.S.,Prof. Bot. King’s Coll. Lond.,

AND

WILLIAM FRANCIS, Ph.D., F.L.S.

AMUSE.

VOL. IV. RIED SERIES.

—

LONDON:

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS.

SOLD BY LONGMAN, GREEN, LONGMANS, AND ROBERTS; SIMPKIN, MARSHALL,

AND CO.; PIPER AND CO.}5 BAILLIERE, REGENT STREET, AND PARIS:

LIZARS, AND MACLACHLAN AND STEWART, EDINBURGH :

HODGES AND SMITH, DUBLIN: AND ASHER, BERLIN.

1859.

‘*Omnes res create sunt divine sapientie et potentie testes, divitie felicitatis

humane :—ex harum usu bonitas Creatoris; ex pulchritudine sapientia Domini;

ex ceconomia in conservatione, proportione, renovatione, potentia majestatis elucet.

Earum itaque indagatio ab hominibus sibi relictis semper zestimata; a veré eruditis

et sapientibus semper exculta; malé doctis et barbaris semper inimica fuit.”—

LINNZUS.

Quelque soit le principe de la vie animale, il ne faut qu’ouvrir les yeux pour voir

qu’elle est le chef-d’ceuvre de la Toute-puissance, et le but auquel se rapportent

toutes ses opérations.”—BRUCKNER, Théorie du Systéme Animal, Leyden, 1767.

ee HOTS OP IO, Ste Phe sglvin’ powers

Obey our summons ; from their deepest dells

The Dryads come, and throw their garlands wild

And odorous branches at our feet ; the Nymphs

That press with nimble step the mountain thyme

And purple heath-flower come not empty-handed,

But scatter round ten thousand forms minute

Of velvet moss or lichen, torn from rock

Or rifted oak or cavern deep: the Naiads too

Quit their loved native stream, from whose smooth face

They crop the lily, and each sedge and rush

That drinks the rippling tide: the frozen poles,

Where peril waits the bold adventurer’s tread,

The burning sands of Borneo and Cayenne,

All, all to us unlock their secret stores

And pay their cheerful tribute.

J. TAYLOR, Norwich, 1818.

CONTENTS OF VOL. IV.

[THIRD SERIES. ]

NUMBER XIX.

Page

I. On the Metamorphoses of the Vorticelle. By M. Juues

PREM S s sncinisucakesdnunruneoumeans incase dune thus eek pstigenhnedeenssenree EAS

II. On the Development of the Vegetable Ovule called ‘ Anatro-

pous.” By JoHn Mimrs, F.R.S., F.L.S. &c. cccccsscessscececsecsrecees 12

III. On Dracunculus and Microscopic Filaride in the Island of

Bombay. By H. J. Carrer, Esq., Bombay. (With three Plates.). 28

IV. On the Occurrence of a Fish (Pteraspis) in the Lower Ludlow

WER. Ce Fy W. DALTBOR, PGS. cpeosspsetesscvonpiins teen ee sesore Biowndas 44

V. Notes on the Hydroid Zoophytes. By Prof. ALLMAN .......0. 48

VI. Descriptions of new Genera and Species of Phytophagous

Insects. By J.8. BALY, EsQeic.. ccc. cccscetescecscscccccseccvacecsoseees 55

New Book :—The Instructive Picture Book; or, a few attractive Les-

sons from the Natural History of Animals.. By ApAm WHITE,

Assist. Zool. Department, Brit. Mus. ......... seeseenevees it ins Bacs 62

Proceedings of the Royal Society ;. Geological Society.............+ 63—77

Occurrence of Rhinolophus Hipposideros in Ireland; Sazxicava rugosa

a Byssus-spinner, by David Robertson, Esq. .......csescesseseseeees 80

NUMBER XxX.

VII. On the Laws of Evolution of the Organic World during the

Formation of the Crust of the Earth. By H. G. Bronn............... 81]

VIII. Observations on the Shell and Animal of Hybocystis, a new

genus of Cyclostomide, based on Megalomastoma gravidum and Oto-

poma Blennus, B.; with Notes on other living Shells from India and

Burmah. By W. H. Benson, Esq. ...........seeeees Seka onic octdotes Capel 90

lv CONTENTS.

Page

IX. Notes on the Animals of Rhaphaulus Chrysalis, Pupina artata,

Otopoma clausum, Helix Achatina, and H. pylaica. By W. H. Bren-

WOM, FPG. cc eco caeddactabsscncoevesshevahasnsessceccsessennngsbelaaReneneesbienes 93

X. Descriptions of four new Species of Humming-birds from Mexico.

By Joun Gou p, Esq., F.R.S. &e. .........00000e occkns VER LaSCHRERDEM ke 96

XI. On Dracunculus and Microscopic Filaride in the Island of

Bombay. By H.J.Carrer, Esq., Bombay. ...... saben ckubun ace caeeeae . 98

XII. List of Coleoptera received from Old Calabar, on the West

Coast of Africa. By ANDREW Murray, Edinburgh ............... » 116

XIII. Descriptions of new Genera and Species of Phytophagous

Insects. By J. S. Bary, Esq...... od vba duesases¥iecsvasdusvetuncsbns vesesceee 124

XIV. On Diclidanthera. By Joun Miers, F.R.S., F.L.S. &c.... 129

XV. Notes on the Hydroid Zoophytes. By Prof. ALLMAN,........ 137

Proceedings of the Zoologieal Society ......... Wis piehuecnde apesionns 144—156

Colleeting-Basket for the Sea-side, by W. T. Suffolk, Esq.; On the

Heating of the Soil of high Mountains, and its Influence upon

the Limit of eternal Snow and Alpine Vegetation, by Ch. Mar-

tius; On the Artificial Propagation of Salmon. By A. D. Bart-

NUMBER XXI.

XVI. Description of a new genus of West African Snakes, and

Revision of the South American Elaps. By Dr. ALBERT GUNTHER.

(With a Pinté;) 2 6555.05... liaaselaaton cgsteiaeek becsstelts ons sascad. Hates 161

XVII. Remarks on Professor Allman’s “ Notes on the Hydroid

Zoophytes.” By T. STRETHILL WRIGHT, M.D. «00.0... .sseeeceeseeees 174

XVIII. On the Laws of Evolution of the Organic World during

the Formation of the Crust of the Earth. By H. G. Brown ........ . 175

XIX. On the Development of Roots and the Exfoliation of the

Cellular Coats of their Extremities. By ArTHuUR Henrrey, F.R.S. 184

XX. Additional Gleanings m British Conchology. By J. Gwyn

JEFFREYS, Eag., FERS.) sisibensessnnsysecctaupoeitepierseissveviccsaasbepacaas 189

XXI. Researches on the Cellular Formations, the Growth, and the

Exfoliation of the Radical and Fibrillar Extremities of Plants. By

MM. GARRMAU ONG BRA UWEIRG 6 cose c cscccckcqoncscqnedchessscsscpnsanaminben 201

XXII. On the Reptiles from St. Croix, West Indies, collected by

Messrs. A. and E. Newton. By Dr. A. GuntTHER. (With a Plate.)... 209

CONTENTS. ae

ae Page

XXIII. Characters of some apparently undescribed Ceylon Insects.

Big Fi We, BLS dears ch tpn) oad pie eldas Gale vincn’ o vined v0’ des 217

XXIV. Descriptions of two new species of American Parrots. By

Puixuiep Luruty ScuaTer, M.A., Sec. Zool. Soc. ........c.cseesecceeeens 224

Proceedings of the Royal Society .....-...séssseeseeeees s cicalatigate .» 226—237

Note on the Affinities of Rhynchosaurus, by Prof. Richard Owen,

F.R.S.; Note on Bulimus acutus, by Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &c.;

On the Opercula of several species of Megalomastoma, by W. H.

Benson, Esq.; On two new species of American Ant-Thrushes, “

by P. L. Sclater, F.R.S.; On the Habits of Aplysiopterus viridis,

by Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &c.; Description of a new species of

Tenia, by W. Baird, M.D., F.LAS..........000000 Feveweh wees ve 237—240

NUMBER XXII.

XXV. On the supposed Existence of Cellulose in Starch-grains.

By FH. VON MOHL...esscssesseseesssesenrensesensereeesscseenaneeneneenes seduces 241

XXVI. Descriptions of newly-discovered Spiders captured by James

Yate Johnson, Esq., in the Island of Madeira. By Jonun Buack-

WALL, F.L.S...... povd weed sveelvituicssieoual Veins accom ApRd dake dhe suks “55 tim ape 255

XXVII. On some additional Species of Nudibranchiate Mollusks

from Ceylon. By_E. F. KeLAART, M.D. .........ccccccecscscscccccsences 267

XXVIII. Descriptions of new Genera and Species of Phytophagous

Insects. By J.S. Bary, Esq. ........... aa paie's Pact asd y VES ChGUEE d's dsikv se 270

XXIX. On Digestive Power in the Actinie. By E. W. H. Hotps-

WORTH, F.LS: Ses) 26. GG becca ndetes bb Seve yebdiee st OA dia acsevanieaawed 275

XXX. Description of several species of Entomostracous Crustacea

from Jerusalem. By W. Barrp, M.D., F.L.S. (With two Plates.). 280

XXXI. Centuries of North American Fungi. By the Rev. M. J.

BerxE.ey, M.A., F.L.S., and the Rev. M. A. Curtis, D.D.......... 284

XXXII. Notice of a new Antelope (Kobus) from Central Africa.

By JoHN EDWARD GRAY) FIRS) Bei Sine lec icc cc see cewee oe cecteee on'e 296

New Books :—Reports of Explorations and Surveys to ascertain the

most practicable and economical Route for a Railroad from the

' Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean, made under the direction

of the Secretary of War in 1853-6.—Animal Physiology, by

William B. Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.L.S. ...... 298, 299

Proceedings of the Royal Society; Zoological Society «.....+.- 300—311

vi CONTENTS. ‘

Page

Obituary Notice.—Arthur Henfrey, F.R.S. &c. ; Biographical Notice

of the late Mr. Motley, by Henry Denny, A.L.S. &c.; On a new

British Snake, by Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &c. ; Note on the genus

Camptonyx; Anatomical and Physiological Investigation of the

Pleurobranchus aurantiacus, by M. Lacaze-Duthiers; Note on

Cyclostoma articulatum, by S. P. Woodward, F.G.S. ...... 311—320

NUMBER XXIII.

XXXIII. On the Reproduction of the Bark-lice (Chermes, &e.); a

further Contribution to the Knowledge of Parthenogenesis. By

Rupoupes Levuckarr. (With a Plate.).............. oct BRAS oe ey ae es!

XXXIV. On some new Anthribide. By Francis P. Pascog,

BLAS. Be. occ ccsssscocecsecsecncnsccesccescessconcsesscceseetacenens daiteneasts 327

XXXV. On the Nomenclature of the Foraminifera. By Messrs.

W. K. Parker, M. Mier. Soc., and T. Rupert Jonss, F.G.S. ...... 333

XXXVI. List of Coleoptera received from Old Calabar, on the West

Coast of Africa. By ANDREW Murray, Edinburgh ...... teaciselece OOD

XXXVII. Additional Observations on the Genera ipsienedés, Ca-

thedra, Liriosma, Leretia, Poraqueiba, and Emmotum. By Joun

Miers, F:R:S., FuL8. S860: cccccccccccccccccecctecedeccssaccasésaeet Zetb sce awd 358

XXXVIII. Notes on the Hydroid Zoophytes. By Prof. ALLMAN. 367

XXXIX. Characters of some apparently undescribed Ceylon Insects.

By F. Waker, F.LS...........00000. eT tye a MAL AIL HZ 370

New Book :—An Ilustrated Index of British Shells, with Coloured

Figures of all the Species, by G. B. Sowerby, F.L.S............0005 376

Proceedings of the Zoological Society .......sscecssseeseerssceesene 377—398

On Pelamys Sarda, a British Fish, by Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &e.;

Note on the Occurrence of the Rufous Sedge Warbler in South

Devonshire ; On the new British Snake (Coronella austriaca),

by Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &c.; On a new species of Catharus,

by P. L. Sclater, M.A., F.L.S.; Prize Questions ...... seseee 399, 400

NUMBER XXIV.

XL. On the Forms and Structure of Fern-stems. By GrorcGE

Ocitvir, M.D., Lecturer on the Institutes of Medicine in Marischal

College and University, Aberdeen. (With three Plates). ........ Wey eeoe 401

XLI. On the Reproduction of the Bark-lice (Chermes, &c.); a

CONTENTS. vii

further Contribution to the Knowledge of Parthenogenesis. By

BEDE SUC KRARY occsunsuressedstash ashen dens 0sacgitevedeseaccaepsnveens 411

XLII. Observations on the Genus Sacculina, Thompson (Pachy-

bdella, Diesing ; Peltogaster, Rathke). By R. Leuckart. (With a

Plate.) eeeesereeeeseees Caeveseesece SOSSOSH EF HEHE e ee eEeeeHeaereseeeeeSeeeaes eeeresece 422

XLIII. Descriptions of two Coleopterous Insects from the North

of China. By T. VERNON Wo.L.astTon, M.A., F.L.S. ..........0008 430

XLIV. On some new Anthribide. By-Francis P. Pascos,

MEME. sins cbc nnhatcds casas dud ac di ser cue WaNWEhedeWEWC HOCK Vain ceseeeetcsseacices 431

XLV. On the Arrangement of Zoophytes with Pinnated Tentacles.

By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S., V.P.Z.S., Pres. Ent. Soc. &e. ......2+4... 439

XLVI. On the Arrangement of the Polarizing Microscope in the

Examination of Organic Bodies. By Hugo von MORL.........0000.. 444

New Book :—Ceylon: an Account of the Island, Physical, Historical,

and Topographical; with Notices of its Natural History, Antiqui-

ties, and Productions, by Sir James Emerson Tennent, K.G.,

ER Re Sikccwies saver ci aGuvitaveviikeatwse gbennadidesens i aka aac 5h Retna. 450

Proceedings of the Zoological Society ....0s2.-<. obuaVicsilovd. . | 458—461

On the Electrical Organs of Fishes, by M. Schultze; Researches upon

some of the lower Marine Animals, by R. Leuckart and A. Pa-

- genstecher ; On a new genus of Goat-sucker and on a new spe-

cies of Enicurus, by George R. Gray, F.L.S.; Notice of a Black-

headed Gull found recently in Devonshire, by F. W. L. Ross,

PUES iid cei PaeeCe nas ees Cavic dian asd aa wisi vevercwaecbededs 461—467

PLATES IN VOL. IV.

Anolis Newtoni; Spheerodactylus macrolepis; Elapops

modestus.

“bnew species of Entomostracous Crustacea.

VII. Reproduction of Bark-lice. —Sacculina inflata.

Structure of Fern-stems.

THE ANNALS

AND

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

(THIRD SERIES.]

S© ,ceccovecreree «.. per litora spargite muscum,

Naiades, et circdm vitreos considite fontes :

Pollice virgineo teneros hic carpite flores :

Fioribus et pictum, dive, replete canistrum.

At vos, o Nymphe Craterides, ite sub undas ;

Ite, recurvato variata corallia trunco

Vellite muscosis e rupibus, et mihi conchas

Ferte, Dez pelagi, et pinguiconchylia succo.”

N. Parthenii Giannettasii Ec\. 1.

No. 19. JULY 1859.

I.—On the Metamorphoses of the Vorticelle.

By M. Jutus D’UprKem*.

'THE history of the development of the Infusoria has re-

mained one of the most obscure questions in natural science.

The older authors, who had but very imperfect means of ob-

servation at their disposal, took little note of it, and this only

with a view to one object—namely, to prove the existence of

spontaneous generation. The inutility of their efforts is well

known. Modern naturalists have observed the Infusoria rather

under the point of view of zoology than of physiology ; and it is

really only within the last few years that the history of the

deck vient of the Infusoria has acquired a prominent place,

and that observers of the first rank have given their whole atten-

tion to it: hence we may hope that this important question will

ere long make striking progress.

My purpose in this essay is to examine carefully one of the

most controverted points in the history of the development of the

Infusoria—the metamorphosis of the species of the family of

Vorticellina into the corresponding species of Acinete.

Before giving the results of my own observations, I shall

endeavour to trace, as concisely as possible, the history of the

subject I intend to treat.

* From the ‘ Journal de la Société Médicale de Bruxelles.’ Translated

by Arthur Henfrey, F.R.S., &e.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 8. Vol. iv. AES

2 M.J.D’Udekem on the Metamorphoses of the Vorticelle.

I shall not enter into any detail relative to the description of

the Vorticellina and the Acinete, as this would lead too far away

from my subject: I refer my readers to the great work of Ehren-

berg, and to other general treatises on the Infusoria: I shall

deal with the history only from the point where the question of

the metamorphoses arose.

Dr. Pineau, in an essay published in the ‘ Annales des Se.

Naturelles’ (3 sér, iii. p. 182, and iv. p. 103), made known that

he had observed the Infusoria described by Ehrenberg under the

name of Acinete, become transformed into Vorticelle. No deep

acquaintance with microscopic studies is requisite to convince

any one that the observations of Dr. Pineau are deficient in that

exactitude which must be demanded of every conscientious natu-

ralist ; so that I should not attach any importance to the results

he supposed himself to have obtained, had he not been the first

who sought to establish a relationship between the Acinete and

the Vorticellina.

A few years later M. Stein published, in Wiegmann’s ‘Archiv’

(1849), his researches upon the developments of Vorticella micro-

stoma, Vaginicola crystallina, and Epistylis nutans. He sought

to prove, by these three examples, that Infusoria belonging to

the family of the Vorticellina became transformed into Acinete.

This opinion was adopted pretty generally among the German

naturalists, in spite of the important adversaries it met; in the

front rank of the latter must be named the celebrated Ehrenberg.

In 1854, M. Stein published a new and very extensive work

upon the development of the Infusoria, and he enlarged parti-

cularly upon the metamorphoses of the Vorticelline.

He endeavoured to show that each species of the family of

Vorticellina has a species of Acineta corresponding to it; that

ciliated embryos originate in the interior of the Acinete; and

that these ciliated embryos, when set free, become transformed

into Vorticellina.

M. Stein gives this last part of his opinion only as an hypo-

thesis, which he considers very probable, but which he has not

succeeded in proving, having never been able to trace the ulte-

rior development of the ciliated embryo.

This author believed that he proved the transformation of the

Vorticellina into Acinete, first by a direct observation upon

Vaginicola crystallina, then by the simultaneous presence in the

same infusions of numerous species of Vorticellina and corre-

sponding species of Acinete, and finally by the alternate appear-

ance of Vorticellina and Acinete in the same infusion.

Last year appeared a very remarkable essay on the Infusoria,

by M. Lachmann*, in which he strongly attacks M. Stein’s

* Annals of Natural History, ser. 2. xix. pp. 113, 215.

M. J. D’Udekem on the Metamorphoses of the Vorticelle. 3

opinions on the development of the Vorticellina, and denies the

metamorphosis of the latter into Acinete; he thinks that these

two families should remain separate, and that no bond of rela-

tionship exists between them.

He attacks M. Stein’s opinion by well-grounded and serious

objections, and regards as mexact and inconclusive the observa-

tion by which M. Stein thought to demonstrate the metamor-

phosis of Vaginicola crystallina into Acineta mystacina.

With regard to the arguments used by M. Stein, derived from

the simultaneous appearance of the Vorticelle and the Acinete,

and the alternation of the appearance of these two Infusoria in

one and the same infusion, M. Lachmann objects to them as

proving nothing.

In the course of the present paper I shall have occasion to

recur to these different objections ; for the moment, I shall con-

fine myself to mentioning them.

M. Lachmann finally overturns completely the hypothesis put

forward by M. Stein upon the transformation of the ciliated

embryos of the Acinete into Vorticelle; he shows, by numerous

examples, that these embryos become transformed into Aci-

nete ; and he attributes the first discovery of this important fact

to J. Miller.

The essay of M. Lachmann had not yet reached Belgium,

last year, at the time when I presented to the Royal Academy

of Sciences the results of my researches upon Epistylis plicatilis.

The following is the résumé of my observations’ which I gave in

that memoir :—

“« Epistylis plicatilis, before or after it has acquired its full

growth, becomes enveloped in a cyst, either remaining attached

to its style, or abandoning it, or re-uniting in one and the same

cyst.

Me Entirely enclosed in the cyst, the animal undergoes a total

transformation. Its mouth, peristome, and integuments dis-

appear by dissolving into a sarcodic liquid, in which are sus-

pended globules of different sizes; the nucleus of the Epistylis

alone appears able to resist this solution. Upon the surface of

the sarcodic liquid a new resisting contractile integument makes

its appearance, covered with vibratile cilia, and closed at all

points.

“ The Epistylis is then metamorphosed into a new Infusorium

having much analogy to the Opaline which are met with in

Frogs.

rg The Opalina (we will provisionally apply this name to the

new Infusorium originating by the metamorphosis of the Epi-

stylis) revolves, and acquires such dimensions that the cyst, not

being elastic, bursts, and gives passage to the = which it

4 M.J.D’Udekem on the Metamorphoses of the Vorticelle.

previously contained. Once free, the latter swims about, and seeks

a suitable place on which to fix itself. Having found this, it pro-

ceeds to undergo a new metamorphosis, which may produce two

different forms. Sometimes the Opalina, which is spherical or

more or less oval, becomes fixed by one of its extremities, whence

arises a style, which grows rapidly; at the other extremity

appear four bundles of retractile tentacles.

“In the second case, the Opalina does not become fixed by

one of its extremities, but seems to become flattened out upon

the foreign body; it remains sessile, and a more or less con-

siderable number of bundles of tentacles appear on its circum-

ference. In the two preceding cases, the vibratile cilia covering

the integument of the Opalina vanish from the moment when it

becomes fixed.

“The two forms which I have just described are Acinete.

The first is identical with that represented by M. Stein, pl. 1.

fig. I. D. of his work; the second is an Acineta not hitherto

described. The metamorphoses of Epistylis plicatilis stop here.

The Acinete grow, and become more and more developed. In

their interior is found a nucleus, which increases in size, and

makes its way towards the internal surface of the integuments.

By the contractions of the animal, the latter become ruptured,

and the nucleus is set free. This nucleus, which is really a bud,

of discoidal form, moves with extreme activity by the aid of long

vibratile cilia which decorate its surface. The Acinete give

birth, successively, to several ciliated buds, and terminate their

existence without undergoing any further metamorphosis.

“The ciliated buds, after their emission from the Acineta,

become metamorphosed into young Acinete; they affix them-

selves to a foreign body, either remaining sessile or producing a

style; their vibratile cilia disappear, and are replaced by four

bundles of tentacles.

“The new nuclei reproduce new ciliated buds in their in-

terior.”

From this it will be seen that I thought myself the first dis-

coverer of the transformation of the ciliated embryos into young

Acinete ; I hasten to restore the property in this discovery to its

rightful owner, the illustrious physiologist, J. Miiller.

Now that I have given the history of the question, I shall

attempt, from the materials furnished by the observations of my

predecessors and by my own, to show that what I have described

of Epistylis plicatils will apply to many species of Vorticellina,

and perhaps to all.

I shall examine, then, 1. the encystment; 2. the transforma-

tion of the Vorticellian in the interior of the sac into an Infu-

sorium with its whole surface ciliated, and without any orifice in

M. J. D’Udekem on the Metamorphoses of the Vorticelle. 5

its integuments (Opalina or Bursaria) ; 3. the transformation of

the Opalina into an Acineta; 4. the appearance of ciliated em-

bryos in the interior of the Acinete; and, 5. the transformation

of the ciliated embryos into young Acinetea.

1. The Encystment.

The encystment, observed first by M. Stein in different species

of Vorticellina, and subsequently by several naturalists in many

other Infusoria, now appears to exist among all the animals of

this class. I shall deal here only with the Vorticellina. I shall

first indicate in what species the encystment has been observed;

then, how it takes place; I shall discuss, in the third place, the

view which is to be taken of this phenomenon, and what is its

probable purpose.

I have observed the encystment in four species of Vorticelle.

First, in Vorticella microstoma: this is the example in which it is

most easy to see the phenomenon; for in almost all liquids

_ where it is met with, we find cysts at the same time, which, as

we shall see further on, does not always happen with the other —

species. When an infusion containing Vorticella microstoma is

concentrated by evaporation in the open air, the cysts become

very numerous. The thickness of the cyst differs in different

individuals ; sometimes it. is thin and fragile, sometimes thick

and hard; sometimes it is covered with prominent points. M.

Stein was the first to describe the phenomenon of encystment

in Vorticella microstoma.

I observed the encystment in a species of Vorticella not

hitherto described, and which I shall call Vorticella microstyla,

on account of the shortness of the style, which never forms a

complete turn of a spiral when the animal contracts. I have

met with this species only in a single spot in the environs of

Brussels. I hope to give a more complete description of it on

a future occasion. As the cysts, in this species, very closely

resemble those of Vorticella microstoma, they do not require a

particular description.

I have several times met with cysts of Vorticella Convallaria ;

but they are more difficult to observe, because, this species being

more delicate than those of which I have just spoken, the indi-

viduals mostly die without becoming encysted.

Lastly, I have observed the phenomena of encystment in a

fourth species of Vorticella. This species, which I met with

upon our coast at Ostend, has not yet been described ; it is ex-

tremely remarkable on account of a membranous prolongation

surrounding the peristome, which gives it, when expanded, the

form of a parasol ; when it is contracted, this membrane becomes

plaited and folded up in the interior of the body.

6 M.J.D’Udekem on the Metamorphoses of the Vorticelle.

M. Stein has observed the encystment of Vorticella nebulifera.

In the genus Carchesium, I have observed the cysts of three

species—those of Carchesium polypinum, of Carchesium ramo-

sissimum, and of Carchesium pygmeum; there is scarcely any

difference between them, and they entirely resemble the cysts of

the Vorticelle.

In the genus Epistylis I have only been able to observe the

encystment in two species—Epistylis plicatilis, and an Epistylis

which I think new, and which I have often met with living

parasitically upon the posterior extremity of Tubifex and Nais.

M. Stein also has observed the encystment of Epistylis plicatilis.

I have sought in vain for the cysts of Epistylis grandis and LE.

flavicans, two species very common in our environs; I attribute

this to the difficulty of preserving these animals alive in vessels

in the study.

In the genus Opercularia, my observations have been made

on Opercularia nutans, O. Lichtensteini (Stein), and O. micro-

stoma. I have seen the encystment only in the first of these

three species; the two others being far more rare, it is not sur-

prising that this phenomenon should have escaped me.

Finally, M. Stein has observed and described the encystment

of Vaginicola crystallina; 1 have made a similar observation.

Summing up all these observations, I shall conclude that spe-

cies susceptible of encystment are met with in all the genera of

the family of Vorticellina, and that it is very probable that this

phenomenon presents itself in all, when favourable circumstances

tend to induce it.

The Vorticellina may become encysted at all periods of their

existence; they are encysted either while remaining attached to

the style or after they have abandoned it, subsequently to the

appearance of a basilar crown of cilia. Lastly, while the Vorti-

cellina are reproduced by fission, they may still become encysted ;

and I have observed among them all the intermediate conditions

between the commencement of the division and its completion,

simultaneously with the appearance of cysts.

_ The encystment takes place in the same manner in all the

Vorticellina in which I have observed it. The individual which

is about to present this phenomenon contracts slightly, and

closes its peristome; around it appears a cloud, formed by a

viscid liquid, which is probably the result of a cutaneous secre-

tion. In this liquid are formed granules, which, augmenting

more and more in number and adhering together, finally form

a membrane, which becomes hard and resisting, although soft

and flexible when first produced. The cyst thus formed does

not change its state, or augment in thickness by the deposition

of new granules in its interior. When a cyst encloses two indi-

M.J. D’Udekem on the Metamorphoses of the Vorticelle. 7

viduals, it is often reniform, sometimes oval; the surface of the

cyst becomes in some cases rough with little points.

The cause of the encystment escapes us, like the causes of

almost all physiological phenomena. For its explanation we

may have recourse to two hypotheses :—either the animal is in-

duced to become encysted by the influence of an internal eause—

the phenomenon of encystment being then physiological, nor-

mal, and occurring necessarily ; or the animal becomes encysted

from the influence of external agents—the phenomenon then

being abnormal and depending on chance. Of these two hypo-

theses the second appears the more probable; indeed I have

always remarked that most of the Vorticellina become encysted

when the liquid containing them evaporates through exposure

to the air; moreover, we find a greater number of cysts in winter

than in any other season. I conclude from this that drought

and cold are two causes of encystment; that these two causes

are probably not the only ones, but that there doubtless exist

others which it is more difficult to appreciate.

The encystment of the Vorticellina appears to have a double

purpose: first, to withdraw these very delicate animals from the

destructive action of drought and cold; in the next place, to

allow them to undergo certain metamorphoses protected from

all external influences.

2. Transformation of the Vorticellian, in the interior of the cyst,

into an Infusorium ciliated over the whole surface, and pre-

senting no orifice in its integuments (Opalina or Bursaria).

The observations of M. Stein, M. Lachmann, and myself

agree in showing that the majority of the Vorticellina may re-

main in the interior of the cysts without undergoing metamor-

phosis; they are then under the influence of a state analogous

to the hybernal sleep of the higher animals. When circum-

stances are favourable, that is to say, when humidity and a cer-

tain degree of heat are restored, they burst their envelope and

resume their former life.

In M. Stein’s work, he treats of several metamorphoses under-

gone by the Vorticellina in the interior of the cysts; not having

observed these, I shall not speak of them, and shall occupy my-

self solely with that transformation which I have indicated at the

head of this section.

The metamorphosis of a Vorticellian, in the interior of a cyst,

ito an Infusorium ciliated over the whole surface, was for the

first time described by me in my memoir on the development of

Epistylis plicatilis. The following is the account I gave of the

phzenomenon.

The Epistylis plicatits, in the interior of the cyst, becomes

8 M.J.D’Udekem on the Metamorphoses of the Vorticelle.

attenuated, and seems to fold upon itself; the sarcodic sub-

stance traverses its integuments in all parts; from time to—

time it still contracts; and a complete solution soon affects the

whole animal, so that we find in its place merely a homogeneous

sarcodic liquid, containing granules, together with the nucleus,

which resists the general destruction. In the sarcode there

takes place a process which may be in some measure compared

with what occurs in the vitellus after the fecundation of an

ovum. The granules, becoming united together, form groups

which soon divide and subdivide; at the same time an integu-

ment is formed upon the surface, in the same manner as the

blastoderm appears in the eggs of the inferior animals. This

integument is contractile, covered with vibratile cilia, and closed

at all points.

The transformation is then complete ; the cyst contains a new

Infusorium, which may be compared to the Opaline or Bursarie,

which are met with in the intestines of the Batrachians.

This description of Epistylis plicatilis may be applied in all its

details to the Vorticellina in which I have observed the trans-

formation into an Infusorium ciliated over the whole surface.

It will be useless to revert to it. I shall simply indicate the

species in which I have observed it. This metamorphosis may

be found almost at will in Epistylis plicatilis; but it is not so

with other species of the same genus. I have sought for it in

vain in Epistyls grandis and E. flavicans; and I have only met

with it in the Kpistylis of Tubifex, the new species of which I

have already spoken.

In the genus Vorticella, 1 have observed this metamorphosis

in Vorticella microstoma, microstyla, Convallaria, and in the Vor-

ticella with a fringed peristome described above.

Carchestum polypinum and arbuscula likewise undergo similar

metamorphoses in the interior of the cysts.

3. Transformation of the Infusorium ciliated all over (Opalina or

Bursaria) into an Acineta.

I have said, in the historical part of my essay, that M. Stein

was the first who sought to demonstrate the metamorphosis of

the Vorticellinee into Acinete ; from what I have just said, in the

preceding paragraph, it may be seen that my opinion differs

entirely from his upon the point—that I do not suppose, with

him, the immediate transformation of the Vorticellina into Aci-

nete, but that an intermediate metamorphosis exists.

Hence none of the arguments produced by M. Lachmann

against M. Stein’s opinion can touch mine; I shall, however,

endeavour to reply to some of them, because they tend to deny

M.J. D’Udekem on the Metamorphoses of the Vorticelle. 9

the existence of a metamorphosis. But, before commencing this

discussion, I will give the description of this new transforma-

tion.

I have indicated in the preceding paragraph that certain Vor-

ticellina become transformed, in the interior of a cyst, into a

spherical Infusorium having an integument closed at all points,

and entirely covered with vibratile cilia. This new Infusorium

performs, within its envelope, a continual rotation. In another

paper, I have compared this rotation to that performed by the

embryos of Gasteropod Mollusca within the egg.

While the metamorphosed Vorticellian revolves, it undergoes

development, increases in size, and its whole surface becomes co-

vered with folds; finally, a moment arrives when the cyst, yield-

ing to the pressure exerted in its interior, bursts; the ciliated

Infusorium becomes free, and swims with a rotating movement.

To discover how this Infusorium becomes transformed into an

Acineta requires attentive observation, in order to avoid all the

chances of error which may present themselves, and which are

numerous.

I believe myself authorized in supposing the existence of this

metamorphosis, because I have observed Infusoria which pre-

sented, on the one hand, all the characters of Acinete, and, on

the other, the characters of the Infusorium produced by the

transformation of the Vorticellina.

Three times I have observed individuals of Acineta mystacina

already provided with tentacles, and which had the spherical

form and the body covered with vibratile cilia. I have doubtless

seized in those cases the moment of the metamorphosis of the

ciliated Infusorium (Opalina) into an Acineta. It may be ob-

jected that the cilia with which these Acinet@ were covered be-

longed to the embryonary state; the answer to this objection is

easy : the cilia of the embryos are arranged in a totally different

manner, and occur only upon Acinete of very small size ; they

fall off very early, before the appearance of the tentacles.

I shall now discuss the objections of M. Lachmann against

the theory of M. Stein, so far as they might be applied to my

opinion. M. Lachmann thinks that the forms indicated by M.

Stein as degrees of transition between the Vorticellina and the

Acineta, are really only different species of Infusoria, which have

no other relation beyond a more or less considerable resemblance.

This objection is indeed applicable to the observations of M. Stein.

That author has not taken sufficient pains to show the inter-

connexion of the different transitory forms. For my own part,

I think I am entirely out of reach of this objection, and what is

said above sufficiently proves it; thus I have demonstrated how

certain Vorticellina become transformed into ciliated Infusoria

10 M.J.D’Udekem on the Metamorphoses of the Vorticellee.

(Opalina), and how these Opaline become covered with tentacles

and metamorphosed into Acinete.

The second objection of M. Lachmann against M. Stein rests

on the opinion that the simultaneous appearance of Acinete and

Vorticellina in the same infusion cannot be regarded as a sign

of relationship between these two species. I quite agree with

M. Lachmann upon this point; however, I believe that the

simultaneous appearance of two Infusoria always and every-

where in the same infusion affords great probability of the real

existence of the metamorphosis of one species into the other.

Numerous observations have led me to the certainty that one

may almost affirm, a priori, that where a species of Vorticellina

is observed, we shall find a species of Acineta, and vice versd.

Not only have I found most of the Acinete described by M.

Stein as accompanying certain Vorticellina, but, further, when I

have met with a new Vorticellian, I have at the same time found

a new species of Acineta. :

A third objection of M. Lachmann must be taken into serious

consideration. According to him, the alternation of the appear-

ance of the Vorticellina and the Acinete in the same infusion

does not in any way indicate that one species arises out of the

transformation of the other. Indeed this alternation occurs with

a ey great number of Infusoria; and, as M. Lachmann has

rightly said, this is what led MM. Pineau, Gros, and Laurent

to suppose that most of the species of Infusoria are only stages

of development of one and the same species. M. Lachmann

adds—‘ An alternation of the appearance of certain Infusoria

may really give a demonstration of the relationships which exist

between them, if one makes certain, by complete isolation in a

very circumscribed space, that only individuals of one species

exist there.”

M. Stein has, it is true, neglected this experiment; for my

own part, I have repeated it several times, and, after numerous

efforts, I have discovered Acinete in the liquid in which I had

isolated specimens of Epistylis plicatilis. I must confess, how-

ever, that I do not attach the same importance to these experi-

ments that M. Lachmann attributes to them ; the causes of error

are too numerous,—above all, on account of the great difficulty

of completely isolating a species of Infusorium.

The other objections of M. Lachmann are addressed to the

second portion of M. Stein’s theory, that is to say, to the trans-

formation of the embryos of Acinete into Vorticellina. It is

unnecessary for me to discuss this here; that question is now

cleared up, as I have already said, in the historical summary

which stands at the head of this paper.

M. Lachmann terminates his objections by saying that the

M. J. D’Udekem on the Metamorphoses of the Vorticelle. 11

metamorphosis of Vorticellina into Acinete is improbable, be-

cause it cannot be compared with anything taking place in other

animals. I shall answer this in the words of a great physiolo-

gist: “One must be very bold to assign limits to nature.”

4. Appearance of Ciliated Embryos in the interior of the Acmetzx.

The discovery of the origin of ciliated embryos in the interior

of the Acinete is due to M. Stein. M. Lachmann announces

that he has made a similar discovery in a great number of Aci-

neta. I also found this embryo in the Acineta of Epistylis

plicatilis, and subsequently in all the Acinete I have met with,

among which are many species not yet described. All naturalists

are now agreed as to the appearance of the ciliated embryos in

the Acinete, and their formation at the expense of the nucleus ;

but one point is still controverted, namely the manner in which

the nucleus behaves during the production of the embryo. Ac-

cording to M. Stein, the division of the nucleus appears to precede

the formation of the embryo; but M.: Cohn regards this division

as improbable. It appears that M. Lachmann has studied this

question with much care; but as he only gives the result of his

observations on the Infusoria in general, and not especially for

the Acinete, it is impossible to know his opinion upon this

point. With regard to myself, notwithstanding all the pains I

have taken, I have never been able to see the division of the

nucleus of the Acinete before the production of the embryo, as

indicated by M. Stein; on the contrary, I have always seen the

nucleus totally converted into an embryo, and after the expul-

sion of the latter, a new nucleus has been formed, which, in its

turn, became transformed into a new embryo, and so on.

5. Transformation of the Ciliated Embryos into young Acinetz.

M. Stein, after discovering the production of ciliated embryos

in the interior of the Acinete, stated, as a very probable hypo-

thesis, that these embryos, once free, become transformed. into

Vorticellina ; however, he never succeeded in tracing the ulterior

development of these embryos; the latter always escaped him.

More fortunate than M. Stein, M. J. Miiller succeeded in tracing

these embryos, and saw them become fixed, and transformed into

young Acinete. M. Lachmann arrived at the same result.

These observations of MM. Miller and Lachmann were not

yet known, as I have already said, in Belgium when I presented

to the Academy my work on the development of Kpistylis pli-

catilis ; in that work I described this curious transformation of

the ciliated embryo into a young Acineta, thinking myself the

first to observe it. Since then, I have succeeded in detecting

12 Mr. J. Miers on the Development

this metamorphosis in almost all the embryos. Does this trans-

formation of the ciliated embryo into a young Acineta always

take place? It is allowable to doubt this; twice I have seen

ciliated embryos become enclosed in a cyst, instead of changing

into young Acinete. I was unable to carry the observation

further, and ascertain whether or not the Infusorium underwent

new transformations in the interior of the cyst. Further re-

searches are required to clear up this obscure question.

II.—On the Development of the Vegetable Ovule called ‘ Ana-

tropous. By Joun Mrizrs, F.R.S., F.L.S., &e.

AurHoueH the changes that take place in the development of the

vegetable ovule have long since occupied the attention of the ablest

physiological botanists, it is evident that the real nature of its mode

of growth is not yet well understood. My first object therefore

is to show that the doctrine upon this important subject, as

taught in the best elementary works, is founded upon a very grave

error. I was led into this inquiry by my desire to ascertain the

nature of the fleshy covering enveloping the hard tunic in certain

seeds *, and which appeared to me arilloid in its nature. This was

contested by Dr. Asa Gray, who considered these two very oppo-

site kinds of tunics as one baccate testa, both deriving a common

origin from the primine of the ovulet. To this view I was un-

willing to subscribe; and in my subsequent discussion of the

subject, trusting fully to the orthodoxy of the common creed of

botanists on the development of the ovule, I argued ¢ that the

fleshy covering in question must be an expansion or growth of

the placentary sheath, because it enclosed the raphe: and so it

is undoubtedly—but not in the light of an extraneous expansion,

as I then viewed the question. This induced me to examine, by

personal observation, the actual progress of growth of the ovule

in certain plants which produce what have been called anatropal

seeds; and I soon became convinced that I had been led into an

error of inference, solely by my faith in the universally prevalent

creed. Having lately completed the investigation of many

Rhamnaceous and Anacardiaceous seeds, in which several novel

points of structure have been observed, which are difficult to

explain, I am desirous, before the publication of these results,

that the real nature of the development of the ovule should be

well understood. I therefore now proceed to show that the

doctrine upon this subject, as at present taught, is completely

fallacious.

* Trans. Linn. Soc. xxii. 81. + Journ. Linn. Soe. uu. 106.

+ Ann. Nat. Hist. 3rd ser. i. 276.

of the Vegetable Ovule. 13

It is important to observe, that the late Mr. R. Brown, to

whom science is so greatly indebted for his grand discoveries on

this subject, and who in simple language first explained the

nature of the changes that take place in the development of the

ovule*, does not describe the mode of action objectionably assumed

in the writings of physiological botanists; and it is worthy of

remark that he never adopted the nomenclature founded upon

the doctrine here alluded tot.

To Brongniart, who pursued these great discoveries, the highest

merit is due for his able and patient investigation} into the

nature of the pollen, the peculiar structure of the stigmatic tis-

sues, the mode in which the pollinic influence is conveyed into

the ovary, the structure of the ovule, of its proper tunics, and

of the nucleus, the development of the embryo-sac, the produc-

tion of the embryo, and the means by which the seed is finally

perfected. It is also deserving of notice, that in all these careful

investigations, no allusion is anywhere made to the inversion

of the nucleus, or to any excentric growth of the original tunics

that might effect the kind of inversion since assumed to take

place in an anatropal ovule. It is true that both he and Mr.

Brown commenced their researches upon the ovule from the

moment it is ready to receive the pollinic influence; but had

either of these careful observers witnessed any such previous

action of growth, they would not have failed to allude to the

subject.

Mirbel, who confirmed and extended these interesting re-

searches in his celebrated memoir on the development of the

ovule §, has received the highest eulogiums from all quarters,

for the benefit which these discoveries rendered to science; but

it appears to me that the greatest share of this merit is due to

Brown and Brongniart, who preceded him in these inquiries.

Much praise is certainly due to Mirbel for the lucid manner in

which he repeated and confirmed the facts already brought to

light by those who preceded him, and also for tracing the growth

of the nucleus and ovular coats from their first appearance,

* Appendix to King’s Voyage, p. 43.

_t The way in which Mr. Brown uses the term inverted is in a compara-

tive sense: loc. cit. p. 52, where he says, “the inner membrane is inverted

with respect to the external umbilicus,” or, in other words, that the cha-

laza is opposed to the hilum; but he does not allude to any action of

inversion of the ovular tunics.

{ “ Mémoire sur la Génération et le Développement de l’Embryon dans

les Végétaux Phanérogames.” Ann. Sc. Nat. xii. pp. 14, 145, 225, tab. 34

—44: read before the Academy, Dec. 28, 1826.

§ “Nouvelles Recherches sur la Structure et les Développemens de

POvule végétale.” Mém. de l’Acad. ix. p. 609: lu a Académie 28 Dee.

1828. Additions dans un 2nd mémoire lu 28 Dec. 1829; idem, p. 629.

planches 1-10.

14 Mr. J. Miers on the Development

which his predecessors had not noticed; but his greatest claim

to distinction rests upon the nomenclature which he devised

in order to express the changes observed, which will make

his name prominent in the annals of embryology. It is, how-

ever, deeply to be regretted that the more original matter con-

tributed in that memoir, or rather, his explanations of the facts

there related, should have laid the foundation of the great error

in the history of these developments, the fallacy of which I now

proceed to demonstrate.

In order that I may be free from the blame of misrepresenting

this subject, I will here quote from the following authorities the

doctrines they have severally published.

Mirbel says (loc. cit. p.612) that the anatropal ovules “ se

renversent tout entiers, et durant ce mouvement de conversion le

raphé se développe avec la primine, et transporte le hile de la

base de Povule a son extrémité supérieure ; ce sont les Anatropes ;

mais le développement du raphé fait que le hile s’éloigne de la

chalaze, et va prendre place & cdté de ’éxostome”’ (micropyle).

He says again (p. 681), “Le funicule, dans un grand nombre

des espéces, se soude longitudinalement & la primine depuis l’en-

droit ot: il forme la chalaze, jusqu’aé une distance plus ou moins

éloignée d’elle. Alors il se montre A la superficie de la primine

comme une ligne en relief, qui se termine & la base de l’ovule;

cette ligne est le raphé; mais quand il n’y a peu d’adhérence

entre la primine et le funicule que lA méme ow les vaisseaux

funiculaires pénétrent dans la secondine, la chalaze se confonde

avec le hile, qui est le point d’attache du funicule sur la primine,

et la place manque pour un raphé.” Again (p. 649), “ Quand

un ovule tend a lanatropie, la chalaze, c’est-d-dire l’extrémité

du funicule, se porte en avant, non dans la direction de l’axe,

mais dans une direction un pew oblique, et en suivant une ligne

courbe, qui par sa partie supérieure se rapproche insensiblement

de l’axe, et tandis que ce mouvement s’opére, le sommet par un

mouvement inverse se dirige vers la place que la base a abandonnée.

Il y a done échange de position entre les deux extrémités de Paxe

de Povule ; cette axe, poussé obliquement par la chalaze, semble se

mouvoir comme une aiguille de boussole que Von ferait tourner sur

son pivot. Mais la chalaze n’étant que le bout du funicule,

Pévolution ne saurait s’opérer sans un allongement de ce cordon,

égal au moins & la longueur de l’axe de lovule.”

If we examine the series of progressive analytical drawings by

which these changes are demonstrated in that celebrated me-

moir, we find that the figures are diametrically in contradiction

to the explanations. The former, which portray the facts as he

saw them, offer the more reliable testimony of the real truth:

for example, in plate 3, showing the progressive growth of the

of the Vegetable Ovule. 15

anatropal ovule of Aristolochia, fig. 1 is a simple pullulation from

the placenta, the rudiment of the primine, or what I have called

the placentary sheath, because it encloses in its tissues the nou-

rishing vessels that terminate in a certain budding point, and

that form the future raphe ; it is not the nucleus, as is generally

taught. Close to the extremity of this, out of a circular depres-

sion, the first appearance of the nucleus is exhibited in fig. 2.

The seeundine next presents itself in the same hollow, surround-

ing the base of the nucleus in fig. 8. After this we observe the

gradual swelling of the under part of the nuclear support, or the

downward growth of the placentary sheath, which becomes the

primine, in the form of a bag suspended by the remaining sti-

pitate portion of the sheath or funicle,—the original margin of

the depression first described remaining as the mouth of this

bag, and constituting the foramen of the primine (micropyle or

exostome), which from first to last never changes its position or

its aspect—a most important point to be observed. During this

action of centrifugal growth, the chalaza, or place of attachment

of the nucleus, necessarily recedes from its original position,

remaining at the bottom of the growing bag or primine, the

extension of the nourishing vessels keeping pace with its down-

ward growth, and still terminating in the now basal chalaza; at

the same time, the enclosed nucleus and secundine severally

grow upwards, both constantly attached to the budding or cha-

lazal point of their origin : all this is seen in fig. 5, which repre-

sents a perfect ovule ready to receive the pollinic influence. We

find in fig. 6 exactly the same disposition of the parts after the

ovule has been impregnated, and when the embryo-sac with the

nascent embryo has been developed. In these several stages

we perceive that the foramen of the primine, the mouth of the

secundine, and the apex of the nucleus, from first to last, all

culminate towards one common point, while the basal portions

of the same parts as constantly point downwards: if the expres-

sion may be allowed, they all retain the same uniform polarity ;

there is no inversion in any of the parts, or even an approach to

it; the hilar or funicular point of attachment is not transported

from the base of the ovule to its superior extremity, as asserted ;

and there is no agglutination (soudure) of the primine to the cord

of the raphe, elongated by this assumed: act of semirevolution

of the ovule.” In fine, although the mode of growth, as shown

in the drawings, is perfectly correct, there is throughout the

whole description a misconception, and a complete mistake in

the use of all the terms employed by Mirbel, especially in those

I have denoted by italics. The same. mode of growth is again

still more fully demonstrated in plate 7, in the instance of. Tu

lipa. Nowhere among the other numerous exemplifications in

16 Mr. J. Miers on the Development

this celebrated memoir can we find any material variation in the

direction of the parts of an anatropal ovule: this only exists in

campylotropal or amphitropal ovules, where, of course, owing to

the curvature of the several parts, from an excessive one-sided

growth, a more or less partial inversion takes place.

The same erroneous description is given by the able St.-Hilaire

in his ‘ Morphologie Végétale’ (p. 540), where he thus defines

the development of an anatropal ovule. Its first appearance

upon the placenta is a small protuberance (wrongly said to be

the nucleus of the future ovule), which by degrees becomes co-

vered by two cups that rise successively from its base and form

the future tunics, primine and secundine. The so-called “ ovules

anatropes, par la courbure graduelle de la base de leur axe, se

rapprochent peu 4 peu du cordon ombilical, et aprés avoir décrit

un demt-cercle, le rencontrent, se soudent avec lui, et le confondent

en quelque sorte dans leur substance; souvent le cordon, ainsi

soudé, se montre comme une proéminence extérieure, mais sou-

vent aussi il ne se laisse point apercevoir ; la partie soudée du cor-

don porte le nom raphé.” In order to impress this action more

forcibly upon the conviction of his readers, St.-Hilaire compares

the ovule so developed, to a monopetalous flower in bud, which

is made to perform half a revolution, by beimg inverted and

suddenly bent down close to its base, with its peduncle aggluti-

nated to the calyx and corolla; here the calyx and corolla assume

the position of the tunics of the ovule—its ovary, the nucleus—

and their common base of union, the chalaza,—the pedicel

representing the raphe. ath

A very similar explanation of the anatropy of the ovule is

given in the excellent work of Adr. de Jussieu (Cours Elémen-

mentaire, p. 343), where his definition is aided by figures.

Fig. 1 is again erroneously said to be the nucleus, first developed ;

fig. 2 the same, with the primine next appearing ; fig. 3 the same,

more advanced, with the addition of the second coat (secundine).

“Le développement ne marche pas ainsi égal de tous les cétés ; sur

Pun il est trés-prononcé, tandis qu’il reste & peu prés stationnaire

sur le cdté opposé. Par la, la pointe de Vovule, avec son micro-

pyle tourné primitivement en haut, se tourne de cété, puis un peu

plus tard en dehors, puis enfin tout a fait en bas (fig. 4) aprés

avoir fait ainsi un demi-tour de révolution. La chalaze emportée

de méme avec les tégumens qui s’étendent, et conservant ses

rapports avec le micropyle, fait une révolution analogue, mais en

sens inverse, et marche de bas en haut, de maniére qu'elle s’éloigne

de plus en plus du hile, dont le micropyle au contraire s’est

rapproché de plus en plus.” Fig. 5 shows a section of the same

ovule, where it is explained how “le faisceau vasculaire qui

aboutissait A la chalaze, la suit dans sa révolution en s’allongeant,

of the Vegetable Ovule. 17

et ce prolongement forme le raphé.” I was led into error of

argument, as I have mentioned, solely by my faith in the truth

of this last consideration, a doubt of the correctness of which

never crossed my mind, taught as it was by such eminent

authorities.

The definition of Prof. Lindley (Introd. p. 180) is less expli-

cit, and therefore less objectionable ; but he evidently entertained

a similar view, though expressed in different terms. He states

that in this kind of ovule “one of its sides grows rapidly, while

the opposite side does not grow at all, so that the point (foramen)

of the ovule zs gradually pushed round to the base, while, corre-

spondingly, the base of the nucleus is removed from the hilum to

the opposite extremity ; and when this process is completed, the

whole of the inside of the ovule is reversed.” It is needless to

repeat that this definition is founded upon misconception, or on

too much faith in the erroneous descriptions of Mirbel and

St.-Hulaire.

Dr. Ftitsche (in 1835) was the first who impugned in part the

accuracy of Mirbel’s observations on the development of the

ovule in Cucurbita. Mirbel had described the first indication of

the growing ovule as a simple cylindrical shoot protruding from

the placenta, which after a while exhibits a point, somewhat ex-

centrically placed near its apex, out of which the nucleus forces

an opening; this nucleus continues to grow, becoming sur-

rounded at its base by an annular ring, the rudiment of the

secundine, while the lacerated opening out of which the nucleus

springs forms the mouth of the primine and gives rise to

the outer coat of the ovule. Fritsche confirms the accuracy of

the appearances thus described, but contends* that the nucleus

does not originate in a sort of coleorhizal protrusion as narrated

by Mirbel, but that the whole placental shoot in question is in

reality the nucleus upon its funicular support, before any indi-

cation of the primine and secundine: this shoot is covered by a

single epidermal layer of cellular structure ; and at some little

distance from its extremity a double circular constriction is

formed, thus leaving a prominent annular ring round the pa-

pilla, which remains as the nucleus, while the portion of the

epidermis between the two strictures separates from the internal

parenchyma and becomes plicated, so that its folded surfaces

unite together in the form of a short tube, thus giving origin to

the future secundine. Subsequently that portion of the epi-

dermis below the strictures also separates and becomes folded

in like manner, thus giving rise to the future primine. This

assumption of the separation of the epidermis I believe to be

quite erroneous, for reasons presently to be given; and it will

* Wiegmann’s Archiv, i. 2 Band, p. 229,

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.8. Vol. iv.

18 Mr. J. Miers on the Development

be seen that, in regard to this early stage of the development,

Mirbel was nearer the truth than his opponent.

Schleiden, although he seems to have adopted the erroneous

views of Fritsche concerning the earliest origin of the nucleus

and ovular tunics, gave (in 1843) an account of their subsequent

development and growth, somewhat different from that of Mir-

bel: he says*, “ The funiculus is much elongated, the nuclear

papilla bends downwards; and thus the side, either of the naked

nucleus or of the simple or of the external bud-integument

(secundine or primine), turned towards the funiculus, becomes

blended with it. In the perfect seed-bud the nuclear papilla

then lies close to the point of attachment, the chalaza opposite

to it, and the line from the centre of the chalaza through the

middle of the nucleus is straight: such a bud is termed reversed

(gemmula anatropa) ; the adherent part of the funiculus is termed

the raphe.” Schleiden farther aptly remarks—“ Excepting

Fritsche, not a single botauist has done anything on this weighty

point of our subject, not even so much as to re-examine the

researches of the distinguished Mirbel and Brown; and we find

in consequence, even up to the most recent dates, the false views

of Mirbel (and these often sadly disfigured) copied without

reflection.”

Prof. Henfrey (in 1847), in his truly excellent ‘Outlines of

Structural and Physiological Botany’ (p. 199), thus defines the

nature of the anatropal ovule :— The nucleus is sometimes so

affected by the development, that the apex or micropyle comes

to be placed next the hilum, and the organic base of the ovule

(the chalaza) at the opposite extremity ; the vascular cord com-

municating with the chalaza is extended during the growth of

the ovule, and the chalaza thus always communicates with the

funiculus by these vessels, which run in the thickness of the

coats, in the exterior where there are two. This cord is called

the raphe, looking like a prolongation of the funicle adherent to

the side of the ovule, and disappearing at the point, which is

the organic base.” This description, as far as it goes, is the

clearest and most truthful detail of the development of the

ovule yet given, as it does not allude to any presumed action

of the inversion of the nucleus and its ovular coats, upon

which all other accounts are more or less based. This scientific

botanist, however, appears subsequently (in 1858) to have

adopted the prevalent error in contending that “ the inversion

of the (anatropal) ovule takes place*by a one-sided development

of the tunicst.” notes

Prof. Asa Gray has lately pursued this inquiry (in 1857) in

* Principles of Scientific Botany, Engl. edit. p. 390.

+ Ann. Nat. Hist. 3 ser. i. 356.

of the Vegetable Ovule. 19

a very philosophical spirit, in his investigation into the growth

of the ovule of Magnolia* from its earliest periods ; he confines

himself solely to the appearances seen in the different stages of

its growth, which he illustrates by figures, without reference to

any theory on the subject: those figures well accord with the

explanation [ have rendered of Mirbel’s illustrations of the de-

velopment of the ovule in Aristolochia and Tulipa; but there

appears to me some little error in fig. 2, where the earliest pul-

lulation is always somewhat excentric in instances of anatropy—

never at the extreme tip, which would generate an atropal ovule.

I need not here recite the details of my own observations

made in the spring of last year, upon the mode

of growth of the anatropal ovule of Amygdalus+ ;

suffice it to say that I have repeated them this [if

year with the utmost care, from the very ear-

liest periods of growth, and all that I had pre-

viously remarked is fully confirmed. I have no- }

ticed here, in every instance examined, as shown

in the marginal figures, a deep depression

completely upon one side (never at the extremity)

of the wart-like pullulation from the placenta,

which I have called the placentary sheath, because

it encloses in its parenchyma the tracheal vessels \\

of the future raphe, in the bottom of which ji

hollow there is a small budding-point where the W

vessels terminate ; and out of this point the nu-

cleus originates, standing in the bottom of the {

hollow: this nucleus soon becomes surrounded |

by the annular rudiment of the secundine, while

the margin of the depression by degrees expands

into a cup of a horse-shoe form, the two arms

of which abut upon and embrace a lamellar plate

of the placenta, and the opposite extremity is }

rounded into a concentric form, surrounding and

including the nucleus and secundine. In Prunus

the wart-like protuberance is more globular than

in Amygdalus ; and upon one side, not far from

the placenta to which it is attached, there isa

very deep circular depression, in the bottom of

which the diminutive nucleus is seen rising from |

the budding-point: this is gradually encircled

by the secundine; and the deeply hollow support

becomes first a cup, which finally grows down-

* “A short exposition of the structure of the ovule

and seed of Magnolia,” Journ. Linn. Soe. ii. 106.

+ Ann. Nat, Hist. 3 ser. i. 359.

20 Mr. J. Miers on the Development

ward to form the primine, while its margin remains as the

micropyle. Neither Mirbel’s view nor Fritsche’s notion is

confirmed by my observations; the many cases I have seen

convince me that the early growth of the nucleus and secun-

dine proceeds wholly from the budding-point or future chalaza,

which is the point of termination of the tracheal vessels imbedded

in the substance of the main support or placentary sheath. This

mode of growth is most conformable to the ordinary law of de-

velopment, and is quite analogous to the production of the sepals,

petals, stamens, disk, and ovary from the budding-point of the

pedicel, which is furnished in like manner, and for the same

purpose, with tracheal vessels. It is a far more reasonable in-

ference than the gratuitous assumption of Fritsche, that the

ovular tunics are generated by the spontaneous separation of the

epidermis, which doubles itself up, so as to produce those tunics

by its further expansion.

After this early period, the further increment is very evident :

the bottom of the channel I have described, with the budding-

point, grows downward, becoming by degrees an oblong pouch

with a broad, open mouth, suspended by the funicular point of

its origin, at the same time that the nucleus and secundine

enclosed in it grow upward; this continues till we have a com-

plete and suspended anatropal ovule, ready for impregnation,

at which’ period the papillary apex of the nucleus is exposed

within the open mouths of the tunics; during this successive

growth of the ovule of Amygdalus, the apex of the nucleus never

changes its zenithal aspect, while the chalaza as constantly points

to the base of the cell; there is no one-sided growth of the

tunics, which grow equally upon all sides; and there is no in-

version of the nucleus or of its coats, according to the opinion

generally entertained. In this development, all is beautifully

contrived to attain by the most simple means the main function

—the generation and perfection of the future embryo, for which

purpose the apex of the nucleus is retained always in near prox-

imity to the placenta by means of its short funicle ; and close

to this point we see, as Brongniart long since demonstrated, a

lamellar plate, to which the funicle is attached, which plate,

formed of a peculiar tissue, is terminated by a fringed border

that overhangs the mouths of the ovular tunics: the articulated

cells forming this process bear the name of tele conductrices,

because they serve to conduct the pollinic influence to the point

of the nucleus, by which means the embryo-sac is impregnated.

[I mention here this point of structure, because the position of

this fascicle of cells, in relation to the raphe, is sometimes an

tndication of importance, as I shall have to show in the case of

ihe Rhamnacee. |

of the Vegetable Ovule. 21

The mode of origin and the changes that take place in the

growth of campylotropal and amphitropal ovules, with some

modifications, are quite analogous to all that occur in the ana-

tropal ; it is, therefore, unnecessary for our present purpose to

speak of them ; but in regard to atropal ovules, it is requisite to

say a few words. Here the budding-point is at the very apex,

not on one side of ‘the placentary sheath ; the nucleus therefore

makes its first appearance in a depression at that point, where

also the secundine soon surrounds it, while the extremity of the

sheath is extended by degrees to form the primine,—all three

growing straightforward in the same centrifugal direction ; the

chalazal point is consequently identical with the hilar or funi-

cular point of attachment of the ovule, and therefore there exists

in no case any simple raphe, and but rarely any tracheal vessels,

except those which exist in the funiculus: the growth of the

ovular tunics is just the same as in the anatropal ovules. Spiral

vessels, however, are occasionally seen, extending radially beyond

the region of the chalaza, through the tissues of the primine, as

sometimes occurs in like manner in anatropal ovules.

In the foregoing details of an anatropal ovule, I have men-

tioned the raphe only as appearing in the shape of a simple cord

imbedded in the tissues of the primine, traversing it upon its ven-

tral side from the funicle to the chalaza, where it disappears.

But other distinct kinds of raphe occur : it frequently happens

that, besides the main cord just mentioned, other branches of

the nourishing vessels, as they issue from the funicle, spread

themselves in distinct nervures over the whole area of the testa:

sometimes, as I have shown in the Styracee, these ramifications

are extremely numerous, the delicate spiral threads being loose

or in lax bundles, spread throughout the testa, like a fine web ;

this also occurs in the testa of Ophiocaryon, Olea, and many other

seeds. In other cases, again, we find these ramifications radiating

in distinct nervures from the chalaza and anastomosing over the

surface of the seed; this is instanced in the Almond, to which

Prof. Lindley has alluded as presenting an anomaly not readily

accounted for; its nature is, however, easily explained. The

Almond is generally described as being exalbuminous ; for if we

cut through the seed, we come immediately upon the large

fleshy embryo, which is found enveloped by an apparently single

flexible coating, but which on examination is seen to be composed

of different integuments agglutinated together. The inner coat-

ing is easily detached by a blunt point introduced beneath it,

by which means it may be separated entire; it is then very thin,

almost membranaceous, opake, white, not reticulated, but appa-

rently formed of minute aggregated cells, and perfectly homo-

geneous in all its parts; it is somewhat thickened over the

22 Mr. J. Miers on the Development

radicle, and comes away from the chalaza without discoloration,

as easily as from all other parts of the surface ; in fact, notwith-

standing its attenuation, it presents all the characters of albumen.

Intermediate between this and the external integument isa deli-

cate membrane, which is separable with some difficulty, this being

the tegmen, finely reticulated : the external testa is mach thicker,

opake, with a rugose surface. Upon raising the tegmen, we

find, lying beneath it, several bundles of spiral threads m ana-

stomosing bands, so loose that each fibre can be easily drawn

out separately ; these bundles of vessels constitute the branching

raphe just described, the ramifications of which appear to issue

from the chalaza, where the integuments are united in a solid

disk. The source whence these vessels derive their origin in the

chalaza may, however, be traced to the main cord of the raphe,

which forms a thick bundle running from the hilum to the basal

disk. The two integuments are so closely agglutinated together,

that it is not easy to determine through which of them the

branching portions penetrate; the main cord is manifestly in

the outer tunie.

On two former occasions, I recorded two very unusual cases

in whieh the raphe becomes entirely peripherical, that is to

say, first runs in the usual manner up one side from the

hilum to the chalaza, and then returns again along the oppo-

site side of the seed to the hilum—in both directions in the form

of a simple continuous cord: the one instance was in Stemo-

nurus*, a genus of the Icacinacee ; the other appeared m Cucur-

bitacee+. I have yet to show that a similar abnormal course of

the raphe is universal, as far as I have been able to ascertain,

in Rhamnacea. The consideration of this peculiar development

will be deferred till I have detailed all the curious circumstances

connected with it, in a memoir just completed.

In the Euphorbiaceae, the raphe, as a thick simple cord, runs

in a straight line from the hilum to the opposite chalazal extre-

mity, where it is imbedded in the outer tunic, which is some-

times as thick and fleshy as in Magnolia, and where, as in that

genus, a distinct bony shell intervenes between that coating and

the thin inner integument: this raphe perforates the shell

through a small diapylar foramen, to reach a small chalaza at

the base of that integument; and out of this chalaza I have

sometimes observed other vessels distributed over the area of the

tegmen, in ten or fewer radiating and almost parallel bands

which extend from the base to the apex. The existence of an

external arilline, in which the main cord of the raphe is im-

* Ann. Nat. Hist. 2 ser. x. 33; Contributions to Botany, i. p. 83, pl. 13;

Trans. Linn. Soe. xxii. p. 98, pl. 19. figs. 6,7, 8,9.

+ Trans. Linn. Soe. xxii. p. 92, pl. 19. figs. 47, 48, 49.

of the Vegetable Ovule. 23

bedded, and which is often of a scarlet colour, is common to all

the Euphorbiacee ; and this is always more or less fleshy, and

invariably invests the bony shell usually denominated the testa,

but which shell, in all cases, I have found devoid of tracheal

vessels,

The development of the ovule in its early stages is subject to

many modifications, which, in different families of plants, are

often constant; and these afford good characters, hitherto little

noticed. Some interesting facts on this head were recorded by

Mr. B. Clarke, eight years ago*, when he pointed out the im-

portance of knowing the position of the raphe in its earliest

development,—a character he employed to show the relation of

different families in a systematic point of view, according to his

own peculiar notions. :

Prof. Agardh has very lately contributed a valuable collection

of facts upon the same head, and with the same view, to which

he has attached more importance than they deserve; still, the

facts demonstrated by him claim our especial notice, as they are

accompanied by nearly 500 figures illustrative of the modes of

development of the ovule in 310 different genera of plants. He

has shown how much the position of the raphe, in regard to the

axis of the ovary, varies in different families, and even in different

genera, of the same order; and in his novel systematic arrange-

ment of Phanerogamiat, this difference has in many cases led

him to break up many natural orders into distinct groups, which

he separates by long intervals, while at the same time he places

m juxtaposition other families of little real kindredship, thus

suggesting a distribution quite incompatible with our generally

received notions of real affinity. But although this new system

is not likely to receive the support of botanists in general, still

the many observations, and the numerous facts and draw-

ings here contributed, will show the value of the character of

the development of the ovule, if applied only as an accessory

feature. In order, however, to elicit the true value of this cha-

racter, it should be followed through all the changes of subse-

quent growth, up to the period of the perfection of the seed,—a

consideration not attended to in that work. I have shown the

importance of this last consideration in the Styracee, especially

in the tribe Halesiee; and I have yet to detail developments of

a similar nature in other families which I have investigated. It

* “On the Position of the Carpels when 2, and when single ; includin

Outlines of a new Method of Arrangement of the Orders of Exogens, an

Observations on the Structure of Ovaries consisting of a single carpel.”

Proceed. Linn. Soe. 1. 105.— On the Position of the Raphe in Anatropal

Ovules,” ibid. p. 147.

+ Theoria Systematica Plantarum : Lunde, 1858.

24 Mr. J. Miers on the Development

is with the view of extending this inquiry that I have brought

together these remarks.

It is evident from the foregoing exposition that the word

anatropal, as applied to an ovule developed under a certain con-

dition, is a very incorrect term, and one that might with pro-

priety be abolished, because it serves to perpetuate a prevailing

error; but it may still be retained if we limit its signification to

a comparative instead of an active sense,—meaning, by the word

inverted, a different position of the radicle in regard to the hilum

in anatropal seeds—not as expressing any action of gradual in-

version of the nucleus and its tunics, as has been assumed.

I will now proceed to show that the development of the raphe

is always normally ventral, or next the placenta, and that when

it assumes a dorsal position, this is due exclusively to a resupi-

nation of the entire ovule. I have already explained the differ-

ence in the incipient development of an anatropal and an atropal

ovule—that in the former the pullulation of the nucleus is never

from the extreme point, but always more or less removed from

it, and in general completely on one side of the placentary

sheath ; this is either on the upper or the lower face, but some-

times lateral, and in these cases the growth of the ovule is either

downwards or upwards, or laterally in regard to the axis of the

ovary, producing thus either pendent, ascending, or laterally

horizontal ovules. When the first appearance of the nucleus is

on the superior side of the funicular sheath, we have a pendulous

ovule, with the raphe necessarily on the ventral side of the pri-

mine (as shown in the marginal figures in p. 19), im all cases

where the point of its attachment upon the axis of »,

the carpel is at any sufficient distance above the

base of the cell to allow of its downward growth ;

but if this poimt of origin be contiguous to the

base, then the downward extension of the primine,

pressing against the bottom of the cell, causes the

ovule to incline upwards gradually into an erect

position (turning thus upon its funicle, as Mr.

Brown first sagaciously demonstrated in the case of

Euonymus), so that the ovule becomes completely

reversed, with the raphe upon its dorsal face. In

the same way, when the pullulation of the nucleus

is upon the lower side of the funicular sheath,

we have necessarily an ascending ovule with a

ventral raphe, produced by the upward expansion of

the sheath, as in the marginal figures, showing °

the first and two later stages of this growth, which

prevails in all cases where the ovule has sufficient

room to expand itself; but where this production of the funi-

igs. 8-10.

of the Vegetable Ovule. 25

cular support is close to the summit of the cell, then the pres-

sure of growth causes the ovule to be forced round gradually

upon its funicle till it becomes pendent, with its raphe in a

dorsal position. In both these instances of resupination of the

ovule, there is no removal of the mouths of the tunics from

their close contiguity to thetelee conductrices,—a very import-

ant feature in the history of its development. These two con-

ditions of growth of the placentary sheath may be expressed by

the terms epipyla and hypopyla,—the former from é7l super,

avn porta, where the first development is upwards; and the

latter from jwé et wvAn, where it shows itself on the lower side

of the sheath. In the first condition (where the micropyle

points upwards), we have an ovulum anatropum epipylum, or a

pendent ovule with a ventral raphe; but where the same ovule

becomes inverted by pressure, we have an ovulum epipylum

resupinatum, or an ascending ovule with a dorsal raphe. Under

the second condition (where the micropyle points downwards),

we have an ovulum anatropum hypopylum, or an ascending

ovule with a ventral raphe; but when this becomes inverted

by pressure, it is an ovulum hypopylum resupinatum, or a pendent

ovule with a dorsal raphe. It often happens, where numerous

ovules issue from a placenta of limited extent, that we have erect,

horizontal, and pendent ovules all crowded together, some with

a ventral, others with a dorsal raphe; but it will be found that

all are equally epipylous or equally hypopylous, the one series

showing their raphes in their normal position, the second inter-

mediately placed, while the third, by their resupination, have a

dorsal raphe. Under the third condition, where the ovules are

in collateral pairs, and where the earliest appearance of the

nucleus is upon the lateral face of the placentary sheath, the

raphes face one another, whether the subsequent direction of the

ovule, by the pressure of growth, be pendent, horizontal, or

ascending: this kind of development may be called allopylar if

in a single ovule, and heteropylar when in collateral pairs.

Another consideration worthy of attention in the development

of the ovule, is the position of the embryo in regard to the seminal

tunics,—that is to say, whether one of the faces of the cotyledons,

or whether its margins be placed opposite the raphe: this point

has seldom been regarded, except. where the embryo is amphi-

tropal or campylotropal, in which cases this position is known,

from the radicle being said to be incumbent or accumbent in

regard to the cotyledons. This relative position is often a con-

stant feature in certain families, while in others it is subject to

much variation, as in Rhamnacee; and the character is even

sometimes variable in the same genus, as in Rhamnus. The

position of the face of the cotyledon in regard to the axis of the

26 Mr. J. Miers on the Development

ovary is a feature very distinct from that of its relation to the

raphe ; and the two should not be confounded together : thus in

Rhamnus catharticus the raphe is dorsal, both with respeet to

the axis of the ovary and to the embryo; in R. chlorophorus it

is dorsal with regard to the embryo, but lateral as respects the

axis of the ovary. In most instances throughout the Rhamnacee

the embryo is cumbent with respect to the ovary, one of its

eotyledons being posterior, the other anterior, in regard to the

axis; but it is aceumbent in regard to the raphe, which skirts

the margins of the cotyledons. In Berchemia the cotyledons

are incumbent, both with regard to the ovary and to the dorsal

raphe. ,

In this investigation, I have noticed only the proper integu-

ments of the ovule, leaving out of consideration that coating

which, after impregnation, frequently grows over the primine

and produces in the seed either an incomplete or an entire tunic,

called an arillus. Schleiden and others are of opinion that the

true aril must necessarily be pervious at its extremity, and he

concludes (/. c. p. 431) that wherever an actually closed structure

surrounds the seed, it is undoubtedly a layer of the seed-coats:

but this is mere opinion unsupported by proof; for it is equally

probable that the aril may become closed just as much as the

proper tunics of the ovule. It has also been thought that it must

necessarily be fleshy ; but 1 have shown* that it is often perfectly

entire, and frequently hard and testaceous (as in Canellacee,

Winteracee, &c.), in which case the true testa, or development

of the primine, is generally either fleshy or membranaceous,

contrary to its usually hardened condition. |

Where, on the other hand (as in Magnolia, Clusia, &c.), the

imner tunic of the ovule becomes hardened by osseous deposits,

the primine, as in the former case, remains fleshy, and assumes

the appearance of a complete arillus, for which reason I proposed

to call it an arilline + mstead of testa, to which name the hard-

ened tunic is more entitled. It has been contended by Dr. Asa

Gray that the osseous tunic and the aril-like covermg which

contains the cord of the raphe are both developed from the pri-

mine, the former resulting from hardened deposits upon its

inner layers of cells, while the outer cells remain soft and

fleshy. I have argued that, if such a deposition took place

in the manner stated, these two dissimilar textures must be en-

closed by a single epiderm and one endoderm; but we find, on

the contrary, each of the tunics provided with its respective ex-

ternal and internal epidermis, showing that the two formations

are independent in their origin. It is also clear, that if these

* Ann. Nat. Hist. 3 ser. ii. 39; Contributions to Botany, i. 128.

+ Trans. Linn. Soe. xxii, p. 89.

of the Vegetable Ovule. 27

two coatings, so very dissimilar im their nature, were produced

from a single ovular tunic, then the cord of the raphe ought

rather to be found in the nut, as that would correspond with

the inner layers of mesodermic tissue m which the raphe exists

in the primine; whereas that cord of vessels is really imbedded

in the fleshy tunic, while the nut is free from vessels of any kind.

This is further shown in the general structure of the seed of

Magnolia, where the raphe passes in its usual course through

the tissues of the fleshy coating, from the base to the apex, when

it suddenly breaks through the endoderm, and arrives at a distinct

foramen in the chalazal extremity of the nut, which I have called

a diapyle, through which it passes, and soon becomes lost in the

thickened areole or chalaza of the inner integument.

On the other hand, we may conclude either that the nut ori-

ginates in a development of the secundine, and that the tegmen

results from the tercine or membrane of the nucleus (which is a

very rational inference), or that the nut is of independent origin

(which is still within the range of probability). Indeed there is

nothing to prevent the possibility or probability of the formation

of an mtraneous coat between the usual tunics im the growing

seed, subsequently to the closing of the micropyle of the ovule.

We frequently meet with a copious deposit of loose cellular tissue

between the testa and tegmen, or even between the latter and

the albumen ; and this deposition may become consolidated into

a distinct membrane, or hardened by solid deposits: wherever

there exists a budding-point, this may at any time take place.

We have proof of the actual formation of such a tunic between

the primine and secundine in the Gnetacee* ; and this, if applied

to the case of Magnolia, points to a far more probable cause for

the appearance of the hard tunic in the seed, than the impro-

bable suggestion of Schleiden and Gray, to which I have just

referred.

Schleiden, although entertaining so many ideal fancies re-

specting developments, gives nevertheless a somewhat true ac-

count of the present state of our knowledge on this subject : he

says (/.c. p.427)—“ A greater confusion than that which pre-

vails in the theory of the seed-coats is scarcely conceivable ; the

most heterogeneous things are thrown together under one name ;

thoroughly identical ones are placed in different kinds of organs ;

and there is nothing for it, if we would not make greater con-

fusion, but to cut the thread and begin over again : the epidermis

of the seed is sometimes described as testa, sometimes as arillus ;

seed-membranes are introduced where no true integuments

exist.”

* According to the interesting details given by Griffith, Lindley’s ‘ Ve-

getable Kingdom,’ p. 233, where analytical figures demonstrate the fact.

28 Mr. H. J. Carter on Dracunculus.

My object in bringing together the facts related in the fore-

going pages is to show that we may always proceed with some

degree of certainty, if we never lose sight of positive, invariable

landmarks. Beyond doubt the surest course is to trace the de-

velopments from the earliest growth of the ovule to the final

perfection of the seed; but where this cannot be done, notwith-

standing the variable texture and condition of the tunics deve-

loped from the growth of the primine and secundine, we may

always, with much confidence, by attending to the unerring

indications afforded by the raphe, generally deduce the true

nature and origin of the different coatings of seeds in Phanero-

gamous plants.

I1I.—On Dracunculus and Microscopic Filaride in the Island of

Bombay. By H. J. Carrer, Esq., Bombay.

[ With three Plates. |

In the month of October 1853, I published a “ Note” on Dracun-

culus in the island of Bombay*, and in February 1858 communi-

cated additional “Observations” on the same subject, in order to

correct and complete it. My object in the first communication

was to give an anatomical description of the Guinea-worm of

this island; to compare it and its young one with that micro-

scopic species of the Filaridee which is most common in the fresh-

water tanks here, to which I have applied the name of “ Tank-

worm ;” to try to account for the origin of Dracunculus; and

to suggest some prophylactic measures for its prevention. This

led me to a further study of the microscopic species, both in the

fresh and brackish or salt waters of the island, which again

threw my attention back upon Dracunculus, and has finally

ended in making me acquainted, not only with much more of

the anatomy of the latter, but with nearly the whole of the

organology, formation of the ova and spermatozoa of the Tank-

worm, as well as with several other microscopic species, all of

which are interesting in various ways, but of which I have not

been able to obtain much more than the external forms.

In my last communication, viz. the “ Observations,” I gave a

short summary of the latter researches; and I now propose to

give the full paper, with illustrations.

It may be conceived, perhaps, that much has been written on

the Guinea-worm, and that publishing anything more about it

is superfluous ; but what has been written is very little to the

purpose, and it is for this reason that it is desirable to record a

* Transactions Med. and Phys. Soc. Bombay, No. 2. p.45, new series.

+ Annals, vol. i, p. 410, 1858.

Mr. H. J. Carter on Dracunculus. 29

connected, exact, and complete description of it—which does not

now exist. Besides, this could never have been acquired without

a study of the microscopic Filaridz which are to be found in the

waters of the locality ; while this study, again, has elicited facts

which will be found acceptable both in physiology and natural

history generally. Advantage also has been taken of the ana-

tomy of the young Guinea-worm to confirm the existence of

what otherwise might be doubted in the adult ; and this, again,

has afforded means of comparing the latter with the anatomy of

the Tank-worm, for the purpose of pointing out the great resem-

blances between the two, and accounting for the modifications

in form, &c., of Dracunculus, which appear to be induced by the

circumstances under which it is developed.

The illustrations are numerous, and comprise, in the first

plate, those of Dracunculus ; the second plate is entirely devoted

to a typical display of the organology, ovology, and spermatology

of the microscopic species called the ‘Tank-worm ;” and the

third contains the forms of most of the other microscopic Filaride

which have been observed. All the representations have been ~

drawn after nature with great care, but with a leaning towards

mathematical accuracy which renders them stiff and formal,

though not the less effective for demonstrating the facts which

they are intended to record.

I shall first describe the form and anatomy of Dracunculus,

and then go to that of the Tank-worm; after which the other

species of microscopic Filaride will be given, with some obser-

vations on them generally; and lastly, the whole considered

with reference to the origin of Dracunculus.

The species of Dracunculus which occurs in the human sub-

ject in the island of Bombay, and probably in all India, is that

which has been called “Filaria Medinensis,”’ or “‘ Guinea-worm ;”

and under this appellation it will be henceforth designated.

Filaria Medinensis, Gmel. PI. I. fig. 1.

Female. Long, narrow, cylindrical, of equal size throughout,

except towards the extremities, which are slightly attenuated.

Smooth, white or colourless, unstriated transversely to the un-

aided eye, presenting two transparent and two opake lines run-

ning throughout the body, corresponding to the muscular bands

and their intervals respectively. Anterior extremity or head

(fig. 4) obtuse, round, furnished with two papille which are

scarcely visible to the unaided eye, presenting, under a high

microscopic power, a punctiform hole or mouth in the centre,

surrounded by a smooth-bordered quadrangular space, on each

side of which is a papilla, two of which papille are large and

prominent, viz. those first mentioned, and situated above and

80 Mr. H. J. Carter on Dracunculus.

below the mouth respectively, while the other two are flat, rudi-

mentary, and situated laterally. Besides this, there is another

kind of armature extending from the rudimentary papille up-

wards and downwards, so as partly to encircle the head; but

this is too faintly marked to require further notice; while the

whole is fixed upon a kind of disk of concentric (muscular ?)

fibres, which is situated beneath the integument, and thus ter-

minates this end of the body. From the four papille, which

are situated at right angles to each other, as many whitish lines

are seen to extend backward, of which those from the large

papille pass into the centre of the muscular bands, where they

are continued on faintly throughout the body, while those from

the rudimentary papille pass into the transparent intervals be-

tween the bands. Thus, assuming that the opake bands, which

are the great longitudinal muscles, are placed (as in Ascaris lum-

bricoides) above and below the alimentary canal, the large pa-

pillee, being opposite them, will be vertically, and the rudimentary

ones laterally situated, as before mentioned.

On the other hand, the posterior extremity (fig. 5) also ap-

pears obtuse to the unaided eye; but this, under a common

magnifier, is observed to arise from an inflexion of the tail,

which, being marked on its outer and inner curvature respect-

ively by the great longitudinal muscles of the body, and the

latter also by the termination of the rectum (n), as will presently

be seen, may be assumed to be curved ventrally, where it is fre-

quently fixed by an adventitious membrane (fig. 5.0). The anal

orifice, as we shall also presently see, must be situated at the

commencement of the tail, if the rectum has any opening at all

externally, which I think very doubtful, as 1 have not yet been

able to discover it; nor have I ever been able to see any trace

of a vaginal opening or vulva.

The body consists of a firm cylindrical integument lined with

a coating of muscular fibres, within which, again, loosely sus-

pended by delicate filaments of cellular tissue in the peritoneal

cavity, are the alimentary canal and generative organs.

Integument homogeneous, transparent though coriaceous.

Muscular coat consisting of some delicate circular fibres,

which appear to be attached to the integument, and the two

longitudinal muscular bands before mentioned, which are as-

sumed, in accordance with what has been stated of Ascaris lum-

bricoides, to be respectively situated dorsally and ventrally.

Peritoneal cavity empty, presenting towards each extremity a

patch, about an inch long, of sarcoid (glandular ?) prolongations,

which are most marked anteriorly.

Alimentary canal (fig. 3) consisting of the oesophagus, intes-

tine, and rectum, of which the two former are in a common

Mr. H. J. Carter on Dracunculus. 31

sheath divided by a constriction opposite their poimt of union.

(sophagus (a) straight, narrow, about 1-600th of an inch in

diameter, commencing at the oral orifice and extending back-

wards for about two inches, where it becomes slightly dilated,

and then joins the intestine; surrounded by the common or

peritoneal sheath, with which again is the muscular one,

both together forming a cylinder about 1-76th of an inch in

diameter. Intestine (5 4) much wider than the cesophagus, uni-

form in calibre, pursuing within its peritoneal sheath a tortuous

course throughout the peritoneal cavity from being more or

less twisted round the ovisac, and terminating almost close to

the tail, in the rectum (c). Rectum only 1-8th of an inch long,

without sheath, passing into the ventral muscular band or the

mner curvature of the tail, beyond which I have not been able

to trace it; that is to say, I have been unable to detect its con-

nexion with an anal orifice in the integument over its termina-

tion, even under very favourable circumstances for examination,

so that if there be any aperture of this kind at all, it must be

extremely minute. Peritoneal sheath of the mtestine the same

or less in width than that of the cesophagus, which thus occa-

sionally makes the intestine look less in diameter than the ceso-

phagus, commencing from the constriction opposite the union

of the cesophagus and intestine, and continued throughout of

uniform diameter to the rectum. Hepatic organ consisting of a

layer of brownish oil-globules which occupies the interval be-

tween the intestine and its sheath throughout, or probably ter-

minating a little short of the end of the intestine, as shown in

the young Dracunculus (fig. 6 f), where that which is not easily

seen in this respect in the adult is supplied at once.

Organs of Generation (fig. 2). These consist of a large single

ovisac (b, b), terminated by an ovary or small ovarian tube ateach

extremity. The ovisac uniformly cylindrical throughout, about

1-24th of an inch in diameter, and occupying the greater part

of the peritoneal cavity, extending to within an inch and a half

of each extremity ; membranous, without trace of constriction

or projection in any part of its course, and terminating abruptly

at each end in a narrow blind tube (the ovary), about an inch

long, which is slightly dilated at its extremity. It is the abrupt

termination of the ovisac a little short of the ends of the Guinea-

worm which makes these parts of the latter more transparent

than the rest of the body. The ovisac is filled with young

Guinea-worms (all of which are of the same size) and some gra-

nular matter. An ovisac 26 inches long and 1-24th of an inch in

diameter, which is about the average size in the adult Guinea-

worm, should, if filled with young of the size to be hereafter

mentioned, which is generally the case, contain upwards of half

32 Mr. H. J. Carter on Dracunculus.

a million. I have never seen any in capsules, or anything like

the remains of capsules, though I think we may fairly infer

that the granular matter is the remains of the embryonal enve-

lopes, whatever these may have been.

There being no indication in the ovisac of any connexion with

a vagina, and no vaginal orifice to be found externally, it might

naturally be inferred that the ovisac could only obtain an exit

by bursting through some part of the body, and that, as it is

the head of Dracunculus which always protrudes first, this rup-

ture is somewhere in its neighbourhood. To satisfy myself that

such was the fact, I selected a cas¢ where the bleb which covers

that part of the skin through which the head has ulcerated was

unopened, and having carefully cut away the cuticle thus raised,

saw the head of the Guinea-worm extruded for a line or two

beyond the wound, when, on pouring some water over it, to

see it more clearly, the ovisac immediately burst forth from it

to the extent of an inch or more. I then carefully tied a piece

of thread round the protruded part of the body of the Guinea-

worm as far back as possible, and having prevented its retracting

by drawing it out a little and placing another ligature beyond

this, severed the worm between the two ligatures, and took away

the head for microscopical examination. On proceeding with the

latter, I found that the ovisac had passed out through a distinctly

ruptured hole, which was situated 1-160th of an inch from the

head ; and knowing that no aperture exists here naturally, there

could no longer be any doubt that the rupture had been occa-

sioned by the distended ovisac, rendered much more so perhaps

at the moment by the imbibition of the water which was poured

over the wound just before the rupture took place.

Size. I have never yet measured a Guinea-worm which was

beyond 32 inches in length, and, when fresh and fully distended,

about 1-9th of an inch in breadth. This I should regard as the

maximum size in Bombay ; but they may be of all lengths below

this.

Male. Not seen by myself. Professor Owen has figured one

with an inflated, round, posterior extremity, and a single spicu-

lum projecting from the apex, of which he states, “The candal

extremity of the male | Filaria Medinensis| is obtuse, and emits

a single spiculum.”

Young Dracunculus. Plate I. fig. 6.

Microscopic, filiform, minutely striated transversely, slightly

diminishing towards the head, which is obtuse, tapering towards

the tail, which is very long and whip-like; presenting a slight

inflation at the root of the tail, to accommodate a glandular

organ of the interior ; head without papill ; mouth punctiform,

Mr, H. J. Carter on Microscopic Filaride. 33

in the centre of the anterior extremity; no vulva; anal orifice

at the root of the tail. Alimentary canal commencing with a

narrow, rigid cesophagus, ending in a much wider intestine,

which is continued straight through the body, of uniform calibre,

to the rectum, which is short, narrow, and proceeds obliquely

to the anus. (sophagus surrounded by a muscular sheath, and

probably a peritoneal one; but the latter is not seen in situ, and

the parts are too delicate to admit of its being demonstrated by

their forcible expulsion, as in the adult, where it is also not

visible in situ, but becomes evident when the cesophagus has

followed the ovisac on its bursting through the body: thus the

peritoneal sheath of the cesophagus would appear to be undis-

tinguishable in both instances in setu, from being in contact with

the muscular sheath, while in some of the microscopic Filaridee

it is separated by a distinct interval (PI. III. figs. 29, 30). Peri-

toneal sheath of intestine continued from the constriction oppo-

site the union of the cesophagus and intestine to the commence-

ment of the rectum, where it terminates. Hepatic organ con-

sisting of a layer of yellowish oil-globules, which occupies the

interval between the intestine and its sheath from the cesophagus

to within a short distance of the rectum, where it disappears

and leaves the rest of the intestine only covered by the peri-

toneal sheath (fig.6 /). Organs of generation undeveloped ; no

vulva. Size 1-38rd of an inch long and 1-633rd of an inch

broad.

_ Obs. The transverse strize are far more marked in the young

than in the adult Dracunculus, where they are but just percep-

tible under a high microscopic power, and appear to be identical

with the transverse muscular fibres, while in the young Dra-

cunculus they are evidently corrugations of the integument.

Urolabes palustris, n.s. PI. II. fig. 7.

Female. Linear, cylindrical, smooth, white or colourless, un-

striated transversely, gradually diminishing towards the head,

which is obtuse and terminated by a distinct labiate portion,

furnished with at least two, if not four, indistinct papille; di-

minishing abruptly towards the tail, which is attenuated and

whip-like. Mouth in the centre of the anterior extremity.

Vulva a little in front of the middle of the body. Anus at the

root of the tail. |

_ Integument transparent, tough, apparently structureless, lined

by a muscular coat, which only becomes visible under protru-

sion, when the former is ruptured. Muscular coat circum-

scribing the peritoneal cavity, presenting on its imner surface

lines of oil-globules, and towards each extremity sarcoid glandi-

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. iv.

34 Mr. H. J. Carter on Microscopic Filaride.

form prolongations, as in Dracunculus. The latter is a common

feature in all the microscopic Filaride that I have examined.

Alimentary canal loosely suspended within the peritoneal

cavity, consisting of an cesophagus, intestine, and rectum, of

which the two former are ensheathed, and the latter naked.

(Esophagus commencing with a cup-like or buccal cavity, into

the posterior part of which projects a sharp-pointed, horny, nar-

row tube (fig. 11 d), which is continued backwards in a straight

line to the intestine, and is exsertile at the oral orifice. Intes-

tine much longer than the cesophagus, uniform in size, and

passing straight through the body to terminate abruptly in the

rectum, which is very narrow, short, and pursues an oblique

course to the anus. (isophageal sheath assumed to be double,

consisting of a membranous (peritoneal) and a muscular por-

tion, which are in contact with each other, and gradually in-

crease in width from the mouth to the commencement of the

intestine, where they are constricted, and the latter terminates,

while the former is reflected on to form the peritoneal sheath of

the intestine (g). The muscular portion has been wrongly

called the cesophagus, while little or no notice has been taken

of the horny tube which passes through its centre. The latter,

which is also penetrating, is at once the organ of suction and that

through which the nutriment is conveyed back to the intestine.

I have seen drops of oil (the food) pass out of the point of this,

under pressure, but never any trace of food in the sheath which

surrounds it. Whether the horny tubular portion be again

surrounded by a membranous tube, and thus form a kind of

proboscidian organ, I have not been able to determine any

further than the buccal dilatation goes, from which it is evi-

dently separate; but it seems to me not improbable that this

may be the case throughout, and that this tube may be moved

backwards and forwards by a muscular apparatus in the bulbous

part of the muscular sheath (see Pl. III. figs. 25, 26, and 27 ce).

But of this there is no doubt, that it or its immediate enclosing

sheath is the only part which is in continuation with the intes-

tine (fig. 11). Peritoneal sheath of intestine uniform in calibre

throughout, or until it arrives within a short distance of the

rectum, where it suddenly becomes smaller from the absence of

the hepatic organ (fig. 7 f), and continues thus for some dis-

tance until it arrives at the rectum, where, like the intestine

which it surrounds, it also abruptly terminates. .

Hepatic organ consisting of a layer of yellowish-brown olea-

ginous globules, becoming amber-coloured posteriorly, occupying

the interval between the intestine and its sheath, and extending

from the commencement of the former to the part where the

sheath becomes suddenly smaller, where they cease, or are only

Mr. H. J. Carter on Microscopic Filaride. 35

sparsely scattered in groups (in cells?) over the remaining

portion.

Posterior part of the intestine, which is sparsely covered with

hepatic globules, presenting an irregular rhythmical influx and

expulsion of water through the rectum, like that observed in

some Naidina, where it is produced by cilia for the influx, and

by contraction of the intestine for expulsion.

Organs of Generation (fig. 8). Double, cylindrical, sym-

metrical, occupying the middle half of the body, each half con-

sisting of an ovary and ovisac inflected upon the other part,

which is the oviduct or fallopian tube. Ovary and ovisac con-

tinuous, formed of a delicate, membranous, pyramidal tube,

blind at each extremity, and lying longitudinally in the perito-

neal cavity, with the pointed or ovarian extremity towards the

vulva, and the larger portion or ovisac in the opposite direction.

Fallopian tube thick, muscular, arising from the ovisac at a little

distance from the large extremity of the latter, which is thus ren-

dered cecal (figs. 8c and 13d), and presenting one or more con-

strictions and dilatations in its course towards the vulva, where

it becomes suddenly narrowed and, uniting with its fellow of the

opposite side, forms the vagina. Ovary and ovisac filled with

ova in successive stages of development, up to the junction of

the fallopian tube, beyond which they do not extend, the cecal

extremity being filled with a muco-granular matter only. Dila-

tations of the fallopian tube filled with spermatozoa (each of

which is enclosed in its respective cell), and a greater or less

number of ova, extending in single file up to the vagina.

Largest size 1-6th of an inch long and 1-370th of an inch

broad.

Male (fig. 9). The same as the female, but smaller, and with

the tail truncated almost close to the anus.

Organs of Generation (fig. 10). Double, occupying the middle

half of the body, consisting of two cylindrical, delicate, mem-

branous sacs of a pyramidal form, lymg longitudinally in the

peritoneal cavity, with their large ends approximated, each large

end giving off a short narrow tube, which, becoming united,

form a large seminal duct that is continued straight back to the

neighbourhood of the rectum, where it terminates in a dilated

portion, in the parietes of which are fixed two ensiform or sca-

phoid bodies of a horny consistence and yellowish colour, which

together form the penis. These lie obliquely across the body,

are thin, and curved longitudinally as well as transversely in-

wards, so that, when approximated at their pointed ends, they

form a canaliculated, stiff, pointed, pyramidal, curved organ,

which is exsertile at the anus.

Development of the Ovum (fig. 13). The ova first appear as a

36 Mr. H. J. Carter on Microscopic Filaride.

mass of minute nucleated vesicles or cells occupying the pointed

extremity of the ovisac, to which we have given the name of

“ovary,” and, gradually becoming larger with their distance

from this point, at last come to occupy respectively an entire

transverse portion of the tube, so as to form a single file of ova,

which, divided by transverse straight lines, arising from the

parallel approximation of their coats, thus cut the ovisac into

graduated divisions, which increase in width as they approach

the fallopian tube, where they end (c), the remaining ceecal por-

tion being filled with the granular matter already mentioned, to

which we shall direct our attention more particularly hereafter.

Up to this point, the germinal vesicle and its nucleus, together

with the yelk, are observed to be gradually increased in size,

but not surrounded by more than one membrane, which is deli-

eate, soft, and easily ruptured. The ovum now passes into the

fallopian tube, which is filled with spermatophorous cells, each

of which, as before stated, bears a single spermatozoon ; and, as

it traverses these, the germina! vesicle and its nucleus gradually

disappear, and a second membrane, viz. the coriaceous coat, is

added (/), when the ovum assumes an elliptical shape, and,

arriving at the vagina, is laid before segmentation commences.

Development of the Spermatozoon (fig. 14). °The spermatozoa

are developed from minute nucleated cells which fill the small

ends of. the testicular sacs (a), which are in fact the testes, each

of which cells consists of a cell-wall lined by a portion of proto-

plasm, in one part of which is the nucleus (fig. 15). The cell

now increases in size, and a number of points or nuclei make

their appearance in the endoplasm, thus giving it a granular ap-

pearance(16). These points or nuclei now enlarge,and each pre-

sents around itself a cell; during this process the whole mass has

much increased in size, and the original nucleus may be assumed

to perish (18). .The endoplasm now gradually disappears, while

the points or nuclei enclosed within their proper cells become

larger and elongated, till at last nothing but a few fragments of

the endoplasm remain, and the spermatophorous cells, which are

indeed the daughter cells, are observed to be adherent to the

inner periphery of the parent cell (19). At length the elon-

gated nuclei with their cells force themselves through the parent

cell, and, after remaining pendent to it for a short time, finally

obtain their liberation, when the elongated nucleus of each cell

is seen to be a spermatozoid (21). The spermatophorous cells

thus liberated fill the large ends of the testicular sacs (14 d),

and passing in this state into the seminal duct, are at length

transferred from the male to the female, where, as before stated,

they fill the dilated portions of the oviduct or fallopian tube

(13 g, k). They are now observed to consist of a delicate, thin,

Mr. H.J. Carter on Microscopic Filaride., 37

flexible cell, within which is the spermatozoon and a small frag-

ment of granular matter, which, like that observed in the parent

cell, appears to be the unemployed portion of the contents of

the spermatophorous cell, which has not entered into the forma-

tion of the spermatozoon. The latter may now be seen to be

writhing and twisting about in all directions, and giving a num-

ber of shapes to its cell as it forces it out in one direction and

another (22), until it finally escapes, when it is observed to be

linear, about 1-400th of an inch in length, consisting of a

thick cephalic portion which is linear-fusiform and amounts to

about two-thirds of the whole, and a thin, flexible, undulating

portion which forms the other third, and is the tail (24). In

this state it frequently appears among the contents of the testi-

cular sacs, and always among those spermatophorous cells of the

fallopian tube which are close to its junction with the ovisac.

According to this description of the development of the sper-

matozoa, it might be inferred that every spermatic or parent

cell attains the same size, produces the same number of sperma-

tophorous or daughter cells, and therefore each should contain

a large number of spermatozoa; but such is not the case; for

not only at an early period (that is, in the granular stage) are

spermatic cells of different sizes to be seen, some of which are

apparently filled with spermatophorous points (daughter cells in

embryo), and others only containing two and three or upwards,

indicating that the former will produce more than the latter

(17), but at the end, when the whole of the endoplastic contents

of the parent cell have become absorbed, with the exception of a

fragment or two here and there, and the spermatozoa have nearly

attained their full development, this is further confirmed by the

presence of parent cells of different sizes containing from one to

twenty spermatophorous cells (19). I therefore see no way of

accounting for this variety in the size of the parent cell and in the

contained number of spermatozoa, than by assuming that all the

spermatic or parent cells do not develope the same number of

spermatozoa, either from part of the granules or daughter cells

becoming blighted, or from only a certain number being pro-

duced in the first instance. To endeavour to account for it. by

assuming that the daughter cells may develope one or more sper-

matozoa, and therefore that these may be the cells containing

the few spermatozoa, would not be borne out by the contents of

the few-bearing parent cells, which all present spermatophorous

cells around their spermatozoa, while, if they had been daughter

cells, the spermatozoa would have been all together, that is, not

separated by a further cellular enclosure—an instance of which

has never come under my observation. hoe

The appearances presented by the contents in situ of the tes-

38 Mr. H. J. Carter on Microscopic Filaride.

ticular sac, from its small towards its obtuse end, too, corre-

spond with what they present when examined separately, after

forcible expulsion (14). Thus, the small end is observed to be

filled with small, delicate, nucleated cells (a); further on, these

are much enlarged; then the mass presents a granular appear-

ance, which becomes more marked progressively as the granules

become larger (6) ; after which the granules assume an elongated

form, which is the first sign of their being spermatozoa; ra-

diated masses of spermatozoa now present themselves (c), and

lastly, the mass of spermatophorous cells after they have left the

parent cells, occupies the large end of the sac (d). 3

How the radiated arrangement is produced, I am unable to

explain ; for, up to the time of the spermatophorous or daughter

cells leaving the parent cells, they appear to be disposed irregu-

larly round the inner surface of the latter—at least such is their

position after forcible expulsion (19d). It is not uncommon,

however, to see small parent cells containing a few spermato-

phorous cells with the spermatozoa radiating from one point

(20 a); nor is it uncommon to see groups of spermatophorous

cells without the parent cell, so attached together that all the

heads of the spermatozoa are directed to one point (20); but

on the other hand, as before stated, in the large parent cells,

which contain a great many spermatophorous ones, they appear

to be arranged irregularly round the periphery (18). If the

large masses in the testicular sac (14:c) could be expelled entire,

we might perhaps be able to see how this radiated arrangement

is produced ; but I must leave future investigation to point out

this, and to explain why, in the larger cells, after forcible expul-

sion, they have not this arrangement, or whether they ever have

it. Perhaps it is the forcible expulsion, after all, which destroys

the radiated arrangement.

Again, as regards the spermatozoon: from possessing the

form mentioned, which appears to be the normal one (24),

many have the head of an intervening shape between bacilliform

or linear and globular, but still always retaining the point or

beak; while in the fallopian tube, sometimes, when the deve-

lopment of the ova appears to have ceased, and they have not

been required, they are observed to have passed into still longer,

bacillar, sharp-pomted bodies which have lost all vitality and

become rigid and brittle.

Thus the development of the spermatozoa in their early stages

corresponds exactly with what I have described and figured re-

specting their development in Nais fusca*, that is, so far as the

production of the granules or daughter cells in a nucleated parent

cell is concerned, and these daughter cells becoming the sperma-

* Annals, series 3, vol. ii. p. 90, 1858.

Mr. H.J. Carter on Microscopic Filaride. 39

tophorous ones; but here, in Urolabes palustris, while the deve-

lopment still goes on within the parent cell, and the spermato-

phorous cells adhere to its internal periphery, in Nais fusca the

parent cell is lost, and the spermatophorous vesicles become

fixed to a central albuminous mass until the spermatozoa are

developed*.

The fact of the granules (which become the vesicles or daugh-

ter cells) being within the spermatic cells here, as well as in

Nais fuscat+, makes me doubt the interpretation which Dr. Nel-

son has given to their appearance in the testicle-sac of Ascaris

mystax, where he states that the spermatic cells are met in their

progress downwards through the testicular sac by a number of

granules ‘ which group themselves around” them, and continue

about them until they get imto the “uterus” of the female,

where they drop off and form a “ granular fluid,” leaving the

spermatic cells naked{. As, however, my observations are

based upon Dr. Nelson’s statements, and not on actual examina- -

tion of A. mystaz, I will merely add, that the grouping of gra-

nules around the spermatic cell appears to me to be a pheno-

menon as inexplicable as it is anomalous. :

That the spermatic cells themselves should be thrown off the

mner surface of the testicular tube of A. mystax in “ granules,”

I can easily conceive; but the impossibility of getting at the

inner part of the end of the testicular tube in Urolabes palustris,

left tothe mere chance of the position it may take after bursting

through the integument from pressure, and by moving the

covering-slip of glass (for these parts are far too minute to be

otherwise manipulated), is such, and the rapid imbibition of water

by the cells situated there so distends the contents at the end of

the tube, that it is impossible to ascertain anything satisfactorily

beyond the fact that it does contain cells, and that these cells

produce the spermatozoa. By a “ granule” which passes into a

nucleated cell here, I do not understand a simple aggregation

of matter, but a point of complicated structure which we call a

granule because its structure is too minute for us to demonstrate

by the microscope.

Impregnation.—This appears to take place at the moment

when the ovum reaches the mouth of the fallopian tube (13 f),

and to require that the spermatozoon shall have left its cell

before the incorporation can be accomplished,—Ist, because the

germinal vesicle and its nucleus appear full and prominent in the

ovisac at this point, and disappear rapidly after the ovum has

passed into the fallopian tube; 2ndly, because up to this time

the ovum is without the coriaceous coat with which it afterwards

* Annals, vol. i. pl. 3. + Id. pl. 2. fig. 5.

{ Phil. Trans. p. 505, &c., 1852.

40 Mr. H. J. Carter on Microscopic Filaridee.

becomes rapidly invested, and therefore at this moment ready

with its soft thin coat to admit the spermatozoa; and, 3rdly,

because the spermatozoon does not become active within its cell

until it arrives at this point, where it may be found in all stages

of liberation, in addition to being actually liberated. Moreover,

it might be inferred that the cell would form an impediment to

the ingress of the spermatozoon, an obstacle to incorporation,

and a deciduous product which the ovum could ill accommodate.

Thus, as the cells of the spermatozoa are thrown off at this

point, it is not improbable also that their remains form the

muco-granular contents of the cecal end of the ovisac, to which

I have already alluded.

Hab. Fresh water, in tanks and dirty drains wherever there

is vegetable matter, mud, and putrescency, and in the gelati-

nous Alge during the “rains.” Breeding from January, and

perhaps earlier, up to the end of April, but apparently not

after. Abundant throughout the year.

Loc. Island of Bombay.

Urolabes Gleocapsarum, n. sp. PI. IIT. fig. 25.

Female. Uinear, cylindrical, striated transversely, gradually

diminishing towards the head, which is obtuse and without

papillz ; also towards the tail, which is long and furnished with

a digital termination. Mouth in the centre of the anterior ex-

tremity. Vulva a little anterior to the middle of the body.

Anus at the root of the tail.

(isophagus commencing with a cup-like buccal cavity, from

which a narrow straight tube is extended back to the intestine.

Intestine much larger than the cesophagus, straight, and of

equal calibre throughout, abruptly terminating in the rectum,

which is narrow and obliquely directed towards the anus. Mus-

cular sheath of the cesophagus commencing a little distance

from the buccal dilatation, so as to leave a portion of the cesopha-

gus naked, and, increasing in size backwards, presenting at first

an oval and then a bulbous dilatation, after which it becomes

constricted opposite the union of the cesophagus with the intes-

tine. Intestinal sheath commencing with the intestine, and

ending at the rectum. Hepatic organ consisting of a layer of

brownish oil-globules occupying the interval between the intes-

tine and its sheath throughout.

Organs of generation double, occupying the middle third of

the body, as in the foregoing species ; their form undetermined.

Size. 1-54th of an inch long and 1-376th of an inch broad.

Male. Somewhat smaller than the female; tail somewhat

shorter and thicker; testis in the centre of the body, its form

Mr. H.J. Carter on Microscopic Filaride. 41

undetermined ; seminal duct and penis as in the foregoing spe-

cies ; penis exsertile at the anus.

Hab. The Gleocapsa which grows on walls and on the sides

of gutters during the “ rains.”

Loc. Island of Bombay.

Urolabes labiata, n. sp. PI. LI. fig. 26.

Female. Linear, cylindrical, unstriated, gradually diminishing

towards the head, which is labiated and furnished with two pa-

pillee; also towards the tail, which is conical and elongated.

Mouth in the centre of the anterior extremity. Vulva much

behind the centre of the body, about the point of union of the

posterior two quarters. Anus at the root of the tail.

Alimentary canal and cesophageal and intestinal sheaths, with

hepatic organ, the same as in the foregoing species, but no

buccal dilatation. Organs of generation apparently the same,

but probably unsymmetrical, there being no room for the pos-

terior half, on account of the backward situation of the vulva;

their form undetermined.

Size. About 1-40th of an inch long and 1-774th broad.

Male. Unseen.

Hab. The Gleocapsa of the walls, &c., during the “ rains.”

Loc. Island of Bombay.

Urolabes tentaculata,n.sp. Pl. ILI. fig. 27.

Female. Linear, cylindrical, unstriated, gradually diminishing

towards the head, which is obtuse and furnished with two short,

thick, conical, tentacular prolongations, closely approximated at

their base and turned outwards; also diminishing gradually to-

wards the tail, which is conical and elongated. Mouth and

anus as in the foregoing species. Vulva just behind the middle

of the body.

Alimentary canal and cesophageal and intestinal sheaths, with

hepatic organ, much the same as in the foregoing species, but

no buccal dilatation. Organs of generation double, occupying

the central portion of the body, their form undetermined.

Size. About 1-23rd of an inch long and 1-26th [?] of an inch

broad.

Male. Unseen.

Hab. The same as the foregoing species.

Loc. Island of Bombay.

Urolabes cirrata,n.sp. Pl. III. fig. 28.

Female. Linear, cylindrical, unstriated, gradually diminishing

towards the head, which is obtuse and furnished with two linear

short cirri widely separated; also diminishing gradually to-

42 Mr. H.J. Carter on Microscopic Filaride.

wards the tail, which is somewhat curved and obtuse at the

extremity. Mouth and anus as in the foregoing species. Vulva

in the posterior half of the body, a little in front of the union of

the posterior two fourths. |

Alimentary canal the same as in the foregoing species, but

without buccal dilatation; the cesophageal sheath commencing

close to the oral orifice, and gradually increasing in diameter

backwards to its bulbous termination. Organs of generation

undetermined. !

Size. 1-78rd of an inch long and 1-1080th of an inch broad.

Male. Unseen. |

Hab. Same as foregoing.

Loc. Island of Bombay.

The next species are all from salt or brackish water in the

marshes of the island of Bombay.

Urolabes erythrops, n. sp. Pi. III. fig. 29.

Female. Linear, cylindrical, minutely striated transversely,

ocellated, gradually diminishing towards the head, which is ob-

tuse and without papille; also towards the tail, which is long

and conical. Mouth and anus as in the foregoing species.

Vulva just about the middle of the body. ws

Alimentary canal much the same as in the foregoing species.

(Esophagus commencing with a cup-like, followed by a globular

dilatation, after which it becomes narrow, uniform in width, and

pursues a straight course back to the intestine. Peritoneal and

muscular sheaths of the cesophagus distinct from each other.

Intestinal sheath presenting a constriction just after its com-

mencement, which gives it a globular form, part of which only

is lined with the hepatic organ. Hepatic organ the same as in

the foregoing species. Organs of generation double, occupying

the middle third of the body ; form undetermined.

Ocelli consisting of two globular bodies situated a short

distance from the head, and between (?) the peritoneal and mus-

cular sheaths of the cesophagus, opake, of a rich carmine colour

in their posterior three-fourths, and the anterior fourth or cor-

neal portion bluish opalescent.

Size. 1-20th of an inch long and 1-470th of an inch broad.

Male. The same as the female, but with the posterior part of

the body terminating more abruptly and the tail more attenuated.

Testis, seminal duct, and penis the same as in the foregoing

species ; form of the testis undetermined. '

Hab. Silty clots of Oscillatoria floating in the salt-water

main drain of the town of Bombay.

Loc. Island of Bombay.

Mr. H. J. Carter on Microscopic Filaride. 4:3

Urolabes infrequens. PI. III. fig. 30,

Female. The same as in the foregoing species, but a little

larger in every way.

Alimentary canal and organs of generation the same generally.

Ova undergoing segmentation and the embryo developed in the

ovisac, but not liberated there.

Ocelli the same in situation, but semi-opake and of a yellowish

colour throughout.

Size. Undetermined. .

Male. Same as the female, but with a short curved tail, pre-

senting on each side of the mner curvature a membranous ex-

pansion supported on setaceous ribs, which extends from the

tip of the tail to some little distance above the anus. Organs of

generation the same as in the foregoing species; form of testis

undetermined.

Hab. Same.

Loc. Island of Bombay.

Urolabes ocellata, n.sp. PI. III. fig. 31.

Female. Linear, cylindrical, unstriated, ocellated, diminishing

gradually towards the head, which is obtuse and provided with

four short linear cirri; also diminishing gradually towards the

tail, which is short, somewhat curved, and furnished with a

pointed digital termination. Mouth, vulva, and anus situated

as in the foregoing species.

Alimentary canal the same, but with the cesophageal sheath

more bulbous posteriorly, and no globular dilatation of the in-

testinal sheath posterior to it. Hepatic organ the same.

Ocelli the same as in U. erythrops, but smaller, less rich in

colour, and a little nearer the head.

Size. About 1-32nd of an inch long.

Male. The same as the female, with the exception: of the

difference in the generative organs, which are the same as those

of the foregoing species; form of testis undetermined.

Hab. Same.

Loc. Island of Bombay.

Urolabes barbata, n. sp. Pl. III. fig. 32.

Female. Body the same as the last, but much longer. Head

furnished with four linear, short cirri. Tail short, somewhat

curved, furnished with a short, pointed, digital termination.

Mouth and anus the same. Vulva situated much posteriorly to

the middle of the body, about the junction of the middle with

the anterior third of the posterior half.

Alimentary canal the same as in the foregoing species, but the

intestinal sheath terminating less abruptly upon the commence-

AA. Mr. J. W. Salter on the occurrence of a Fish

ment of the rectum. Hepatic organ the same. Organs of ge-

neration double, occupying the middle part of the body; their

form undetermined. Ocelli at some distance from the head, of

the same colour as in U. infrequens.

Size. 1-7th of an inch long and 1-600th of an inch broad.

Male. The same as the female, but with a large, thick, curved

tail, obtuse at the extremity, tuberculated in its inner curvature,

and furnished on each side with a row of short sete extending

from above the anus towards the tip; also three or four sete on

the outer curvature. Testis and penis the same as in the fore-

going species ; form of the testis undetermined.

Hab. Same.

Loc. Island of Bombay.

Urolabes parasitica, un. sp.

Female. Linear, cylindrical, unstriated, gradually diminishing

towards the head, which is obtuse and without papille, and also

towards the tail, which is long and conical. Mouth and anus

as in the foregoing species. Vulva a little im front of the middle

of the body.

Alimentary canal and hepatic organ the same. (sophagus

commencing in an expanded oral orifice, immediately becoming

narrowed into a straight uniform tube; naked at the commence-

ment, but soon surrounded by a sheath, which goes on increasing

in width to the point of union of the cesophagus and intestine,

after which it continues of uniform calibre to the termination

of the latter. Organs of generation double, occupying the

middle third of the body, their form undetermined ; filled with

ova diminishing in size with their distance from the vulva, and

all presenting the germinal vesicle.

Size. 1-43rd of an inch long.

Male. Unseen.

Hab. Peritoneal cavity of Nais albida, in more or less abun-

dance during the “rains,”’ when this Nais makes its appearance

in the Gleocapsa mentioned.

Loc. Island of Bombay *.

[To be continued. ]

1V.—On the occurrence of a Fish (Pteraspis) in the Lower Ludlow

Rock. By J. W. Sauter, F.G.S.

Tue discovery of a true Fish in beds of the Silurian system

considerably older than the famous “ bone-bed” of the Upper

Ludlow rocks is a fact of much interest. It is desirable at once

* For a small figure of this worm, see ‘Annals,’ series 3, vol. ii. pl. 4. fig. 50.

in the Lower Ludlow Rock. 45

to make it known, the more so as a//*previously-described fishes

from the Silurian system, other than those of the very topmost

layer (the bone-bed), have, when carefully examined, turned

out to be something else than fish. Zoophytes, Trilobite-frag-

ments, plates of Cystidean animals, the tail-spines of Crustacea,

even worm-burrows and scales of black mica, have all been mis-

taken for fragments of fish-bones or scales, and have some of

them figured even in general works. The only undoubted spe-

cimen (a fish-palate) was described from rocks of the age of the

Dudley limestone; but this has proved to be a Carboniferous

species*, and was most probably introduced by accident into

the quarry of older rock, among the debris of which it was

picked up. |

It is therefore a matter of real interest to find at length a

true Vertebrate down in the mud-stones of the Lower Ludlow

rock, many hundred feet below the bone-bed. The position of

the fossil is unquestionable ; its place has been determined by

one of the most persevering of our local geologists, Mr. Light-

body of Ludlow, who (in company with Mr. Lee of Caerleon)

found it, and in whose collection the gem remains; and it has

been verified by others, the Rev. W. Symonds of Pendock espe-

cially, who, as well as myself, has seen the quarry, and knows

well that these flat-bedded strata belong to the Lower Ludlow,

are full of the characteristic fossils, and are regularly surmounted

by the Aymestry limestone and the Upper Ludlow rock.

The place of the fossil thus secure, its structure is the next

point of importance ; and those who have read the memoir on

Pteraspis in a late volume of the ‘ Quarterly Geological Journal +”

will be satisfied with the statement that both the prismatic inner

or second layer, and a good deal of the outer striated layer, are

preserved on this nearly complete dermal plate—the portion

usually preserved, and which was shown, at the last Meeting of

the British Association}, to lie immediately behind the head, on

the dorsal surface. |

Description.—This nuchal plate shows a very similar form

and striation to that of Pteraspis truncatus § from the topmost

layers of the Ludlow rock (or Downton sandstone), but it is

longer and narrower, and of much less depth and convexity.

This is not due to pressure; for an Upper Ludlow specimen,

undistorted, has the same characters. The general form is a

long oval, with the ends truncated; the front is slightly emar-

* Cochliodus aliformis, M‘Coy. See Quarterly Geol. Journal, vol. vii.

p- 266. figs. a, b, c.

ft Prof. Huxley, in vol. xiv. p. 267, &e.

t Id. im Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1858, Trans. Sect. p. 82.

§ See Banks in Quart. Geol. Journ. vol. xii. pl. 2. f. 1.

46 Mr. J. W. Salter on the occurrence of a Fish

ginate ; the posterior end (not perfect in fig 1, but nearly so in

the Upper Ludlow specimen*) has an obtuse short keel, but is

Fig. 1.

P. ludensis. P. truncatus.

Outline-diagrams of Pteraspis. The figures are not strict drawings, but intended

to point out the distinguishing characters of the two species.

not prolonged, to all appearance, into a spine, as in P. truncatus ;

nor is the posterior margin nearly so oblique. The fragment is

sufficiently perfect to show this. The lateral angle a, which

terminates the bevelled sutural edge 0, is further back in the

new species.

Besides the narrower form, there is a decided difference in

the direction of the sculpturing. In P. truncatus (fig. 2) the

strie and also the stronger intermediate ribs converge posteriorly

towards the ridge and spine, and again anteriorly towards an

obscure median line. In this species, on the other hand, they

start more parallel from the posterior margin, and near the

anterior end diverge towards the. outer angles. So far as the

preservation of the specimen permits of judging, there are no

stronger striz anteriorly.

As there seem to be sufficient characters to distinguish the

species, it will be well not to confound it with P. truncatus, to

which it was doubtfully referred in the second edition of ‘ Silu-

riat. It may be called

P. ludensis, n. sp.

P. scuto nuchali elongato, oblongo-ovali, convexo nec gibbo, antice

truncato etiam emarginato, postice brevicarinato haud longispi-

* It is added in dotted outline to fig. 1.

+ Page 267. It is mentioned as probably distinct, in the note on Pfer-

aspis appended to Mr. R. Banks’s paper, before quoted. This referred only

to the Upper Ludlow specimen with an incomplete surface.

in the Lower Ludlow Rock. 47

noso; superficie lineis subrectis antice divergentibus tenuissime

striata.

Localities. Lower Ludlow Rock, Leintwardine, with shells,

star-fish, and large species of Pterygotus (fig. 1, Mr. Light-

body’s Collection ; found in 1859). Upper Ludlow Rock,

Ludlow (in Mr. J. Harley’s Collection, found in 1852).

Of the true piscine nature of the species just described we

have clear evidence in the existence of all the three layers of

bone described by Prof. Huxley in his memoir. With regard

to the P. truncatus, which is less perfectly preserved, the inner

layer has not yet been observed ; but in the structure and orna-

ment of the two outer ones—the general form, lateral angles,

and bevelled sutural edges—there is the closest resemblance

to P. ludensis. The Crustaceans of the same rocks have a dif-

ferent ornament, and, it is needless to say, no bony structure.

What the relative standing of these very ancient Cephalaspid

fish may be, is a point yet to be decided; but it is at least

worthy of note that the range of fishes a little further back-

ward in time is established by the discovery, not of new types,

but of new species of a genus and group proper to the lowest

beds of the overlying formation, and characteristic of these beds.

In the same way, the giant Pterygoti, long known in the Old

Red Sandstone, have now been traced downward in diminishing

numbers, and of new species, through all the Upper Silurian

beds. Again, a Pteropod and a Cystidean have been disinterred

from the “ primordial zone” (the Lingula flags) ; but these are

of genera familiar to us in the true Lower Silurian rocks. An-

nelida, and perhaps Trilobites, recede further back than the

base of the Silurian; but, as yet, the Cambrian has yielded no

other new and unexpected types, and, save a doubtful Zoophyte

or Polyzoon, no other forms at all. And if we turn to the

highest of the palzeozoic groups, the reptiles which have at

length been discovered in the Coal are found to belong to the

lower forms with which we have become acquainted in the

Permian and Trias; or, where they differ from these, it is to

present indications of even a still lower grade*. It is impos-

sible to help surmising, however unphilosophical it may appear

to some, that we may not be very far from the downward limit

of one at least of the zoological subkingdoms. If, indeed, we

discovered a Brachyurous crab, or a single reptile of high

organization in Silurian rocks,—a mammal in the Old Red, or

a fish in the primordial zone, such a fact would go far to demo-

lish the supposition. But the gradual tracing back of types a

httle only beyond their previous limits does not appear calcu-

* Owen, in ‘ Siluria,’ 2nd edition, p. 363.

48 Prof. Allman on the Hydroid Zoophytes.

lated to shake the generally received opinion of a progressive

organization of animals during geological time, the lower pre-

ceding the higher. ;

But can the same be said for plants? Coniferze are among

the most rife in the earliest strata in which land plants abound,

and these are reckoned, by some of our best botanists, the

highest types of plants! Dicotyledons succeed; and Mono-

cotyledons, the least complex of the flowering plants, scarcely

appear till Tertiary times. Has there been an inverse order of

creation for plants, compared with that of animals? Is it true

that Palms and Bananas are inferior to the Cypress and the

Fir-tree ?

V.—WNotes on the Hydroid Zoophytes. By Prof. ALLMAN.

lL. Tubularia indivisa.

Tue reproductive sacs of Tubularia indivisa, though never

destined to become free, and belonging to the type of sporosacs

rather than Meduse, present nevertheless a structure in which

a true medusoid type may be fully recognized, and are thus of

especial interest in establishing the exact relation between sporo-

sacs and Meduse, the two forms of bodies in one or other of

which the generative elements of the marine Hydroid Zoo-

phytes always originate.

Included within an external investment, or ectotheque, in

which thread-cells are imbedded, is a second sac, having a well-

defined opening near its summit. A circular canal, rendered

evident by the red pigment-granules it contains, surrounds this

opening. Four longitudinal canals open symmetrically into the

circular canal, and thence, running along the inner side of the

walls of the sac, enter the base of a large manubrium*, which

extends through the axis of the sac.

Between the endoderm and ectoderm of the manubrium the

generative elements (ova or spermatozoa) are developed, and

when sufficiently mature escape, after the rupture or absorption

of the confining ectoderm, through the opening in the sac just

described, the ectotheque giving way before them, apparently by

rupture.

It is impossible not to see here, in the sac which lies imme-

diately within the ectotheque, the umbrella of a Medusa, with

its orifice and its circular and radiating canals ; so that in this

highly interesting form of sporosac we have, with a closed

manubrium, all the parts amply represented which are found in

* The diverticulum from the coenosare which extends through the

axis of the sporosac, or forms the so-called peduncle of the Medusa.

Prof. Allman on the Hydroid Zoophytes. 49

the free Medusa, except the marginal tentacles, ocelliform bodies,

lithocysts, and velum (?).

In the female sporosac, the generative product originates as a

voluminous plasma, between the endoderm and ectoderm of the

manubrium. It is evidently in more intimate relation with the

endoderm than withthe ectoderm, and as it increases in bulk

it would seem to cause the absorption of the latter membrane,

which confined it in its young state. A portion of it now becomes

detached from the mass, and soon undergoes. a special develop-

ment into an embryo within the cavity of the sporosac. We

must undoubtedly look upon this detached portion as an ovum,

though I have never succeeded in demonstrating the presence of

a germinal vesicle. The phenomenon of yelk-cleavage is also

very obscure, but the entire ovum may be easily broken up into

cells filled with secondary cells.

The ovum lies in contact with the remainder of the plasma,

and while in this position becomes developed into an actiniform

embryo, as has been pointed out by Van Beneden and others.

In the act of development it becomes first extended as a disk

over the residual plasma. Next; from the circumference of the

disk, short and thick processes radiate all round, which soon

elongate themselves into tentacula. The disk at the same time

gradually becomes more gibbous on the side turned away from

the axis of the sporosac; its interior becomes hollowed out into

a stomach; and a mouth makes its appearance in the centre of

the opposite side, or that in contact with the plasma. The embryo

now retreats from the plasma, the mouth is seen to be elevated

on a conical prominence, and a second circle of tentacula soon

makes its appearance immediately around it. In this state it

escapes from the sporosac, and after continuing free for a period

it ultimately developes, from the side opposite to the mouth, a

cylindrical stem, which soon clothes itself with a polypary, and

fixes the young Tubularia to some neighbouring object.

While embracing the residual plasma in the sporosac, we are

strongly reminded of the relation which subsists between the

embryo and food-yelk, in those animals in which the embryo is

developed from only a portion of the yelk. The analogy, how-

ever, is not so close as it may at first appear; and there is no

evidence that the residual plasma is absorbed by the embryo

during its development. |

After the escape of the embryo, or even during its develop-

ment within the sporosac, the remains of the plasma may still

throw off portions which become developed in a similar way into

free embryos.

In the male sporosacs, the spermatogenous tissue is manifestly

composed of very delicate tubules, which are attached by one ex-

Ann, & Mag, N. Hist. Ser, 3. Vol, iv. 4

50 Prof. Allman on the Hydroid Zoophytes.

tremity to the endoderm of the manubrium, and thence radiating

in all directions, fill the interspace between the endoderm and

ectoderm with a dense tissue, in whose component tubules the

spermatozoa, with their generating cells, are formed.

II. Podocoryne carnea.

I recently obtained, upon stones in rock-pools near low-water

mark, and on old shells brought up upon the lines of the fisher-

men, a zoophyte which appears to be identical with a species

described by Sars under the name of Podocoryna albida,—an

animal, however, which seems to be only a variety of the zoo-

phyte described by the same author under the name of P. carnea.

It consists of a colony of colourless claviform polypes spring-

ing from a common tubular basis, which invests the surface of

the stone or shell. The polypes are of two kinds, of which one

rises to the height of about 4 inch above the common basis. Its

extremity is club-shaped, and bears a terminal mouth, behind

which is situated a series of about twelve filiform tentacula,

arranged in a single verticil. The polypes of this kind never

bear gonophores (‘ generative vesicles ”’).

The other kind of polypes spring, in common with those just

described, from the tubular base. They are scarcely half the

size of the former, and have only four or five tentacula, which

are situated, as in the larger polypes, behind a termimal mouth,

while, at a short distance behind the tentacula, there is always

borne a verticil of medusiferous gonophores, generally four or

five in number, each supported on a short peduncle.

Sars, in his description of P. carnea, states that the polypes

are connected to one another by ‘a kind of foot or mantle, —

which forms upon the shells a thin membranous investment,

and which appears to consist of numerous stolons anastomosing

with one another ;” but he makes no mention in this deserip-

tion of a chitmous polypary.

He tells us, however, a little further on, that, “after the

death of the polype, the mantle remains behind as a brown

epidermal investment, bearing numerous pointed spines of a

horny nature, and which we may probably consider as a kind

of polypary.” He has met with this investment upon shells

from different seas.

This latter part of his description is not consistent with the

former ; and it seems probable that he has confounded the solid

muricated and chitinous basis of Hydractinia with the tubular

basis of the present genus.

Sars describes his zoophyte as naked ; but I believe this is

not admissible as a character in any of the known marme Hydroid

zoophytes, unless it be im Hydractinia, im which the solid chi-

Prof. Allman on the Hydroid Zoophytes. 51

tinous polypary is covered eaternally by the ccenosarc, thus

reminding us of the sclerobasic corallum of some of the Ac-

tinozoa.

In the present species the common basis of the colony con-

. gists of an irregular network of chitinous tubes pervaded by the

coenosare, and closely adherent to the surface of some fixed

object. I had long ago satisfied myself of the presence of a

basal tubular polypary in Clava; but, though I had carefully

figured it with a view to publication, I delayed making it

known, and in the meantime the same fact had been fully ob-

served and recorded by Dr. 8. Wright.

The medusa of Podocoryne albida has a deep umbrella with

eight marginal tentacles, of which four are longer and continu-

ous with the four radiating canals, and four shorter and alter-

nate with them. Hach tentacle springs from a bulbous basé

containing red pigment-granules. There is also a wide velum.

The manubrium is of moderate length; and its oral end is

divided into four lobes, each of which is terminated by a cluster

of thread-cells, which are peculiar in the fact of every thread-

cell being borne on the summit of a delicate thread-like pe-

duncle. The entire cluster may be seen in a constant state of vi-

bration,—a phznomenon, however, which is probably due merely

to the action of currents excited in the surrounding water by

cilia situated within the mouth.

It is apparently the present zoophyte, or at least a nearly allied

species, which has been described by Mr. Peach in a former

volume of this Journal.

Ill: Manicella fusca, nov. gen. et sp.

There occurs in the Firth of Forth, attached to other zoophytes

and to sea-weeds near low-water spring tides, a Tubularian zoo-

phyte with characters so peculiar as to entitle it to a distinct

generic rank.

It is much branched, rising usually to the height of about 4 an

inch, and having its ultimate ramuli disposed with a regularly

pinnate arrangement.

The tentacles are about 16 in number, arranged im a single

but slightly alternating series upon the club-shaped body, just

behind an anterior conical projection which bears the mouth on

its apex. '

The polypary, which is of a dull brown colour, and opaque

from the accumulation in it of minute particles of earthy matter

and siliceous sand, presents the remarkable character of not

being confined to the ecenosarc, but being continued over the

body of the polype, and even for a considerable distance over the

tentacles themselves ; so that the only part of the zoophyte which

4-*

52 Prof. Allman on the Hydroid Zoophytes.

is naked is a small portion of the body just behind the mouth,

and the terminal portion of the tentacles, which, when these are

in the extended state, comprises a space of somewhat less than two-

thirds of their entire length,—a character of true generic value.

At the origin of the polypiferous ramuli, the polypary is marked

by distinct spiral corrugations.

The gonophores belong to the class which contain sporosacs,

and not Meduse. ‘They are borne each upon the summit of a

short lateral branch, three or four of which are situated alter-

nately along the entire length of the ultimate ramuli, and have

their investing polypary marked by spiral corrugations. The

polypary is continued over the entire gonophore. Each gonophore

contains a single sporosac with a ramified spadix*.

I have not been able to find any description of the present

animal, though Dr. 8. Wright informed me last year that he

had met with a Tubularian zoophyte in which the greater part

of the polype was covered by the polypary. If it really prove

to be an undescribed form, I would propose for it the name

of Manicella+ fusca, which is sufficiently expressive of some of

its more striking characters.

IV. Eudendrium bacciferum, nov. sp.

Growing upon the basalt of some of the small rocky islands

of the Firth of Forth, or attached to other zoophytes or to sea-

weeds, there may be found near low-water mark a small Tubula-

rian zoophyte, which also presents a form which may prove of

generic value, but at all events is one of well-marked specific

distinctness from any with which I am acquainted.

It attains a height of about an inch. It is much and irregu-

larly branched, though the ultimate or polypiferous ramuli pre-

sent for the most part a pinnate arrangement. The main stem

is thickest near the root, and is here distinctly composed of

ageregated tubes. It becomes gradually attenuated as it gives

off its branches, and finally, like the branches, consists of a

simple tube.

The ultimate ramuli are for the most part abruptly bent to

one side, a little behind their terminal polypes,—a character which

gives a special and rather peculiar aspect to the zoophyte.

The polypary is slightly corrugated on the branches, without

being anywhere distinctly annulated, and is continued over the

* The endodermal portion of the manubrium, from which the genera-

tive elements directly originate.

+ A diminutive noun, from manica, the long Roman sleeve which per-

formed the office of a glove; the allusion is to the extension of the poly-

pary over the body and tentacles of the polype.

Prof. Allman on the Hydroid Zoophytes. 53

posterior part of the body of the polypein the form of a funnel-

shaped cup, which does not, however, extend as far as the origin

of the tentacles, and which, though it reminds us of the polype-

cell in the Campanularian zoophytes, is incapable of receiving

the tentacles and anterior part of the polype even in extreme

retraction.

The tentacula are seated near the middle of the club-shaped

body. They are about ten in number, and are arranged in a

single verticil. Their cavity presents the septate appearance

usual in the marine polypes; but under slight pressure the con-

tents of the stomach are easily forced into them without any

evident rupture of the tissues. —

The body in front of the tentacles is continued into a long,

conical, but mutable, mouth-bearing process.

The gonophores are remarkably large, and are chiefly formed

upon the main stem and primary branches. They are of an

oval figure, each borne on a long peduncle which issues from

the summit of a very short lateral ramulus, invested like the other

branches with a proper polypary, which is here, exactly as in

the polypiferous ramuli, dilated at its summit so as to form a

conical cup, from whose centre the peduncle of the gonophore

springs.

The contents of the gonophores in this species are sporosacs ;

and in the structure of these there are some points which deserve

attention. Lining the inner surface of the ectotheque, and in-

terposed between it and the endotheque or sac which imme-

diately confines the generative elements, is a third investment,

which is plainly homologous with the umbrella of a Medusa.

It supports upon its inner side four (or more ?) short radiating

canals, which spring from the base of the manubrium, and, after

running forwards for a short distance, terminate each in a blind

extremity. There is no trace of a circular canal.

We have thus, in the present zoophyte, a form of sporosac

intermediate between that met with in Tubularia, with its well-

developed umbrella and radiating and circular canals, and that

which occurs in the greater number of cases where the umbrella

has entirely disappeared.

When the gonophores approach maturity, they present upon

their summit a well-defined prominent opening destined to give

exit to the ova or spermatozoa.

The ova possess a deep-orange vitellus, but otherwise pre-

sent nothing peculiar. They have a distinct germinal vesicle

and germinal spot, and, as in most of the Hydroid zoophytes,

become transformed into a Leucophrydiform embryo.

_ The spermatogenous tissue of the male sporosac presents very

distinctly the appearance of radiating striz, indicating a com-

54: Prof, Allman on the Hydroid Zoophytes.

position out of tubules. The spermatozoa have a long conical

body with a caudal filament.

The coenosare of Eudendrium bacciferum is of an orange colour,

which being visible through the transparent polypary, especially

in the younger portions of the specimen, renders the zoophyte,

notwithstanding its small size, eminently conspicuous among

its more sombre associates, particularly when furnished with its

large berry-like deep-orange gonophores.

The general character of the present zoophyte, but especially

the very remarkable position of the gonophores on the summit

of true, though arrested branches, affords a strong inducement.

to define it as a new genus; and as such I had recorded it in

my note-book. I believe, however, the adoption of this course

would be premature in the absence of further information re-

garding allied forms, which can be surely determined only when

examined in their living state and while furnished with their

polypes and gonophores; and I therefore consider it safer to

view it for the present as a Eudendrium, though a very distinct

species. If the result of a critical study of the various species

of Hudendrium and its allied genera should prove the title of

this zoophyte to a distinct generic rank, I would propose for it

the generic name of Corythamnium.

V. Coryne Briareus, noy. sp.

The Coryne which forms the subject of the present note was

found covering the surface of a stone in one of the rock-pools

left upon the shore of the Forth by the retiring tide.

An irregular network of chitinous tubes adhered to the sur-

face of the stone, and threw up at close intervals, to the height

of about half an inch, wider tubes, from whose summits the

polypes emerged. These polypiferous tubes themselves fre-

quently gave off long free branches, which then bore short

polypiferous ramuli, like those which spring immediately from -

the adherent net-like stolon.

The polypes are of a clear white, with an occasional pinkish

tint given by the coloured granules of the stomach-walls. They

are very extensile, and in their fully-extended state they assume

nearly a cylindrical shape, their club-like form becoming almost

entirely obliterated. The tentacles are very numerous, from forty

to fifty, and are scattered irregularly over the body, or at most

show a very slight tendency, when the polype is fully extended,

to a verticillate arrangement.

The gonophores are borne in a single, somewhat verticillate

cluster upon the body of the polype, having a few tentacles be-

hind them, but the greater number in front of them. They are

supported upon short peduncles, and contain each a single

Mr. J.8. Baly on new Phytophagous Insects. 55

-Medusa, conspicuous through the walls of the gonophore by the

fine carmine-coloured bands by which the inner surface of the

‘stomach is marked.

When the Medusa escapes from the gonophore, it is seen to

present a structure which is very peculiar. The umbrella is of

a nearly spherical form, with two marginal tentacles continuous

with two opposite radiating canals. A small bulbous dilatation

is situated at the intersection of each of the other two marginal

canals with the circular canal, but no tentacle is here developed.

There is a wide velum. The manubrium is well developed, of a

nearly cylindrical shape; and the mouth is not furnished with

lobes or tentacles.

The structure of the two marginal tentacles is very remark-

able. Each commences with a wide bulbous dilatation con-

taining reddish pigment-granules, and is then, for the remainder

of its length, closely set along its external side with pedunculated

oval sacs filled with thread-cells.

Another striking peculiarity in the Medusa consists in a cecal

tube which is given off from each of the tentacular bulbs, and

then running in the substance of the umbrella, close upon

its outer surface and exactly parallel with the corresponding

radiating canal, becomes slightly dilated as it proceeds, and

terminates, after a short course, in a blind extremity. An

exactly similar tube is given off from each of the two interme-

diate bulbs. The contents of these ceca are a clear fluid with

thread-cells.

I propose for the Coryne here described the specific name of

Briareus.

V1.—Deseriptions of new Genera and Species of Phytophagous

: Insects. By J. 8. Bary, Esq.

Fam. Chrysomelide.

Genus Doryrnora, Illig.

Doryphora dilaticollis (Dej.).

D. oblonga, convexa, nitido-viridi-zenea, czeruleo-micans; thorace

utrinque foveolato, subremote punctato, utroque latere in laminam

obliquam subacutam producto; elytris subcrebre punctatis, punc-

tis obsolete subseriatim dispositis, interstitiis aciculato-reticulatis.

(Fem.) Thoracis lateribus non dilatatis, rotundatis, antice an-

gustatis.—Long. 8 lin.

Hab. Brazil.

Doryphora cerulea.

D. oblonga, convexa, nitido-czerulea; thorace remote punctato, ely-

56 Mr. J.S8.Baly on new Phytophagous Insects.

tris paullo latiore, lateribus dilatatis, rotundatis ; elytris subseria-

tim punctatis, remote reticulato-aciculatis. :

(Feem.) Thorace elytris angustiori, lateribus rotundatis.—-Long.

3—7% lin.

Hab. Kiga, Upper Amazons.

Differing from D. sappharina, Forst., to which insect it is

most nearly allied, by its much broader thorax: in the latter

insect the thorax is considerably narrower than the elytra, the

~ sides at the same time being straight, and rounded at their apex

only.

Doryphora cardinals.

D. late ovata, valde convexa, obscure eenea, corpore subtus antennis-

que nigro-seneis, his extrorsum nigris; capite subremote tenuiter

punctato, inter oculos unifoveolato; labri margine flavo; thorace

longitudine triplo latiore, disco utrinque foveolato, remote tenuiter,

lateribus subremote subfortiter punctato ; elytris subseriatim punc-

tatis, rufo-fulvis, sutura et margine laterali anguste, fasciisque tri-

bus e maculis oblongis, seneis, harum prima ante, secunda prope,

tertiaque obliqua pone medium positis.—Long. 8-8} lin.

Hab. Venezuela.

Doryphora congener.

D. ovata, convexa, pallide viridis, antennis extrorsum nigris; femo-

ribus spinaque obscure flavis; thorace longitudine plus duplo

latiore, subremote tenuiter punctato; elytris tenuiter seriatim

punctatis, punctis in striis confuse gemellato-dispositis, striis disco

exteriori confusis.—Long. 54 lin.

Hab. Venezuela.

Doryphora Jekeli.

D, ovate convexa, nitido-cuprea, subtus obscurior ; capite thoraceque

punctis distinctis sparse hic illic impressis ; elytris remote tenuiter

punctatis, irregulariter strigosis, utrisque seriebus 10 (prima ab-

breviata) e punctis distantibus majoribus impressis.—Long. 6 lin.

Hab. Columbia. :

Doryphora lurida.

D. late oblonga, convexa, nitido-nigro-eenea; thorace elytrorum lati-

tudine, punctis magnis sparse hic illic fortiter impresso, punctis

ad latera subvariolosis; elytris rufo-fulvis, punctis magnis nigro-

eeneis irregulariter, prope suturam subseriatim, impressis, utrisque

fasciis tribus nigro-seneis, prima ante, secunda vix pone, tertiaque

pone medium positis, illa transversa extrorsum, his obliquis, minus

distinctis, utrinque abbreviatis.—Long. 8-9 lin.

Hab. Napo.

Doryphora amabihs.

-D. oblongo-ovata, convexa, nitido-fulva, antennarum apice fusco ;

Mr. J.8. Baly on new Phytophagous Insects. 57

capite thoraceque irregulariter punctatis, utrisque maculis quatuor

(in hoc transversim positis), elytrisque fusco-zeneis, his subseriatim

_ punctatis, limbo fulvo.—Long. 4 lin.

Hab. Amazons.

Doryphora miniata.

D. breviter ovata, convexa, obscure rufo-fulva; elytris striato-, disco

exteriori irregulariter-punctatis, fusco-zeneis, vitta submarginali,

vitta subsuturali postice, primee apice confluente, puncto subbasali

prope suturam, fasciaque brevi centrali, fulvis ; femoribus obsolete

fusco-eeneo-maculatis.—Long. 5 lin,

Hab. Peru.

Doryphora Stal.

Doryphora Bohemanni, Baly, Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond. vol. iv. n. s. p. 344,

~ 1858, nec Stal.

Doryphora pluviata.

Doryphora irrorata, Baly, Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond. vol. iv. n. s. p. 346, 1858,

nec Stal.

The names of the two preceding insects having been used by

Herr Stal in his recent paper on Doryphora, published at Stock-

holm in the same year, but several months previous to mine, I

am compelled to change them.

Doryphora Fryella, Baly.

Doryphora flavocincta, Baly, Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond. vol. iv. n. s. p. 347,

nec Guérin.

It also becomes necessary to alter the name of this species, it

having been made use of by Guérin in 1855.

Genus CryprosteTHa, Baly.

Cryptostetha suturalis.

C. oblongo-ovata, convexa, dorso prope medium obsolete gibbosa, ob-

scure zenea; thorace subopaco, lateribus rotundato, dorso sparse

hic illic fortiter punctato; elytris fortiter punctatis, punctis ad

latera irregulariter confluentibus, interstitiis elevatis, fulvis, sutura

(hac basi dilatata), margine laterali maculisque obscure seneis.—

Long. 6 lin.

Hab. Brazil.

Differently coloured, and the elytra more coarsely and deeply

punctured than Crypiostetha marmorata; also more convex.

Cryptostetha enea.

C. oblongo-ovata, convexa, dorso prope medium obsolete gibbosa,

viridi- ant ceeruleo-zenea, nitida, puncto frontali fulvo; thorace

subopaco, remote tenuissime punctato, basi margineque laterali

58 ‘Mr. J.8. Baly on new Phytophagous Insects.

rotundato, magis distincte punctatis; elytris subcrebre fortiter

punctatis, punctis aciculatis, interstitiis elevatis.—Long. 5}—6} lin.

Hab. Brazil. |

Cryptostetha rufipennis.

C. ovata, convexa, nigra, nitida, puncto frontali elytrisque testaceis,

his tenuiter subseriatim punctatis, punctis ad latera confusis, inter-

stitiis obsolete strigosis ; thorace longitudine duplo latiore, remote

tenuiter punctato, lateribus fere rectis, antice angustato-rotundatis.

—Long. 6 lin.

Hab. Brazil.

Genus EtytrospH2ara, Blanch.

Elytrosphera flavipennis, De}. MSS.

E. oblonga, convexa, nitido-purpurea ; thorace fortiter et irregulariter

punctato, punctis (preesertim ad latera) varioloso-confluentibus ;

elytris ovatis, valde convexis, fulvis, utrisque sulcis 11, primo ab-

breviato, horum singulis serie unica punctorum magnorum im-

pressis, interstitiis elevatis, convexis; abdomine subcrebre punc-

tato, segmento anali fulvo.—Long. 6-6 lin.

Hab. Brazil.

_ This common insect, although well known by collectors under

the above name, has not as yet been described.

Elytrosphera Dejeanii.

Z. oblongo-ovata, convexa, obscure metallico-viridis, nitida, abdo-

minis segmento anali elytrisque fulvis, his ovatis, convexis, utris-

que seriebus 11 e punctis magnis subremotis impressis, prima ab-

breviata ; thorace hie illic fortiter punctato.—Long. 4 lin,

Hab. Brazil.

Elytrosphera confusa.

E. oblonga, convexa, obscure nigro-zenea, nitida; elytris rufo-fulvis, —

ovatis, valde convexis, subseriatim, disco confuse punctato-sulcatis,

punctis fortiter impressis, zeneo-micantibus, interstitiis elevatis,

subtuberculatis ; thorace longitudine vix dimidio latiore, fortiter

punetato, punctis irregulariter confluentibus.—Long. 5-6 lin.

Hab. Brazil.

| Elytrosphera luridipennis.

E. oblonga, convexa, nigro-zenea, nitida; thorace longitudine fere

duplo latiore, lateribus hic illic sparse confluento-punctatis ; elytris

obscure rufis, oblongo-ovatis, convexis, fortiter subseriatim, apicem

versus confuse, punctatis, interstitiis subelevatis.—Long. 6 lin.

Hab. Brazil. :

Genus StrtopEs, Chevr. MSS.

Caput subdeclive, thoraci ad oculorum marginem insertum ; anten-

nis capite cum thorace vix longioribus, modice robustis, subfili-

Mr.J.S. Baly on new Phytophagous Insects. 59

formibus, ad apicem leniter compressis et incrassatis, articulo

primo inerassato, secundo brevi, tertio elongato, ceeteris inter se

eequalibus, perparum leniter incrassatis ; palpis mawillaribus leni-

ter compressis, clavatis, articulo penultimo obconico, ultimo vix

latiore, hoc brevi, transverso, apice truncato. Thoras transversus,

apice late emarginatus. lytra breviter ovata aut obovata, con-

vexa, thorace latiora, postice seepe paullo angustata. Pedes sim-

plices. Mesosternum transversum, obliquum. Corpus ovatum,

convexum. .

Type, Stilodes guttata, Baly.

Nearly allied in form to Chrysomela, but easily separated from

that genus by the different form of the maxillary palpi together

with the shorter antenne.

Stilodes guttata.

S. ovata, convexa, rufo-fulva, nitida, oculis mandibularumque apice

nigris; thorace longitudine fere triplo latiore, evidenter remote

punctato, punctis ad latera majoribus, valde impressis ; elytris

breviter ovatis, postice vix angustatis, convexis, utrisque lineis 11

e punctis impressis, harum prima abbreviata; maculis 8 fulvis

instructis, duabus basalibus, duabus ante medium oblique, duabus

pone medium transversim, duabusque apicem versus longitudina-

liter, positis.—Long. 4 lin.

Hab. Upper Amazons.

Stilodes obsoleta.

S. ovata, convexa, postice paullo angustata, nitido-rufo-fulva, anten-

nis extrorsum nigris ; thorace longitudine plus duplo latiore, remote

tenuiter, lateribus magis distincte punctato ; elytris seriatim punc-

tatis, utrisque maculis septem obsolete fulvis, duabus baseos,

duabus ante, duabus pone medium et una ante apicem, positis.—

Long. 4 lin.

Hab. Ega, Upper Amazons.

Narrower than the preceding species.

Stilodes fenestrata.

S. ovata, convexa, fulva, nitida; thorace subremote punctato, nigro,

lateribus fulvis; elytris breviter ovatis, postice paullo angustatis,

convexis, utrisque lineis 11 e punctis leniter impressis, harum

prima abbreviata, punctis in striis confuse dispositis ; plagis magnis

tribus superficiem fere amplectentibus, nigris, prima transversa

basi, secunda late transversa supra medium, tertiaque trigona api-

cem versus, positis, pleuris remote punctatis, nigris.—Long. 4 lin.

Hab, San Paulo, Upper Amazons.

Stilodes annuligera (Hrichs.).

Deuterocampta annuligera, Erichs. Consp. Ins. Peru. p. 157, 1847,

S. ovata, convexa, postice paullo angustata, fulvo-rufa, nitida ; thorace

60 Mr. J.S. Baly on new Phytophagous Insects.

disco subremote tenuiter, lateribus subvariolo-punctato ; elytris

seriatim punctatis, obscurioribus, utrisque annulis duobus magnis

linea longitudinali prope suturam connexis, prima basi, altera vix

ante apicem positis, fulvis.—Long. 3} lin.

Hab. Amazons.

Stilodes quadriguttata.

S. ovata, convexa, nitido-nigro-cyanea, antennarum basi fulva; tho-

race tenuiter punctato; elytris purpureis, regulariter seriatim

punctatis, utrisque maculis duabus, prima baseos obliqua, altera

ante apicem transversa, ad marginem exteriorem adfixa, fulvis.—

Long. 4 lin.

Hab. Amazons.

Stilodes scenica.

S. breviter ovata, convexa, obscure rufa; thorace seneo obsolete

micante, disco remote tenuiter, lateribus subcrebre magis distincte,

punctato ; elytris flavis, utrisque lineis 11 e punctis (harum prima

abbreviata) instructis ; sutura, vitta marginali antica maculisque

oblongis tribus vix infra basin ad paullo ultra medium triangula-

riter dispositis, obscure eeneis.— Long. 44 lin.

Hab. Brazil.

Stilodes histrio.

S. ovata, convexa, postice vix angustata, rufo-fulva, nitida; antennis

extrorsum nigris ; abdominis segmentorum margine, pleuris, tibi-

arum apice, et capitis thoracisque maculis, obscure seneis; elytris

regulariter seriatim punctatis, flavis, sutura antice, maculis duabus

baseos vittulisque obscure eeneis (vittulis interstitiis alternis_dis-

positis, fascias transversas duas formantibus) ; thorace basi lateri-

busque distincte punctato, maculis eeneis inter se confluentibus

seriebus duabus transversis dispositis.—Long. 4} lin.

Hab. Brazil. .

Stilodes cruciata.

S. ovata, convexa, nigro-eenea, nitida; antennis nigris, basi piceis ;

thorace longitudine plus duplo latiore, subremote punctato ; elytris

seriatim, disco exteriore confuse, punctatis, nitido-luteis, vitta

suturali apice dilatata fasciaque transversa prope medium nigris.

—Long. 34 lin.

Hab. Columbia.

Genus Lina, Megerle.

Lina Templeton.

L. breviter ovata, postice paullo ampliata, valde convexa, nitido-

cyanea, abdomine, pedibus capiteque seneo-micantibus, antennis

nigris ; thorace longitudine vix duplo latiore, utrinque foveolato,

disco obsolete, angulis posticis varioloso-punctato, lateribus sub-

incrassatis, postice sinuatis, antice ampliato-rotundatis; elytris

rufo-testaceis, thorace multo latioribus, valde inflatis, leevibus,

Mr.J.S. Baly on new Phytophagous Insects. 61

lateribus infra humeros leniter transversim excavatis.— Long.

5% lin.

Hab, Ceylon.

Closely allied to Lina Rayah, but easily distinguished from

that insect by its smaller size and perfectly smooth elytra. My

specimen has the elytra stained with numerous small rufo-piceous

points irregularly arranged in longitudinal striz; I think these

are only due to immersion of the insect in spirit.

Lina eneipennis.

I. ovata, postice paullo ampliata, convexa, nitido-testaceo-fulva,

antennis extrorsum nigris ; thorace longitudine duplo latiore, con-

vexo, obsolete foveolato, tenuiter punctato, lateribus a basi ad apicem

angustato-rotundatis; elytris viridi-zeneis, subcrebre punctatis,

punctis prope suturam obsolete subseriatim dispositis.—Long.

4} lin.

Hab. Northern China.

Genus GAsTROLINA.

Caput thoraci ad oculos insertum ; oculis ovato-rotundatis ; anten-

nis corporis dimidio brevioribus, subfiliformibus, ad apicem leniter

incrassatis, articulo primo obovato, incrassato, secundo brevi,

ceeteris oblongo-obovatis, tertio elongato, ultimo ovato; palpis

maxtllaribus subfiliformibus, articulo ultimo ovato. Thorax trans-

versus. Scutellum subtriangulare. Elytra thorace latiora, oblongo-

ovata, dorso complanata. Pedes simplices, unguibus apice subtus

bidentatis. dbddomen foeminee gravide valde distendum, ultra

marginem elytrorum extensum. Corpus oblongum, depressum.

Type, Gastrolina depressa, Baly.

Separated from Lina by its depressed form, and by the dis-

tended abdomen of the pregnant female. :

Gastrolina depressa.

G. oblonga, depressa, nitido-nigra, seneo-micans; abdominis late-

ribus thoraceque flavo-fulvis, hoc longitudine plus duplo latiore,

disco irregulariter impresso, tenuiter punctato, utrinque intra mar-

ginem longitudinaliter foveolato et crebre punctato, margine ipso

subincrassato, postice subrecto, antice leniter ampliato rotundato ;

elytris dorso complanatis, crebre confuse, prope suturam subse-

riatim, punctatis, utrisque sutura vittisque tribus subelevatis, ob-

scure cyaneis, margine incrassato nigro-eeneo.—Long. 34 lin.

Hab. Northern China.

[To be continued. |

62 Bibliographical Notice.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICE.

The Instructive Picture Book; or, a few attractive Lessons from the

Natural History of Animals. By Apam Wuire, Assistant Zoo-

logical Department, British Museum, &c. &c. Third Edition,

with many Illustrations by J. B. and others: Edinburgh: Ed-

monston and Douglas, 1859.

Tuts is no ordinary picture-book ; it is really and truly what it pro-

fesses to be—an Instructive Picture-book. Look, for instance, at

plate 11, at the picture of the Giraffe by J. B. The various attitudes

of the creatures there represented are exceedingly well done—tlife-

like—almost Wolf-like, if we may use the expression. Then turn to

p- 26 of the letter-press, and read the description of the ‘noble

creature with its finely waved neck, and its curious head with the

large languishing eye and dark eyelids.’’ The Brown Rat, too

(plate 7), is good, and the descriptive letter-press at p. 20 is full of

interesting information. Gloves, the author tells us, are made of

rats’ skins ; and we can, from personal knowledge, vouch for their

fine, soft texture and quality. The manufacture, we believe, is chiefly

in Paris, where rats are more abundant than they are in London.

In plate 12 we have the little Alderney Cow, and the intelligent and

inquisitive-looking West Highland Bull ; he is a good sample of the

ruminating animals ; and Mr. White’s description of him, of the little

Alderney, and the Cow in general, indeed, at p. 26, is well worthy of

a perusal. Many little bits of valuable information may be derived

from reading the descriptive letter-press, which we would strongly

advise the young, for whose use this book is so carefully got up, not

to skip over. Thus, in the description of plate 13, under the heading

“Fallow Deer,” p. 28, we read the following fact, which all may not be

acquainted with, and the explanation of it :—‘‘ When Deer drink,

they can plunge their heads into water almost up to the eyes; for,

besides the nostrils, they have two breathing-places, one at the corner

of each eye, which they can open at will: when they are hard run,

these spiracles, as they are called, assist them much in breathing.”

We may perhaps prefer the illustrations of the Quadrupeds in this

book to those of the Birds. Plate 17, however, the picture of the

Parrot race, is very striking; and Mr. White, at p. 33, is very happy

in his description of the species represented. So is he also at p. 43,

in describing the common Cock and Hen. Plate 25 and the Frontis-

piece, representing Sea-birds, are plates which will be sure to please

the young ; while the author’s description of them at p. 49, with his

recollections of the animated scenes of the Bass Rock and the Shet-

land Isles, cannot fail to arrest their attention and fix them upon

these interesting animals. |

Mr. White’s style of writing is very pleasing, and exceedingly well

adapted for young people. There are no tiresome descriptions of

animals ; but the minds of his juvenile readers are led as it were im-

perceptibly to a knowledge of the creatures figured in the plates,

and thus to take an interest in them. We would recommend him,

however, to avoid puns; for although his manner of conveying in-

Royal Society. 63

formation is playful and jocose, such as a child would like to read,

his puns are not good; nor are they such as his model, the late

Charles Lamb, would care to have attached to his name. Speaking,

for instance, of the Kangaroo, Mr. White says that the flying leaps

of the great Boomer Kangaroo were found to measure 15 feet, “ each

hop being as regular as if the ground had been stepped over by a

drill-sergeant. Charles Lamb,” he adds, ‘‘ would have called him a

hopeful subject”?! His language, too, in some places, is rather

ambiguous. The notice of the Green Lizard, for instance, is

very interesting—‘‘a harmless and very pretty creature, which

delights to bask in the sun, as if it wanted its cold blood warmed

with the genial rays; but we never knew before that this pretty

- little reptile could either admire, with a painter’s eye, a beautiful

landscape, or, like a skilful botanist or entomologist, collect plants

or insects !—and yet our author says, “ Jersey abounds im lizards ;

for I saw them nearly everywhere as I rested, admiring the views,

or picking up wild flowers and insects.’ Of course it was the

author who did so; but, from the allocation of the words, and the

punctuation, it appears as if it were the lizard that admired the pro-

spect and picked up the wild plants.

In his preface, Mr. White gives us to understand that this vo-

lume is to be followed by another, containing “‘some of the more

striking objects of Zoology.” We shall be glad to see him again.

From the title-page, it appears that this is the third edition of this

work. It deserves such encouragement; for it is carefully got up,

the descriptive letter-press contains much valuable imformation,

which even adults may enjoy and be improved by, and the illustra-

~ tions, which are generally upon a large scale, are sure to please the

young, and give a good idea of the most striking characteristics of

quadrupeds and the gay plumage of birds. At the end of the book

there is appended a scientific index and a kind of tabular arrange-

ment of great part of the animal kingdom. These must be very

useful both to the general reader and to the teacher or parent who

may use the book. To them and to all concerned in the education

of young people, we strongly recommend this “ Instructive Picture

Book.’

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.

ROYAL SOCIETY.

December 16, 1858.—Sir Benjamin C. Brodie, Bart., President, in

the Chair.

Description of a mutilated skull of a large Marsupial Carnivore

(Thylacoleo Carnifex, Ow.), from a conglomerate stratum, eighty

miles S.W. of Melbourne, Australia.” By Professor R. Owen,

F.R.S., &e.

In this paper the author gives a description of a fossil skull and

certain of the teeth of a quadruped of the size of a lion, in which he

64 Royal Society :—

points out the characters indicative of its carnivorous habits and of

its affinities to the marsupial order.

The large size of the temporal fossze, meeting to form a low crest

on the parietal bone, and bounded behind by a strong occipital crest ;

together with large carnassial teeth in both upper and lower jaws,

evince the carnivorous habits of the extinct species. Its marsupial

nature is, in the author’s opinion, demonstrated by the following

cranial structures :—A large vacuity in the bony palate; a propor-

tionally large lacrymal bone extending upon the face and perforated

by the lacrymal canal, anterior and external to the orbit; three ex-

ternal precondyloid foramina ; the perforation of the basisphenoid by

the entocarotid canal; the great interval between the foramen ovale

and foramen rotundum ; the separation of the tympanic from the

petrous bone; and the development of the ‘ bulla auditoria’ in the

alisphenoid ; the position of the outlet for a vein from the lateral

sinus behind and above the root of the zygoma ; finally, the low and

broad occiput, and the very small relative capacity of the brain-case.

In the marsupial order, the present large extinct Carnivore, for

which the author proposes the name of ‘ Thylacoleo* carnifex,’

is most nearly allied to the Dasyurus (Sarcophilus) ursinus ; but is

very different in its dentition from that and all existing Carnivora.

The fossils described were discovered by William Adeney, Esq., in

a calcareous conglomerate stratum in a hank of a lake situated 80

miles south-west of Melbourne, Australia.

January 13, 1859.—Sir Benjamin C. Brodie, Bart., President, in

the Chair.

* On the Embryology of Comatula rosacea (Linck).’? By Prof.

yology y

Wyville Thomson.

The author briefly described the male and female reproductive’

organs of Comatula. When the ova are mature, and before impreg-

nation, they are protruded and remain hanging from the ovarian

orifice, entangled in the areolar tissue of the everted ovary. In

this position impregnation appears usually to take place.

After segmentation of the yelk, a solid nucleus is formed in the

centre of the mulberry yelk-mass. This nucleus becomes invested

in a special membrane ; and into this embryonic mass the remainder

of the yelk is gradually absorbed. Ciliary motion is observed at

various points on the surface of the enclosed embryo, which finally

assumes its characteristic form. The young larva, on escaping from

the egg, consists of a homogeneous mass of pale-yellow granular

matter, with scattered nuclei, cells, and oil-globules. It is barrel-

shaped, and girded at intervals with about five broad ciliated bands.

As development proceeds, one of these belts becomes depressed at

a certain point ; and within the loop thus formed, an inversion of the

integument indicates the position of the rudimentary mouth.

A distinct cesophagus and stomach are rapidly differentiated, and

a short intestine, ending in a large anal orifice, near the posterior

* From OtAakos, a pouch; Néwv, a lion.

On the Anatomy of the Lamellibranchiata. 165

extremity of the animal. The larva at the same time becomes

lengthened and vermiform ; the girding ciliated bands resolve them-

selves into a single transverse band, encircling the body near the

anterior extremity, and a band passing below the mouth and longi-

tudinally down either side to the tail.

Large lobulated masses of fine granular tissue occupy the cavity

of the body on either side of the alimentary canal.

The echinoderm-zooid originates, apparently, beneath the integu-

ment of the larva, but perhaps in an inversion of that integument,

in the form of a rosette of cells encysted near the upper extremity

of the intestine. The rosette is at first single, but shortly takes the-

appearance of a double ring, the rings being united by a curved tube.

These rings seem to represent the rudiments of the ambulacral

vascular system of the echinoderm, and the curved tube the origin of

the alimentary canal. A dense coating of granular areolar tissue is

formed round the young crinoid, obscuring the further development

of the internal organs. The mode of its disengagement from the

larva was not observed. ,

Free from the locomotive larva, the echinoderm in its earliest stage

is a motionless, white, egg-like body, covered externally with a thick

transparent layer, which is traversed vertically by scattered fusiform

oil-cells.

Beneath this layer are seen rapidly-forming patches of the calcified

areolar tissue so characteristic of the class. The body becomes

club-shaped ; the narrow end attaches itself by cement-matter to some

foreign substance, and a head and stem are distinguished.

Two corresponding rows of five plates each (the dasalia, and the

first row of the interradialia) form a calcareous chalice round the

base of the head. Rudimentary arms now first make their appear-

ance, and the development of the attached pentacrinal form proceeds

steadily.

From his observations of several broods during the spring of 1858,

the author was led to believe that, under circumstances favourable

to the production of the pentacrinal stage, the development of the

larva may be arrested in any of its earlier stages, and before the

complete differentiation of its internal organs. It is hoped that the

observations of another season may solve this and other questions

which still remain somewhat obscure.

February 3, 1859.—Sir Benjamin C. Brodie, Bart., President, in

the Chair.

“On the Aquiferous and Oviductal Systems in the Lamellibran-

chiate Mollusks.”’ By George Rolleston, M.D., Lee’s Reader in

Anatomy, and Charles Robertson, Esq., Curator of the Museum,

Christ Church, Oxford.

In this paper the authors bring forward two views as to the ana-

tomy of the Lamellibranchiata.

1. The first part of the communication is devoted to an examina-

tion of the commonly-received opinion as to the outlet of the ovarian

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. iv.

66 Royal Society :—

system, and arguments are brought forward to show that the orifices

usually supposed to discharge this office are in reality the exhalant

orifices of a water-vascular system. The positive arguments drawn

from the way in which fine injections thrown in by these orifices

distribute themselves throughout the visceral mass, and from the

relative position of orifices acknowledged to belong to a water-vascu-

lar system in other mollusks, are confirmed by a consideration of

the improbability attaching to the old view, which regarded as ovi-

ducts in mollusca two canals, which lying one on either side of the

body, yet communicate freely with each other at no great distance

from their termination, and which lie far away from the lower seg-

ment of the intestinal tube. The inhalant aquiferous orifices are

considered to be indicated by a belt of parasitic animals impacted

in the foot tissue, as represented in one of the figures.

2. In the second part of the communication, the structures are

indicated which the authors hold to be the true oviducts. One

large band which is seen at the spawning season as a prominent

ridge projecting into the calibre of the lower segment of the intes-

tinal tube, and two smaller ones; which are traceable from the com-

mencement of the intestine down to a point where its upper coils

are in close proximity to that part of its lower segment where the

former band ends in a club-shaped dilatation, are shown to dis-

charge this function. The method of dissection to be adopted for

the Tenuianceabions of these structures is given at some length, and

the following arguments are adduced in support of the view which

regards them as oviducts. A fine injection thrown into the largest

of the bands in question is seen to pass into the ovary, and is re-

cognizable under the microscope as contained within the limitary

membrane of its ultimate follicles. Its distribution, therefore, as

detectable at once by the naked eye and by the microscope, con-

trasts strongly with that of a similar injection thrown in by either of

the aquiferous orifices. Secondly: The condition of distension,

prominence, and intumescence of this band, coincides with similar

conditions in the ovary; and from an acquaintance with the condi-

tion of the branchial marsupium’s contents we are enabled always to

predict what will be found to be that of this band. Thirdly: At

periods when ova are being rapidly secreted by the ovary, ova are

to be found at all points within the whole length of these three

bands. The double oviduct at the oral and the single at the anal

extremity of the Lamellibranchiata, is what our knowledge of their

development would lead us to anticipate ; and the close connexion of

the principal oviduct with that latter outlet, and with the lower

segment of the intestinal tube, brings the anatomy of these bivalve

mollusks into exact correspondence with that of higher tribes in the

same series.

What is said of the ovarian secretion and outlets, applies, mutatis

mutandis, to the testicular. |

Prof. Kolliker on the minute Structure of the Bones of Fishes. 67

February 24, 1859.—Sir Benjamin C. Brodie, Bart., President, in

the Chair.

“On the Different Types in the Microscopic Structure of the

Skeleton of Osseous Fishes.’ By A. Kolliker, Professor of Ana-

tomy and Physiology in the University of Wurzburg.

After having been occupied for several months with observations

on the minute structure of the bones of fishes, I now take the liberty

to present the results of my studies to the Royal Society.

The principal fact which I have to mention is, that a great many

genera of osseous fishes possess no bone-corpuscles, radiated or fusi-

Sorm, in their skeleton, and therefore no real osseous tissue. That

there exist fish-bones without bone-corpuscles must have been long

known in England to those who have collections of microscopic pre-

parations of the hard tissues of animals, as Owen, Tomes, Williamson,

Quekett, and others; but nobody seems to have mentioned the fact

before Williamson, Quekett, Dr. Mettenheimer of Frankfort, and

myself*. In the year 1850 Professor Williamson pointed out the

absence of bone-corpuscles from’ the bones of the Cod, Haddock,

Perch, Plaice, Pike, and various other fish, distinguishing them in

this respect from the bones of the Eel, in which such corpuscles are

abundant}; in 1853 I made known? that the bones of Leptocephalus

and Helmichthys contain no trace of bone-corpuscles ; a year later,

Mettenheimer showed that the same was true of the bones of T'etra-

gonurus Cuviert§; and in 1855 Quekett mentions, in the second

volume of the ‘ Histological Catalogue of the College of Surgeons of

England,’ fishes belonging to eighteen genera, in the bones of which

he had not succeeded in finding bone-corpuscles—viz. Vogmarus

tslandicus, Lophius piscatorius, Gadus morrhua, Ephippus, Sparus,

Trigla cuculus, Belone vulgaris, Pleuronectes platessa, Trachinus

vipera, Orthagoriscus mola, Exoceetus, Scarus, Esox, Sphyrena

barracuda, Tetrapturus, Zeus faber, Perca fluviatilis, Gobio fluria-

tilis. But, notwithstanding these most valuable observations, little

or no progress seems to have been made in the more general treat-

ment of this matter, as is best shown by the ‘Comparative Histology’

of Leydig (1857), in which (p. 157) the Leptocephalide, Tetrago-

nurus, and Orthagoriscus are the only cases mentioned, in which the

radiated bone-corpuscles are wanting.

On commencing a series of more extended investigations into the

minute structure of fish-bones, in October last, I found that the

genera which possess real osseous tissue are rather scarce, whilst,

* Since this communication was read to the Society, Dr. Sharpey has directed

my attention to a statement by the late Professor J. Miiller, to the effect that

in the Pike and many other fish the bones are destitute of bone-corpuscles.

This statement occurs in Miiller’s Annual Report of the progress of Anatomical

and Physiological Science in 1835, and is repeated in his addition to the work of

Miescher, “ De Inflammatione Ossium, eorumque Anatome Generali,” Berlin,

1836, p. 269.

+ Phil. Trans. 1851, p. 693. t Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool. iv. p. 361.

§ Anat.-histol. Untersuch. ii. d. Tetragonurus Cuvieri, in den Abh. d. Senken«

berg. Gesellschaft, i. p. 241, Be

68 Royal Society :—

on the other hand, I fell in with a great many types in which the

bones contained no trace of lacunze. And as this fact not only ap-

peared to me of interest with regard to the development of the bones

of fishes, but also promised to become of great value in systematic

zoology, and in the determination of fossil remains, 1 devoted my

whole time to’ this question. Now that I have investigated more

than 200 species belonging to nearly all tribes of osseous fishes, and

‘mounted about 500 microscopic preparations of their hard structures,

I hope to be able to treat this question more comprehensively than

has been possible hitherto, and in such a way as to lead to some

general conclusions.

In giving the results of my observations, I begin with an enumera-

tion of the fishes which belong to the one, and those which belong

to the other type. :

I. Fishes whose bones contain no bone-corpuscles.

Ordo I. ACANTHOPTERI.

Fam. 1. Percoidei.

Boops salpa.

Boops vulgaris.

Perca fluviatilis.

Apogon Rex mullorum.

Pomatomus telescopium.

Lucioperca sandra.

Serranus cabrilla.

Anthias buphthalmus.

Acerina vulgaris.

Centrarchus sparoides.

Priacanthus macrophthalmus.

Therapon servus.

Trachinus vipera.

Trachinus draco.

Uranoscopus scaber.

Pomotis gibbosus.

Polynemus paradiseus.

Sphyrezena spet.

Sphyreena barracuda.

Mullus barbatus.

Fam. 2. Cataphracti.

Trigla cuculus.

Trigla lyra.

Prionotus carolinus.

Platycephalus insidiator.

Dactyloptera volitans.

Cottus gobio.

Aspidophorus europezeus.

Monocentris japonicus.

Gasterosteus trachurus.

Fam. 3. Sparoidei incl. Menides,

Sargus annularis.

Sargus ovis,

Chrysophrys aurata.

Pagrus vulgaris.

Pagellus centrodontus.

Dentex vulgaris.

Smaris vulgaris.

Smaris insidiator.

Gerres Plumieri.

Fam. 4. Scienoidei.

Corvina nigra.

Corvina lobata.

Micropogon undulatus.

Otolithus regalis.

Heemulon formosum.

Pristipoma stridens.

Fam. 5. Labyrinthiformes.

Anabas scandens.

Helostoma Temminckii.

Ophicephalus striatus.

Trichopus trichopterus.

Polyacanthus Hasseltii.

Spirobranchus capensis.

Fam. 6. Mugiloidet.

Mugil cephalus.

Mugil, spec.

Atherina Humboldtii.

Atherina vulgaris.

Atherina macrophthalma,

Fam. 7. Notacanthini.

Mastacemblus pancalus.

Fam. 8. Scomberoidei.

Scomber scomber. -

Xiphias gladius.

Tetrapturus belone.

Naucrates ductor.

Lampugus pelagicus.

Prof. Kolliker on the minute Structure of the Bones of Fishes. 69

-Lampugus siculus.

Seriola, spec.

Chorinemus saltans.

Caranx trachurus.

Caranx carangus.

Centrolophus pompilus.

Lichia glauca.

Equula insidiatrix.

Argyreiosus vomer.

Vomer Brownii.

Zeus faber.

Capros aper.

Coryphena hippurus.

Astrodermus guttatus. .

Tetragonurus Cuvieri.

Fam. 9. Squamipennes.

Scatophagus argus.

Holacanthus, spec.

Toxotes jaculator.

Ephippus faber.

Fam. 10. Tenioidei.

Lepidopus argyreus.

Trichiurus haumela.

Trachypterus tzenia.

Trachypterus repandus, Costa.

Trachypterus Spinole.

Cepola rubescens.

Fam. 11. Gobioidei et Cyclopteri.

Gobius capito.

Gobius cruentatus.

Gobius longiradiatus, Risso.

Amblyopus Hermannianus.

Eleotris humeralis.

‘Tripauchen vagina.

Anarrhichas lupus.

_ Lepadogaster Gouani.

Echineis remora.

Fam. 12. Blennioidei.

Blennius gattorugine.

Blennius Montagui.

Blennius galerita.

Salarias quadricornis..

Cristiceps, spec.

Clinus argenteus.

Callionymus lacerta.

Fam. 13. Pedunculati.

Lophius piscatorius.

Chironectes histrio.

Malthe vespertilio.

Batrachus tau.

_ Fam. 14. Theutyes.

Naseus longicornis,

Acanthurus nigricans.

Amphacanthus javus.

Fam. 15. Fistulares.

Fistularia tabaccaria.

Fistularia immaculata.

Centriscus scolopax.

Aulostoma sinense.

Amphisile scutata.

Ordo II. ANACANTHINI, J. Mill.

Fam. 1. Gadoidei.

Gadus eglefinus.

Gadus morrhua.

Lota vulgaris.

Motella tricirrhata.

Lepidoleprus trachyrhynchus.

Fam. 2. Pleuronectides.

Rhombus maximus,

Rhombus podas.

Platessa flesus.

Plaguria, spec.

Achirus mollis.

Fam. 3. Ophidini. |

Ophidium barbatum.

Fierasfer imberbis.

Ammodytes tobianus.

Fam. 4. Leptocephalide, Bp.

Helmichthys punctatus.

Oxystomus hyalinus.

Leptocephalus pellucidus, Bp.

Hyoprorus messanensis, Koll.

Ordo III. PHARYNGOGNATHI, J.

Mill.

Fam. 1. Labroidet cycloidei.

Labrus variegatus.

Labrus scrofa.

Julis vulgaris.

Julis pavo.

Crenilabrus pavo.

Xirichthys novacula.

Scarus creticus.

Fam. 2. Labroidei ctenoidei.

Pomacentrus fuscus.

Dascyllus araucanus.

Heliases castaneus.

Glyphisodon rhati.

Fam. 3. Chromides.

Chromis nilotica.

Chromis surinamensis.

Chromis, spec.

Cichla Deppii.

70 : Royal Society :—

Fam. 4. Scomberesoces.

Belone vulgaris.

Belone caudimacula,

Tylosurus imperialis, Bp.

Sayris Camperi.

Hemirhamphus, spec.

Exoccetus exsiliens.

Ordo IV. Puysostomt, J. Mull.

. Fam, 1, Siluroidei.

Subfam. Eremophilini, Bp.

Trichomycterus punctulatus.

Fam. 4. Cyprinodontes.

Peecilia vivipara.

Anableps tetrophthalmus.

Cyprinodon calaritanus.

Molienesia latipinnis,

Orestias teeniatus.

Fundulus nigrescens.

Fam. 6. Esoces.

Esox vulgaris.

Umbra Krameri.

Fam. 7. Galaxie.

Galaxias truttaceus.

Fam. 9, Seopelini.

Saurus lacerta.

Myctophum elongatum, Bp.

Ichthyococcus Poweriz, Bp.

Gonostoma denudata, Raf.

Argyropelecus hemigymnus, Cocco.

Odontostoma Balbo.

Fam. 10. Chauliodontide, Bp.

Chauliodus setinotus, Schn.

Stomias barbatus, Risso.

Fam. 12. Heteropygii.

Amblyopsis spelzeus.

Fam. 15. Symbranchit.

Symbranchus marmoratus.

Symbranchus immaculatus.

Amphipnous cuchia.

Monopterus javanicus.

Ordo V. PLECTOGNATHI.

Fam. 1. Balistini.

Balistes capriscus.

Monacanthus geographicus.

‘Aluteres leevis.

Triacanthus brevirostris. .

Fam. 2. Ostraciontes.

Ostracion triqueter.

Fam. 3. Gymnodontes.

Diodon, spec. .

Tetraodon fahaca.

Tetraodon lineatus.

Orthagoriscus mola.

Ordo VI. LopHoBRANCHII.

Syngnathus typhle.

Hippocampus guttulatus.

Pegasus draco.

Ii. Fishes whose bones contain bone-corpuseles.

Subclassis I. Teleostei, J. Miill.

Ordo I. ACANTHOPTERI.

Fam. 8. Scomberoidei.

Thynnus vulgaris.

Thynnus alalonga.

Auxis bisus.

Ordo IV. PHysostTomt1.

Fam. 1. Siluroidei.

Silurus glanis.

Silurus bicirrhis.

Schilbe mystus.

Synodontis serratus.

Malapterurus electricus.

Malapterurus beninensis.

Heterobranchus anguillaris.

Chaca lophioides.

Plotosus unicolor,

Clarias fuscus.

Pimelodus, spec.

Arius, spec.

Bagrus, spec.

Callichthys, spec.

Loricaria cataphracta.

Auchenipterus furcatus.

Heteropneustes fossilis.

Aspredo leevis.

Fam. 2. Cyprinoidei.

Phoxinus levis.

Cobitis barbatula.

Aspius bipunctatus.

Alburnus lucidus,

Gobio fluviatilis.

Rhodius amarus.

Cyprinus earpio.

Abramis blicea.

Prof. Kolliker on the minute Structure of the Bones of Fishes. 71

Leuciscus rutilus.

Leuciscus tincella.

Tinca chrysitis.

Barbus vulgaris.

Barbus elongatus,

Barbus obtusirostris.

Barbus marginatus.

Chondrostoma risella, Ag,

Dangila lipocheila,

Labeo niloticus.

Catostomus, spec. *¥

Fam. 3. Characini.

Citharinus Geoffroyi.

Distichodus niloticus.

Hydrocyon Forskahlii.

Alestes dentex.

Tetragonopterus mexicanus.

Anodus cyprinoides,

Leporinus, spec.

Pacu teeniurus.

Pacu nigricans.

Erythrinus uniteniatus.

Macrodon trahira.

Piabuca bimaculata.

Gasteropelecus sternicla.

Chirodon, Girard, n. spec.

Brycon, Mill. Tr., n. spec.

Fam. 5. Mormyri.

Mormyrus bane.

Mormyrops anguilloides,

Mormyrus longipinnis.

Mormyrus oxyrhynchus.

Mormyrus cyprinoides.

Mormyrus, spec.

Fam. 8. Salmones.

Salmo salar.

Salmo trutta.

Argentina silur.

Fam, 11. Clupeini.

Clupea harengus.

Alosa vulgaris.

Alosa melanura.

Coilia Grayi.

Engraulis encrasicholus.

Engraulis Brownii.

Notopterus Pallasii.

Macrostoma angustidens, Risso.

Meletta thryssa.

Elops saurus.

Megalops cyprinoides.

Chatoessus cepedianus,

Chatoessus punctatus.

Gnathobolus mucronatus.

Chirocentrus dorab.

Pristigaster, spec.

Lutodeira chanos,

Butirmus macrocephalus.

Hyodon claudulus,

Heterotis niloticus.

Osteoglossum Vandellii.

Osteoglossum formosum.

Sudis gigas.

Alepocephalus rostratus.

Fam. 13. Murenoidei.

Anguilla vulgaris.

Conger myrus.

Ophisurus serpens.

Nettastoma melanura.

Sphagebranchus imberbis.

Fam. 14. Gymnotini,

Gymnotus electricus.

Carapus brachyurus,

Subclassis II. Ganoidei.

Ordo I. Houostet.

Fam. 1. Lepidosteini,

Lepidosteus platyrhynchus.

Fam. 2. Polypterini.

Polypterus bichir.

Fam. 3, Amide,

Amia, calva.

Ordo Il, CHonpDROSTEI.

Fam. 1. Acipenserini.

Acipenser nacarii.

Scaphyrhynchus Rafinesquil.

Fam. 2, Spatularia.

Spatularia folium.

Subclassis III. Dipnoi.

Fam. 1. Sirenoidei.

Lepidosiren annectens.

From these facts it follows that the osseous fishes, notwithstanding

their great number, are 6 sei in a very remarkable way into two

groups, as shown in the fo

lowing enumeration :-—

72 | _. Royal Society :—

Fishes with bone-corpuscles. Fishes without bone-corpuscles.

I. All the extensive and higher- I. All the numerous tribes of the

organized tribes of Physostoma, Acanthopteri, with the excep-

J. Mill. ; viz. the tion of the genus Thynnus.

Siluroidei (except Tricho- | J], All the Anacanthini, J. Miill.

myCtT Hs). III. The Ph hi, J. Mill

Cyprinoidei. . Lhe Pharyngognathi, J. Mull.

Characini. IV. Some smaller and lower-organ-

Mormyri. ized tribes of Physostomi, as the

Salmones. Cyprimodontes.

Clupeini. * Esoces.

Murenoidei. Galaxie.

Gymnotini. Scopelini. _

II, All the Ganoidei. Clinatiodanitny 2

TONY. Heteropygii.

III. The Strenoidez. Symbranchii,

IV. Of the Acanthopteri, only the | And of the Siluroids, only the genus

genus Thynnus, Cuv. Trichomycterus.

V. The Plectognathi.

VI. The Lophobranchi.

As there can be no doubt that most of the higher-organized fishes

are amongst those with bone-corpuscles, and as we know that amongst

the higher vertebrata, even the lowest, viz.. the Perennibranchiata,

possess real osseous tissue, it seems to follow that the peculiar dis-

tribution of real osseous tissue and of the ‘‘osteoid”’ structure, as

the osseous tissue without corpuscles may be called, has a deeper

signification. ‘This will be found by studying the development of

the bones in both groups ; and I hope to be able, before long, to pre-

sent to the Royal Society some new facts with regard to this matter

also; but in the mean time, until my observations are nore complete,

I must abstain from further explanation.

The facts exposed hitherto have had reference only to a great

and fundamental structural difference between two extensive groups

of osseous fishes.-- I may now add, that there exist also greater or

lesser structural discrepancies amongst the different tribes of each

group. But as this is not a suitable occasion for an exposition of

the details of this question; I will only say this much :.—In the higher

fishes, those with real osseous tissue, there exist differences, especially

with regard to the form and size of the bone-corpuscles ; and I hope

to be able to show that there are peculiar and tolerably well cha-

racterized types of them amongst the Ganoids, Siluroids, Salmonida,

Cyprinoids, Clupeini, &c. In the second group there are more

varieties. In some tribes the bones are quite structureless homo-

geneous masses, as in the Leptocephalide ; in others they have a

peculiar fibrous appearance, and consist of a singular mixture of

cartilage and osteoid structures, as Quekett first showed in the genera

Or thagoriscus and Lophius, to which I may add some Balistini ; but

in the great majority of the tribes of this group, the bones contain

peculiar ¢ubes more or less similar to those of dentine. If these

Prof. Kolliker on the minute Structure of the Bones of Fishes. 73

tubes are well developed, the bones acquire a structure which can

in no way be distinguished from that of dentine,—a fact, which also

did not escape the perspicacity of Quekett, who mentions its occur-

rence in the genus Fistularia, the Barracuda Pike (Sphyrena bar-

racuda), and the Gar-fish (Belone vulgaris). I found the same

structure in many other genera of this group, especially among the

Plectognathi, Pharyngognathi, Sparide, and Squamipennes ; but in

the greater number this. tubular structure is not so well developed,

and is intermingled with more structureless parts. Another fact

deserving of mention with regard to the bones of this group is, that

there very frequently occur also structures, formed by the agglomera-

tion of calcareous globules of different sizes, which resemble in a re-

markable degree the lower layers of common fish-scales.

My observations have also extended to the hard structures of the

skin of fishes, and of the rays of the fins; and I may say that in

general the same laws, which apply to the structure of the endo«

skeleton, hold good also for the exoskeleton. Evidence of this is

especially afforded by the fins, the rays of which, independently of

their hard or soft condition, contain bone-corpuscles in all the tribes

where the internal bones are provided with them, whilst in the other

case these rays are formed of a homogeneous osteoid substance or of

a tubular structure, which may also in some fishes, as Williamson

first showed in the Ostracionts, assume the structure of real dentine,

as in many Plectognaths (Triacanthus, Monacanthus, Aluteres,

Tetraodon, and others), and in certain Acanthopterygii (Equula,

Lphippus, Hemulon, Pristipoma, Scatophagus, Centrarchus). With

regard to the skin, we may at least go so far as to say that in no fish

whose endoskeleton is destitute of bone-corpuscles do they exist in

the hard structures of the skin; but, on the other hand, the tribes

which have real osseous tissue do not all present it also in the skin.

Scales or plates with bone-corpuscles are found amongst living

Ganoids, e. g. in Polypterus, Lepidosteus, and even Amia (in whose

scales J. Miller erroneously supposed them to be wanting), and also

in the Acipenserini and Spatularie ; they exist also in the fossil

Ganoids, as the excellent observations of Williamson have shown.

In many Ganoids, moreover, as Williamson and Quekett have

shown, the scales often contain dentinal tubes, or even portions of

real dentine (‘‘ Kosmine” of Williamson) amidst true bone. In

the scales of Lepidosiren, also, I find bone-corpuscles, but mostly fusi-

form, and only here and there having a simple stellate figure. Of

the other fishes which have bone-corpuscles in their skeleton, little

has hitherto been’ noted as to the coexistence of such corpuscles in

their scales, but I find it to prevail to a considerable extent among

them. The presence of bone-corpuscles has been long known, it is

true, in the larger scales of the “corselet’’ of Thynnus, also in the

dermal plates of certain Siluroids (Loricaria and Callichthys), and

was pointed out by J. Miiller in the scales of Sudis. Leydig, too,

states that true bone-corpuscles exist in the walls of the grooves and

semicanals upon the scales of the lateral line in certain Cyprinoids

(Carp, Tench, and Barbel). This statement I am able fully to con-

74: Royal Society :— —

firm, and to add the following genera in which I find the same thing

to occur ; viz.—Hydrocyon, Alepocephalus, Macrostoma, Risso, Pia-

buca, Serrasalmo, Xiphorhamphus, Tetragonurus, Salminus, Chal-

cinus, Pygocentrus, Labeo, and Catostomus. But, besides the

instance of Sudis and certain Siluroids above referred to, I find that

many other Physostomi have true bone-corpuscles in their scales ;

not only those of the lateral line, but all of them. From the results

of my examinations up to this time, which, however, on account of

the want of materials, are by no means complete, I am able to make

out the following list :—

1, CHARACINI,

Of this family I have had the means of examining nearly all the

genera, including forty-one species. .

Characini with bone-corpuscles in all their seales.

Anodus cyprinoides, Miill. Tr.

Anodus edentulus, Agass.

Anodus leucos, de Fil.

Schizodon fasciatus, Agass,

Chilodus punctatus, Mill. Tr;

Rhaphiodon (Cynodon) vulpinus,

Agass.

Leporinus fasciatus, Mill. Tr.

Leporinus elongatus, Val.

Citharinus latus, Khr.

Erythrinus uniteniatus, Spiz.

Erythrinus microcephalus, Agass.

Macrodon trahira, J. Mill.

Macrodon auritus, Val.

Pacu teniurus (Prochilodus teni-

urus, Vai.),

Pacu nigricans, Spiz.

Pacu lineatus, Vail.

Distichodus niloticus, Miill. Tr.

Alestes dentex, Mil. Tr.

Characini without bone-corpuseles in their scales.

*Hydrocion Forskahlii, Cuv.

*Piabuca bimaculata (Hyrtl. misit).

Gasteropelecus sternicla, Bi.

Gasteropelecus securis, de Fil.

Cheirodon Girard, noy. sp., de Fil.

Brycon faleatus, Mull. Tr.

Brycon, nov. sp., de Fil.

Serrasalmo rhombeus, Cuv.

*Serrasalmo marginatus, Val.

-Xiphorhamphus falcatus, Miill. Tr.

*Xiphorhamphus hepsetus, Mill. Tr.

Myletes rubripinnis, Mill. Tr.

Myletes rhomboidalis, Cuv.

Tetragonurus mexicanus, de Fil,

*Tetragonurus argenteus, Art.

*Tetragonurus maculatus, Mill. Tr.

*Salminus Orbignyanus, Val.

*Chalcinus Miilleri, de Fil.

Pygocentrus nigricans, Mill. Tr.

Epicyrtus gibbosus, Mill. Tr.

Piabucina erythrinoides, Val.

Exodon paradoxus, Mill. Tr.

Leporinus, spec.

With regard to the members of the second division, it is to be

observed, that probably in all of them the canals attached to the

scales of the lateral line are formed of true osseous tissue ; in those

marked with an asterisk I have found this by actual examination.

The Characini are thus divisible into two groups, according to the

nature of their scales; at the same time, these are not to be regarded

as natural divisions in other respects, and the less so as one and the

same genus, such as Leporinus, for example, may include species

which differ in the composition of their scales. The presence of

corpuscles, though connected partly with the size of the scales, does

not depend solely on this, for they may be wanting in large scales

Prof, Kélliker on the minute Structure of the Bones of Fishes. 75

(Hydrocyon, Chaleinus, Salminus), and present in small ones ( Anodus

edentulus, Chilodus).

2. Mormyri.

Mormyrus longipennis, Riipp. Mormyrus cyprinoides.

Mormyrus oxyrhynchus. Mormyrus, spec.

Mormyrus bane. Mormyrops anguillaris.

+ %) | 3. CLUPEINI.

Megalops cyprinoides. Butirinus macrocephalus.

Elops saurus, Hyodon claudulus.

Coilia Grayi. Osteoglossum Vandelii.

Notopterus Pallasii (corpuse. very Osteoglossum bicirrosum.

scanty). Heterotis niloticus.

The plates of the abdominal carina in many Clupeini are formed

throughout of true bone, but do not belong to the present category...

I am unable to find corpuscles in the scales of Lutodeira chanos,

Chatoessus punctatus and cepedianus, and Alosa vulgaris. In several

Cyprinoids (Labeo, Catastomus, Barbus), I have, in like manner,

failed to discover corpuscles in the scales proper; on the other hand,

I have found very distinct dentinal tubes in the scales of Barbus, at

their hinder part.

True osseous tissue will doubtless hereafter be found in the scales

of many other Physostomi which have it in their skeleton, but it is

not to be supposed that this will apply to all.

In the Physostomi, as in the Ganoids, the bone-corpuscles lie in

the lower stratum of the scale; still they are situated above the

fibrous layer, and immediately beneath the structureless layer, to

which in all scales I apply the name of ‘ ganoin-layer,’”’ inasmuch

as it has in all cases the same signification.

From the foregoing observations we are able to show still more

el id than could be done by J. Miller, that the scales of Ganoids

ave no peculiarity of structure to distinguish them from those of

the Teleostei, Nay, certain Ganoids, as Amia, have scales, which

in respect even of pliancy, rounded contour, and the surface-marking of

the ganoin-layer, agree with those of other fishes.

In reference to those fishes which want bone-corpuscles in their

skeleton, I have still to remark,—1, that the corpuscles are also inva-

riably wanting in the semicanals upon the scales of the lateral line ;

for what Leydig designates as rudimentary bone-corpuscles in the

Perch are in fact the tubules of the osteoid substance; 2, that

amongst the group of fishes in question, there are some which have

beautiful dentine in their skin-bones, e. g. Amphisile scutata and the

Ostracionts.

To the foregoing remarks on the microscopic structure of the hard

tissues of fishes, I may add, that there also exists a third group of

fishes, in which the endoskeleton is composed only of common carti-

lage, or of cartilage with depositions of earthy salts, viz. the Cyclo-

stomi and Selachii. None of these fishes, not even the Plagiostomi

and Chimera, possess real bone-cells in their hard parts ; for these

are formed only, as J. Miiller showed many years ago, by ossified

76 Royal Society.

cartilage, that is to say, cartilage-cells in an ossified matrix. Even

the hard spines of the fins and of the skin of these animals are not

real bone, but dentine, as was demonstrated long since by Agassiz

and Quekett.

If now we sum up all that has been said, we arrive at the following

conclusions :—

I. There exist three types of structure in the skeleton of fishes, viz. :

1. Type of the Selachii.

The skeleton is formed of cartilage or ossified cartilage.

Selachii, Cyclostomi.

2. Type of the Acanthopterygit.

The skeleton is formed of a homogeneous or tubular osteoid

substance, often of true dentine.

Teleostei (J. Miill.), with the exception of the greater

part of the Physostomi (J. Miill.). .

3. Type of the Ganoidet.

The skeleton is formed of real osseous tissue.

Most of the Physostomi, the Ganoidei, and Sirenoidei.

II. The exoskeleton follows in some respects the same laws as the

endoskeleton, and shows the following types :—

1. Ezoskeleton formed of a hamogencons and fibrous osteoid

substance.

Scales of the majority of the Teleostei.

2. Exoskeleton formed of dentine.

Spines of Selachii and scales of Plectognathi, and of Amphi-

sile, in part.

3. Exoskeleton formed of real bone; partly in association

with homogeneous osteoid substance (ganoin) and

dentinal tubes.

Scales of Ganoidei, of Lepidosiren, some Siluroidei, of Mor-

myri, many Characini and Clupeini, also of Thynnus.

In terminating this communication, I think it proper to mention

that the great liberality with which my friend Mr. Tomes of London,

and Professor Williamson of Manchester, put their large collections of

microscopic preparations of teeth, bones, and scales at my disposal,

proved of great assistance in my investigations, and, accordingly, I

am only fulfilling an agreeable duty in now publicly expressing my

obligations to them. Iam also greatly indebted to my friends Filippo

de Filippi of Turin and Henry Miller of Wiirzburg, also to Dr.

Hyrtl of Vienna, and Dr. Peters of Berlin, who supplied me with

many of the rarer Mediterranean and foreign fishes. But, in order

that my observations may yield the results which may not utrea-

sonably be expected from them, I need more aid; and as England

is the country in which not only the largest zoological collections of

fishes, but also the greatest number of microscopic preparations of

the hard tissues of recent and fossil animals, are to be found, I take.

Geological Society. tA

the liberty to ask the possessors -of such collections who may be

interested in this matter to favour me with such specimens as may

seem to them calculated to give to this series of observations the

greatest possible extension.

GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

April 20, 1859.—Major-General Portlock, V.P., in the Chair.

“On some Reptilian Remains from South Africa.” By Prof.

Owen, F.R.S., F.G.S.

Fam. Crocopiiia. Galesaurus planiceps, the Flat-headed Gale-

saur (from yah, polecat, cavpos, lizard), a genus and species founded

on an entire cranium and lower jaw. The skull in length less

than twice the breadth, much depressed, and flat above. Occipital

region sloping from above backward, divided by a high and sharp

ridge from the temporal fosse ; these are wide and rhomboidal ; orbits

small; nostril single and terminal. Dentition, 7. — Ce. ee

all the teeth close-set, except the intervals for the crowns of the

long canines when the mouth is closed. Canines of the shape and

proportions of those in Mustela and Viverra, without trace of pre-

paration of successors in the sockets; of quite mammalian character.

Incisors longish and slender, molars subcompressed ; both with simple

pointed crowns, of equal length, and undivided roots. Original

transmitted to the British Museum by Governor Sir George Grey,

K.C.B. From the sandstone rocks, Rhenosterberg.

Cynochampsa laniarius, the Dog-toothed Gavial (from ciwy, dog,

and yaya, Egyptian name for Crocodiles, applied by Wagner to

the Indian Gavial). This genus and species is founded on the

rostral end of the upper and lower jaws of a Crocodilian Reptile,

with a single terminal nostril, situated and shaped as in Teleosaurus,

and indicating similarly long and-slender jaws. Only the incisive

and canine parts of the dentition are preserved; but these closely

correspond with the same parts in Galesaurus, the incisors being

equal and close-set, of simple conical form, and the canines suddenly

contrasted by their large size. In shape they resemble closely the

,completely formed canines in Carnivorous Mammals. ‘There is no

trace of successional teeth. Original transmitted to the British

Museum by Governor Sir George Grey, K.C.B., from Rhenoster-

berg, South Africa.

Fam. Dicynopontia. Subgenus Ptychognathus, Ow. (xrvxos,

ridge, yva@os, jaw).—This subgenus is founded on four more or less

entire skulls, two retaining the lower jaw, referable to two species.

Ptychognathus declivis, Ow.—Plane of occiput meeting the upper

_ (fronto-parietal) plane at an acute angle, rising from below upward

and backward, as in the feline mammals; fronto-parietal plane

bounded by an anterior ridge, extending from one superorbital

process to the other; from this ridge the facial part of the skull

slopes downward in a straight line, slightly diverging from the

- parallel of the occipital plane; superoccipital: ridge much pro-

78 Geological Society :—

duced and notched in the middle; the occipital plane, owing to

the outward expansion of the mastoid plates, is the broadest

part of the skull, which quickly contracts forward to the ridged

beginnings of the alveoli of the ‘canine tusks; orbits oblong,

reniform, suggestive of the reptile having the power of turning the

eyeball, so as to look upward and backward as well as outward.

Remains of sclerotic plates. Nostrils divided by a broad, flat, upward

production of premaxillary, situated nearer the orbit than the

muzzle, smaller than in type Dicynodon; temporal fossz broader

than long, and with the outer border longest; palate with single

large oval vacuity, bounded by palato-pterygoid ridges; occipital

hypapophyses proportionally thicker than in Dicynodon tigriceps ;

no trace of median suture in parietal, which is perforated by a ‘ fora-

men parietale ;’ frontals divided by a median suture and supporting a

transverse pair of small tuberosities; anterior boundary-ridge of

vertex formed by the nasals and prefrontals, the outer surface of

both being divided into a horizontal and sloping facet ; lacrymal

bone extending from fore-part of orbit half an inch upon the face to

the nostril; premaxillary long and single, its median facial tract

flat, with a low median longitudinal ridge; maxillaries forming the

lower boundary of the nostrils, and uniting above with the pre-

frontal, lacrymal, and nasal bones, their outer surface divided by the

strong ridge suggesting the subgeneric name ; teeth of the upper

jaw restricted to the two canine tusks, the sockets of which descend

much below the edentulous alveolar border; lower jaw edentulous,

deep, and broad, with the fore-part of the symphysis produced and

bent up to meet the seemingly truncate end of the premaxillary,—a

character indicating, with the angular outline of the skull, the sub-

generic distinction.

Ptychognathus verticalis, —The skull of this species, repeating the

subgeneric characteristics of the foregoing, has the facial contour

descending almost vertically from, and at almost a right angle with,

the fronto-parietal plane. Orbits proportionally larger and more

fully oval. Ridged sockets of the canine tusks descending more

vertically from below the orbits. Originals transmitted to the

British Museum by Governor Sir George Grey, K.C.B., from Rhen-

osterberg, South Africa,

Subgenus Oudenodon, Bain’ (ovdeis, none, ‘Adoas. tooth).—The

skull in this subgenus presents the divided nostrils, the structure

and the rounded contours of that of the true Dicynodons ; also the

same form, relative size, and position of the orbits and nostrils;

but the zygomatic arches are more slender, straight, and long; and,

although there be an indication of an alveolar process of the supe-

rior maxillary, the lower part of which projects slightly beyond the

rest of the edentulous border of the jaw, it does not contain any

trace of a tooth, so that both jaws are edentulous,—a character which

had attracted the attention of their discoverer, Mr. Bain, who, in

indicating it, proposed the name Oudenodon.

It is permissible to. speculate on the possibility of these toothless

ynodontoids being, after the analogy of th Narwhals, the

Prof. Owen on Reptilian Remains from South Africa. 79

females; or of their being individuals which had lost their tusks

without power of replacing them, as the known structure of the true

Dicynodons indicates. But there are characters of the zygomatic

arches and temporal fosse which differentiate the toothless skulls

sufficiently to justify their provisional reference to a distinct subgenus.

Hyoid apparatus of Oudenodon.—Beneath one of the skulls,

and imbedded in the matrix between the mandibular rami, were the

following elements of the hyoid apparatus :—basi-hyal, cerato-hyals,

thyro-hyals (or hypo-branchials), cerato-branchials, and uro-hyal.

The cerato-hyals are long, subcompressed, expanded at both ends ;

the thyro-hyals shorter and more slender; the cerato-branchials

with a sigmoid flexure; the uro-hyal symmetrical, broad, flat, semi-

circular, with a production like a stem from the middle of the straight

anterior margin. This apparatus shows the complexity by which

the hyoid in Lizards and Chelonians differs from the hyoid in Cro-

codiles, and combines Chelonian with Lacertian characters. ‘T'rans-

mitted by Mr. Bain from South Africa. |

Dicynodon tigriceps.—Pelvis : ilium, ischium, and pubis coalesced

to form an ‘os innominatum,’ with the suture at the symphysis

obliterated. At least five sacral vertebree; the first with broad, —

thick, triangular, terminally expanded pleurapophyses. The strong,

straight, trihedral ilium overlies the above sacral rib, and extends

forward to overlie also the last long and slender rib of the free

trunk (thoracic) vertebre. There are nv lumbar vertebra.

Pubis very thick, strong, with a broad anterior convexity resem-

bling that of the Monitor in its internal perforation and external

‘apophysis; ischium receiving the abutment of the last two pairs of

sacral vertebre.

The form of the anterior aperture of the pelvis is oval, with the

sides broken by a slight angle at the middle, and the small end

encroached upon by the slight angular prominence of the symphysis

pubis. The long diameter is 11 inches (from the fore-end of the

first sacral vertebra), the transverse diameter is 10 inches. The fore-

half of this aperture is bounded by the first sacral vertebra exclusively,

at the middle by its centrum, at the sides by its ribs; the hind-half

of the aperture is bounded by the pubic bones. From the penulti-

mate sacral vertebra to the symphysis pubis it measures 5 inches.

The outlet of the pelvis is of a semielliptic form, 9 inches in

transverse, and 4 inches in the opposite diameter. Original trans-

mitted by Mr. Bain from East Brink River, South Africa.

Crocopitia(?). Genus Massospondylus, Ow. (Gr. pacowr,

longer; omdvdvdos, vertebra).—The author exhibited diagrams, and

pointed out the characters on which he had founded (in the Cata-

logue of Fossil Remains of the Museum of the College of Surgeons)

the genus Massospondylus, exemplified by the M. carinatus.

Genus Pachyspondylus, Ow. (Gr. raxvs, thick ; omdvdvdos; vers

tebra).—The fossils exemplifying this genus form part of the same

collection, obtained by Messrs. Orpen from sandstones of the Dra-

kenberg range of hills, South Africa, and presented to the College

of Surgeons.

MISCELLANEOUS.

Occurrence of Rhinolophus Hipposideros in Ireland.

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

Dublin, April 14, 1859.

GEeNTLEMEN,—Perhaps it may be of interest to state that the Lesser

Horse-shoe Bat (Rhinolophus Hipposideros) has been met with in

some numbers in a caye near the town of Ennis, county of Clare,

last month, by Mr. F. J. Foot. The cave is called Balliallia, and is

one of the numerous hollows that occur in the Carboniferous lime-

stone of that county and of Kerry, &c. The paper being the first

record of its discovery in Ireland was read by Professor Kmmahan at

a meeting of the Dublin Natural History Society, held on Friday

the Ist of April.

So few of the Bat tribe have hitherto been recorded in this country,

compared with those occurring in England, that a notice of it may

be interesting. Professor Bell has confirmed the correctness of the

species.

I am, Gentlemen, your most obedient Servant,

Saxicava rugosa a Byssus-spinner. By Davin RoBERTSON.

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

Glasgow, June 14, 1859.

GENTLEMEN,—I beg to offer the following observations in con-

firmation of Mr. West’s paper in the last Number of the ‘ Annals,’

as to Saxicava rugosa being a byssus-spinner.

Last year, in the month of March, I had a Sazicava rugosa

(length of shell 1,2, inch, breadth ;®ths of an inch), which span

freely, but in this instance did not use the byssus to secure a per-

manent attachment to any particular site and prevent a change of

position while ‘the continuity of the cord held good, as is the case

with the common: Mussel, but seemingly as a cable to fix and hold

fast by in its wanderings, with a power to give it out at pleasure.

On the 16th of March the animal was placed in a six-ounce wide-

mouthed vial. On the 17th it had attached two filaments to the

glass. On the 22nd it had shifted half an inch forward, and given

out as much cable as allowed the desired advance. At this stage it

fixed the cord to the glass, close by the shell, by two other short

filaments. On the 28th it moved still further forward, giving out

more cable, and again fixing it by more filaments, as before.

At that time, not being aware that the spinning-properties of

Saxicava rugosa were unknown to conchologists, and having no

other object’ in view than securing the byssus for the microscope and

the shell for my cabinet, my observations terminated.

| I am, Gentlemen, your obedient Servant,

Davin RoBertson,’

THE ANNALS

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[THIRD SERIES.]

No. 20. AUGUST 1859.

VII.—On the Laws of Evolution of the Organic World during

the Formation of the.Crust of the Earth. By H. G. Bronn*,

Unver the above title, Bronn has just published, in German,

his prize-essay sent to the Academy of Sciences of Paris. This

memoir was prepared in response to a question proposed in

1853 by that Academy, and referred to the concourse in 1854,

in the following form :—

* Study the laws of the distribution of fossil organic bodies in

the different sedimentary strata according to the order of super-

position :

* Discuss the question of their successive or simultaneous

appearance and disappearance :

“ Investigate the nature of the relations existing between the

present state of the organic kingdom and its former states.”

The Academy has indeed decided that Bronn’s important

work shall be printed; but, in accordance with the usages and

customs of that Institution, we shall still, no doubt, have to wait

some years to see the completion of its printing. Fortunately,

M. Bronn has indulged us with a German translation of his

memoir, which has the advantages over the original, in the first

place, of being published, and, in the second, of being augmented

by a multitude of notes, which place this work at the level of the

state of science in 1858. |

In place of making an analysis of this remarkable work, we

have thought it best to submit to our readers a complete trans-

* From “Untersuchungen iiber die Entwickelungsgesetze der organi-

schen Welt wahrend der Bildungszeit unserer Erdoberfliche.” Stuttgard,

1858. Translated by W. S. Dallas, F.L.S., from the Bibliothéque Universelle

de Sra 20th March, 1859, Archives des Sciences physiques et naturelles,

p. °

Amn. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. iv. 6

82 M. Bronn on the Laws of Evolution of the Organic World

lation of the last chapter, in which M. Bronn himself gives a

summary of the essential results at which he has arrived.

EK. CLaPAREDE.

I, Resulis of the investigations of M. Bronn with regard to the

distribution of fossil organisms in the natural series of sedi-

mentary strata.

The investigations contained in this work are a confirmation

of the laws resulting from the purely geological study of the

evolution of the crust of the earth in relation to the successive

appearance of organized beings. . They also bring to light certain

facts which do not immediately result from those laws, although

they are not in contradiction to them—facts which particularly

deserve attention.

First fundamental law.

1. Organisms have made their appearance, in the sequence of

time and in different localities, in conditions of type and number

which were in relation to the external conditions of existence,

2. The appearance of the two organized kingdoms was simul-

taneous, It dates almost immediately from the first Nep-

tunian deposits—that is to say, from an epoch when the central

heat must have still exercised a considerable influence upon the

surface of the globe. It was undoubtedly, from the first, the

business of the organisms of both kingdoms to maintain the

atmosphere in such a state that the proportions of oxygen and

carbonic acid might be as favourable as possible to their own

development, at least if we suppose that the chemical composition

of the atmosphere was already constant and independent of

other circumstances (vide 8). ,

3. The population of the surface of the earth was, originally,

very uniform in all latitudes. It is only towards the middle of

the tertiary period that we see the floras and faunas become

essentially differentiated aecording to zones,

4. Both as regards its constitution and number, the primitive

population of the surface of the earth corresponded with a hot

climate, of tropical nature, uniform throughout the year. This

results from the very fact that the climatic differences of the dif-

ferent zones were not manifested until a later period, in conse-

quence of a refrigeration starting from the polar regions.

5, All the successive modifications of the animal and vegetable

population of the surface of the globe have been effected by the

annihilation of the older species and the continual appearance of

new species, without there having ever been any gradual passage

from one species to another. :

6. The primitive types, whether animal or vegetable, were

_ during the Formation of the Crust of the Earth. 83

the most widely different of all from those of existing nature.

Some of them differed from the latter so much as to form sub-

classes or orders,—most of them at least generically. But in

proportion as, in the history of the earth, we approach the pre-

sent epoch, we observe a constantly increasing concordance of

the genera, or even, in certain cases, an identity of species with

our existing nature.

7. In all times there have existed faunas and floras topogra-

phically distinct, in consequence of differences of conditions in

the stations, by reason of the distribution of the seas and the

elevation of mountains. But in proportion as the evolution of

the surface of the earth multiplied and varied the conditions of

stations, in proportion as seas were divided, continents extended,

chains of mountains elongated, and summits elevated, we also

see a diversification of the organized types and of their mode

of grouping and association. Topographical faunas and floras

became more clearly defined; and in all cases the number of

species living together constantly became more considerable.

8. Amongst stations of remarkable nature, we must above all

indicate the immense marshes of Stigmaria in the carboniferous

epoch. Thanks to their long and numerous horizontal roots,

extended at the surface of the water, the Stigmarie appear in

course of time to have furnished a multitude of other plants with

the soil necessary for thew development. The latter on perishing

became buried in the marsh, and there, protected from the access

of air, became gradually converted into coal, only permittimg a

small number of fragments to decompose and become rotten at

the surface. It is thus that the accumulation of earbonized

substances could take place in a comparatively rapid manner

(nearly as in our peat-bogs), and the formation of very large

strata of coal consequently required a time perhaps less con-

siderable than is usually supposed. The alternations, repeated

hundreds of times, of strata of coal and sandstones or argil+

laceous shales, teach us that at that time a slow and gradual

sinking of the soil was taking place, during which the strata of

vegetable matter which had just been formed were covered

with mud and sand; then the soil rose again. These continual

sinkings mdicate the existence at this period of platonic* move-

ments of the erust of the earth, im consequence of which, abun-

dant emissions of carbonic acid might take place during a long

period, as we see at present im certain countries.

* It is, however, to be remarked, that such movements of the soil do

not neeessarily involve plutonie action. ‘The works of MM. Bischoff,

Volger, and others appear to show, on the contrary, that sinkings of this

nature must, in most cases, have a cause entirely Neptunian.—K. Cia-

PAREDE. | }

84. M.Bronn on the Laws of Evolution of the Organic World

- It was, then, the business of these marshy forests to seize upon

this carbonic acid and to fix its carbon at the bottom of the

waters. In fact, if all the carbon contained in the organic sub-

stances now deposited in the sedimentary strata in the form of

coal, bitumen, &c., had never existed in the atmosphere in the

form of carbonic acid, no animal or vegetable life would have

been possible. These coaly marshes of Stigmarie, with their pe-

euliar vegetation, seem to have reappeared here and there, when

sinkings of the soil, combined with emissions of carbonic acid,

again gave rise to similar conditions*.

9. Although the carbonic acid continually emitted was thus

incessantly and slowly eliminated by the Stigmaria-forests, it is

not the less probable that the cause of the depression of the

soil (elevation of temperature), the carbonic acid contained in

the air in greater proportion than at the present day, and the

great development of the marshes of Stigmarie all over the surface

of the globe, must have exercised a very great influence upon the

character of the rest of the vegetation. But these are effects

which it is no longer possible to analyse, nor to refer with cer-

tainty to their particular causes.

10. A multitude of plants and animals, especially more than

three-fourths of the terrestrial insects, birds, and mammals,

which, either with regard to their food or habitation, are ne-

cessarily connected with certain genera, or even certain species

of plants, could, of course, only appear after the latter. The

inferior plants and animals are often less intimately connected

with other organisms than others which are higher in the series.

11. The principal modifications which the external conditions

of existence of organisms had to undergo, consisted, undoubtedly,

in the division of the universal ocean into several seas, Mediter-

ranean basins and Caspian lakes,—in the emergence of islands

which increased in size, or even united with each other to form

continents,—in the elevation of mountain-chains, &c. In paral-

lelism with this transformation of the crust of the earth, the

organized world presented analogous modifications. The popula~

tion of the sea, at first entirely pelagic, became combined with a

littoral population, then with a terrestrial but exclusively coast

population, and lastly with continental populations, varying with

flat and mountainous countries. It is this series of phenomena

* This, as far as we know, is the first time that these different con-

ditions, such as the chemical composition of the air, depressions of the soil,

the marshes of Stigmarie, and the formation of coal, have been thus com-

bined with each other. This combination seems to us to be equally natural

and necessary; still we admit that this opinion would require to be better

supported, and that it may undergo some modifications. It is still too new

to allow us to develope it sufficiently ; perhaps we may do so hereafter.—

(Author’s note.)

during the Formation of the Crust of the Earth. 85

that we designate under the name of terripetal evolution. Either

by the successive sequence of organisms, or by the transformation

of their characters, even in cases in which the causes of transfor-

mation are unknown to us, this evolution is manifested to us as a

perfectly general law of development, which we call the ¢erripetal

law. As, in general, the inhabitants of coasts are characterized

by a higher degree of organization than the inhabitants of the

depths of the sea, and the inhabitants of the dry land by a

higher degree of organization than those of the waters, this law

is intimately connected with a progressive development. The

first terrestrial plants* (if we do not take into account the coals

of Portugal, the Silurian nature of which is doubtful) date from

the Devonian formation; the first amphibious animals make

their appearance in very small number at the same epoch}. The

first veritable inhabitants of the dry land, respiring air (insects)

and walking, make their appearance in the carboniferous forma-

tion. From this moment the number of terrestrial organisms

constantly increases, and finally predominates over that of the

marine organisms.

Second fundamental law.

12. Besides this first law, there evidently exists a positive and

independent law of creation, which manifests itself to us in the

simplicity and perfect order of all the simultaneous or successive

modifications of the organized world. The external conditions

of existence only permitted the investigation of the plan which

presided in the creation at each moment and in all the series of

time from a perfectly negative point of view. But this second .

law, thanks to its positive character, furnishes us with the means

of following the conducting clue with far more facility and con-

clusiveness than was permitted by the former, which is so com-

plex. Hence results, in the first place, the strict uniformity m

all the creation which existed simultaneously at each moment

upon the whole surface of the earth; hence the simultaneous

appearance and disappearance of genera and species in all regions

and under every zone; hence the constant equilibrium between

the plants and animals, the terrestrial and aquatic animals, the

Herbivora and Carnivora in each creation ; and all this realized far

more exactly than could have happened under the influence of

the external conditions of existence alone, which may certainly

_ destroy, but can produce nothing. The unfolding of the plan

* The earliest land-plants now known are those indicated by the Lyco-

podiaceous seed-vessels and fragments of woody tissue in the uppermost

Silurian beds.—Ep. Annals.

_ + Ifthe Telerpeton of Elgin be here referred to, we may remark that it

is very doubtful if this fossil be of Devonian age.—Ep. Annals,

~~ @

86 M.Bronn on the Laws of Evolution of the Organic World

of creation in the series of geological ages has taken place with

a perfect consequentiality and in a perfectly independent manner.

Systematic and progressive development, and the law which

governs it, are facts which can no longer be misconceived. Nevers

theless we must not represent this progressive development as

consisting in the primitive appearance of the Phytozoa alone,

which would be followed by the Actinozoa, then by the Malacozoa,

then by the Entomozoa, and finally by the Spondylozoa, each

class and each order being followed by the appearance of a class

or order occupying a higher place in the scale of organization.

In reality, the subkingdoms, for which the external conditions

of existence at the most ancient period were sufficient, made

their appearance simultaneously, or nearly so. These subking-

doms were represented by the classes and orders lowest in

organization—by pelagic, swimming forms, respiring air by

means of branchie. When, subsequently, the superior sub-

kingdoms were rapidly created one after the other, the classes

and orders which had first appeared were represented by types

gradually ascending. This is what we observe in many cases,

and in all the subkingdoms without exception, when we pass

them in review class by class and order by order, so as to prove

the period of their appearance and that of their culmination

(appearance of the higher plants, the bony fishes, the mammalia).

13. This plan of succession is nowhere more evident than in

the vegetable kingdom, in which we see several subkingdoms

appear at first and simultaneously, followed by the successive

appearance of the superior groups most nearly allied to them in

organization, and. which only attained their culmination subse-

quently. The perfectly natural consequence of this, was the com-

paratively far later appearance of the most highly organized groups

of plants—groups which surpass all the others in the number of

their genera and species; and yet, at least as far as we can now

judge, the external conditions of existence would have permitted

their appearance from the very first. It is not possible for us, now-

a-days, to ascertain any cause to which may have been due the

retardation of the appearance of the angiospermous Dicotyledons

until the cretaceous epoch*, except the law of progressive develop-

ment (at least unless we choose to assume that the emission of

carbonic acid in the ancient epochs may have opposed their

production).

14, The late appearance of the angiospermous Dicotyledons is

undoubtedly, of all causes, that which had the most importance

in retarding the appearance of most of the terrestrial animals,

such as the insects, birds, and mammalia. In all cases, the

* We must recollect that at least one angiosperm has been quoted from

the Coal-measures. See Lyell’s ‘ Manual,’ 1855, p. 374.—Ep. Annals. --

during the Formation of the Crust of the arth. ~— 87

Marine omnivorous and carnivorous types, and, amongst the

genera or the orders belonging to these classes, those which

feed upon Cryptogamia and Gymnospermia, were able to exist

at a mote ancient period. Amongst the multitude of animals

which live at the expense of the angiospermous Dicotyledons,

there is, moreover, a great quantity which are dependent upon

one ariother; thus the carnivorous Vertebrata, the coprophagous

or parasitic Insects, &¢., could only make their appearance after

certain other animals.

15. Progressive development does not consist only in the faet

that new aiid more perfect types became added to the inferior

types which existed before, but also in the cireumstance that

these latter decreased in importance from their point of cul-

mination, and finally became entirely extinct. As 4 matter of

‘course, certain types appeared from the first with their maximum.

‘We consequently find simultaneously in each subkingdom, and

éven in each class of organized beings, typés in course of develop-

‘ment arid others in course of diminution. The types which have

‘a tendency to disappear are inferior types in regard to their

organization or to the terripetal series (for example the Cepha-

lopoda). The types which go on multiplying, on the contrary,

‘occupy a higher place in one or other of these points of view.

‘The groups which tend thus to replace each other are generally

met with in the mesolithic period ; but sometimes also they are

‘separated by a longer or shorter interval. Besides, there exist

groups of organisms of which the numerical development re-

Mains nearly the same through all periods. These are, for the

most. part, inferior orders or suborders, composed, perhaps, some-

times of two groups tending to replace each other.

' 16. All the great phenomena relating to the order of ap-

pearance of the different subdivisions of the organized kingdom

result from the laws which we have here developed, and which

may be summed up as follows :—a, adaptation to external con-

ditions; 8, terripetal movement; c, progressive development,

that is to say, the successive appearance of forms with more and

more complicated organization. The apparition of all these

subdivisions is subordinated to these laws, with the exception of

certain groups of secondary importance (suborders or families).

‘Among these few and unimportant exceptions we may cite the

late appearance of certain groups of Teleostian fishes, the pre-

mature appearance of certain terrestrial Reptiles (Thecodont and

Acrodont Juacertians) which preceded the aquatic Saurians

-(Nexipoda and Emydosauria); and the rapid extinction of the

Dinosautia, with so high an organization, at the moment of the

“appearance of Mnrttialia But these facts are so isolated, that

* As Dinosaurian reptiles occur in the Trias aud the Lias, and as small

88 M. Bronn on the Laws of Evolution of the Organic Worla

they can only be regarded as exceptionstotherule. It is never-

theless true that if, in these considerations, we choose to descend

to the families of least importance, we shall see these exceptions

become multiplied. But although the laws which we have

just enumerated have, without the least doubt, presided over

the creation, we are far from pretending that they are as

mathematically absolute (excepting, of course, the negative and

decisive effects of the law of external conditions of existence) as

the law of universal attraction, the law of affinity, or any other

law which admits of no exception. Moreover we do not yet

know what rule the Creator himself has adopted for the deter-

mination of the systematic order of creatures.

17. A great number of phenomena certainly appear to fulfil

the law of the successive development of series of organisms

answering to embryonal types, such as has been formulated by

M. Agassiz. Nevertheless the different characters presented by

organisms resulting from the metamorphosis of an embryonal

type are not all signs of a gradual perfecting. They are varia-

tions upon a single theme of organization, upon a single funda-

mental idea. . ; .

18. All the phenomena which we deduce from the law of

adaptation to the external circumstances of existence, from the

law of terripetal evolution, and from that of progressive develop-

ment, show us a regular progress from the commencement to

the close of geological epochs. Nevertheless there are two

moments which, from their importance, stand out by themselves

upon this uniform course of the history of the earth—one ter-

minating the paleolithic, and the other immediately preceding

the cenolithic period. The former corresponds with the extinction

of the marshes of Stigmaria: this extinction involved the cessa-

tion of peculiar and very general phenomena on the surface of

the earth, which were intimately connected with the existence

of these singular bogs; it also involved the disappearance of a

great number of paleolithic types. The second corresponds

with the disappearance of Ammonites and Belemnites,—the first

appearance, at all events on aconsiderable scale, of angiocar‘pous

Dicotyledons, of the Teleostian fishes, of Birds inhabiting trees,

and lastly of Mammalia. By this means, the multiplication of ©

the number of genera and species received a fresh impulse.

From this moment date the first traces of a differentiation of

climates corresponding with the different zones of the terrestrial

globe.

mammals are found so low down as in the Trias, the co-existence of these

forms, until the extinction of the Dinosaurs in the Cretaceous era, would

appear to have extended over a long period of time,—contrary to the opinion

expressed by the author.—Ep. Annals. .

during the Formation of the Crust of the Earth, 89

II. Results of investigations regarding the gradation or simulta-

neousness of the appearance and disappearance of organized

beings.

The results at which we have arrived, with regard to the gra-

dual or simultaneous extinction of all the organisms of a single

epoch, may be summed up in the following manner :—

1. The creation of new species and the disappearance of older

types went on continuously, with the exception of slight oscil-

lations, without being restricted to certain periods of creation,

although it is easy to imagine that certain geological events may

have, here and there, induced the simultaneous extinction of a

larger or smaller number of species.

2. The duration of existence has been very variable, according

to the species. Certain specific types have endured 2, 3, 4, or 5

times as long as others, so that some even existed only during a

small fraction of the time necessary for the production of a for-

mation in the geological sense of the word, whilst others survived

the deposition of two or three formations, or evenmore. These

phenomena might take place only at a certain point of the sur-

face of the globe, and not present themselves elsewhere.

3. There are, consequently, no definite formations in the

palzeolithic sense of the word, no definite creations, no successive

and well-marked floras or faunas, any more than there exists

any formation which simultaneously maintains the same minera-

logical characters, the same thickness, and the same lithological

and paleontological characters in all parts of the world.

4. A geological formation, or a geological flora or fauna, is

the totality of the sedimentary strata which have been formed

upon the whole earth during a certain space of time, or the

totality of the animals and plants which have lived during that

space of time. It is of little consequence here, whether the

lithological character, the thickness, and the limits of demar-

cation of these strata have been uniform over all the surface of

the globe, or have varied in different places, assuming here one

aspect, there another; it is of little consequence whether the

various species of organisms belonging to this epoch may have

lived from its commencement to its termination, only endured

for a portion of this time, or passed the limits assigned to this

formation.

5. When the deposition of identical strata, according with an

identical and constant state of the sea, continued longer in one

country than in another, the population of this sea and the

organic remains of this population might exist there longer

without undergoing modification.

6. When an identical state of the sea reappeared during the

90 Mr..W. H. Benson on the Shell and Animal of Hybocystis.

deposition of an. immediately consecutive formation, or after a

longer or shorter interval during which other formations might

be deposited, the same marine population might reappear in the

same locality and give rise to identical organic débris, enclosed

in superior strata. Thus are formed what are termed colonies in

Geology. It is probable, however, that this phenomenon could

only present itself when the same species had continued to live

in the interval, perhaps execedingly reduced in number, in some

other locality. We have nevertheless shown how it may happen

that remains of perfectly identical species may pass into rocks

of a fiature quite different, and deposited by very different

seas. )

7. There probably exist no formations immediately superposed

upon each other, no consecutive faunas and floras, without cer-

tain organisms being common to both. The number of common

species may vary between 0-01 and 0°10.

8. When, however, in certain localities there have been sudden

inovements of the soil, heating of the crust of the earth, emissions

of sulphurous vapours, carbonic acid, or other injurious gases,

long interruptions in the formation of deposits, upheavals of

strata, &c., it most frequently happens that the passage of species

from one stratum to another is more rare than when the deposits

have been formed regularly and without any interruption.

9. The average absolute duration of organisms was sufficiently

long to give us no reason for astonishment at the important

differences presented by species in this respect, although the

history of these species is often told us only by strata of but

slight thickness, so that it often happens that we regard as

simultaneous, phenomena which have been separated by long

periods of time.

[To be continued. ]

VIII.— Observations on the Shell and Animal of Hybocystis, a

new genus of Cyclostomide, based on Megalomastoma gravidum

and Otopoma Blennus, B.; with Notes on other living Shells

from India and Burmah. By W. H. Brunson, Esq.

Dr. Preirrer has divided the genus Megalomastoma into three

sections :—1st, Hainesia, which he considers to be possibly distinct

generically ; 2nd, Farcimen, Troschel; and, 3rd, Megalomastoma

proper. In the first section, characterized by its oval aperture,

angular above, he places the Siamese M@. Myersi, Haines, MM,

croceum, Sow., and M. bifasciatum, Sow. The operculum is un-

known. In Farcimen he has included my Burmese M. gravidum,

together with other species provided with the normal thin cor-

Mr. W. H. Benson on the Shell and Animal of Wyhoeystis. 91

neous operculum of Megalomastoma, but distinguished by the

thickness of the circular peristome from the typical forms.

I am indebted to Capt. Haughton, late magistrate of Moulmein,

for two specimens of M. gravidum, each with the operculum in

situ. Its nature and construétion at once announced that the

separation of the form from Megalomastoma was absolutely

necessary. The thick calcareous shield is many-whorled exter-

nally, and peculiarly convoluted on the inner surface. The

generic term “ Hybocystis’”? has reference to the form of the

typical shell. |

A comparison with the thin, similarly convoluted operculum

of Otopoma Blennus, B., from the same locality, induced a sus-

picion that the latter shell was merely the young of Hyhocystis

gravida, notwithstanding the abrupt termination of the last

whorl of that part in O. Blennus ; and finding, on forcibly with-

drawing an operculum, that the foot, head, tentacula, and eyes

adhering to it were quite fresh and moist, and evidently in a

living state, and the operculum of one of the specimens of Hyd.

gravida opposing even greater resistance to the attempts made

to separate it, | took measures for the re-animation of the ani-

mal, as well as of other specimens of O. Blennus; and, in spite

of the apparent emptiness of the whorls, with the exception of a

small portion near the aperture, I succeeded in making the

animals of both forms move about freely, when their absolute

identity in colour and conformation placed the fact of their

being the adult and young of the same species beyond a doubt.

The form of the now obsolete species, O. Blennus, coincides with

that of the spire of Hybocystis gravida before it assumes its

lengthened and distorted phase.

In treating H. gravida as the type of a new genus, I have been

guided by the following considerations, in addition to the struc-

ture and substance of the operculum. The character assigned to

Hainesia, Pfr., viz. the oval mouth, angulate above (as recorded in

the ‘ Mal. Blatter’ for 1856, and partly copied in the ‘Monogra-

phia Pneum.’ Supp. 1858), would at once exclude from that sec-

tion or genus the Moulmein shell, even if any of the three species

included in it, in consequence of possessing that sole feature in

common, should be found to be provided with a calcareous oper-

culum. I doubt whether the two West Indian forms in the

section will present opercula formed on the same type as that of

the Siamese shell with which Dr. Pfeiffer has associated them ;

but as the diagnosis of the section is quite inapplicable to the

Burmese species, I have no hesitation in conferring on the latter

a distinct generic appellation. If eventually M. Myers should

exhibit an opereulum similar to that of Hybocystis, it will neces-

sarily have to drop its connexion with Hainesia, the name of

92 Mr. W. H. Benson on the Shell and Animal of Hybocystis.

which must then be restricted to the other species presenting

oval peristomes as their title to distinction under that term,

whether sectional or generic.

Hysocystis, nobis, nov. gen.

Testa distorte ovata; anfractus penultimus antice supra aperturam

planatus; apertura (species typicee) circularis, callum internum

superne sinuatum, a peristomate interiore sulco profunde excavato

divisum, exhibens.

Operculum testaceum, crassum, extus concaviusculum, plurispiratum,

anfraetibus sensim accrescentibus, ultimo extus eetate sensim

attenuato, junioris abrupte desinente, intus 14-spiratum, epider-

mide cornea nitida vestitum, medio foveato-umbonatum, anfractu

ultimo elevato priores partim celante.

In H. gravida the animal is pale; the foot short and oval,

slightly pointed posteriorly, the sole plane and entire; the

muzzle short, and emarginate in front and centre, the lateral

lobes short and rounded; tentacula ringed, grey, moderate, and

subulate ; eyes black, on a pale prominence or tubercle at the

outer base of the tentacula, and sessile on the head, not on the

side of the tentacula. The operculum is carried towards the

right side, and nearly at the extremity of the foot. <A bright

reddish organ occupies the lingual region internally.

The examination of living specimens of Otopoma clausum,

Sow., from Kattiwar, enables me to contrast the animal of that

shell with Hybocystis. In O. clausum the foot is moderate in

length, and composed of two long, narrow, parallel soles sepa-

rated by a deep sulcus, and having also a deep sinus between

them at either end. The muzzle is greatly elongated, emargi-

nate im front; and the lateral lobes are capable of considerable

extension. The tentacula are moderate, hyaline, ringed, tumid,

and obtuse at the extremity. The eyes are prominent on the

outer side of the tentacula near their base, not sessile on the

head.

On communicating to Mr. Theobald a remark on the peculiar

sole of this animal, he stated that he had noticed it, and that its

use was to enable the species to cling to the thin stems of the

branches of the shrub which it frequented near the shore of

Gopnath Pomt, on the Gulf of Cambay. The leaves which he

forwarded were kindly examined for me by Sir. W. J. Hooker,

and were pronounced to be those of Grewia betulifolia, DeCand.,

an inhabitant also of Arabia, whence Sowerby’s type specimens

of O. clausum were procured.

The head of a young Hybocystis was forwarded to Mr. Wood-

ward, for examination of the lingual teeth, on the 14th inst.

Mr. W. H. Benson on some Tenasserim. Mollusca. 93

When viewed in conjunction with the external characters of the

animal and the form of the shell, they will eventually serve to

give an accurate idea of the relations of the genus with the rest

of the family.

I have four other Moulmein shells living—Pupina artata, B.,

Helix Achatina, Gray, Helix pylaica, B., and Rhaphaulus Chry-

salis, Pfr. The three former creep about briskly, and have

allowed their form to be ascertained. The retiring habits of Rha-

phaulus, which shelters itself under leaves, and obstinately refuses

to expose itself while under observation, withdrawing quickly

into its shell when uncovered, have hitherto prevented me from

making a description of it. Helix Achatina and pylaica differ

widely in their animals. Specimens of the former having pro-

duced, on the 28rd and 26th inst., a single young shell with

several whorls, and measuring 6 millimetres in diameter, I am

disposed to set the species down as ovoviviparous, no previous

deposit of an ovum having been observed on either occasion.

The young ones are as agile and fearless as their parents.

The rapidity of our steam-communication*with tropical cli-

mates, and the knowledge that even land-shells provided with

opercula, and to all appearance empty, may be reanimated,

ought to stimulate our collectors, in the West as well as in the

Kast, to transmit freshly-taken specimens to Europe for exami-

nation. In 1853, specimens of Cyclophorus Indicus, Desh., from

Bombay, reached me in a living state, after a voyage of four

months round the Cape; and one of the specimens of Otopoma

clausum, which I examined a year ago, is still living, although

in a torpid condition. The arrival of Camptonyx from Kattiwar

is also a case worthy of remembrance.

Since writing the above, Rhaphaulus Chrysalis has moved about

sufficiently to allow its main points to be ascertained.

Cheltenham, June 29th, 1859.

IX.—WNotes on the Animals of Rhaphaulus Chrysalis, Pupina

artata, Otopoma clausum, Helix Achatina, and H. pylaica.

By W. H. Benson, Esq.

In the account of Hybocystis gravida, mention was made of

several other Tenasserim species of Mollusca found alive among

the shells procured for me by Captains Sankey and Haughton

at Moulmein. A few notes on their external characters will

prove acceptable to conchologists.

94 Mr. W. H. Benson on the Animals of .

‘Rhaphaulus Chrysalis, Pfr.

Foot oblong, rounded anteriorly, narrowed posteriorly, and

rounded at the extremity; muzzle short, declivous, rounded at

the front, not emarginate nor lobed; tentacula somewhat short,

slightly ringed, pointed at the summits and then slightly tumid,

colour a pale einnabar-red; eyes small, jet-black, situated on

tubercles, which are on the head, and joined to the outer base

of the tentacula. The foot is greyish white, the sole pale, the

muzzle a pale reddish buff-colour,

_ The operculum, which is carried centrally on the hinder part

of the foot, about midway between the shell and the tail, is

capable of being withdrawn beyond the internal opening of the

sutural tube, although ordinarily closing the aperture.

There is no organ to be seen corresponding with the internal

sutural tube, the animal in this respect exhibiting a similarity

to that of Pterocyclos, which, as described by me in 1836, pos-

sesses no soft parts calculated to fill the anomalous portions of —

the shell near the aperture.

Operculum very thin, horny, concave externally, consisting of

63 concave volutions with a varnished surface. :

For the single living specimen of this shell I am indebted to

Capt. R. H. Sankey, by whom it was taken in January. It

remained closed in its shell until the 27th of June, when it

began to yield slowly to the means employed to revive it, finally

moving about and creeping freely under an inverted glass. |

Pupina artata, B,

Foot oblong, the sole bemg somewhat truncate im front and

slightly angled at each side anteriorly, hinder extremity nar-

rowed and pointed; muzzle declivous, entire; tentacula short,

subulate, and swollen all round at the base; eyes black and

prominent, situated on the hinder and external part of the basal

swelling.

The operculum is rather thick, horny, rounded at the thickened

edge, and consists of 41-5 concave whorls divided by a raised

edge. The inner surface has the umbonal region a little

elevated.

In my first description of the shell I stated that the operculum

was calcareous, with few whorls. Dr, Pfeiffer, who had the spe-

cimen before him, made no alteration in the description, but

observed that my characters were abnormal. The paucity of

whorls was intended to be comparative with reference to the

allied genus Megalomastoma. On taking out the opereulum of ~

that specimen, its substanee appears evidently to be horny; but

neither in this species, nor in-the Khasia P. imbricifera, which

some Species of Tenasserim Mollusca... — 95

has a still thicker horny operculum, with a very prominent

umbo internally, can it be said to answer. Pfeiffer’s generic de-

scription of membranaceous.” |

-'The animal was easily revived in two specimens with the

operculum received from Capt.. Haughton, and began at once to

move about freely and fearlessly. No organ corresponding with

the slits at the upper or lower part of the aperture can. be

detected.

Otopoma clausum, Sow.

A description of the animal, with its singular double sole,

has been. given in the paper on Hybacystis. The operculum is

normal, It may be observed that, unlike Hybocystis, Pupina,

and Rhaphaulus, the eyes are situated on the side of the tenta-

cula, as it were on the upper end of a short pedicle, soldered to

and forming one with the tentaculum, much in the same manner

as in the genus Paludina, |

It is also worthy of remark that, by holding Rhaphaulus Chry-

salis and Otepoma clausum for a few minutes in the hand, and

thereby imparting warmth to the animals, they were induced to

come out and exhibit themselves. The latter shell had been

shut up for a year, and had left Kattiwar eighteen months pre-

viously. During several days it had scarcely ventured to do

more than raise the operculum, so as to expose a portion of

the foot. Rhaphaulus was so timid, that on being stirred, or

even examined through a lens, it shut itself up, but came out

boldly when held for a short time between the fingers, and, on

being set down, commenced creeping about. The absence of

sufficient warmth has apparently much to do with the shyness

observable in some cases.

Helix Achatina, Gray.

Five specimens, taken near Moulmein by Capt. R. H. Sankey,

in January, were found to be living,

The sole is oblong, rounded at each end, and pallid. The

head, neck, and tentacula are blackish; the upper pair of tenta-

cula long and slender towards the ocular points, the lower ones

very short. There is no mucous pore near the hinder extremity,

The animal, as remarked in a previous paper, is probably

ovoviviparous, two young and active specimens, with 34 whorls,

having been produced, one of them four, the other seven days

after the parents had been revived.

Helix pylaica, B.

Three living specimens, taken by Capt. Sankey, were examined.

The foot is long and narrow (20 millimetres by 2) ; the upper

96 Mr.J. Gould on four new species of Humming-birds.

tentacula long, and blackish like the back of the neck; the

lower tentacula short.

There is a raised, tubercular, mucous? pore above and near

the extremity of the foot, not lengthened and overhanging as

in Nanina? (Macrochlamys, B., 1832) vitrinoides. A black

excrementitious-looking matter is generally found in on orl-

fice of the pore. The animal is active, and not easily alarmed.

The narrow form of the foot bears the necessary relation to the

curious linear aperture of the shell. Have the North American

ne of Tridopsis the mucous pore and a similarly narrow

oot ?

It will be interesting to know, also, whether the Cingalese

forms associated with Helix Achatina under Ophiogyra, Pfr.,

such as H. Rivolit, &c., are ovoviviparous.

Cheltenham, July 4th, 1859,

X.—Descriptions of four new Species of Humming-birds from

Mexico. By Joun Goutxp, Esq., F.R.S. &e.

To the Editors of the Annals and Magazine of Natural History.

7 20 Broad Street, Golden Square, W.,

GENTLEMEN, July 13, 1859.

I send you herewith, for insertion in the next Number of your

Magazine, descriptions of four new species of Mexican Humming-

birds, for the first of which I am indebted to the researches of

M. Rafael Montes d’Oca, and for the three others to M. Adolphe

Boucarthrough the kindness of M. Sallé.

I am, Gentlemen,

Your very obedient Servant,

JoHN GouLp.

Amazilia Ocai.

Crown, sides of the head, throat, and breast glittering grass-

green, with a few of the white bases of the feathers showing

on the centre of the throat; back of the neck and upper part

of the back deep green; upper and under wing-coverts, flanks,

lower part of the back, upper tail-coverts and tail greenish

bronze; under surface of the base of outer tail-feathers red-

dish buff; wings purplish brown; base of the secondaries

reddish buff; abdomen pale brown; under tail-coverts light

bronze margined with white; bill black, lighter beneath ; feet

brown.

Total length 4 inches; bill $; wing 24; tail 12.

Habitat. Xalapa, in Southern Mexico.

Remark. This species cannot be confounded with any other

Mr. J. Gould on four new species of Humming-birds. 97

member of the genus Amazilia; it is about the size of A. Rief-

feri, and has a splendid glittering green crown. I have named

this bird in honour of M. Rafael Montes d’Oca, who has exerted

himself to make us acquainted with the productions of Southern

Mexico, perhaps to a greater extent than any other person,

Calothorax pulchra.

Male. Throat-gorget fine deep metallic lilaceous purple; head,

upper surface, wing-coverts, and flanks green; wings purplish

brown ; tail brownish black; breast and centre of the abdomen

white ; bill black; feet dark brown. :

Total length 24 inches; bill 3; wing 12; tail 1,3,.

Female. Head dull greyish brown; upper surface bronzy

green; throat and under surface buff; wings purplish brown ;

two centre tail-feathers green, the next on each side green tipped

with black, the remainder rusty red at the base and white at the

tip, the intervening space being black.

Halitat. Oaxaca, in Western Mexico.

Remark. Allied to C. cyanopogon, but differs in the much

smaller size of the gorget and in the greater breadth of the

outer tail-feathers.

Cyanomyia violiceps.

Male. Crown of the head deep violet-blue ; all the upper sur-

face and wing-coverts olive-green; wings purplish brown; tail

deep greenish bronze; all the under surface white; bill black ;

under mandible rather lighter; feet blackish brown.

Total length 44 inches; bill 1; wing 23; tail 13.

Female or young. Crown ashy brown; upper surface olive-

green, each feather margined with greyish olive; tail-coverts

and tail coppery bronze, tipped with greyish olive; under sur-

face white, stained with rusty red on the flanks.

Habitat. Oaxaca, in Western Mexico.

Remark. This is a very distinct species, about the size of C.

quadricolor, from which it differs in having a black bill and

in its violet-coloured crown.

Cyanomyia? sordida.

Male. Head and under surface greyish brown; behind the

eye a white spot; all the upper surface and the sides of the

neck bronzy green; wings purplish brown; tail dark greenish

bronze, approaching to black on the base of the under surface ;

under tail-coverts very pale brown, with lighter edges; the bill

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. iv. 7

98 . Mr.H.J. Carter on Microscopic Filaride.

appears to have been flesh-colour for Zths of its base, and dark

at the tip.

Total length 44 inches; bill 1; wing 2}; tail 18.

Female. Similar, but paler in colour.

Habitat. Oaxaca, in Western Mexico.

Remark. Although I have but little doubt that I have assigned

this bird to its natural. place, it is with some degree of hesitation

that I haye included it in the genus Cyanomyia: its sordid,

smoky arty style of colouring renders it very distinct from eyery

other,

XI,—On Dracunculus and Microscopic Filavide in the Island of

Bombay. By H. J. Carrur, Esq., Bombay.

[Concluded from p. 44.]

Observations.—Those who have given their attention to the

subject cannot fail to see that these worms belong to Ehrenberg’s

Anguillula, out of which Dujardin has formed his genus Rhab-

ditts, which is closely allied to our microscopic Filaridg, as the

following characters of this genus will show :—

“ Body filiform, narrowed at the ends; mouth terminal,

round, naked; anus subterminal; tail of the male either naked

or furnished with a membrane (winged); a double spiculum ;

tail of the female conical, acute. The mouth is succeeded by an

oblong cayity (pharynx), which is furnished with two or three

longitudinal bacilla, and is distinct from the cesophagus, which

is muscular and fusiform or cylindrical; stomach top-shaped

or spherical, furnished with a kind of dental armature. The

tail of the female is frequently prolonged into a fine point. The

uterus is bifid, and the vulva situated near the posterior third

of the body*.”

Descriptive, however, as this is of the worms to which we

have been giving our attention, yet it will not suit them in all

respects. Some have papille about the mouth, others have ten-

tacula or cirrhi attached to the head, and others have neither,

The mouth in some is simple and suctorial, while in others it is

armed with an exsertile proboscis, which appears to be but a

continuation of the oesophagus; others, again, have eyes; and

probably many other differences will: present themselves on a

more extended examination of their species, which promise to

be as numerous as all those of the Nematoid Entozoa put toge-

ther, if we assume that the latter are derived from the former.

Hence it is desirable not to begin to group until many more of

* Micrograph. Dict., Griffith-and Henfrey, p. 34.

‘Mr. H.J. Carter on Microscopic Filavide. 99

them have become known; and therefore the generic name of

“ Urolabes*,” which I have employed, should only be viewed as

provisional. It has been chosen from the striking habit which

all these worms have of attaching themselves to some object by

the tail, whether it be by embracing it or by adhering to its

surface. Hence the tail would appear to be both prehensile and

adhesive, if not suctorial. Having once fixed themselves in this

way, they keep up an undulating movement from the tail for-

wards, which, in the absence of any evident purpose, seems

more for respiration than anything else. They can also, when

once attached to any soft substance, hold on until they wriggle

themselves into its interior, either for concealment or in search

of food ; and this peculiarity is not more striking in the micro-

scopic Filaride than it is in the young Filaria Medinensis.

heir especial habitat is more in the midst of the gelatinous

Algze, Oscillatoria, Gleocapsa, &e., than in any other place,

where they not only meet with gelatine, starch, and oil for food,

but frequently with a nitrogenous product in the shape of pro-

toplasm, which is liberated from the decomposition of the vege-

table cells with which such Alge are generally associated ; and

they abound in such matter not only in the fresh- and salt-

water accumulations about the island of Bombay, but every-

where during the “rains; so that probably there are many

which only come into life and breed, like some of the Naidina,

during this part of the year.

The males and females may be generally found together

where the species is plentiful; but this is frequently not the

ease, which, together with their microscopic size and constant

motion under examination, or while they retain the least life,

renders them very difficult to study, and requires an amount

of time which very few have at their disposal to bestow upon

them. Hence I have thought it better not to withhold the de-

scriptions of those which follow Urolabes palustris because they

are not equally detailed, but to offer them for publication so far

as they go, that they may be completed by others, and thus the

time that has already been spent upon them not altogether lost.

A knowledge of the external parts and the whole of the ali-

mentary canal is easily obtained; and the anus and vulva have

been assumed to be ventral in all, from analogy, as there is no

other means, from their roundness and minuteness, of deter-

mining this in any other way: but many individuals are required

before the form of the generative organs ean be figured cor-

rectly, as these have to be pressed out before they can be seen ;

and, under such rough treatment, it is only one here and there

_ ® From odpa, cauda, and AdBe, prehendo. ©

100 Mr. H. J. Carter on Microscopic Filaride.

that affords a part of these organs distinctly, and none of them

the whole at once.

In some instances, where the vulva is placed very far back,

the generative organs can hardly be assumed to be symmetrical,

as there is no room for an equal development of the posterior

half.

In some, again, the ova undergo segmentation to such an

extent before being laid, that the young worm is perfectly

formed; but I have met with no instances in which it has left

the egg while in the interior, so as to make the species vivipa-

rous; while in other species segmentation does not commence

until the ovum has been discharged, as in Urolabes palustris.

Where I have had an opportunity of tracing the development

of the embryo, as in Urolabes erythrops, the yelk has undergone

the common duplicative subdivision already well known to take

place in the ovum of Ascaris,—the divisions being widely sepa-

rated at first, and then gradually becoming more approximated

as the segmentation increases, until the whole is again brought

together, as in the first instance, and the formation of the new

being is commenced.

The breeding-season of Urolabes palustris appears to com-

mence in January or February, and is all over by the beginning

of May; at least, in this month, and during the “rains,” I

have never met with any females with eggs in them. That of

the salt-water species also appears to be chiefly in the spring;

while that of the species which only appear during the “ rains ”

is of course confined to this period.

Among the generic characters given by Dujardin to Rhabditis,

the narrow rigid tube, which appears to me to be the cesophagus,

is not mentioned, and the muscular sheath which I have de-

scribed is viewed alone as the oesophagus. Now, as before

stated, the former appears to me to be the cesophagus, for this

reason, that in Urolabes palustris, which is typical of all the rest

in this respect, I have seen oil-globules (the food) come out of

the pointed extremity of the cesophagus after its exsertion under

pressure, while no food ever appears outside this or in the mus-

cular sheath, and the narrow tube which is continued backwards

from the sharp point is the only part which is in continuation

with the intestine (Pl. Il. fig. 11 A, &c.). Again, if the “ top-

shaped stomach” of Dujardin be that globular portion which

appears just about the union of the intestine with the cesophagus

in Ascaris vermicularis, called also by Blanchard “ ventricle or

stomach*,” such a portion does not exist in all the Filaride

that I have figured; and where it does, the constriction which

forms this globular dilatation is in the sheath of the intestine

* Ann, des Sc, nat. t. xi. pl. 7. fig. 3d (1849).

Mr. H.J. Carter on Microscopic Filaride. 101

(which latter may be seen passing through it), and has nothing

to do with the calibre of the alimentary canal (figs. 29,30). It

is at this point that the cesophagus joins the intestine, after

which the latter continues of the same diameter throughout the

body, or until it meets the rectum. Not having Dujardin’s

‘ Histoire d’Helminthes,’ nor indeed any of the standard works

on the subject, I state this with much diffidence, and can only

vouch for the truth of what I have seen myself in this respect,

and which will be found delineated in the illustrations. It is

not improbable that the first part of the intestine may be a little

larger than the rest ; but, if so, the difference is so slight that it

could only be appreciated if the whole canal were seen at once,

which it cannot be, as the magnifying power which is required

to bring the intestine into view will only admit a small portion

of the worm into the field at the same time.

Formerly I stated that in the microscopic Filaride the he-

patic oil-globules were secreted, in part at least, by the peritoneal

hning of the muscular coat ; but latterly I have found that there

is a distinct peritoneal membrane over those which surround the

intestine, thus cutting them off entirely from the peritoneal

cavity. It is to this membrane that I have applied the term of

‘intestinal sheath ;” and so firmly are the globules held between

it and the intestine, that, even after the whole is forced out of

the body by pressure, the oil-globules do not escape until the

intestine and its sheath are torn across, when they gradually

flow forth from between the two individually, and not enclosed

in cells, as those round the intestine of the Naidina, which

are so easily pressed off into the peritoneal cavity, that there

does not appear to be any membrane at all between them and

this cavity in these worms. When, however, we go to the pos-

terior portion of the intestine in Urolabes palustris (fig. 11 m),

which is uncovered by the hepatic layer (or, at least, where the

oil-globules are very scantily present), there they are no doubt

grouped in cells, as they are seen in the Naidina, and, what is

more, leave the intestine under pressure, and move off into the

peritoneal cavity. What becomes of the lines of oil-globules on

the peritoneal surface of the muscular coat, I have not been able

to determine,—that is, whether they have any connexion with

the hepatic layer, or are merely fatty accumulations.

Dujardin also applies the term “ bifid uterus” to the female

organs of generation; but as there is no placenta, I prefer the

term oviduct or fallopian tube for the lower parts, and so on

upwards, as described under Urolabes palustris. No doubt the

uterus and the fallopian tube here are in one, and the ovary and

ovisac also; but while it is desirable to apply the term “ ovary”

to the whole in the higher animals, it is equally desirable not

102 Mr. H, J. Carter on Microscopie Filaride.

to make any division of the oviduct in the lower ones, but to

eall it after that part to which it comes nearest in the higher

animals, viz. the “fallopian tube.”

These wornis, again, are too small to present any traces of a

vascular or nervous system,—at least I have not been able to

detect either in Urolabes palustris; nor have I been able to

ascertain how their respiratory functions are performed, beyond

the rhythmical influx and expulsion of water observed to take

place in the posterior uncovered part of the intestine (fig. 11 m),

through the anal orifice and rectum, as before stated. That this

takes place in the Naidina, and is produced there by the cilia

which cover the posterior part of the intestine, I have, smce my

paper on the “Spermatology of Nais fusca” was published *,

been able to determine. In trying to account for the direction

in which the cilia lming the tube of the “ segmental organ”

carried its contents, I observed that as these (viz. the feecal con-

tents in the posterior part of the intestine in the same Nats)

passed towards the anus, and thus against the direction of the

cilia, so the divection of the cilia being outwards, or in the oppo-

site direction, in the “‘ segmental organ” should indicate an in-

ward current through this organ,—that is, that the force of the

cilia was opposite to their apparent movement}. But since

then, I have, by placing some indigo in the water with another

species of Nais, observed that it was taken into the rectum and

some way up it, where it kept oscillating between the peristaltic

motion of the intestine and the cilia, until some fecal matter

arrived, when, by a forcible movement of the former, the whole

was expelled, and the indigo began to pass in again as before.

Thus the current of these cilia was satisfactorily proved to be in

the direction in which the cilia appeared to move; and the direc-

tion of the movement of the cilia of the segmental organ bemg

outwards, would indicate an outward current in this organ, I

mention this more particularly to clear up the difficulty I then

had in speculating upon the probable function of the segmental

organ. Now in Urolabes palustris there is nothing approaching

to a contracting vesicle or “segmental organ” in any part of

the body, and no evidence of water-respiration beyond that

which I have stated. That an aérating function of this kind is

performed. by the posterior part of the alimentary canal of the

Naidina, is proved not only by what I have stated to occur in

the Nais on which the experiment of the indigo was made, and

by the existence of cilia on the posterior part of the intestine of

Nais fusca, but by the fact that in another species, like, if not

the same with Nais digitata, Gmel.{, which is common in Bom-

* Annals, vol. xix. p. 20. t Id. vol. xix. p. 28.

{ Encyelop. Méth. t. i. pl. 53. figs. 12-18.

Mr. H. J. Carter on Microscopic Filaridee. 103

bay, the mucous membrane of the rectum is prolapsed as it were

into an expanded floral or digitated form, which is covered with

cilia in constant and active motion.

-. Comparison of Filaria Medinensis with Urolabes palustris.

On comparing Milaria Medinensis with Urolabes palustris, it

must now be evident that they both belong to the same family,

if not to the same gents. }

Thus, extetnally the form is the samé,—that is, both are

equal in size for a long extent, and then diminish towards the

extremities*. The mouth atid antis are the same as regards

position. There aré two evident papille on the head it each ;

but with the mouth they do not bear the same proportion to

the body in both, for reasons which will be more evident by-and-

by. There is no vaginal orifice or vulva in Filaria Medinensis,

while there is one in Urolabes. Lastly, the tail is curled up and

abortive, compared with the development of the body in the

adult of F'. Medinensis,—though the opposite is the case with its

young oné, where it is more like that of Urolabes palustris, and

especially that of the young of this species.

In both, the integument is transparent, tough, apparently

structureless, and lined by a muscular layer, which presents a

number of oil-globulés on its surface and a patch of sarcoid

glanduliform prolongations in the vicinity of each extremity.

In U. palustris, however, it is not corrugated or striated trans-

versely, nor is it evidently so in the adult F. Medinensis.

The alimentary canal is the same—that is, it consists in each

of a narrow cesophagus followed by a much wider intestine, which

pursues a straight course through the body, except where it is

displaced by the generative organs, to end in a short narrow

rectum ; but it differs in the rectum being without evident anal

orifice, if there be any at all in Filaria Medinensis. Again, in

both, the cesophagus and intestine are surrounded by their pro-

per peritoneal sheaths, defined by a constriction opposite their

point of union, while the former is also surrounded by a mus-

cular sheath, and the intestine by the hepatic organ up to within

a short distance of the rectum; the latter is seen more distinctly

in the young F. Medinensis (figs. 6 f and 7 f & c).

Lastly, the organs of generation are cylindrical and double

in each—that is to say, the ovisa¢ with its terminal ovarian

tubes, in Filaria Medinensis, by being symmetrical, would form

* This diminution is much more abrupt in the illustrations than it is

naturally ; this is merely in consequence of using a ruler instead of the

hand alone for the outline, that this might have no irregularities, The

diminution always commences a little behmd the union of the esophagus

and intestine, and alittle in advance of the anus for each end respectively.

104 Mr. H. J. Carter on Microscopic Filaride.

two parallel halves if cut in two in the centre; but at the same

time, the ovisac being continuous, uniform in size, and without

constriction or projection throughout (fig. 2), besides extending

with the ovarian tubes from one end of the body to the other,

the whole differs very considerably from the organs of genera-

tion of Urolabes palustris, which only occupy the middle half,

are inflected upon themselves, present a line of demarcation

between the ovary and ovisac and the fallopian tube, and a con-

striction in the latter where it unites with its fellow to form the

vagina (fig. 8).

Such are the identities and differences between Filaria Med-

nensis and Urolabes palustris. We have now to consider how

far the latter are real, or the result of the circumstances under

which Filaria Medinensis is developed,—that is, compelled to

receive support from the surrounding tissues of that part of the

human body in which it may be situated, and to retain the

whole of its progeny until they are all equally and sufficiently

developed for delivery.

Undoubtedly the shrunken state of the alimentary canal

throughout, together with the insignificant development of the

parts about the mouth, to which I have already alluded, and the

apparent obliteration of the anus in the adult Filarta Medinensis,

compared with the enormous development of the tegumentary

and muscular systems, and that of the organs of generation,

indicate that the former has not only not kept pace with the

latter, but that it has hardly been called into action at all for

the development of the organs of generation, &c.; and this is

further confirmed by the fact that the head of the adult Filaria,

always projecting first and perishing, obliterates the mouth, and

thus leaves the rest of the body to be nourished and kept alive

(which it is, with all the remaining part of the progeny, up to

the last inch) through its surface, which nourishment must

come from the tissues of the body, and still further by the pre-

sence of delicate filaments of cellular tissue adherent to the body

of those worms which are extracted by surgical operation before

they have begun to protrude of themselves. For the same

reason, viz. the want of use, probably arises the diminutive and

inflected state of the tail, fixed also to the body by an adven-

titious membrane ; while the instinctive power which presides

over the development of the body generally, knowing that a

vaginal orifice for impregnation and the exit of the ova would

not be required, seems to have arrested the form of the organs

of generation at that point where they consisted merely of a

cylindrical sac with ovaries, though it allowed the increase in

size of these to go on up to that degree which would be sufii-

cient to accommodate the whole of the progeny.

Mr. H.J. Carter on Microscopic Filaride. 105

Hence the differences between Filaria Medinensis and Uro-

labes palustris do not appear to be real, but modifications of the

former to meet the circumstances under which its development

takes place; and this appears still more evident when we com-

pare the young F’. Medinensis with Urolabes ; for here the former,

although without the organs of generation, still has the elon-

gated straight tail and a fully-developed alimentary canal,—so

that zt at once is so far a Urolabes. There are no papille ob-

servable on the head at this period, neither is there a spear-

pointed extremity to the cesophagus; but it must be remem-

bered that the characteristic features of the head and tail are

only developed with maturity in the microscopic Filaride, and

when young, they are all more or less alike. The young F. Me-

dinensis has, however, perhaps a larger tail proportionally than

the young of Urolabes, and is corrugated transversely, while it

is as large as many specimens of the latter which have arrived

at maturity: hence comes the question, whether the young F.

Medinensis be not a monster form? and then, whether it be ca-

pable of existing after it has left the parent ?—points which lead

to the consideration of the mode in which Filaria Medinensis is

propagated.

Propagation.—The propagation of Filaria Medinensis involves

many questions: viz., is this effected by the young ones, or has

the worm an external origin? and if the latter, under what form

is it introduced into the human body, and whether through the

skin or through the alimentary canal? Lastly, is impregnation

necessary ? and, if so, where does this take place?

To arrive at some conclusion respecting the propagation of

Filaria Medinensis by its young ones, it was evident that the

first object should be to ascertain if the young were capable of

maintaining an independent existence; and for this purpose I

took some from a healthy full-grown individual, two or three

hours after extraction, when they were strong, active, and appa-

rently without impairment of vitality ; and having placed a few

(for it does not do to take many, on account of the numbers

which die soon rendering the water putrid), with some water, in

three small saucers, each of which contained a little fine clay at

the bottom (which, for fixation, had been allowed to dry there

previously), I set them aside for observation under a glass case,

close to the window of my room. Furthermore, in one of the

saucers were placed a few bits of Nostoc, which had been soaked

in water to gelatinize them; to a second, a little bunch of Con-

ferva glomerata, about as large as an almond, was added; and

the third saucer contained nothing but the clay. In this way

the water remained fresh in each saucer, while the Nostoc afforded

a kind of nidus and nutriment, and the Conferva and the clay

106 Mr. H. J. Carter on Microscopic Filaride.

places of concealment. But after watching these young Guinea-

worms for several days, none, according to the best of my

remembrance (for I have mislaid the record of the experiments),

lived beyond the tenth day; at all events, they all died off so

quickly; that it led me to the inference that, if they survived so

short a time under such apparently favourable circumstances,

they could not be expected to live much longer, if even so long,

when they might happen to get into a pool of fresh water, with

equally unimpaired vitality,—an occurrence, again, which could

only take place during the bathing of a person possessing an

extruded Dracunculus; since the delieate, soft state of a young

Guinea-worm on leaving the parent is such that its death would

be inevitable in a few moments, if not liberated under water,

On another occasion; a little solution of glue was added to

some young Guinea-worms which, with equal care, had been

transferred from the parent to a small saucer in which there was

alittle portion of gelatinized Nostoc, but no clay; and here they. _—

were all dead by the fifth day.

To this I may add the results of Dr. Forbes’s experiments,

who gave the young of a Guinea-worm, fresh from a sepoy’s leg,

to two pups, and on examining one four, and the other twenty-

four hours afterwards, found them (the young Guinea-worms)

“dead in the mucus of the stomach and duodenum ;’ not one of

them showed the least signs of vitality*. Those he placed in

pure well- or tank-water “died generally the fourth, fifth, or

sixth day after birth ;” while others placed in “ impalpable clay,

partially covered with water, and exposed to the sun,” lived, in

one experiment, to the twentieth day, but did not gain “one

particle of increase in their size.” So that the want of power

thus manifested to maintain an dependent existence tends to

the conclusion that the young Guinea-worm is not a propagative

agent of the species.

The next point for consideration is whether Filaria Medinensis

originates in the human body; and this is at once answered in

the negative, if we are right m assuming that its young ones

are unpropagative, since the fact of its existence being confined

to tropical regions, and Europeans not getting it unless they

have been in these regions, proves, if it be not propagated by its

young ones, that the embryos from which it is derived must

come from some other source, and that, too, extraneous to the

human body.

We have now to consider by what course and under what

form it is introduced into the body. As regards the former,

the fact that multitudes occur in the legs and feet, while its fre-

quency of occurrence in other parts diminishes rapidly with the

* Trans. Med. and Phys. Soc. Bombay, vol. i. p. 221 (1838).

Mi, H. J. Carter on Microscopic Filaride. 107

distance of the parts from the legs and feet, in so much that it

is comparatively seldom seen above the hips, strongly tends to

the conclusion that it gets into the human body through the

skin of the lower extremities; and that it is not introduced

through the alimentary canal.

Then, as regards the form under which it is introduced, that

cannot be in the shape of an ovum if it be not taken in by the

mouth, because the ovum has no means of attaching itself to the

surface of the body, and the embryo no means of becoming

hatched or existing there for more than a few moments if

hatehed without water, even suppositig that by chance it had

lodged on and become adherent to any part of the skin. Thus

we must infer that it enters the body in the form of an embryo

worm.

Assuming, then, that this embryo, of whatever species of

Filaria it may be, had that prehensile power of the tail which is

not only manifested by the whole group of Urolabes, but by the

young Guinea-worm itself, while the young of these microscopic

Filaridee, when hatched, are not wider in their transverse dia-

meter than a human blood-globule, and the mouths of the:

sudorific ducts which stud the surface of the body in myriads

not only exceed this in size, but contain within them elements

of nutrition, it does not seem far-fetched to assume that, under

the form of a Urolabes, at the period mentioned (that is, shortly

after having been hatched), the embryo of Filaria Medinensis

might find at least a recess in the human body into which it

might wriggle itself by means of its tail, and within which it

might be kept moist, obtain nourishment, and be perfectly

secure from falling out, until prepared to go further. Then,

assuming also that its cesophagus was furnished with a sharp

exsertile point like that of Urolabes palustris (fig. 11 d), it might,

from the sudorifie duct, bore its way into the subcutaneous cel<

lular tissue, where the development of Filaria Medinensis for the

most part takes place;—or deeper still, and then by its elonga-

tion follow a most intricate and tortuous course, before its head

arrived at the surface for extrication.

That the embryos of some of the Filaride have the power of

penetrating into the bodies of animals, has been proved by Sie-

bold* and Lespést—by the former in the larve of Lepidoptera,

and by the latter in Termites; and I myself saw the one which

I have called Urolabes parasitica in variable plurality in the

peritoneal cavity of a Nais, viz. N. albida, which I found inha-

biting the very Gleocapsa which I had collected for the sake of

the microscopic Filaride of all kinds which always abound im it,

* Ann. des Se, nat. t. iv. p. 55, &., 1855.

+ Ann. of Nat. Hist, vol. xix. p. 388, 1857.

108 Mr. H.J. Carter on Microscopic Filaride.

Thus the comparison of Filaria Medinensis with Urolabes pa-

lustris leads to the inference, at least, that the former is a Uro-

labes modified ; that its young are not capable of maintaining

an independent existence long enough to become propagative

agents; that the embryo of Filaria Medinensis must be intro-

duced into the human body from without; that inference is in

favour of this taking place through the skin, and not by way of

the alimentary canal; that this must take place when the worm

is in an embryo state, or after it has been liberated from the

ege; that, by the aid of the prehensile tail, and through the

narrowness of the body when very young, it might thus get into

a sudorific duct ; that, while there, it might be kept alive by the

moisture and the nutritive elements which the sudorific duct

contains; and that, if provided with a sharp-pointed exsertile

cesophagus, like that of Urolabes palustris, it might from thence

bore its way into the subcutaneous cellular tissue; while the

fact that the microscopic Filaride do penetrate the bodies of

animals still further corroborates all these inferences.

It is not my intention here to do more than allude to the

‘facts I brought forward formerly to support this argument, by

the coincidence of Urolabes palustris occurring in great numbers

in a muddy pool of water in which the boys of a small school

bathed, accompanied by an extreme prevalence of Dracunculus

among them, and the almost total absence of Dracunculus in

another but very large school (in Bombay), in which the bathing

water is taken from a deep tank excavated in the trap-rock,

whose silty deposit presented no microscopic Filaridz of any

kind *,—because of itself it is inconclusive; but I may mention

with advantage, perhaps, prophylactically, that mud, Algz, and

freshwater plants. harbour the microscopic Filaride; and that

those tanks which, like the wells, are kept free from all these

accumulations do not contain any of them, for the simple reason

that such tanks afford them neither nidus nor nutriment.

Impregnation.—If we infer that the embryo of Filaria Me-

dinensis is the young of one of the microscopic Filaride, and

that it can only enter the body shortly after it is hatched, that

is, at the time when it does not much exceed the diameter

of the human blood-globule, its organs of generation are then

not developed, and it must therefore enter the body unimpreg-

nated. Again, it cannot be supposed to become impregnated

after getting into the tissues ; for, to infer this, we must assume

an amount of instinct and facility of communication, to enable

the male and female to come together under such circumstances,

as would be absurd; while we must also assume that all the

* Trans. Med. and Phys. Soc. Bombay, No. 2, new series, p. 45, 1853-54.

Mr. H.J. Carter on Microscopic Filaride. 109

males perish, for a male Guinea-worm here is unheard of ; and

from whence the one figured by Prof. Owen came is not men-

tioned.

Mr. Lubbock’s observations*, however, show that the female

organs of generation may throw off buds at one time and ova at

another; so that Filaria Medinensis may not require to be im-

pregnated to bring forth its progeny.

However this may be, Filaria Medinensis is viviparous, and all

her progeny are of the same size when she puts forth her head

from the surface of the body; while Mermis albicans, which is

closely allied to Filaria Medinensis, enters the larvee of the Le-

pidoptera as an embryo, and leaves them at full growth, but

before it has acquired the organs of generationt. The Filarie

which I saw in Nais albida were all females ; and their oviducts

were filled with ova in successive stages of development, each of

which was provided with its germinal vesicle and nucleus, and

none without it ; so that while these Filarie thus differed from

Mermis albicans, they too might nevertheless have been about

to leave their host, in some way or other, for impregnation.

If Filaria Medinensis be propagated by its young ones, and

these enter the human body directly after they leave the parent,

they must enter it unimpregnated, for there is no trace of the

generative organs to be seen at the time of their birth; while,

if they enter it afterwards, they must be born in water (for they

would die out of it), and remain there until the organs of gene-

ration are developed,—to which, again, their want of power in

sustaining life is opposed.

On the other hand, if it be one of the Urolabes which becomes

Filaria Medinensis, and it enters the body after the organs of

generation have become developed, this is quite contrary to what

takes place with Mermis albicans and other free Filaride, which

enter the bodies of the animals or insects which they infest in

their embryo state, and leave them before the organs of genera-

tion are developed. But supposing that one of the Urolabes

which I have described entered in a mature state, the smallest

would have to bore directly through the skin ; for it is twice the

diameter of the mouth of one of the sudorific ducts, estimating

the latter at the 1200th part of an inch in diameter,—and if

Urolabes palustris, this is three times the diameter at least. It

is true that there may be still other species of Urolabes which

are much smaller, and in their mature state do not exceed the

diameter of the orifices of the sudorific ducts; but even then

it must be remembered that they have to take in with them a

sufficient number of spermatozoa to impregnate the whole of

* “On the Hybernating Eggs of Daphnia,’ Phil. Trans, 1857.

jy Ann. des Se, nat. t, iv. p. 58, 1855.

110 Mr. H. J. Carter on Microscopie Filaride.

their ova; and when we consider the size of the spermatophorous

cells of Urolabes palustris, the number of ova which the female

must throw off during a season, the number of spermatozoa

required for their impregnation, and the small space afforded

by the oviducts for the temporary reception of the spermatozoa,

we must infer that, in their free state, there must be several

sexual connexions during the breeding-season: for the oviducts

of a Urolabes like U. palustris would not contain a sufficient

number of spermatozoa to impregnate a progeny equal to that

of Filaria Medinensis, which, as before stated, amounts to up-

wards of a million; while, if there were a Urolabes possessing

oviducts of sufficient capacity for this, such a one could not,

when fully impregnated, pass in through the mouth of a sudo-

rifie duct, and therefore must bore its way directly through the

skin. |

Lastly, we have to assume that, if the female does go in im-

pregnated, a complete change of her organs of generation must

take place, and the vaginal orifice become obliterated ; while, if

the progeny of Filaria Medinensis are derived from buds, nothing

of the kind need oecur, and the worm might pass into the bod

as Mermis albicans, &c., viz. in the embryo state. But ane |

assumptions unfortunately only lead us to the fact that we have

not sufficient data to come to a positive conclusion either one

way or the other, and that we probably shall remain ignorant

of the process of generation until we become acquainted with

the origin of Dracuneulus, which therefore still remains a desi-

deratum.

As regards the time which Filaria Medinensis takes to pass

from its embryo into its full-grown state, nothing is determined.

Cases of Dracunculus, or the appearance of the worm under pro-

trusion, take place throughout the year; but their maximum is

towards the end of the dry weather and the beginning of the

“vains,” viz. in the months of May and July, and their mini-

mum in January. The “register” of the Native General Hos-

pital in Bombay gives, for the seven years ending 1858, the

maximum (viz. sixty-three cases) in August, and the minimum

(viz. twelve cases) in February; but there were forty-four cases

in May. This, however, is not so useful here as the following

result from the town of Sattara, which is about 100 miles from

Bombay, because the latter is obtained from soldiers, who of

course go into hospital the moment they are sick, while those

who go into the Native General Hospital of Bombay, depending

for subsistence on their daily work, do not go into it except

when driven to it by the severity of the case. Thus, Dr. Murray

shows that, from regiments in the cantonment and town of

Sattara, for the six years ending 1847, Guinea-worm chiefly

Mr. H. J. Carter on Microscopic Filaride. ill

prevailed in “the months of March, April, May, and June, the

eases which occurred in these four months constituting three-

fourths of the entire number throughout the year.” The maxi-

mum was in May, viz. 125, and in June, 102 cases; and the

minimum in January, viz. 11 cases, after which there is a rapid

inerease to May; so that it is towards the end of the dry weather

and beginning of the “rains”—that is, towards the end of

spring and the beginning of summer—that Dracunculus is most

prevalent.

How this can be brought to bear upon the time required for

the full development of Filaria Medinensis I am unable to state.

According to my observations, Urolabes palustris ceases to lay

by the beginning of May, and commences to breed as early as

January: after May, and on to August, all the females that I

have met with, although robust, have presented a shrunken

state of the generative organs, and have been without ova. If,

then, we assume that all the other species follow this type, and

that it is a Urolabes which passes into the human body and be-

comes transformed into Filaria Medinensis, then the time re-

quired for the development of the latter would be very short.

But then there are a number of species, perhaps, which only

come into active life and breed during the *‘ rains ”—at least, I

have never met with them at any other period; and if it be one

of these, either in an embryonic or full-grown state, which enters

the body, then the time for their development into F. Medinensis,

as they can only enter during the “ rains,” must be at least ten

months; while there are well-authenticated cases where sailors

have gone to England from Bombay, and on returning to it

after-about a year, have had Dracunculus just before they arrived

at Bombay: but these cases, unless it could be shown that the

individual had had no contaet with water from a tropical region

from the time he left it until his return, prove nothing.

Lastly, some localities are more productive of Dracunculus

than others, and the country or the suburbs of a town more than

the town itself. Thus, in the least-populated part of the island

of Bombay, where the Artillery were formerly cantoned, Dra-

cunculus prevailed so much, both among the men and officers,

that the place had to be abandoned, and the Artillery brought

back to barracks in the town,—an occurrence which, if Filaria

Medinensis arise from one of the Urolabes, seems to derive ex-

planation from the fact to which I have before alluded, viz. that

the microscopic Filaride abound most in water where there

is an abundance of Alge and aquatic plants, and that this is

more likely to be the case about uncultivated ground, and in —

tanks formed chiefly out of natural depressions in the soil, than

in a town where there is neither one nor the other.

112 Mr. H. J. Carter on Microscopic Filaridee.

As regards the origin of F. Medinensis from Urolabes palus-

tris, there can be no doubt (as the reader may satisfy himself by

the illustrations) that there is an intimate resemblance between

the two; to which it may be added, that Urolabes palustris is by

far the most generally and numerously spread of all the free

microscopic Filaride in the island of Bombay that have come

under my observation ; but then the transverse strize, which are

so prominently marked in the young Guinea-worm, are alto-

gether absent in Urolabes palustris, while they are present in

some of the others that I have described. What the value of

this difference may be, I am unable to state; and it is true that

in the adult F. Medinensis they are so faint that they can only

be seen under a tolerably high microscopic power, when they

appear to be the transverse fibres of the muscular, rather than

ruge of the tegumentary coat, which they clearly are in the

young Guinea-worm; so that, after all, this difference between

Urolabes palustris and F'. Medinensis may not be much.

Thus the origin, which is the key to the history, of Dracun-

culus is still unknown, and therefore remains a subject for

future and interesting inquiry, but not more so than the still

further elucidation of the Filaride generally, both free and

parasitic ; for when we consider that the former abound in spe-

cies, and are spread in myriads probably all over the world

where there is vegetable matter for them to feed upon, in salt

as well as in fresh water, in the sea and on the land, while the

latter inhabit all animals, perhaps, more or less, down to the

lowest worms,—that many of the former leave their habitat and

vegetable food for a temporary residence in animals, to live thus

on animal food, and that therefore the whole of the parasitic

forms may be originally derived from the free ones,—that they

not only enter animals, but live and dwell also in plants, as the

Paste-worm in the wheat, and Anguillulina Dipsaci in Dipsacus

Fullonum*,—that a variable plurality may be peculiarly parasitic

on each animal, especially among the higher orders, there being

fourteen Nematoidea, of which the Filaride are a family, in man

alone,—that some of them enter the bodies of animals as embryos,

and when sufficiently stored with nutriment, leave their hosts

solely for the purpose of generation,—that others, as Dracunculus,

appear to go into the body already impregnated, and remain

there until their whole progeny are ready for delivery before they

make their exit,—that the muscles, the innermost parts of the

body, the eye, the heart, and the blood itself, are sometimes their

abode, and that in many instances their presence is still unac-

counted for,—these worms, at first apparently insignificant, from

their simple thread-like form and scarcity, are seen to assume

* Gervais et Van Beneden, ‘ Zoologie Médicale,’ vol. ii. p. 101.

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eS ee) De? SE PY HASSE nase Citi SA ee GAO. GIR ito aia month

[ole [ ee

H.1.C.del.

Mr, H. J. Carter on Microscopic Filaride. 113

an importance in organic creation which calls for a much more

extended study of them than they have as yet received.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

PLATE I,

. Filaria Medinensis, outline of, average size of, in Bombay : a, head ;

b, b, body; ec, tail. The papille of the head can only be just

seen with a lens of 13-inch focus, and the tail is but just visible to

the unaided eye; so these parts are of course not represented in

this figure.

Fig. 2. Ditto, generative organs of, natural size: a, a, ovaries; 0,0, ovisac.

Fig. 3. Ditto, alimentary canal of, natural size: a, the oesophagus, extend-

ing as far as the cross line; 3, b, intestine; c, rectum.

Fig. 4. Ditto, mouth and appendages greatly but proportionally magnified :

a, mouth (punctiform), in the centre of a circular papilla; 6, bor-

dered quadrangular space surrounding mouth ; ¢, c, large papille,

situated vertically (?); d, d, rudimentary papille with other arma-

ture, faintly marked, and situated laterally (?).

. Ditto, greatly magnified view of these portions of : a, anterior por-

tion; 6, papilla; c, cesophagus, enlarged towards the mouth ;

d, muscular sheath; e, peritoneal sheath; jf, portion opposite

union of cesophagus and intestine; g, point of their union;

h, intestine ; 7, hepatic organ covered by the peritoneal sheath ;

k, posterior portion, showing —/, continuation of intestine ;

m, hepatic organ; n, rectum; 0, adventitious membrane binding

the tail to the surface of the body.

Fig. 6. Ditto, young of, 1-33rd of an inch long, corrugated transversely :

a, esophagus; 6, muscular sheath of ditto; c, junction of ceso-~

phagus and intestine; d, intestine ; e, hepatic organ terminating

some distance from the end of the intestine; f, portion of intes-

tine covered by peritoneal sheath only; g, rectum and anus;

h, gland opposite rectum. No papille can be seen on the mouth

with the highest magnifying power at this period.

—

Fig.

Puate II,

Fig. 7. Urolabes palustris, n. sp., female, 1-6th of an inch long, drawn on the

scale of 1-48th to 1-1880th of an inch: a, cesophagus; 6, mus-

cular sheath of ditto; c, point of union of cesophagus and intes-

tine; d, intestine; e, hepatic organ covered by peritoneal sheath ;

f; portion of intestine uncovered by hepatic organ; g, rectum

and anus; h, vulva; 7, 7, generative organs; k, k, contracted

forms of the tail approaching that of Filaria Medinensis.

Fig. 8. Ditto, organs of generation of, more magnified: a, ovary; 0b, ovi-

sac; c, cecal end of ditto; d, fallopian tube or oviduct, con-

stricted and dilated alternately, to afford pouches for retaining

the spermatozoa; e, ovum after impregnation; jf, vulva.

Fig. 9. Ditto, male, a little shorter than the female, drawn upon the same

scale: a, a, organs of generation; 0, penis. _

Fig. 10. Ditto, ditto, organs of generation of, more magnified: a, a, tes-

ticular or spermatic sacs; 4, contracted portions of ditto; c, se-

minal duct; d, penis.

Fig. 11. Ditto, ditto, anterior and posterior portions of, greatly magnified ;

a, anterior portion; 0, papillae; c¢, poimted end of cesophagus ;

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist, Ser. 3. Vol. iv. | 8

Fig. 12.

Mr. H. J. Carter on Microscopic Filaride.

d, buccal dilatation of cesophagus; ¢, cesophagus; f, muscular

sheath of ditto; g, peritoneal sheath of ditto reflected on to in-

testinal sheath ; h, point of union of oesophagus and intestine ;

2, intestine; &, hepatic organ covered by intestinal sheath ;

1, posterior portion ; m, posterior end of intestine, uncovered by

hepatic organ, but presenting on its surface scattered groups of

vesicles, apparently in cells like the biliary cells covering the in-

testine of the Naidina; n, rectum; o, anus; p, seminal duct;

q, penis, exsertile at the anus; r, muscles connected with the

enis,

orny elements of the penis separate, showing their scaphoid

orm.

Fig. 13. Half the female organs of generation, proportionally magnified

(scale about 1-12th to 1-5400th of an inch); a@, ovary, containing

the ova in their first stage of development, that is, consisting of

a cell-wall lined with transparent endoplasm, bearing in one part

the nucleus, which afterwards becomes the germinal spot and

vesicle; 6, ova more advanced, each occupymg an entire seg-

Ament of the oyisac, the endoplasm becoming opake by the deve-

lopment of the yelk-granules; c, unimpregnated ovum ready to

pass into the oviduct; d, ceecal end of the ovisac, containing the

granular matter supposed to be the remains of the spermatopho-

rous cells after the spermatozoa have left them to penetrate the

ovum; e, oviduct; f, poimt of junction of, with the ovisac;

g,%, dilated portion filled with spermatophorous cells and their

included spermatozoa; h, constricted portion of oviduct ; 7, trun-

cated portion of ditto; k, a few of the spermatophorous cells

separate; /, impregnated ovum, now without the germinal ve-

sicle, but surrounded by an additional coat, viz. the shell or cho-

rion, ready for segmentation.

Fig. 14, Half the male organs of generation, greatly magnified : a, testis,

Fig. 15.

Fig. 16.

or end of the spermatic sac, which throws off from its surface

the spermatic cells, each of which here consists of a cell-wall

lined with transparent endoplasm bearing in one part the nu-

cleus; 4, portion of the spermatic sac where the endoplasm has

developed granules or nuclei, which become the spermatophorous

or daughter cells; ¢, portion where the nuclei have become elon-

gated and their proper cells become evident, while they have

also assumed a radiated arrangement; d, last portion, where the

nuclei, now transformed into spermatozoa, but still within the

daughter cells, have left the parent; e, constricted portion of

spermatic sac going to form with its fellow (f) the seminal duct ;

g, seminal duct, truncated; h, spermatophorous cells.

N.B. The following figures, which are delineated after nature,

have all been drawn on the same scale, viz. 1-12th to 1-5400th

of an inch, in order that their relative proportions might be pre-

served for the purpose of illustrating the development of the

spermatozoa.

Spermatic cells increasing from a mere point to the full size of

their first stage, which consists of a cell-wall lined with endo-

plasm and bearing in one part a nucleus: this corresponds with

art a, fig. 13.

hows the first appearance and gradual inerease in size of the

nuclear points and daughter cells in the endoplasm of the sperma-

tic cell, from which the spermatozoa are ultimately developed.

Fig. 17.

Fig. 18.

Fig. 19.

Fig. 20.

Fig. 21.

Fig. 22.

Fig. 23.

_ Fig. 24.

Mr. H, J, Carter on Microscopic Filaridee. 115

Nuclear points and daughter cells in a more advanced state,

showing that there are spermatic cells of different sizes, and with

a variable number of nuclear points in them.

Ditto, ditto, in a still more advanced state, where the daughter

cells surrounding the nuclear points have become apparent. The

ot oe figures illustrate the granular state of the cells seen at

, fig. 13.

Shadinatie cells of different sizes, after the spermatozoa have be-

come nearly developed and nothing but a few fragments of the

endoplasm remain: a, spermatic cell containing only one daugh-

ter cell, and therefore yielding only one spermatozoon (had there

been no cell round the spermatozoon, then this cell must have

been taken for a daughter cell) ; 6, ditto containing two daughter

cells; ¢, containing four ; d, containing twelve, and e, upwards of

twenty. Each spermatozoon must have been surrounded by a

daughter cell; but as these were only seen in a and 8, they are

only inserted there, it being my object here particularly to repre-

sent the figures of this series as they appeared to me. /,f,f, un-

employed or refuse fragments of the endoplasm—that is, those

parts which have not gone to the nourishment of the daughter

cells ; and the like is seen in the daughter cells themselves, being

the residue of their contents which have not entered into the

formation of the spermatozoa; g shows a peripheral arrangement

of the elongated nuclei and, of course, the daughter cells, though

the latter did not come into view here. It is this peripheral

arrangement which I cannot reconcile with the radiated one, but

which I am inclined to think may arise from dislocation of the

group of cells during their forcible expulsion.

Group of daughter cells with their contained spermatozoa ar-

ranged in the radiated form (seen at ¢, fig. 14), but here without

the parent cell: a, group of eight, arranged in a radiated form

here, within the parent cell.

Spermatic cells with the daughter cells and their contained sper-

matozoa leaving them: a, b, ditto, showing the way in which the

parent cell is pushed before the daughter cell into a conical form ;

ec, daughter cells still adhering to the parent cell. Fig. 14 2 and

fig. 13 k show the state of the daughter cells containing the °

spermatozoa after they have left the parent cells, as they fill the

large end of the testicular sac and dilatations of the oviduct re-

spectively.

Spermatozoa struggling to get out of their cells, illustrative of

those in the upper part of the oviduct especially, and also of many

in the large end of the testicular sac. See also here the unem-

plored fragment of endoplasm to which I haye already alluded.

aughter cells, illustrative of the development of the spermato-

zoon, in which the latter is seen to be formed from the nuclear

point, which further appears to pass into the head first, as it be-

comes elongated: a, daughter cell containing endoplasm and

nuclear point; 4, nucleus elongated; c, nucleus transformed into

spermatozoon, and all the endoplasm, with the exception of the

fragment already mentioned, absorbed (direct view); d, lateral

view of ditto. The tail is too minute and transparent here to be

seen; but in the cells of the foregoing group, though still invisi-

ble, its effect upon the form of the daughter cell is obvious.

Spermatozoon of Urolabes palustris, normal form, 1-600th of an

inch long.

116

Fig. 25,

Fig. 26.

Fig. 27.

Fig. 28.

Fig. 29.

Fig. 30.

Fig. 31.

Fig. 32.

Mr. A. Murray on Coleoptera from Old Calabar.

Puate II.

Urolabes Gleocapsarum, n. sp., female, 1-54th of an inch long:

a, anterior portion; 6, caudal portion; ¢,¢, buccal dilatation and

cesophagus; d, muscular sheath of the latter; e, point of union

of cesophagus with intestine; f, intestine; g, hepatic organ;

h, rectum; 7, anus. The male is the same as the female, with

the exception of the tail being a little shorter, and the addition

of the penis. |

Urolabes labiata, n. sp., female, 1-40th of an inch long: a, ante-

rior portion, the head bearing two papille ; 5, caudal portion ;

¢, apparatus apparently connected with the exsertion and retrac-

tion of the oesophagus (seen also in figs. 25 and 27). The other

parts having been indicated in fig. 25, will not require repetition.

Urolabes tentaculata, n. sp., female, 1-23rd of an inch long:

a, anterior portion, the head bearing two tentaculiform prolonga-

tions; b, caudal portion. |

Urolabes cirrata, u. sp., female, 1-73rd of an inch long: a, ante-

rior portion, the head bearing two short linear cirrhi; 6, posterior

extremity.

Urolabes erythrops, n. sp. (marine), female, 1-20th of an inch

long: a, anterior portion; 4, caudal portion; c, peritoneal sheath

of cesophagus; d, globular dilatation and double post-cesophageal

constriction of the peritoneal sheath, partly lined with the hepatic

organ; e, ocelli; 7, caudal portion of male; g, penis.

., Urolabes infrequens, n. sp. (marine), female (a little larger and

longer than the foregoing): a; anterior portion; 5, caudal por-

tion; c¢, peritoneal sheath of cesophagus; d, post-cesophageal

globular form of the peritoneal sheath; e, ocelli(?); f, caudal

end of male; g, penis; h, gland.

Urolabes ocellata, n. sp. (marine), female, 1-23rd of an inch long :

a, anterior portion, the head bearing four cirrhi ; 6, caudal portion ;

e, ocelli; d, caudal end of male; e, penis. :

Urolabes barbata, n. sp. (marine), female, 1-7th of an inch long:

a, anterior portion, the head bearing four cirrhi; 0, caudal portion ;

c, pointed, apparently exsertile end of cesophagus in buccal

dilatation; d, ocelli; e, caudal end of male ; f, penis. The two

globular bodies (d), in this as well as in fig. 30, although in situ-

ation and appearance exactly like those of figs. 29 and 31, are

colourless, or only yellowish; and therefore I can only infer that

they are ophthalmic organs.

XII.—List of Coleoptera received from Old Calabar, on the West

Coast of Africa. By ANDREW Murray, Edinburgh. ~

{Continued from vol. iii. p. 30.]

Feronide.

ANAULAX, mihi.

(From dyev and avAa€, in allusion to the absence of the scutellar

accessory stria on the elytra.)

Facies et forma ut in Amara. Caput mediocre; oculi haud

prominentes. Clypeus distinctus, brevis, Labrum transver-

J. Basire sc.

Ann. & Mag.Nat. Hist. S.3.Vol. 4. PLIE.

=~ . SS SE eee

aes eqs Ras et oe a ee i Aa bh)

Se eg Let ee a, ee eel a es a ees a

Mr. A. Murray on Coleoptera from Old Calabar. 117

sum, quadratum, integrum. Mandibule et maxille mediocres.

Palpi tenues, cum articulis ultimis cylindrico-ovalibus. _Men-

tum profunde excavatum et emarginatum, emarginatione sine

dente medio, sed leviter sinuato. Ligula membranacea, sat

grandis, cum paraglossis annexis, projicientibus ut cornubus

leviter clavatis. Antenne breves, capite et thorace bre-

viores, articulis longitudine fere equalibus, secundo excepto

(sed haud multo) breviore ; primis tribus levibus, ceteris pu-

bescentibus et parum dilatatis. Prothorax convexus, postice

latior. Elytra thorace haud latiora, ad ejus basin conniventes,

striata, eS sine stria suturali accessoria. Pedes mediocres ;

tibize antice dilatate et intus fortiter emarginate ; tarsi te-

nues, triangulares, setis subtus utrinque instructi.

1. A. iridescens, mihi.

Niger, iridescens, nitidissimus; thorace fovea basali longitudi-

nali levissima utrinque instructo; elytris punctato-striatis ;

antennis, palpis pedibusque ferrugineis.

Long. 43 lin., lat. 2 lin.

Black, very polished and shining, and beautifully iridescent

when looked at from before backwards with its head to the light ;

the iridescence rich, and with a proportion of green, yellow, and

coppery red, besides blue, in it. The form is that of an Amara.

Head impunctate; labrum, antennz, mandibles, and parts of

the mouth ferruginous. Thorax subquadrate, narrowest in front,

with the anterior angles bent down; posterior angles translu-

cent, slightly acute, with the points rounded; sides edged; an

elongate triangular space within the posterior angles flattish, the

remainder of the surface convex; no dorsal line; a short slender

basal fovea or line containing a single row of four or five mi-

nute punctures on each side of the space opposite the scutellum.

Scutellum ferruginous, smooth. LElytra truncate at the base,

oval and emarginate towards the apex, pretty deeply punctate-

striate, the intervals impunctate,’ convex; the striz converge

towards the apex and become deeper, and the interstices more

convex: as already said, there is no accessory sutural stria;

there are a few deep punctures on the exterior interstice. Under

side more or less piceous and iridescent, impunctate. Legs

testaceo-ferruginous.

I have only received one specimen of this new species. At

first sight, one would take it for an Amara; but I am not aware

of any Amare having been hitherto found further south in Africa

than the Mediterranean district: besides, it is iridescent, which

is also opposed to its being placed among the Amare; and on

further examination, we find other differences. It has no tooth

118 Mr. A. Murray on Coleoptera from Old Calabar.

-to the mentum, which Amara has ; it has its paraglosse soldered

to, or rather forming part of, the ligula; which is a character

that, according to Lacordaire, should remove it not only from

Amara; but from the Feronide altogether, and carry it into the

Pseudoferonide. The dilatation of the anterior tibiee, however,

‘and the want of squamules under the tarsi, prevent us placing

it with them. But there is another character which it possesses

in common with a small group of the Feronidé (a group with

which, however, it has no other connexion), viz: the want of an

accessory sutural stria,—a thing which, except in these few in-

‘stances, does not occur among the Geodephaga. I have unfortu-

nately only received a female, or at all events an individual which

has not the anterior tarsi dilated ; so that the essential characters

founded on the dilatation of the tarsi of the male are unknown

to me. On the whole, however, from its facies and other affini-

ties, I would place it among the Feronide, in a position apart,

but not far from the Amare.

Anchomenide.

ANCHOMENUS, Bon.

1. A. angulaticolls, mihi.

Elongatus, angustatus, niger; thorace angulato antice postice

et lateribus, postice valde coarctato et exciso, ad basin vix

capite latiore; elytris ovatis, marginatis, depressis, ad su-

turam parum elevatis, punctato-striatis, interstitiis sparsim

distincte punctatis; antennis fuscis, ad basin ferrugineis,

femoribus pallide testaceis, geniculis tibiis tarsisque piceis.

Long. 53 lin., lat. 2 lin.

Elongate, narrow, black. Head smooth; shining, and im-

punctate, with a well-marked elongate impression on each side

in front at the base of the antennz; labrum large, quadrate ;

mandibles, maxille, mentum, and palpi piceous. Antenne fus-

eous; three basal joints shining ferruginous; slightly flattened,

rather thicker in the middle than at either extremity. Thorax

‘somewhat hexagonal, in front a little wider than the neck, at the

base scarcely wider; the anterior margin slightly emarginate;

anterior angles obtuse; slightly rounded ; the lateral margin with

its anterior half extending backwards and outwards nearly in a

straight line to about the middle, when it turns in, forming an

obtuse angle, the extremity of which is slightly rounded; it

then continues obliquely inwards, making a deep excision on the

posterior part of the thorax; towards the base it bends in; be-

coming for a short space straight, and then turning slightly

outward, so that. the posterior angles are. rather sharper than

Mr. A. Murray on Coleoptera from Old Calabar. 119

right angles: the base is truncate, slightly obtuse towards the

angles; the lateral margin is piceous and semitransparent,

deeply and broadly reflexed, and the sides edged (most so be-

hind), forming a deep channel, which is transversely rugose ; the

rugosities extend along the base, more faintly in front, and

still more so across the disk, which is convex and almost free

from punctures; the dorsal line is deep, merging in the eurvi-

linear impression in front, which is also well marked. Seutel-

lum impunctate, but finely rugose. Llytra elongate-ovate,

truncate at the base, emarginate and sinuate at the apex; rather

depressed, but slightly raised at the suture ; the lateral margins

reflexed, most deeply 'so behind the shoulders; punctate-striate ;

the interstices sparsely but. somewhat coarsely punctate, the

marginal space with pitted impressions: Under side piceous,

polished and shining, more or less rugosely punctate on the

mesosternal and metasternal parapleura; faint traces of punc-

tures on the prosternal parapleura. Thighs pale testaceots ;

knees, tibize, and tarsi piceous.’ |

| A. planaticollis, mihi.

Depressus, latus, supra niger; subtus piceus; thorace lato, fere

plano, hexagono ; elytris punctato-striatis, interstitiis impunc-

tatis; pedibus pallide testaceis.

Long. 6 lin., lat. 24 lin.

Broad, depressed, black or dark piceous. Head smooth,

shining, and impunctate, with an elongated impression on each

side at the base of the antenne, and traces of one or two small

punctures of impressions behind these ; labrum piceous, qua-

drate ; mandibles, maxille, mentum, palpi, and basal joints of

antennee piceous; remainder of antenne fuscous, and rather

thicker in the middle than at the extremities. Thorax depressed,

broad, nearly hexagonal in shape, but broader than long;

emarginate in front; all the angles nearly equally obtuse,

and all rounded off, anterior most so: the lateral margin angled

nearly in the middle, the anterior half nearly straight, the pos-

terior slightly emarginate and waved: base obtuse towards the

angles, slightly emarginate in the centre: the sides are semi-

translucent and very broadly and shallowly reflexed, and nearly,

though not quite, as much so in front as behind; the broad

channel so formed is well defined and rugosely punctate; the

anterior and basal marginal spaces are less deeply so; the disk

slightly raised and smooth, but not very convex; the dorsal

channel deep, reaching to the base, but not quite to the anterior

margin; the sides of the reflexed margin are distinctly edged.

Scutellum rugosely punctate. Elytra oblong, very flat and

depressed ;‘sides nearly parallel; base truncate, and: shoulders

120 Mr. A. Murray on Coleoptera from Old Calabar.

square; apex broadly emarginate, approaching to truncate

sides only slightly reflexed: deeply punctate-striate ; interstices

convex and impunctate ; two impressions on the third interstice,

one on the exterior side of it about one-fifth from the base, and

another on the interior side of it about one-third from the apex ;

marginal space narrow, increasing in breadth till it reaches the

apical emargination, where it is broad, and bears pitted impres-

sions. Under side piceous, polished and shining, rugosely

punctate on the mesosternal and metasternal parapleure; the

prosternal parapleurz with very faint traces of punctures. Legs

pale testaceous ; knees slightly darker.

3. A. patroboides, mihi.

Preecedenti affinis ; niger, thorace interdum subvirescente ; tho-

race subcordato, convexo; elytris punctato-striatis ; pedibus

testaceis. :

Long. 54 lin., lat. 23 lin.

Allied to the preceding, but smaller, and not so broad nor so

depressed. Black; sometimes with a tinge of virescence in cer-

tain lights on the thorax. Head smooth, shining, and impunc-

tate, with a deep fovea on each side in front, and an exterior

narrow groove between it and the base of the antenne; labrum

quadrate, smaller than in the preceding species ; mandibles and

other parts of the mouth and base of the antennze ferruginous ;

remainder of antenne fuscous. Thorax subcordate, widest at

the middle, with a slight tendency to the hexagonal form of

that of A. planaticollis, but with a deeper and narrower re-

flexed margin; anterior margin emarginate; base truncate,

oblique towards the angles, which are obtuse; the reflexed

margin is narrow in front and widest at the base, and it, as well

as the base, is rather finely rugose or rugoso-punctate : the disk

is convex, reminding one of the thorax in Patrobus, impunctate ; -

the dorsal line and arched line in front are well marked, the

former reaching from the anterior margin to the base. Scutel-

lum impunctate, almost smooth. LElytra as in A. planaticollis,

except that the striz are not so deep, the punctures in them less

distinct, and the interstices less convex. Under side smooth and

impunctate, with the exception of some faint traces of impres-

sions on the parapleuree or at the sides of the basal segments of

the abdomen. Legs testaceous. ‘

Colymbetide.

Acasvus, Leach.

1. A. hydroporoides, mihi.

Elongatus, oblongo-ovalis, parum depressus, nitidus, impuncta-

Mr. A. Murray on Coleoptera from Old Calabar, 121

tus, supra brunneus, infra rufo-ferrugineus ; capite toto lete

ferrugineo; thorace late ad latera (interdum fere toto) pedi-

busque ferrugineis; elytris ad basin anguste et macula ob-

longa apicali ferrugineis,

Long. 23 lin., lat. 14 lin.

Elongate, oblong-oval, rounded in front and behind, depressed,

shining. Head entirely clear ferruginous, smooth, and without

impressions. Antenne and palpi testaceous. Thorax brown,

with broad ferruginous margins encroaching on the disk (or

perhaps it may be more accurate to say—thorax ferruginous,

with the anterior and posterior margins, especially towards the

middle, becoming embrowned) ; it is rather more than twice as

broad as long, broadly emarginate in front, cut nearly straight be-

hind, being only slightly bisinuate, broader behind than in front ;

very slightly rounded on the sides, which have an extremely slen-

der edging: the anterior angles projecting, and rounded at the

point ; posterior angles nearly right-angled : a narrow, very finely

punctate impression runs along and parallel to the anterior

margin, and a short, curved, similarly punctate impression lies

parallel to the base on each side of the middle, commencing

nearly opposite to the exterior of the scutellum. Scutellum

short, broad, and ferruginous. Elytra long, depressed, brown,

with a narrow ferruginous transverse band along their base, and

an elongate curved ferruginous patch lying parallel to the exte-

rior margin at the apex; they have three scarcely perceptible,

interrupted, longitudinal lines of points lying more to the ex-

terior than the suture, the middle line most interrupted, being

reduced to an occasional point: the reflexed portion of the elytra

at the base ferruginous. Under side ferruginous, shining, and

impunctate. Legs paler, especially the four anterior.,

This is, I think, the first instance of an Agabus having been

‘ recorded as found in Africa south of the Mediterranean district.

The present species has very much the form and size of Hydro-

porus memnonius; but the five-jointed tarsi, the presence of a

scutellum, and the unstriated elytra readily indicate its true

position.

Gyrinide.

Gyretss, Brullé.

l. G. nudivittis, mihi.

Oblongo-rhomboideo-ovalis, dorso convexo; capite nitido neo,

lateribus subtus oculos pubescentia eeneo-sericea vestitis ; tho-

race disco nitido zneo, limbo testaceo reflexo translucente

marginato, lateribus pubescentia sneo-sericea vestitis ; elytris

122 Mi. A. Murray on Coleoptera from Old Calabar.

similiter pubescentia vestitis, vitta enea curta nitida dorso ad

basin utrinque indutis, limbo testaceo reflexo translucente

marginatis ; elytris apice paulo oblique truncatis, angulis ex-

ternis spinulosis; subtus testaceus.

Long. 5 lin., lat. 24 lin.

_ Soinewhat rhomboidally oblong-oval, convex on the back,

broadest and highest about the middle. Head polished shining

brassy, with a scarcely observable minute tubercle. on each side

close to the inter margin of the eye’; along the sides under the

eyes clothed with a thick, rich silky, brassy pubescence ;, labrum

projecting, and thickly covered with projecting long hairs.

Antenne dark piceous. Thorax deeply emarginate in front

and much bisinuate behind; much narrower in front than

behind; sides almost straight, and having the margin reflexed,

80 as to forin a rather broad flat ledge, which is testaceous and

translucent, the posterior angles of which, when looked at from

above, seém obliquely truncate; above this ledge a broad band

of thick, silky, brassy pubescence extends up the steep sides of

the thorax; the disk of the thorax, which is flattish and of the

same proportions as the entire thorax, shining polished brassy,

its surface seeming to project slightly beyond the pubescent part,

the separation between the two being here, as in every other part

of the insect, well defined; the anterior margin has a narrow

édging, the posterior none; there is a transverse depression or

Hdllow band, unmarked by punctures or impressions, running

across the shining disk rather behind the middle: No scutellum.

Elytra clothed like the thorax with a brassy pubescence, and

having a similar testaceous ledge running round the margin,

which terminates as an acute, not very prominent tooth or spine :

on each side of the back there is a narrow bright brassy line,

which appears to be raised above the surrounding pubescence ;

it starts from the base at a point corresponding to the exterior

margin of the shining disk of the thorax, and proceeds parallel

to the margin of the elytra for nearly but not quite half the

length of the elytra, at first slightly increasing in breadth, and

then gradually tapering to a point; it is not much broader than

the marginal ledge: the apex of the elytra is obliquely truncate,

and there may be a sutural apical spine; but my specimen is

injured at that point, and I cannot say whether there is such a

spine or not. Under side and legs testaceous; the last segment

of the abdomen very conical and narrow.

_ This species is interesting as being the first instance which

has been recorded of the genus Gyretes being found in the

Old World; all those previously described having come from

America.

Mr: A. Murtay on Coleoptera from Old Calabar. 128

Hydrobiide.

Puiiuyprvs, Sol.

(Subgen. Helochares, Muls.)

1. P. longipalpis, mihi.

Oblongo-ovalis, latior pone medium, leviter convexus, brunneus

vel testaceo-brunneus, valde nitidus, levissime dense punc»

tatus; clypeo bilobato; palpis maxillarum longissimis; caput

cum thorace longitudine fere equantibus ; thorace in angulis

anticis semicirculari impressione levissime punctata instructo ;

elytris sine stria suturali, sed puiictorum duabus seriebus le-

vissimis ; subtus lividus vel pallide brunnets, pubescens ; pe-

dibus concoloribus, femoribus pubescentibus. -

Tiong. 34-88 lin., lat. 12 lin.

Oblong-oval; broadest behind the middle, gently convex,

rown; livid or testaceous brown, very shining and smooth,

pretty densely punctate; but so faintly that the punctuation is

not perceptible except under a good lens. Head rather darker

and more coarsely punctate than the rest of the body ; clypeus bi-

lobed, a row of minute punctures running parallel to the margin

of the lobes ; labrum, palpi, and other parts of the mouth ferru-

ginous; maxillary palpi about as long as the head and thorax

taken together; labial palpi short. Thorax with the sides

rounded and slightly edged; the anterior angles much rounded;

posterior gently rounded; anterior margin slightly emarginate,

the base with the angles extending backwards and overlapping

the elytra: there is a curved impression in the anterior corner,

which may be likened to a letter C, one on each side, facing

each other (thus, C 0); more strictly, it may be described as a

congeries of faint punctures (deeper than those on the general

surface) lying parallel to the margin for the anterior two-thirds

of the thorax, turning inwards and downwards at the anterior

angle, extending in a curve towards the disk, and terminating at

some distance nearly opposite to a similarly curved impression

which extends upwards, as if to meet it, from the posterior ent

of the marginal punctation; the marginal part of this semi-

circular impression is not so deep as the two incurved wings:

Scutellum elongate. Elytra without any sutural stria, but with

two faint though tolerably distinct rows of punctures, the exterior

one near the margin, and the interior one about halfway be-

tween the suture and the margin, but rather nearer the latter ;

the elytra have a slight disposition to turn up at the margin.

Under side same colour as above, but rather paler, pubescent.

Legs, with the thighs, pubescent ; posterior knees not pubescent.

[To be continued.] * :

124 Mr. J.S. Baly on new Phytophagous Insects.

XIII.—Descriptions of new Genera and Species of Phytophagous

Insects. By J. 8. Bary, Esq.

[Concluded from p. 61.]

Fam. Eumolpide.

Genus LAMPROSPHERUS.

Caput fere perpendiculare, in thoracem ad dimidiam partem oculorum

insertum; oculis oblongo-ovatis, introrsum obsolete sinuatis ;

antennis gracilibus, subfiliformibus, ad apicem leniter incrassatis,

articulo primo incrassato, secundo hoc dimidio breviore, ovato,

duobus proxinis filiformibus, longitudine fere sequalibus ; palpis

maxillaribus articulo ultimo ovato, apice obtuso. Thorax trans-

versus, convexus, interdum elytrorum latitudini sequalis, apice

concavus. lytra breviter ovata, convexa. Pedes graciles;

tarsis posticis articulo primo elongato-trigono, dnobus sequentibus

longitudine fere sequali, secundo trigonato, antice subemarginato,

tertio illo latiore, fere ad basin diviso, unguiculis dente obtuso ar-

matis. Prosternum longitudine paullo angustius, lateribus medio

in dentem indistinctum productis; mesosternum subquadratum,

apice obsolete angulatum. Corpus subhemisphericum, valde con-

vexum.

Type, Lamprospherus abdominalis, Baly.

Lamprospherus tarsatus.

L. subglobosus, nitido-niger, subtus viridi-ceeruleus ; antennis basi

tarsisque fulvis ; elytris seriatim punctatis.—Long. 23 lin.

Hab, Cayenne. |

Lamprospherus abdominalis.

L.-subglobosus, dorso obsolete gibbosus, nitido-czeruleus ; corpore

subtus antennisque nigro-piceis ; unguiculis, antennarum basi abdo-

mineque rufo-fulvis ; capite, thorace elytrorumque margine eneo-

micantibus ; thorace elytris vix angustiore, tenuiter subremote

punctato, elytris subseriatim punctatis; femoribus posticis sim-

plicibus.—Long. 23 lin.

Hab. Amazons.

Lamprospherus collaris.

L. ovato-rotundatus, valde convexus, nitido-niger, fronte thorace-

que flavis, hoc limbo angusto maculaque transversa apicali ple-

rumque lineas tres retrorsum ad basin emittente nigro-piceis ;

antennis (his extrorsum fuscis), facie inferiore, pedibus quatuor an-

ticis, tibiis posticis tarsisque fulvis; elytris thoracis latitudini vix

sequalibus, postice paullo angustatis, distincte seriatim punctatis ;

femoribus posticis simplicibus, tarsis anticis 4 (maris) dilatatis,

—Long. 2 lin.

Hab, Upper Amazons.

Mr. J. 8. Baly on new Phytophagous Insects. 125

Lamprospherus specularis.

LL. subhemispheericus, valde convexus, dorso obsolete gibbosus, me-

tallico-olivaceus, subopacus ; ore, antennis (harum articulo septimo

ultimique apice fuscis), abdomine pedibusque flavis; elytris tenui-

ter seriatim punctatis, plumbeis, dorso antico spatio communi nitido-

nigro-ceeruleo ; tarsis 4 anticis articulo basali dilatato, ovato-rotun-

dato, femoribus posticis subtus obsolete unidentatis.—Long, 2 lin.

Hab. Amazons.

Lamprospherus eruginosus.

I. subglobosus, dorso obsolete gibbosus, niger, nitidus, antennis (his

apice fuscis), abdominis margine pedibusque fulvis; supra obscure

- viridi-ceeruleus, capite, thoracis apice lateribusque elytrorumque

margine zeneis ; thorace crebre punctato; elytris apice extremo

rufo-fulvis, seriatim punctatis, interstitiis elevatis ; femoribus pos-

ticis subtus unidentatis.—Long. 13 lin.

Hab, Amazons.

Genus Curysocuus, Redtenb.

Chrysochus Chinensis.

C. oblongo-elongatus, convexus, nitido-ceeruleus, antennis nigris,

articulis oblongo-obovatis ; thorace subgloboso, subremote punc-

tato ; elytris irregulariter, ad suturam confuse subseriatim, punc-

tatis. '

Var. A. minor, Obscure ceeruleus aut nigro-ceeruleus.—Long. 6,

var. 4-5 lin. |

Hab. Northern China.

Nearly allied to the European species, C. pretiosus ; but the

average size of the typical form is much greater, being inter-

mediate between that insect and C. Asiaticus: in the present

species the thorax is more globose and less closely punctured ;

the elytra are also differently punctured, and the joints of the

antennee longer.

Chrysochus thoracicus.

C. oblongo-ovatus, valde convexus, nitido-ceeruleo-niger, oculorum

orbitis, pleuris scutelloque viridi-cyaneis ; pedibus obsolete seneo-

micantibus ; fronte thoraceque subremote punctatis, nitido-cupreis,

illo medio longitudinaliter canaliculato, hoc subgloboso ; elytris

subseriatim punctatis.—Long. 34 lin.

Hab. Northern China.

Genus Corynopgs, Hope.

Corynodes gloriosus.

C. oblongus, convexus, nitido-purpureus ; thorace irregulariter hie

illic fortiter punctato ; elytris crebre punctatis, aureo- aut viridi-

eeneis, plaga humerali apiceque purpureis.—Long. 5-6 lin.

Hab. Northern India.

126 Mr. J, 8. Baly on new Phytophagous Insects.

Genus CurysoLampra, Baly.

Caput fere perpendiculare, ad marginem posticum oculorum insertum;

oculis anguste ovatis, intra obsolete sinuatis; antennis gracilibus,

filiformibus, corporis longitudini fere eequalibus, articulo primo

~ incrassato, secundo brevi, duobus proximis sequalibus, quarto

aullo longiore, ceeteris huic et inter se fere wqualibus ; palpis

maxillaribus clavatis, articulo ultimo ovato. Thorax transversus,

- convexus, angulis anticis declivibus. Zlytra oblongo-ovata, con-

vexa. Pedes modice robusti, femoribus anticis incrassatis, subtus

dente acuto armatis ; ¢arsis posticis articulo primo duobus sequen-

‘tibus eequali, a basi ad apicem ampliato, secundo trigonato, tertio

hoc sho latiore, fere ad basin diviso ; wnguiculis dente compresso

armatis. Prosternum basi longitudine vix angustius, lateribus con-

_ cayis. Corpus oblongum, convexum.

Type, Chrysolampra splendens, Baly.

Chrysolampra splendens.

C. oblongo-elongata, viridi-zenea, auro resplendens, ore antennisque

nigris, labro fulvo; thorace remote punctato ; elytris irregulariter,

prope suturam subseriatim, punctatis, punctis ad latera fortiter

impressis, interstitiis elevatis—Long. 4-5 lin.

Hab. Northern China.

Genus DERMOXANTHUS.

Caput perpendiculare, thorace ad oculorum marginem insertum ;

* oculis ovatis, intra leniter sinuatis; antennis corporis dimidio lon-

gioribus, gracilibus, ad apicem paullo incrassatis et compressis,

articulo primo incrassato, obovato, secundo brevi, oblongo (ceotaria

elongatis), tribus proximis filiformibus, tertio quintoque eequalibus,

quarto paullo breviore, reliquis perparum leniter compressis et

incrassatis, ultimo oyvato; mandibulis magnis, curvatis; palpis

mawillaribus subfiliformibus, articulo ultimo ovato. - Thorax sub-

eylindricus. Seutellum semiovatum. Llytra subelongata, con-

vexa. Pedes modice robusti, simplices; tarsis posticis articulo

primo duobus sequentibus conjunctim breviore, subtriangulo, basi

angustato, secundo trigonato, tertio hoc latiore, fere ad basin diviso,

unguiculis appendiculatis. Prosternum subtrapeziforme, a basi ad

apicem angustatum, lateribus bisinuatis, medio in dentem indi-

. Stinctum productis; mesosternum oblongum, subpentagonum.

Corpus elongatum, subcylindricum.

Type, Dermoxanthus fulvus, Baly,

Dermoxanthus fulvus.

D, elongatus, subcylindricus, nitido-fulvus, antennis extrorsum man-

dibulisque apice nigris, tarsis piceis; elytris parallelis, utrisque

_ punctorum seriebus 11 impressis, prima abbreviata, punctis in striig

confuse gemellato-dispositis, interstitiis ad latera subcostatis.—

Long. 5 lin. ssl

Hab, Old Calabar.

Mr. J..8, Baly on new Phytophagous Insects. 127

Dermoxanthus fraternus.

D. elongatus, subcylindricus, nitido-fulvus, antennis extrorsum ni-

gris, pedibus piceis; thoracis latitudine longitudini eequali; ely-

_ tris ad apicem leniter angustatis, utrisque punctorum seriebus 11]

impressis, prima abbreviata, punctis in striis in serie unica inordi-

natim dispositis.—Long 33-43 lin.

Hab. Old Calabar.

_ Genus STENOLAMPRA.

Caput perpendiculare, in thoracem ad oculorum marginem insertum ;

oculis ovatis, intra emarginatis; antennis filiformibus, corporis

longitudini fere sequalibus, articulo primo incrassato, secundo

brevi (ceteris saclittits filiformibus), duobus proximis eequalibus,

quarto paullo elongato, reliquis huic et inter se fere sequalibus,

ultimo angustato-ovato ; palpis mazillaribus articulo ultimo ovato,

apice conico. Thorax subcylindricus, margine laterali multi-

dentatus. Scutellum subquadratum, apice obtusum. Elytra sub-

elongata, postice vix angustata, convexa. Pedes subelongati, fe-

moribus leniter incrassatis, anticis subtus dente creteeformi armatis;

tarsis posticis articulo primo angustato, duobus proximis fere

eequali, secundo elongato trigonato, apice emarginato, tertio hoc

vix latiore, fere ad basin diviso, unguiculis basi dentatis. Proster-

num late subquadratum ; mesosternum oblongo-trapeziforme, apice

obtusum. Corpus elongatum, convexum.

Type, Stenolampra costata, Baly.

Stenolampra costata.

S. anguste elongata, convexa, subtus nigro-picea, infra eenea, nitida,

antennis fulvis, articulis basalibus infuscatis, capite remote punc-

tato, ore nigro-piceo; thorace evidenter subremote punctato, mar-

gine laterali tridentato; elytris basi thorace latioribus, postice

paullo angustatis, convexis, utrisque striis 11 punctorum im-

pressis, prima abbreviata, punctis in striis confuse gemellato-

dispositis, interstitiis convexis, elevatis, postice valde costatis, cos-

tis paullo ante apicem abrupte abbreviatis ; cupreis, anguste zeneo-

marginatis. ,

Var. A. Elytris concoloribus.—Long. 4-5 lin.

Hab. Ega, Upper Amazons.

Stenolampra geniculata.

S. elongata, convexa, fulya, nitida, geniculis nigris; thorace remote

punctato, lateribus bidentato; elytris anguste oblongis, postice

vix angustatis, subseriatim punctatis, vitta submarginali tota inter-

stitiisque nonnullis paullo ante apicem, eleyatis ; fulyo-brunneis,

metallico-czeruleo vix micantibus.—Long. 4 lin.

Hab. Kga, Upper Amazons.

Broader and less elongate than the preceding species.

128 Mr. J. 8. Baly on new Phytophagous Insects.

Genus Typornorus, Erichs.

Typophorus quadripustulatus.

7’. ovatus, convexus, nitido-niger, antennarum basi, labro, fronte

elytrorumque maculis quatuor rufis ; capite rugoso; thorace sub-

remote evidenter, elytris minus regulariter (preesertim ad latera),

seriatim oc puree 3} ry spe

Hab. 2 PLilepop-

Typophorus basalis.

T. ovatus, convexus, nitido-ceeruleo-niger, antennarum basi fulva;

elytris infra basin leniter transversim impressis, regulariter seriatim

punctatis, punctis ad apicem obsoletis ; parte tertia antica testa-

cea.—Long. 4 lin.

Hab. Brazil.

Typophorus Kirbii.

T. ovatus, convexus, obscure nitido-zeneo-niger, antennarum basi

fulva; elytris infra basin vix transversim impressis, regulariter

seriatim punctatis, punctis ad apicem tenuissimis, utrisque fascia

lata basali rufa.—Long. 3 lin.

Hab. Brazil.

Narrower than 7. basalis ; one-half the size; the punctures

on the elytra visible to the apex.

Typophorus obliquus.

T. ovatus, convexus, nitido-seneo-niger, antennarum basi fulva; ely-

tris infra basin leniter transversim impressis, regulariter seriatim

punctatis, punctis ad apicem obsoletis, utrisque plaga magna

basali, a sutura ad marginem lateralem extensa, postice obliqua,

rufa.—Long. 3 lin.

Hab. Venezuela.

Typophorus humeralis.

T. ovatus, convexus, nitido-zeneo-niger, antennarum basi fulva; ely-

tris infra basin valde transversim impressis, regulariter seriatim

punctatis, punctis ad apicem obsoletis, utrisque plaga magna hu-

merali testacea.—Long. 23 lin.

Hab, Guatemala.

Typophorus ruficollis.

T. ovatus, convexus, nitido-niger, capite, antennarum basi, thorace,

scutello, elytrorumque parte tertia antica rufis ; elytris infra basin

transversim impressis, seriatim punctatis, punctis ad apicem fere

obsoletis.—Long. 3} lin.

Hab. Brazil.

[To be continued. |

Mr. J. Miers on Diclidanthera. 129

XIV.—On Diclidanthera. By Joun Mimrs, F.R.S., F.L.S. &c.

THis genus, established by Prof. Von Martius in 1826, was

referred by him to Styracea, on account of its gamopetalous

corolla (its stamens being adnate to it, and double the number

of its lobes), its simple style, its 5-celled ovary with pendent

ovules, its drupaceous fruit, often by abortion monospermous,

and its albuminous seed, enclosing an embryo with a superior

radicle.

Prof. Lindley (in 1836), following this indication, in his

‘Introduction to Botany,’ placed the genus in Styracee, after

Halesia.

Owing to the peculiar structure of its anthers, Endlicher (in

1839), in his ‘ Genera Plantarum,’ retained it in the same linear

position, but separated it as a distinct section, following Styracee.

No further notice was taken of it until Prof. A. DeCandolle

(in 1844), in his monograph of the last-mentioned order (Prodr.

vill. 245), merely alluded to it when he excluded it from that

family, on the ground of its free ovary, its anthers fixed in the

mouth of the tube of the corolla, its pollen striated transversely,

and its minute embryo; but he did not assign it any other

position.

Prof. Lindley (in 1846), in his ‘ Vegetable Kingdom,’ arranged

it, in the Appendix, among those genera whose precise locality

In the system is not ascertained. :

In 1852 I offered a few observations*, indicating its probable

affinity with Hamamelidacee ; but a more critical examination of

the genus has since convinced me that it has a nearer affinity

elsewhere.

Prof. Von Martius (in 1856), in his ‘Flora Brasiliensis’

(fase. 17. p. 11. pl. 4), extended the recital of its generic fea-

tures, describing at full length, and figuring with much detail of

analysis, the two species he had delineated in his ‘ Nova Genera

et Species’ thirty years. previously. My own observations,

aided by the drawings and analyses made in 1837 upon the

living plant, differ in several points of structure from those

details, as I will presently show; and upon these facts I will

proceed to discuss the question of the true affinity of the genus.

Prof. Von Martius, in his later work, after enumerating the

several characters: showing its affinity towards Styracee, expresses

his opinion that this relationship rests more on outward appear-

ances than on reality; and he proceeds to state his reasons for

suggesting its nearer affinity to Moutabea (which genus he

illustrates at the same time), and, through it, to Polygalacee.

. Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 2. ix. 130; Contrib. to Bot. p- 130.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.3. Vol.iv. — 9

180 Mr. J. Miers on Diclidanthera.

This affinity does not appear to me evident, for the following

reasons :—in Moutabea, both calyx and corolla are really tubular,

and are confluent together for half their length; the borders of

the calyx and corolla are both alike in size, and each divided

into five segments of unequal proportions; the stamens are

combined into a free tube terminating in a ventricose fleshy

hood, cleft on one side, as in Polygalacee,—points of structure

at variance with those of Diclidanthera. Again, in Moutabea

the ovules are attached by their middle to the centre of the

axile column ; the seed has no albumen, and its embryo has

large oblong fleshy cotyledons, with a minute radicle drawn in

between them on the side of the shorter axis,—features, again,

incompatible with all that is found in Dicldanthera.

In this genus, as stated on a former oceasion*, although the

corolla assumes a tubular form, it is not really gamopetalous ;

the tube is composed of five narrow linear petals, loosely held in

juxtaposition by the simple application and agglutination of the

thin membranaceous stamens upon their inner surface. Of this

fact we may easily be convinced by moistening a flower, then

laying hold, one by one, of each segment of the border and

pulling it downwards, when each petal eomes away separately,

without the laceration of either of its margins. Indeed, Mar-

tius, in describing the corolla as being monopetalous, qualifies

this by admitting it to be “quasi a petalis 5 secundum mar-

ginem leviter coalitis:” but in stating that the free lobes of its

border have a quincuncially imbricated zstivation, he has over-

looked the fact that the margins of their lower portions, in

forming the tube, overlap each other contorsively,—that is to

say, if we look from the centre of the flower, the dexter margin

of each petal is introrse, while the sinister side is extrorse, and

quite free in its entire length, appearing like a keel twisted

sideways, and ciliated to the base: they are simply held toge-

ther, as above mentioned, by the adhesion of the extremely thin

monadelphous tube of the stamens; and from the pomt at

which that tube terminates, the remaining upper portions are

quite free, constituting what have been termed the segments of

the border. The same fact is again shown by laying hold of

each anther separately and pulling it downwards, when a cor-

responding strip of the staminal tube is torn away to the

base, and the petals are thus left quite free: this tube is too

delicate and membranaceous to be detached in an entire state

without laceration; but the structure, by the treatment I have

mentioned, is thus rendered manifest. All the parts of the

flower are isometrical in number, and symmetrically arranged :

five free linear sepals rise from the hemispherical cup of the

* Ann, Nat. Hist, ser. 2. ix. 130; Contrib. to Bot. p. 130,

Mr. J. Miers on Diclidanthera. 181:

calyx ; five alternate petals spring from the margin of thé ¢upular

disk, which is adnate to this cup; and ten anthers in one regular

series are disposed on the summit of the adnate tube formed ‘of

the confluent filaments, five being alternate and five opposite

to the petals, so that they thus appear sessile in the mouth of

the seemingly gamopetalous tube of the corolla. The structuré

of these anthers offers a striking peculiarity : they are reniform,

compressed, erect, affixed by their basal sinus upon a very short

and broad portion of the filametits, which are conjoined below

into a monadelphous adnate tube, as before mentioned: thesé

anthers consist of two collateral cells, united into a compact

body; and they open a little obliquely by a lateral fissure, or

rather by a hippocrepial line round their margin, into two un-

equal valves, the posterior retaining its naturally erect position,

the anterior valve becoming bent downwards. If we compare

this structure with the stamens of Biitineria, we perceive a close

similarity between them,—the chief difference being that in the

latter ease the monadelphous tube of the stamens is free from

the corolla down to its base, the union of the filaments is theré

not complete, and the free portions of the filaments appear 4s so

many segments of the border of the tube. Gay, in his mono-

graph of the family of the Biittneriacee, shows that in Commer-

_ sonia Fraseri* five of these stamens are anantherous, much

extended, and 3-fid, and five alternately short and antheriferous }

its anthers are reniform, like those of Diclidanthera, and are

fixed by their sinus to the apex of the short broad filament,

whieh is reflexed at its apex, and the stamens appear as if they

were extrorse; each anther, in like manner, opens by a hippo-

crepial line bilabiately, the internal valve remaining pendent,

and the more external valve rising into a vertical position, so

that the anther thus expanded is peltate, its cells being colla-

terally placed. If we imagine the monadelphous tube in this

casé, as well as its free segments, to be agglutinated to the

corolla, as in Diclidanthera, the anthers would necessarily be

érect, instead of reflexed, we should find them placed exactly as

in that genus, and their dehiscence would be precisely similar.

The ovary is globular, decidedly stipitate, as in Biitineria,

aud in like manner five-celled, with two ovules, one of them

often rudimentary, suspended from the central-column below

the apex of each cell by a very short funicle; the primine has

a wide tubular mouth in its summit, close to the funicle ; and the

raphe is distinguishable, extending along the ventral side to the

base. Although, in the Biitineria, the ovules are generally nu-

merous in each cell, they are reduced to two, placed collaterally,

in Rulingia. In the ripe fruit of Diclidanthera, each suspended

* Mém. du Mus. x. p. 215, tab, 15. figs. 8, 9, 10, kn

182 Mr. J. Miers on Diclidanthera,

seed is oval and compressed: the external tunic, which becomes

black in drying, is covered with a white retrorse pubescence :

the intermediate tunic is somewhat coriaceous and of a red

colour, polished, and free from the outer tunic in the fresh state,

but becomes intimately agglutinated to it in drying ; it is marked

by a distinct hilar scar at its summit when fresh, and by a cha-

lazal areole at its base: the imner integument is white and

membranaceous. The embryo is of the breadth, and éths of

the length of the fleshy albumen by which it is enveloped; the

cotyledons are large, nearly orbicular, slightly cordate at their

base, thin, foliaceous, veined, and of a greenish colour in the

living state ; the radicle is short and terete, and nearly touches

the summit. This embryo is described and figured by Von

Martius as being very minute, in the summit of the albumen:

this is certainly an error, originating probably in the seeds

examined by him being in an immature state. It should be

observed that this structure resembles that of the seeds of Ru-

lingia, Commersonia, Abroma, Guazuma, and of all the Lasio-

petalee and Hermanniee.

From these several points of structure, it is. evident that

Diclidanthera bears little relation towards the Ebenacee, Styra-

cee, or Polygalacee, as suggested by botanists; for though it

has some features approaching the latter family, it is totally

distinct from it in the great symmetry of all its parts and the

structure of its stamens. The facts above described show. its

near affinity to Biittneriacee, among which family the genus

Philippodendron presents many points of close analogy to that

under consideration: it exhibits in an equal degree perfect

symmetry in its parts; the monadelphous tube of the stamens

is agglutinated to the corolla; its sessile anthers, double in

number to the petals, burst transversely into two valves; a

single ovule is suspended from the angle in the summit of. each

cell of the ovary; it has a simple style and a clavate stigma.

The pedicels of the flowers of Diclidanthera also haye each three

very deciduous bracts at their base, and are articulated upon as

many glands, as frequently observed in Biittneriee ; and its ligu-

liform petals exhibit the contorsive imbrication of their margins,

which is so marked a feature in that family. We may further

add to these points of approximation the analogy of its stipules,

which offer so marked a feature in that order; they are present

in Diclidanthera, although very deciduous, and they are accom-

panied by peculiar persistent glands. From the Phzlippodendree,

through Diclidanthera, there is a more perfect transition-link

between Biitineriacee and Sterculiacee, especially with the tribe

Myrodieez, with which our genus has several characters in

common.

Mr. J. Miers on Diclidanthera. 133

The following is an emended character of the genus, based

upon my own observations :

DictipantuHeRA, Mart. Pluchia, Vell.—Flores hermaphroditi.

Calyx in imo hemisphericus et hinc cum disco cupuliformi

carnoso adnatus, superne in sepala 5, linearia, obtusa, zequa-

lia, utrinque pilosa, estivatione quincuncialiter imbricata,

decidua, divisus. Petala 5, equalia, sepalis 2-3-plo longiora

et alterna, margine disci enata, et ultra medium ad tubum

staminiferum agglutinata, hinc pseudo-gamopetala, margini-

bus contorsive imbricatis, sinistris connatis, dextris liberis,

ciliatis, et carinis totidem obliquis efformantibus, supra tubum

-omnino libera, apicem versus paullulo latiora, obtusa, sub-

patentia, zestivatione quincuncialiter imbricata. Stamina mo-

nadelpha, cum petalis orta, filamenta in tubum integrum,

cylindricum, elongatum, tenuissime membranaceum, ad pe-

tala arcte agglutinatum, 10-nervem, coalita: anthere 10,

eequales, uniseriate, in marginem tubi filamentorum insertz,

erectze (et ut videtur in fauce tubi-corolle sessiles), reni-

formi-ovatee, 2-loculares, loculis collateralibus sine connectivo

coalitis, transversim 2-valves, rima oblique hippocrepica de-

hiscentes, valva postica paullo majore erecta, antica hiante

deflexa et e basi pendula. Pollen globosum, vittis 4 notatum,

et transversim creberrime lineatum. Ovarium parvum, sub-

globosum, glabrum, stipitatum, obsolete 5-sulcatum, 5-locu-

lare; ovula in quoque loculo bina (uno minore et effoeto), ad

axin centralem infra apicem suspensa, micropylo supero, ra-

phide ventrali. Stylus simplex, pilosus, stamina excedens.

Stigma parvum, clavatum, breviter 5-lobum. Drupa globosa,

cupula parva calycina suffulta, sicca, coriacea, indehiscens,

5-locularis, 5-sperma, aut abortu 2-3-sperma. Semen sus-

pensum, ovatum, compressum ; integumenta 3, extimum fus-

cum, retrorsum pilosum, pilis albidis, sub lenti rugoso-punc-

-tatum, intermedium rubellum, nitidum, crassiusculum, vertice

hilo notatum, basi chalaza signatum, 7ntimum membranaceum.

Embryo in albumen tenue, carnosum, paullo longius inclusus ;

cotyledonibus suborbicularibus, subcordatis, planis, foliaceis,

viridiusculis, albumini fere zquilatis, et paullo brevioribus,

-radicula brevi, tereti, supera, summum attingente.

Arbuscule Brasilienses intertropice, ligno duro rigido, ramis sub-

sarmentosis, ramulis sepissime pendulis ; folia petiolata, inte-

gerrima, nitida, valde reticulata, glabra, in nervis puberula,

glandulis paucis sepe in dichotomiam nervorum immersis ; petiolus

in amo articulatus; stipule bine, acute, decidue, utrinque e

glandula umbilicata orte ; inflorescentia racemosa ; racemi folio

breviores, in ramulis novellis axillaribus terminales, pluriflori ;

134 Mr, J. Miers on Diclidanthera.

flores alterni breviter pedicellati; pedicellus breviusculus, e no-

dulo 3-tuberculato ortus, in tmo articulatus et 3-bracteatus ;

bracteze parve, acute, valde decidue ; corolla ochroleuca, sicct-

tate purpurascens ; fructus cerasiformis,

1. Diclidanthera penduliflora, Mart. Nov. Gen. 1i. 140, tab. 196 ;

~ Flor. Brasil. fasc. xvii. 11, tab. 4. fig. 1 ;—ramis pendulis,

ramulis subpuberulis ; foliis oblongis yel lanceolato-oblongis,

utrinque acutis, supra lucidis, hine ad basin petiolum versus

2-glandulosis, costa media inferne rufescente, glabris, utrin-

que valde reticulatis, petiolo tereti, pubescente; racemis in

ramulis novellis terminalibus, folii floriferi fere longitudine ;

sepalis extus fere glabris, sub lente sparse retrorsum puberulis,

corolle glabre ochroleuce tertia parte Jongitudinis.—Brasilia

tropica, ad fluv. Amazonas—. s. in herb. meo,—prope Santarem

(Spruce).

Prof. Martius describes it as a tree 10 to 15 feet high, with

loose pendulous and subscandent branches, the leaves being

4, to 6 inches long and 12 to 18 lines broad. . In Spruce’s speci-

men they measure 4 inches in length, and 15 to 17 lines in

breadth, on a petiole 3 lines long. In the size of the tree, its

habit, in the form of its leaves, their size and colour, this spe-

cies is scarcely to be distinguished from the following one, the

only valid specific difference being in the two basal glands

constantly seen on the upper side of the leaf, at the point of

junction of its blade with the petiole, which are always wanting

in D. laurifolia. The corolla is a little more slender and rather

longer in regard to the calyx, and when dried, of a brighter

crimson colour ; its pedicel is only half a line long; the sepals,

which become reddish in drying, are 4 lines long and 1 line

broad ; the length of the corolla is 10 or 11 lines, including the

border of 3 lines, the tube being only a line in diameter,

Var. B. peneantha, Mart. loc. cit. .D. Martii, Pipp. MSS. in

herb. 2883 ;— foliis. brevioribus, latioribus, ovato-oblongis,

basi subrotundatis, petiolis evidentius puberulis; racemis

depauperatis (2-3-floris) petiolo 2-plo longioribus ; calycibus

evidentius pubentibus.”—Fluv. Amazonas, Ega (Péppig).

This variety I have not seen. In the form of its leaves it seems

to approach more to D. elliptica; but the presence or absence of

the basal glands on the upper surface of the leaves will deter-

mine to which species it belong, The shortness of its racemes,

which are only half an inch in length, and its being only two-

or three-flowered, if a constant character, would suggest the

possibility of its being accompanied by other marked specific

differences.

Mr. J. Miers on Diclidanthera; 135

2. Dichdanthera laurifolia, Mart. loc. eit. ;—ramis glabris, sub-

scandentibus ; ramulis subpendulis et puberulis; foliis ellip-

tico- vel lanceolato-oblongis, utrinque subacutis, glaberrimis,

valde reticulatis, margine cartilagineo rubello reflexo, supra

nitidis, basi superne eglandulosis, subtus costa media rubella,

seepe in dichotomia nervorum glandula umbilicata instructis,

petiolo tereti, pubescente ; racemis in ramulis novellis termi-

nalibus, folio subbrevioribus ; sepalis utrinque puberis ; co-

rolla subglabra, ochroleuca, sicca purpurascente.—Brasilia,

Proy. Rio de Janeiro.—v. v, ad Santa Theresa, in ascensu ad

Montem Corcovadensem. |

A tree about 15 feet high, with a habit quite as subscandent

as the preceding species, and with its branchlets half-twining,

half-pendulous: its leaves are from 2 to 3 inches long, 12 or

14 lines broad, upon a petiole 3 lines in length; they are hardly

distinguishable in form and appearance from the former, and in

both species they assume a reddish hue in drying; below they

are of a pale green, with a reddish midrib and prominent ana-

stomosing nervures. In this species more particularly, small

round glands with an umbilicated centre are often, but not con-

stantly, found immersed in the forked points of the nervures on

the under side only of the leaf, and are never seen upon the

upper surface as indicated in the preceding species. In both

species the stipules are seen on each side of the insertion of the

articulated petiole, linear, acute, erect, and half a line long, each

springing out of a gland similar to those seen on the under

side of the leaf. The racemes, which grow out of the extremi-

ties of the younger branchlets, are generally about 14 inch long,

with about eight to ten flowers placed alternately ;. the pedicel

of each flower is a line in length, and proceeds from a prominent

nodule formed of three confluent glands, which bear as many

deciduous bracts, similar to those which support the stipules.

The sepals are 4 lines long, 1 line broad, and retrorsely pubes-

cent on both sides. The corolla is of a yellowish white (not

white, as stated), which in drying becomes of a bright red

colour: including the portions that form the border, which are

3 lies long and barely a line broad, it measures 9 lines.

A singular peculiarity is observable in its xstivation :—the free

margin of each petal, where the adherent portions form the

tube, is turned in the same direction, showing a contorsive im-

brication, while the free portions constituting the border are

quincuncially imbricated in the bud. The exsuccous rugose

drupe is about 8 lines in diameter, and is of a reddish colour

when fresh, becoming fuscous brown when dry, and quite coria-

ceous, with chartaceous dissepiments. The suspended seeds,

186 Mr. J. Miers on Diclidanthera.

solitary in each cell, are covered with a white and almost woolly

pubescence ; they are 5 lines long, 3 lines broad, and 2 lines in

thickness: the albumen is white and fleshy: the embryo is

quite green, the cotyledons being orbicular, 24 lines in dia-

meter; its superior radicle, ? of a line long, nearly touches the

summit.

3. Diclidanthera elliptica, n. sp. Pluchia curiosa?, Vell. Flor.

Flum., vol. iv. tab. 20, text, p. 157 ;—foliis ellipticis vel late ova-

tis, apice subacutis et mucronatis, basi obtusioribus, utrinque

pallide viridibus, valde reticulatis et subpuberulis (preesertim

in costa media straminea, et in nervibus), margine vix reflexo,

superne opacis, omnino eglandulosis, subtus rarius in dicho-

tomiis nervorum glanduliferis, petiolo tenui, pubescente ;

racemis plurifloris, in ramulis novellis terminalibus, folio in-

terdum longioribus; sepalis utrmque valde pubescentibus,

corolla dimidio brevioribus, oblongis, obtusis ; corolla fusciore

subpuberula, marginibus petalorum in tubum longe ciliatis.—

Brasilia.—v. s. in herb. meo,—Prov. Minas Geraés (Gardner,

5002); Iguassu, in Prov. Rio de Janeiro (filio meo lecta).

This is certainly a very distinct species, with quite a different

aspect from the two former. It has scarcely the same scandent

habit ; the leaves are larger, broader in proportion, paler, greener

more dull on the upper surface when dried, and mucronate at

the point; they are 33 inches long, 17-2 inches broad, on a

petiole of 23 lines; the midrib is of a pale straw-colour; they

bear no basal glands on the upper surface, as in D. penduliflora,

but they have similar glands on the nerval furcations, as in the

last species. The racemes are similarly terminal, 13-2 inches

long, 10-15-flowered; the pedicels are 1 line long; the sepals

3 lines; the corolla rarely exceeds 6 lines in total length, the

tube being only 4 lines long, broader than in the preceding spe-

cies, and always of a dark fuscous red when dry, the margins of

the limb being somewhat paler. The calyx, as well as the whole

branchlet, is more densely pubescent, being almost tomentose.

The description given in the text of Velloz of his Pluchia curiosa

corresponds better with this species than with the preceding one,

to which it is referred by Prof. Martius. By Velloz it is placed

in Octandria Monogynia: I have found it to happen occasion-

ally, in all the species, that one or two of the anthers are defi-

cient; but in that case the tube of the stamens is constantly

10-nerved*,

* A drawing of this species, together with analytical details of the struc-

ture of the flower and seed of Diclidanthera laurifolia, will be given in

the ‘ Contributions to Botany,’ pl. 32.;

Prof, Allman on the Hydroid Zoophytes. 187

XV.—Notes on the Hydroid Zoophytes. By Prof. AnuMan.

I. Laomedea flexuosa, Hincks.

In the polypes of Laomedea flexuosa, the ectoderm of the ten-

tacles is extended laterally between these organs for a distance

of about a fourth of their entire length from their origin, so as

to form a web-like membrane, similar to that already pointed

out by Mr. Alder in L. acuminata.

This peculiarity in a very common zoophyte seems to have

been hitherto overlooked, though, in a morphological point of

view, it is a character of much importance.

Il. ‘The extra-capsular medusiform sporosacs ( meconidia”’) of

Laomedea, and the determination of the species in which they

they are found.

In a communication on the Reproductive Organs of the

Hydroid Zoophytes, read last year before the Royal Society of

Edinburgh *, I referred to the extra-capsular medusiform sporo-

sacs, so well known from Lovén’s description of them in a zoo-

phyte which he names Campanularia (Laomedea) geniculata, and

expressed my opinion that Lovén’s zoophyte was not truly Lao-

medea geniculata, but L. flexuosa of Hincks, a species to which

I referred similar bodies which I had myself examined.

Mr. Alder, writing to me since then, suggests the possibility

of the species which gives rise to these sporosacs being neither

the one nor the other, but a distinct, though not yet discrimi-

nated, species.

As we know that both ZL. geniculata and L. flexuosa give rise

also to a different kind of sexual bud, it will be at once seen

that this question has an important physiological significance

apart from its bearing upon simple descriptive diagnosis ; and

I therefore availed myself of the first opportunity to inquire

critically into the subject. The result has been a conviction

that Mr. Alder’s doubts are well-founded.

A few weeks since, I obtained upon the shores of Cramond

Island, in the Firth of Forth, a Laomedea, growing on the

fronds of Fucus vesiculosus, and loaded with gonophores, most

of which carried upon their summits the peculiar bodies under

consideration. :

The only described species of Laomedea with which it is pos-

sible to confound the Cramond zoophyte are L. flexuosa, L. ge-

niculata, and L. dichotoma. From L. flexuosa, however, it dif-

fers in the more elongated form of the polype-cells, in the more

conical form of the gonophores, and in the absence of the web

* Proc. Roy. Soc, Edinb. 1858.

138 Prof. Allman on the Hydroid Zoophytes.

which, as already mentioned, connects the bases of the tentacles

in L. flecuosa. From L. geniculata it differs not only in its

being much branched, butin the form of the gonophores, which

in L. geniculata are provided with a short tubular orifice, while

here they have a broad truncated summit, From L. dichotoma

it differs in its mode of branching; but it may be more decidedly

distinguished by the form of its gonophores, which in L, dicho-

toma open by an elevated tubular orifice, as in L. geniculata.

The following diagnosis will serve to give, in a condensed

form, the leading characters of the species :-——

Laomedea Loveni, nov. sp.

Char,—Stem alternately branched, but at irregular intervals.

The ultimate ramuli regularly alternate, given off at nearly equal

intervals from a distinct geniculation of the supporting branch,

which is annulated for a short distance above the origin of each

ramulus. The ultimate ramuli are annulated in thei entire

length, and are nearly or fully as long as the polype-cells.

Polype-cells deep (a little more than twice as deep as wide),

with an even rim.

Gonophores tapering from a broad flat summit to a narrow

base, so as to present the form of an inverted cone, seated on

short annulated peduncles, which spring from the stem close to

the origin of a polypiferous ramulus.

Polypes with from 22 to 30 tentacles, which are not united

at their base by a membrane.

Reproduction by fixed sporosacs which ultimately become

medusiform and extra-capsular (meconidia),

Two distinct forms of this zoophyte must be noticed, which,

though very different in general appearance, cannot be specifi-

cally distinguished from one another.

Var. «. Forming continuous meadow-like growths upon {the

surface of sea-weeds, &c., scarcely exceeding one inch in height.

Var. 8. In long lax tufts, attaining a height of 8 or 4 inches.

It appears to me that it is the var. «. of this species which

was originally described by Lister* under the name of Campa-

nularia geniculata, and afterwards by Lovén+, and again b

Schultze{, under the same name, while I have myself § fallen

into the error of describing it under the name of Laomedea

flecuosa. It is also probably the same which Dr. Wright|| has

described as Laomedea dichotoma.

It is possible there may be more than one species of Laomedea

* Phil. Trans. 1834. + Wiegmann’s Archiv, 1837.

* Miiller’s Archiv, 1851. § Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinb. 1858.

|| Edinb. New Phil. Journ., Jan, 1859, .

Prof. Allman on the Hydroid Zoophytes. 139

which give origin to extra-capsular medusiform sporosaes; as

yet, however, we have no evidence of any other than that here

described. Though Lister is the first author who has spoken

of the remarkable bodies in question, having figured male

examples of them in the paper referred to, yet it is to Lovén we

are indebted for the first accurate and full description of them.

I have therefore thought it right to dedicate the present species

to the Danish naturalist whose name has already become in-

timately associated with these medusiform sporosacs, and to

designate it as Laomedea Loveni. .

_ In the paper above referred to, 1 mentioned my haying failed

to detect in the extra-capsular sporosacs, whether male or female,

any trace of the radiating canals first described by Lovén, In

my more recent examination of these bodies, I was for a long

time, notwithstanding the most careful scrutiny, equally unsuc-

cessful ; but at last a specimen occurred, with female gonophores,

in which the appearance figured by Lovén was not only apparent

but strikingly obvious. I am still, however, of opinion that

this peculiarity of structure is not constant, many specimens

presenting not the slightest trace of it.

The real meaning of these rib-like lines is, after all, a matter

not easily settled. They may be proper tubes, the true repre-

sentatives of the radiating canals of a Medusa; but there seems

at least equal reason to consider them as mere folds of a mem-

brane which lies immediately within the ectothecal covering

of the sporosac, and I confess myself unable to give a decided

opinion on this point. In favour of the former view may be

adduced their undoubtedly tube-like appearance, their occurrence

in fours, and the fact that their presence would be quite in

accordance with what analogy would lead us to expect. On the

other hand, against their being gastro-vascular canals may be

urged their obliteration under slight pressure, the absence of all

trace of motion in their interior, and, above all, their frequent,

if not most usual, non-existence.

The opportunities I have just had of examining these extra-

capsular sporosacs haye enabled me to determine their exact

structure more fully than appears to have been yet done, I

now find that three separate membranes enter into the eompo-

sition of their walls. Most internally is a membrane which

immediately confines the ova or spermatozoa, and which was

originally the ectodermal layer of the manubrium. This invyest-

ment is generally of short duration, becoming absorbed or

ruptured under the increasing volume of the generative products,

It is the endotheque, according to the terminology I have already

ventured to propose (Proc. Royal Soc. Edin. Dec. 1858). Most

externally is a thick ectodermal layer loaded with thread-cells

140 Prof, Allman on the Hydroid Zoophytes.

(the ectotheque) ; and between these two is a third membrane,

which has been hitherto overlooked, and which is the true

representative of the umbrella of a Medusa. It is on the

summit of this middle sac, or mesotheque, as it may be appro-

priately called, and not on that of the ectotheque, as I formerly

believed, that the short tentacles which crown the sporosac

originate; they surround an orifice in the mesotheque, and pass

out through a corresponding orifice in the ectotheque. The

walls of the mesotheque are thickened round the orifice, and

here apparently contain a circular canal, as indicated by the

presence of coloured granules: if radiating canals really exist,

it is in this membrane that they are developed.

The tentacles possess, like the marginal tentacles of a true

Medusa, considerable contractility. They may frequently be

seen of very different lengths in different sporosacs of the same

specimen ; and this, which is really the result of different degrees

of contraction, may be easily taken for different degrees of de-

velopment, the tentacles being especially sluggish in the act of

extension or contraction. Their length when fully extended, in

the female sporosac, will. equal about half the diameter of the

sporosac, while under external irritation they will slowly contract

to a third of their original length, and will then show themselves

as a little stellate crown on the summit of the sporosac. They

vary in number; I have counted in the female sporosac from 8

to 16 or 20. They are composed of ectoderm and endoderm,

the ectoderm containing thread-cells, and the endoderm present-

ing the usual septate appearance. They are less numerous and

less developed in the male than in the female.

That the bodies now described belong to the class of sporosacs

rather than Medusz, must, I think, be admitted. In all essential

points they agree with the sporosacs of Tubularia indivisa, in

which a mesotheque is fully developed*; and it should also be

borne in mind that when Meduse are produced in the Laomedee

and Campanularie they belong to a different type, the generative

products being developed upon the course of the radiating canals,

and not, as in these medusiform sporosacs, in the walls of the

manubrium. |

They are thus of no little interest in the morphology of the

zoophytes ; and it will be found convenient to speak of them by

a special name. Their singular resemblance, especially when

their tentacles-are contracted, to a poppy-capsule with its sessile

stellate stigma, will instantly strike us, and has suggested to me

the name of meconidiat, by which I propose to designate them.

* See “ Notes on Hydroid Zoophytes” in a previous Number of the

* Annals.’

Tt From pixar, a poppy.

Prof. Allman on the Hydroid Zoophytes. 14}

III. Coryne eximia, nov. sp., and its Medusa.

Attached to rocks and the stems of Laminaria digitata, there

may be met with, at low spring tides in the Firth of Forth, a

Coryne which I am unable to refer to any described species. It

grows in large entangled masses, attaining the height of 3 or 4

imches. It is much and very irregularly branched, but with the

ultimate (polypiferous) ramuli mostly unilateral and springing

nearly at right angles from the supporting branch. The larger

branches are about 0°02” in diameter, and the polypiferous

ramuli about 0°01”. The branches are for the most part annu-

lated at their origin; and the short polypiferous ramuli are

similarly annulated throughout their entire length. The whole

zoophyte is of a pale pink colour, becoming somewhat brighter

in the polypes, and caused by the fine carmine-coloured granules

of the coenosarcal cavity and stomach, with their tint more or

less modified by transmission through the surrounding structures.

- The polypes have from 20 to 30 tentacula. In all the speci-

mens I examined, four tentacles were situated in a regular verticil

immediately behind the mouth; and the remaining tentacles

were scattered over the body of the polype, with scarcely any

tendency to a verticillate arrangement*.

_ From many of the polypes, gonophores were abundantly

evolved. ‘They budded forth from the upper side of the roots of

the tentacles, each supported on the summit of a rather long

peduncle, and including a single Medusa. Some polypes thus

carried a gonophore at the base of almost every tentacle.

If this fine Coryne should really prove, as I believe, unde-

scribed, I would propose for it the name of C. eximia, with the

following diagnosis :—

Char.—Stem much and irregularly branched, forming dense

entangled masses, with the ultimate ramuli mostly unilateral.

Polypary corneous, with the ultimate ramuli annulated in their

whole length, and the greater number of the other branches

with annulations at their origin. ,

Polypes with from 20 to 30 tentacula, which are scattered

over the surface of the body with ‘scarcely any tendency to a

verticillate arrangement, except the first four, which are disposed

in a crucial verticil behind the mouth.

Gonophores simple, medusiferous, peduncled, springing from

the bases of the tentacles over the greater part of the body.

The Medusz, when liberated from. the ectothecal investment

* A point of some interest in the structure of the polype may here be

mentioned. The stomach is not a direct continuation of the canal of the

ccenosare, but the latter enters it upon the summit of a large papilliform

lobe of the endoderm. This condition will, I believe, be also found in

Hydractinia, and is probably not unfrequent among the Tubularidze.

142 Prof. Allman on the Hydroid Zoophytées.

of the gonophore, are seen to be deeply bell-shaped: They are

remarkable for their large size, measuring in their transverse

diameter about 0°06", and alittle more in their vertical diameter.

The manubritum extends to about the middle of the umbrella ;

and the mouth is destitute of tentacles or lobes, There are four

radiating canals—each continuous, at the point where it intersects

the circular canal; with a very extensile marginal tentacle. The

tentacles ate four in number, and originate in a large bulb con-

taining carmine-coloured granules; while a dark-reddish-brown

ocellus is superficially imbedded in a thickened portion of the

ectoderm on the outer side of the bulb.

The bulbous base of the tentacle consists of a dilatation of

the tubular system of the Medusa at the point where the radi-

ating canals enter the circular, and having its endoderm greatly

thickened and lobed, and secreting coloured granules. The

ectoderm is here also much thickened on the inner side of the

base of the tentacle, so as to constitute a cushion-like lobe con-

taining imbedded thread-cells. :

In its extended state the tentacle is seen to have its thread-

cells grouped into very distinct knot-like clusters, which towards

the end of the tentacle are spherical, and so situated as to

appear to be strung upon the tentacle at intervals of about

three times the diameter. of a cluster, but are less regular in

form, and more lateral and alternate in position near the base.

The terminal group of thread-cells forms a spherical bulb on

the tip of the tentacle, somewhat larger than any of the knot-

like groups along its length:

There is no doubt of the complete continuity of the tube of

the tentacle, and coloured granules may be traced from the bulb

at the base to the very tip, though the peculiar arrangement of

the cells of the endoderm near the base would easily give rise to

the belief that the tube was interrupted by transverse septa.

There is a wide velum; and lithocysts are entirely wanting.

The peculiar motion of the corpuscles in the tubular system of

Medusz would naturally be referred to the action of vibratile

cilia lining the walls of the canals, though I believe that these

cilia have never yet become an object of direct observation. In

the present little Medusa, however, I have distinctly seen them

in the radiating canals near the spot where these vessels enter

the circular canal, and again in the upper part of the canals near

their origin in the stomach.

It will be at once apparent that the Medusa of C. eximia

closely resembles that already described by Dujardin under the

generic name of Sthenyo, as proceeding from a Coryne which he

calls Syncoryne decipiens*. Indeed, though the Syncoryne

* Ann. Se. Nat. 1845. )

Prof. Allman on the Hydroid Zoophytes. 148

decipiens of Dujardin is undoubtedly distinct from the species

of the present note, it is difficult to find, in Dujardin’s figure

and description of Sthenyo, any character which can be justly

considered as pointing to a specific distinction between the two

Medusz. It is probable that a more exact comparison with the

living animal would result in the detection of differences not

now apparent; but it is also by no means impossible that we

should fail in the discovery of any such difference, and then we

should have two Medus# with characters specifically identical

proceeding from two polypes with characters specifically di-

stinct,—a fact, it will be at once seen, of great importance in its

bearing on the general question of specific distinction.

At all events, it is quite certain that the value of the dif-

ferences between the Medusze of zoophytes is by no means ne-

cessarily parallel with that between the zoophiytes themselves.

An illustration of this remark is afforded by the Medusa of a

Coryne which I described in the last Number of the ‘ Annals,’

under the name of C. Briareus; and which is assuredly a true

Coryne, though its Medusa is at least generically distinct from

that just described as produced by C. eximia*.

* Since the appearance, in last month’s Number of the ‘ Annals,’ of my

note containing a description of Coryne Briareus, Dr. Strethill Wright

has stated to me his belief that C. Briareus is the same zoophyte as

one already provisionally described under the name of Tubularia implexa

by Mr. Alder, who had not seen the polypes. To Mr. Alder’s Tubularia

implexa Dr. Wright had referred a Coryne which he describes in the July

Number of the ‘ Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal’ under the name

of C. implera. I am not, however, prepared to admit the identity of

Coryne Briareus with either of these zoophytes, though Dr. Wright has

allowed me an opportunity of inspecting specimens of his Coryne preserved

in spirit. |

It has so happened that Dr. Wright and I have been simultaneously

engaged in the investigation of some portions of the invertebrate fauna of

the Firth of Forth; and though our explorations have been conducted

quite independently of one another, it is not to be wondered at, that,

working as we have been over thé same zoological ground, identical

species should occasionally be discovered by both of us. This will explain

how it has occurred that two other zoopliytes which I have described as

néw in the paper just referred to, namely Manicella fusca and Eudendrium

baccatum, have been simultaneously described by. Dr. Wright in the same

month’s Number of the ‘Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal,’—for

I have no doubt of the identity with these species of Dr. Wright’s Bimeria

vestita and Garveia nutans. Dr. Wright’s paper, however, purports to be

a report of a communication made by him to the Royal Physical Society

of Edinburgh in November 1858. Under these circumstances, I am quite

willing to yield the priority of discovery and the right of naming to Dr.

Wright, without, however, thereby admitting that claims of priority are

necessarily valid when based only on communications to Societies which

preserve upon their records no authenticated abstract of the facts com-

miinicated, and which defer publication until many months after the date

claimed for the transaction. Such a practice, at the best, is sure to be

144. Zoological Society :—

In this department of research, we are indeed placed in the

anomalous position of being obliged to designate by distinct

generic and specific names two organisms, as if they were totally

independent, instead of being merely zooids of the same ovum

—terms of one and the same unbroken life-series.

The necessity, however, which we are under of subjecting

to distinct treatment, in descriptive zoology, the polypal and the

medusal terms of this series, renders it impossible to abandon

the practice, even though it be to a certain extent modified

when continued observation shall enable us to refer every

polype-sprung Medusa to its proper zoophyte.

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

November 9, 1858.—Dr. Gray, F.R.S., V.P., in the Chair.

On a Livine Octopus. By J. P. G. Smit, Esa.

In a Letter TO Dr. Gray, F.R.S.

** We found a Sea-spider at Goldthorpe Roads, in St. Bride’s Bay,

which I brought home, and have examined with much interest. Its

habits and attitudes are very different from anything I ever saw

figured. Ienclose a sketch of its appearance when at rest. It seems

very well, and shows great objection to be disturbed.

‘I noticed that the habit of the Cuttle-fish, when in a large pool

on the sands, was to get into a corner formed by a piece of rock, and

to fix itself by the suckers of the arms, sac downwards—and that

much more flattened and spread out than when lying on the bottom

of the vase ; the eyes made the apex of an irregular obtuse pyramid.

It assumed at times a much darker and richer colour, almost chest-

nut, mottled with lighter shades ; and its skin became more wrinkled ;

and instead of two inspirations and exhalations in succession, it only

made one at about the same intervals, but with a much stronger jet

of water through the siphon. Upon my return, I placed it in a

pitcher of salt water inside the large foot-bath ; and while I ran to

the sea to fill a vessel with fresh salt water, it had leaped out upon

the verandah, and then fallen into the road beneath, by which it was

so much injured that it died in the night. After death it became

pallid, with scarcely a trace of colour left, and the eyes wide open,

round, and black. I felt quite sorry to lose the brute: there was

something exceedingly interesting and grotesque about its habits,

attended with loss of time and labour to others who may be working on

the same field, and would admit of great abuse in the hands of less scru-

pulous investigators than my friend Dr, Wright,

Mr. J.P. G. Smith on a@ living Octopus. 145

While in the pool, it walked about occasionally on its arms, with a

spider-like movement.

«The colour was fawn on the upper side of the body and exterior of

the arms, striated with darker hues, forming a sort of wrinkled net-

work ; beneath and inside the arms it is of an opalescent white: when

disturbed or touched, the fawn or reddish-brown colour changes to

a pallid-bluish hue. The eyes are very prominent and frog-like: by

day they remain nearly closed, with the exception of a narrow slit ;

but towards night they open wide, and show deep-black orbs, with

the inside of the eyelids tipped with gold: the lids and the skin

for some little distance beyond are of an intense blood-colour. The

animal has the power of extending the area so coloured, which is

largest at night-time and when disturbed ; while at rest it subsides

considerably, and the colour does not extend beyond the lids. The

arms are eight in number, united at their thicker ends by a web of

skin ; inside, and to their extremities, they are studded with numerous

suckers. The belly or sac has a wide valve-like opening beneath each

eye, through which the creature inhales water, and then, closing them,

drives it out with great force through one or other of the two

siphons, which are also situated below the eyes, and close to the

valves of the stomach.

“While at rest, it coils the arms together beneath the sac-like

body, and remains, attached strongly by the suckers in the thick parts

of its arms, at the bottom of the vase, the eyes uppermost ; and the

back, gently expanding and contracting, is bent forward over the

arms; at long intervals it draws two deep inspirations, driving out

the water through the siphons with great force. It uses only one

siphon at a time ; and the two inspirations follow in quick succession.

Fig. 1.

means that the right siphon, and L. the left, was used.

h. m. &.

ee ee TD

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. iv. 10

146 | Zoological Society .

«The appearance of the animal when in this position is wonder- —

fully like a frog with a very large mouth, the marked division between

the fawn and the whitish colour of the upper and under surface sug-

gesting the idea of the line of the aperture of the mouth (see fig. 1).

“It seems to use the right- or left-hand siphon indifferently. The

siphons are about 1rd of an inch in diameter. It has the power of

walking or moving about upon its arms. It swims rapidly in a

horizontal attitude, elongating the body, and propelling itself with

a frog-like motion, by opening and contracting its arms.

“When I poured off the water, it discharged, at two or three jets

through the siphons, a small quantity of black fluid, which remained

undissolved for some time, in small cobweb-like clouds, floating

about on the water. It has the power of contracting the skin above

the eyes, so as to make a small horn-like projection ; but this only

rarely appears. The belly gives you more the idea of a snout than

of anything else ; it is about the size of a full-sized Turkey’s egg.

It walked high, on the tips of its arms (see fig. 2).”

November 23, 1858.—Dr. Gray, V.P., F.R.S., in the Chair.

Norice oF FIvE Species or Bats In THE COLLECTION OF

L. L. Dituwyn, Esa., M.P.; cottectep 1n LABUAN BY

Mr. James Mottey. By Rosert F. Tomes.

1. Preropus HYPOMELANUS, Temm. Esquiss. Zool. i. p. 61, 1853.

Although the specimen of Pteropus included in the collection for-

warded to me for examination differs very materially in colour from

Mr. R. F. Tomes on some species of Bats. 147

the ordinary examples of the above species, the distribution of the

colours themselves, and the quality and quantity of the fur, together

with an absolute similarity in all other respects, including that of

size, leave no doubt as to its identity with that species. In colour

it more nearly resembles some of the examples of P. funereus, a

species to which it cannot be referred, as it differs greatly, among

other respects, in the form and size of its ears*.

Instead of the usual light rufous on the nape and shoulders ob-

servable in the ordinary examples of P. hypomelanus, the specimen

from Labuan has these parts of a purplish-brown, strongly tinged

with claret-colour ; the fur of the back is also darker ; and the under

parts, instead of being light reddish-brown, have the same dark-

purplish colour as the back of the neck, but less bright.

I have compared the specimen with others from Ternate and

from Macassar, the latter having been collected by Mr. Wallace.

The comparatively short and rounded. ears will at once distinguish

the dark variety of this species from P. funereus, in which they are

longer and more pointed.

2. PACHYSOMA BREVICAUDATUM, Is. Geoff.—Vesp. marginatus,

Hamilton ?.—Péteropus marginatus, Horsf.—Pt. marginatus, Pachy-

soma marginatum, and Pachysoma brevicaudatum, Temm.—Cyno-

pteris marginatus and,C. Horsfieldit, Gray.

Of this species there are two specimens in the collection, both having

the bright-rufous hair on the sides. of the neck which characterizes

the variety which has been. called by Dr. Gray Cynopteris Hors-

fieldii. This vivid colouring occurs most frequently in the Ceylon

specimens. After comparing. a considerable number from various

localities with the type specimens of P. brevicaudatum in the Paris

Museum, I have arrived at the conclusion that all the above species,

given as Synonyms, are referable to it.

3. PHYLLORRHINA LABUANENSIS, 0. S.

I have hitherto seen but one specimen of Horse-shoe Bat resem-

bling the one from Labuan, and that was obtained at Sarawak by

Mr. Wallace. Amongst all the descriptions of Asiatic Rhinolophide

which I have been able to examine, I have not hitherto met with

one which applies to this species; and I therefore regard it as new,

and describe it as follows :—

Facial crests, so far as can be ascertained from the inspection of

dried specimens, very much like those of Phyllorrhina speoris.

Upper incisors rather broad and almost contiguous; in P. speors

they are narrow, and have a considerable central opening. Lower

incisors small, very regular, and trilobed ; canines, above and below,

rather long and slender. Ears of medium size, as broad as high,

* All the examples of P. funereus which I have examined have had the unworn

teeth of young individuals, and moreover exhibited further indications of im-

maturity in the broad and flattened longitudinal crest of the cranium: in older

examples this becomes prominent and acute. I regard the P. funereus as the

young of P. edulis.

10*

148 Zoological Society :—.

pointed, and the outer margin very faintly hollowed out towards the

tip. |

The wings are rather long and narrow, the fourth finger not ex-

ceeding in length the two basal phalanges of the longest finger.

Thumb short, more than half enveloped in membrane.

Fur of the upper parts tricoloured, dusky-grey at the base, suc-

ceeded by yellowish-brown, and this again by darkish umber-brown,

with the extreme tips a little paler. Beneath, the fur is faintly

bicoloured, lightish brown at the base, with the tips of the hairs

rather paler.

The specimen in my own collection, from Sarawak, differs in having

the colours much more vivid. Fur of the upper parts bright cinna-

mon-brown for two-thirds of its length, succeeded by bright rufous

of a somewhat darker hue, with the extreme tips of the hairs a little

paler, giving, when viewed in some lights, a slightly hoary appear-

ance. Beneath, the fur is lightish rufous, a little darker at the root

than at the tip. Membranes rather dark and shining.

The following are the dimensions of these specimens :—

Labuan. Sarawak.

Length of the head and body, about .. 2 3 2

of theta eS ee Se a ee

of the head 5.005...) Gane + as 0 94 97

of the éare7V./) ocagmseewels 0 5 0 55

Breadth of the ears.......:......+.. 0) 54 0 6

Length of the fore-arm ............ 1 10 1 94

of the longest finger ........ 2 10 a

of the fourth finger... ..:6:50:2:0%1 bad

of the thumb and claw ...... 0 3 0 3

of the thbia i. cwsiilain Cif in 0 8} 0 8

of the foot and claws ........ 0 4 0 4

Expanse. of Wings. . ....:..s-¢een8ere12 0 11 8

Obs.—The species to which this is most nearly affined is the

Phyllorrhina speoris ; but it may be readily distinguished by the fol-

lowing points of difference:—P. speoris is constantly somewhat

larger than the present species, and has the head, but more espe-

cially the canine teeth, considerably larger. The tibiee, tov, are not

only longer in actual measure, but also longer in relation to the size

of the animal, in P. speoris, than in the present species. Again, in

P. speoris the free portion of the thumb is longer than the enclosed

part, whilst in the present species the enclosed portion is the longer.

To these differences may be added, that the membranes are much

less translucent, but more shining, in the Labuan species than in

P. speoris.

4. SCOTOPHILUS NITIDUS, 0. s.

In M. Temminck’s monograph of the genus Vespertilio, several

small Asiatic species are described which are affined to the common

Pipistrelle Bat of Europe, and appertain to the genus Scotophilus.

Mr. R. F. Tomes on some species of Bats. 149

They are mostly smaller than that species, but are characterized by

the same subgeneric forms. The following are the species alluded

to tot esp. brachypterus, V. pachypus, V.abramus, and V. Akoko-

muli*, .

To these may be added the V. coromandelicus, F. Cuv., one of

the smallest Bats known; and the species I am about to describe

must be placed in the same list.

In size it is one of the smallest, appearing but little larger than

the V. coromandelicus ; but on closer examination it is found to be

considerably the larger of the two, the slenderness of the bones of

the limbs tending to give it an unsubstantial and small appearance.

The head is somewhat more elevated, and the muzzle rather less

obtuse than in S. lobatus or S. coromandelicus ; but the ears and

tragi are shaped precisely as in those species : viz. the ears are small

and ovoid, with the ends rounded, and with scarcely a perceptible

emargination at their outer margin ; and the tragus is short, of nearly

uniform breadth, curved inwards, and round at the end. As in the

other species of this group, the wing-membranes spring from the

base of the toes ; and these latter constitute one-half the entire length

of the foot. The free portion of the thumb is somewhat longer than

that which is enclosed in the membrane. ‘The tip of the tail is free.

The bones of the wings and legs are more slender in relation to their

length than those of its congeners; and the tibiee are rather longer

relatively.

The fur does not anywhere encroach on the membranes, either

above or beneath, but is strictly confined to the body; it is of me-

dium length, and thick and silky. That of the upper parts is uni-

coloured, dark chestnut-brown, without variation of tint on the dif-

ferent parts of the body; beneath bicoloured, dark brown at the

base, tipped for a third of its length with reddish-brown, a little

paler on the pubes.

Such is the colour of the specimens from Labuan ; but two others

in my own collection, obtained by Mr. Wallace at Sarawak, have all

the upper parts of a dark shining brown, with scarcely a tinge of

chestnut ; and the under parts have the fur tipped with greyish-brown

instead of rufous.

The cranium, in its general conformation, closely resembles that

* I do not include the V. tralatitius of the same author, because it has been

shown by Dr. Gray to be quite a distinct species from the original V. tralatitius

of Dr. Horsfield. It is in fact a true Vespertilio, bearing a great resemblance to

the V. mystacinus of Europe. V. tenuis, according to M. Temminck, is so closely

affined to it, as to be with difficulty distinguished from it ; and we are therefore led

to believe that this is a true Vespertilio also. The so-called V. imbricatus of

Temminck answers well to the true V. tralatitius, and is, I have no doubt, re-

ferable to that species. Of the V. imbricatus of Dr. Horsfield I have as yet seen

but one example, the type specimen, in the Museum at the India House. V. bra-

chypterus is most likely the young of V. tralatitius of Horsfield. V. pachypus is

probably a good species; and the same may be said of V. Akokomuli; but M.

Temminck’s description and figures of V. abramus apply so exactly to the Seoto-

philus lobatus of Gray, that it will probably have to be quoted as a synonym of

the latter species.

150 Zoological Society :—

of the Pipistrelle, but has the facial portion a little broader. As in

that species, there is a rudimentary premolar, immediately behind

the upper canine, and placed in a line with the other teeth, so as to

be visible from the outside. In 8S. tralatitius the second premolar is

contiguous to the canine, and the first or rudimentary one is placed

in the angle formed by the two, and is only seen from the inside.

But the greatest peculiarity exists in the form and arrangement of

the upper incisors. In the generality of species appertaining to

this group, they are arranged in pairs, with a considerable central

opening, and the two imner ones somewhat longer than the outer,

and more or less in advance of them ; but in the present species, the

outer ones, adjoining the canines, are more in advance than the

inner ones, and are merely rudimentary. The curve which is made

by the row of upper incisors has, by this arrangement, its concave

surface directed forwards instead of backwards, as in other species.

The number of the teeth may be thus given :—

Ine. >; Can. —s Prem. 3 Mol. oe.

Labuan. Sarawak.

Length of the head and body ...... 1 6 bit

of the tartiee. 2080 Ae Ps eo Ae bis

of the head’) 2:7 404 0 6 0 62

OU CHG CRIB. ye re oe cee Q 2% 0 3

of the tragus. £2070. 7I00% 0 13 0 2

ofthe fore-arm ............ 1

of the longest finger ........ 21 2.3

of the fourth dos ar en b 6 15aF

of the thamb.')). ees, 8 98 0 23

Or the troia! 1 Y Ie Ao) er ae, 0 52 0 6

of the foot and claws ...... 0 3h 0 3

Expanse of wings ..........02..65 9 9 8 9

The above are the dimensions of two adulé individuals from the

localities mentioned ; younger ones differ in having the fingers con-

siderably shorter, and the fore-arm a little shorter.

5. ScoropHtLus circumpatus! Vespertilio circumdatus, Temm.

I refer this species, with some doubt, to the V. circumdatus of M.

Temminck. It agrees with it in most particulars, such as the form

of the head and ears, and in having the wing-membranes extending

only to the extremity of the tibize ; but it differs in bemg somewhat

smaller, in having the fur shortish and unicoloured, whereas that of

circumdatus is, according to M. Temminck, long, and of two colours.

For the present, I prefer leaving it under the name above given,

until a greater number of specimens can be examined. 3

I have to thank Mr. Dillwyn for the opportunity of describing the

species mentioned in this paper, and for the great liberality with

which he has allowed me to make any use of his specimens which

might be desirable for the purpose of description.

Mr. P. L. Sclater on two species of Ant-birds. 151

On Two Species or ANT-BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF THE

Dersy Museum, at Liverroot. By Pariuire Luriey

SCLATER.

1. MyRMECIZA EXSUL, Sp. nov.

Obscure brunnescenti-castanea, cauda concolore ; capite toto un-

dique et corpore infra ad medium ventrem nigris: ventre imo

erisso et hypochondriis dorso concoloribus : alarum tectricibus

minoribus nigricantibus ad apicem albo punctatis : campterio

albo : rostro nigro, pedibus obscure brunneis: periophthalmio

denudato. |

Long. tota 5°0, ale 2°5, caudee 1°7, rostri a rictu 0°85, tarsi 1-2.

Hab. In isthmo Panama (Delattre) et m rep. Nicaragua.

Mus. Derbiano, sp. 4939, et Acad. Philadelph.

This species may be placed between M. hemimelena and M. cin-

namomea in my arrangement. In colouring it somewhat resembles

the former, but it is of a much stronger build, and has no white

markings on the interseapularies. The bill is shorter than in MM. cin-

namomea, but the form otherwise nearly similar. The single spe-

cimen in the Derby Museum is marked with one of Delattre’s tickets,

‘* Male, Panama,” and was acquired by the late Lord Derby in 1846.

Another example of this same bird, of which I have a note, is in the

splendid collection belonging to the Academy of Natural Sciences of

Philadelphia ; it is labelled ‘ Nicaragua.’ I took a description of

it in the autumn of 1856, but was loath to publish it without seeing

a second specimen.

2. DysITHAMNUS OLIVACEUS.

Thamnophilus olivaceus, Tsch. Consp. Av. p. 278, et Faun. Per.

p. 174°.

Dysithamnus olivaceus, Cab. Orn. Not. i. 223 ; Bp. Consp. p. 199.

3. Olivaceus: pileo cinerascente, capitis lateribus concoloribus :

subtus pallide cinereus; gutture ventre medio et crisso albi-

cantibus : campterio albo: alarum tectricibus albo anguste

marginatis.

Long. tota 5:0, alee 2-5, caudee 1°7.

Hab. In Bolivia (Bridges).

Mus. Derbiano. ,

A distinct species of Dysithamnus nearly allied to D. mentalis,

but recognizable by the absence of the black ear-mark, and darker

colour of the sides below. The example in the Derby Museum

from which I take my characters, was obtained through Mr. Cuming

in 1846, and was doubtless among the Bolivian birds collected by

_Mr. Bridges.

I have to express my acknowledgments of the liberality of the

Trustees of the Derby Museum, in allowing me the use of these and

several other birds for examination. Without actual comparison of

specimens it is nearly hopeless to attempt to determine species of this

and other similarly-complicated groups.

152 Zoological Society —

December 14, 1858.—Dr. Gray, F.R.S., V.P., in the Chair.

On Zoantuvus Covucuil, JOHNSTON.

By E. W. H. Hotpsworts, F.L.S., F.Z.S., ere.

The existence in our seas of a compound Zoophyte belonging to a

group so essentially tropical as the Zoanthide, was first made known

by Mr. R. Q. Couch, who obtained a small species from deep water

near the Cornish coast. It was subsequently described and figured

in Dr. Johnston’s ‘ British Zoophytes,’ and has been since eagerly

sought for, but apparently without success ; or if captured, its cha-

racters have not been positively recognized. There is reason, how-

ever, to believe that the original description was imperfect ; and it is

probable that specimens of a compound Polype, found by Mr. Barlee *

and others along our northern coasts, and some lately obtained by

myself in Torbay, may all be referred to Zoanthus Couch. They

are certainly identical with the animal which Dr. Johnston placed

with some hesitation among the Sponges, and described under the

name of Dysidea papillosa ; and this was believed by Prof. Edward

Forbes to be the same as the Cornish Zoanthus. . As the specimens

recently found differ in some important particulars from those

described by Mr. Couch, I have thought it desirable to point out

their characters, and to give some details of certain parts of their

structure which are peculiar to the family Zoanthide, leaving their

specific distinctness an open question, until we know more of the

original Zoanthus Couchit.

The living polypes exhibited were dredged on the 12th of

October last, in 10 or 12 fathoms water, at about a mile from the

eastern headland of Torbay, and, although small, agree in other re-

spects with the probably maturer examples from other parts of the

coast. The special characters of the Zoanthide, which consist in

their increase by budding, and their mode of distribution over the

surfaces to which they are attached, are subject in this species to

considerable variation. One group of six polypes, on the inside of a

valve of Cardium rusticum, is arranged in a linear series, as in the

typical forms of the restricted genus Zoanthus, and is the result of

budding in one direction only ; others are scattered over the surface

of a flat stone, and have no perceptible connexion with one another,

except in a few instances where two or three of them are united ; the

isolated polypes are perhaps the produce of separate ova, and in time

may develope their compound character by the usual process of

gemmation. Another form of growth is the one under which this

zoophyte has been most commonly known as Dysidea papillosa, and

may be well seen in a remarkably fine specimen from Shetland, and.

now in the collection at the British Museum. In this example the

polypes form a compact group, connected in every direction by a

general expansion of the basal membrane, which is extended over

the whole outer surface of a small univalve shell, and also lines the

interior for a considerable distance. Mr. Alder has observed that a

Natica is the usual support for this form of development ; but in this

instance the shape of the incrusting mass is more like that of a small

Mr. E. W. H.-Holdsworth on Zoanthus Couchii. 158

Buccinum, or a Purpura. In these varying modes of growth, we

find a gradual transition from the linear budding of Zoanthus proper

to the aggregation of the polypes in some species of Polythoa; but

in the typical members of the latter genus, the polypes are not only

connected at the base, but have their bodies also severally united, so

as to form a solid mass ; and a more decidedly compound nature exists

in them than we find in any of the varieties of the present species ;

so that, although partaking of the characters of both genera, Zoanthus

appears to be the one to which this is most nearly allied. An evident

approach to the same intermediate form may be observed in the

reticulate arrangement of the connecting bands of Z. Bertholetii from

the Red Sea.

In our British species, the body forms a cylinder from 2 to 4 lines

high, by about half that in breadth, and is clothed with a dense

coating of fine sand, which at the upper extremity is divided into

14 deeply-cut marginal teeth; these cover the top of the column

when the animal is closed, but are turned a little outwards during

expansion. The tentacula are moderate in length, slightly tapering, -

smooth, and not capitate; they are arranged in two rows containing

14 each, of which the inner series are rather the longer, and are

placed opposite the angular prolongations of the column, those of the

outer row alternating with them. Fourteen tentacles in each row

appear to be a character of specitic value, as I find that number con-

stant in specimens of various sizes, and they correspond with the

marginal divisions. The disk, which is generally concave, some-

what exceeds the diameter of the body; and the prominent mouta

opens with a simple linear orifice. The general colour of the disk and

tentacula is a pale transparent brown, becoming opake white around

the mouth and at the tips of the arms; and all the intermediate

parts are finely speckled with the same tint. At first sight the ten-

tacles appear to be knobbed, as in Corynactis and some of the Coral-

ligenous Polypes; but their form is really quite simple, and the

capitate appearance of these organs is due solely to the conspicuous

colour of their extremities. —- Ck

Among the external characters of this family, the serrated margin

of the column is remarkable ; but.an examination of the animal shows

that this structure is a simple provision for enabling a polype so

peculiarly coated to close its disk perfectly, and in the contracted

state to be completely protected by its sandy covering. Closure of

the disk in the soft-bodied Actinia is effected by the action of the

muscles surrounding the upper extremity of the body; and as the

skin is soft and yielding, contraction takes place equally on every

side, and is continued until the edges of the column meet in the

centre. In Zoanthus, the case is different ; fine sand being densely

impacted into the epidermis, little or no contraction can take place,

and the polype would be unable to close in the usual manner if this

hard covering were uniformly extended to the margin of the disk.

Under the microscope, the wall of the column is seen to terminate in

a number of triangular processes or teeth, united at the base, and

covered externally with sand like the rest of the body; these pro-

longations are connected throughout their length by a thin membrane,

154 Zoological Society :-—

which is crossed by the ordinary transverse muscles, whose contraction

brings the edges of the teeth in contact, at the same time necessarily

inclining them towards the centre, and thus effectually closes the

disk ; the animal being then entirely covered and protected by the

investing sandy coat. It will be observed that the apparently mar-

ginal teeth are in reality only parts of the wall of the column, and

that intervening triangular pieces are as it were excavated from the

integuments, leaving only the internal membrane and muscular bands.

The nature of this adventitious covering also deserves attention, being

the only character in which this polype at all resembles Dysidea

Jragilis, the sponge with which it was formerly associated. It is

almost entirely composed of fine angular particles of siliceous sand,

brought in contact with the body and connecting membrane of the

polype by the action of the sea, and retained by, and incorporated in

the cuticle; its extraneous character is evident from the occasional

presence of other matters mixed with the sand, but the latter sub-

stance is in most cases the only material employed. Similar grains

of sand abound in the sponge ;_ they are not confined, however, to the

exterior, but are scattered throughout the mass, and cover the inter-

lacing fibres in every direction.

Independently of its different composition, this sandy coating in

Zoanthus cannot be regarded as at all analogous to the true corallum

of the Madrepores. Here it is the actual polype which is: enclosed

in the hard covering, and this, when tested with nitric acid, shows no

trace of calcareous matter ; in the Madrepores, on the contrary, the

polype is as delicate and soft-bodied as any of the Actinia, and when

expanded, rises above and clothes the upper portion of the corallum,

which is entirely secreted by the internal tissues of the animal, and

is composed essentially of carbonate of lime extracted from the sea-

water; in fact, the hard parts constitute an external covering in the

one animal, and an internal skeleton in the other. .

In its explanate growth, or increase by budding from the base

only, Zoanthus strongly resembles the Caryophyllacea, and by some

naturalists is associated with that tribe of Coralligenous Polypes ; but

many of its characters point to a nearer relationship to the detinide,

in which we sometimes find a similar deposition of extraneous matter

on the cuticle, although in a slighter degree and less persistent: the

smooth simple tentacula are also very unlike those of the Coral Po-

lypes, in which their surface is generally studded with little wart-like

prominences enclosing the thread-cells. With our present scanty

knowledge of the Actinide found in different parts of the world, and

the insufficient descriptions that we possess of most of the coral

animals, it is difficult, if not impossible, to determine the true position

of the Zoanthide among the Helianthoid Polypes. An examination

of the tropical seas, in which they abound, and where they attain a

size considerably exceeding that of our British species, may lead to

the discovery of intermediate forms showing the true affinities of this

now isolated group ; but at present I am inclined to regard them as

representing the budding form of growth in the Non-coralligenous

Zoophytes, as the fissiparous mode of increase is exemplified in many

of the true Actiniea.

Mr. E. W. H. Holdsworth on Zoanthus Couchii. 155

On the 9th of: November last, Dr. Gray brought before this

Society a notice of a curious form of Zoanthus sent to him by Mr.

George Barlee from the Shetland seas, and for the reception of which

he proposed the new genus Sidisia. He has kindly allowed me to

describe this polype; and it is therefore with some regret that, after

a careful examination of it, I must question its generic or even spe-

cific distinction from Zoanthus Couchii, the subject of the previous

part of this paper. "The great peculiarity of these polypes consists in

their being entirely free, no parts of the specimens at the British

Museum showing any superficial trace of ‘attachment. Another

remarkable character is their irregular mode of budding, and may be

briefly described.as one polype growing out from another without the

intervention of the usual connecting bands ; this budding takes place

from the base of the parent polype in an opposite direction, or at

various angles with the original line of growth, the branches again

sometimes throwing out buds from near their own bases. Mr. Barlee

states that some of the specimens were attached, but most of them

came up in the dredge free, and that they abounded on muddy ground.

This situation is I think very significant, and sufficient to explain the

peculiarities of the animal. As I have before mentioned, it is the

habit of Zoanthus to be attached to some stone or shell, and the

first sign of its increase is in the expansion of the basal membrane

either on one or all sides of the polype; from this expansion the

young bud forth at various distances from the parent, and they in

time develope similar offshoots. Such is the case when the ova fall

on places suited to their natural growth; but if by chance they are

deposited on a muddy bottom, or where the stones are only large

enough to afford attachment to a single polype, I think an irregular

mode of growth may be reasonably anticipated, and a variation ex-

pected in the character which, above all others, is likely to be affected

by the change of circumstances. By the motion of the sea, the

position of these free polypes must be continually shifting, conse-

quently no part of their surface can be permanently uppermost ; and

under these circumstances, with a natural tendency to grow upwards,

regularity of budding would seem to be impossible. As might be

expected, scarcely two of the specimens I have seen are precisely

alike, which adds to the probability of the suggested explanation of

their irregular growth. The fact of the characters of the disk, and

the number of the tentacula and marginal divisions being identical

with those of the animals first described, is a strong argument also

in favour of their all being only different forms of the same species.

Additional Observations, communicated March 8, 1859.

Some fine groups of Zoanthus Couchii from Torbay having lately

come under my notice, I have been enabled to obtain a better know-

- ledge of the species than I possessed when I recently laid before the

Society a description of its characters. I therefore venture to add

afew remarks on certain points, which before were considered as re-

lating to particular specimens, rather than to the species generally.

156 Zoological Society.

First, as to size. The dimensions given in my previous com-

munication were those of the largest polypes that I had seen alive,

which were described as being from 2 to 3} lines in height by

about 1} in breadth; such also is the size of many that I have

seen since; but among them have been several examples in which

these measurements have been nearly doubled, and with the increase

of size a power of varying the shape of the body has been exhibited,

almost equalling that of Corynactis, so well known for the remark-

able changes of form that it undergoes. This mutability of shape is

dependent in a great measure on the degree of density of the external

coating of sand, which does not increase in proportion to the growth

of the animal ; so that while the half-grown polype is closely im-

risoned in its hard covering, older and larger individuals are less

thickly clothed ; and when in a state of expansion, the grains of

sand are sufficiently separated to allow the integument to be seen

between them, and thus to permit that mobility of body which is so

characteristic of the Zoanthide. The rigid form in the first spe-

cimens that I examined, was one of the difficulties that I met with

in identifying them with Mr. Couch’s description of the species.

There are some other points of disagreement which I have little

hesitation in saying are due to a misconception on the part of Mr.

Couch when preparing the original description. I refer especially

to the statement that “the surface of the body is minutely glan-

dular,”’ and that ‘radiating from the mouth are numerous rows of

whitish glandular-looking bodies, which are the tentacula in a con-

tracted state ;’’ in both these cases it is evident that the character

of the sandy covering has been misunderstood. Secondly, as to the

growth of the basal membrane. I have previously referred to it

under the linear and expanded forms, which I then ventured to think

were only modifications in the development of one species: the re-

cently captured specimens throw some further light on the subject,

Among various groups on one large shell, I have found lines of po-

lypes sometimes sending out lateral shoots from the basal membrane,

and these again dividing ; others expanding, so as to include two or

three polypes in parallel series, and in one instance a single specimen

was observed with the basal expansion extending equally on every

side: again, the membrane leading from a group spreads at times

over the surface of the shell in an irregular manner for a consider-

able distance, without any bud arising from it; so that no special

form of growth can be considered as characteristic of the connecting

membrane in this species. The rate of development in the members

of a group is also of the same uncertain character—a large polype

being occasionally followed by a very small one, and that succeeded

by two or three of intermediate but varying size; in fact, except in

certain characters, the development of this Zoanthus is subject to

great irregularity ; and the cases above mentioned appear to me to

confirm the opinion that I have before expressed of the specific iden-

tity of the linear form of growth with that which has been found

in the Northern seas, overspreading the entire surface of small uni-

valves.

157

MISCELLANEOUS.

Collecting-Basket for the Sea-side.

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

Claremont Lodge, Park Street, Camberwell,

July 18, 1859.

GENTLEMEN,—I beg to communicate the description of a basket,

the contrivance of a friend, which I have found very convenient for

shore-collecting (especially when an assistant to carry tools, &c.,

cannot be easily obtained), and which I believe will be acceptable to

those of your readers who contemplate a visit to the sea-side at this

season.

The foundation of the basket consists of the creel used by anglers,

in the lower part of which is placed a lining of sheet gutta-percha

divided into three compartments by partitions of the same material

made water-tight and fitting into the right-hand side of the basket

(represented in situ, fig. 1 A), and leaving space in the left-hand side

CUCU

Hh : !

CHit=

= ili

NTU

for packing a pickle-bottle, B. A bag of canvas, stitched into three

divisions, is sewn to the back of the basket at C, for the purpose

of receiving three wide-mouthed bottles: two or three chisels, &c.,

can be laid across the gutta-percha partitions; and the hammer,

if not carried in a belt, can rest on the centre division, with the

handle through the hole in the lid. The whole contrivance can

readily be fitted by any person able to join the pieces of gutta-

percha : it is carried by a strap slung over the shoulders, after the

manner of the botanist’s vasculum.

I used the basket last autumn at Torquay, and found it very con-

venient, as it left the hands free and unencumbered—a very desirable

matter in climbing among the rocks.

~ Iam, Gentlemen,

Yours truly,

W. T. Surrouk.

158 Miscellaneous.

On the Heating of the Soil of high Mountains, and its Influence

upon the Limit of eternal Snow and Alpine Vegetation. By Cu.

Marrivs.

Theory indicates, and experience proves, that the atmosphere ab-

sorbs a notable proportion of the heat transmitted by the sun to the

earth. M. Pouillet estimates this quantity at 4 of the total heat

transmitted by the sun to the earth at any given moment. As the

calorific ray which falls upon an elevated summit traverses a less

considerable thickness of the atmosphere than that which arrives at

the level of the sea, it ought to heat the summit of the mountain

more than that which penetrates as far as the plain; but the rarefied

air surrounding the summit does not become so much heated as that

of the plain: hence it should follow that the soil at the surface and

for about a foot deep, upon a high mountain, should become more

heated than the air, while the contrary would take place in plains

little elevated above the sea. Now this:is fully confirmed by expe-

rience, as I show in this notice, through observations made in August

1842 on the Faulhorn by MM. Bravais and Peltier, and in Sept. 1844

by M. Bravais and myself, compared with corresponding ones made

at Brussels by M. Quetelet, and with those made in Spitzbergen

in 1839 by the Meteorological commission attached to the expedition

of « La Recherche.’

This relatively considerable heating of the surface of the soil exerts

a powerful influence upon the physical geography of the high Alps :

it is this which moves upward the line of eternal snow, the melting

of which is principally due to the heat of the subjacent ground. All

travellers who have ascended these elevated regions know that in the

Alps the snows melt underneath in consequence of the heat of the

soil. Often, when the foot is placed on the edge of a snow-field,

the weight of the body breaks a superficial crust which does not rest

on the soil. Sometimes we perceive with astonishment underneath

these icy vaults Soldanellas in flower (Soldanella alpina, L., and

S. Cludii, Thom.), with tufts of the leaves of the Dandelion. It is

likewise the melting of the snow in contact with the soil which causes

the sliding of the snow-fields which form the spring avalanches of

turfy declivities. Finally,.it is this heating which explains the variety

of species of plants, and the number of individuals which cover the

soil at the very limit of the eternal snows: thus, upon the terminal

cone of the Faulhorn, the height of which is about 250 feet, the

superficies about 11 acres, and the altitude nearly 9000 feet, I have

gathered 131 species of Flowering plants. On the Grands-Mulets

(needles of laminated protogene rising in the midst of the glaciers

of Mont Blanc, at 10,000 feet above the sea), I have noted nineteen

Phanerogamia,—viz. Draba vladinensis, Wulff., Cardamine bellidi-

folia, L., Silene acaulis, L., Potentilla frigida, Vill., Phyteuma

hemisphericum, L., Erigeron uniflorum, L., Pyrethrum alpinum,

Willd., Saxifraga bryoides, L., S. grenlandica, Lap., 8. muscoides,

Auct., Androsace helvetica, Gaud., Avena pubescens, DC., Gentiana

verna, L., Luzula spicata, DC., Festuca Halleri, Vill., Poa laxa,

Miscellaneous. 159

Haencke, P. cesia, Sm., Agrostis rupestris, All., Carex nigra, All. ;

but then, on the 28th of July, 1846 (the temperature of the air in

the shade being 48°-9 Fahr., in the sun 52°°5 Fahr.), the schistose

gravel of the rock in which these plants vegetated indicated a tem-

perature of 84°°2. As a contrast, 1 will again cite Spitzbergen.

This archipelago, whose shores may equally be regarded as touching

the limits of eternal snows, occupies no less than 43° of latitude by

12° of longitude, and yet contains no more than 82 Phanerogamia.

In the Alps, the plants are heated by the soil which bears them

more than by the air which surrounds them ; a vivid light favours

their respiratory functions ; and even when the temperature descends

to the freezing-point during the day, a layer of recent snow preserves

them even in summer from the accidental chills which always accom-

pany bad weather on high mountains. Equally sensitive to cold and

heat, they can only bear temperatures between about 32° and 59° ;

constantly moistened by clouds or irrigated by the water flowing

from the melting snow, they require the utmost care to make

them prosper in the plains; for the gardener must defend them

against the cold of winter and the heats of summer, yet without

keeping them from the influence of light. At Spitzbergen, on the

contrary, in spite of the perpetual day of summer, the vegetation is

poor and scattered, because the rays of the sun, being for the most

part absorbed by the great thickness of the atmosphere. and the con-

tinual fogs, can neither heat nor illuminate this frozen country.—

Comptes Rendus, May 16, 1859.

Note on the Artificial Propagation of Salmon.

: By A. D. Barrier.

The Committee of the Australian Association have been trying a

series of experiments with a view of ascertaining’ the possibility of

conveying Salmon to Australia, for the purpose of introducing this

noble fish into the rivers of that country. The difficulty is to convey

them across the tropics; and the object of these experiments, which

have been carried on in the Crystal Palace under my supervision, has

been—

1, To filter a sufficient quantity of water to supply a running

stream for the spawn or young fish.

2. To ascertain the highest amount of temperature in which they

would live.

3. To discover the best and most economical means of lowering

the temperature, that they may be kept alive while passing the

tropics.

In order to accomplish the first object, arrangements were made

with the Charcoal Filter Company to fix filters to supply a running

stream through long boxes, which were partly filled with gravel and

small stones, upon which the Salmon ova were to be placed.

Mr. Ramsbottom being engaged to obtain the ova, to ensure

their being perfectly impregnated, and to deposit them in the breed-

160 Miscellaneous.

ing place in the Crystal Palace, proceeded to..Wales, and on the 5th

of February obtained from two female fish at least 20,000 ova, which,

by the usual process adopted in the artificial propagation of fish, he

rendered fertile, and then starting immediately for the Crystal Palace,

arrived there February 7th, and deposited the ova in the breeding-

boxes, which had been duly prepared. Unfortunately, at this time

the filters had ceased to act, and the water supplied by the Lambeth

Water Company was obliged to be laid on in its usual state. Ina

few days the ova and the bottom of the breeding-boxes became co-

vered with a dark deposit, from the impure condition of the water,

and large numbers of the ova died daily in consequence. Another

batch of filters was then fixed, and a fresh supply of filtered water

obtained ; and no more sediment was deposited upon the ova. Not-

withstanding this, they continued to die for some days; but about

the 20th, the whole of the deposit, which had settled upon the bottom

of the boxes and upon the ova, began to rise towards the surface in

the form of Confervee ; the bottom of the boxes and the remaining

ova appeared quite fresh and clean; the surviving = ova rapidly

assumed the perfect state of the young fish; and on March 7th.the

young fry began to move about (the outer covering being thrown off),

endeavouring to hide themselves between the stones and gravel. The:

temperature of the water during this experiment was 57°. In order.

to ascertain if any advantage could be gained by placing some of:

these in filtered water at a lower temperature, a number of them

were carefully removed to a glass tank, supplied with a. fountain at

the temperature of 54°. In this they appeared to be doing well,

were evidently larger and more active, and exhibited great promise.

Unfortunately, on the morning of the 13th, the workmen having

been ordered to make some alteration in the water pipes in the build-

ing, turned off the water, leaving the young salmon, together with

the ova which had not yet been hatched, five or six hours without

fresh water, in the tropical end of the building: in consequence of

this, they were all destroyed, and this interesting experiment delayed

for a. whole year, as it is impossible to obtain the ova until the next

breeding-season. pe

There are, however, some important facts learned from this expe-

riment, one of which is the early period of hatching. Previous ex-

periments have shown that 60 days usually expire before the young

come to life; sometimes 140 days have passed. This experiment

has proved that the young fish can be hatched in 30 days: it yet

remains to be tested whether this is an advantage. It is certain

that in the case of more highly organized and warm-blooded animals,

their production at an earlier period than the ordinary one is at-

tended, if not with death, at least with great debility ; while, on the

other hand, it is not possible to retard the operations of nature beyond

the ordinary period without destroying the mother or the offspring.

There are many circumstances that induce the belief that the young

fish would be stronger by the early development ; but no positive

conclusion can be arrived at without further experiments.—Proc.

Zool. Soc. Mar. 8, 1859.

THE ANNALS

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[THIRD SERIES.]

No. 21. SEPTEMBER 1859.

XVI.—Description of a new Genus of West African Snakes, and

Revision of the South American Elaps. By Dr. Abert

GUNTHER.

[ With a Plate. | !

Tue publication of the description of the following interesting

Snake has been delayed in consequence of the author having

some knowledge of another West African Snake, besides Atract-

aspis wregularis, with entire subcaudal plates and without loreal

shield, described in a MS. said to be ready for publication. This

snake, however, has proved to belong to the venomous tribe*,

and to be widely different from that in the Collection of the

British Museum. The latter is to be referred to the family

Calamaride, along with Aspidura and Haplocercus.

ELAPpops, n. g.

Body and tail moderately elongate, the latter tapering; two

pairs of frontals, two nasals, nostril between ; loreal none, united

with the posterior nasal; one anterior and one posterior ocular.

Scales smooth, in fifteen rows; anal and subcaudals entire.

Teeth equal, smooth.

Elapops modestus,n.sp. (Pl. IV. fig. C.)

Seven upper labial shields. Uniform greyish olive; beneath

yellowish olive.

This snake has quite the physiognomy of an Elaps. The

rostral is rather small, and terminates above in an obtuse angle,

not extending on the upper surface of the head. The anterior

frontals are irregularly quadrangular, half the size of the poste-

rior ones, which extend somewhat on to the loreal region. The

* Polemon Barthii, Revue et Mag. Zool. 1858, December, p. 525; and

1859, pl. 5.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.3, Vol. iv. 11

162 Dr. A. Giinther on a new Genus of West African Snakes,

vertical is five-sided, with an obtuse anterior and an acute pos-

terior angle, and with the posterior sides longer than any of the

others. The occipitals taper posteriorly. The anterior nasal

is small and notched by the nostril; the posterior is evidently

formed by the united loreal and postnasal shields. One ante-

rior and one posterior ocular. Seven upper labial shields: the

first and second are small; the third touches the postnasal,

preorbital, and the eye; the fourth below the orbit; the fifth

touches the postocular, the sixth the occipital and slightly

the postocular, the seventh the temporal: there is another

scale-like shield behind the seventh: labial, to which, however,

the cleft of the mouth does not extend. A single large temporal

shield is separated from the postocular by the intervening sixth

labial shield. The first pair of the lower labials form a suture

together behind the median one; there are two pairs of chin-

shields of nearly equal size. The trunk is surrounded on every

part by fifteen rows of scales. There are 160 ventral and 44

subcaudal plates, all being entire.

The upper parts are uniform greyish olive, or black after the

epidermis is detached. The lower side is uniform yellowish

olive, or white if the epidermis is lost.

The total length is 19 inches, the cleft of the mouth being

one-third of an inch and the tail 23.

The specimen formed part of a collection of West African snakes

purchased of Mr. Rich for the British Museum, and containing

Coronella fuliginoides, Grayia* triangularis, Meizodon regularis,

Dipsadoboa unicolor, &c.

Among the best-determined genera of Ophidians are those

distinguished by entire subcaudal plates. Out of fifteen genera

with which we are at present acquainted possessing this cha-

racter, no less than five are from Western Africa: namely Ela-

pops, belonging to the family Calamaride ; Dipsadoboa (unicolor),

to the Dipsadide ; Holuropholis, to the Lycodontide ; and Atrac-

taspis, the type of a distinct family, to which perhaps Polemont+

may belong. This is a very remarkable feature of the Ophidian

fauna of Western Africa, in which it appears to be very different

from the southern parts of the Ethiopian region, where, accord-

ing to the present state of our knowledge, but a single snake

with the character above mentioned is found, viz. Atractaspis

* The name of Heteronotus is inadmissible, it being used for a genus of

Lizards; see Gray, Catal. Lizards.

’ + Provided that Polemon (of the venomous tooth of which we are not

yet informed whether it is externally grooved or perforated by an internal

channel) is a genus really different from Atractaspis. The genera which

have only a part of the subcaudals entire are not brought into the above

account.

and Revision of the South American Elaps. 163

wregularis ; and this is common to Southern and Western

Africa,

The last-named genus, Polemon, has been lately made known

by Prof. Jan in the ‘ Revue et Magasin de Zool.’ 1858, Decem-

ber, p. 525, where he commences an abstract of the MS. of his

‘Iconographie descriptive des Ophidiens.’ As I have lately

paid much attention to this order of animals, I may be allowed

to make a few remarks on Prof. Jan’s mode of treating his

subject. Herpetologists who may refer to his paper will be

surprised to find that neither the Collection of the British Mu-

seum (which, as well as those of Paris and Leyden, is distin-

guished for its large series of snakes), nor the publications based

on that Collection and published prior to Prof. Jan’s labours,

are mentioned in it. On this poimt the following statement

will suffice*. Prof. Jan examined the specimens on the spot,

but after having done so, declared to me that, “if he could not

take them to Milan, he would omit them in his work.” I

thought, nevertheless, the time spent was compensated for by

the identification of some synonyms in my Catalogue, and of

* ‘When Professor Jan requested permission to take with him to Milan

the type-specimens of the species of snakes which had been described from

the Museum specimens, and also some other snakes which were interesting

to him, I informed him that it was against the rules of the Museum to

allow any such specimens to leave the walls of the Establishment, and that

I could not recommend the Trustees to make an exception and accede to

his request, as I considered the rule a very proper and sensible one, for the

following among other reasons :—

1, It would be very inconvenient to any herpetologist who might

come to examine the snakes, to be informed that the specimens which he

wished to see were gone to Milan or any other place,—an inconvenience I

have myself experienced when I have made an excursion, for the purpose

of examining certain type-specimens, to Paris or some other museum

where such loan of specimens is permitted.

2. It is very difficult to make sure, even with the very best intention on

the part of the person who borrows the specimens, that they will be re-

turned within a reasonable time, if at all. I should like to know, for

example, in the present state of Northern Italy, if such a loan would not

have been attended with great risk.

3. The manner in which the British Museum is consulted is so different

from that of any continental institution, that a rule, such as that of lending

specimens, which may not be very objectionable there, where the persons

who consult the specimens are few and known, would be very objection-

able and impossible here, where any specimen may be asked for at any

moment, and expected to be forthcoming.

Being desirous of giving Professor Jan all the assistance in my power,

even during my absence, I directed that he should have every facility to

examine and make a drawing of any specimen which was interesting to

him; and that if he would mark any specimens he might like to have

figured, and leave or send an example of the kind of figures he might

desire, I would have them made for him as soon as they could be exe-

euted, and send them to him for his work.—J. E. Gray.

11*

164 Dr. A. Giinther on a new Genus of West African Snakes,

some which would probably have occurred in his work. So

far as omitting all mention of the Collection of the British

Museum, Prof. Jan has only kept his word; and it being

allowed to everybody to leave his work as incomplete as he

pleases, I have no right to interfere with Prof. Jan’s proceedings

on this point. It is another thing, however, with his method of

treating the genus Klaps. Being informed by me, during his

sojourn at the British Museum, that I had written a paper on

Elaps, he expressed himself anxious (in a letter directed to me)

to receive a copy of it. The publication of this paper (read be-

fore the Zoological Society, January 1859) being delayed by the

previously intervening vacation of the Society and the execution

of the accompanying plates, I communicated to him the distri-

bution of the genus which I had proposed, together with the

diagnoses and names of the genera. Now Prof. Jan may have

previously arrived at the same results, but he has substituted

new names, viz. Helminthoelaps for Callophis (Elaps remains

Elaps), Homoroselaps for Pecilophis, Homaloselaps for Vermi-

cella. Such a multiplication of synonyms is the less justifiable

as the name of Callophis has been applied to East Indian Elaps

since the year 1832, and as there exists a second name for it,

Doliophis*, The denomination of Vermicella was introduced

into the literature early in 1858.

So far on this point: on a second, I am happy to say, my

remarks are directed against a principle in herpetology which

appears to have found a rather strong representative in Prof.

Jan. He says of the South American laps, ‘Les espéces

offrent dans leur ensemble, et dans la forme et la position des

plaques céphaliques, une telle ressemblance entre elles, qu’il est

difficile, pour la plupart, de les distinguer autrement que par

les dessins qui résultent de la distribution de leurs différentes

couleurs, ordinairement au nombre de trois—le noir, le rouge,

et le jaune. Ces dessins sont assez constants dans les individus de

la méme espéce.” That is, as I understand it, “‘the coloration

becomes very constant as soon as you establish for every modi-

fication of colour a new species.” Certain as it is that there

are different species of South American Elaps, it is equally so

that they vary indefinitely in coloration. It is impossible for

men who make their observations from preserved specimens to

decide in every case where is the boundary between variety and

species: this will be possible for those only who observe them

on their own native ground, and who are better informed as to

their localities than we are at present. On the other hand, we

know that there are some species of snakes which show an extra-

ordinary tendency to variation in what I call the ornamental

* Girard in Proc. Acad. Nat. Se. -Philad. 1857, p. 182.

and Revision of the South American Elaps. 165

colours: for instance, Simotes purpurascens, Tropidonotus quin-

cunciatus, Erythrolamprus venustissimus, &c. The latter species

especially, having the same system of coloration as laps (with

black rings on a red ground-colour), and inhabiting the same

parts of the globe, shows a strikingly similar gradation of

varieties, but with the physiognomy of the head always precisely

the same.

I have again examined the ninety specimens of South Ameri-

can Elaps in the Collection of the British Museum, and com-

pared them with Prof. Jan’s account. Two only of the species

figured by him could be clearly made out, whilst many other

specimens approached to some of the figures, and nearly twice

as many could not be referred to any of his specific categories.

Now, if we consider that there were examined the specimens of

a part of the British, German, French, and Italian Collections

only, that these specimens were collected in the most accessible

parts of South America, that scarcely two specimens perfectly

agree with each other, to what amount will the number of spe-

cies finally reach—species of the geographical distribution of

which we know extremely little, which never were observed in

nature, and which for the greater part show precisely the same

shields of the head! I think the synonymy of some species of

snails ought to teach us a different lesson. It would be ridicu-

lous to deny that different species of Klaps-inhabit the vast

continent of Tropical America, and even many more than we at

present know ; but we can only cautiously introduce new forms

into the list of species; and I think myself at liberty to do so

by a combination of the following characters only :—

1. If there is a striking difference in the shape or in the

arrangement of the shields of the head. The extent of the sixth

upper labial shield (to or not to the occipital) does not constitute

a specific difference of itself.

2. If there is a great difference in the general habit of the

snake, or in the proportions between the single parts. The

number of the ventral and caudal plates is in proportion to the

length of the trunk and of the tail. We find that the number

of ventral plates in those species of Elaps of which we have the

best knowledge from a great number of specimens, is-subject to

a variation of seventy and more; therefore we cannot deduce

from it alone a specific character, without having examined

several specimens.

3. If there is such a difference in the distribution of the

colours that we cannot refer it to a typical coloration of one of

the known species*.

Prof. Jan has illustrated the new species with coloured plates.

* Cf. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1859, p. 82.

166 Dr. A. Giinther on a new Genus of West African Snakes,

In specimens which are well preserved, and not for a long period

in spirits, we are often able to distinguish the yellow rings from

the red ground-colour even if both colours have faded, the

former being a more saturated white; in others we can deter-

mine the colours by analogy, for there is a certain law in their

distribution, in spite of all the modifications; in a few this is

quite impossible. Now, if Prof. Jan professes to distinguish

the species “ par les dessins qui résultent de la distribution de

leurs différentes couleurs,” one is not prepared to find the colora-

tion of a part of the figures doubtful, or even faulty; never-

theless this is the case.

1. Provided that Prof. Jan ascertained the colours of E. multt-

_ fasciatus from a living specimen, it is very doubtful whether the

light rigs in this species, three specimens of which are in the

British Museum, are red or yellow.

2. If in EF. apiatus, Jan, the black rings are not yellow-

~ edged, as represented in the figure, the occipital region cannot

be yellow, but red, as in KE. Hemprichii and affinis.

3. In H. Dumerilii the temporal region is represented as en-

tirely yellow, whilst the black ring round the neck ought to have

an anterior yellow margin only, the remainder being red. In-

consistently enough, the same parts in E. decoratus are repre-

sented as entirely red, whilst in fact the distribution of the

colours is the same as in the former species.

4. In E. Gravenhorstii the colours are entirely confounded :

what is red ought to be yellow, and vice versd, according to the

law that the rings within the black zone are always yellow.

With regard to the new species, we find two distinguished

from the others by the sixth labial shield extending to the occi-

pital. This appears to be a constant character in E. decoratus,

which, especially by a very broad vertical shield*, shows that it

is a really distinct species. This is not the case in Elaps Riisei,

founded on a single specimen from St.Thomas. The British

Museum possesses six specimens—two from Trinidad (one lately

arrived), one since ascertained to be from St. Vincent’s, and

three without proper locality, all of which were and are referred

by myself to #. corallinus. The sixth upper labial is in two

specimens separated from the occipital by a temporal; in two

this temporal is united with the labial, both forming one shield

in immediate contact with the occipital; in the fifth speci-

men is a separate temporal on one side and no temporal on

the other; and in the sixth there are two temporal shields, but

the upper angle of the labial shield touches the occipital: this

* In the figures of E. decoratus and Riisei (Rev. et Mag. Zool. /. c.),

the sixth labial is represented with a transverse fold. Cf. Proc. Zool.

Soc. 1859, pl. vu. f. A.

and Revision of the South American Klaps. 167

character therefore cannot of itself constitute a species, much

less a subdivision. There are two posterior oculars; and the

single postocular of the Milan specimen was accidental, as Prof.

Jan rightly supposes. There are seven to eleven black rings

round the tail, and seventeen to twenty-eight round the trunk,

in the snakes which are ascertained to come from the West

Indies. The form of the head-shields being precisely the same

as in E. corallinus, what other differences hold good? The

black rings are more or less distinctly yellow-edged, which is

generally not the case in Z. corallinus ; but then E. Riisei would

come into the category of E. circinalis, which Prof. Jan does not

appear to admit as a species.

I shall now proceed to give the detailed results of the exami-

nation to which I have again subjected the specimens in the

British Museum, in order to show the vast variability of these

snakes, and the degree of possibility of applying to them defini-

tions of such species as may be found in the work of Duméril -

and Bibron, and in the account of Jan.

First Group.—lI begin with those species of Elaps in which

the black rings are fully developed, without entirely suppressing

the red ground-colour, and in which three black rings are always

grouped together, including two yellow rings, and thus forming

what I call a zone. The snakes of this group must be specifi-

cally distinct from those of the other, as this system of coloration

cannot be a mere modification of that of the latter. Further,

there can be no doubt that H. surinamensis, Cuv., E. filiformis,

Gthr., E. decoratus, E. Hemprichii, Jan, and E. Dumerili, Jan,

are specifically different from the long-known £. lemniscatus, as

they show remarkable differences in general habit or in the

shields. Therefore our attention is directed particularly to the

latter and its more or less important modifications. I may ob-

serve that in all the specimens which I shall mention as having

been examined by myself, the shields of the head are precisely

the same.

A. The middle black ring is wider than the outer ones, but less than

twice as wide.

I, The intervening spaces of the red ground-colour are wider than the

middle black ring.

1. A white cross-band before the eyes = E. lemniscatus, D. & B.

«. A yellow ring is wider than one-half of an outer black one; a

single zone round the tail.

a. Six zones round the trunk; ventrals 236, caudals 21.—One spe-

cimen.

b. Seven zones round the trunk; ventrals 224, caudals 28.—One

specimen from Pernambuco.

ce. Eight zones round the trunk; ventrals 234, caudals 27.—Two

specimens from Brazil.

168 Dr. A. Giinther on a new Genus of West African Snakes,

d. Nine zones round the trunk; ventrals 238, caudals 24.—One

specimen from Bahia.

e. Ten zones round the trunk; ventrals 228, caudals 26.— Two

specimens from Bahia.

8. A yellow ring is half as wide as an outer black one; one zone and

a half round the tail.

a. Nine zones round the trunk; ventrals 231, caudals 34.—One

specimen from the West Indies.

b. Ten zones round the trunk; ventrals 220, caudals 36.— One spe-

cimen.

c. Ten zones round the trunk; ventrals 245, caudals 33.—One spe-

cimen from Trinidad.

d. Fourteen zones round the trunk; ventrals 262, caudals 30.—

One specimen from Brazil.

2. No white cross-band before the eyes.

a. Nasal separated from the preocular by the third labial shield: E.

Gravenhorstit, Jan, founded on a single specimen from Brazil ;

it is described as having the middle black ring twice as wide as

an outer one, but the figure represents it narrower.

8. Nasal in immediate contact with the preeocular.

a. The black rings not confluent on the belly.

aa. Shields of the muzzle and of the crown black, anteriorly

margined with yellow; thirteen. zones round the body, one

round the tail_—One specimen from the Argentine Republic.

8B: Muzzle and crown entirely black: E. Margraviu, D. & B.

b, The black rings of every zone confluent on the belly, and the

yellow rings spotted with black.

aa. Ten zones round the trunk, and one or one and a half round

me tail; ventrals 230, caudals 22-24.—Two specimens from

razil.

B88. Twelve zones round the trunk and one round the tail; ven-

trals 232, caudals 20.—One specimen from Brazil.

3. Muzzle entirely white : E. frontalis, D. & B.

II. The intervening spaces of the red ground-colour are equal in width

to the middle black ring: E. Tschudit, Jan.

III. The intervening spaces of the red ground-colour are narrower than

the middle black ring; a white band before the eyes.

1. Ten zones round the trunk; ventrals 221, caudals 36.—One speci-

men.

2. Eleven zones round the trunk; ventrals 240, caudals 39.—One spe-

cimen.

B. The three black rings of each zone equal in width to one another.

I. No white band before the eyes: ?.L. Margravii, D. & B. part.

1. Black rings not confluent on the belly. |

a. Eight zones and a half round the body, one half round the tail ;

ventrals 222, caudals 22.—One specimen from River Capin

(Para).

b. Twelve zones round the body, one round the tail; ventrals 228,

caudals 23.—Two specimens from Caraccas,

2. Black rings confluent on the belly, a yellow band behind the eyes ;

ventrals 199-213, caudals 29-37: E. elegans, Jan, from Mexico.

II. A white band before the eyes.

1. The yellow rings are narrower than the black ones; thirteen zones

round the trunk, one and a half round the tail.—One specimen.

2. The yellow rings are broader than the black ones; ten zones round

the trunk, one round the tail.—One specimen from St. Vincent’s,

and Revision of the South American Elaps. 169

which I consider as a variety of EF. corallinus (E. Riiset), where the

rings exceptionally approach a triple arrangement.

All these different forms are viewed by myself as varieties of

Elaps lemniscatus, Ji., as long as no other constant differences

in the shields of the head, &c. are poimted out, with the exception

perhaps of EH. Gravenhorstui, known from a single specimen

only, and of the last form mentioned, referred to E. corallinus.

The Srconp Grovur comprises those forms in which the black

rings are equidistant, and if fully developed, do not entirely

suppress the red ground-colour: some have the black rings

edged with ‘yellow; in others this colour appears to be absent.

The group certainly contains several species, among which the

most northern one is pretty well determined, also with regard

to its geographical range: but there is a very great variation

among the more southern ones; and which of them are such as

to admit of a specific distinction, I attempt to show by the fol-

lowing examination and comparison of the British Museum

specimens with the descriptions of different authors. Nearly

the whole group has been comprised by Schlegel under one species,

K. corallinus.

A. The red interspaces are spotted with black (besides the black tip

of each scale).

I. Black rings edged with yellow.

a. The interspaces of the red ground-colour extend over ten to twenty

scales.

#«. The black rings rudimentary, gradually becoming complete and

- surrounding the body.

aa. Ten round black spots along the back and three rings round the

tail: E. epistema, D. & B., from Mexico. .

6b. Black bands irregularly interrupted, separated by ten to fourteen

red scales; ventrals 216, caudals 40: FH. affinis, Jan, from Mexico.

ce. Black bands interrupted on the sides, separated by sixteen red

scales; thirteen round the trunk and five round the tail ; ventrals

204, eaudals 40.—One specimen from Mexico.

8. The black rings complete: E. fulvius, D.& B.

dd. Black bands separated by sixteen red scales, twelve round the

trunk and five round the tail; ventrals 217, caudals 36.—Four

‘specimens from Mexico.

ee. Black bands separated by fifteen red scales, eleven round the

trunk and four round the tail; ventrals 213, caudals 41.—One

specimen from California.

Sf. Black bands separated by thirteen red scales, twelve or thirteen

round the trunk and four or three round the tail; ventrals 216,

caudals 33.—Four specimens from Mexico.

gg. Black bands separated by thirteen red scales, thirteen round the

trunk and two round the tail; ventrals 224-237, caudals 26-38 :

=E. tener, Baird, from Texas.

hh. Black bands separated by twelve red scales, thirteen round the

trunk and four round the tail; ventrals 222, caudals 42.—One

specimen from Texas.

it, Black bands separated by eleven red scales, fifteen round the trunk

170 Dr. A. Giinther on a new Genus of West African Snakes,

and five round the tail; ventrals 213, caudals 41.—One specimen

from North America.

kk. Black bands separated by eleven red scales, twelve round the

trunk and five round the tail—One specimen.

b. The interspaces of the red ground-colour extend over less than ten

scales.

ll. Black bands separated by nine red scales, fourteen round the trunk

and four round the tail ; ventrals 213, caudals 41.—One specimen.

mm. Black bands separated by eight red scales, twenty-three round

the trunk and six round the tail.—One specimen.

nn. Black bands separated by seven red scales, twenty-three or

twenty-four round the trunk, and seven or six round the tail;

ventrals 220, caudals 55.—Two specimens from Honduras.

II. The black rmgs without visible yellow edge.

a. The red interspaces are irregularly spotted with black; thirty-one

black rings round the trunk, and eight round the tail: Elaps apiatus,

Jan, from Vera Cruz.

b. A black cross, formed by four scales, in the dorsal centre of every red

interspace; twenty-eight black rings round the trunk, and five

round the tail.—One specimen from Mexico.

B. The red interspaces have no black spots besides the black tip of

each scale.

I. Crown of the head (posterior portion of the occipital shields) white.

a. The interspaces between the black rings extend over seventeen scales ;

the width of a black ring is one-half of that of the red and yellow

together ; ten black rings round the body, and four round the tail.

—Two specimens.

b. The interspaces between the black rings extend over eight to ten

scales; the width of a black ring is one-fourth of that of the red

and yellow together.

a. Nineteen black rings round the body, and four round the tail.—One

specimen, perhaps = Elaps diastema, D. & B.

8. Twenty-three black rings round the trunk, and six round the tail ;

ventrals 228, caudals 40.—T'wo specimens.

c. The interspaces between the black rings extend over four to six scales ;

the width of a black ring is more than one-half of that of the red

and yellow together; nineteen to twenty-one black rings round the

trunk, and six round the tail; ventrals 222, caudals 55.—Elaps

Fitzingeri, Jan, from Mexico.

d. The interspaces between the black rings extend over two to three

scales, and

a, are broader on the belly. |

aa. Thirty-nine to forty-five black rings round the trunk, two or three

round the tail; ventrals 241, caudals 28.—Three specimens from

Venezuela.

bb. Sixty-five black rings: Elaps mipartitus, D. & B., from New Gra-

nada and Cayenne (Elaps decussatus).

8. The interspaces are equal in width, superiorly and inferiorly ; fifty-

seven black rings round the trunk, and three round the tail; ven-

trals 278, caudals 24: Elaps multifasciatus, Jan, from Central

America.

II. Crown of the head black.

a. The yellow rings are very distinct; the red ground-colour has gene-

rally a brown or brownish hue.

#. The width of the black rings is less than one-half of that of the

interspaces between: Elaps circinalis, D. & B.

and Revision of the South American Elaps. 171

aa. ae sixth upper labial in contact with the occipital: E. Riisei,

an.

we. Twenty-six to twenty-eight black rings round the trunk, and

seven or eight round the tail; ventrals 212, caudals 32.—Two

specimens.

88. Twenty-five black rmgs round the trunk, and eleven round the

tail; ventrals 184, caudals 45.—One specimen from St. Vincent’s.

yy. Twenty-two black rings round the trunk, and eight round the

tail; ventrals 176, caudals 45.—One specimen from Trinidad.

bb. A separate temporal shield between the sixth upper labial and the

occipital.

ee. Thirty-one black rings round the trunk, and seven round the

eo ; ventrals 210, caudals 31.—One specimen from the West

ndies.

88. Seventeen black rings round the trunk, and six round the tail ;

ventrals 207, caudals 42.—One specimen.

8. The width of the black rings is more than one-half of that of the

interspaces between.

aa, Twenty-eight black rings round the trunk, and ten round the tail ;

ventrals 202, caudals 47.—One specimen from Brazil.

bb. Twenty-eight black rings round the trunk, and six round the tail ;

ventrals 210, caudals 32.—One specimen.

ec. Twenty-five black rings round the trunk, and six round the tail;

ventrals 214, caudals 34.—One specimen.

dd. Twenty-four black rings round the trunk, and eight round the

tail; ventrals 210, caudals 31.—One specimen.

y. The black rings and the interspaces between nearly equal in width ;

each black ring edged with a single series of isolated yellow scales

anteriorly and posteriorly.

aa. Thirty-two black rings round the trunk, and nine round the tail ;

ventrals 109 (209?), caudals 47: Elaps ornatissimus, Jan, from

Central America.

bb. Forty-two black rings round the trunk, and ten round the tail ;

ventrals 206, caudals 43.—One specimen from Para.

b. The yellow rings indistinct or not visible.

a. The interspaces of the red ground-colour extend over ten to thir-

teen scales: Elaps corallinus, D. & B.

aa. Over thirteen scales; seventeen black rings round the trunk, and

six round the tail.—One specimen from Trinidad.

bb. Over twelve scales.

ae. Fifteen black rings round the trunk, and six round the tail;

ventrals 194, caudals 43.—One specimen from the interior of

Brazil.

BB. Nineteen black rings round the trunk, and four round the tail ;

ventrals 221, caudals 30.—One specimen.

ec. Over eleven scales; eighteen black rings round the trunk, and

five round the tail.—One specimen.

dd, Over ten scales; twenty to nineteen black rings round the trunk,

and seven to eight round the tail_—Two specimens from Brazil.

8. The interspaces of the red ground-colour extend over less than ten

scales.

ee. Over nine scales.

ae, Eighteen black rings round the trunk, and four round the tail ;

ventrals 215, caudals 28.—One specimen.

88. Eighteen black rings round the trunk, and seven round the tail.

—One specimen.

172 Dr. A. Giinther on a new Genus of West African Snakes,

yy. Twenty-one black rings round the trunk, and five round the

tail; ventrals 211, caudals 30.—Two specimens from Brazil.

Sf. Over eight scales.

ewe. Twenty black rings round the trunk, and four round the tail;

ventrals 201, caudals 28.—One specimen.

BB. Thirty-one black rings round the trunk, and seven round the

tail; ventrals 201, caudals 32.—One specimen from Trinidad.

gg. Over seven scales; twenty-two black rings round the trunk, and

ten round the tail.—One specimen.

hh. Over six scales. ;

ae. Thirty-three black rings round the trunk, and seven round the

tail; ventrals 201, caudals 32.—QOne specimen.

88. Thirty black rings round the trunk, and seven round the tail.

—Three specimens.

yy. Twenty-nime black rings round the trunk, and ten round the —

tail; ventrals 190, caudals 43.—One specimen from the West

Indies.

We can distinguish, among these numerous variations, two

forms: the northern, with the black rings edged with yellow,

the red ground-colour maculated with black, and a yellow occi-

put—Z. fulvius; and the southern, without yellow rings, with-

out black spots, and with black occiput—Z. corallinus. But

Schlegel had good reason for not even admitting these two

species, because there occur a great many forms which we are

at a loss to refer to either of the two, and which we shall be

justified in raising to species if we shall have determined their

geographical extent and their constancy of character by more

than a single specimen. It appears to be perfectly evident,

from the synopsis given above, that E. affinis, Jan, and £. epi-

stema, D. & B., founded on single specimens, are merely va-

rieties of EL. fulvius. In this snake the bands gradually become

fewer in number; they are regularly interrupted on the sides ;

they are irregularly interrupted (E. affinis), and finally are re-

duced to mere spots (Z. epistema). It is, however, remarkable

that all these specimens come from Mexico. As long as I

could not establish the above series, I held E. epistema for a

good species. J. affinis is represented by Prof. Jan without

any yellow; but this appears to me rather doubtful.

E. tener, discovered by Prof. Baird, from Texas, may probably

prove to be a good species, distinguished by a remarkably short

tail and a comparatively slender body. More doubtful are EZ.

apiatus, Jan; a specimen in the British Museum, closely allied

to it (A. IT. 6), which I leave for the present as E. corallinus, var.;

and H. Fitzingeri, Jan.

The division which I have placed under B. I. d, comprising

those specimens in which a great number of black rings nearly

suppress the ground-colour, the individuals of which are of much

smaller size and of a comparatively slenderer body, is specifically

and Revision of the South American Elaps. 173

different from all the others: it comprises H. mipartitus, D. & B.,

E. decussatus, D. & B., E. multifasciatus, Jan, together with three

specimens in the British Museum. The specific distinction of

E. multifasciatus and mipartitus is not yet clearly pointed out ;

and the British Museum specimens do not completely agree with

either, having a white band before the eyes, which peculiarity,

however, in my opinion, cannot constitute of itself a specific

character, as it is difficult to perceive why a modified extent of

the black coloration of the head should be considered as more

important than that of the trunk.

With regard to the remainder (B. II.), comprising E. coralli-

nus, D. & B., E. circinalis, D.& B., E. Riisei, Jan, E. ornatissimus,

Jan, I consider them as one and the same species. Even if

further observations should point out a specific difference be-

tween the E. corallinus from the West Indies and the continental

coast nearest to those islands, and between the Z£. corallinus

from the neotropical continent, this difference is not to be found

in the sixth upper labial shield, as I have proved above, and the

name of E. Riisei must be considered as a synonym for an acci-

dental form of E. circinalis, D. & B.

I can hardly give any opinion on £. alternans and E. gastro-

delus, D. & B., perfectly unknown to me, and not admitted in the

list of species by Prof. Jan. EH. Langsdorfii, Wagl., is known

to me also only by the very short note given on it by Prof.

Jan. The discovery that E. calligaster, Wiegm. and EL. collaris,

Schleg., really are South American species, will be gratefully

received by every herpetologist, the character of the East Indian

Flaps, “ corpore vittato,” as given by Wagler, thus being undis-

turbed ; but it is rather strange that specimens belonging to

those species should be marked, both in the British and in the

Paris Museum, as coming from the Philippines.

The list of South American species and varieties of Klaps will

now be as follows :—

1. Elaps corallinus, L., with the va-

rieties :

a. E. psyche, Daud.

b. E. circinalis, D. & B.

c. E. Riisei, Jan.

d. E. ornatissimus, Jan.

2. Elaps mipartitus, D. & B., with

the varieties :

a. E. decussatus, D. & B.

2b. E. multifasciatus, Jan.

5. Elaps tener, Baird and Girard.

6. Elaps bipunctiger, D. & B.

7. Elaps surinamensis, Cuv.

8. Elaps lemniscatus, L., with the

varieties :

a. EK. Margravii, D. & B.

b. E. frontalis, D. B.

c. E. elegans, Jan.

d. E. Tschudii, Jan.

9. Elaps filiformis, Gthr.

3. Elaps Langsdorfii, Wag].

4. Elaps fulvius, L., with the varie-

ties:

a. E. tristis, Baird and Girard.

b. E. epistema, D. & B.

c. E. affinis, Jan.

10. Elaps decoratus, Jan.

11. Klaps Dumerilii, Jan.

12. Elaps Hemprichit, Jan.

174 Dr. T. S. Wright on Hydroid Zoophytes.

Doubtful species are—

13, Elaps gastrodelus, D. & B. 17. Elaps apiatus, Jan.

14. Elaps diastema, D. & B. 18. Elaps Fitzingeri, Jan.

15. Elaps zonatus, Hallowell. 19. Elaps Gravenhorstii, Jan.

16. Elaps divaricatus, Hallowell. 20. Elaps alternans, D. & B.

XVII.—Remarks on Professor Allman’s “ Notes on the Hydroid

Zoophytes.” By T. Srretuitt Wrieut, M.D.

In the Number of the ‘ Annals and Magazine of Natural His-

tory’ for July 1859, is contained a description of three Zoo-

phytes by Professor Allman which have previously been described

by myself.

1. Manicella fusca (Allman), Bimeria vestita (mihi).

After describing this Zoophyte, Professor Allman states, “I

have not been able to find any description of the present animal,

though Dr. 8S. Wright informed me last year that he had met

with a Tubularian Zoophyte in which the greater part of the

polype was covered by the polypary.”

This Zoophyte was discovered by myself in August (1858),

soon after which time I gave an account of it in a letter to Mr.

Joshua Alder. In October following I mentioned it and its

locality to Professor Allman,—the same locality in which he

found it last spring. On the 26th of January last, I described

it, with figures, to the Royal Physical Society of Edinburgh ;

and it appeared in full in the report of the Society’s Proceedings

contained in the ‘ Witness’ of the 16th of February, in which

paper, under the editorship of the late Hugh Miller and since

his death, the “ Proceedings of the Royal Physical Society ” have

been regularly reported for some years. Finally, I have de-

scribed the animal, with figures, in the ‘ Edin. New Phil. Journal’

for July last. Iam at a loss to account for Professor Allman’s

inability to find a description of Bimeria vestita, as an applica-

tion to its discoverer would have removed every difficulty.

Professor Allman errs in stating that the polypary (the poly-

pidom or corallum of other writers) covers the body of the polype

and one-half the tentacles. The covering of the polype in Bi-

meria consists of the “colletoderm*,” which in this species is

* IT have formerly given the term “‘ colletoderm ” (xkoAAnT?s, get)

to a glutinous secretion which forms a covering to the hard corallum o

zoophytes. In the Corynes it is readily seen on the tips of the growing

shoots of the polypary, which are cemented by it to the surfaces over

which they creep. It also forms the gelatinous marsupial sacs which sur-

mount the female reproductive capsules of Laomedea lacerata, Sertularia

pumila, &c., and in which the ova undergo their first metamorphosis. It

M. Bronn on the Laws of Evolution of the Organic World. 175

largely developed and thickened with mud, &c. In some of my

specimens, which have been kept in dilute alcohol, the mud is

removed, and the colletoderm appears as a transparent struc-

tureless coat covering the polypes and the corallum, and quite

distinct from the latter. I have detected this membrane also on

the body of the polype of Coryne decipiens (Dujardin) and Clava

repens (mihi), so that Bimeria is not singular amongst Zoophytes

in the possession of an overcoat.

2. Eudendrium bacciferum (Allman), Garveia nutans (mihi).

This Zoophyte was also described and figured by me before

the Royal Physical Society, in the ‘ Witness,’ and in the ‘ Edin.

New Phil. Journal,’ under the same dates as Bimeria vestita.

3. Coryne Briareus (Allman), Coryne implexa (mihi), Tubularia

wmplexa (Alder).

The corallum, destitute of polypes, of Coryne implexa was de-

scribed by Mr. Alder, in his Catalogue of Zoophytes of the

Northumberland Coast, under the title of Tubularia implexa.

In August 1859 I found it with its polypes, and described and

published it together with Bimeria vestita.. I have, since the

publication of C. Briareus by Professor Allman, placed my spe-

cimen of C. implexa in the latter gentleman’s hands; and he is

of opinion that it is identical with his. He has, however, unfor-

tunately lost his specimen ; so that the coralla cannot be com-

pared with each other. The corallum of C. implexa is composed

of two very distinct coats, the mner one ringed and horny, the

outer one thin, membranous, and not ringed. The latter ap-

pears to consist of “colletoderm” in an indurated state.

All the above-mentioned Zoophytes exist in the same localities

—the Bimer and Garvey Rocks at Queensferry, Firth of Forth.

Edinburgh, August 1, 1859.

XVIII.—On the Laws of Evolution of the Organic World during

the Formation of the Crust of the Earth. By H. G. Bronn.

[Concluded from p. 90.]

III. Results concerning the relations which connect the present

state of the organized kingdom with tts geological states.

In all that precedes, we have taken into consideration not

only the ancient, but also the present state of things. We have

traced the modifications presented to us by the organic world in

is very indestructible, and not coagulable by dilute spirit. It is secreted

directly from the ectoderm of the zoophyte, the hard corallum being after-

wards secreted beneath it. It is probably a modification of chitine.

176 M.Bronn on the Laws of Evolution of the Organic World

the ancient periods, not only to the threshold of the present —

creation, but also into its very heart. We have seen that these ~

modifications do not by any means all cease at the threshold of

existing nature, but that they often continue their course with-

out interruption, so that it becomes difficult for us to say exactly

where this threshold is to be found. The groups of plants or

animals which were in course of rapid diminution at the close

of the geological ages have continued diminishing in the exist-

ing epoch : amongst all the fossil species the marine Mollusca. are

those with which we are best acquainted, and the study of which

is most decisive upon this point. Those, on the contrary, which

were in course of augmentation have continued their develop-

ment. At first there existed a certain number of orders and

suborders entirely foreign to our existing creation; and all the

genera, with the exception of from 1 to. 3 per cent., were different

from those of the present day. By degrees the number of these

foreign types diminished, and the number of genera which have

persisted to our days became more and more considerable. In

the sequence of ages this number rose gradually from 20 to 40,

60, 80, 90, and, lastly, 100 per cent. By degrees, and this

even at the close of the Cretaceous period, some isolated species

made their appearance, which have persisted to the present day.

Starting from the Eocene period, their number rose gradually to

20, 60, 80, 90, 95, and 99 per cent., although it is not yet pos-

sible to demonstrate an equally regular gradation for all the

classes. But however gradual may have been this passage from

the geological faunas and floras to existing nature in the south

of Europe (according to Philippi), it is very possible that in

other countries a great portion of the series of intermediate

beds may be wanting, and that consequently in these regions

the distinction between the marine formations belonging to

these two periods may appear far more marked than in Eu-

rope. In the same way, the separation of two older forma-

tions may be far more distinctly marked in one country than in

another, for perfectly analogous reasons. This gradual passage

from the ancient creations to the existing one does not manifest

itself solely in the constantly increasing proportion of identical

species, but also in the constantly increasing differentiation of

the floras and faunas in accordance with zones, from the Eocene

period to the present day. The formation of local floras and

faunas, from the Eocene epoch to the Pliocene and Diluvia

epochs, exhibited the same local characters as the floras an

faunas of the present day: already each country was inhabited

by the same characteristic families, the same genera, and a great

part of the species which we find dwelling there at present.

The most recent tertiary strata of England contain a testaceous

during the Formation of the Crust of the Earth. 177

fauna which agrees especially with that of the Northern Ocean ;

the fauna of these same strata in Italy finds its congener in the

existing fauna of the Mediterranean; in the West Indies we

find the fauna of the existing sea agreeing for the most part

with the tertiary fauna of the most recent of the islands. The

bone-caves of Hurope and the north of Asia are especially rich

in remains of bears, hyzenas, oxen, deer, and elephants,—that is

to say, genera, species of which (although generally distinct

from the diluvian species) still live for the most part in the

same countries. In the caverns of South America we find the

remains of Platyrrhine Quadrumana and of Edentata predomi-

nating, and even, as regards the latter, remains belonging to

genera which still exist in that country, or which are very nearly

allied to existing genera; some species even are identical. In

the bone-caves of Australia, lastly, only bones of Marsupials

have been found; and we know that at the present day we

scarcely find any Mammalia on that continent which do not be-

long to the Marsupial division. One of the most remarkable

proofs of the gradual passage from one period to the other is

derived from the study of the ancient forests of Taxodium disti-

chum in Louisiana (which, however, have for the most part

existed in the present epoch).

The appearance of Dicotyledonous vegetation at the close* of

the Cretaceous and commencement of the Tertiary period has

been repeatedly represented as an event of immense importance

for the development of the whole terrestrial fauna. Its import-

ance is, in fact, incalculable in comparison with the characters

to which we are compelled to have recourse in order to separate

the Tertiary from the present period, and which are of so sub-

rdinate a nature. Thus one is often tempted to throw back

the limits of the most recent period to this moment, and to

confound the tertiary and recent strata in a single common

period. In fact, in order to distinguish the Tertiary period

from the actual epoch, we are forced to have recourse to one or

other of the three following events, which probably indeed

followed each other very closely, but which we cannot show to

have been synchronic :—

1. The last appearance of existing plants and animals ; |

2. The last extinction of ancient species without the interven-

tion of man ;

3. The appearance of man himself.

The date of these three events can only be determined by the

investigation of the fossil remains which come to our knowledge.

* Not only in the rig ve Chalk of Germany have Credneria, &c., been

found, but the Lower Cretaceous beds of Aix-la-Chapelle have yielded

numerous leaves of Angiosperms.—Ep. Annals.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. iv. 12

178 M.Bronn on the Laws of Evolution of the Organic World

But this is a difficult theory ; for the results of our investigations

in this direction can never be regarded as definitive, besides that

in this case we have probably to do only with very small chrono-

logical differences.

The marine Pliocene beds also contain species of Mollusca

foreign to the previous periods (see Philippi, Wood, and D’Or-

bigny), united with others which already existed in the Miocene

period ; these have consequently made their appearance in the

course of the Pliocene epoch. The lacustrine Diluvian beds pre-

sent analogous facts as regards the terrestrial Mammalia. Bones

identical with Diluvian remains have been found in the sub-

Apennine Miocene sands and in the Mammaliferous crag of

England. But no one has yet succeeded (and perhaps no one ever

will succeed, from the want of constant characters) in determining

at what point in the Pliocene strata these latter species appeared.

With the close of the Pliocene and Diluvian formations, the

last animal and vegetable species which became extinct, mde-

pendently of the action of man, disappeared; for in the strata

of alluvium we only meet with the remains of species still actu-

ally im existence. It may, however, be objected to this view

that, in the most recent Pliocene strata, the number of extinct

species only reaching a very small per-centage, the determination

of the age must become very uncertain, owing to the organic

remains not being abundant. In fact, in this case it may easily

happen that the rare extinct species have not been preserved in

the locality under examination, although they may have been in

others. We consequently run the risk of regarding as alluvium,

strata which are in fact Diluvian or Pliocene, and of employing

as a proof, the very point which we have to demonstrate. We

are by no means sure that such errors have not been committed

in cases which have been employed to decide the question.

Lastly, how can we believe, after all the facts above cited, that

the last 5, 4, 3, or 2 per cent. of the extinct species of the Pho-

cene population ceased their existence at the same moment under

the equator and at the pole, at the bottom of the ocean and on

the surface of the continents ?

This is a question as difficult to settle, as to know whether man

existed simultaneously with extinct species which have ceased to

exist without any historical intervention on his part, or whether

he has only appeared after their extinction. The appearance. of

man, who has had so great an influence upon the present state

of our planet and upon thé whole development of nature—the

entry upon the scene of the world of this “lord of the creation,’

for whose reception all the rest could only have been a prepara-

tory work, is an event which one would willingly have taken as

the starting-point of a new era in the history of the world. It

is true that human bones and fragments of artificial objects have

during the Formation of the Crust of the Earth. 179

frequently been found mixed with the remains of Diluvian ani-

mals: but it has been thought that these facts could be got over

by the hypothesis that these bones were not in primitive rela-

tions of association, but had been brought together at a sub-

sequent epoch by currents of water; or, at least, it has been

objected that the nullity of such a hypothesis cannot be demon-

strated. Sir Charles Lyell in particular has endeavoured to

explain the juxtaposition of human bones with Diluvian remains

observed in Louisiana by Dickeson, by means of the disintegra-

tion of beds of clay in consequence of subterraneous erosions in

a locality where Indian graves existed above Diluvian remains.

The following observations would be more difficult to refute, if

they had been surrounded by all the necessary guarantees. In

a bone-cave in Brazil, M. Lund found a skull similar to that of

the present aborigines, together with other human bones, amongst

bones of Platonya and Chlamydotherium. All the remains were

petrified in the same way, penetrated by perfectly similar ferru-

ginous incrustations, and presented the same metallic fracture.

Out of twenty-four bone-caves in Brazil, M. Lund states that in

six he found human bones associated with the remains of extinct

animals ; and although these observations could not be regarded

in the light of absolute proof, M. Lund was inclined to think

that these men and these animals had lived at the same time.

We must also mention here the juxtaposition of human bones,

fragments of pottery, and other artificial products, with remains

of extinct mammalia in the clay and osseous breccia of Bize,

near Narbonne, according to Marcel de Serres, Tournal, and

Lecoq; the analogous observations of M. Schmerling in the

bone-caves of Louvain; those of M. Marcel de Serres in the

caves of Mialet ; the discoveries of the same nature in the recent

voleanic matters of La Denise, near the Puy in Auvergne; and

especially those of the rock-clefts of the Wiirtemberg Alb, in

which five human molars have been found in the deepest parts,

and in a state of fossilization identical with that of the bones of

Hippotherium, Tapirus, and Mastodon found beside them,—facts

which are guaranteed by Jaeger, Kurr, and Quenstedt. One

circumstance alone might give rise to some scruples—namely,

that these five teeth are all identical in form, and that, although

they correspond with the last molar of the lower jaw (in the

Mongols, the Finns, and the Negroes), they present a greater

resemblance to each other than to this tooth*.

All the cases just cited are of such a nature, that a person desti-

tute of any preconceived opinion would adopt without hesitation

the notion of the simultaneous existence of human bones and

_ * See also Mr. Prestwich’s paper at p. 230 of our present Number.—Ep.

Annals. @ os -->

12%

180 M. Bronn on the Laws of Evolution of the Organic World

remains of fossil animals in the same strata. Nevertheless any

one who chooses to submit them to the most severe criticism

may still leave the door open for certain doubts.

. It is therefore useless, in our opinion, to speak of those cases

in which the pretended discovery of human bones, going back

to the Diluvian epoch, or even to a still more ancient period, has

been completely refuted. Nor shall we dwell upon the tradi-

tions which are preserved by the inhabitants of New Zealand and

Madagascar with regard to the existence of gigantic birds, such

as the Moa (Dinornis) and the A@pyornis in remote countries —

birds of which we now find the eggs and bones in strata of very

recent origin; for it is very possible that these traditions repose

merely upon the existence of these fossil remains, and in any

case they are not supported by sufficient proofs*.

Nevertheless all these facts, although they do not prove

irrefragably the coexistence of man with species of animals now

extinct, certainly deserve serious consideration. If, in the pre-

sent state of science, we collate them with the discovery men-

tioned in this work, of the skull of an Indian at a great depth

in the Cypress-deposits of Louisiana+, we cannot but see that it

* In the case of the Moa, Mr. W. Mantell’s late observations support

the statements as to the cotemporaneity of man with this great bird.—Ep.

Annals.

+ The author alludes to the following facts. Messrs. Dickeson and Brown

have discovered in Louisiana a deposit of fossil Cypress-trunks (Cupressus

disticha, Linn., Taxodium distichum, Rich.) belonging to the same species

which still exists in the regions exposed to the inundations of the Missis-

sippi. . This deposit is formed of ten layers of Cypresses, arranged verti-

cally one above the other, and separated by layers of earth. Ten trunks

of great diameter have been met with, for each of which the counting of

the woody layers of growth gave a duration of about 5700 years. Above

the most recent of these Cypress-beds there now grows a forest of ever-

green Oaks, the age of which is estimated at 1500 years. Mr. Dowler

(Jameson’s Journal, 1854, lvii. pp. 374, 375) takes these facts as the basis

of the following chronological calculations. The soil formed by the

alluvia of the river originally produced .only herbage; it was a vast bog

with a moving soil. It was only by degrees, when the soil had been ele-

vated and become more solid, that the Cypress-forests could establish

themselves upon it. We know (thanks to the ancient data of Strabo) that

the Nile, in the space of seventeen centuries, has only elevated the soil of

Egypt, by its deposits of alluvium, at the rate of five feet in a century.

Adopting a similar standard of measurement, we should have to suppose

that it was only at the end of 1500 years that the soil of the moving bog

became sufficiently firm to support Cypresses. Now, if we consider that

some of the Cypresses which we find in this fossil forest attained the very

great age of 5700 years, and if we pay attention to the fact that, for each

of the ten layers of the deposit, we are compelled to assume generations of

Cypresses succeeding one another, perhaps in great number, to be after-

wards thruwn down and left to decompose before the period at which the

trees still actually living were developed, we shall not be charged with

exaggeration in calculating for the duration of the deposition of each hed

during the Formation of the Crust of the Earth. 181

is very difficult to establish a clearly-marked line of demarcation

between the Tertiary epoch and the present.

New Results.

In 1848 and 1849, we had already indicated, in the ‘ Index

Palzontologicus’ (second part, pp. 746-913), several of the re-

sults contained in the present work with regard to the appear-

ance of organisms on the surface of the earth, but without

a period of time answering at least to two generations of Cypresses. We

see therefore that each of the forests which gave origin to the formation of

one of the beds of this deposit lasted at least 11,400 years, before, being

buried in the soil, there was a fresh irruption of the waters and formation

of anew bog. The marshy soil of this new bog became solidified in its

turn, and enabled to produce a new forest of Cypresses, the duration of

which was not inferior to that of the former. Then this forest was buried

in its turn, and the same phenomenon was repeated ten times in succes-

sion. For the last of these alternations, therefore, calculation gives the

following result :—

Formation and solidification of the bog .......... veda 1,500 years.

Duration of two generations Of Cypress ...ccccsscscesesesees 11,400 _,,

Duration of the existing forest of Oaks after the drying

NUTR OL CHIE WREE ces cc ccestc cian ros sa venoapessgee venice ,000 ,,

14,400 ,, -

The first nine times there was no desiccation and elevation of the soil

after the development of the forests of Cypress, and the production of

intermediate oak-forests was not possible. But as the depressions of the

soil which terminated the existence of each forest of Cypress often pro-

duced a depression of the surface far below the level of the original bog,

we may without much chance of error retain this space of 1500 years for

each of the ten preceding periods, and we find then that the formation of

the entire deposit required a period of time equal to 11 x 14,400, that is to

say, 158,400 years; and durmg the whole of this immense period, the

vegetation of the country has for the most part retained the same charac-

ters! At New Orleans, at 16 feet below the soil, in the fourth of these

beds from the surface, there has been found a well-preserved human skull,

corresponding perfectly in its form with the skulls of the actual aborigines

of America, and accompanied by the remains of burnt wood. From this

we must conclude that this country was inhabited 57,600 years (4 x 14,400)

ago by men of the American race.

Such is Mr. Dowler’s calculation. It is true that several elements of

this calculation are somewhat hypothetical; but the facts suffice to show,

with very great probability, the immense duration of an epoch posterior to

the Diluvian period, at least if we do not choose to regard the strata below

the human skull as still belonging to the czenolithic age—an. opinion which

does not appear to be supported by local observation in Louisiana. More-

over, it is worth while to remark that this Cypress (Taxodium distichum),

upon which it would appear that we may rest, in order to demonstrate the

long duration of the post-diluvian epoch, is one of the three species the

existence of which may be traced, according to M. Goppert, upon the soil

of Europe, from the upper Miocene to the actual epoch (under the name

of Taxodites dubius).—K. CLAPAREDE. |

182 M. Bronn on the Laws of Evolution of the Organic World

representing these facts as flowing from a positive law—as result-

ing from a common cause. Even then we pointed out the passage

of species from one bed to another, the variability of the dura-

tion of their existence, and the increase in the number of species,

genera, orders, and classes in recent periods,—circumstances

which support the idea of the existence of a hotter and more uni-

form climate in the ancient periods. Even then we indicated the

progressive advance to perfection of the different subkingdoms by

the successive appearance of more perfect groups and the extine-

tion of other groups of inferior organization, and the influence of

the external conditions of existence upon the successive appear-

ance of the various types of animals and vegetables upon the

surface of the earth,—understanding by these external conditions,

atmospheric conditions and those of configuration of soil or the

action of other organized beings. Before 1848, these different

points of view had never been carefully studied in detail; and

those which, like the gradual development of creation from more

simple to more complex organization, had been the object of

special investigations on the part of other authors, appeared to

lead to results agreeing but little with older knowledge. The

conclusions at which we arrived in the ‘ Index Paleontologicus’

remain true now as then. Recent researches confirm them in

all points.

Nevertheless the present work is rich; in new results. ‘It

places the law of adaptation of the successive faunas and floras

to the external conditions of existence, as a fundamental law

which governs all the others. Considered on its negative side,

this law is absolute, and excludes every phenomenon which would

contradict it ; but considered on its positive side, it allows free

play to other laws subordinated to or independent of it. This

work shows us the necessity of the simultaneous appearance of

plants and animals, and teaches us that all the phenomena

resulting from this fundamental law flow from it in a necessary

and direct manner. It consequently confirms, by palzontological

proofs, the geological theory in favour at the present day. By

positive and incontestable facts, it overthrows the old idea of

distinct faunas and floras confined within perfectly limited strata,

determined by lithological limits remaining the same over all

the surface of the globe. It demonstrates the inequality of

duration of species coexisting in the same stratum. It presents

the law of terripetal evolution as an expression of the gradual

transformation of the surface of the globe and of its influence

upon the totality of the successive characters of the floras and

faunas. It establishes the second fundamental law, namely,

that of progressive development (advancing in concert with the

progression which might result simply from the terripetal law).

during the Formation of the Crust of the Earth. 183

It exhibits in detail and in a decisive manner the importance of

the appearance of the angiospermous Dicotyledons as a condi-

tion of existence for the whole terrestrial fauna. Lastly, it indi-

cates the importance of the synchronic relations which existed

between the ascertained depressions of the soil, combined with

the emanation of a great quantity.of carbonic acid eliminated

immediately by the formation of coal, and the existence of the

singular forests of Stigmaria, connected with a vegetation com-

posed only of vascular Cryptogamia and gymnospermous Dico-

tyledons, to the exclusion of the Angiospermia*. These peculiar

conditions of vegetation seem to have made their. appearance

again, although with a very local development, in the course of

the Jurassic period. We are convinced that the office of these

forests was to maintain the atmosphere in a respirable state at a

period when carbonic acid was emitted in greater abundance

than at the present day, and even to render it more suitable for

respiration, although positive proofs of this are wanting. An

abundant vertebrate fauna with an active respiration would in

course of time have acted injuriously in the opposite direction.

If this opinion should be confirmed, the fact of the progressive

development of the vegetable kingdom would enter, at least

partially, into dependence upon the law of adaptation of the

successive creations to the external conditions of existence. By

this the unity of the laws and phenomena could not but gain.

The results at which we have arrived rest. upon the actual

state of our knowledge of the fossil world. New discoveries

may therefore at any time introduce modifications of them.

Nevertheless the general laws which we have established repose

upon too numerous facts to allow any exceptions which may

hereafter be discovered to suffice for their complete overthrow.

Although, in the creation of organized beings, nature may have

followed the course which we have indicated, we cannot, how-

ever, but suppose that some exception, some deviation from the

rule may have taken place in consequence of causes unknown to

us. The phenomena which occupy us here are by no means of

such a nature that we may deduce them from a fundamental

law with the same certainty that we can deduce the fall of a

body or the orbit of a planet from the law of universal attrac-

tion. The causes which preside over these phenomena are too

manifold and too dissimilar to allow us to calculate the result

with certainty @ priori. But even if we supposed that a perfectly

strict law was at the basis of all these phenomena, our know-

ledge of the remains enclosed in the strata of the earth’s crust

can never be otherwise than fragmentary. We can never be

sure that certain facts do not escape us, the revelation of which

* See previous note at p. 177.—Ep. Annals.

184 Prof. Henfrey on the Development of Roots,

would be of high importance to the development of our know-

ledge.

However the results at which we. have arrived may be re-

ceived, we have only searched for truth. The laws that we have

developed as resulting from a geological theory, had revealed

themselves long since to our eyes in nature; for during many

years we have ever been guided by one single motive—

“ Naturd doceri.”

XIX.—On the Development of Roots, and the Exfolhation of the

Cellular Coats of their Extremities. By Anruur HEnrRey,

F.R.S.

In the ‘ Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England,’

vol. xix. part 2, published in January last, there is an essay on _

the Structure of Roots, by myself, in the latter part of which is

described the mode in which the extremities of roots elongate,

and the special arrangements by means of which they are

enabled to penetrate the soil. The same subject has more re-

cently been dealt with by MM. Garreau and Brauwers, who

appear to have been ignorant of the existence of my paper above

referred to; these authors have made some extensive investiga-

tions on a further point connected with these root-ends, viz. the

possibility that the exfoliated tissue may constitute an excretion

capable of exerting an injurious influence upon the same species,

and so account for some of the most puzzling phenomena re-

lating to the rotation of crops. As the subject is one of great

physiological interest, it may be worth while to extract from the

‘ Agricultural Journal’ those portions of the above-mentioned

essay which relate to the anatomy and development of roots, at

the same time that I present a translation of the memoir of

MM. Garreau and Brauwers. The statements in my own paper

are made in somewhat general terms, as it was prepared for a

somewhat “ popular” class of readers; but they were based upon

an original series of investigations which furnished facts in all

respects identical with those related in detail by the French

authors, to whom, however, exclusively belongs the merit of that

part of the inquiry concerning the nature of the substances cast

off by the exfoliating radicles.

“The root, as developed in the great majority of plants, pre-

sents a highly organized structure, made up of various kinds of

true cellular or parenchymatous tissue, together with those kinds

of elementary tissue which, under the names of wood-cells, ves-

sels, and ducts, form the hard parts of plants. As a rule, we

may divide the internal structures.of a root into two regions—

and the Exfoliation of the Cellular Coats of their Extremities. 185

the cortical, and the woody or central region; the former of

these is altogether parenchymatous; the latter consists for

the most part of woody tissue in natural roots, but contains

abundance of parenchyma in plants where the roots become

fleshy.

” The cortical region is continuous with the rind-structure of

the stem, and in young roots consists of a thin layer of squarish

parenchymatous cells, more or less densely filled with mucilagi-

nous contents, but completely covered in on the outer surface

by a layer of cells firmly connected side by side, forming a kind

of skin, called the epidermis. This skin is distinguished from

that clothing the leaves and young shoots, in accordance with

the difference of function, by the absence of the peculiar breath-

ing pores or stomata, by which the internal structures of the

leaves, &c., are placed in direct communication with the atmo-

sphere. There are no openings of any kind through the skin

covering the surface of roots; and the notion formerly enter-

tained of the existence of sponge-like regions at the extremities

of roots was an error arising out of imperfect observation, as

will appear presently. The cortical region exhibits some striking

differences in its subsequent history in different plants. In

most cases, especially in the roots of Dicotyledons, and in the

branching roots of Monocotyledons, many of the epidermal cells,

at a little distance from the growing point of the root or rootlet,

grow out into filaments or hair-like processes, constituting the

‘fibrils’ of roots. These are mostly invisible to the naked eye ;

and their presence is chiefly betrayed by the adhesion of the

soil tothem. When young roots are carefully washed and placed

under a magnifying glass, these fibrils are seen very clearly ;

and on such roots as those of barley, for instance, they exist in

enormous numbers. ,

“ At the growing points of roots, the epidermis passes insensi-

bly into the mass of nascent or cambial tissue ; but the growing

point of a root is not at its absolute extremity, which is covered

by a cap-shaped or hood-like portion of epidermis of its own,

continuous likewise behind with the cambial structure. This

eap-like sheath of the point of the root may be compared with

the head of an arrow, forming a firm body, which can be pushed

forward by the growing force behind, to penetrate through the

resisting soil. This cap is subject to destruction and decom-

position by external agencies, and is less distinctly seen in roots

growing in earth than in those of aquatic plants. In all cases

it is constantly undergoing renewal by cell-development at the

back part; and when it remains undissolved, as in many water-

plants, it becomes very large ; when it undergoes decomposition

in proportion as it is renewed behind, it presents an irregular,

186 Prof. Henfrey on the Development of Roots,

ragged appearance, which probably gave rise to the idea of a

spongy structure at the end of the rootlets.

“Tn some roots the epidermis produces no fibrils, but remains

smooth. This is especially the case in the delicate filamentous

roots, annually thrown off, of many Monocotyledons, as of the

onion, hyacinth, crocus, &c. In these roots the epidermal cells

retain their general delicate character throughout their existence;

and probably the roots of this character absorb by their surface

throughout their whole length; while in woody roots the ab-

sorbent action is confined to the rootlets—to the regions near

the growing points,—where the epidermis is still delicate and

covered with its hair-like fibrils.

“In woody roots, as the whole organ increases in size and the

internal part becomes lignified, the cortical region changes its

character. The epidermis dries up, and its place is taken by a

corky structure, formed of two or three layers of the cells pre-

viously subjacent to the epidermis. When this change has taken

place, the direct absorbent power may be regarded as lost.

Simultaneously with this change, the inner cortical parenchyma

often increases considerably in quantity, and this is particularly

the case in fleshy roots, where this region subsequently becomes

the reservoir of accumulated nourishment.

“The centre of a very young root is occupied by a cord of

cellular tissue of different form from the cortical parenchyma,

consisting of elongated cells—the cambium of the future wood,

which merges, near the growing point, in the focus of cell-

development lying just behind the apex of the rootlet, where

the nascent cells are all alike. The central cord very soon dis-

plays traces of the structures called ducts, and the cells assume

the form, and more or less the substance, of the wood-cells of

the stem. Some important differences exist as to the arrange-

ment of their constituents in different classes of plants. In

Dicotyledons (such plants as turnips, beans, pease, our native

timber-trees, &c.), the structure of the central or woody part of

the root differs from that of the stem chiefly in the absence of a

central pith, together with the circumstance that the so-called

vascular structure consists of short-jointed ducts, without the

more flexible spiral vessels.

‘In ordinary Dicotyledonous roots, when no tuberous deve-

lopment occurs, the central woody structure soon acquires its

distinctive character. The wood of the stem consists originally of

a number of perpendicularly arranged cords, standing m a circle

around the pith, a certain number of which pass out into each

leaf to form the skeleton of those organs. The lower portions,

inside the stem, extend down for a variable distance in different

plants. Those of the lower joints of the stem run down into the

and the Exfoliation of the Cellular Coats of their Extremities. 187

roots to form its wood; so that here also we find the woody axis

at first in the form of distinct bundles, separated from each cther

by cellular tissue (medullary rays), but crowded closely together

in the centre, so that there is no pith. In the young root we

find the bundles belonging to the cotyledons largest, between

these the bundles belonging to a number of successive leaves.

As the stem has its leaves developed, the number of these bun-

dles is increased, until at length a complete circle is formed.

When the stem has its jomts elongated, the number of bundles

extending down into the root is apparently more restricted than

when the root is crowned by a tuft of leaves. The bundles be-

longing to the leaves, formed at a certain height from the root,

have their origin at the points where some of the lower ones run

out into the leaves, so that they take the place of the latter in

the circle surrounding the pith.

“When the root is not tuberous, the woody bundles grow by

the conversion of their cambial tissue into wood and ducts, and

soon form a solid mass of wood, the wedge-shaped parts of which

are more or less distinguishable in different cases. Sometimes

the medullary rays separating them remain tolerably large; in

other cases these are lost sight of, and the separate bundles are

then often only roughly traceable by the arrangement of their

larger ducts.

“The woody axis thus formed exhibits at its outer surface

(next the rind) a cambium-region, where new development of wood

takes place, as in the stem, in perennial plants forming annual

rings, and where the buds giving rise to branches originate. But

when we proceed outwards from here, we miss the next consti-

tuent of the stem, namely the lider, or bast fibres, which are

absent from the root, ending at the ‘collar’ or point of junction

of the root and stem. On the other hand, the cellular structure

of the rind or bark is mostly very much developed, and is re-

newed on the inside by the cambium-region, in proportion as its

outer parts are destroyed, The outer part of the rind of oldish

roots exhibits a corky texture ; and in the roots of trees this rind

acquires great solidity, forming a kind of false corky bark if the

roots are exposed.

“ Where the roots of Dicotyledons become tuberous, very

different departures from the regular structure are met with in

different plants,—for example, in the turnip and its allies, the

carrot, parsnip, &c., and the beet or mangel-wurzel. In the first

group the unnatural production of succulent cellular tissue takes

place in the medullary rays which invade and break up the

woody bundles, and scatter their elements so that they are found

distributed in irregular radiating rows in a great mass of paren-

chymatous tissue. This tissue is by no means a continuation of

188 Prof. Henfrey on the Development of Roots.

the pith of the stem, although it bears some resemblance to it.

There is a distinct boundary of wood where the root joins the

stem. This is probably of importance as regards the ‘ keeping’

qualities of the roots. In the carrot there is a similar develop-

ment in the woody region, but not so marked; while an equal,

if not greater, production of parenchyma takes place on the outer

side of the cambium, forming a thick fleshy rmd. A thickened

rind of this kind is found in most of the fleshy fibrous roots of

perennial herbaceous Dicotyledons, such as groundsel, prim-

rose, &e.

‘In the beet, the structure both of the stem and root is un-'

like that of ordinary Dicotyledons ; and the changes produced by

cultivation cannot be discussed here.

“The roots of Monocotyledonous plants, such as those of

grasses, onions, ordinary bulbous plants, &c., are temporary

structures, thrown off year after year, or dying with the stem in

annuals. Their woody structure differs very much from that of

the roots of Dicotyledons, so that they are easily known by ob-

serving a cross section; but the cortical region and the growing

extremities differ little in the roots of the two classes. The

principal characteristic of the roots of the Monocotyledons lies

in their woody central cord exhibiting no trace of distinct bun-

dles separated by medullary rays, but consisting of a central

column of wood, with its ‘ducts’ or vascular structures lying

on the outside, at the region where the wood adjoins the cortical

parenchyma. A kind of cambium exists here also, although no

annual rings are ever formed, since it is at this outer surface

of the woody region that the root-buds originate.

“The structure of the ordinary roots of herbaceous Mono-

cotyledonous plants may be well examined in the onion. If we

place an onion bulb over water in a long glass, like a hyacinth-

glass, it soon sends out a number of slender blunt-ended roots,

of white colour, the tips only having a yellowish tinge. By

placing longitudinal sections of one of them under the micro-

scope, we can trace the mode of development of their roots.

The extreme point is clothed by irregularly formed cells, loosely

coherent, and evidently being partly thrown off by expansion of

the structure beneath; these cells pass laterally into a stratum

of elongated cells, which clothe the whole external surface of the

rootlet. In the interior of the conical end of the root we find a

mass of nascent cells, with their walls scarcely distinguishable,

in a state of rapid multiplication by division: this is the chief

focus of development of the root. Continuing the examination

upward to the older part of the root, the rudimentary cells are

soon found arranged im rows parallel to the direction of the

root : at first they are very short, then squarish in the side view ;

Mr. Jeffreys on British Mollusca. 189

and by degrees they are elongated, until their length is much

greater than their breadth ; they also expand laterally to a certain

extent after their first formation ; but this growth ceases, so that

the rootlet has a fixed diameter. The cell-division seems to be

repeated in these cells in the direction of their length after they

have attained their full diameter. While young, near the tip of

the root, they are densely filled with protoplasmic substances ;

as they expand they appear clearer, and contain only a moderate

quantity of protoplasm, with abundant watery cell-sap. The

rudimentary cells developed in the very centre of the point of

growth become cells of much less diameter and more elongated

form, and constitute the rudiment of a fibro-vascular cord run-

ning through the centre of the rootlet ; at a little distance from

the point, traces of spiral markings may be detected on the walls

of some of these cells, which are becoming vessels,—the distin-

guishing marks of the fibro-vascular bundles. Higher up in the

root, the central fibro-vascular cord is clearly recognizable, sur-

rounded by parenchymatous cells, themselves enclosed by a

continuous layer of delicate epidermal cells. In these roots the

epidermal cells do not grow out in hairs (radical fibrils).

“ Roots of this kind show very clearly that the elongation of

roots takes place by increase at the point only. This is seen by

noticing the relative dimensions of the cells in the different parts ;

but it may be proved still more evidently by marking the roots,

when of some length, at equal distances, with touches of Indian

ink. When we watch the further growth of a root thus marked,

we see that the spots on the upper part of the root do not be-

come removed to a greater distance from each other, but new struc-

ture is added on below the marked parts. The same important

law of growth isillustrated by the natural marks made by branches

arising from the roots, which remain permanently at their ori-

ginal distance apart, as nay be clearly seen im the transverse

streaks on the surface of the root of a carrot.”

XX.— Additional Gleanings in British Conchology.

By J. Gwyn Jerrreys, Esq., F.R.S.

In continuation of my notices on this subject, I have only occa-

sionto make a preliminary remark, that, although I have at

present no new species to describe, the communication of any

facts which may serve to increase our knowledge of already

known species is not less valuable or interesting than the publi-

cation of novelties.

Acephala Lamellibranchiata.

~Teredo megotara, Forbes and Hanl. Brit. Moll. yol.i. p. 77.

190 Mr. Jeffreys on British Mollusca.

Dr. Lukis kindly sent me specimens from Guernsey in which the

tube is semiconcamerated at its narrower end or opening, as in 7’.

Norvagica. They were found in deal and teak wood.

T. malleolus, i. 84. In cork, Plymouth Sound (Mr. Webster);

and with the last, ina log of deal balk which was cast up on the shore

at Guernsey (Dr. Lukis). Some of the valves sent me by Dr. Lukis

measure 2ths of an inch in length, and are so similar in every respect

to those of 7. bipennata that I am much inclined to doubt their

being distinct species, notwithstanding the difference in their calca-

reous styles or pallets. So little is known of the ceconomy of these

appendages, that it is possible that the very aberrant forms which

they exhibit in these two so-called species may be only a modifica-

tion of the same organ, depending on a difference of climate or

habitation, Soi ee

~Pholadidea papyracea, i. 123. This local and curious shell has

been found by Capt. Bedford in lumps of indurated clay which were

brought up on fishermen’s lines from clayey ground, at a depth of

about 25 fathoms, near Lismore on the west coast of Scotland. One

of the specimens has the dried remains of the animal in it. In the

same matrix which contained the Pholadidea are firmly imbedded

fossil specimens of Nucula decussata, some of which retain their

epidermis. The last-named species is found living in the same lo-

cality. This association of species, which, in their recent state, are

regarded by some conchologists as being respectively characteristic

of northern and southern latitudes, is somewhat remarkable; though

I believe the Pholas Vibonensis of Philippi (Enum. Moll. Sic. ii. p. 46,

t. 13. f. 5) is the young of Pholadidea papyracea, while the other

species has been described and figured by Bronn as well as Philippi

under the names of Nucula sulcata and Polii—the first species as

a pleistocene fossil, and the last both as recent and fossil. The

lumps of clay appear to have been consolidated by a calcareous

deposit or infiltration, and they are as hard and compact as many

kinds of stone. Dr. Capellini informs me that an equally compact

kind of stone, which is considered to be pleistocene, and contains

fossil shells of that period, occurs at Leghorn, and is extensively used

for building. I have now (August 23) found the P. papyracea, as

well as the dwarf variety mentioned in the “British Mollusca,’ alive,

in small lumps of. triassic sandstone which were dredged up from a

depth of 80 fathoms in the Irish Sea, off the coast of Antrim. I

may take this opportunity of observing that all the shells and other

animals which I took with the above have their colour quite as vivid

as the same species which inhabit a much less depth, or even the sea-

shore. Such is the case with Trochus zizyphinus, Tapes virginea,

Natica nitida, Munida Rondeletii, Pandalus annulicornis, and a

small streaked Actinia. It appears to be a popular error, that at

depths exceeding 50 or 100 fathoms, colour becomes less bright or

even evanescent. sh

Spheenia Binghami, i. 190. Not uncommon in rolled pieces of

chalk, as well as among the roots of Laminaria digitata, on the |

north-eastern coast of Ireland. I much doubt its having the power

Mr. Jeffreys on British Mollusca. 191

of “‘ burrowing,” or excavating the stones and shells in which it is

often found. Sometimes adult specimens have their shells strangu-

lated, and more or less distorted, so as completely to fit the cavities

in which they are enclosed; and I believe this mollusk, like Kellia

suborbicularis, only uses the excavations which had been previously

made by Annelids. I suspect the same to be the case with Cliona

cathe and that this curious Sponge only occupies deserted gal-

erles.

Mya truncata, i. 163. A young specimen was taken alive in 80

fathoms water, by dredging off the coast of Antrim, at a distance of

about ten miles from the shore. This species, as is well known, is

usually found between tide-marks.

Poromya granulata, i. 204. A comparison of our shell with. a

specimen of the Hmbla Koreni of Lovén from Upper Norway induces

me to confirm the surmise made by the authors of the ‘British

Mollusca,’ that they are one and the same species. Nyst’s specific

name, however, has precedence in date.

Thracia convexa, 1. 229. A young specimen was taken by Mr.

Barlee in Zetland last year. :

T. distorta, i. 231. I believe this is only an abnormal form of 7.

villosiuscula, and that they constitute but one species. The former

name has, of course, the priority, although it is not so generally

appropriate as the other. The first lines of growth are evidently the

same in each; and it is only after the habitat is changed that a

marked difference appears. . The Anatina truncata of Turton may

be regarded as. an intermediate form. An analogous difference,

occasioned by the habitat being free or enclosed, occurs in Tapes

pullastra and its variety perforans, which was formerly considered

a distinct species.

Lyonsia Norvegica, 1.214. St. Martin’s Bay, Guernsey (J.G.J.);

St. Catherine’s Bay, Jersey (Rev. 4. M. Norman).

Solecurtus candidus, i. 263. In dredged sand from Belfast Bay.

Psammobia costulata, i. 279. With the last.

Syndosmya tenuis, 1. 323. Gronville and St. Catherine’s Bays,

Jersey (Rev. A. M. Norman).

Mactra elliptica, i. 356. I am much inclined to doubt this being

anything more than a deep-water variety of M. subtruncata, having

intermediate specimens from Guernsey and Ardrossan, in the last of

which the transverse sulci only appear in the later period of growth.

Tapes pullastra, i. 382. <A large, but worn, single valve, which

belongs to the form named by me Venus plagia (described in the

‘ Annals of Natural History,’ ser. 2. vol. xix. p. 313), has been found

by Mr. Hyndman ‘at Larne in Belfast Bay, and was obligingly pre-

sented by him to me. It measures 22 inches in length, and 12

in breadth. The peculiar obliquity of its shape and greater breadth,

as well as the acute angle in which the anterior extremity terminates,

incline me to retain my former opinion that it is not a variety of

T'. pullastra. In some respects it resembles 7’. virgineu.

T. aurea, i. 392. Southend, Essex.

Circe minima, 1. 446, var. latior et complanata. Belfast Bay.

192 Mr. Jeffreys on British Mollusca.

Astarte compressa, i. 464. I found single valves of the smooth

variety, with dstyris Holbéllii, by dredging off Larne on the north-

eastern coast of Ireland, in about 25 fathoms. The ribbed and

convex form (4. globosa of Moller) occurs as a pleistocene fossil in

the neighbourhood. See notice (post) of Margarita cinerea.

A. triangularis, i. 467. ‘The non-crenation of the margin does

not depend on age (as supposed by the authors of the ‘British

Mollusca’), for I possess specimens which are evidently adult and

of the same size, some of them having the margin quite plain, while

in others it is strongly crenulated.

Cardium edule, ii. 15; var. ovalis, compressa, margine antico sub-

recto. Herm (Dr. Iwkis). This variety is as remarkable as the

C. rusticum of authors.

C. punctatum (C. nodosum, ii. 22). Gorey, Jersey; very fine

(Rev. d. M. Norman).

C. fasciatum, ii. 25. Some specimens from Zetland show decided

punctures in the interstices of the ribs, which are apparently caused

by the concentric wrinkles being more than usually crowded together

in this part.

C. pygmeeum, ii. 29. Gorey, Jersey (Rev. 4. M. Norman).

Lucina borealis, ii. 46. There are two distinct forms or varieties

of this species: one is compressed, with few and distant ribs; and

the other is gibbous and smaller, with the ribs more numerous and

close together. The last variety has been taken by Mr. Norman in

Bantry Bay, and by myself in Guernsey.

L. leucoma, ii. 57. Jersey, at low water (Rev. 4. M. Norman).

Spheerium rivicola (Cyclas rivicola, 1.111). Beeston Brook, near

Liverpool; Surrey Canal; Minchinhampton; Devizes (Mr. Webster).

S. ovale. M. Bourguignat, in his Monograph on the French

species of Spherium (p. 31, pl. 6. f. 6), refers this species, which was

founded by Férussac, to the Cyclas lacustris of Draparnaud,—the

Tellina lacustris of Miller being a different species, and identical

with the Cyclas calyculata of Draparnaud. It is the Spherium

pallidum of Gray.

Dreissena polymorpha, ii. 165. Mr. Barlee informs me that it

abounds in the river Witham in Lincolnshire, five miles from the

sea; and that the river is not navigable by vessels above half a mile

from Boston, where there is a sluice and lock to keep out the tide.

It is more than probable that this species is indigenous to Great

Britain, and was not originally imported from the Continent.

Mytilus edulis, ii. 170. The epidermis in young individuals is

clothed with short hairs, which in after-growth appear to fall off.

This is another link which unites the genus to Modiola.

Modiola radiata (M. tulipa, ii. 187). Jersey (Rev. A. M. Norman).

The large variety from Falmouth has been lately figured by Mr.

G. B. Sowerby, in his very useful work entitled ‘Illustrated Index

of British Shells’ (pl. 7. f. 7), as a distinct species, under the pro-

visional name of Modiola ovalis. If the normal form be found

with it, the distinction may be a good one, as I am not aware that

any intermediate variety has been discovered.

Mr. Jeffreys on British Mollusca. 193

M. barbata, uu. 190. vebaapne’A (J. G. J.); Jersey (Rev. A. M.

Norman). .

M. cuprea, Ann. Nat. Hist. 3rd ser. vol. iii. No. 13. p. 40;

Sow. Ill. Ind. pl. 7. f. 11. The indigenousness of this species is

somewhat doubtful, as it now turns out that Mr. Bean’s specimens

were taken by Mr. Alfred Roberts, a bird-stuffer at Scarborough,

from the crop of a Brent-goose (instead of a Sanderling) which had

been shot there during the severe winter of 1855. Roberts appears

to have had good cause for remembering the circumstance, from

having lost his Sunday dinner. Having heard that the Brent-goose

was ‘an excellent-eating bird,’’ he depended upon this, and bought

nothing on the Saturday ; and, to his disgust, when his wife attempted

to prepare it for the spit, the wlva on which it had fed smelt so

very “loud,” that bread and cheese had. to be substituted. The

Brent-goose is a northern bird, and an occasional visitant to this

country. The shells retain all the original brilliancy of gloss and

colour, and they may certainly have been picked up on the British

coast.

Crenella rhombea, ii. 208. Gronville Bay, Jersey (Rev. A. M.

Norman).

Arca lactea, ii. 238. In dredged sand from Belfast Bay.

Pecten furtivus, Lov. (P. striatus, var., ii. 284). A single valve

occurred to me in dredged sand from Belfast Bay ; and I have since

found it alive, and not unfrequently, in the Irish Sea, off the coast

of Antrim.

P. opercularis, ii. 299. The very young have a rhomboidal pars

and the lower or flat valve is much smaller than the other (which

overlaps it) and is-perfectly smooth. The ribs do not at first appear

on the larger valve, but are preceded by a shagreen reticulation.

Anomia ephippium, ii. 325. Specimens which I found many

years ago in Swansea Bay, on a mussel bed which was uncovered at

a very low spring tide, present the anomalous character of having

the foramen in the lower or flat valve closed by a series of convex

layers of thin shelly matter. They were alive, and attached to the

mussels by the byssal threads of the latter mollusks ; and it appeared

to me that, having been detached from the oysters or stones to which

they were originally fixed, and thus deprived of their plugs, they

filled up the openings in the above manner for the sake of protection

against whelks and other enemies, being securely held by the mussel

moorings.

Gasteropoda Prosobranchiata.

Chiton gracilis, dan. Nat.-Hist. 3rd ser. vol. iii. No. 14. p. 106.

Gronville Bay, Jersey, with C. discrepans; rare (Rev. 4. M. Nor-

man).

C. Hanleyi, ii. 398. In deep water on the north coast of Ireland,

with Pholadidea papyracea (J.G.J.). Itis recorded in the ‘J ournal

de Conchyliologie’ as having been taken at the Antilles.

C. cancellatus, ii. 410. With the last, at low water (Rev. A. M.

Norman). Irish coast, off Larne, in about 18 fathoms (J. G. J.). -

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.3. Vol. iv. 13

194: Mr. Jeffreys on British Mollusca.

Calyptreea Sinensis, ii. 463. At Helford River, Cornwall; most

abundant and fine, both at low-water mark and dredged (Mr. Web-

ster).

ada Noachina, ii. 470. Belfast Bay.

Emarginula reticulata, ii.477. The fry closely resembles a Scissu-

rella, and has a regular Trochoidal spire, with the edges of the slit

inflected.

E. rosea, ii. 479. Jersey (Rev. A. M. Norman).

Haliotis tuberculata, ii. 485. Dr. Lukis informs me that in Mrs.

Collings’s collection is a specimen, about an inch and a quarter in

length, in which the perforations were absent from the very earliest

period of growth, being quite a congenital deformity. And he adds

that, although the demand for ormer shells, as articles of com-

merce, is on the decline, one merchant had (in February last) at

least fifteen to twenty tons weight in store ; that at sorting-time every

shell is separately examined, and that the best lots fetch on the spot

for exportation about seven shillings and sixpence per hundredweight ;

and that the quantity brought to this merchant varied, in the season,

from four to nine tons. It appears to be found in Alderney, and

also (though rarely) in Jersey,

Trochus alabastrum, ii. 497, var. alba. Zetland (Mr. Barilee).

T. exiguus, ii. 505. Jersey (Rev. 4. M. Norman).

T. striatus, ii. 508. -In dredged sand from Belfast Bay.

T. Montagui, ii. 511. Jersey (Rev. 4. M. Norman). An exqui-

site scalariform variety has been found by Mr. Waller and myself, by

dredging off the north-eastern coast of Ireland; but it is very rare.

The animal does not differ from that of the usual form.

Margarita exilis (Skenea? Cutleriana, iti. 164). Falmouth, rare

(Mr. Webster) ; Fowey, abundant in dredged sand (Mr. Barlee).

M. cinerea, Gould, Inv. Mass. 252. Mr. Waller and myself have

each found a specimen in dredged sand from the Turbot Bank in

Belfast Bay. They appear to be recent, although not in good con-

dition. Mr. Hyndman has kindly furnished me with some shells

(principally Astarte suleata) which were taken from a pleistocene

bed near Belfast, lying about 90 feet above the present level of the

sea. All of them want the transparence and gloss which distinguish

the shells supposed to be of Arctic origin and lately dredged in Bel-

fast Bay. Although the latter are not pleistocene, there may still

be a question whether they are not post-pleistocene, or the relics of

the glacial epoch, like Leda pygmea, Arca raridentata, and other

species, which apparently survive only in a few, but widely separated,

parts of that extensive region which was once subject to an Arctic

temperature. Lovén has recorded M. cinerea as occurring in Fin-

mark. I have since found and examined a bed of pleistocene fossils

lying by the road-side about half-way between Larne and Glenarm,

about 80 yards from high-water mark, and 15 feet above it. It is

situate about ten English miles from the Turbot Bank. All the

shells contained in this bed appear to be decidedly of an Arctic cha-

racter, and include Hypothyris Psittacea ; but few of them, and those

having an extensive range of geographical distribution, have as yet

Mr. Jeffreys on British Mollusca. 195

been detected in the adjacent sea. In texture and appearance, all

these fossils are very different from the shells taken on the Turbot

Bank. Local information has satisfied me that none of the last-

mentioned shells could have been brought from any distance by

marine currents; and indeed I have found nearly all the species

living in the immediate locality.

M.? costulata (Skenea? costulata, iii. 167). Mr. Waller found

two specimens with the last, and in the same condition, one of which

he has obligingly presented to me. Mr. Barlee has also taken a

small specimen in dredged sand from the Shetlands.

Adeorbis subcarinatus, ii. 541. The supposed operculum of this

end, nearly all the specimens are more or less eroded, and so much

so in some cases as to appear distorted. This cannot, I think, be

owing (as supposed by some naturalists) to the admixture of fresh

water with the sea, because in the same locality, where a small

stream empties itself into the Thames, none of the specimens are

similarly affected, while on the sea-shore at Tenby, where there is

no flow or infiltration of fresh water, dwarf specimens of Mytilus

edulis (var. ineurvatus) are partially eroded, and the limestone rocks

are fretting away from apparently the same cause. On the opposite

coast of North Devon the Purpura lapillus presents a similar case of

erosion; and the Chthamalus punctatus derives its specific name

from such marks. Other instances of the same kind will doubtless

occur to many of my readers. I believe this erosion is caused by

the action of carbonic acid, which is evolved by sea-water in con-

siderable quantities under certain conditions, aided by the gyratory

motion and reflux of the tide.

L. fabalis, iii. 49. This variety of L. littoralis, is found with the

young and an intermediate form of the typical species on the shores

of Larne Lough, in the north-east of Ireland; and it confirms my

former impression that these two so-called species ought to be united.

A similar intermediate gradation of form occurs in the same place

with respect to L. rudis and its variety L. tenebrosus.

Lacuna labiosa, Lov. iii. 66. In dredged sand from Belfast Bay ;

a single specimen.

L. crassior, iii. 67. Specimens from Guernsey and Belfast Bay

have a distinct canal or groove in the columella, evidently showing

its generic position. I am now enabled to add a note of the animal,

which settles the question. It is of a yellowish-white colour, having

two subulate and slender tentacles, with the eyes placed on short

peduncles at their external base; proboscis long and narrow ; two

rather long caudal filaments, one on each side of the operculigerous

lobe. The creature is active in its habits, and seems fond of crawl-

ing out of water.

13*

196 Mr. Jeffreys on British Mollusca.

Assiminea Grayana, iii. 70. I have traced this peculiarly local

species along the banks of the Thames from Greenwich (its original

locality) to about two miles below Gravesend, being a distance of

more than twenty miles.

A. littorea (Rissoa? littorea, iii. 132 and iv. 265), var. pallida.

Weymouth.

Rissoa calathus, iii. 82. In dredged sand from Belfast Bay.

R. cimicoides (R. sculpta, iii. 88). Cork Harbour (Mr. Wright).

R.? fulgida, ii. 128, var. efasciata. South Devon (Mr. Webster).

R. subumbilicata, dann. Nat. Hist. 3rd ser. vol. iii. No. 14. p. 108.

Southend (J. G. J.) ; Clevedon (Rev. 4. M. Norman) ; Birkenhead

(Mr. Webster). The last whorl of the shell is never keeled, as in

R. ulve.

R. Barleei, Jefr. Ann. Nat. Hist. vol. xix. p. 310 (R. ulve, var.,

iii. 143). In deep water, Plymouth (Mr. Webster). A dwarf and

thin variety occurs in Arnold’s Pond, Guernsey, associated with R.

ventrosa, to which latter species (instead of R. ulve) I would refer

the shells mentioned in the ‘ British Mollusca,’ vol. iii. p. 143. I

much doubt if R. ulv@ is found in Guernsey, as that island is desti-

tute of any estuary into which a river flows, which is, I believe, the

invariable habitat of that species.

R. castanea (R. ventrosa, var., iv. 266), Sow. Ill. Ind. pl. 14. f. 11.

Mr. Pickering found this species about two miles below Gravesend,

and not at Grays, as stated in the ‘ British Mollusca.’ It is singular

that he has not been, any more than myself, successful in redisco-

vering the species, although we have both at different times searched

the exact spot for it. It can scarcely be questioned that it is speci-

fically distinct from R. ventrosa, which is abundant in the same

locality.

R. ventrosa, iii. 138, var. minor. Loughor Marsh, Glamorgan-

shire, with R. ulve. I am not aware of any other instance in which

these species have been found associated together. R. ventrosa

usually inhabits brackish water, in ditches and ponds which com-

municate with the sea, but receive an accession of salt water only

when the tide is at its full, while R. ulve affects the mud flats of

estuaries which are quite covered by the sea at the same period.

The habit of the above variety appeared to be different from that of

R. ulve, inasmuch as all the specimens which I noticed of the former

were swimming (or rather creeping) underneath the surface of the

water, with their shells in an inverted position, while those of R. ulve

were crawling at the bottom, or attached to sea-weeds. Mr. Alder

says, with respect to the lingueedental apparatus of these species,

“‘T have examined the tongues of R. ulve and R. ventrosa, and I

find the difference between them so slight as to be scarcely appre-

ciable. The principal one is the greater length of the central denticle

of the central tooth in R. ulve@. There are also some slight differ-

ences in the form of the other teeth ; but the general character is the

same.”

Skenea planorbis, iii. 156. A small variety occurs on the shores

of Larne Lough, in Ireland, which has a more convex spire ; and it

Mr. Jeffreys on British Mollusca. 197

appears to bear the same relation to the typical form that the Helix

rupestris of Continental authors does to our H. umbilicata.

S. striata (Valvata? striata, Phil. i. 147, t. 9. f. 3, and ii. 122).

Two specimens have been found by Mr. Waller at Bundoran, in the

North of Ireland, one of which he obligingly presented to me. It

cannot be mistaken for the young of any British species of Trochus.

My specimen is nearly one-tenth of an inch in diameter. Although

Philippi provisionally assigned it to the genus Valvata because he

found it in a fossil state, associated with Cyrena gemellaris as well

as with marine shells, he subsequently thought it might with equal

propriety be referred to his genus Delphinula. Mr. Searles Wood

has, in his ‘Crag Mollusca’ (Univ. p. 137, tab. 15. f. 7), referred to

Philippi’s species some fossil shells under the name of Adeorbis

striatus ; but I am not satisfied that there are sufficient generic cha-

racters for distinguishing ddeorbis from Trochus, taking Adeorbis

subcarinatus as the type.

Skenea? leevis, iii. 165. Mr. Barlee has found another specimen

in dredged sand from the Shetlands. I do not believe it is the Del-

phinula levis of Philippi; and if it proves to be distinct, I would

suggest that the specific name of nitida be given to our species.

EKuomphalus? (Omalogyra) nitidissimus (Skenea? nitidissima, iii.

158). On Zostera marina, between tide-marks on the shores of

Larne Lough, Ireland.

E.? (Omalogyra) rota (Skenea? rota, iii. 160). Serk (Mrs.

Collings).

Czecum glabrum, iii. 181. It is possible that the Serpula incur-

vata of Adams, instead of being the fry of this species (according to

Mr. Clark), may be a species of Bifrontia. I possess apparently

very young specimens of C. glabrum, which merely show a greater

curvature of form with a less diameter than the adult, and present

the same relative differences that exist between the Dentalium imper-

Soratum and trachea of Montagu.

Cerithium niveum, Jeffr. in Ann. Nat. Hist. Mr. Waller has

found specimens of different ages (but more or less imperfect) by

dredging on the north-eastern coast of Ireland. It is a true Cerithium.

Stylifer Turtoni, iii. 226. Mr. Leckenby informs me that a fine

specimen (three-eighths of an inch in length!) was found a year or

two ago at Filey by Miss Backhouse. In a note which I have re-

ceived from Mr. Howard Stewart, as to this rare and interesting

species, he says, ‘‘ Amongst my numerous dredgings for the British

Echinoderms on the Plymouth coast, I have carefully looked over

vast numbers of sea-eggs, &c., for the Stylifer Turtoni, but have

never found it except on Echinus miliaris. In October or November

1855, I found six Stylifers on one Echinus miliaris, but only one of

these was adult; and on another specimen of FL. miliaris I obtained

an adult specimen of the mollusk, and the ova of the same. The ova

were so far advanced as to be seen swimming about by means of

coarse cilia under the microscope with a low power, and the shells

were perfectly formed.’ Mr. Stewart has since obligingly presented

me with these ova, which are disposed in two clusters (probably

198 Mr. Jeffreys on British Mollusca.

separated in their removal from the Hchinus), and altogether contain

200 or 300 fry. The shells appear to correspond with the first

whorl of the style. :

Chemnitzia simillima, Ann. Nat. Hist. 3rd series, vol. ii. p. 128 ;

Sow. Ill. Ind. pl. 16. f. 3 (nom. C. pusilla). St. Catherine’s Bay,

Jersey (Rev. 4. M. Norman). The C. gracilis of Philippi does not

appear to have been hitherto found in Great Britain, although a

small and slender variety of C. elegantissima may have been mis-

taken for it. This variety has been figured by Sowerby (pl. 16. f. 2)

under the erroneous name of C. simillimus, referring to Montagu

and the C. gracilis of Philippi. The true C. gracilis is an exquisite

shell, and when taken alive it glitters in the sun like a bright needle.

In size and diameter it is less than Hulimella acicula.

C. rufa, iti. 245. In dredged sand from Belfast Bay.

C. fenestrata, iii. 249. St. Catherine’s Bay, Jersey (Rev. A. M.

Norman).

Odostomia turrita, Jeffr. in Ann. Nat. Hist. 2nd ser. vol. ii. p. 339

(0. striolata, iii. 267). Bantry Bay (Rev. 4. M. Norman).

O. acuta, iii. 269. St. Catherine’s Bay, Jersey ; very large (Rev.

A. M. Norman).

O. alba, iii. 278, var. gracilior et carinata. Belfast Bay (Mr.

Waller).

O. Lukisii, Jeffr. in Ann. Nat. Hist. 3rd ser. vol. iii. p. 112.

South of Devon (Mr. Webster).

O. glabrata, iii. 283. With the last; but very rare. It has some-

what the aspect of a young Rissoa vitrea.

O. diaphana, Jeffr. in Ann. Nat. Hist. 2nd ser. vol. ii. p.341 ; Sow.

Til. Ind. pl. 17. f. 23. In dredged sand from Zetland; rare. Mr.

Sowerby justly remarks that this species is ‘ manifestly distinct ”’

from O. obliqua.

Eulimella clavula, iii. 314. Guernsey ; very rare.

Natica Helicoides, ili. 339. I found a young specimen in dredged

sand from Belfast Bay.

N. pusilla, iii. 341. Mr. Barlee has taken this species alive in the

Shetlands. |

Trichotropis borealis, ii. 361. In dredged sand from the Turbot

Bank, Belfast Bay ; and I have lately found it alive in the same part

of the Irish Sea.

Cerithiopsis pulchella, Jefr. in Ann. Nat. Hist. Mr. Waller

has taken this unmistakeably distinct species on the north-eastern

coast of Ireland. It has been recorded in the Report of the Belfast

Dredging Committee (furnished to the British Association in 1857)

under the name of Cerithium metula.

Nassa pygmeea, ili. 394. Belfast Bay (Mr. Waller).

Buccinum Dalei, iii. 408. The operculum proves that this species

is a true Fusus ; and the shell wants the columellar fold of Buccinum.

B. fusiforme, ili. 412. Mr. M‘Andrew procured two specimens

(one of them being nearly adult, and the other younger) by dredging

off the coast of Finmark ; and the operculum, as well as the absence

of a columellar fold, clearly show that this species must also be re-

Mr. Jeffreys on British Mollusca. 199

moved from Buccinum to Fusus. The operculum in this and the

last species is unguicular, and has a terminal nucleus. The apical

whorls of this shell closely resemble those of Fusus Berniciensis.

As the present specific name is manifestly inappropriate, I would

venture to suggest that it should be changed to Broderipi, as a slight

testimony to the memory of its late lamented discoverer.

Fusus Berniciensis, iii. 421. Among the results of Mr. Barlee’s

last dredgings in Zetland is a remarkably solid and evidently very

old, though recent shell, which I must provisionally assign to this

species. It is nearly four inches in length, and not quite an inch and

a half in breadth, being therefore of a more slender form than F.

Berniciensis. But the peculiarity of this specimen consists in the

apical whorls not being blunt and symmetrical, as in F. Berniciensis,

but pointed and mammillary, as in F. Islandicus. The outer lip is

of equal thickness with the rest of the shell, and is strongly ribbed

on the inside near the mouth. [ at first suspected that the difference

in the form of the apical whorls might be sexual, and that the same

relation might subsist between this variety and F’. Berniciensis as

between F’. Islandicus and F. propinguus; but I have since ascer-

tained that male and female individuals of F. antiquus do not exhibit

any variation in this respect.. .

F. Norvegicus, iii. 428. Mr. Barlee procured a very young speci-

men of this shell in his last Shetland dredgings.

Trophon clathratus, iii. 436, var. alba. With the last (Mr.

Barlee),

T. Barvicensis, iii. 442. Not uncommon on the north-eastern

coast of Ireland.

Triton cutaceus, iii. 446; Sow. Ill. Ind. pl. 18. f. 1. Dr. Lukis

informs me that a full-grown and perfect specimen was taken alive

in February last (1859) by Mr. John Rougier from a large flat stone

in the south-west of the island of Lihou, while he was engaged in

gathering ormers (Haliotis tuberculata) at the extreme verge of the

lowest spring tide. It is now in the public museum at Guernsey.

Mangelia Trevelliana, iii. 452. In dredged sand from Belfast

Bay ; very rare.

M., rufa, var. Ulideana, iii. 457. Mr. Norman says he has lately

taken, in St. Catherine’s Bay, Jersey, a magnificent and living speci-

men of this pretty variety with the typical form. I have also found

itat Tenby. It may be a distinct species.

M. teres, iii. 462, var. alba. West of Ireland and Scotland (Mr.

Barlee).

M. Leufroyi, iii. 468. In dredged sand from Belfast Bay (J. G.J.);

var. pallida. Zetland (Mr. Barlee).

M. leevigata, Phil. (M. nebula, var. iii. 480). St. Catherine’s —

Bay, Jersey (Rev. 4. M. Norman).

Gasteropoda Opisthobranchiata.

Cylichna mammillata, iii. 514. Falmouth (Mr. Webster).

Scaphander lignarius, iii. 536, var. alba. West of Ireland and

Zetland (M7. Barlee).

200 Mr. Jeffreys on British Mollusca.

Philine quadrata, iii. 541. A small specimen has occurred in our

dredgings off the north-eastern coast of Ireland, in 80-fathom water.

P. pruinosa, iii. 549. Plymouth Sound (Mr. Webster).

Gasteropoda Pulmonifera.

Arion flavus, iv. 9. On horse-chestnut leaves near Norwich (Mr.

Bridgman).

Helix nemoralis, iv. 54, var. nana. Zetland (Mr. Barlee).

Pupa Anglica, iv. 99. Brombro’ Wood, between Birkenhead and

Chester ; first found there by D. Cameron, Esq. (Mr. Webster).

P. minutissima, iv. 104. Mr. Leckenby informs me that this

species has been found rather plentifully upon the magnesian lime-

stone near Pontefract. Mr. Howse had also taken it on the same

soil near Sunderland.

Achatina acicula, iv. 130. From the circumstance that the tenta-

cula are destitute of eyes, M. Bourguignat has, in his ‘‘ Aménités

Malacologiques”’ (published in the ‘ Revue et Magasin de Zoologie’),

proposed for this and a few other allied species the generic name of

Cecianella. It may be observed that Testacella and some of the

Helicide have the same subterranean habit.

Limneus glaber, iv. 178. Near Bowness (M7. Webster).

Acme lineata, iv. 204. In tufts of Hypnum triquetrum, Heading-

ton-wick Copse, near Oxford (Mr. Whiteaves).

Sepia biserialis, iv. 241. Mr. Norman informs me that he has

lately taken a bone of this rare and peculiar cuttle-fish at Jersey. I

found an imperfect specimen many years ago at Rochelle.

London, August 1859.

P.S. Pholadidea papyracea.—lI have just received the following

note from my friend Dr. Capellini, with reference to the claystone

which Captain Bedford found perforated by these mollusks, and in

which the Nucula decussata had been previously imbedded. It will,

I think, be found interesting in a paleeontological point of view.

** AMICO CARISSIMO,—Ho veduto con molto interesse gli esem-

plari di roccia con fossili identici a quelli trovati da Philippi nel pleis-

tocene di Sicilia ; e riguardo all’ origine della roccia stessa non dubito

punto che essa sia argilla resa pil o meno compatta dalla presenza

del carbonato calcare.

“In uno degli esemplari che ha avuto la bonta di mostrarmi, si

vedeva chiaramente il passaggio dall’ argilla al calcare argilloso, e

quel frammento mi ricorda che ho avuto occasione di osservare un

fatto analogo nelle argille mioceniche della Val di Magra, a poche

miglia dalla Spezia.

“Non conosco per mie proprie osservazioni la Sicilia ed Ischia, ove

probabilmente sono roccie pleistoceniche simili ai suoi esemplari, ma,

a Livorno, una delle pit interessanti localita per lo studio del pleisto-

cene in Italia, le roccie spettanti a quel periodo e che si distinguono

nel paese coi nomi di tufo e panchina, hanno tutt’ altro aspetto delle

sopra citate; poiché Puna @ un caleare grossolano molto spugnoso,

MM. Garreau and Brauwers on the Roots of Plants. 201

con abbondanti resti di conchiglie littorali, laltra é una specie di

conglomerato.

‘Da tutto cio ella vede non esser possibile basarsi sui caratteri

litologici per segnare |’eta di una formazione, perché roccie di aspetto

e di composizione identica si trovano spesso in terreni che spettano ad

epoche svariatissime; dippii potrei citarle roccie che sono attual-

mente in via di formazione e che pure presentano compattezza ed

aspetto da confondersi con roccie di terreni, molto antichi.

‘La litologia non pud servire che a sincronizzare terreni i quali

geograficamente sono a non troppa distanza gli uni dagli altri; in caso

contrario, il geologo si trova subito nell’ impossibilita di fare a meno

della paleontologia.

*‘ Senza conoscere gli altri fossili che si troveranno nelle roccie da Lei

presentatemi, e senza aver notizia delle loro condizioni stratigrafiche

non oso pronunziare sull’ eta loro il mio giudizio, come ho fatto per

il loro modo di furmazione ; benché per conto mio sia persuaso, come

Lilla, trattarsi di un terreno pleistocenico analogo a quello studiato

da Lyell ad Ischia: ivi pure sono argille turchine con conchiglie

che vivono anche attualmente nel vicino mare.

; **Mi creda, &c.

Londra, 10 Agosto, 1859. “Dr. G. CaPpELLINI.”

XXI.—Researches on the Cellular Formations, the Growth, and the

Exfoliation of the Radical and Fibrillar Extremities of Plants.

By MM. Garrzav and Brauwers*.

In a series of researches undertaken by one of us, with the view

of acquiring a knowledge of the causes which preside over the

distribution of mineral matters in the different organs of plants,

we had occasion to remark that when seeds germinated at a

temperature of 68° to 78° Fahr., the points of the radicles, and

subsequently the fibrillar extremities of the roots, frequently

bore, very soon after their emergence from the axis, more or less

marked traces of a cellular exfoliation, or a tear-shaped enlarge-

ment of a viscous consistence, although both were placed in

media suited for the regular accomplishment of their physio-

logical functions.

As these facts seemed therefore to depend on their normal

development, it became interesting to examine them with care.

Prof. Link, in an essay only too concise, distinguished by the

accuracy of the optical observations it contained+, directed the

* Ann. Se. Nat. 4 sér. x. p. 181; translated by A. Henfrey, F.R.S.

+ Ann. des Se. nat. 3 sér. xiv. 5. Besides this work of Link, readers in-

terested in this subject should refer to a memoir by M. Gasparrini (Ricerche

sulla Natura dei Succiatori e la Excrezione delle Radice, &c.), published

at Naples in 1856, and referring to the question which has been the object

of the investigations of MM. Garreau and Brauwers.—Note of Ep. of

Ann. des Se. nat.

202 MM. Garreau and Brauwers on Cell-formation, Growth,

attention of botanists, in 1850, to the excoriation and the mode

of increase of the radical fibres of the hyacinth, and the viscous

thickening which is observed at the extremity of young adventi-

tious roots of willows; but while the figures he gives of the

objects represent faithfully what occurs at the seat of the elon-

gation of the tissue, this is not the case with that part of his essay

which refers to the elementary formations of these organs, since

he states them to arise from an extra-cellular cambium. More-

over, the objects to which this botanist directed his investigations

were too limited in number, and the conditions of the experi-

ments were not sufficiently varied, for anything like a profound

study of the subject. It may be added that in science, whatever

the object attempted, it often happens that interesting facts

escape even the most patient observers ; and it may be imagined

that, notwithstanding the merit of the author just cited, our

researches are justified by the hope of adding some new facts to

this important question.

For the greatest facility and success of observations of the

facts relating to the cellular formation and growth of the radicle,

it is of great importance to trace its development in the absence

of contact of any foreign body capable of adhering to or affect-

ing its surface. With this view, selected seeds of very diverse

species were placed, moistened with rain-water, upon hair-sieves,

and covered with a moist woollen cloth. These seed-beds,

placed in pots which contained water at the bottom, kept the

seeds in a constantly moist atmosphere; thus the radicles,

whose development proceeded more or less rapidly according to

the temperature (which could be adjusted at will), formed tufts,

beneath the meshes of the sieve and above the surface of the

water, in which the subjects of observation, equal in age and

dimensions, afforded means both for multiplied examinations

and control of the observed facts.

Seeds placed in these conditions germinated much more

quickly, at equal temperature, than in the best-prepared earth,

—a result which appears attributable to the free access of air.

Thus, at a temperature of 78° F., the radicle of cress was pro-

truded from the seed-coats in eight hours, those of Camelina in

fifteen, and from the caryopsis of little millet in two days,

When the radicle begins to sprout, it is usually smooth all

over its surface, and presents no mark of exfoliation when the

germination takes place in the ordinary thermometrical condi-

tions of the atmosphere in the climate of Lille; but at a tem-

perature of 68° to 78° F., the exfoliation begins very early in

plants with feculent perisperm or cotyledons; and this more

precocious tendency to exfoliate coincides, as we shall soon see,

with a peculiar mode of dislocation of their elementary organs.

and Exfoliation in the Roots of Plants. 203

The radicle of wheat (Triticum sativum) when it originates in

the ordinary conditions of the atmosphere, presents itself in the

form of a cylinder conical at its apex, and in the centre of this

latter region exhibits a portion of a sphere formed of quadrilateral

cells, which, coloured of an amber tint, taken as a whole, differ di-

stinctly from the more elongated and colourless cells which cover

them. The former constitute what, for the better comprehension

of the facts, we will call the summit of the radical axis, and

and the latter that of the cortical layer.

Taken in these conditions, and at the outset of the germina-

tion, all the cells of the cortical layer, including those of its

apex, are smooth and coherent, and the most external are longer

than those which they immediately cover.

In proportion as the organ grows, it is observed that the epi-

dermal cells, which are of larger size according as they are placed

nearer to the base of the radicle, contain an animal matter which

is coloured pale rose by deutonitrate of mercury, and dark brown

by iodized iodide of potassium. This substance, which contains

extremely fine granules, accumulates in the middle region of the

cells into a little heap, above which the wall of the cells becomes

rounded externally in the form of a slight hernia, into the cavity

of which the same matter passes; and in proportion as it accu-

mulates there, this appendix becomes developed, until it acquires

a length equal to twice or three times the diameter of the radicle ;

so that each epidermal cell with its absorbing appendix (radical

hair, A. H.) presents the form of a cross with an excessively long

shaft.

It is not possible to trace the mechanism by which this sub-

stance determines the elongation of a portion of the wall of the

cell into this appendix; but we may conjecture that, as the

essential agent of all cellular formations, it 1s this which secretes

and coordinates the materials.

In proportion as the radicle is developed, and usually when it

has attained a length of 1 to 3 centimetres, it may be observed

that its apex is swollen, and has assumed the form of a tear.

This region, which is viscid to the touch, readily becomes soft-

ened when immersed in water, communicating to it a consistence

like that of white of egg, and a very marked sweet taste.

_ The radical extremities of 500 grammes of wheat, immersed in

distilled water, gave a solution which, when heated to140° F., pre-

sented flocculent coagula of azotized matter (caseine, albumen) ;

and when this matter was separated, and an excess of alcohol of

0°815 spec. grav. added to the liquid, there was produced a pulve-

rulent deposit in a grumous mass of pasty consistence and sweet

taste, formed of a mixture of dextrine and sugar. The substance

precipitated in a state of powder, saccharified starch in the same

204 MM. Garreau and Brauwers on Cell-formation, Growth,

manner as diastase ; but, however great the number of successive

dilutions and precipitations which it was made to undergo, it

always retained a notable quantity of dextrine, which could be

estimated, by Fehling’s solution, at a third of its weight. A

portion of the viscid matter in solution in water, filtered, gave

by evaporation a transparent residue, scarcely coloured, very

prone to decomposition, turning brown at 194° F., and which,

when calcined to whiteness, left a small quantity of ashes, in

which analysis proved the presence of phosphates of potash and

lime. According to this, the substance possesses exactly the

composition of a farina saccharified by diastase. This substance,

which is also found diffused throughout the proper tissue of

the radicle, may serve for the development of this organ; and

this supposition gains a certain degree of probability from the

fact that it is accumulated in largest proportion in the extremity

of the radicle, the seat of the formation and enlargement of the

cells.

It is true that, being soluble in water, it may, in case of heavy

rains, escape in part from this destination, in which case it

would have to be supposed that the excess of this aliment is lost

to the plant, and diffused through the soil, to form, as we shall

endeavour to show hereafter, what have been called the excre-

tions of roots; but, though there seems to be some foundation

for this last conjecture, there is no doubt that this material

serves for the development of the central cells which are to ex-

foliate, since the latter are suspended and grow for some time

in the viscid medium, which alone retains them united to the

rest of the tissue.

When the radicle of wheat, in the condition just indicated, is

examined with a sufficient magnifyimg power, the moment it is

moistened, and under the slight pressure of the covering glass,

the outermost coat is seen to fall away; the disjointed cells of

which it is composed separate from one another, and float com-

pletely isolated in the viscid matter. The cells, as we have seen,

are clearly distinguished, by their forms and larger dimensions,

from those which constitute the apex of the axis, appearing more

elongated the further they are placed from the curved line which

bounds this region,—a fact which indicates that they must ne-

cessarily originate at the confines of that line.

The cells, transparent and full of granules which are coloured

yellow by iodized iodide of potassium, are pushed forward and

to the sides by the new formations. In proportion as they are

removed from the point where they are formed, they grow in all

dimensions, the nitrogenous granules they contain becoming

more rare; then they increase in length, and remain applied

upon the persistent portion of the epidermis, or more or less

and Exfoliation in the Roots of Plants. 205

speedily exfoliate. These elongated cells, taken in the adult

condition, are devoid of large granules; but their living substance

presents itself then in the form of a nucleus connected with the

internal membrane by filaments in which exist rapid currents

conveying granules of extreme tenuity. Subsequently, when

the cell has acquired its full size, the substance of the currents

and the nucleus becomes divided, in each cell, into two or three

masses, of oval form, which soon constitute two or three cells

placed end to end, but which ultimately separate from one

another.

The radicles of millet, barley, buckwheat, beans, clover,

lentils, vetch, wild chicory, Crepis virens, and hollyhock, taken

in the same conditions, present exactly the same mode of growth

and exfoliation of their cortical layer, with this exception only—

that the exfoliable layer of the radicle of the hollyhock is com-

paratively very abundant, rich in viscid matter, and the cells of

which it is composed more closely packed than those of wheat,

although loosely connected, in the manner of an epidermis, by

the interposed viscid substance.

The radical extremities of wild chicory, of cultivated lettuce,

of Crepis virens, of Papaver somniferum, black mustard, and cul-

tivated Camelina, allowed to exfoliate in distilled water, gave

solutions which, on evaporation in vacuo, left residues scarcely

coloured, of a gummy aspect. Those obtained from the radicles

of chicory and Crepis virens exhaled a poisonous odour, and had

a bitter taste analogous to that of lactucarium. That furnished

by the radicles of poppy has the odour and taste of opium, and

those derived from black mustard and Camelina have a saline

sulphurous taste, and emit an unbearable alliaceous odour.

These matters, which, in the ordinary course of vegetation,

are abandoned to the soil, seem to afford an explanation of the

antipathies of certain plants towards others, since direct expe-

riment has proved that they are always hurtful when they are

absorbed by the plants in sufficient quantity.

That portion which, for the better comprehension of the

facts, we have called the axis of the radicle, presents greater

difficulties in its study, depending in part on the fact that its

summit is masked by the adhering cortical zone not yet ex-

foliated, and in part that some of the cells of this latter region are

loaded with very fine feculent granules, which interrupt the

passage of light. But by removing the point of the radicle to

the extent of about a quarter of a millimetre, and moistening

its apex with a drop of phosphoric acid diluted with twice its

weight of water, the still adherent cortical cells may be made to

exfoliate, and the extremity of the axis of the root is set free,

while the feculent granules of its cells are dissolved, and leave

the tissue conveniently transparent.

206 MM. Garreau and Brauwers on Cell-formation, Growth,

These cells, which are united so as to form an axis or cylinder,

whose free extremity ends in a hemisphere, have the form of

quadrangular prisms enlarged about the middle; they decrease

from the base of the organ towards its apex, so as to become

cubical or tubular in that region, where, by the aid of a sufficient

number of preparations, it may be ascertained that those cells

which bound. the hemispherical portion of the axis, devoid of

feculent granules, are furnished with proteinous substances col-

lected in each cell into two or four distinct masses, such as are

observed in the later phases of the development of pollen-cells.

Very soon each of these masses, which continues the sym-

metry of a row of cells, becomes a new cell, so that the multi-

plication takes place by a binary or quaternary formation in the

interior of mother cells, and not, as Link supposed, at the ex-

pense of an extra-cellular cambium. We have not been able to

determine whether these new cells result from the formation of

simple septa in the mother cell, or by double septa produced by

the application together of the lateral walls of two young cells

formed around the masses of proteinous substance ; however,

we incline to believe that they originate in this latter manner,

because the most superficial layers of these cells are those which,

when pushed forwards, constitute the cortical zone, and, as we

have said, they exfoliate as complete isolated cells, which could

not be the case if there were only a simple septum formed in

the middle.

The cells observed immediately above those which are in

course of multiplication, at first square and full of feculent

granules of extreme minuteness, become a little elongated in

the direction of the axis; and while this elongation takes place,

the feculent granules disappear, and the living proteimous

matter, then visible, becomes condensed in each cell into two or

three irregular heaps, between which septa soon appear. These

new cells, whose smaller diameter is then parallel with the axis,

in part enlarge without undergoing change, and in part mul-

tiply by binary divisions parallel to the axis, becoming wider

and larger like the former, forming with them linear series

resembling those which are formed by the grains of maize on the

axis of the spike. One fact worthy of note is, that in propor-

tion as the cells of the radical axis multiply, we perceive, between

the parallel rows they form, dark lines (intercellular passages)

produced by the presence of air or some other gas which pene-

trates to within a short distance of the apex of the axis. This

mode of multiplication may be observed in the extremity of

the axis of millet, where it is even more easily traced than in

that of wheat. It is found also in the radicles of buckwheat,

barley, hollyhock, and the Leguminose : everything leads to the

and Exfoliation in the Roots of Plants. 207

supposition that this kind of development occurs in the gene-

rality of plants. Very frequently, when the medium in which

they vegetate stands at a rather low temperature, the extremities

of the radicles on the fibrils are tardy in exfoliating ; and then

their elementary cells, instead of becoming detached singly, ex-

foliate in sheets like an epidermis, strips of which they in

fact are.

The seed of black mustard, germinating at 54° F., produces

radicles in which the cells of the apex of the axis, and those of

the exfoliable layer which clothe it, are filled with granules

whose opacity renders the most persevering investigation fruit-

less. But if we wait until adventitious roots are formed, we

may find among these some not more than a fifth of a milli-

metre in diameter, and perfectly transparent. A fibre of this

kind placed on a slide shows, without the necessity of injuring

it, its axis with its spiral vessels and its cortical layer, which,

instead of exfoliating like that of wheat, becomes detached in

the form of a cap, formed by the union of several superimposed

layers. A remarkable point is, that these caducous layers

cease to be so when the radicle and cotyledon are kept in a

sufficiently moist atmosphere, if the saturated atmosphere is

only allowed access to the apex of the root. In that case, we

see the most external cells of the cortical layer emit absorbent

appendices, like those on the epidermis of the base and middle

portion of the root, and the spiral vessels, which in ordinary cases

terminate at a certain distance from the apex of the radical axis,

present themselves quite close to the extreme limit of this

region, which shows that there exists an intimate correlation

between the functions of the absorbing appendices and those

of these vessels, as was supposed by Tink. This faculty pos-

sessed by the epidermal cells, of emitting absorbent appen-

dices to counteract the deficient supply of water or humidity, has

a no less remarkable influence upon the direction of the radicle.

If we moisten the meshes of a sieve with distilled water con-

taining a trace of chloride of calcium, so that the cloth may not

become completely dry in the open air, and then scatter over

the outside of the cloth seeds of Camelina, the latter will adhere

readily on account of the mucilaginous film they form when

brought in contact with water. If the inside of the cloth of the

sieve is then covered with a thick layer of Swedish filtering-

paper saturated with water, the seeds germinate, and their

radicles, instead of taking a direction perpendicular to the

horizon, creep along the outside surface of the cloth, and re-

main attached to it by the aid of their absorbent appendages*.

* In like manner we often find an extensive felted mass of fine radical

fibres adhering firmly to pieces of bone, shell, or porous stone buried in

208 MM. Garreau and Brauwers on the Roots of Plants.

From this description it is seen that the exfoliation of the

cortical zone varies according to the conditions of humidity and

temperature under which the radicles are placed; but we must

recognize, side by side with these causes, that it is also subor-

dinate to an individual predisposition, since it does not take

place always in the same manner when the subjects are placed

in identical conditions.

In the radicles of wheat, barley, millet, vetches, elves, pease,

lentils, hollyhock, buckwheat, &e., it takes place by complete

disunion of the cells in the midst of a viscid layer.

In the poppy, Camelina, black mustard, colza, purslane,

chervil, corn-salad, &c., it takes place in the form of a hood,

composed of cells but slightly adherent, and impregnated with

the viscid substance.

In Ginanthe Phellandrium the exfoliation takes place in strips

composed of epidermal cells, which adhere strongly to the sub-

jacent tissue.

In Glyceria it takes place in the form of a hood einapasiel of

very firmly coherent cells; in Lemna the exfoliable cortical

layer forms a sheath, which adheres by its base to the hemi-

spherical portion of the axis of the radicle ; and it is remarkable

that this hood already exists while the radicle is still enclosed

in the coleorhiza. If Lemna is examined at the epoch when its

radicle is beginning to sprout, this organ will be found in the

form of a little cylinder, of a darker colour than the surrounding

tissue, and it is contained in a groove existing in the inferior

surface of the leaf. This cylinder, now measuring about the

fourth of a millimetre, is covered by a membrane in the shape

of a sheath, composed of cells contiguous to those which bound

the inferior surface of the leaf (coleorhiza).

When the whole is compressed gradually betwee glass, the

sheath is seen to burst at its apex, and allow the exit of the

radicle already enveloped in that persistent hood which is ob-

served at the extremity of the root when this is examined in the

adult condition*. This layer or hood, which, as we have said,

adheres to the apex of the radical axis, grows for a long time

after the radicle has ruptured the summit of the coleorhiza ; for

the soil, or to the sides of earthen pots where these are kept moist.—

A. H.

* This firm hood-like body, the pileorhiza, placed on the point of the

root like the head upon an arrow, seems to occur on all nascent adventitious

roots, before they have broken out from the cortical layer of the stem.

Originating in the cambium-region, they push the cortical or epidermal

tissue before them, and absolutely rupture the latter, the ragged edges of

which stand up round the base like a collar, forming the so-called coleo-

rhiza.—A. H.

2.5.3. Vol

Aan é Mag. Net. Hi

, ee - : - >

“Naaataa' ep AG GNOLS xo

Dr. A. Giinther on Reptiles from St. Croix, West Indies. 209

when it emerges from this organ it does not measure more than

one-third of its ultimate length, although the cells composing it

have at this epoch already attained almost the term of their

development.

From these researches it may be inferred that—

1. From its very origin the radicle is formed of two distinct

tissues, both cellular.

2. That which constitutes the external layer of this organ,

and which must be regarded as the first rudiment of a cortical

stratum, is susceptible of exfoliation, more or less prompt, ac-

cording to the plants, and the temperature and humidity of the

medium in which they vegetate.

3. This exfoliation, which takes place at the apex of the

organ, results sometimes in the complete dislocation of the cells,

which in this state continue to grow for a certain time in the

midst of a viscid matter before being finally thrown off,—some-

times in the solution of these cells, in the form of epidermoid

_ strips or cups, often confounded with the coleorhiza.

4. The exfoliated cells and the substances accompanying

them contain, according to the species from which they are

derived, substances which appear, when abandoned to the soil,

to constitute what have been called the excretions of roots.

5, The tissue which constitutes the hemispherical extremity

of the central portion of the radicle is the seat of the formation

and growth of the cells; these formations take place at first by

the binary and quaternary multiplication of cells, which ter-

minate the apex of the axis; and of the cells newly formed, the

most external are pushed forward to constitute the -exfoliable

cortical layer, while the more internal become filled with feculent

granules, and subdivide again a little below the apex of the

axis of the radicle, attaining there, without any other apparent

change, the term of their increase.

_ 6. The formation of absorbing appendices (hairs) at the apex

of the radicle, when it alone is exposed to the contact of moist

_ air, while confirming the existence of a rudimentary cortical

layer in that region, bears fresh witness to the tendency of the

organism to seek the medium suited to its nutrition.

XXII.—On the Reptiles from St. Croix, West Indies, collected

by Messrs. A. and E. Newton. By Dr. A. GUNTHER.

[With a Plate. |

A sMALL collection of reptiles made by Messrs. Alfred and

Edward Newton in St. Croix (S* Cruz), and presented by them

to the Collection of the British Museum, offers a contribution

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. iv. 14

210 Dr. A. Giinther on Reptiles from St. Croia, West Indies.

to our knowledge of the geographical distribution of reptiles

throughout the West India Islands, and contains two new

species.

Messrs. Newton have kindly communicated to me thei valu-

able notes, which constitute the portions included within inverted

commas (“ ”’).

We find a list of animals from St. Croix in Hans West’s

“ Beytrage zur Beschreibung von St. Croix. Aus dem Da-

nischen.” Copenh. 1794-8. The author mentions the following

reptiles (p. 243) :—

Testudo mydas, v. Green Turtle.

Testudo caretta, v. Caret or Lugger-head Turtle.

Testudo greca, v. Land Turtle. Rare.

Lacerta principalis (.), v. Lizard. By this name, now applied

to a North American species of Anolis, West designates the

species which will be described hereafter.

Lacerta iguana, v. Guana.

Lacerta sputator, v. Slippery-back. This name is applied by

West to Mabouia enca:

Lacerta rapicauda, v. Wood-slave.

Lacerta. Ground Lizard.

No snake is mentioned by West. The following species are

in the collection of Messrs. Newton :—

1. Dromicus antillensis, D. & B. (Psammophis antillensis, Schleg.).

There are four specimens of this species in the Collection, all

showing exactly the same characters, although differing from a

specimen from St. Thomas. They, like the latter, have eight

upper labial shields, the third, fourth, and fifth of which come

into the orbit. One temporal i is in contact with the postocular,

two others are behind the anterior temporal, and two or three

more scale-like shields cover the posterior portion of the tem-

poral region. Lach scale is provided with two. small pore-like

impressions near the tip; they are of a lighter colour than the

remainder of the scale. The coloration and the number of scales,

however, is different : whilst the snake from St. Thomas has the

body and tail light reddish-brown above, with more or less con-

spicuous darker stripes, the inferior parts dull yellowish, marbled

with brown, and the scales in nineteen rows, the specimens from

St. Croix have the upper parts saturated blackish brown, with

equidistant reticulated yellowish transverse lines, the lower parts

either of a pure yellow or with scattered irregular brown spots,

and the scales in seventeen rows. There is a black streak through

the eye, and a longitudinal groove between the labial and tem-

poral shields, as in several species of Dromicus. Male and female

are alike.

Dr. A. Giinther on Reptiles from St. Croix, West Indies. 211

This snake appears to have been known to André-Pierre Ledru,

who published a “Voyage aux Iles de Ténériffe, la Trinité,

St. Thomas, Ste. Croix, et Porto-Ricco,” Paris, 1810, 8vo, in

two volumes. In a list of reptiles, which is less valuable for our

purpose than that of West, because it contains promiscué all the

reptiles observed in the different islands, Ledru mentions “le

cobel ” (ii. p. 213). He says, “ Le fond de sa couleur est tantot

gris, tantét brun, mais communément d’un noir assez foncé,

avec une multitude de petites lignes blanches transversales.”” The

latter character is far more applicable to the variety from St.

Croix than to Dromicus ater, which may also be intended.

Ledru observed his snake at the river Toa (Porto-Rico), and

thinks it identical with Coluber colubella, Gm. (Col. cobella, L.).

“ We regret. that we have little information to give respect-

ing this snake. It certainly is not very numerous in the island ;

for we never saw a living specimen, though we usually went

about with our eyes well open. It would seem generally to

frequent the waste in preference to the cultivated districts, or-at

least where there are most shrubs and bushes; but we have

heard of one or more being found in a hole in the brickwork

beneath the bed of a steam-engine-boiler. One of the speci-

mens was captured in the town of Frederiksted.”

The species and varieties of Dromicus, and their geographical

distribution, are far from being known. There are several snakes

in the Collection of the British Museum, which show consider-

able differences from the species to which they are referred for

the present; of these, however, I have not the advantage of

knowing the habitat, and each of them is represented by a single

specimen only. I direct the attention of herpetologists especially

to one of them, the anterior portion of the body of which is

marked as in D. rufodorsatus, the posterior and the tail being

black. The rostral shield is flat and obliquely ascending for-

wards; one anterior, two middle, and three posterior temporal

shields ; nineteen series of scales. Length 52 inches.

2. Thecadactylus rapicauda, Houtt.

“The Thecadactylus is not very common in St. Croix, chiefly

frequenting old trees in the uncultivated portions of the island,

though sometimes found in wood-cellars near houses. The

statement of Dr. West, that it is regarded by the negroes with

the greatest aversion, is perfectly true: they believe that, in case

of one placing its foot upon them, it can only be got rid of by

cutting off the piece of flesh upon which it has fastened. It is

certainly difficult to kill, as one will bear the infliction of several

sharp blows without much apparent harm being done to it. In

St. Croix it is everywhere known as the ‘ Wood-Slave,’—an

14*

212 Dr. A. Giinther on Reptiles from St. Croix, West Indies.

appellation which, according to Mr. Gosse, is, in the leeward

part of Jamaica, now applied to a species of Mabouia (Nat. Soj.

p- 75); though it would appear, from what he elsewhere says,

that by Sloane and others this term was used for some of the

Geccotide (Proc. Z. 8. L. 1848, p. 60; Ann. and Mag. N. H.

1850, p. 344).”

3. Mabouia enea, Gray (Humeces marbouia, D.& B., Lacerta

sputator, West, not L.).

“The Mabouia is known in St. Croix as the ‘ Slippery-back ;’

and some of the dread which is inspired by the last-mentioned

is also experienced of this species by the negroes. It is supposed.

to fasten upon the hand or other exposed part of the body with

its mouth; and they assert that there is no way of making the

creature let go its hold, save cutting it up, if it once seizes

upon one. It is more plentiful than the Thecadactylus, but still

not often observed. Two of the examples sent to the Museum

were caught in copuld.”

4. Anolis Newtoni, n. sp. (Pl. IV. fig. A.)

? Lacerta principalis, West, not L.

Snout moderately elongate and depressed, with the canthus

rostralis sharply prominent, and with a pair of ridges arising

from the superciliary margins; a slight groove between these

two ridges, another between each ridge and the canthus rostra-

lis; loreal region rather concave, with five series of very small

shields; the space between the orbits is covered with two series

of shields only ; occipital shield distinct. Scales on the sides of

the body granular, gradually becoming larger towards the dorsal

line and the belly, where they are distinctly keeled. No pro-

iminent dorsal crest, but two or three series of larger scales along

the vertebral line. Pouch of the throat. present, moderately

developed. Tail slightly compressed, verticillated, above with

a low serrated ridge, beneath with strongly keeled scales of equal

size. Greenish olive (in spirits), irregularly spotted with blackish

brown on the sides and on the posterior parts of the hinder

extremity. Female sometimes with a broad whitish dorsal

streak, crossed by narrow black bars.

Description.—The snout is moderately depressed and slightly

elongate, the distance between the two anterior angles of the

orbit being three-quarters of the distance between the orbit and

the extremity of the snout; anteriorly it is rather narrow and

rounded. The canthus rostralis is sharp and rather prominent ;

and there is another pair of low divergent ridges, arising from

the superciliary margin of the bony orbit, and extending to the

Dr. A. Giinther on Reptiles from St. Croiw, West Indies. 218

middle of the length of the snout; between these ridges is a

shallow groove, and another, narrower, between each ridge and

the canthus rostralis. There is a series of larger shields along

the superciliary margin and the ridge; no other smaller shields

occur between the superciliary series, but many in and before the

central groove of the upper surface of the snout. The canthus

rostralis is formed by a series of elongate shields, angularly bent;

two shields between the latter series and that of the interior

ridge. The nostril opens laterally, between several small shields,

above the anterior extremity of the canthus rostralis. The can-

thus rostralis is continued along the outer margin of the roof of

the orbit, which is provided with a group of five or six polygonal

shields, surrounded by minute granulations. There is an ovoid

occipital shield in immediate contact with the suture between

the superciliary series, and surrounded by a great many smaller

shields. The loreal region is slightly concave, with five longi-

tudinal series of small oblong shields. The rostral shield has pos-

teriorly five notches (to receive five small shields), of which the

middle one is the deepest ; seven very narrow labials, with two or

three minute ones behind, form the lateral margin of the upper

jaw. ‘The anterior extremity of the lower jaw is covered with

a pair of rather broad labials, its margin with seven narrow.

shields ; three other series of smaller shields run parallel to that

of the labials. The chin and all the throat are covered with

very small granular scales.

The tympanum is a rather small cleft, without any particular

scales round its margin; the scales on ‘the pup are exceed-

ingly small.

Immediately behind the occipital shield commences the streak

of larger vertebral ‘scales; they are arranged in two or three

series, and keeled like the ‘other scales on the back. They gra-

dually become smaller towards the sides, in the middle of which

they form minute granulations.. Those of the belly are distinctly

keeled, and larger than those of the back; they are largest on

the sides of the pouch, where they are arranged 1 in very oblique

series. The pouch is present in both sexes, but it forms a slight

fold only in the female. .The scales round the vent do not show

any peculiarity, and are granular.

The vertebral streak of scales is continued on the tail into a

low serrated crest, formed by a single series of scales. The tail

is slightly compressed and rounded beneath, verticillated; the

single verticils are distant from each other for four scales of

the caudal crest, the fourth scale always being larger than the

three preceding ones. The sides of. the tail are covered with

granular scales, whilst the scales of its lower surface are very

large and strongly keeled; the root of the tail is slightly swollen

214 Dr. A. Giinther on Reptiles from St. Croix, West Indies.

and provided with small scales in its whole circumference,

except on the dorsal crest.

The fore leg reaches, if laid backwards, to the loin; it is co-

vered with keeled scales on the superior and anterior sides, with

granulations on the inferior and posterior. The inner finger is

not dilated, the fourth and fifth are of equal size. The hind leg

reaches, if laid forwards, to the anterior margin of the orbit ;

it is covered anteriorly with keeled scales, all the rest being

granular. ‘a

The ground-colour is now greenish-olive, in life apparently

greenish, shining golden and bluish; most of the specimens

have the sides of the neck and of the trunk and the posterior

part of the limb irregularly dotted with blackish-brown. One

of the females (caught with the male during the act of copula-

tion) has a broad dorsal streak, crossed by narrow black bars.

The lower parts are uniform yellowish-white.

The females are only half the size of the males. All the females

had one egg only in the oviduct, those of the ovarium showmg

no sign of development: it is very large compared with the

size of the animal; and there was no trace of embryo in it,

although it appeared to be ready for laying. This observation.

seems. to be in contradiction to the abundance of these ‘Tree-

lizards ; but it may be possible that they breed several times in

every season, and that a single egg only is impregnated by one

act of copulation. si

Male. Female.

Distance between tympanum and the extremity net Pee eae

OF thé MINE 8 So's NR Ak 5 OKRG GS OR } 0 3 016

Distance between tympanum and vent .......... 1) GR pondien Bs

Length Of tiie taste a6,» snnnles sine eunk e soueenne s 4 3.6

Distance between the bony orbital margins .....; a | 0 0%

bs me biting x angles of the orbit.. 0 3 0.2

3 the orbit and the extremity of

the snout .......... 2 $7 } 0.4 a

Length of the Magan fis gd » malo. Gee sna eh ae 0 5 0 3h

is DECI ©. o sihs os Gb hs chute cae 0 4} 0 3

9 second and fifth fingers .......... 0 2, ....0 >

Fr third and fourth fingers .......... 0 4 0 3

3 fore Sept yt i6k ST EOR PEs EOE 0 6% 0 5

+ hind leg wees ss xh e pie treg: Wi O 6% 0 5

a Tuttle GOR i es ee bis lew ass 0 7 0 6

UUM WORE 605 dined n bs oe bs hig tng cans 0 3 0 2%

“The Anolis is exceedingly abundant, and its great familiarity

affords excellent opportunities of studyimg its manners; but

Mr. Gosse has already described the habits of the two Jamaica

species, A. todurus and A. opalinus, so fully (Nat. So}. pp. 216

et seq.), that we have little more to say of those of the present

than that they seem entirely to resemble the former: at any

Dr. A. Giinther on Reptiles from St. Croix, West Indies. 215

rate, the differences are probably only such as would be appre-

ciated by one who has had the opportunity of observing all three.

But we must bear witness to the extreme fidelity of Mr. Gosse’s

notes—not a word of them but seems to be literally and entirely

true; and especially must we remark on his account of the

‘goitre’ in the species of this genus, the mechanical method of

displaying it practised by the animal, and its unvarying colour,

all of which is as accurate as the use of that remarkable append-

age is to us at present unknown. The brilliancy, however, of this

orange disk varies in different individuals. To describe generally

the hues of the rest of the body would be impossible,—they are

simply those of the rainbow, though never of any great intensity,

excepting when, in an irritated or alarmed animal, the prevail-

ing tint, whatever it may have been before, becomes a dull smoky

brown. This species is much fed upon by birds: a young Bare-

legged Owl (Gymnoglaux nudipes) which one of us possessed

would scarcely eat anything else; and when offered to it alive,

these lizards would make a resistance which often ended in their

escape (‘ Ibis,’ 1859, p. 65): we have found their remains also in

the stomachs of other birds, especially in the Green Heron (Bu-

torides virescens), which seems constantly to prey upon them.

The food of the species seems to consist chiefly of ants. There

is one peculiarity about it which Mr. Gosse has not recorded,—

and that is, that if a small pebble, the size of a pea or so, be

thrown near where an Anolis is sitting, it will run after it, pro-

bably under the idea that it is a living creature. Among the

specimens of this species sent to the Museum were a pair taken

im copuld.”

5. Spherodactylus macrolepis, nu. sp. (Pl. IV. fig. B.)

Body surrounded by about forty longitudinal series of scales

of rather large size; no vertebral streak of smaller ones, those

of the back keeled, of the belly smooth. Trunk and tail uniform

blackish-brown, in younger individuals some scales with blackish

tips ; head greyish-brown, marbled with black ; jaws and throat

striolated with blackish.

Description.—The snout is of moderate extent, and slightly

pointed; all the upper surface of the head and the sides are

covered with scales of moderate size; there is an exceedingly

small horn-like spine above the middle of the orbit. The rostral

shield is low, and bent backwards on the upper surface of the

snout; the sides of the jaw are margined with three elongate

labials; the nostril is situated above the posterior extremity of

the rostral shield and the first labial, and exceedingly small.

The anterior lower labial is single ; a series of three other shields

covers the lateral margin of the lower jaw. The scales of the

216 Dr. A. Giinther on Reptiles from St. Croix, West Indies.

throat are small, those of the breast and of the extremities

keeled. The ear-opening is very small, one-third only of the

width of the eye. The fingers and the toes have an entire and

unarmed disk. The tail is covered with smooth scales, rather

smaller than those of the trunk ; there is a series of larger ones,

plate-like, along the lower medial line. No femoral or anal

ores. :

I add to the statement of the coloration given above, that the

belly is uniform dirty white, and the tail minutely dotted with

blackish. -Two specimens were in the Collection.

‘ lines.

Distance between the extremity of the snout and the tympanum 2

es tympanum and the vent ..........005: 4

Length of tlie tal so en ss cus eic Ses eye cigs bv Cea ES OF ee ene 13

i ROPE IGE ces eh aa bbe he ae ae ee OEE ake 3

wre hind Pep? SPOTS Pah OSU ee a sg 44

“Of the Spherodactylus all we have to say is that it is not

very common. ‘The specimens were captured in houses; but

we are inclined to believe it chiefly frequents the fields, and

especially the cane-pieces.” f

“ There are at least two other Reptiles in St. Croix, of which

we regret to say we did not bring home examples.

“One is a Frog, of which we have never seen a living indivi-

dual, though it is very abundant, and may be heard at almost

all times of the night or day, by the side of every spring or

stream, where it is especially noisy in the mornings and even-

ings. The cause of its invisibility is doubtless owing to its sub-

terranean habits, and probably also to the fact, as Dr. Giinther

has well suggested, that when a sound proceeds from on or be-

neath the surface, the vibrations are communicated to the ground

equally in every direction; so that there are but few ears so

acute as to detect the exact spot whence the noise issues. In-

stances of this sort are well known to naturalists ; and one need

only mention the cases of a Shrew, a Grasshopper Warbler

(Sylvia locustella), or a Cricket, to refer to a sufficient proof of

the fact. The cry of these frogs is somewhat similar to the

noise made by air-bubbles escaping from a small tube under

water, but with a deep metallic ringing about it; and constantly

as we have heard, and often as we have tried to discover the

whereabouts of the musicians, we have failed to do so. After

floods, it is said that, the holes inhabited by these animals being

destroyed, they may easily be captured; but without some such

favouring circumstances (which did not happen to us) any en-

deayour of the kind seems hopeless.

“The other animal of which we did not bring home a speci-

men is a large lizard, called in the island a ‘Guana,’ possibly

Mr. F. Walker on some undescribed Ceylon Insects. 217

a species of Iguana. An example seen by one of us was about

4 feet long, with a large dewlap and high dorsal crest extending

down the back. It appears now to be restricted only to the

eastern end of the island.”

Mr. Riise, of St. Thomas, has sent, during the printing of

this paper, two bottles containing frogs from that island. One is

marked Hylodes martinicensis, the other, Cystignathus ocellatus.

After a careful examination and comparison with the other

species of Hylodes and Cystignathus, | have convinced myself

that both belong to one and the same species, and that those

named C-. ocellatus are merely the young of the other. The

toes are not at all dilated; and the frogs belong to a new

species of Cystignathus, which I call

Cystignathus albilabris.

Tympanum distinct, one-half the size of the eye. Vomerine

teeth in two short series, behind the level of the interior nostrils.

Tongue very slightly nicked posteriorly. Skin smooth, with an

indistinct longitudinal fold on each side; a transverse fold be-

tween the fore-legs, another across the posterior third of the

belly. Snout moderately produced. Tarsus with a Jlongitu-

dinal fold; interarticular tubercles prominent. Male with two

vocal sacs, communicating with each other, each with a separate

slit. A white or whitish streak round the snout to the axil.

Colour of the adult :—Above uniform dark bluish-black ; the

upper leg with some black cross-bars superiorly, and some

whitish spots posteriorly. The lower parts white, the throat

speckled with brown. The labial streak whitish, indistinct

below the eye.

_ Colour of the young :—Brownish-olive marbled with darker ;

uniform white inferiorly ; the labial streak white, very distinct.

_ These descriptions of the colours are taken from quite fresh

specimens in spirits.

Hab. St. Thomas. The specimens are now in the British

Museum.

XXIII.—Characters of some apparently undescribed Ceylon

Insects. By F. Waker.

[Continued from vol. ili. p. 265.]

Fam. Curculionidae.

DESMIDOPHORUS DISCRIMINANS. Ferrugineus, crassus, rostro ro-

busto nigro nitente striato coxas auticas attingente, thorace tuber-

culato, elytris rude lineato-tuberculatis, vix dimidio apicali testaceo-

albido, femoribus albido fasciatis. Long. 5 lin.

218 Mr. F. Walker on some undescribed Ceylon Insects.

DESMIDOPHORUS FASCICULICOLLIS. Ferrugineus, crassus, rostro

robusto nigro nitente basi punctato coxas anticas attingente, tho-

race tuberculis duobus dorsalibus fasciculatis, elytris tuberculis

nonnullis nigricantibus fasciculatis, fasciis duabus incompletis al-

bidis, femoribus albido fasciatis. Long. 3 lin.

CAMPTORHINUS REVERSUS. Niger, fusiformis, lateribus pectore

ventre pedibusque cinereo-tomentosis, rostro nitente femoribus

anticis non breviore basi punctato et cinereo, thorace conferte

punctato, elytris punctato-striatis, lituris duabus posticis angulatis

albidis, femoribus crassis unidentatis. Long. 4 lin.

CAMPTORHINUS INDISCRETUS. Piceus, longi-fusiformis, cinereo-

tomentosus, rostro rufo nitente femoribus anticis non breviore

apice nigro basi punctato et cinereo, thorace conferte punctato,

elytris punctato-striatis nigro et cinereo variis, femoribus crassis

unidentatis. Long. 32 lin.

Sipatus? porosus. Niger, subfusiformis, rostro nitente subcylin-

drico basi punctato et substriato femoribus anticis vix longiore,

thorace ruguloso, elytris asperrime punctato-striatis apices versus

bituberculatis, femoribus crassis subtus unidentatis. Long. 8 lin.

Sipatus? tinctus. Ferrugineo-fuscus, fusiformis, rostro nigro sub-

cylindrico striato basi fusco apicem versus nitente femoribus anticis

paullo breviore, thorace tuberculato, elytris lineato-subtuberculatis,

pedibus subtuberculatis, femoribus non dentatis. Long. 9 lin.

RHYNCHOPHORUS INTRODUCENS. Niger, velutinus, subtus nitens,

rostro nitente striato, antennis piceis basi nigris, thorace obsolete

olivaceo postice conico, elytris striatis, abdominis apice truncato-

conico, femoribus basi tibiisque subtus aurato-pubescentibus, tar-

sorum articulo 4° dilatato subtus aurato-pubescente. Long. 18 lin.

SPHENOPHORUS GLABRIDISCUS. Niger, nitens, fusiformis, rostro

punctato, thoracis disco plano, lateribus pectoreque punctatis, ely-

tris punctato-lineatis, abdominis apice cinereo punctato. Long.

7 lin.

SPHENOPHORUS CRIBRICOLLIS. Niger, nitens, fusiformis, rostri

dimidio basali punctato, antennis apice cinereis, thorace confertis-

- sime punctato, elytris punctato-lineatis. Long. 5 lin.

SPHENOPHORUS Exquisitus. Niger, obscurus, longi-fusiformis,

rostro nitente glabro vix arcuato basi punctato, thorace subtilissime

punctato, elytris scitissime punctato-lineatis luteo quadrimaculatis.

Long. 23 lin.

SpHENopHORUS? paNops. Niger, subtus testaceo-tomentosus,

rostro nitente glabro, oculis supra contiguis, antennis rufis, thorace

subtilissime punctato, elytris scite punctato-lineatis, macula tri-

gona basali apiceque testaceo-albidis, fasciis duabus obliquis canes-

centibus, pedibus cano-tomentosis. Long. 23 lin, ‘

Cossonus! HEeBEs. Niger, obscurus, longi-fusiformis, rostro brevi

lato, thorace subtilissime punctato, elytris scite punctato-lineatis.

Long. 24-2} lin. |

Mr. F. Walker on some undescribed Ceylon Insects. 219

dy COSSONUS QUADRIMACULA. Niger, fusiformis, rostro sat tenui,

43 me*

thorace confertissime punctato, elytris scite punctato-lineatis.

Long. 1} lin. :

SITOPHILUS DIscIFERUS. Niger, nitens, rostro brevi lato, thoracis

disco concavo rude punctato, elytris rufis scite lineato-punctatis

apices versus nigris. Long. 13-14 lin.

Mecinvus? re.ictus. Ater, ellipticus, nitens, rostro tenui glabro

coxas intermedias attingente, thorace scitissime punctato, elytris

subtilissime punctato-lineatis. Long. 14-2 lin.

Fam. Coccinellide.

COCCINELLA TENUILINEA. Nigra, capite testaceo macula discali

nigra, thorace testaceo, margine postico maculisque duabus mar-

gine connexis maculisque duabus anticis lateralibus nigris, elytris

rufis margine tenuissimo nigro. Long. 1} lin.

CoccINELLA REJICIENS. Rufa, corporis subtus disco nigro, thorace

macula discali nigra, elytris plagis duabus posticis transversis

maculisque duabus apicalibus nigris. Long. 2 lin.

“* COCCINELLA INTERRUMPENS. Rufo-fulva, elytris vittis tribus bis-

interruptis nigris. Long. 14 lin.

CoccINELLA QUINQUEPLAGA. Rufo-fulva, capitis thoracisque discis

nigris, elytris sutura plaga discali plagaque apicali nigris. Long.

2 lin.

CoccINELLA SIMPLEX. Testacea, pubescens, oculis nigris. Long.

2 lin.

CoccINELLA ANTICA. Rufescenti-testacea, thorace maculis tribus

nigris, elytris glabris. Long. 3 lin.

CoccinELLA? FLAvicErs. Nigra, pubescens, capite pedibusque

flavescentibus, elytris subtilissime punctatis.. Long. 3 lin.

Scymnus variaBiLis. Niger, elytris lutescentibus vitta lata sutu-

rali vittisque duabus marginalibus nigris postice abbreviatis. Long.

3 lin.

“"s @HILOCORUS OPPONENS. Rufescens, thorace plaga discali maculis-

' que duabus lateralibus nigris, elytris nigris plagis duabus discalibus

anticis nigris. Long. 2 lin. :

Fam. Endomychide.

LyYCOPERDINA GLABRATA. Fulvescens, elytris subtilissime puncta-

tis. Long. 1} lin.

ADDENDA. |

SisyPHUS PROMINENS. Niger, obscurus, capite rude punctato, cly-

peo angulato bidentato, thorace conferte punctato, elytris rude

lineatis et foveatis, femoribus posticis basi coarctatis. Long.

34 lin.

220 Mr. F. Walker on some undescribed Ceylon Insects.

OrpaNus scitissimus. Ater, subtus pilosus, capite conferte punc-

_ tato postice glabro, antennis testaceis, thorace subtilissime punc-

tato, elytris scitissime punctato-lineatis, pedibus robustis fortissime

-dentatis. Long. 4 lin.

Ru1zoTRoGus suLCIFER. Piceo-rufus, antennis elytris corpore

subtus pedibusque testaceis, capite thoraceque rude punctatis,

elytris conferte punctatis, sulcis sex basalibus. Long. 6 lin.

PLECTRIS GLABRILINEA. Piceo-ferruginea, viridi subnitens, con-

ferte punctata, non pilosa, antennis fulvis, elytrorum foveis duabus

humeralibus, lineis tribus glabris. Long. 4¢ lin.

PLECTRIS PUNCTULIGERA. Cupreo-picea, pilosa, conferte et rude

punctata, antennis lutescentibus, elytrorum foveis duabus humera-

_ libus, lineis tribus glabris. Long. 33-4 lin. |

ANOMALA INFIXA. Cupreo-viridis, confertissime punctata, capite

antico corpore subtus pedibusque viridi-ferrugineis, thorace foveis

duabus lateralibus rotundis, elytris scite punctato-lineatis, tuber-

‘culis duobus subapicalibus fuscis. ‘Long. 5 lin.

MIMELA MUNDIssIMA. Saturate viridis, subtilissime punctata, sub-

tus rufescens, capite antico thoracis et elytrorum lateribus virides-

centi-flavis, antennis lutescentibus, pedibus viridi-rufis. Long.

7. lin. é

TROPIDERES FRAGILIS. Niger, capite testaceo-pubescente, antennis

gracillimis, thorace plaga antica maculisque duabus discalibus

testaceis, elytris striatis, maculis duabus humeralibus punctisque

’ testaceis, pedibus ferrugineo variis. Long. 2 lin.

Order ORTHOPTERA.

Fam. Blattide.

PANESTHIA PLAGIATA. Nigra, lata, robusta, rude punctata, capite

glabro, thoracis sulco transverso arcuato, elytris costa basi dilatata,

fascia brevi lata obliqua testacea.

Black, broad, stout, roughly and irregularly punctured. Head

smooth. Thorax with a curved transverse furrow. Legs very

stout and spinose. LElytra with the costa dilated towards the

base, near which they are minutely punctured, and have a broad,

short, oblique testaceous band, which is abbreviated hindward.

Length of the body 13 lines.

Fam. Mantide.

HarPAX SIGNIFER. Fulvus, oculis subcornutis, thorace marginato

antice carinato postice conico lateribus subdilatatis, pedibus anticis

incrassatis spinosis, alis anticis pallide viridibus basi fulvis annulo

discali nigro biguttato.

Tawny. Head ridged on the face. Eyes produced and slightly

diverging, conical or somewhat cornute, with a protuberance

between them. Thorax with an elevated border, keeled in front,

Mr. F. Walker on some undescribed Ceylon Insects. 221

slightly dilated in the middle, conical hindward. Fore legs incras-

sated, spinose. Fore wings pale green, tawny towards the base ;

middle part with a large black ringlet which contains two black

dots. Length of the body 10 lines.

Fam. Gryllide.

Acueta suppiicans. Sordide testacea, capitis margine postico

discoque antico nigricantibus, thoracis margine postico fasciaque

incompleta nigricantibus, oviductu longo, alis lanceolatis, anticis

fuscescentibus, posticis longissimis.

Dingy testaceous. Head blackish behind and on the disk in

front. Thorax with a slight longitudinal furrow, blackish along

the hind border, and with an irregular and incomplete blackish

band. Abdomen blackish above; ovipositor longer than the ab-

domen; caudal setze very bristly, as long as the ovipositor. Legs

with slight blackish marks; hind tibize very spinose. Fore wings

brownish, lanceolate. Hind wings lanceolate, pale testaceous,

twice the length of the fore wings. Length of the body 6 lines.

AcHETA xquatis. Pallide testacea, capitis disco nigro semicircu-

lum testaceum includente, lituris inter antennas duabus nigris,

thorace fascia arcuata liturisque duabus capitatis nigris, pedibus

crassis, tibiis nigro-fasciatis, alis anticis longissimis nigro-venosis.

Pale testaceous. Head.black above, including a pale testaceous

semicircle, and with two black marks between the antennze, which

are tawny, except at the base. Thorax with a curved hindward

black band which is attenuated on each side, and projects a streak,

on each side of which there is an irregular capitate black mark.

Legs very stout ; tibiee with black bands. Fore wings very long,

with brown reticulations. Length of the body 8 lines.

ACHETA CONFIRMATA. Cervina, capitis disco nigro lineam trans-

versam maculamque anticam testaceas includente, abdomine supra

nigricante, alis anticis parvis, posticis longis lanceolatis testaceis.

Fawn-colour. Head shining, with a black disk, which includes

a transverse testaceous line behind the antenne and a testaceous

spot between them. Thorax minutely rugulose, and with a slight

suture, which is obsolete hindward. Hand legs very stout; tibize

with thick spines. Abdomen blackish above ; setze bristly, shorter

than the abdomen. Fore wings short. Hind wings testaceous,

lanceolate, fully twice the length of the hind wings. Length of the

body 6 lines.

PLATYDACTYLUS CRASSIPES. Rufescens, glaber, capite subconico,

antennis fulvis ‘longis subpubescentibus, -palpis testaceis, pedibus

testaceis crassis, tibiis anticis spinosis, alis breviusculis pallide

fuscescentibus.

Reddish, smooth. Head somewhat conical. Antenne tawny,

very long, minutely pubescent. Palpi testaceous. Legs testa-

ceous, very stout, with a few slight blackish marks; fore tibiee

222 Mr. F. Walker on some undescribed Ceylon Insects.

with stout spines. Wings pale brownish, rather short; hind

wings a little longer than the fore wings. Length of the body

12 lines.

STEIRODON LANCEOLATUM. Fem. Testaceo-viride aut pallide

viride, longa, gracilis, capite conico, antennis longis, thorace

rectangulato, abdomine brevi, oviductu falcato, alis longis angustis,

‘anticis albido-hyalinis apice viridescentibus.

Female. Testaceous green or pale green, long, slender. Head

conical, with a reddish band on the vertex. Antenne long and

slender. Thorax rectangular, much longer than broad. Abdomen

short. Oviduct short, broad, falcate, much compressed. Legs

long and slender. Wings long and narrow. Hind wings whitish

hyaline, greenish at the tips, longer than the fore wings. Length

of the body 8 lines, of the wings 24 lines.

TRUXALIS EXALTATA. Viridescenti-testacea, capite cornu longum

lanceolatum elevatum subobliquum fingente, oculis valde elongatis,

thorace tricarinato, pectore ventrisque dimidio basali nigricantibus,

alis longis angustis, anticis viridibus, posticis hyalinis.

Greenish-testaceous. Head produced into a long, ascending,

slightly oblique horn. Eyes much elongated, near the tip of the

horn. Thorax with three ridges. Pectus blackish. Abdomen

long, black beneath for half the length from the base. Hind legs

very long. Wings long and narrow. Fore wings green. Hind

wings hyaline. Length of the body 20 lines.

TRUXALIS PORRECTA. Ferruginea, nigricante varia, capite porrecto

lanceolato vix ascendente antice sulcato, antennis compressis, alis

abdomen sat superantibus, posticis cinereis.

Ferruginous, with various blackish marks. Head porrect, lan-

ceolate, hardly ascending, rounded and slightly bilobed in front.

Antennee flattened, hardly longer than the head. Thorax longer

than the head. Abdomen obtuse and vertically expanding at the

tip. Wings extending some distance beyond the abdomen. Hind

wings grey. Length of the body 10 lines.

AcRYDIUM EXTENSUM. Testaceum, fulvo varium, capitis fronte

vittaque nigricantibus, antennis luteis apice fuscis, thorace punctato

unicarinato vittis tribus nigris, alis cinereis, anticis subluridis nigri-

cante notatis.

Testaceous, partly tawny, more greenish when living. Head

blackish in front, and with a blackish stripe, which contains a

slight testaceous keel, and has a row of black points along each

side. Antennze luteous, brown towards the tips. Thorax roughly

punctured, with a slight blackish keel, and with a black stripe on

each side. Wings grey. Fore wings with a lurid tinge, with

slight blackish marks; veins tawny. Length of the body 20 lines.

ACRYDIUM DEPONENS. Testaceum, capite vittis duabus nigricanti-

bus, antennis luteis apice fuscescentibus, thorace fuscescente tri-

Mr. F. Walker on some undescribed Ceylon Insects. 223

earinato, pedibus anterioribus fuscescentibus, femoribus posticis

extus nigro vittatis, spinis tibiarum posticarum albis apice nigris,

alis cinereis, anticis fusco notatis postice luridis.

Testaceous. Head with two blackish stripes, which diverge

slightly hindward. Antennze luteous, with brownish tips. Thorax

mostly brownish, with three keels, the middle one very slender.

Anterior legs brownish. Hind legs testaceous; femora with a

black stripe on the outer side, which, as usual, has an elevated

border and angular sutures ; tibise with strong white black-tipped

spines. Wings grey.. Fore wings with various brown marks, lurid

along the hind border. Length of the body 15 lines.

ACRYDIUM RUFITIBIA. Obscure cervinum, antennis testaceis, tho-

race subruguloso supra nigricante unicarinato, femoribus posticis

fuscis subtus testaceis, tibiis tarsisque posticis leete rufis, alis an-

ticis subcervinis apud costam nigricantibus, posticis cinereis.

Dull fawn-colour. Antenneze testaceous. Thorax minutely ru-

gulose, blackish above, with a very slight, middle keel. Hind

femora brown, testaceous beneath ; outer side as in 4. deponens ;

hind tibize and hind tarsi bright red, the former with pale black-

tipped spines. Fore wings dull fawn-colour, blackish along most

of the costa. Hind wings grey. Length of the body 16 lines.

ACRYDIUM RESPONDENS. Cervinum, nigro conferte notatum, femo-

ribus posticis extus glaucescentibus, tibiis posticis lete rufis, alis

anticis nigris testaceo notatis, posticis cinereis.

Fawn-colour, thickly marked with black. Antenne mostly

blackish, except towards the hase. Hind femora with a glaucous

tinge, and with the usual structure on the outer side; hind tibize

bright red. . Fore wings black, with various testaceous marks.

Hind wings grey.. Length of the body 10-12 lines.

ACRYDIUM CINCTIFEMUR. Cervinum, tuberculatum, nigro varium,

subtus testaceum, pedibus nigro fasciatis, tibiis posticis glaucis

basi nigris testaceo fasciatis, alis anticis nigris testaceo varlis, pos-

ticis cinereis. .

Fawn-colour, varied with black, tuberculate, testaceous beneath.

Head and antennee mostly black. Legs with black bands. Hind

femora of the usual structure; hind tibize glaucous, black and

testaeeous towards the base. Fore wings black, varied with testa-

_ ceous. Hind wings grey. Length of the body 10 lines.

Acrypium? ni@rtrascia. Sordide testaceum, oculis valde extanti-

bus, thorace plano tricarinato fascia lata nigra, pedibus nigro

variis, tibiis posticis basi albidis, alis anticis nigro vartis.

Dingy testaceous, tinged with green. Eyes extremely promi-

nent. Thorax somewhat flat above, with a broad black band, and

with three keels; the lateral keels angular. Legs of the usual

structure, varied with black; hind tibize whitish at the base.

Fore wings varied with black. Length of the body. 4 lines.

224 Mr. P.L. Sclater on two new Species of American Parrots.

Order PHYSAPODA.

PHL@OTHRIPS STENOMELAS. Ater, antennis concoloribus, capite

glabro, thorace striis transversis, abdomine lineari apice lanceolato.

Deep black. Antenne: submoniliform. Head smooth, nearly

as long as the thorax, which is transversely striated. Abdomen

linear, lanceolate at the tip. Fore legs thick. Length 1% lin.

f EL ant)

aa t :

is vv | Te ae :

XXIV.—Descriptions of two new Species of American Parrots.

By Puitie Lutrizy Scrarter, M.A., Secretary to the Zoo-

logical Society.

1. Conurus holochlorus.

Leete viridis unicolor ; subtus dilutior: remigibus et rectricibus infra

saturate flavicanti-olivaceis: rostro albo: pedibus clare brunneis.

Long. tota 11°0, alee 6°5, caudee 5°5.

Hab. in vicinitate urbis Jalapa in rep. Mexicana.

The large collection of birds made in the vicinity of Jalapa,

in the Mexican State of Vera Cruz by Sefior Rafael Montes

de Oca, contained four examples of this Parrot,—the first which

have come under my notice. It is a close ally of Conurus pavua

(Bodd.) (Pstttacus guianensis, Gm.), but readily distinguishable

by the absence of red and yellow on the under wing-coverts,

which are green like the body.

The Parrots of which I have now seen examples undoubtedly

from Mexico, are the following :—

1. Rhynchopsitta pachyrhyncha (Sw.), Phil. Mag. 1827, p. 429.

Hab. Table-land of Mexico from Rio Grande into State of Vera

Cruz.

2. Conurus holochlorus, Sclater. Hab. Vicinity of Jalapa,

probably table-land.

3. Conurus Petzii, Hahn, Papag. t. 64. Hab. Tierra caliente

of Vera Cruz; Acapulco (Boucard).

4. Conurus astec, Souancé, Rev. Zool. 1856, p.154. Had. Tierra

caliente of Vera Cruz; Cordova (Sallé).

5. Conurus lineolatus (Cassin); Psittacula lineola, Cass. Pr.

Ac. Se. Phil. vi. 372. Hab. Vera Cruz, vic. of Cordova (Sallé).

6. Pionus senilis (Spix); Ps. leucorhynchus, Sw. Hab. Vera

Cruz, vic. of Cordova (Sallé).

7. Chrysotis ochroptera (Gm.) Hab. Tierra caliente of Vera

Cruz (Sallé),

8. Chrysotis viridigenalis, Cassin, Pr. Ac. Se. Phil. vi. 371.

Hab. Tierra caliente of Vera Cruz (Sallé).

9. Chrysotis estivalis, Bp. MS.; C. autumnalis, Sclater,

P.Z.S. 1857, p. 205. Had. Tierra caliente of Vera Cruz.

Mr. P. L. Sclater on two new Species of American Parrots. 225

I have not yet been able to identify the two Aras (spoken of,

Pr. Zool. Soc. 1857, p. 230); but one, without doubt, is Ara

macao (Linn.) (aracanga, Gm.), which is common on the Pacific

coast-region of Honduras*.

2. Conurus xantholemus.

Leete viridis, pileo summo ceerulescente ; fronte lato, oculorum am-

bitu, lateribus capitis et gula aurantiaco-flavis: pectore fulves-

cente: abdomine et tectricibus alarum inferioribus pallide flavo-

viridibus, ventre medio aurantiaco-flavo: remigibus alarum intus

fusco-nigris, extus ceerulescenti-viridibus ; cauda subtus flavicanti-

olivacea, supra dorso concolore, apicem versus czerulescente ; rostro

nigro, pedibus nigricantibus.

Long. tota 9°5, alee 5:30, caudee 4°30.

Hab. in insula Sancti Thome, Antillensium.

I am indebted to my friends Alfred Newton, Esq., and his

brother Edward, who have done so much to increase our know-

ledge of the natural productions of the islands of St. Croix and

St. Thomas, for an opportunity of examining and describing

this apparéntly hitherto unnoticed species of Conurus. The

existence of this Parrot in St. Thomas has been known to

Mr. Newton for some time; but it is only recently that he has

succeeded in obtaining specimens of it. © Joh ,

This Conurus is of the same form as, and closely allied to, Conurus

pertinax of Brazil, C. chrysophrys of Guiana, and C. chrysogenyst

of Trinidad, but differs in one particular or the other from each

of them. Like C. chrysogenys, it has a blue band on the top of

the head, but it may be at once distinguished from that bird

(perhaps its nearest ally) by the orange-yellow extending over

the throat.

The Parrots of the Antilles, like the other animals inhabiting

those islands, seem to have a very limited geographical distribu-

tion, each island producing peculiar forms, which, though not

always separated by trenchant characters from their corre-

spondents in the other islands, generally present such differences

as seem to require specific distinction.

This is the case amongst the Mammalia in the genus Capro-

mys; amongst the birds in the genera Lampornis, Todus, Spin-

dalis, Saurothera and others ; amongst the Reptiles in the genera

Dromicus and Anolis. Were the fauna of the Antilles properly

worked out, there is no doubt that numerous other instances

would be found of this geographical arrangement of species.

* See Mr. Salvin’s remarks in ‘ The Ibis,’ 1859, p. 137.

+ Of M. de Souancé, but subsequently reunited by him to Psittacus

eruginosus of Linneus. This identification I am ‘inclined to consider

doubtful.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist, Ser. 3, Vol. iv. 15

226 Royal Society :-—

I subjoin a list of the Parrots now known to inhabit the

different islands of the group :—

CuBa. JAMAICA. St. Domineco.

Ara tricolor ? Ara tricolor ? |

Conurus euops. Conurus nanus. Conurus chloropterus.

Chrysotis leucocephala. | Chrysotis collaria. Chrysotis Salleei.

cyanorhyncha ? Chrysotis jamaicensis ?

agilis.

Porto Rico. Sr. THomaAs. Str, VINCENT.

Conurus Maugei. Conurus xantholemus.

Chrysotis vittata. Chrysotis Guildingii.

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.

ROYAL SOCIETY.

March 24, 1859.—Sir Benjamin C. Brodie, Bart., President, in the

Chair.

“Qn the Vertebral Characters of the Order Pterosauria (Ow.), as

exemplified in the genera Pterodactylus (Cuv.) and Dimorphodon

(Ow.).” By Prof. Owen, F.R.S.

After mentioning various considerations which have tended to

invest the question of the vertebral characters of the Pterodactyles

with peculiar interest—above all, in reference to carrying out the

comparison of their skeleton with that of birds—the author alludes

to the scanty information on the subject already on record, which—

with the exception of a remark of Professor Quensted as to the

apparently proccelian characters observed by him in a dorsal ver-

tebra of Pterodactylus Suevicus, and the apparent want of the

trochlear form in the cervical articulations of that animal—affords no

available data for comparing the vertebral mechanism of these rep-

tiles with that of other vertebrata adapted for flight; he then

gives a summary of his own observations, made, as opportunities

presented themselves, for some years past.

From investigations of species of Pterosauria extending from the

period of the Lias, as exemplified by the Dimorphodon macronyz, to

the upper greensand, as exemplified by the Pterodactylus Sedgwichii

and Pter. Fittoni, the author has ascertained the fact that, with

respect to the cervical and dorso-lumbar vertebree, the terminal ar-

ticular surfaces of the vertebral bodies are simply concave anteriorly

and convex posteriorly, and that they consequently manifest the

earliest known instance of the ‘ proccelian”? type which now pre-

vails in the reptilian class. But in no other reptile are those arti-

cular surfaces so narrow vertically, in proportion to their breadth,

as they are in the cervical vertebre of the Pterosauria: in the

dorsal series the cup and ball present more ordinary Saurian pro-

portions.

Dr.A. Waller on the means by which the Actiniz kill their Prey. 227

Besides these principal and more general characters, those also which

distinguish the vertebree of the several regions of the spine, together

with the specialities of the atlas and axis, and of other individual

vertebree, are pointed out and described.

April 14, 1859.—Sir Benjamin C. Brodie, Bart, President, in the

Chair.

“On the means by which the 4ctinie kill their Prey.’ By Au-

gustus Waller, M.D., F.R.S. Ina Letter to Dr. Sharpey, Sec. R. 8.

In the ‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society’ for the 18th November,

p. 478*, I perceive that Dr. M‘Donnell’s fresh observations on the

Actinize have led him to abandon the opinion which he had been

disposed to entertain as to their possessing electrical powers similar

to those of the torpedo. During a stay at the sea-side in the winter

of 1857-58, I put in hand some experiments for the purpose of

‘testing the supposed electrical powers of these animals, which, as

I some months since mentioned to you, led me to negative con-

clusions relative to their siderant power. Dr. M‘Donnell’s recent

observations. having removed any occasion of controversy, I will

briefly mention the results that I obtained.

The most interesting fact observed by Dr. M‘Donnell is the

contraction of the galvanoscopic frog when the Actinia seized upon

the sciatic nerve. On repeating this experiment, I was particularly

struck by the uncertainty and irregularity with which these con-

tractions were obtained, being sometimes very strong, while at others

they were imperceptible notwithstanding all the precautions that I

could take as to the frogs being fresh caught and irritable, besides

attending to the rules laid down by Matteucci.

On the other hand, when, in lieu of a galvanoscopic frog, I pre-

sented a Nereis to the Actinia, the result was invariably the death of

the animal. The effect of the Actinia’s grasp upon the Annulata is

mortal, although the retention may not have been allowed to exceed

afew moments. The first symptom which I observed was that of

writhing, as if the creature were in great pain, and which in the

most marked cases was succeeded by paralysis with flaccidity of the

muscles, like a frog acted upon by woorara. The action of the

dorsal vessel, which still persisted long after the loss of voluntary

power, was very irregular and segmental, the vessel being bloodless

and inert at intervals.

It appeared indifferent whether the cephalic or the caudal ex-

tremity of the Nereis was attacked by the Actinia, similar symptoms

being produced in both cases.

In order to ascertain how far these symptoms were produced by

electricity, I subjected the Nereis enclosed in a glass tube to some

violent shocks by means of an electro-magnetic machine, which were

merely productive of a slight temporary inconvenience to the animal,

unattended by any after evil effects. It is most remarkable what

powerful electric action these creatures are susceptible of enduring

* Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 3, vol. iii. p. 304,

15*

228 Royal Society :—

without injury ; the strongest action of an electro-magnetic machine

on Du Bois Reymond’s principle, which affected myself violently up

to the elbows, appeared to be easily endured by them. — tae

The above experiment is quite sufficient to show how impossible it

is to attribute the fatal influence of the Actiniee to simple electrical

action.

In order to elucidate the real power cf the Actiniee—after having

in vain exposed the finger on which the cuticle had been softened by

soaking in water—considering that the tongue was better adapted

for the purpose in view, by reason of the thinness of its cuticle, I

presented its apex to the tentacles of an Actinia mesembryanthemum,

of about the size of a half-crown piece. The result was such as to

satisfy the most sceptical respecting the offensive weapons with

which it is furnished. The animal seized the organ most vigorously,

and was detached from it with some difficulty after the lapse of about

a minute. Immediately a pungent acrid pain commenced, which

continued to increase for some minutes until it became extremely

distressing. The point attacked felt inflamed and much swollen,

although to the eye no change in the part could be detected. These

symptoms continued unabated for about an hour, and a slight tem-

porary relief was only obtained by immersing the tongue in cold or

warm water. After this period the symptoms gradually abated, and

about four hours later they had entirely disappeared. A day or two

after, a very minute ulceration was perceived over the apex of the

tongue, which disappeared after being touched with nitrate of silver.

I have subsequently frequently repeated this experiment on myself

and others, using greater precaution, and have invariably obtained

similar symptoms of urtication. In only one instance has a minute

ulceration been the consequence.

It is very evident therefore that the Actinie act by means of an

acrid irritant poison, similar in some respects to that of the wasp, or

of snakes, which quickly spreads through the system of the Annelida,

producing the above-mentioned results. i

It remained to determine whether the poisoned weapons existing

in such numbers over the surface of the Actinize were left in the part

attacked. For this purpose I stretched a thin India-rubber mem-

brane over a glass tube. After its seizure by the Actinia, I found

that under the microscope it was studded in many points with the

poison darts inserted slightly in the membrane, without their having

penetrated through. In this respect my observations differ from

those of Mr. Gosse, who considers that a fragment of cuticle from

the hand was perforated by these darts.

May 19, 1859.—Major-General Sabine, R.A., Treas. and V.P.,

in the Chair. |

“On the Anatomy of Victoria Regia.” Part Il. By Arthur

Henfrey, Esq., F.R.S., F.L.S. &c., Professor of Botany in King’s

College, London.

This paper is a continuation of one published in the Philosophical

Transactions for 1852 (p. 289), and discusses the general question

Dr. J. B. Hicks on certain Sensory Organs in Insects. 229

of the anatomical structure of the stems of Monocotyledons and

Dicotyledons, especially in reference to some objections taken against

the author’s views respecting the stems of the Nymphezeaceze. Cer-

tain peculiarities of the structure of roots are next examined ; and

these are shown to be formed on the Dicotyledonous type in

Victoria.

The germination of the seed is described in a manner differing to

some extent from the accounts given by Planchon, Trécul, and

Hooker. The error of Trécul, in stating that the earlier leaves are

devoid of a stipule, is shown to depend upon his overlooking the

true axillary position of that organ.

The Phyllotaxy is next treated, with the development and arrange-

ment of the leaves and roots ; lastly, a complete history of the develop-

ment of the flower, showing that the apparently inferior position of

the ovary depends upon a great enlargement of the receptacle after

the formation of the various organs forming the flower.

May 26, 1859.—Sir Benjamin C. Brodie, Bart., President, in the

Chair.

**Qn certain Sensory Organs in Insects, hitherto undescribed.”

By J. Braxton Hicks, M.D. Lond., F.L.S. &e.

The author commences with an allusion to papers published in the

Linnean Society’s ‘ Journal’ and ‘ Transactions’ respecting groups of

organs, abundantly supplied with nerves, on the bases of the halteres

of Diptera, also on the nervures of the wings and on the elytra of

Coleoptera, and now gives a drawing which shows forth these organs

and the nerve proceeding to them on the halteres. He then describes,

for the first time, somewhat similar organs on the apices of the palpi

of some Diptera, and on their base in many Hymenoptera, as Apis,

Vespa, Nomada, Megachile, Bombus, &c. These are well shown in

the Vespa Crabro, or Hornet, where the nerve is seen expanding in

the thin membrane which covers in the opening beneath in the wall of

the member. |

In the paper, also, it is pointed out for the first time, that on the

apex of the palpi of Lepidoptera there is invariably found a structure

which is more or less of a cavity, generally tubular, and sometimes

extending inwards nearly the length of the last segment, but some-

times only a depression. ‘To it a nerve is given which expands on

the apex of the cavity. |

The author then describes groups of organs, allied in form to those

on the palpi, which are to be found on the legs of all insects yet

examined. There are about three groups situated about the tro-

chantero-femoral joint, and to them nerves can be distinctly seen

proceeding ; and in Meloé the branch is seen to pass up the opening in

the wall, to terminate in a papilla in the centre of the membrane

covering it in.

It is also shown that the bladder-like apex of the palpi, instead

of being smooth, as is generally described, is covered with a great

number of small bodies, something in form like ninepins, some-

230 Royal Society :—

times exceedingly small, requiring a 3-inch objective to make them

out, when they can clearly be discerned to be a modified condition of

true hairs copiously supplied with nerves. The author names these

“ tactile hairs,’ and points out their existence im all palpi used for

touching, and in other organs subservient to that function. These

tactile hairs are very large in the palpi and antennee of Dyticus mar-

ginalis. The barrel-like organs of the Lepidoptera are next investi-

gated, and are shown to have a nerve passing up them ; but whether

proceeding to the apex of the nipple-like papilla on them or not,

cannot be quite made out. They are pointed out as being nearly

allied to the organs on each of the palpi of the Earwig (Forjicula

auricularia).

The author refers to the sacs found on the antennee of all insects,

which have been fully treated of in two papers read by him before the

Linnean Society, and published in their ‘Transactions ;’ and he lastly

examines the probable functions of all these organs, which must be

of sensation, probably special.

Attention is also called to the value of bleaching the tissues by

chlorine in investigating the structure of insects, which process was

first used by the author and described by him in the papers above

mentioned. ;

“On the Occurrence of Flint-implements, associated with the

Remains of Extinct Mammalia, in Undisturbed Beds of a late Geo-

logical Period.” By Joseph Prestwich, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.S. &e.

The author commences by noticing how comparatively rare are

the cases even of the alleged discovery of the remains of man or of

his works in the various superficial drifts, notwithstanding the ex-

tent to which these deposits are worked; and of these few cases so

many have been disproved, that man’s non-existence on the earth

until after the latest geological changes, and the extinction of the

Mammoth, Tichorhine Rhinoceros, and other great mammals, had

come to be considered almost in the light of an established fact.

Instances, however, have from time to time occurred to throw some

doubt on this view, as the well-known cases of the human bones

found by Dr. Schmerling in a cavern near Liege,—the remains of

man, instanced by M. Marcel de Serres and others in several caverns

in France,—the flint-implements in Kent’s Cave,—and many more.

Some uncertainty, however, has always attached to cave-evidence,

from the circumstance that man has often inhabited such places at

a comparatively late period, and may have disturbed the original

cave-deposit ; or, after the period of his residence, the stalagmitic

floor may have been broken up by natural causes, and the remains

above and below it may have thus become mixed together, and

afterwards sealed up by a second floor of stalagmite. Such imstances

of an imbedded broken stalagmitic floor are in fact known to occur ;

at the same time the author does not pretend to say that this will

explain all cases of intermixture in caves, but that it lessens the value

of the evidence from such sources.

Occurrence of Flint-implements in Gravel-beds. 231

~The subject has, however, been latterly revived, and the evidence

more carefully sifted by Dr. Falconer; and his preliminary reports

on the Brixham Cave*, presented last year to the Royal Society,

announcing the carefully determined occurrence of worked flints

mixed indiscriminately with the bones of the extinct Cave Bear and

the Rhinoceros, attracted great and general attention amongst geo-

logists. This remarkable discovery, and a letter written to him by

Dr. Falconer on the occasion of his subsequent visit to Abbeville

last autumn, instigated the author to turn his attention to other

ground, which, from the interest of its later geological phenomena

alone, as described by M. Buteux in his “ Esquisse Géologique du

Departement de la Somme,’’ he had long wished and intended to

Visit.

In 1849 M. Boucher de Perthes, President of the ‘ Socicté

d’Emulation” of Abbeville, published the first volume of a work

entitled ‘ Antiquités Celtiques et Antédiluviennes,” in which he an-

nounced the important discovery of worked flints in beds of undis-

turbed sand and gravel containing the remains of extinct mammalia.

Although treated from an antiquarian point of view, still the state-

ment of the geological facts by this gentleman, with good sections

by M. Ravin, is perfectly clear and consistent. Nevertheless, both

in France and in England, his conclusions were generally considered

erroneous ; nor has he since obtained such verification of the pheno-

mena as to cause so unexpected a fact to be accepted by men of

science. There have, however, been some few exceptions to the

general incredulity. The late Dr. Rigollot, of Amiens, urged by

M. Boucher de Perthes, not only satisfied himself of the truth of

the fact, but corroborated it, in 1855, by his “Mémoire sur des

Instruments en Silex trouvés 4 St. Acheul.’’ Some few geologists

suggested further inquiry ; whilst Dr. Falconer, himself convinced

by M. de Perthes’ explanations and specimens, warmly engaged

Mr. Prestwich to examine the sections.

The author, who confesses that he undertook the inquiry full of

doubt, went last Easter, first to Amiens, where he found, as de-

scribed by Dr. Rigollot, the gravel-beds of St. Acheul capping a

low chalk-hill a mile S.E. of the city, about 100 feet above the level

of the Somme, and not commanded by any higher ground. The

following is the succession of the beds in descending order :—

Average thickness.

1. Brown brick-earth (many old tombs and some coins),

with an irregular bed of flint-gravel. No organic remains. 10 to 15 ft.

Divisional plane between | and 2a very uneven and indented.

2a. Whitish marl and sand with small chalk debris. Land

and freshwater shells (Zymnea, Succinea, Helix, Bithynia,

Planorbis, Pupa, Pisidium, and Ancylus, all of recent

species) are common, and mammalian bones and teeth are

Occasional PY AOUMES sissies sesh eons We seescs sist caddvivseiecve 2 to 8 ft.

* On the 4th of May, this year, Dr. Falconer further communicated to the Geo-

logical Society some similar facts, though singularly varied, recently discovered

by him in the Maccagnone Cave near Palermo.—See Proc. Geol. Soc.

232 Royal Society :—

Average thickness.

26. Coarse subangular flint-gravel,—white with irregular

ochreous and ferruginous seams,—with tertiary flint peb-

bles and small sandstone blocks. Remains of shells

as above, in patches of sand. Teeth and bones of the ele-

phant, and of a species of horse, ox, and deer,—generally

near base. This bed is further remarkable for containing

worked flints (“‘ Haches ” of M. de Perthes, and “ Langues

de Chat” of the workmen) ....cscseseeceeees hewn vn Se aiegonnats 6 to 12 ft.

Uneven surface of chalk.

The flint-implements are found in considerable numbers in 26.

On his first visit, the author obtained several specimens from the

workmen, but he was not successful in finding any himself. On his

arrival, however, at Abbeville, he received a message from M. Pinsard

of Amiens, to whose cooperation he expresses himself much indebted,

. to inform him that one had been discovered the following day, and

was left im situ for his inspection. On returning to the spot, this

time with his friend Mr. Evans, he satisfied himself that it was

truly im situ, 17 feet from the surface, in undisturbed ground, and

he had a photographic sketch of the section taken*.

Dr. Rigollot also mentions the occurrence in the gravel of round

pieces of hard chalk, pierced through with a hole, which he considers

were used as beads. The author found several, and recognized in

them a small fossil sponge, the Coscinopora globularis, D’Orb., from

the chalk, but does not feel quite satisfied about their artificial

dressing. Some specimens do certainly appear as though. the hole

had been enlarged and completed.

The only mammalian remains the author here obtained, were

some specimens of the teeth of a horse—but whether recent or ex-

tinct the specimens were too imperfect to determine ; and part of

the tooth of an elephant (Elephas primigenius?). In the gravel-pit

of St. Roch, 14 mile distant, and on a lower level, mammalian

remains are far more abundant, and include Elephas primige-

nius, Rhinoceros tichorhinus, Cervus somonensis, Bos priscus, and

Equust ; but the workmen said that no worked flints were found

there, although they are mentioned by Dr. Rigollot.

At Abbeville the author was much struck with the extent and

beauty of M. Boucher de Perthes’ collection. There were many

forms of fiints, in which he, however, failed to see traces of design

or work, and which he should only consider as accidental ; but with

regard to those flint-instruments termed “ axes’? (“haches’’) by

M. de Perthes, he entertains not the slightest doubt of their artificial

make. They are of two forms, generally from 4 to 10 inches long:

the outlines of two specimens are represented in the following dia-

* On revisiting the pit, since the reading of this paper, in company with,

several geological friends, the author was fortunate to witness the discovery and

extraction by one of them, Mr. J. W. Flower, of a very perfect and fine specimen

of flint-implement, in a seam of ochreous gravel, 20 feet beneath the surface.

They besides obtained thirty-six specimens from the workmen.—June, 1859.

t To this list the author has to add the Hippopotamus, of which creature

four fine tusks were obtained on this last visit.

Occurrence of Flint-implements in Gravel-beds. 233

gram. They are very rudely made, without any ground surface,

and were the work of a people probably unacquainted with the use

of metals. These implements are much rarer at Abbeville than at

Amiens, fig. 1 being the common form at the former, and fig. 2 at

: Fig. 2.

Fig. 1.

Front section. Side section.

Side section. Front section.

One-third the natural size.

the latter place. The author was not fortunate enough to find any

specimens himself; but from the experience of M. de Perthes, and

the evidence of the workmen, as well as from the condition of the

specimens themselves, he is fully satisfied of the correctness of that

gentleman’s opinion, that they there also occur in beds of undisturbed

sand and gravel.

At Moulin Quignon, and at St. Gilles, to the S.E. of Abbeville,

the deposit occurs, as at St. Acheul, on the top of a low hill, and

consists of a subangular, ochreous and ferruginous flint-gravel, with

a few irregular seams of sand, 12 to 15 feet thick, reposing upon an

uneven surface of chalk. It contains no shells, and very few bones.

M. de Perthes states that he has found fragments of the teeth of the

elephant here. The worked flints and the bones occur generally in

the lower part of the gravel.

In the bed of gravel also on which Abbeville stands, a number of

flint-implements have been found, together with several teeth of the

Elephas primigenius, and, at places, fragments of freshwater shells.

The section, however, of greatest interest is that at Menchecourt,

a suburb to the N.W. of Abbeville. The deposit there is very

distinct in its character ; it occurs patched on the side of a chalk

hill, which commands it to the northward ; and it slopes down under

234 Royal Society :—

the peat-beds of the valley of the Somme to the southward. The

deposit consists, in descending order, of—

Average thickness.

1, A mass of brown sandy clay, with angular fragments of

flints and chalk rubble. No organic remains. Base very

irregular and indented into bed No. 2.........ceesse.eseeeeee 2 to 12 ft.

2. A light-coloured sandy clay (‘‘ sable gras” of the work-

men), analogous to the loess, containing land shells,

Pupa, Helix, Clausilia of recent species. Flint-axes and

mammalian remains are said to occur occasionally in

CURIS TE sais vance duncnspp oonseveensdpndeangsans in desis mabaell ieee 8 to 25 ft.

3. White sand (‘sable aigre”’), with 1 to 2 feet of subangular

flint-gravel at base. This bed abounds in land and fresh-

water shells of recent species of the genera Helix, Succinea,

Cyclas, Pisidium, Valvata, Bithynia, and Planorbis, to-

gether with the marine Buccinum undatum, Cardium

edule, Tellina solidula, and Purpura lapillus. The author

has also found the Cyrena consobrina and Littorina rudis.

With them are associated numerous mammalian remains,

and, it is said, flint-implements..............ccscesscessssescees 2 to 6 ft.

4, Light-coloured sandy marl, in places very hard, with

Helix, Zonites, Suecinea, and Pupa. Not traversed ...... 3+

, The Mammalian remains enumerated by M. Buteux from this pit

are Llephas primigenius, Rhinoceros tichorhinus, Cervus somo-

nensis?, Cervus tarandus priscus, Ursus speleus, Hyena spelea,

Bos primigenius, Equus adamaticus, and a Felis. It would be

essential to determine how these fossils are distributed—which occur

in bed No. 2, and which in bed No. 3. This has not hitherto been

done. The few marine shells occur mixed indiscriminately with the

freshwater species, chiefly amongst the flints at the base of No. 3.

They are very friable and somewhat scarce. It is on the top of this

bed of flints that the greater number of bones are found, and also,

it is said, the greater number of flint-implements. The author,

however, only saw some long flint flakes (considered by M. de

Perthes as flint knives) turned out of this bed in his presence ; but

the workmanship was not very clear or apparent; still it was as

much so as in some of the so-called flint knives from the peat-beds

and barrows. There are specimens, however, of true implements

(‘‘haches”) in M. de Perthes’ collection from Menchecourt ; one

noticed by the author was from a depth of 5, and another of 7

metres. This would take them out from bed No. 1, but would

leave it uncertain whether they came from No. 2 or No. 3. From

their general appearance, and traces of the matrix, the author would

be disposed to place them in bed No. 2, but M. de Perthes believes

them to be from No. 3; if so, it must have been in some of the sub-

ordinate clay seams occasionally intercalated in the white sand.

Besides the concurrent testimony of all the workmen at the dif-

ferent pits, which the author after careful examination saw no

reason to doubt, the flint-implements (‘‘ haches’”’) bear upon them-

selves internal evidence of the truth of M. de Perthes’ opinion. It

is a peculiarity of fractured chalk flints to become deeply and _per-

manently stained and coloured, or to be left unchanged, according to

the nature of the matrix in which they are imbedded. In most clay

- Occurrence of Flint-implements in Gravel-beds. 235

beds they become outside of a bright opaque white or porcelainic ;

in white calcareous or siliceous sand their fractured black surfaces

remain almost unchanged ; whilst in beds of ochreous and ferru-

ginous sands, the flints are stained of the light yellow and deep brown

colours so well exhibited in the common ochreous gravel of the

neighbourhood of London. This change is the work of very long

time, and of moisture before the opening out of the beds. Now in

looking over the large series of flint-implements in M. de Perthes’ col-

lection, it cannot fail to strike the most casual observer that those from

Menchecourt are almost always white and bright, whilst those from

Moulin Quignon have a dull yellow and brown surface ; and it may be

noticed that whenever (as is often the case) any of the matrix adheres

to the flint, it is invariably of the same nature, texture, and colour

as that of the respective beds themselves. In the same way at St.

Acheul, where there are beds of white and others of ochreous gravel,

the flint-implements exhibit corresponding variations in colour and

adhering matrix ; added to which, as the white gravel contains chalk

debris, there are portions of the gravel in which the flints are more

or less coated with a film of deposited carbonate of lime ; and so it is

with the flint-implements which occur in those portions of the

gravel. Further, the surface of many specimens is covered with fine

dendritic markings. Some few implements also show, like the

fractured flints, traces of wear, their sharp edges being blunted. In

fact, the flint-implements form just as much a constituent part of

the gravel itself—exhibiting the action of the same later influences

and in the same force and degree—as the rough mass of flint frag-

ments with which they are associated.

With regard to the geological age of these beds, the author refers

them to those usually designated as post-pliocene, and notices their

agreement with many beds of that age in England. The Menche-

court deposit much resembles that of Fisherton near Salisbury ; the

gravel of St. Acheul is like some on the Sussex coast ; and that of

Moulin Quignon resembles the gravel at East Croydon, Wandsworth

Common, and many places near London. The author even sees

reason, from the general physical phenomena, to question whether

the beds of St. Acheul and Moulin Quignon may not possibly be

of an age one stage older than those of Menchecourt and St. Roch ;

but before that point can be determined, a more extended knowledge

of all the organic remains of the several deposits is indispensable.

The author next proceeds to inquire into the causes which led

to the rejection of this and the cases before mentioned, and shows

that in the case of M. de Perthes’ discovery, it was in a great degree

the small size and indifferent execution of the figures and the

introduction of many forms about which there might reasonably

be a difference of opinion ;—in the case of the arrow-heads in Kent’s

Cave a hidden error was merely suspected ;—and in the case of

the Liege cavern he considers that the question was discussed on

a false issue. - He therefore is of opinion that these and many similar

cases require reconsideration ; and that not only may some of these

prove true, but that many others, kept back by doubt or supposed

error, will be forthcoming.

236 Royal Society.

One very remarkable instance has already been brought under the

author’s notice by Mr. Evans since their return from France. In

the 13th volume of the ‘Archeeologia,’ published in 1800, is a paper

by Mr. John Frere, F.R.S. and F.S.A., entitled “An Account of

Flint-Weapons discovered at Hoxne in Suffolk,” wherein that gentle-

man gives a section of a brick-pit in which numerous flint-imple-

ments had been found, at a depth of 11 feet, in a bed of gravel con-

taining bones of some unknown animal; and concludes from the

ground being undisturbed and above the valley, that the specimens

must be of very great antiquity, and anterior to the last changes of

the surface of the country,—a very remarkable announcement,

hitherto overlooked.

The author at once proceeded in search of this interesting locality,

and found a section now exposed to consist of—

Y;, BOWES BUG A SOW WORN oo lean ddanean ts ince ciays wcbhuiheseeudesswiceuetaane 2

2. Brown brick-earth, a carbonaceous seam in middle and one of

gravel at base; no organic remains. The workmen stated that

two flint-implements (one of which they shortly picked up in

the author’s presence) had been found about 10 feet from the

surface during the last winter ......00...sccvscsssecsrvecenscedcacenetes 12

3. Grey clay, in places carbonaceous and in others sandy, with recent

land and freshwater shells (Planorbis, Valvata, Suecinea, Pisi-

dium, Helix, and Cyclas) and bones of Mammalia .........3......4+ 4

4, Small subangular flint-gravel and chalk pebbles ...............008++ 23

5. Carbonaceous clay (stopped by water) .........sseceeneceececes eueeeees $+

The weapons referred to by Mr. Frere are described by him as

being found abundantly in bed No. 4; but at the spot where the

work has now arrived, this bed is much thinner, and is not worked.

In the small trench which the author caused to be dug, he found

no remains either of weapons or of bones. He saw, however, in the

collection of Mr. T. E. Amyot, of Diss, specimens of the weapons,

also an astragalus of the elephant from, it was supposed, this bed,

and, from bed No. 3, the teeth of a horse, closely resembling those

from the elephant-bed of Brighton.

The specimens of the weapons figured by Mr. Frere, and those

now in the British Museum and elsewhere, present a singular simi-

larity in work and shape to the more pointed forms from St. Acheul.

One very important fact connected with this section, is that it

shows the relative age of the bone and implement-bearing beds.

They form a thin lacustrine deposit, which seems to be superimposed

on the Boulder Clay, and to pass under a bed of the ochreous sand

and flint-gravel belonging to the great and latest drift-beds of the

district.

The author purposely abstains for the present from all theoretical

considerations, confining himself to the corroboration of the facts :—

1. That the flint-implements are the work of man.

2. That they were found in undisturbed ground.

3. That they are associated with the remains of extinct Mammalia.

4, That the period was a late geological one, and anterior to the

surface assuming its present outline, so far as some of its minor

features are concerned.

Miscellaneous. 237

He does not, however, consider that the facts, as they at present

stand, of necessity carry back Man in past time more than they bring

forward the great extinct Mammals towards our own time, the

evidence having reference only to relative and not to absolute time ;

and he is of opinion that many of the later geological changes may

have been sudden or of shorter duration than generally considered.

In fact, from the evidence here exhibited, and from all that he

knows regarding drift phenomena generally, the author sees no

reason against the conclusion that this period of Man and the ex-

tinct Mammals—supposing their contemporaneity to be proved—

was brought to a sudden end by a temporary inundation of the

land; on the contrary, he sees much to support such a view on

purely geological considerations.

The paper concludes with a letter from Mr. John Evans, F.S.A.

and F.G.S., regarding these implements from an antiquarian rather

than a geological point of view, and dividing them into three classes :—

1. Flint flakes—arrow-heads or knives.

2. Pointed weapons truncated at one end, and probably lance or

spear heads (fig. 2).

3. Oval or almond-shaped implements with a cutting edge all

round, possibly used as sling-stones or as axes (fig. 1).

Mr. Evans points out that in form and workmanship those of the

two last classes differed essentially from the implements of the so-

called Celtic period, which are usually more or less ground and

polished, and cut at the wide and not the narrow end; and that, had

they been found under any circumstances, they must have been

regarded as the work of some other race than the Celts or known

aboriginal tribes. He fully concurs with Mr. Prestwich, that the

beds of drift in which they were found were entirely undisturbed.

MISCELLANEOUS.

Note on the Affinities of Rhynchosaurus.

By Prof. Ricuarp Owen, F.R.S.

To the Editors of the Annals and Magazine of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN,—A second and better-preserved specimen of the

rare fossil reptile, RAynchosaurus, from the New Red Sandstone of

Shropshire, having been lately obtained from the Grinsill quarries,

near Shrewsbury, and kindly transmitted for my examination by the

authorities of the Museum of Natural History of that town, I have

been enabled to determine the position of the two nostrils a little in

front of the orbits, and to discern traces of dental structure in parts

of the two bodies which, in the original specimen described by me

in 1842, held the place of, and were described as, ‘‘ intermaxillary

bones.’ This discovery adds to the reasons for associating the Rhyn-

chosaurus with the Dicynodon, in the same natural order or group

238 Miscellaneous.

of reptiles, and confirms the opinion expressed in my first memoir

on Dicynodon, as to the “close and important relationship between

Dicynodon and Rhynchosaurus*.”’ It similarly strengthens the

opinion that the formations in South Africa containing remains of

Dicynodon belong to the same geological system (the Triassic) as

the Sandstones at Grinsill, Shropshire.

In the species of Dicynodonts already described may be seen a

progressive advance in the position of the pair of descending tusks

of the upper jaw, from below the orbits (as in D. strigiceps) to below

the nostrils (as in Ptychognathus declivis); but in Rhynchosaurus

the bodies which are analogous, if not homologous, take the place of

the premaxillary bones, and terminate the anterior contour of the

skull, curving down in the present as in the first-described specimen,

in front of the symphysis mandibule, and presenting an exaggerated

condition of that pair of compound osseous and dentinal bodies

which hold the place of the premaxillaries in the rare existing New

Zealand amphiccelian lizard, Rhynchocephalus+.

There is no trace of the deflected tusk-like bodies, in Rhyncho-

saurus, being implanted in bone.

I am, Gentlemen,

Yours truly,

RicHarp Owen.

British Museum, Aug. 24, 1859,

Note on Bulimus acutus. By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &e.

Bulimus acutus has been generally supposed to be confined, in the

British Islands, to the West of England and Wales: it is found in

abundance on the low lands on the east side of the Chesil Bank, be-

tween Weymouth and Portland, and also on the hills on the west of

Lulworth Cove. It seems to appear, in the latter place at least,

periodically. It is now extremely abundant, both on the grass and

congregated together at the roots of the sea-beet, near the coast-

guard signal station; but the coast-guardsman, who has been on the

station several years, said he had not seen it before this year, and he

believed that they had been blown from the opposite hills! perhaps

he only meant to say, in such abundance. Now it is even more

common than Helix virgata, with which it is found.

Swanage, August 1859.

Note on the Opercula of several Species of Megalomastoma.

By W. H. Benson, Esq.

The structure of the horny operculum of Megalomastoma eylin-

draceum, Ch., approaches, at its dorsal side, to that of Hybocystis,

differing from the numerous spiral volutions visible on that part of

the thin horny operculum of the Himalayan M. funiculatum, and

* Trans. Geol. Soc., 2nd ser. vol. vii. p. 67 (1845).

+ Ibid., vol. vii. pl. 6. fig. 519.

Miscellaneous. 239

from the concentric moulding observable in the thickened corneous

operculum of the West Indian M. Mani, Poey.

A redistribution of the species of Megalomastoma, grounded on

the construction of the operculum, is desirable.

The specimens above referred to occur in my own collection. It

is probable that few cabinets besides that of Mr. H. Cuming possess

the materials requisite for the work.

August 11, 1859,

On two new species of American Ant-Thrushes.

By P. L. Scuarer, F.R.S.

1. MyYRMELASTES PLUMBEUS.

3. Nigricanti-plumbeus, alis caudaque obscure nigris ; tectricum

alarium apicibus albo guttatis ; rostro et pedibus nigris.

?. Mari similis, sed corpore toto subtus ferrugineo-rufo.

Long. tota 6°0, alee 3°1, caudee 2°3, rostri a rictu 1°05, tarsi 1 ‘2.

Hab. Upper Amazon, Rio Javarri (Bates).

Mus. Brit., P. L.S.

The British Museum possesses both sexes of this fine, strong

Ant-thrush from collections lately transmitted by Mr. Bates from

Ega, but originating, I believe, from further up the stream. I have

a single male specimen from the same source. The female has so

nearly the same general appearance as Thamnophilus hyperythrus 3 ,

that they might easily be confounded at first sight.

2. MYRMELASTES NIGERRIMUS.

Unicolor nigerrimus, tectricibus alarum superioribus, campterio

proximis, albis.

Long. tota 6°5, alee 3°3, caudee 2°3, tarsi 1°3.

Hab. Upper Amazon (Baées),

Mus. Brit.

A single example of this bird occurred in the same collection as

the former species, and is now in the British Museum. It is quite

the same form as Myrmelastes plumbeus, with the exception of the

bill being slightly shorter and the feet rather stronger. It is marked

** Trides black, bill black.’? It is without doubt a male; and it will

be interesting to see the female.—Proc. Zool. Soc. May 11, 1858.

On the Habits of Aplysiopterus viridis.

By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &c.

This animal is not uncommon at this season (August) in Swanage

Bay. It is very peculiar in not having any distinctly marked foot,

except just a little in front of the narrow acute tip of the tail. When

walking on the surface of the vase in which it is contained, it only

touches the glass by this end of the tail and the front of the body

under the head and tentacles, the rest of the under surface of the

body being quite free, at some distance from the glass, and rounded,

240 Miscellaneous.

without any appearance of a ventral sole. Its favourite position is

floating rather below the surface of the water, back downwards and

with the edges of the mantle expanded nearly horizontally, and

attached to the glass by the under surface of the tip of its tail, or

to the side of the vase with its head towards the surface of the water.

If the vase is moved or otherwise shaken, the animal contracts its

mantle over the back, and descends head foremost, as it were drop-

ping down to the bottom, leaving a mucous filament attached to the

glass; and it ascends by this filament, apparently eating it as its

head rises towards the surface, and at length becomes attached as

before by its subcaudal sole.

The dark-green colour is produced by minute internal granules

which vary in the intensity and in the shade of their colour, some

being dark olive and others reddish brown. The margin of the

mantle is white in all the specimens I have seen.

Description of a new Species of Teenia.

By W. Barro, M.D., F.L.S.

TANIA SULCICEPS.

Caput tetragonum, magnum, acetabulis anticis lateralibus, orbi-

cularibus, longe segregatis, sulco interposito. Proboscis nulla.

Os terminale inerme. Collum longum, leave. Articuli supremi

breviores ; deinde longiores, infundibuliformes, angusti; late-

ribus undulatis, crenatis. Aperture genitales marginales, uni-

laterales. :

Hab. In intestinis Diomedee exulantis.

Longitudo exemplorum in possessione nostra, quee sunt fragmenta

solum, unciz tredecim.

In Museo Britannico.

The colour of this Tape-worm is a straw-yellow. The head is

tetragonal in shape, large; and the neck is long, measuring nearly

two or three lines, and quite smooth. Upon minute inspection, I

could discover no trace of a proboscis; and the mouth was destitute

of hooks of any kind. The joints of the body are small at first, be-

coming larger as they descend ; but even when full-grown are narrow,

somewhat undulated on the margin, and slightly but irregularly

crenated. The suckers on the head are of considerable size, round

in shape, and are separated from each other by a rather deep fur-

row. The genital orifices are situated on the lower margin of each

joint, and are all on the same side. None of the specimens are quite

perfect; but there are two or three fragments, each about 13 inches

in length.

This Tapeworm was taken by Mr. Edward Gerrard of the British

Museum, from the intestines of the Albatros (Diomedea exulans),

and is now in the collection of Entozoa in the British Museum.—

Proc. Zool. Soc. Feb. 22, 1859. .

THE ANNALS

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[THIRD SERIES. ]

No. 22. OCTOBER 1859.

XXV.—On the supposed Existence of Cellulose in Starch-grains.

By H. von Montz *.

On no vegetable structure has so great a number of micro-

chemical researches been instituted as upon starch-grains ; and

of none have the structure and chemical composition, in the

course of time, been so contradictorily explained. The view of

Raspail, that the starch-grain consisted of a vesicular envelope

insoluble in water, with soluble gummy contents, was overturned

by the researches of Fritzsche and of Payen, who appeared to

have demonstrated beyond all doubt that the starch-grain con-

sisted of superimposed layers, formed of one and the same che-

mical compound throughout the whole thickness of the grain ;

but Nageli believed, in his earlier researches at least, that he

could discern an outer cellulose membrane,—which opinion was

again questioned by myself. Muschke (Journ. f. Prakt. Chemie,

lvi. p. 400) still more strongly asserted the presence of cellulose

in the starch-grain, thinking he had found the latter to consist

of a number of concentric membranes formed of cellulose, be-

tween which the starch-substance was deposited, and this in a

double modification—one soluble in water, which formed the

bright layers of the starch-grain, and one insoluble, of which

the dark layers were composed. All these accounts, however,

may now be regarded as out of date, since the recent researches

of Nageli (‘Die Starkekérner,’ Monographie, 1858) prove

indubitably that the whole starch-granule, in all its parts, is

composed of two distinct chemical compounds, which in his

view form a kind of diffusion+. He arrived at this conclusion

* Bot. Zeitung, July Ist & 8th, 1859; translated by A. Henfrey, F.R.S.

+ A very long account of the structure and development of starch has

just been published by Trécul in the ‘ Ann. des Sc. nat.’ sér.4.t.x. It does

not contain any new matter of great importance: he advocates the view

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.3. Vol. iv. 16

242 H. von Mohl on the supposed Existence

by macerating the starch-grains, at a moderate heat (about 104°

to 120° F.) in solvent fluids, particularly in saliva, which ex-

tracted the compound which becomes blue with iodine (the

proper starch,) and leaves behind the starch-grains essentially

unaltered in their anatomical conditions, but with totally different

chemical’ properties. For the compound dissolved out of the

starch he proposes the term granulose (p. 209); the remaining

substance of the grains is described as cellulose*.

As my critical repetition of Nageli’s observations leads me to

regard this last opinion as unfounded, I venture to publish an

account of my investigations.

In making the inquiry, I chiefly employed as material the

starch of the rhizome of Canna indica. For the extraction of

the substance coloured blue by iodine I used saliva, because

this acts more quickly than extract of malt. The attempt to

obtain the same result by organic acids, in the manner described

(certainly in no great detail) by Melsens, was unsuccessful. It

is necessary to discover by experiment, for each kind of starch,

the favourable temperature at which it is to be treated; for at

too low a temperature the action does not take place at all, or

only very slowly, while too high a temperature produces swelling

up and total solution of the granule. In consequence of the latter

circumstance, I was less regardful of the maintenance of a con-

stant temperature in the hatching-machine in which I heated

the grains than that a certain definite degree of heat should not

be exceeded. In the starch of Canna, the extraction of the

starch-substance began at a temperature of 95°-104°F., and

advanced very slowly and regularly from the periphery of the

granule towards its centre, unless it could penetrate by an acci-

dental crack in the granule, in which case the solution in the

interior of the granule proceeded rapidly onward from the sides

of the crack. At a temperature of 120°—131° the extraction of

the soluble part of the granule was completed in a few hours.

A far lower temperature suffices for the extraction of the starch

of wheat, while that of potatoes requires a much higher one. If

the operation is carried on at a low temperature, the experi-

ment lasting then several days, we must not neglect to pour off

that the layers are formed from without imwards, the older expanding to

make room for the new ones.—A. H.

* As often happens, the same discovery of the composition of the starch-

grain was made, apparently independently of Nageli, by Melsens (Institut,

1857, p. 161), who extracted the substance coloured blue by iodine by means

of organic acids, diastase, and pepsine, and conjestined! that the residue

consisted of a nitrogenous substance and another standing near to cellu-

lose. Iam unaware whether he has made known his researches in greater

detail than in the work here cited. :

of Cellulose in Starch-grains. 243

the saliva daily from the starch-grains, and wash them well, and

mix them with fresh saliva, since the putrefactive decomposition

of the latter would otherwise ensue, which produces destruction

of the starch-grains.

The alterations undergone by the starch-grains are described

so accurately by Nageli that a repetition of the account is en-

tirely superfluous; I confine myself, therefore, to citing the

most general features, and to the discussion of those points

which appear to me of especial importance for the explanation

of the composition of the starch-grain.

The first glance at the starch-grain robbed of its soluble con-

stituent by saliva shows that it has lost considerably in sub-

stance, since it possesses far less refractive power ; and its much

greater mobility in water, and the longer time it takes to settle

when stirred up therein, show that it has lost considerably in

weight. I could not determine how great this loss of weight is,

since this would require a different solvent, which could be

removed from the starch-grains entirely by washing, while im

the use of saliva many epithelial cells of the linmg membrane

of the mouth remain mixed up with the granules. The estimate

of Nageli (p. 183), that in potato-starch the mass diminishes

from 7 or 8 to 1, may be correct, but it rests upon too insecure

a base to be depended upon with certainty.

The magnitude of the grains diminishes far less than the

substance; but the amount of decrease is very difficult to state

with certainty, on account of the very variable absolute size of

the individual grains; and a great number of measurements

would be requisite to obtain an approximation to an accurate

determination. That a diminution of size does take place, may be

very distinctly seen in the starch-grains of germinating wheat,

in which the extraction of the soluble substance frequently pro-

ceeds, not uniformly from the margin to the centre of the dis-

coid grains, but in separate lines running in the direction of

radii, under which circumstance each of these streaks corre-

sponds to a notch or depression at the margin of the grain,

which indicates a collapse of the substance towards the interior.

Not only, however, is there a contraction of the substance in the

radial direction, but there is a still stronger contraction in the

direction of the separate lamine. This is shown very clearly by

the behaviour of those grains of Canna in which the solution

has affected only the outermost layers, when these latter laminz

frequently crack into polyhedral fragments, like dried clay, be-

cause the inner and still unaltered laminz oppose an insur-

mountable obstacle to their efforts to contract. A still stronger

contraction occurs in the lamine situated between the periphery

and the organic centre (likewise in the direction of the laminz),

16*

244 H. von Mohl on the supposed Existence

as is evident from the circumstance that all the grains of Canna

from which the soluble substance is entirely removed are tra-

versed by cracks, some tolerably wide, which run out like rays

from the centre to the periphery, and are wider in the middle

than in the centre and at the periphery, towards which latter

they generally thin off ;—but when they reach the surface, they

- frequently cause the grains to fall into sharp-cornered triangular

fragments. As these cracks are not connected with the forma-

tion of a cavity in the centre of the grain, they do not originate

by the inner lamine becoming contracted in the radial direc-

tion with a simultaneous drawing outwards towards the firmer

outer layers, causing a lateral extension until they are torn

across, but the cracks evidently arise from the contraction of

the laminz of the grains being stronger in the direction of the

tangent than in the radial direction.

The lamination undergoes no change by the treatment with

saliva. In many cases, particularly when a slow solution of

the soluble substance of the grain takes place in the living plant

(for example, in germinating wheat), the lamination becomes

much more evident in the earlier stages of the process than it

was previously, as the solution does not affect all the layers uni-

formly, but at the outset shows itself only in the looser lamina,

and thereby considerably increases the already existing difference

of density of alternating lamine. But when the soluble portion

has been entirely extracted from all the laminz, and the whole

grain has thus acquired far greater transparency, the lamination

is mostly far more difficult to perceive than in the fresh grain,

as may be seen particularly in the very distinctly laminated

grains of the potato.

The substance of the grains which have been exhausted by

saliva, so long as they are saturated with water, is in a high

degree brittle, and a slight pressure on the covering-glass causes

it to crumble into sharp-cornered fragments. When dried, it

contracts considerably, which renders the lamination much more

indistinct ; and a re-wetting with water does not always restore

it in the original clearness.

Grains with the starch extracted act upon polarized light

exactly like unaltered starch-grains ; 7. e., when the direction of

their laminze is observed, in the opposite manner to cellulose

membranes. In a former paper in this Journal*, on the inves-

tigation of vegetable tissues by the aid of polarized light, I re-

garded this diverse action as the result of a chemical constitu-

tion of the starch-grain differmg from that of cellulose. The

idea might certainly have been entertained that it depended

upon conditions of tension in the separate layers of the starch-

* Annals, 3rd series, vol. i. pp. 198, 263. !

of Cellulose in Starch-grains. 240

grain: in this case it would be necessary to assume that there

existed in the starch-grain, as in a glass globe whose tempera-

ture diminishes from the periphery to the centre, a dilating

tension in the radial direction, and a compressing tension in the

direction of the surfaces of the concentric lamine. It might be

urged in favour of this, that distinct reasons for the adoption of

this view exist in the behaviour of unaltered starch-granules

when dried or caused to swell up (as Nigeli thinks it proba-

ble, and I believe justly, that in the fresh granules molecules of

water contained in them are interposed in greater number in the

tangential than the radial molecules of the substance) ; but we

cannot, at all events, conceive such a kind of tension to exist in

those granules in which the starch-substance has been extracted

from the outer laminz by saliva, and in which, as above-men-

tioned, these outer laminz become torn, by cracks which run in

a radial direction, into polygonal fragments, since they cannot

contract over the still unexpanded inner lamine. Here it is

beyond doubt that there exists in these outer lamine an expan-

sive tension in a tangential direction, which rises to the point of

fracturing the laminz, while there is a compressing tension in

the radial direction, consequently the reverse of the above

assumption. In spite of this, these lamine freed from starch

act in the same manner as unaltered starch-grains. Indeed the

optical characters of the grains are not changed by the produc-

tion of any mechanical alteration in the starch-grains—or by

causing, through the action of alcohol or strong desiccation, the

formation of a central cavity and the retraction of the internal

layers towards the former periphery, combined with tearing in a

radial direction—or by causing a swelling up, by which the

outer layers then expand, especially in the direction parallel

to their surfaces. It therefore appears as though we had here

an example of those cases in which the optical phenomena of a

body depend, not upon the density and relative distribution of

its substance, but upon the quality of the material, like the

conditions found by Greilich (Krystallogr. Opt. Untersuch.

1858, p. 226) in the comparison of isomorphous compounds of

potash and ammonia. In such cases we could not doubt that

the optical behaviour of the bodies depended on their intimate

molecular conditions. We must, doubtless, recognize this mole-

cular diversity—such as occurs, for example, in the various kinds

of sugar—in reference to its effects upon polarized light, first of

all as a physical property belonging to them ; but, since we have

no means of acquiring information regarding the peculiarities of

the molecules, and since these peculiarities run parallel with the

chemical composition of bodies, I believe I am perfectly justified

in assuming that the contrast of negative and positive colours

246 H. von Mohl on the supposed Existence

exhibited by vegetable structures in polarized light stands in

connexion with the chemical composition of these structures.

Turning from the consideration of the physical qualities of

the starch-grains treated with saliva, to their chemical characters,

and looking in the first place to their behaviour with water, we

find that they are wholly deprived of the property of swelling

up strongly and becoming partially dissolved. It must be pre-

mised here, that they are totally destitute of the power of swell-

ing up strongly in water after having been crushed. This is a

property of unaltered starch-grains which I think is very little —

known*. If dried starch-grains, of the potato, for example,

are placed on a glass plate, and strongly compressed with a

piece of glass of suitable form, so that each grain assumes the

form of a flat disk traversed by cracks, and cold water is then

added, the flattened grains in the first moment apparently con-

tract, because they first of all swell up again into roundish

grains ; but they then begin to expand rapidly, as in hot water—

less regularly, however, than when they are boiled, often forming

pear-shaped curves, evidently because the crushing pressure acts

irregularly, and affects one part of the grain more strongly than

another. This is particularly evident when a’grain has been

exposed to strong pressure only on one side, as in this case the

crushed part is pushed out in the form of a large, apparently |

vesicular protuberance, while the remaining part is almost un-

affected+. From grains crushed in this way, cold water extracts

in solution a portion of the starch-substance, which is coloured

blue by iodine, as is seen when solution of iodine is added; for

the iodine precipitates the dissolved substance in the form of

blue gelatinous pellicles.

The starch-grains treated with saliva are equally destitute of

the property of swelling up perceptibly when boiled in water.

Their lamination remains as distinct as before, and the angles

of cracked grains retain all their sharpness.

If starch-grains, totally deprived of their soluble substance at

a tolerably high temperature, are, after thorough cleansing by

washing in water, placed in a new portion of saliva, they are

found altogether insoluble in it, even when the temperature is

* This swelling-up of crushed grains in cold water appears to have been

noticed for the first time by myself, and is mentioned in the article “Starch”

in the ‘ Micrographiec Dictionary,’ in opposition to the ordinary statement

that starch is unaffected by cold water.—A. H.

+ This has been explained by myself as a result of the cracks in the

resisting outer lamime allowing access of the water to the more soluble

inner substance of the grain. A similar local bulging takes place when

weak acid or potash is allowed to run in upon the slide and attack one

side of an uncrushed grain.—A. H.

of Cellulose in Starch-grains. 247

raised to 158° F., at which point unaltered starch-grains are

very quickly entirely dissolved.

It is therefore evident that a strong expansive quality exists

only in the starch-substance which can be extracted by saliva,

and that the intimate combination in which the two substances

composing the grains stand in the grains must have a modify-

ing effect upon their respective properties. While the starch-

substance is in the fresh grain protected by the substance inso-

luble in saliva from the solvent action of cold water, when it

swells up from the action of hot water, &c., it carries the latter

with it in its expansion, and transfers the solution to which it

is subject by the action of saliva at a proper temperature, to

the substance which in a pure condition is altogether unaffected

by saliva.

The substance insoluble in saliva is regarded by Nigeli, as

above mentioned, as cellulose. In investigating the grounds on

which he makes this determination, we must first of all consider

the characters which Niageli uses for distinguishing cellulose and

starch. He says (pp. 182, 189): The reaction with iodine forms

an essential distinction, and at the same time the only discrimina-

twe test, between starch and cellulose. Iodine colours starch, when

acting weakly, wine-red or violet; more strongly, indigo-blue or

black : pure cellulose, onthe contrary, is coloured from pale

and dirty reddish to copper-red or reddish brown. . Cellulose is,

on the ‘other hand, also coloured blue when softened by sulphuric

acid, and likewise when saturated with tincture of iodine, dried,

and. afterwards wetted with water. Since the cellulose is here

softened as by sulphuric acid, perhaps iodic or hydriodic acid

(or both) may be formed; Nageli thinks the formation of iodic

acid probable. The action of sulphuric acid and the drying up

with iodine so transform the condition of aggregation of cellu-

lose, that it behaves like starch with iodine, or, as Nageli thinks,

is converted into starch.

This interpretation of facts, which in themselves are certainly

true, is, in my opinion, altogether incorrect. Whether iodine

produces a red colour (rising from wine-red, through beautiful .

purple, to deep violet), or a blue colour (from the brightest sky-

blue to deep indigo and apparent black), depends neither on the

circumstance that the object is starch or cellulose, nor upon the

quantity of iodine, but essentially upon the conditions of the

organic substance in respect to water. When very little water

is taken up, we have a red, when more, a blue colour. By

attending to this point, we may colour cellulose the finest blue,

and starch red and violet, without any chemical alteration of the

object.

it is self-evident that a greater or less swelling-up of the

248 H. von Mohl on the supposed Existence

organic substance is connected with the absorption of water ; and

hence one might be led to find in the capacity of expansion

itself a reason for the blue colouring. But this conclusion

would certainly not be justified ; for we frequently find that the

capability of becoming coloured with iodine does not increase in

the same proportion as the capacity for swelling im water, and

that, on the contrary, many parts of plants, composed of hydrate

of carbon, swelling up strongly in water, are totally destitute of

the power of assummg a colour with iodine. On the other

hand, a certain degree of absorption of water and expansion is a

necessary condition for the absorption of iodine and coloration

_by it, both with starch and with cellulose, as is simply proved

by the circumstance that they remain uncoloured when treated

in a dry condition with tincture of iodine prepared with absolute

alcohol. Now a substance like starch, when placed, in its na-

tural condition, in contact with water, absorbs such a quantity

as allows it to assume a determinate colour with iodine, while

another substance must be brought to absorb this water by the

simultaneous action of another means, which absorption of water

becomes visible to the eye, first of all by enlargement of the

-volume of the substance, and, with simultaneous action of iodine,

by the colour which the latter produces. We are not justified

in drawing at once from such an exaltation of the expansive pro-

perty, and the simultaneously arising alteration of colour by

iodine, the conclusion that they depend upon essential chemical

changes in the substance, until it has been proved that the other.

properties of the substance have been altered. This is unproved,

more particularly as regards cellulose which has been saturated

with tincture of iodine, dried, and re-softened in water; neither

is it proved of cellulose which has been made to swell up in the

ammoniacal solution of copper; on the contrary, this may be

perfectly dissolved in the said. fluid, and precipitated in an

amorphous condition from the solution, retaining all its chemical

properties. We see then, on the one hand, that cellulose, with-

out alteration of any chemical properties, absorbs more water

under the influence of a material which causes it to swell up

than it does in a natural condition, the power of absorbing iodine

being simultaneously increased, so that it exhibits the same blue

colour which the far more hygroscopic starch exhibits in its

natural condition when treated with solution of iodine; further,

starch, on the other hand, when placed in cireumstances where

it cannot become perfectly saturated with water, exhibits the

same colour as cellulose only slightly expanded in water. These

circumstances undoubtedly furnish proof that the blue or the

red colour is not dependent upon chemical diversity of cellulose

and starch, but that particular hydrated conditions of both com-

of Cellulose in Starch-grains. 249

bine and become coloured in the same way with iodine. The

coloration stands altogether on the boundaries between physical

and chemical phenomena, and must indeed be connected in the

first place with the capacity possessed by various cell-membranes

which swell up rather strongly in water, to attract the colouring

matter from a solution of carmine in ammonia.

As long as no other means was known by which cellulose

could be coloured blue with iodine, except the simultaneous

action of sulphuric acid, the conjecture was certainly not far-

fetched that this acid transformed the cellulose into starch.

Hence this view was many times put forth, for instance by

Mitscherlich: I have always regarded it as erroneous, because

the cellulose swollen up by means of sulphuric acid has none of

the other characters of starch. This assumption is now posi-

tively refuted by the researches of Béchamp, who has shown

that the subsequent products of the conversion of cellulose by

sulphuric acid are essentially different from the corresponding

transformation of products of starch, which could not be the

ease if sulphuric acid converted cellulose in the first place into

starch.

Long before this was known, the belief in the conversion of

cellulose into starch by sulphuric acid, founded on the blue

coloration with iodine, must have been shaken by my demon-

strating that the action of sulphuric acid was by no means ne-

cessary for the blue coloration of cellulose, but that it sufficed

to saturate the cellulose with iodine (which in its usual condi-

tion it does not readily absorb) before applying water to it;

then, if the cellulose is made to absorb water, the iodine renders

it blue, until itself is completely extracted again by the water

surrounding the preparation. Nageli endeavours to explain this

process also by a chemical conversion of the cellulose; for he

conjectures that the iodine gives origin to iodic and hydriodic

acids, which transform the cellulose. This is an entirely arbitrary

and groundless hypothesis. It should at least have been de-

monstrated by experiment that these acids have the power of

acting in the same manner upon cellulose as sulphuric acid, and

of producing a blue colour in it in the presence of iodine. I

have made the experiment of saturating purified cellulose with

tincture of iodine, and adding the said acids ; they caused neither

a visible action upon the cellulose nor a trace of blue coloration.

But, without this demonstration that the said acids do not

bring about a conversion of the cellulose and its blue coloration,

it may be recognized from the behaviour of the cellulose satu-

rated with iodine, that it is not transformed into starch. Iodine

affects starch infinitely more readily than it does cellulose, so

that starch absorbs the iodine out of water when only a minimum

250 H. von Mohl on the supposed Existence

of iodine is contained in the latter. At the same time the

iodine adheres very firmly to starch, so that repeated washings

with much water are required to extract the iodine from blued

starch. It is quite different with cellulose saturated with iodine :

it certainly also very quickly becomes blue when water is added,

for it already contains the iodine; but it retains the latter with

very little power, and quickly parts with it to the surrounding

water. The cellulose bleached in this way is just as difficult to

colour blue with iodine a second time, and takes up as little

from an aqueous solution as. cellulose which has never been in

contact with iodine. If the saturation with iodine had caused

the conversion of even a small portion of it into starch, the

behaviour must have been essentially different.

The same conclusion, that the blue colouring of cellulose does

not depend upon the previous formation of starch, may be drawn

from the phenomena which are exhibited by cellulose under the

action of chloride of zinc and iodine. I used for these experi-

ments, on the one hand, tissues which had been purified by the

known method of Schulze, by boiling with a mixture of nitric

acid and chlorate of potash,—on the other hand, cellulose in an

amorphous condition, which had been prepared .by my colleague

Schlossberger by precipitating a solution of cotton in ammo-

niacal solution of copper by adding common salt. The reaction

of both modifications with iodine was perfectly identical.. The

cellulose, brought in a dry condition into contact with the viscid

solution of chloride ‘of zinc, absorbed from it so little water that

it did not perceptibly swell up with it*. At the same time

there was no trace of blue colouring. The-colour is always some

tint of red in wood-cells and vessels, in cellulose precipitated

from ammoniated oxide of copper more purple or brown-red,

approaching more to violet in parenchymatous cells. If. the

preparation saturated with iodine is now placed in water, the

colour turns suddenly to blue, and very often, especially in

the precipitated cellulose, to the finest indigo-blue. Yet the

iodine is not firmly retained. under these circumstances, but is

washed out by water just as rapidly as out of cellulose with

which the iodine has been incorporated by saturating with

the tincture. If the chloride of zinc had caused a chemical

* This will be seen most clearly from the following experiments. _ It is

well known that the leaves of many mosses roll up when dried, and spread

out again when they absorb water. I laid stems of Bartramia pomiformis

thus dried inthe solution of chloride of zine; but at the end of three days

their leaves were as strongly rolled up as at first, although they had become

somewhat more transparent; the membrane of their cells had therefore

absorbed a smaller quantity of water than it contained in the natural con-

dition of the fresh plant. When I transferred the plants from the solution

of chloride of zinc into water, their leaves unfolded immediately.

of Cellulose in Starch-grains. 251

conversion of the cellulose, and this had led to the production

of the blue colour, it must have been rendered evident by dry-

ing this cellulose, which had been saturated with water and

coloured blue, and driving off the iodine by gentle heating. If

the cellulose had been converted into starch, this could not be

removed from the preparation by drying, and the blue colour

would necessarily make its appearance on the wetting with

tincture of iodine. But this does not take place ; for the cellu-

lose behaves exactly as before—is coloured red with chloride of

zinc, &c. Moreover, if cotton is treated with the ammoniated

oxide of copper, yet not exposed to its action long enough to pro-

duce solution, but only until the filaments have become swollen

up, the latter are coloured blue by tincture of iodine after having

been well washed out with water. Under this influence of the

ammoniacal solution of oxide of copper, the cellulose has acquired

the property of absorbing more water than it can in its natural

condition; but that we cannot imagine any conversion into

starch in this case, follows from the previously mentioned. cir-

cumstance, that the cellulose does not undergo this change even

after complete solution, but may be pricipipatedl with all its pro- |

perties by salt.

Summing up what: has been stated, it becomes evident that

the blue coloration of cellulose by iodine by no means furnishes

proof that the former is wholly or partly converted into starch,

but that its blue colour depends solely upon the circumstance

that cellulose absorbs simultaneously iodine and. a_ sufficient

quantity of water, while, with a smaller absorption of ‘water, the

red tints are produced.

Just as we are able to impart a pure blue colour to cellulose

saturated with iodine by merely adding water, we can, on the

other hand, by suitable operations, impart to the starch-grains

the property of becoming coloured red, and not blue; with

iodine. And in this case the red-or blue colour depends, not

upon the quantity of iodine which we incorporate with the starch,

but. upon the water contained in the latter.

If. we place potato-stareh: in water, in which it is well

known to become rapidly saturated, its grains begin to assume

colour with the addition of a minimum of iodine; but: if, little

iodine is applied, so that only part of the grains are coloured,

and these very slightly, no red colour is produced, but the colour,

if not bright, is still decidedly blue: Very different’ results

ensue from adding an excess of iodine to the starch, allowing at

the same time only slight absorption of water. If, for example,

we place dry potato-starch in a solution of cane-sugar concen-

trated to the crystallizing poimt (which, from its great power

of attracting water from organic bodies, gives very little water

252 H. von Mohl on the supposed Existence

to the starch-grains), and add tincture of iodine, the starch-

grains do not become blue, but are coloured various tints, from

bright wine-red to violet. The colours change to blue directly

water is applied. The same result is obtained when dried potato-

starch is placed in absolute alcohol, a considerable quantity of

iodine dissolved in this, and water dropped in carefully and with

frequent agitation, until the starch-grains are coloured: their

colour will be from reddish to deep violet, but none will appear

blue. A greater addition of water at once brings out the blue

colour.

Analogous phenomena are displayed during the action of

chloro-iodide of zine upon dry starch. The latter is capable of

abstracting water from the solution, and gradually becomes

strongly swollen up through the influence of chloride of zine.

But this process requires much time; and the outermost layer

of the granules especially opposes at first a resistance to the

expansion. Hence the grains appear at first brown-red, like

dry starch-grains saturated with iodine ; subsequently this colour

changes while they swell up (which often occurs irregularly and

partially), into a bright blue. If, however, the quantity of the

starch in proportion to the chloride of zine solution is great,

and, after complete swelling-up, forms with it a very tough,.

dense, and glutinous mass, the bright blue colour changes in

the course of twenty-four or thirty-six hours, during the swell-

ing-up and while the toughness of the mass increases, into a

fine purple-red. If water is now added without fresh iodine,

the colour changes rapidly into blue. Here evidently, at the

commencement of the swelling-up of the grains, the quantity of

water in the zine solution is sufficient to supply the half-swollen

granules with enough water for the production of the blue

colour, while with the increasing expansion of the starch-grains

it becomes again insufficient, and thus the blue colour is brought

back to red.

If I have rightly comprehended the above-described phzeno-

mena, the reaction of cellulose and starch with iodine, far from

being the only test by which to distinguish them, affords, on the

contrary, a character of no value for distinguishing between the

two chemical compounds.

Strictly speaking, Nageli did not regard the colour which the

said substances take with iodine as the only distinction between

them ; for he mentions as a second the circumstance that cellu-

lose withstands solvents more strongly than starch, while starch-

grains, on account of the cellulose they contain, are caused to

swell up and dissolve with more difficulty than pure starch would

be (p. 193). This statement is certainly true im respect to most

solvents, and the complete insolubility of cellulose in water must

of Cellulose in Starch-grains. 253

above all be brought forward as a distinctive character ; it is,

however, not universally valid. Ammoniated oxide of copper

dissolves purified cellulose very quickly ; but, so far as my ex-

perience goes, it is quite incapable of dissolving a starch-grain,

only causing it to swell up. Another solvent for cellulose, which

cannot dissolve starch, is the ferment in putrefying potatoes,

discovered by Mitscherlich. Niageli thinks the action of this

upon cellulose must be attributed to its setting up decomposition

in the proteine substances contained in the cell-membranes,

and carrying this over to the cellulose, while, as the starch con-

tains no proteine, it does not become decomposed. It is pro-

bable that this may be the true explanation ; but, before we can

admit it as correct, it must be proved by comparative observa-

tions on the action of this ferment upon purified cellulose and

starch. I have no experience on this point.

If we agree with Nageli m regarding that portion of the

starch-grain insoluble in saliva as cellulose, we may name a

number of other substances which dissolve cellulose but not

starch-grains. In any case, it is a partial view to deduce the

insolubility or the difficult solubility of starch-grains from the

insolubility of the substance insoluble in saliva contained in

them, since, on the other hand, this latter substance in a puri-

fied condition is very readily dissolved by many materials, while

in the starch-grain it is prancetees from their solvent action by

its combination with starch.

From what is above related, I find it impossible to admit that

Niageli has conceived the distinctions between cellulose and

starch according to nature ; still less am I convinced that he has

arrived at proof of the view that the substance left of the-starch-

grains after the removal of the soluble part by saliva is identical

with cellulose. The following facts will show that this substance

behaves differently, with a number of reagents, from purified

cellulose.

The grounds upon which Nageli here rests lie especially in

the reaction of this substance with iodine (p. 186), its assuming

a copper-red or red-brown colour with aqueous solution of iodine,

tincture of iodine, or iodide of zinc, and a blue colour when

dried up with tincture of iodine and wetted with water, or treated

with iodine and sulphuric acid.

The characters certainly indicate a great similarity to cellulose.

I may mention, as a further agreement, that ammoniated oxide

of copper dissolves both substances. But let us look at the

differences.

In regard to physical properties, it must be observed that the

substance of starch-grains is very brittle, while pure cellulose is

perceptibly tough ; further, that, as above-stated, the two sub-

stances act in opposite ways on polarized light.

254 H. von Mohl on Cellulose in Starch-grains.

In reference to the chemical reactions, I met with the follow-

ing distinctions, in detailing which I shall, for the sake of bre-

vity, simply use the terms starch-grains and cellulose, without

especially mentioning that in each case I refer to starch-grains

exhausted by saliva, and cellulose purified by Schulze’s method.

Solution of caustic potash dissolves the starch-grains suddenly;

cellulose swells up in it, but remains undissolved after many

hours.

Solution of chloride of zine and iodine, when concentrated, dis-

solves starch-grains instantly into a brownish-red fluid ; cellulose

does not swell perceptibly in it, and resists solution for days.

Ammoniated oxide of copper, to which so much carbonate of

ammonia has been added that it will no longer act upon cellu-

lose, dissolves the starch-grains instantly ; when still more car-

bonate of ammonia is added, the starch is no longer dissolved.

Ammoniated oxide of nickel dissolves the starch-grains in-

stantly ; but cellulose is insoluble in it.

Nitric acid dissolves the starch-grains instantly ; but cellulose

bears long boiling in this acid mixed with chlorate of potash.

Hydrochloric acid dissolves the starch-grains immediately ;

cellulose is not perceptibly attacked by this acid.

Among these diversities, the different behaviour with polarized

light forms the sharpest contrast; the other differences might

be regarded rather as gradual, since they all agree in showing

that the substance contained in the starch-grains is soluble in a

number of media in which cellulose is only slightly or not at all

soluble. Hence a question might be raised whether these diver-

sities were sufficiently great to warrant the conclusion that the

substance of the starch-grains is different from cellulose. In

regard to this it must be fully borne in mind, in reference to

the distinctions between the two substances relating to their

solubility in many of the media named, especially in ammoniacal

oxide of nickel, chloro-iodide of zinc, nitric and hydrochloric

acids, that I tested the behaviour with these media of purified

cellulose derived from a considerable number of plants which

exhibited no important differences whatever in the behaviour of

the membranes; so that these differences are as constant and

striking as the difference between the various kinds of sugar.

If therefore we desire to distinguish from one another the

hydrates of carbon of which the organic structures of plants are

composed, by such reactions, there is abundant ground against

ranging the substance of starch-grains exhausted of starch with

cellulose, and for giving it a proper name (say farinose). How-

ever, I will not in this respect forestall the chemists, before whom

the whole matter must come for definitive settlement.

Tiibingen, February, 1859.

Mr. J. Blackwall on new species of Madetran Spiders. 255

XXVI.—Descriptions of newly-discovered Spiders captured by

James Yate Johnson, Esq., in the Island of Madeira. By

Joun Buiackwatt, F.L.S.

Tue spiders here described were comprised in an extensive and

very interesting collection of Arachnida made in the Island of

Madeira, in the year 1858, by James Yate Johnson, Esq., who

transmitted the whole to me for examination, kindly permitting

me to describe such species as might appear to be new to

science.

Tribe Octonoculina.

Family Drassip 2%.

Genus Ciusiona, Latr.

Clubiona albidula.

Length of the female ths of an inch; length of the cephalo-

thorax ,3,; breadth +45; breadth of the abdomen ¢; length of

an anterior leg }; length of a leg of the third pair 7%.

The eyes are nearly equal in size, and are disposed in two

transverse rows on the anterior part of the cephalothorax, the

anterior row being situated immediately above its frontal mar-

gin ; the intermediate eyes of both rows form a trapezoid, whose

anterior side is rather the shortest, and those of each lateral pair

are seated obliquely on a tubercle. The cephalothorax is oval,

convex, glossy, depressed before, and broadly rounded in front ;

it is of a pale, dull yellowish colour, faintly tinged with red in

the region of the eyes, and has an obscure soot-coloured band

extending along the middle, from which an oblique line of the

same hue passes on each side of the cephalic region. The falces

are powerful, conical, vertical, and of a red-brown colour. The

maxillz are straight, and enlarged and rounded at the extremity :

the lip is longer than broad, and truncated at its apex. These

organs have a yellowish-brown hue, the lip being much the

brownest. The sternum is oblong, heart-shaped, with minute

prominences on the sides, opposite to the legs: the legs are

slender and provided with hairs and fine sessile spines ; the first

pair is the longest, then the fourth, and the third pair is the

shortest ; each tarsus is termimated by two curved, pectinated

claws, below which there is a small scopula. These parts, with

the palpi, have a very pale yellowish hue. The abdomen is ovi-

form, convex above, and projects a little over the base of the

cephalothorax ; it is thinly clothed with short hairs, and of a

yellowish-white colour; the margin of the sexual organs forms

an oval opening posteriorly, and has a dark reddish-brown hue.

‘This Clubiona was found among plants brought from the

mountains in the vicinity of Estreito.

256 Mr.J. Blackwall on new species of Madeiran Spiders.

Clubiona decora.

Length of the female ,°,ths of an inch; length of the cephalo-

thorax ;!,, breadth ;4,; breadth ef the abdomen ,’, ; length of

a posterior leg }; length of a leg of the third pair ;5,.

The cephalothorax is oval, thinly clothed with hairs, convex,

glossy, with a slight, narrow indentation in the medial line, and

is of a brownish-yellow colour. The eyes are disposed in two

transverse rows on the anterior part of the cephalothorax, and

are nearly equal in size; the anterior row, which is the shorter,

is situated immediately above the frontal margin, and the two

intermediate eyes of the posterior row are wider apart than they

are from the lateral eyes of the same row. The falces are

powerful, conical, and rather prominent : the maxillz are straight,

and greatly enlarged and rounded at the extremity: the lip is

long, truncated and slightly hollowed at the apex, and its sides

are nearly parallel. These organs have a red-brown hue, the

maxille being the palest. The sternum is oval, with small

eminences on the sides, opposite to the legs: the legs are mo-

derately long, and are provided with hairs and sessile spines ;

the fourth pair is the longest, then the second, and the first

and third pairs are equal in length; each tarsus is terminated

by two curved, minutely pectinated claws, and below them there

is a small scopula. These parts, with the palpi, which are short,

have a pale, dull yellowish hue. The abdomen is of an oblong

oviform figure, moderately convex above, and projects very little

over the base of the cephalothorax ; it is clothed with fine, silky,

whitish hairs, and of a yellow-white colour; a band extends

from the anterior extremity of the upper part, along the middle,

fully one-third of its length, and is succeeded by a row of minute

spots, which terminates at the coccyx; on each side of the pos-

terior part there is a large patch composed of confluent oblique

streaks, and there are two minute spots on each side of the

spinners, and two below them; the band, spots, and patches are

of a dark-brown colour ; the sexual organs are moderately deve-

loped, and have a red-brown hue.

The male is smaller than the female, but the colours and the

design formed by their distribution are similar in both sexes.

The radial joint of the palpi is rather larger than the cubital

joint, and projects a pointed apophysis from its extremity, on

the outer side; the digital joint is oval, convex and hairy exter-

nally, concave within, comprising the palpal organs ; these organs

are moderately developed, not very complex in structure, with a

black filiform spine which, originating near the middle of their

inner side, curves round their extremity to the outer side, and

are of a red-brown colour.

Mr. J. Blackwall on new species of Madeiran Spiders. 257

Specimens of this Clubiona were taken among plants growing

in a garden 200 feet above the level of the sea.

Clubiona virgulata.

Length of the female 4,ths of an inch ; length of the cephalo-

thorax ;/,; breadth ;,; breadth of the abdomen ;; length of

a posterior leg z/;; length of a leg of the third pair }.

The eyes, which are nearly equal in size, are disposed on the

anterior part of the cephalothorax in two nearly straight trans-

verse rows, the anterior row, which is the shorter, being situated

immediately above the frontal margin; the intermediate eyes of

both rows almost form a square, the anterior side being slightly

the shortest, and the lateral eyes are rather the largest of the

eight. The cephalothorax is convex, glossy, compressed before,

aud rounded on the sides, which are marked with furrows con-

verging towards a slight narrow indentation in the medial line:

the falces are conical, rather prominent, and armed with a few

teeth on the inner surface: the maxille are straight, convex near

the base, and somewhat enlarged and rounded at the extremity :

the lip is nearly quadrate, the base being rather broader than

the apex: the sternum is heart-shaped, with small eminences on

the sides, opposite to the legs; the legs are long, provided with

- hairs and fine sessile spines, and. each tarsus is terminated by

two curved, pectinated claws. These parts, with the palpi, are

of a yellow-brown colour, the lateral margins of the cephalo-

thorax having a yellowish-white, and the space between the two

rows of eyes a brown hue. The abdomen is of an oblong ovi-

form figure, moderately convex above, and projects a little over

the base of the cephalothorax; it is clothed with short hairs,

and of a pale yellow-brown colour; a dark-brown band, which

is palest in the medial line, extends from the anterior extremity

of the upper part, along the middle, more than one-third of its

length; this band tapers to its posterior extremity, on each side

of which there is an oblong spot of the same hue; to these suc-

ceed three oblique dark-brown bars situated on each side of the

medial line, whose enlarged outer extremities coalesce; and

between these bars and the spinners there is a longitudinal row

of minute contiguous spots of the same colour; the sexual

organs are well developed, with a longitudinal septum in the

middle, and have a dark red-brown hue. ae

Specimens of this species were discovered under stones ‘near

Funchal.

Genus CiorHo, Walck.

Clotho lepida.

Length of the female th of an inch ; length of the cephalo-

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. iv. 17

258 Mr. J. Blackwall on-new species of Madeiran Spiders.

thorax ;4,; breadth 1; ; breadth of the abdomen +';; length of

a posterior leg 2%, ; length of a leg of the third pair 4.

The cephalothorax is oval, convex, glossy, pointed in front,

and without an indentation in the medial line: the falces are

short, conical, vertical, and somewhat divergent at the extremity :

the maxille are enlarged and convex at the base, rounded at the

extremity, and curved towards the lip, which is triangular; and

the sternum is oval, with minute eminences on the sides, oppo-

site to the legs: the legs are moderately long, and provided with

hairs and fine spines; the fourth pair is the longest, then the

first, and the third pair is the shortest ; each tarsus is terminated

by two curved, pectinated claws, and below them there is a small

scopula. These parts, with the palpi, which are inserted near

the middle of the outer side of the maxille, are of a dull yellow

colour, the sternum, which has some long dark-brown hairs on

its margin, being the palest. The abdomen is oviform, convex

* above, and projects a little over the base of the cephalothorax ;

it is clothed with short hairs, and the upper part is of a pale

red colour; the under part has a yellowish-white hue, faintly

tinged with red; the sexual organs, which are not highly deve-

loped, are of a pale red-brown colour; the spinners have a pale

haynes hue, and the two inferior ones are terminated

y long soot-coloured papille. The eyes are closely grouped on

the anterior part of the cephalothorax; four forma straight

transverse row immediately above the frontal margin, which is

fringed with long hairs, the two intermediate ones being the

largest of the eight; the other four are placed in pairs directed

obliquely inwards, behind each lateral eye of the front row;

the three lateral eyes are near to each other, and form a short,

slightly curved line whose sprit is directed outwards, and

the posterior eye of each has an oval figure.

An adult female of this species was taken in a house among

specimens of fossils. It appears to be most nearly allied to the

Enyo amaranthina of M. Lucas, but differs from it in various

particulars. ,

Family AGELENIDA.

Genus Trextrix, Sundevall.

Textriz obscura.

Length of the female, not including the spinners, ths of an

inch ; length of the cephalothorax 4; breadth 4; breadth of the

abdomen ;3;; length of a posterior leg .%; length of a leg of

the third pair 2.

The legs are moderately long, provided with hairs and spines,

and are of a red-brown colour; the fourth pair is the longest,

and the other three pairs are equal in length, though, from being

Mr. J.‘Blackwall on new species of Madeiran Spiders. 259

articulated to broader parts of the cephalothorax, the third ap-

pears to be longer than the second, and the second longer than

the first; each tarsus is terminated by three claws; the two

superior ones are curved and pectinated, and the inferior one is

inflected near its base. The palpi resemble the legs in colour,

and have a curved, pectinated claw at their extremity. The

cephalothorax is large, elongated, much compressed before, and

rounded and depressed on the sides, which are marked with

furrows converging towards a narrow indentation in the medial

line ; it is thinly clothed with hairs, glossy, and of a dark-brown

colour tinged with yellow along the middle; the immediate re-

gion of the eyes is the darkest, and a fine, longitudinal, brownish-

black line oecurs on the lateral margins. The falees are powerful,

conical, vertical, convex at the base in front, armed with teeth

on the mner surface, and have a very dark-brown hue. The

maxillz are enlarged and rounded at the extremity, and slightly

curved towards the lip, which is nearly quadrate, being rather

broader at the base than at the apex; and the sternum is heart-

shaped. These parts are of a yellowish-brown colour, the base

of the lip being the darkest. The eyes are disposed on the -

anterior part of the cephalothorax in two transverse, curved

rows, having their convexity directed forwards; the four consti-

tuting the anterior row, which is slightly curved, are near to

each other, and minute, the two intermediate ones being the

smallest ; and those of the posterior row, which is much curved,

are larger and wider apart, the two intermediate ones being the

largest of the eight. The abdomen is oviform, hairy, convex

above, and projects over the base of the cephalothorax ; it is of

a brown colour densely freckled with black, the under part being

the palest, and along the middle of the upper part an obscure

series of yellowish-white angular lines extends, which have their

extremities enlarged and their vertices directed forwards; the

spinners have a brown hue, and the two superior ones are tri-

articulate, much longer than the rest, and have the spinning-

tubes disposed on the inferior surface of the terminal joint ; the

sexual organs are highly developed, rather prominent, and of a

red-brown colour.

Specimens of Texirix obscura were found among stones in the

neighbourhood of Funchal.

Family THeripiip2.

Genus TuEripion, Walck.

Theridion luteolum.

Length of the female ;3,ths of an inch ; length of - cephalo-

260 Mr. J. Blackwall on new species of Madeiran Spiders.

thorax ;4,; breadth ;/,; breadth of the abdomen ;},; length of

an anterior leg 3; length of a leg of the third pair ,%.

The eyes are seated on black spots, and are closely grouped

on the anterior part of the cephalothorax in two transverse rows ;

the four intermediate ones form a square, the two anterior ones,

which are placed on a tubercle, being the smallest and darkest

of the eight; the eyes of each lateral pair are seated on a tu-

bercle, and are contiguous. The cephalothorax is short, convex,

glossy, compressed before, and rounded on the sides, which are

marked with slight furrows converging towards a large indenta-

tion in the medial line: the falces are slender, conical, and ver-

tical: the maxille are obliquely truncated at the extremity, on

the outer side, and are inclined towards the lip, which is tri-

angular but rounded at the apex: the sternum is heart-shaped :

the legs are long, slender, and provided with hairs; the first

pair is the longest, then the fourth, and the third pair is the

shortest ; each tarsus is terminated by three claws; the two

superior ones are curved and pectinated, and the inferior one is

inflected near its base: the palpi have a curved, pectinated claw

at their extremity : the abdomen is oviform, thinly clothed with

hairs, convex above, and projects over the base of the cephalo-

thorax. This spider is entirely of a pale, dull yellowish colour,

the falces having a faint tinge of red.

An immature female of this species was discovered on a piece

of wood in a house.

Genus Latropectvus, Walck.

Latrodectus distinctus.

Length of the female ith of an inch; length of the cephalo-

thorax ;'; ; breadth ;4,; breadth of the abdomen 74; length of

an anterior leg 3; length of a leg of the third pair ,°,.

The cephalothorax is oval, convex, particularly in the cephalic

region, glossy, with slight furrows on the sides, which converge

towards a large indentation in the medial line: the falces are

conical and vertical; the maxille are obliquely truncated at the

extremity, on the outer side, and inclined towards the lip, which

is broad and semicircular: the sternum is heart-shaped: the

legs are long and provided with hairs; the first pair is the.

longest, then the fourth, and the third pair is the shortest ; each

tarsus is terminated by three claws; the two superior ones are

curved and pectinated, and the inferior one is inflected near its

base: the palpi are short, and have a small, curved, pectinated

claw at their extremity. These parts are of a dull yellowish-

brown colour; the extremity of the falces is faintly tinged with

red, and a fine black line extends along each lateral margin of

Mr. J. Blackwall on new species of Madeiran Spiders. 261

the cephalothorax. The eyes, which are seated on black spots,

are disposed in two transverse, nearly straight rows on the an-

terior part of the cephalothorax; the four intermediate. ones

form a square, the two anterior ones, which are placed on a

tubercle, being the smallest and darkest of the eight ; the eyes

of each lateral pair are placed obliquely on a tubercle, ‘and are

near to each other. The abdomen is oviform, thinly clothed with

hairs, convex above, and projects over the base of the cephalo-

thorax; it is of a dull black hue, the under part being tinged

with brown, and has a curved band at the anterior extremity of

the upper part, a row of four spots in the medial line, which

diminish in size as they approach the spinners, the first having

a semicircular form, two spots opposite each extremity of the

curved band, and four others on each side, the two intermediate

ones being oblong, oblique, and nearly in contact; these spots

and the curved band have a yellowish-white colour ; a whitish

line extends along each side of the under part to the spinners,

which lines, with the coccyx, have a pale yellow-brown hue, that

of the branchial opercula being yellowish white.

This Latrodectus, which, by the disposition of its eyes and

the structure of its oral apparatus, makes a near approach to the

Theridia, was captured among herbage growing on the Fossil-

bed, at an elevation of 200 feet above the level of the sea.

Family LinyPHiip#.

Genus Linyputa, Latr.

Linyphia Johnsoni.

Length of the female jth of an inch; length of the cephalo-

thorax ;';; breadth 1; breadth of the abdomen ;/, ; length of

an anterior leg 5%; length of a leg of the third pair }.

The eyes, which are unequal in size, are seated on black spots

on the anterior part of the cephalothorax ; the four intermediate

ones form a trapezoid whose anterior side is much the shortest,

and those of each lateral pair are placed obliquely on a small

tubercle, and are contiguous ; the posterior eyes of the trapezoid,

which are seated on a tubercle, are much the largest, and the

anterior ones rather the smallest of the eight. The cephalo-

thorax is oval, convex, glossy, with an indentation in the medial

line ; it is of a dull yellowish-brown colour, with a broad, longi-

tudinal, black band in the middle, and another of the same hue

extending along each lateral margin. The falces are long,

powerful, conical, vertical, armed with teeth on the inner sur-

face, and of a yellowish-brown colour faintly tinged with red at

the extremities, which are rather divergent. The maxille are

262 Mr. J. Blackwall on new species of Madeiran Spiders.

strong, straight, and somewhat quadrate, having the exterior

angle at the extremity curvilinear ; and the lip is semicircular

and prominent at the apex. ‘These organs are of a dark-brown

hue, with yellowish-brown extremities. The sternum is heart-

shaped, and of a brown-black colour. The legs are long, slender,

provided with hairs and fine spines, and have a yellowish-brown

hue, with a small dark-brown annulus at the extremity of the

tibize and metatarsi; the first pair is the longest, then the se-

cond, and the third pair is the shortest; each tarsus is termi-

nated by three claws; the two superior ones are eurved and

pectinated, and the inferior one is inflected near its base. The

palpi are slender, and resemble the legs in colour. The abdo-

men is oviform, convex above, and projects over the base of the

cephalothorax ; it is sparingly clothed with hairs, and of a dull

yellowish-brown colour faintly tinged with olive-green, and

freckled with white on the upper part; a brownish-black line,

slightly ramified at its posterior extremity, extends along the

middle, and a broad, irregular, longitudinal band of the same

hue, bounded both above and below by a parallel white band,

the latter of which is much the more conspicuous, occurs on the

upper part of each side; these brownish-black bands meet above

the spmners, and a broad band of the same hue extends along

the middle of the under part.

I have dedicated this Linyphia, which was taken in the vici-

nity of Funchal, to James Yate Johnson, Esq., resident in Ma-

deira, to whom I am indebted for opportunities of inspecting

numerous highly interesting specimens of Araneidea from that

island and the Dezertas.

Family Epriripz.

Genus Eprira, Walck.

Epeira.diversa.

Length of the female 4th of an inch; length of the cephalo-

thorax ;1,; breadth ;4,; breadth of the abdomen 4; length of

an anterior leg ;4,; length of a leg of the third pair 1.

The legs are moderately long and provided with hairs; the

first pair is the longest, then the fourth, and the third pair is

the shortest: each tarsus is terminated by three claws; the two

superior ones are curyed and pectinated, and the inferior one is

inflected near its base; the palpi are short, and have a curved,

pectinated claw at their extremity: the cephalothorax is convex,

glossy, slightly compressed before, and rounded on the sides,

which are marked with furrows converging towards a large in-

dentation in the medial line. These parts have a yellow-brown

hue ; the cephalothorax, which is the darkest, has narrow, dark-

Mr. J. Blackwall on new species of Madeiran Spiders. 263

brown, lateral margins, and the legs are marked with a few

brown spots and annuli. The falces are powerful, conical, ver-

tical, and armed with a few teeth on the inner surface: the

maxille are straight, and somewhat enlarged and rounded at the

extremity. These organs are of a red-brown colour, the maxille

being the paler.. The lip is semicircular, and the sternum is

heart-shaped: both have a dark-brown hue, the lip being the

darker. The eyes, which are nearly equal in size, are seated

on black spots on the anterior part of the cephalothorax; the

four intermediate ones form a square, the two anterior ones

being placed on.a tubercle, and those of each lateral pair are

seated obliquely on a tubercle, and are contiguous. The abdo-

men is short, broad, ovate, convex above, and projects over the

base of the cephalothorax; it is thinly clothed with hairs, and

has on the upper part a large and somewhat oval figure, with

sinuous margins bordered with black, the two posterior lobes of

which are the most prominent; it is of a dark greyish-brown

colour, densely freckled with minute white spots; the undula-

tions of the black margins are followed by an imperfectly-defined

whitish band; and a white spot, whose posterior extremity is

somewhat bifid, occurs in the medial line of the anterior part of

the large oval figure; the sides and a broad space above the

spinners are of a greyish-brown colour, thickly freckled with

dull white, a brownish-black band extending along the anterior

part of the former, and a fine streak of the same hue occupying

the medial line of the latter; the under part has a greyish-brown

hue freckled with dull white; a broad brown-black band, bor-

dered laterally with white and freckled with yellowish white,

extends along the middle, and two black and white spots, dis-

posed alternately, are situated on each side of the spinners ; the

sexual organs are moderately developed, and of a dark red-brown

colour.

Adult females of this species, which is remarkable in having

the fourth pair of legs longer than the second pair, were dis-

covered among herbage growing on the Fossil-bed.

Epeira hortensis.

Length of the male th of an inch; length of the cephalo-

thorax ;!,; breadth #5; breadth of the abdomen +, ; length of

an anterior leg}; length of a leg of the third pair }.

The cephalothorax is moderately convex, compressed before,

rounded on the sides, and has an indentation in the medial line ;

it is clothed with hoary hairs, and of a red-brown colour, with

an irregular black band on each side, extending from the lateral

eye about two-thirds of its length; these bands are much the

narrowest at their anterior extremity, and each projects an an-

264 Mr. J. Blackwall on new species of Madeiran Spiders.

gular point from its inner margin towards the medial line. The

falees are slender, conical, vertical, and of a yellowish-red hue,

with a dark-brown spot at the extremity, towards the outer side.

The maxille are short, straight, powerful, and enlarged and

rounded at the extremity ; and the lip is semicircular, but some-

what pointed at the apex. These organs have a dark-brown

hue, with pale yellowish-brown extremities. The sternum is

heart-shaped, with small eminences on the sides, opposite to the

legs; it is of a brown-black colour, with a broad, yellowish-

white band extending along the middle, which projects two

points from each side into the dark margins. The eyes are

seated on black spots on the anterior part of the cephalothorax ;

the four intermediate ones form a square, the two anterior ones

being placed on a tubercle, and the eyes of each lateral pair are

placed obliquely on a minute tubercle and are contiguous, the

anterior one being the smallest of the eight. The abdomen is

oviform, convex above, and projects over the base of the cephalo-

thorax; the upper part is clothed with whitish silky hairs, and

is freckled with dull yellow at its anterior extremity, near which

there are four minute spots forming a curved transverse row

whose convexity is directed backwards, the two intermediate

ones being the smallest ; a minute spot, followed by two streaks,

occurs on each side of the medial line, to which succeeds a

transverse curved row of very minute spots whose convexity is

directed upwards; these spots and streaks have a brownish-

black hue; the lower region of the sides and the under part are

of a brown-black colour, a somewhat dentated yellowish-white

band extending along each side of the latter; the branchial

opercula are of a reddish-brown colour, and that of the spinners

is yellowish-brown, the extremity of the superior pair having a

brown-black hue on the upper surface. The legs are long,

slender, and supplied with hairs and fine spines; the femora of

the anterior pair are of a very dark-brown colour, that of the

femora of the three other pairs being yellowish-brown ; all are

tinged with red at the extremity, and the other joints have a

red-brown hue; the femora of the third and fourth pairs have a

longitudinal black line on their anterior surface, and the coxe

of all the legs have a black spot on each side; the first pair is

the longest, then the second, and the third pair is the shortest ;

each tarsus is terminated by the customary number of claws

of the usual structure. The palpi are short, and of a pale yel-

low colour, with the exception of the digital jomt, which has a

dark-brown hue tinged with red; the cubital and radial joints

are short; the former projects a long bristle from its extremity

in front, and the latter is produced and fringed with hairs on

the inner side; the digital joint is oval, with a process at its

Mr. J. Blackwall on new species of Madetran Spiders. 265

base curved outwards; it is convex and hairy externally, con-

cave within, comprising the palpal organs, which are very highly

developed, very prominent, with a strong, curved, black spine,

connected with a membrane, near the middle, whose prominent

point is directed outwards: the colour of these organs is red-

brown. The digital jomts have their convex sides directed

towards each other.

The spider described above was captured among plants in a

garden at an elevation of 200 feet above the level of the sea.

Tribe Senoculina.

Family DyspERipz.

Genus Oonoprs, Templeton.

Oonops concolor.

Length of the female zzth of an inch; length of the cephalo-

thorax 3/5 ; breadth + as 3 ‘breadth of the abdomen Sa; length of

a posterior leg 7%; length of a leg of the third pair 2/y.

_ The eyes are oval, and are closely grouped in pairs on a black

spot at the anterior part of the cephalothorax: two pairs are

placed laterally, the anterior eye of each being the largest and

the posterior one much the smallest of the six; and the third pair is

intermediate, the eyes which constitute it being in contact. The

cephalothorax is oval, convex, glossy, and without an indenta-

tion in the medial line. The falces are short, conical, and ver-

tical. The maxille are convex near the base, obliquely trun-

eated at the extremity, on the outer side, and inclined towards

the lip, which is triangular. The sternum is heart-shaped and

glossy, with slight eminences on the sides, opposite to the legs.

The legs and palpi are moderately robust, and are provided

with hairs; the fourth pair of legs is the longest, then the first,

and the third pair is the shortest ; each tarsus is terminated by

two curved, pectinated claws. The abdomen is oviform, de-

pressed, glossy, thinly clothed with short hairs, and projects a

little over the base of the cephalothorax. This spider is entirely

of a reddish-brown colour, the legs, palpi, and spinners, which

are prominent, being the palest.

The sexes resemble each other in colour; but the male is

rather the smaller, and its palpi are very remarkable in strue-

ture. Unfortunately the palpi of the only male in the collection

were too much injured to be described with exactness ; the hu-

meral joint appeared to be small, somewhat conical, and arti-

culated by its apex to the cubital joint, which was large, very

tumid, and convex at the base, and the radial and digital joints

were small.

266 Mr. J. Blackwall on new species of Madeiran Spiders.

Specimens of this minute spider were found in a house among

loose papers.

Genus Gcosrvus, Lucas.

_ Hcobius navus.

Length of the female, not including the spinners, ;/,th of an

inch; length of the cephalothorax ;',; breadth 7,; breadth of

the abdomen ,',; length of an anterior leg 4, ; length of a leg

of the third pair ,5,. |

The cephalothorax is circular, glossy, convex above, particu-

larly in the cephalic region, with a large indentation in the me-

dial line, and the frontal margin, which is produced, covers the

base of the falces ; it is of a pale brownish-yellow colour, with a

longitudinal brown-black band in the middle, whose anterior

extremity is much the broadest, narrow black lateral margins,

above each of which three spots of the same hue are disposed in

a parallel row, and two black spots of a larger size situated in

front. The falces are slender, subcylindrical, and vertical: the

maxille are short, convex near the base, pointed at the extre-

mity, and strongly inclined towards the lip, which is triangular :

the sternum is short, broad, and heart-shaped: the legs are

rather robust, provided with hairs, equal in length, and each

tarsus is terminated by two curved, pectinated claws: the palpi,

which are strong, somewhat pediform, and inserted near the

middle of the outer side of the maxillee, have a curved, pectinated

claw at their extremity. These parts are of a very pale brownish-

yellow colour ; the sternum and maxille are the palest, and the

base of the lip, a few spots on the palpi, and numerous annuli

on the legs have a brownish-black hue. The abdomen is ovi-

form, thinly clothed with hairs, convex above, and projects over

the base of the cephalothorax ; it is of a pale yellowish-brown

colour spotted with white on the upper part; there is a large

eurved band at the anterior part, contiguous to the cephalo-

thorax, whose bifid extremities extend to the sides; two minute

spots, placed transversely, occur near the superior margin of the

band, and are followed by angular lines forming a W, to which -

succeed three triangular spots whose vertices are in contact, or

nearly so, the anterior one being much the largest, and the sides

are marked with spots ‘and oblique streaks; the band, spots,

and streaks have a black hue; and a triangular space, conspi-

cuously spotted with white, whose vertex touches the coccyx, is

bordered with black ; the spinners are of a pale yellowish-brown

colour; the two superior ones are long, triarticulate, and have

the spimning-tubes arranged along the inferior surface of their

terminal joint, which has a dark-brown hue on its superior

surface ; and a short brownish-black streak, enlarged at its ante-

Dr. E. F. Kelaart on new species of Ceylonese Mollusca. 267

rior extremity, passes from each side of the spinners to the under

part. The eyes are grouped on the cephalic convexity ; the four

anterior ones form a slightly curved transverse row, whose con-

vexity is directed upwards, and the two intermediate ones are

_ more distant from each other than from the lateral ones; the

two posterior eyes are much the largest and darkest of the six ;

they are wide apart, and are situated behind the lateral eyes of

the anterior row, which are the smallest and lightest-coloured.

Immature specimens of this species were discovered under

stones in the neighbourhood of Funchal. If the equal length

of the legs of this spider be a permanent character, and not

attributable to its immaturity, the genus (icobius, in this parti-

cular, will require to be amended.

“XX VII.—On some additional Species of Nudibranchiate Mollusks

from Ceylon. By H. F. Keraart, M.D.

Doris Elizabethina, Kel.

Body half an inch long. Mantle broad, spotted with purple on

the back ; margin white, spotted with large light-blue spots.

A row of crimson spots between the line of blue spots and

the purple-coloured back. Under surface of mantle whitish,

with a pink shade. Tentacles purplish brown, white-tipped,

laminated. Branchiz six, small, bipinnated, of a grizzled

grey colour. Foot whitish, upper surface crimson. Mouth

with a small veil.

This elegantly-coloured Doris was obtained in deep water near

the Pearl Banks of Aripo. I have named it in compliment to

one who takes more than an ordinary interest in my zoological

pursuits.

Doris Diardi, Kel.

Small. Body 4rd of an inch long, spotted with blue. Mantle

spotted with blue and white; margin lined with larger blue

spots; under parts blue. Dorsal tentacles red, clavate, lami-

nated. Branchie eight, short, pimnated; white, with a red

margin. Foot blue; upper surface spotted with blue. Mouth

surrounded by a bilobated veil. ;

This very rare species was obtained by M. Diard of Java,

during his late visit to the Pearl Banks of Aripo. He found it

on a pearl-oyster shell from the Modregam Bank. I have named

it in compliment to the able and distinguished discoverer (the

pupil and friend of Cuvier and Lamarck), who was recently

engaged in researches in Ceylon.

268 Dr. E. F. Kelaart on new species of Ceylonese Mollusca. ©

Doris Lockyerana, Kel.

Body 34 inches long, brown. Mantle broad, oval, purplish

brown, and figured with yellowish-brown irregular designs,

like carpet-work. Under surface of mantle white, and macu-

lated with large brown spots; a dark brown line runs near

the white margin. Dorsal tentacles large, clavate, slightly

truncated, laminated, of a pale red colour. Branchie six,

pinkish, bipinnated. Foot purplish, shorter than the mantle.

Oral tentacles short, pointed.

Found in deep water, Pearl Banks of Aripo. I have named

this splendid species in compliment to Major-General Lockyer,

C.B., with whose approval my zoological services were secured

by the Ceylon Government.

Doris Tennentana, Kel.

Body 1 inch long, white. Mantle white, with a faint bluish

shade, and spangled with golden-coloured and purple spots.

Margin cerulean blue. Dorsal tentacles clavate, purplish red,

tipped with white, laminated. Branchial plumes red, nu-

merous, 12 to 15, linear, bipinnated. Foot white, upper

surface spotted with yellow. Oral tentacles white, with a

yellow margin. Under surface of mantle white, with bluish

reflexions.

This beautiful species (allied to Doris preciosa) was obtained

from the Cheval Paar Pearl Banks of Ceylon. I have named it

in honour of Sir James Emerson Tennent, who, although long

absent from Ceylon, continues to take great interest in the

natural history of the island.

Doris ariponensis, Kel.

Body 13 inch long, pale purple. Mantle pale purple, spotted

with black. Dorsal tentacles black, laminated. ‘Branchive

black, 12 to 15, small, linear, bipinnated.

Found in shallow water near the Doric, Aripo.

Doris Humberti, Kel.

Body 4rd of an inch long, white. Mantle spotted with purple

and brown ; margin white, with a row of bright-red spots on

the edge ; under parts white. Dorsal tentacles red, spotted

with white, clavate, laminated. Branchiz nine, small, den-

dritic or irregularly pinnated, red and spotted white. Foot

white, a few red spots on the upper surface. Oral tentacles

small, bluntly pointed.

M. Humbert, Curator of the Museum of Geneva, found this

Dr. E. F. Kelaart on new species of Ceylonese Mollusca. 269

very pretty species on an old oyster shell on the Pearl Banks of

Aripo, during the fishery of 1859, when I had the pleasure of

meeting him there. I have named it in honour of the discoverer,

with whom I have spent many happy hours at Aripo.

M. Humbert also found a small white Doris, with a black- or

deep-blue-margined mantle. The creature was scarcely $th of

an inch in length, and looked like the young of Doris Mac-

carthiana, from its narrow mantle and exposed body. There is

also a white species of Doris with a black edge to the mantle,

described by Riippel.

The following are other Nudibranchiate mollusks found in or

near the Pearl Banks of Aripo, in the months of February,

March, and April, 1858 :—

Doris funebris, D. marmorata, D. grisea, D. atrata, D. rubra,

Trevelyana, zeylanica, Pleurobranchus citrinus, Rippel.

I have also found a species of Diphyllidia, which is provision-

ally named .

. Diphyllidia marmorata, Kel.

Body 13 inch long, spotted with white. Mantle above yellowish

brown, and marbled with darker brown or greenish brown.

Tentacles slightly lamimated. Veil white, with a yellow mar-

gin. Under parts of mantle greenish brown. Branchiz in-

distinct, in longitudinal strize under the mantle. Foot white,

longitudinally grooved in centre of posterior third.

Genus Bornewia, Gray.

Animal elongated. Dorsal tentacles retractile into branched

sheaths. Head with stellate processes. Back with two rows

of cylindrical, branched, gastric processes, to which small

dendritic gills are attached. Foot very narrow.

‘Bornella Hancockana, Kel.

Body 1 inch long, narrow, tapering, rounded on the back, and

slightly flattened on the sides, Anterior half of an opake

white, and posterior half of a light brown colour, reticulated

_ with red throughout. Blackish viscera visible in some parts

of the body and branchie. Tentacular sheaths longer than

branchiz, and divided at their extremities into three or four

tentacular or digitate processes similar to those of the bran-

chie. Sheath coloured and reticulated as the body. Ten-

tacles small, clavate, pointed, and slightly plumose, circularly

laminated, of a pale yellowish colour. Head indistinct ; on

each side a small cluster of short, unequal, tentacular pro-

longations of a white colour, a few with a red ring near the

270 Mr. J.S. Baly on new Phytophagous Insects.

extremity. Branchize compound, in four or five pairs on the

sides of the body, the anterior ones bifurcated or trifurcated

into papillose, conical, pointed processes; and on the inner

side of the stem of each are two or three transparent, almost

colourless, plumose and branched appendages. Stem coloured

like the body; papille white, with subterminal crimson-red

ring. Foot broad, tapering, canaliculated, white, pellucid.

Ova yellow.

This species combines some of the characters of a true Kolis

with those of the new genus Dendronotus. The combination of

plumose and papillose ramification of the branchiz is very cu-

rious. The internal viscera correspond with those of the genus

Dendronotus. I have named the species in honour of one who,

with his associate Mr. Alder, has separated the arborescent forms

of Eolidide from the old genus Tritonia.

Eolis Skinneri, Kel.

About 4 lines long; white. Dorsal tentacles opake white, with

three granular rings. Oral tentacles long, with a subterminal

reddish ring. Branchiz in five sets, of three or four papille

in each; opake white, with a basal red ring.

Found by Major Skinner, Auditor-General, on sea-weed near

the South Gate, Fort of Colombo.

XXVITI.—Descriptions of new Genera and Species of Phytopha-

gous Insects. By J. 8. Bary, Esq.

[Continued from p. 128. |

Fam. Galerucide.

Genus Diasrorica, Erichs.

Diabrotica dimidiata.

D. ovata, convexa, flavo-fulva, nitida, elytris vix ante medium ad

apicem abdomineque ceeruleo-nigris; thorace subquadrato, vix

pone medium. transverse sulcato ; unguibus piceis.—Long. 6 lin.

Hab. Banks of the Napo.

Diabrotica regalis.

D. ovata, convexa, fulva, nitida; capite, pectore, scutello elytrisque

nigris, his minute punctatis, a basi apicem versus ampliatis, mar-

. gine exteriore maculisque decem fulvis, harum 4 ante, 4 vix pone

medium, et 2 ante apicem positis; antennarum articulis tribus

basalibus tribusque ultimis fulvis, ultimi apice nigro, articulis in-

Mr.J.8. Baly on new Phytophagous Insects. = 271

termediis, tibiis tarsisque piceis; thorace subquadrato, convexo,

basi unifoveolato.—Long. 43 lin.

Hab. Columbia ?

Diabrotica Clarkella.

D. pallide rufo-brunnea, nitida; capite, thorace subquadrato elytris-

que viridibus, his oblongo-ovatis, convexis, lateribus prope medium

obsolete carinatis, tenuiter subcrebre punctatis, plaga magna trans-

versa communi baseos rufo-brunnea, posticeque fascia communi

arcuata flava, extrorsum abbreviata, instructis.—Long. 34 lin.

Hab. Brazil.

Diabrotica arcuata.

D. elongata, pallide flava, nitida, tibiis, tarsis, pectore, scutello ca-

piteque nigris ; antennarum articulis penultimis duobus articuli-

que ultimi basi albidis; thorace latitudine paullo longiore, disco

obsolete transverse bi-impresso ; elytris oblongis, convexis, a basi

ad apicem leniter ampliatis, crebre punctatis, macula oblonga

humerali, basi connexa, linea suturali longe ante medium abbre-

~ viata, fasciaque communi arcuata, pone medium posita, cyaneis.—

Long. 43 lin.

Hab. Bogota.

Diabrotica exclamationis.

D. elongata, nigra, nitida; elytrorum utrumque limbo laterali, vitta

mediali postice abbreviata, punctoque subapicali, coxis, trochante-

ribus femorumque basi, albidis; thoracis subquadrati lateribus

oe articulis secundo tertioque obscure piceis.—Long.

3 lin. me

Hab. Brazil.

Diabrotica vespertina.

D. fulva, nitida, capite nigro, antennarum articulis quatuor ultimis

albidis ; thorace transverso, disco trasverse excavato et obsolete

tri-impresso ; elytris ovatis, crebre punctatis, leete metallico-viri-

dibus.

(Mas.) Elytris apicem versus prope suturam carina arcuata,

medio unituberculata, et cum illa elytri alteri spatium subelevatum

minus punctatum includente, instructis.—Long. 4-5 lin.

Hab. Bank of the Napo.

Diabrotica Batesii.

D. fulva, nitida, capite nigro, antennis piceis, harum articulis tribus

ultimis albis, quatuor basalibus subtus fulvis ; thorace transverso,

disco transverse depresso, utrinque impresso, rufo-fulvo, maculis

duabus piceis ; elytris oblongis crebre punctatis, obseure-olivaceis,

limbo exteriore fulvo. wee

272 Mr. J.S. Baly on new Phytophagous Insects.

(Mas.) Elytris apicem versus prope suturam spatio semiovato

elevato, minus crebre punctato instructis.—Long. 23-3 lin.

Hab. Kiga, Upper Amazons. Collected by Mr. Bates.

_ Diabrotica Erichsoni.

D. fulva, nitida, capite (antennarum articulis quatuor ultimis preeter-

missis) nigro ; elytris oblongis, crebre punctatis, subrugosis, utro-

que vittis tribus obsolete elevato, plumbeis, margine leevi, fulvo ;

thorace transverso, disco fortiter transverse bi-impresso, basi uni-

foveolato. |

(Mas.) Elytris apicem versus prope suturam carina oblonga

nitida instructis, vittis obsoletis, antennarum articulis basalibus

subtus fulvis, ultimi apice nigro.—Long. maris 5 lin., foem. 4 lin.

Hab. Banks of the Napo.

Diabrotica triplagiata.

D. supra nigra, nitida, antennarum articulis tribus ultimis flavo-

albidis, ultimi apice nigro, articulis ante apicem album _nigro-

. piceis, quinque basalibus subtus fulvis; thorace transverso-qua-

drato, disco transverse excavato, utrinque impresso, lateribus

sinuatis, flavo margiuatis; scutello trigonato, apice subacuto ;

elytris oblongis, tenuiter subcrebre punctatis, obsolete carinatis,

flavis, plaga magna communi subquadrata, a basi ad medium ex-

tensa, et utriusque macula postica obscure metallico-olivaceis ;

subtus flava, tibiis extrorsum femorumque dorso piceo-lineatis.

(Mas.) Elytris apicem versus prope suturam, carina brevi ele-

vata instructis.— Long. 4—4} lin.

Hab. Banks of the Napo.

This species probably varies in having the posterior patches

on the elytra confluent at the suture. :

Diabrotica fraterna.

D. supra nigra, nitida, thoracis lateribus antennisque flavis, his (ar-

ticulis quatuor ultimis exceptis) dorso nigro-signatis; thorace

tranverso, disce transverse fortiter sulcato, ante basin breviter

transverse canaliculato, lateribus ante medium ampliatis; scu-

tello elongato-trigonato, apice obtuse truncato ; elytris oblongis,

tenuiter crebre punctatis, obscure metallico-olivaceis, limbo exte-

riore fasciaque prope medium flavis ; subtus fusca, pedibus obscure

fulvis, femoribus dorso, tibiisque extrorsum, nigris.—Long. 4 lin.

Hab. Banks of the Napo.

Diabrotica Adonis.

D. nigra, nitida, antennarum articulis ultimis tribus, thorace trans-

verso pedibusque flavo-albis ; his tarsis, tibiis quatuor anticis fere

totis posticisque apice nigris; elytris oblongis, tenuiter crebre

Mr.J.S. Baly on new Phytophagous Insects. 273

punctatis, cyaneis, limbo exteriore fasciaque lata centrali flavo-

albidis; thorace fortiter transverse arcuatim sulcato, sulco obso-

lete bi-impresso. |

(Mas.) Elytris apicem versus prope suturam tuberculo oblongo

instructis.—Long. 4 lin.

Hab. Venezuela.

Diabrotica ornata,

D. flavo-fulva, nitida, capite nigro, unguibus antennisque piceis ;

thorace rufo-fulvo, transverso, disco transverse depresso et utrin-

que fortiter impresso, basi unifoveolato; elytris oblongis, crebre

punctatis, metallico-viridibus, limbo exteriore fasciaque prope

medium flavis; antennis albidis, articulis basalibus quatuor sub-

tus, ultimisque quatuor totis, obscure flavis.

(Mas.) Elytris apicem versus prope suturam carina arcuata

instructis.—Long. maris 5, foem. 4 lin.

Hab. Peru.

Genus ipronycuis, Latr.

Cidionychis Batesii.

_., late ovata, convexa, obscure fusco-fulva, nitida; antennis (basi

picea excepta) scutelloque nigris, unguibus posticis, vertice tho-

raceque rufo-fulvis, hoc ante basin leniter transverse impresso,

basi ipsa utrinque nigro marginata, lateribus late reflexis, fulvis ;

elytris tenuiter punctatis, flavo-albis, maculis 13, seriebus trans-

versis quatuor, 4—3—4—2 dispositis, nigro-ceeruleis ; tarsis, tibiis ad

apicem femorumque dorso, pallide piceis.—Long. 42 lin.

Hab. Kga, Upper Amazons.

CEdionychis bilimbata.

CE. late ovata, fulva, nitida, antennis (basi excepta), vertice scutello-

que nigris; elytris crebre punctatis, rufo-testaceis, margine exte-

riore flavo, basi infra humeros, vittaque submarginali, postice at-

tenuata, cyaneis.—Long. 33-5 lin.

Hab. Brazil.

CEdionychis bella.

(, ovata, nitido-nigra, facie inferiore utrinque flavo-maculata, abdo-

minis margine thoraceque rufo-fulvis ; elytris tenuiter punctatis,

margine exteriore, apice dilatato, lineaque transversa submaculari-

formi prope medium, sutura abbreviata, flavis.—Long. 4 lin.

Hab. Peru.

Cidionychis tetraspilota.

di. ovata, nigra, nitida, thoracis lateribus albidis ; elytris metallico-

purpureis, tenuissime punctatis, utroque maculis duabus magnis,

una prope medium, altera apice, positis, flavo-albis—Long. 33 lin.

Hab. Brazil.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.3. Vol. iv. 18

274: Mr.J.8. Baly on new Phytophagous Insects.

Cdionychis bifasciata.

@. elongato-ovata, fulva, nitida, antennis (basi excepta) femorumque

posticorum apice nigris ; supra flava, elytrorum fasciis latis duabus,

extrorsum abbreviatis, una basi, altera pone medium, positis, nitido-

metallico-ceeruleis.—-Long. 34 lin.

Hab. Amazons. ;

Cidionychis ornata.

G. elongato-ovata, fusco-fulva, pedibus antennisque piceis, supra

albidis, vertice nigro; elytris indistincte punctatis, nitidissimo-

cupreis, margine exteriore fasclisque duabus, harum una vix ante

medium, altera prope apicem, sutura abbreviata, albidis.—Long.

3% lin. |

Var. A. Antennis pedibusque anterioribus quatuor, nigris, _

Hab. Guatemala, Amazons, Cayenne. Var., Venezuela,

Cidionychis Sallét.

di. subovata, pallide flava, nitida, capite, antennarum apice scutello-

que nigris; elytris oblongis, crebre tenuiter punctatis, plaga magna

discoidali, a basi fere ad apicem extensa, margineque laterali, pos-

tice abbreviato, ceeruleo-nigris; antennarum articulis basalibus

quatuor supra, tarsisque fuscis.—Long. 3 lin.

Hab. Mexico.

| Cidionychis semifasciata.

@. ovata, flavo-albida, nitida, corpore subtus antennisque nigris,

capite rufo-fusco, nigro-maculato; margine laterali indistincte,

basi extrema fasciisque duabus, utrinque abbreviatis, harum prima

pone medium, secunda flexuosa, prope apicem posita, pallide

rufo-brunneis ; tibiis tarsisque posticis nigro-piceis.—Long. 4 lin.

Hab. Brazil.

Cidionychis quadrivitiata.

di. ovata, fulva, antennis extrorsum nigris; elytris ovatis, tenuiter

crebre punctatis, margine complanato modice dilatato, utroque

vittis duabus, a basi fere ad apicem extensis, apice confluentibus,

rufo-brunneis.— Long. 5 lin.

Hab. Brazil.

CEdionychis trivittata.

(@. oblonga, convexa, pallide picea, nitida, supra (capite excepto)

fulva, thorace elytrisque crebre punctatis, his sutura et utroque

vitta discoidali a basi fere ad apicem extensa, rufo-fuscis.—Long.

42 lin.

Hab. Brazil.

(Edionychis submarginata.

2. ovata, nigro-picea, nitida, facie inferiore, thorace elytrisque

punctatis, albidis, illo maculis duabus disco. transverse positis,

Mr. E. W. H. Holdsworth on Digestive Power in the Actinie. 275.

his sutura vittaque submarginali, nigris; antennis nigris, articulis -

basalibus obscure piceis.— Long. 3} lin.

Hab. Brazil.

Cdionychis virginella,

@. oblongo-ovata, nitido-fusco-fulva, tibiis tarsisque posticis, pedibus

quatuor anticis antennisque rufo-fuscis, thorace elytrisque albidis,

his subrectis, leevibus, obsolete punctulatis.—Long. 33 lin.

Hab. San Paulo, Brazil.

XXIX.—On Digestive Power in the Actinie.

By E. W. H. Hoxipsworrn, F.L.S. &c.

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN,

Mr. G. H. Lewes having recently published, in ‘Seaside

Studies,’ his views of the digestive powers of the Actinia, criti-

cism becomes allowable; I therefore propose to offer a few

remarks on the subject, and to relate my observations made

during a long course of study of these animals. If I cannot

always agree with Mr. Lewes, still I have no wish to depreciate

the value of his researches ; and my sole object in stating what

I have observed is to aid in the settlement of the point in

dispute. i

In ‘ Seaside Studies,’ page 207, will be found the brief query

—Do the Actiniz digest at all?? Mr. Lewes then proceeds

to give his definition of digestion, and concludes by saying,—

“Thus we see that solubility and transformation are the two

digestive effects, to produce which two agencies are needful—

the mechanical and chemical.” The first is the one adopted by

the author as the sole means of preparing the food for assimila-

tion in the Actinia. .

In order to test the accuracy of this opinion, it will be desir-

able to notice what takes place when these polypes are fed.

Any one who has healthy specimens in an aquarium can easily

try the experiment, and will observe something like the follow-

ing process :— 3

A piece of meat, of suitable size, after being conveyed to the

mouth of the polype, is taken into the membranous tube, gene-

rally considered as the stomach, where it remains for a few mi-

nutes only, and sometimes barely stops there; it then passes

into the general cavity of the body, and finally rests at its lowest

et The animal now fills itself with water until every part is

istended to the utmost, and in this state it continues for several

hours, not unfrequently for two days, the average time perhaps

18*

276 Mr. BE. W. H. Holdsworth on Digestive Power in the Actinia.

being about twenty hours. Whilst in this condition, some spe-

cies become sufficiently transparent to enable us to discern a

great part of their internal structure; and a vertical view of the

polype shows the stomach suspended like a single flat membrane

from the oral disk. On looking through the sides of the animal,

the food may be observed at the bottom of the great cavity—

usually in the centre, sometimes a little on one side—and rest-

ing on the edges of the converging septa. In this position it

stays until whatever part of it is not required by the polype is

finally returned through the mouth. I shall presently refer to

the condition of the rejected portion; but I may now inquire

in which part of the animal, during the above process, does the

mechanical operation take place that Mr. Lewes states is the

only one by which the food is prepared for assimilation? It

cannot be in the cavity of the body, for that is fully and rigidly

distended with water whilst the food is within it; so that no

pressure from mutual contact of the membranous septa can be

exerted to extract the juices of the meat. The only timé when

such an agency can be employed is during the first passage of

the food through the stomach, or subsequently on its return.

In either case, the operation would only last for a very few mi-

nutes; and undoubtedly some pressure may be exercised during

the process of regurgitation, as the rejected food must find its

way upwards from the large gastric cavity into the free open

extremity of the membranous stomach—a proceeding very much

like that of getting out of a flexible lobster-pot : the contortions

the polype sometimes makes whilst this is going on show the

difficulty it labours under; however, it is soon over, and the

morsel is ejected,—but in what condition? Is it in a state that

can be accounted for by mechanical action only ?

It may be here mentioned that I have various species of Ac-

tinié that have been in my possession for periods ranging from

six months to as many years; and as they are generally fed

once a week, and for the most part on partially cooked beef,

frequent opportunities are afforded me for observing the results

of feeding these animals on substantial food.

I find, then, that the remains of the meat are returned in on

of three conditions, viz. : ;

1. Unaltered in shape, the muscular fibre intact, but with the

appearance of having undergone simple maceration in sea-water,

and enlarged rather than contracted in size.

2. In a rounded mass, reduced in size, not only from being

rolled into a ball, but also in consequence of a partial solution

of its substance; the muscular striz faintly visible.

3. In the form of minute particles, whose aggregate bulk

frequently does not equal one-fiftieth part of the original piece.

Mr. E. W. H. Holdsworth on Digestive Power in the Actinie, 277

Some of these particles, when submitted.to a magnifying power

of 450 diameters, occasionally exhibit definite structure ; but

usually they are all homogeneous in their composition, and show

no trace of muscular strie or distinct fibre.

In the first two cases the remains are enveloped in a tenacious

glairy mucus, proving them to have been ejected from the po-

lype; in the third condition this evidence is not so decided.

However, in order to avoid any possibility of mistake as to the

origin of these particles, separate Actinie were placed in small

glass vases, each containing only clean water and a stone bear-

ing the single polype: the results of feeding them under these

circumstances agreed with what were before observed ; and when

the meat was returned in the first condition, it was found lying

on the stone: or bottom of the glass; when in the second form,

it was most frequently floating at the surface of the water ; and

if in the ¢hird and disintegrated state, it was always in that po-

sition, and immediately over the polype, unless intercepted and,

entangled in the mucous epidermis, as sometimes happens in

the case of Act. mesembryanthemum.

Now let me ask, can we entirely account for these effects by

the simple act of squeezing, or any other mechanical operation

that can go on within the soft body of the polype? It appears

to me impossible. But strong as the evidence is of the action

of some solvent when only small disintegrated particles are

returned, my latest experiments are still more conclusive of its

existence. Of six Actinie that were fed from the same bit of

meat, two threw up a few very small particles; the others, after

an interval of more than a week, returned absolutely nothing

that could be detected with the aid of a lens. These four

polypes are two varieties of Sagartia troglodytes, a S. nivea

and a S. viduata—all of them voracious species; the others are

S. venusta and Act. mesembryanthemum.

No mechanical power will account for these results; and for

their explanation I can only have recourse to the alternative,

chemical agency, which Mr. Lewes selects as “the specific cha-

racteristic of the digestive process,” but whose existence he denies

in the Actinie, Of the origin and nature of the solvent I can

say nothing; but I would direct attention to the glairy mucus

so abundantly produced in the stomach of the polype when its

surface is irritated by the presence of food. Possibly this may

act only in a preparatory manner ; but that it is concerned in the

alimentary process there can be no question, as it is specially

called forth under the excitement of feeding. This mucus ap-

pears to be a product of the stomach, since it is found coating

the food before it has descended into the cavity of the body, as

may be proved by giving a polype a piece of meat too large to

278 Mr. E. W. H. Holdsworth on Digestive Power in the Actiniz.

be entirely swallowed: on its disengagement from the animal,

that portion of it which had passed the mouth will be seen

thickly covered with the secretion. One frequent source of

error in studying the digestive powers of the Aetinie arises from

the belief that all the food these animals swallow must necessa-

rily undergo digestion, whatever the nature of that process ma

be; but this is far from being the case. Healthy polypes will

rarely refuse anything that comes within their reach; and in

most cases it is only after the object has passed through the

stomach, that the animal finds out whether it is hungry, or if it

has swallowed suitable food. In my own tank, a specific-gravity

bubble has been gulped down by almost every specimen large

enough to accomplish the feat, and by some of them more than

once; but of course it is always ejected unaltered: in the same

manner, proper food has been taken in and returned after a

short time only, not from its being indigestible, but because

the animal was not hungry. In our own case, over-eating

is generally followed by indigestion; but the polype has a

very ready mode of preventing such an unpleasant result.

When its appetite is appeased, or its powers of digestion ex-

hausted, it simply throws up what remains of the food; and

this circumstance will explain the different states of the ejected

meat, and the reason why large pieces are so often cast forth

with little apparent alteration. A case has recently presented

itself which shows this to be a reasonable inference. Two

specimens of Cerianthus, which had been living side by side for

a couple of years in a tall glass jar, were fed with small and

equal portions of beef, and after a time each animal threw up

the remains of its dmner. In one case, where the polype had

been fasting for a week, the food was returned after twelve

hours very little altered in shape; muscular striz were percep-

tible under the microscope, and the general appearance of the

meat indicated its having undergone maceration, but not com-

pression. In the other example the refuse was cast up, after an

interval of sixteen hours, in very small particles without any

trace of muscular structure, and so far disintegrated as to render

their removal from the water a matter of some difficulty. This.

polype had not been fed for six weeks ; and the different results

from the two animals may be fairly accounted for by the un-

equal intervals between their last two meals. In the true Ae-

tinie there is the same variation in the extent to which digestion

is carried as in the instances just cited, and in a great measure

it will bear the same explanation : we also find it partly depend-

ing on the digestible nature of the food swallowed. In the

account of Mr. R. Q. Couch’s experiments, quoted in ‘ Seaside

Studies,’ p. 217, great stress is laid on the fact that the delicate

Mr. E. W. H. Holdsworth on Digestive Power in the Actinix. 279

skin of the ventral portions of the mackerel and whiting was

uninjured, and the fine metallic lustre untouched: but I should

think it is hardly necessary to remind Mr, Lewes that, in the

most highly organized animals, portions of food difficult of

digestion are frequently unchanged when passed off in the ex-

cretions ; so that the circumstance referred to can have no bear-

ing on the question of ordinary digestive power,

The experiments on the food contained in perforated quills

also appear to me to be by no means so conclusive of the absence

of chemical action as Mr. Lewes thinks; they rather favour the

suggestion I have thrown out as to the nature of the mucus

produced in the stomach. From the tenacious character of this

substance, it would pass through the perforations in the quill

far less readily than would the surrounding water, and conse-

quently the appearance of meat freely subjected to its influence

might reasonably be expected to differ from that of the partially

protected contents of the quill. Such, indeed, appears to have

been the case in Mr. Lewes’s experiment. We are told at page

216, “On examination of the ejected quills, I found no appre-

ciable difference between the contained meat and similar pieces

of meat left in the water during the same period: in one of

them, which had the meat protruding somewhat from each end

of the quill, there was a maceration of the protruded ends which

looked like a digestive effect ;” but this effect, the author goes on

to say, was due to “ maceration obviously of a purely mechanical

nature,” because the muscular fibre was not disintegrated. Why

obviously mechanical? » After what I have observed of the partial

and sometimes entire solution and disintegration of the food,

may I not as reasonably ascribe “what looked like a digestive

effect”’ to the obvious commencement of chemical action?

I have now mentioned some of the facts which lead me to

believe in the possession of ordinary digestive power by the Ac-

tiniade. The cases I have noticed as bearing on the subject

are but a few out of many similar ones that have occurred to

me and, unquestionably, to other persons who have given their

attention to the matter; for I cannot believe that when a Sea-

anemone becomes an occupant of my aquarium, it is thenceforth

gifted with new faculties, and learns to digest its food in a

manner unknown to its brethren in other tanks or along the coast.

There are some other points relating to the Actinie, which

are treated of in ‘Seaside Studies,’ and on which the author

holds opinions at variance with those of most naturalists ; but

it must be observed that in almost every case he only brings

forward negative evidence in support of his views; and I need

hardly say that, in matters of science, such evidence is not

always trustworthy.

280 Dr. W. Baird on new species of Entomostracous Crustacea.

The question of the existence of a corpusculated fluid in the

Actinie need hardly be discussed. The corpuscles have been

too frequently observed to leave room for any doubt of their

existence. I have never failed in discovering them when I have

used a power of 450 diameters; and when the fluid was taken

from the body of a polype placed during three days in well-

filtered sea-water, the result was only in a slight degree less

decisive—the corpuscles were not quite so abundant.

At present I can say but little on the albuminous character of

the chylaqueous fluid. Experiments on the subject can be satis-

factorily carried on only at the sea-side, where there are plenty of

healthy polypes to cut up without running the risk of destroying

old favourites. On the single occasion when I boiled some quan-

tity of the fluid, milkiness was produced ; but at a later period,

when small drops taken from other animals were tested with

nitric acid, I could not be sure that a change of colour took

place in every case. The experiments were made on animals that

had been kept both im natural and filtered sea-water; but test-

ing the character of a minute drop of fluid is an operation so

delicate and novel to me, that I hesitate to give an opinion from

the results I then obtained. 1

It must be regretted that Mr. Lewes is so positive in his con-

clusions from what certainly look like hasty experiments ; and

in questioning their soundness I am justified by the author

himself when he tells us, at p. 261, “ We see the necessity of a

cultivated caution in the acceptance of statements in matters

so complex as those of biology.”

I remain, Gentlemen,

Yours very truly,

EK. W. H. Hoipsworrs.

26 Osnaburgh Street, Sept. 1859.

XXX.—Description of several Species of Entomostracous Crus-

tacea from Jerusalem. By W. Barrp, M.D., F.L.S.

[With two Plates.]

In the month of July 1858, Edward Atkinson, Esq., a gentle-

man attached as surgeon to the consulate at Jerusalem, and

who has resided in that city for some time, sent a quantity of

dried mud from the pool of Gihon in Jerusalem to Mr. Denny

at Leeds. By the kindness of this latter gentleman, I had a

supply of this forwarded to me, which Mr, Denny states had

been in all probability in a dry state for some months before it

was despatched. It reached Leeds in the end of August, and

the small parcel containing a supply reached me at the

Dr. W. Baird on new species of Entomostracous Crustacea. 281

British Museum on the 3rd of. June, 1859. Mr. Atkinson, in

a letter, informed Mr. Denny that if this mud were placed in

fresh water, it would soon produce a crop of Entomostraca.

This had accordingly been done at Leeds; and the result was as

predicted. Placing the portion of mud which Mr. Denny had

kindly sent me to the British Museum in water on the 3rd of June

last, I was agreeably surprised to find several young animals of

the class Entomostraca make their appearance seven days after-

wards, or on the 10th of the same month. These I watched till

they had assumed a sufficient degree of development, and I then

discovered that they were the young of a species of Estheria.

Shortly after this, fresh forms made their appearance; and by

the middle of July I found I had a large crop of Entomostracous

Crustacea, consisting of at least five different species. These I

consider to be distinct from any yet described, and, both from

their peculiar history and characters, worthy of a detailed de-

scription.

In addition to the species here described, Mr. Denny had the

kindness to forward me a pair of a species of Chirocephalus, male

and female, but which unfortunately died before I was able to

secure them for description. They were of a pale whitish co-

lour, and considerably smaller than the species found in Great

Britain.

Estheria Gihoni. PI. V. fig. 1.

Carapace oval, rather flat and compressed. Umbo rather pro-

minent, and placed near the anterior extremity. Surface of

shell encircled with prominent ribs, the intervening spaces being

rather broad, slightly convex and irregularly excavately punc-

tate. Anterior extremity slightly broader than the posterior.

Dorsal margin, from the umbo to the posterior slope, nearly

straight, the posterior half sloping downwards. Anterior and

ventral margins rounded.

The body of the animal is of a beautiful red colour. The

male is larger than the female, and the prehensile feet are rather

large, and are furnished with strong hooks.

The head is large, and the sort of hood with which it termi-

nates is long and rather sharp-pointed.

Hab. Pool of Gihon, Jerusalem., Mus. Brit.

Daphnia Atkinsoni. Pl. V. fig. 2.

Female. Carapace of an oval form; lower extremity pointed

and terminating in a rather long spine, which is beset on all

sides with short spines. Anterior margins of the valves armed

with short setee, which spring from the inner edge.

The head is rather large and prominent ; beak of considerable

282 Dr, W. Baird on new species of Entomostracous Crustacea.

size. The superior antenne, underneath the beak, are rounded,

of considerable size, and terminated by four or five short setze.

The inferior antennz have the basal portion stout and thick;

the joints are all rough with minute spines; filaments plumose. -

In the number of joints and filaments it agrees with D. pulex.

The surface of the carapace is rough with minute spines, and is

finely reticulated ; it is of a very light colour. The eye is large,

and the black spot near the beak is very distinct, almost as

much as that of the Lynceide. The abdomen is narrow, the

lower edge armed with a row of short spines, and the termi-

nating spines rather strong and hooked. The sixth segment of

the body has three spurs or projections, the upper one of which

is curved upwards, the lower sending off two rather long sete, —

which are plumose only on the lower half of their length.

I have only seen females.

- Hab. Pool of Gihon, Jerusalem.

Approaches very near D. pulex. Ephippia, from which these

young most probably spring, are different in shape, being longer,

narrower, and sharp-pointed. :

Cypris celtica. PI. VI. fig. 1..

Carapace wedge-shaped, like the most usual form of the stone

implements known by the name of celts. Anterior extremity

considerably broader than the posterior, and compressed. Pos-

terior extremity pointed and compressed also. Dorsal margin

rounded, convex. Ventral margin nearly straight, or very

slightly smuated. Surface of carapace very smooth and shining,

destitute of all appearance of hairs or pubescence. The interior

of the valves, owing to the compression of the two extremities,

hollow in the centre only; each valve, for a short distance at

each extremity, lying upon the other so as to fill up the hollow,

and limit the space allowed for the animal, to about the centre.

Pediform antennee furnished with a rather long pencil of

plumose filaments. The colour of the shell is a light olive-

green, with a lighter streak running diagonally across the pos-

terior part of the carapace. -

This species resembles somewhat the British species C. clavata

in the shape of the carapace, but is shorter, has no hairs or setze

on its surface, and has larger pediform antenne and feet.

Hab. Pool of Gihon, Jerusalem. Mus. Brit.

Cypris orientalis, Pl. VI. fig. 2.

Carapace of nearly a reniform shape; dorsal margin convexly

rounded ; ventral margin rather deeply sinuated. Anterior ex-

tremity slightly compressed. Posterior extremity nearly of the

& West det et lth.

eee oe if t

etree

eer OF mn sete ee ot oy ar er

* hr

F.l.la.e. Cypris celtica. Barwa.

F.2.2a.e Cypris orientalis. ad.

F.3.3.a.Diaptomus similis. #7,

;

has,

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a i To "

wey

£ si

‘ ; ; :

. * he =

Sn Aag Wat Hist. 8 INOVALL.V

Fl.la.d Estheria Gihoni _ Baad. | : ee

G West delec lulv, F.2.2a.c.Daphnia Atkinsoni. g- Rac

Dr. W. Baird on new species of Eniomostracous Crustacea. 283

same size as the anterior, but. swollen.and sloping downwards to

an obtuse point, Centre of carapace swollen. The surface of

the valves is hispid all over with short stiff sete, which beset

the edges round the whole circumference. When rubbed off,

they leave the appearance of little pits or depressions,

Pediform antenne provided with a pencil of rather long plu-

mose filaments.

The colour of the shell is of a very light olive-greenish hue.

The ova appear shining through the carapace like two orange

spots.

Hab. Pool of Gihon, Jerusalem. Mus. Brit.

Diaptomus similis, Pl. VI. fig. 3.

In the general form of the body, the number of articulations,

&c., it agrees with D. Castor. The head, however, is curved

downwards into a short curved beak. The antenne are furnished

on the upper edge with short sete at each joint; but these sete

are set at right angles with the joint, and are nearly alternatel

short and long, the longer ones being nearly double the with

of the shorter ones. The third pair of foot-jaws haye the same

~ number of articulations as those of D. Castor, but the setz at the

terminating joints are much shorter and slightly aculeate. The

fifth pair of feet im the male have the last articulation of the

right branch terminated by a long and strong hook, which is

much longer than that of D. Castor. The swollen hinge-joint of

the right antenna of the male, when under the lens, is finely

striated. . 7

Hab, Pool of Gihon, Jerusalem. Maus, Brit.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

PLATE V.

Fig. 1. Estheria Gihoni, nat. size: 1 a, magnified; 10, portion of cara-

pace, magnified; 1c, terminating hooks of abdomen; 1 d, pre-

hensile feet of male.

Fig. 2. Daphnia Atkinsoni, magnified, side view: 2 a, Ditto, prone; 2c,

portion of carapace highly magnified, to show the structure,

PLATE VI.

Fig, 1. Cypris celtica, magnified: 1a, b, Ditto, in different positions;

1 e, portion of carapace, highly magnified to show the structure ;

| 1 d, lucid spots; 1 e, pediform antenne.

Fig. 2. Cypris orientalis, magnified : 2 a, 6, Ditto, in different positions ;

2c, lucid spots; 2d, structure of carapace; 2e, pediform an-

tenne.

Fig. 3. Diaptomus similis, magnified : 3 a, terminating setz of tail.

284 Rev. M. J. Berkeley and Rev. M. A. Curtis on new

XXXI.—Centuries of North American Fungi. By the Rev. M. J.

Berxexey, M.A., F.L.S., and the Rev. M. A. Curtis, D.D.

[Continued from ser. 2. vol. xii. p. 435.]

* Agaricus (Amanita) cesareus, Scheeff. South Carolina, H.

W. Ravenel.

51. A. (Amanita) Ravenelii, B. & C. Pileo convexo areolato-

verrucoso, verrucis pyramidatis; stipite brevi bulboso; volva

crassa verrucosa sublobata; annulo deflexo. Amanita bulbosa,

Rav. In woods, June, Car. Inf., H. W. Ravenel.

Pileus 4 inches across, convex, broken up into distinct ares,

each of which is raised into an acute rigid pyramidal wart ; stem

3 inches high, 1 inch or more in thickness at the base, furnished

with a thick warty volva and a deflexed ring.

A very fine species, allied to 4. strobiliformis, Vitt.

52. A. (Lepiota) subremotus, B. & C. Pileo expanso

obtuse umbonato toto verrucoso-squamoso, margine sulcato ;

stipite floccoso-farcto e bulbo exqualiter attenuato debili levi ;

annulo amplo secedente; lamellis subangustis remotiusculis.

Curt. no. 5067. On the ground. amongst fir-leaves, New

England, C. J. Sprague. ;

White. Pileus 4 inches across, expanded, obtusely umbonate,

fleshy, except at the margin,'which is in consequence sulcate,

covered to the top of the umbo with raised wartlike scales;

stem 5 inches high, clavato-bulbous at the base, attenuated up-

wards, + inch thick in the centre, smooth, stuffed with floccose

threads, rather delicate; ring uneven, broad; gills white, rather

narrow, free, but not separated far from the stem.

This species is undoubtedly very near A. mastoideus; but the

stem is not sunk into the umbo, as in that species, and in con-

sequence the gills are not very remote.

53. A. (Tricholoma) rhinarius, B. & C. Pileo convexo, ob-

tusissimo, centro subtiliter areolato-diffracto; margine squamu-

loso ; stipite valido furfuraceo; lamellis ex albo flavis confertis

emarginatis. Curt. no. 5745. In dense patches amongst dry

leaves in woods, New England, C. J. Sprague.

Pileus 5 inches across, convex, very obtuse, yellowish white

at the margin and minutely scaly, then ochraceous and yellow

brown in the centre, where it is broken up into little brown scale-

like areole ; surface rimose; margin at first involute, then 3-4

inches high, 1 inch or more thick, solid, yellowish, furfuraceous

from the curling up of minute portions of the cuticle; gills: at

first white, then yellow, crowded, adnate; emarginate, more or

less forked. ,

Allied to A. scalpturatus.

54, A. (Clitocybe) porphyrellus, B. & C. Pileo convexo glabro

-species of North American Fungi. 285

purpurascente; stipite solido sursum incrassato glabro albo-

purpureo; lamellis rectis adnatis pallide purpureis. Curt.

no. 5520. On the naked soil, Connecticut, C. Wright.

Pileus 1} inch across, convex, smooth, of a pale dull purple ;

stem 1-14 inch high, 14 line thick, solid, smooth, incrassated

upwards, purplish white; gills pale purple, margin straight.

Spores elliptic, 7-5 inch long.

Differs from A. daccatus in the numerous gills and very dif-

ferent spores.

55. A. (Clitocybe) glaucipes, B.& C. Pileo convexo tenui

rufulo pubescente, margine incurvo; stipite solido concolore

glauco; lamellis adnatis distantibus rectis candidis. Curt.

no. 5546. On the ground in woods, Connecticut, C. Wright.

Pileus 1 inch across, convex, thin, pubescent, pale rufous ;

margin incurved ; stem 2 inches high, } inch thick, solid, of the

same colour as the pileus, with a white bloom; gills moderately

distant, adnate, straight, white.

Allied to A. laccatus.

56. A. (Collybia) preceps, B.& C. Pileo e convexo umbili-

eato virgato rufo; stipite deorsum attenuato, pruinoso ; lamellis

albidis adnatis. Curt. no. 5758. New England, Aug. 1856,

D. Murray. |

Pileus 2—4 inches or more across, subcarnose, at first convex,

then flat and depressed, undulated, russet-brown, darker in the

centre, finely and regularly streaked; flesh white, soft; stem

3-4 inches high, about + inch thick, strongly attenuated at the

base, rather twisted, flexible, stringy with a loose pith ; gills dirty

white, thickish, somewhat ventricose, acutely adnate; edges at

length uneven and the surface wrinkled, sometimes streaked.

with brown.

A flexible, top-heavy, flabby species, allied to A. fusipes.

57. A. (Collybia) Sprague, B. & C. Albus, pileo umbonato

carnoso sericeo-nitente stipiteque cavo glabris; lamellis an-

gustis adnatis crispatis. Curt. no.5757. On decayed stumps

in shady woods, Sept. 1856, New England, Sprague.

White. Pileus 4-5 inches across, convex, strongly umbonate,

fleshy, smooth, with a satiny lustre when dry; flesh very thick

in the centre, not very compact ; margin thin, slightly turned

up; stem 43-5 inches high, 1 inch thick, smooth, stringy, very

hollow, splitting and bending with the weight of the pileus ;

gills narrow, obtusely adnate, crowded, crisped; edge minutely

waved.

A moist heavy-topped species, allied to 4. maculatus.

58. A. (Collybia) stereocephalus, B. & C. Pileo convexo, late

umbonato firmo brunneo-albo ; stipite farcto candido basi bul-

boso; lamellis albis adnatis utrinque rotundatis, Curt. no,

286 = Rev. M. J. Berkeley and Rev. M. A. Curtis’on new

5744, On the ground amongst fir-leaves in wet woods, Sept.

1856, C.J. Sprague.

Pileus 2 inches across, convex, very broadly umbonate, fleshy,

at length flat, smooth, brownish drab or white; flesh white, very

firm and hard; stem 8 inches high, } inch thick, bulbous at the

base, stuffed with satiny fibres, externally fibroso-cartilaginous,

twisted, flexuous, white; gills white, ventricose, moderately

broad, obtuse in front, rounded behind and adnate, crowded.’

Allied to A. maculatus. ;

59. A. (Collybia) /uteo-olivaceus, B. & C. Parvus, luteo-oliva-

ceus; pileo convexo-umbilicato glabro tenui; stipite leviter fis-

tuloso, subtiliter furfuraceo flexuoso; lamellis adnatis. Curt. ~

no. 5728. On old stumps in wet woods, Aug. 1856, C.J.

Sprague.

Pileus $ an inch across, convex, slightly umbilicate, thin,

smooth, opake when wet, shining when dry, olive-yellow; stem

1} inch long, 1 line thick, flexuous, minutely fistulose and

scurfy, of a dirty ochre; gills crowded, adnate, of the same colour

as the pileus, moderately broad. Spores white, subelliptic.

Evidently allied to A. trochilus.

60. A. (Collybia) semiherens, B. & C. Pileo convexo rufo

glabro; stipite gracili solido fusco, sursum pallido pubescente ;

lamellis distantibus ex albido luteo-fuscis adnexis. Curt.

no. 5528. On dead sticks amongst grass in woods, Connec-

ticut, C. Wright.

Pileus 4-3 inch across, convex, smooth, rufous, darker with

age; stem 2 inches high, not a line thick, dark brown, pale and

thicker above, clothed all over with short soft hairs ; gills whitish,

changing to pale’ yellowish brown, distant, adnexed, moderately

broad ; interstices veiny.

A very beautiful species.

61. A. (Mycena) intertextus, B.& C. Densissime ccespitosus ;

‘Se hemispherico, umbonato, demum expanso striato ; stipiti-

us villo connatis, subfragilibus ; lamellis distantibus, crasstus-

culis, adnatis. Curt. nos. 1741, 2557, 2558. On pine, South

Carolina, M. A. Curtis.

Pileus 3-8 lines across, carnoso-membranaceous, convex, um-

bonate, then expanded, pellucid, fusco-cinereous, margin paler,

striate; stems 2 inches high, } a line thick, fistulose, smooth

above and fuscous, pale below and joined intimately together by

matted down; gills white, thick, adnate.

A very beautiful and singular species. ?

62. A. (Mycena) connatipes, B. & C. Dense ceespitosus ; pileo

hemispheerico alutaceo ; stipitibus albis basi connatis ; lamellis

albido-flavis denti adnatis. Curt. no. 512. On the ground in

dense clusters, Upper Carolina, M. A. Curtis. | : ,

species of North American Fungi. ho 9p

Pileus 2—8 lines across, hemispherical, buff; stems 2 inches

long, 14 line thick, white, confluent at the base and rooting ;

gills whitish yellow, adnate, subdecurrent.

Allied to A. proliferus, from which it differs in its hemi-

spherical pilets, adnato-decurrent gills, &e.

63. A. (Omphalia) zanthophyllus, B. & C. Pileo depresso

rubro-purpureo, floccoso, margine striato; stipite flavo-albo

glabro subcompresso fistuloso deorsum attenuato subbulboso ;

Jamellis flavis decurrentibus. Curt. no. 2871. On the sides of

damp putrid logs, Aug., South Carolina, M. A. Curtis.

Pileus 2-3 inches across, depressed, floccose, red-purple ;

margin inflexed, somewhat striate; stem 3-4 inches long, }-3

inch thick, yellowish white, smooth, more or less compressed,

fistulose, tapering downwards, but bulbous at the base; gills

yellow, decurrent.

_ A very fine species, allied to A. chrysophyllus. There are two

other new allied species, which, however, we cannot describe

for want of sufficient materials.

63*, A. (Pleurotus) pulvinatus, P. Curt. no. 53896. On an

apple tree, Nov., New England, C. J. Sprague.

Pileus 33 inches across, very excentric, pulvinate, wrinkled.

and irregularly tessellated, of a dirty reddish-yellow white; flesh

firm, white, 1 inch thick; margin undulated, abruptly incurved ;

stem extremely short, thick, solid and fleshy; gills narrow,

yellowish white, decurrent or much attenuated, rather distant.

As this appears to be the plant of Persoon, which is little

known, we have given a description drawn up from Sprague’s

copious notes, which are accompanied by an excellent sketch.

Smell like that of fresh potatoes, or somewhat acid and fruity,

so strong as to scent the whole room.

64. A. (Pleurotus) barbatulus, B. & C. Pileo postice adnato

hispidulo, margine inflexo glabro ; lamellis distantibus tenuibus,

interstitiis levibus. Curt. no. 6390. On dead sticks, Boston,

D. Murray.

Somewhat imbricated. Pileus 4 an inch across, adnate behind,

convex in front, rough, except towards the inflexed margin, with

short downy hairs; stem none, gills distant, thin; edge some-

times slightly toothed ; interstices even, pulverulent in the young

lant.

3 Allied to A. atroceruleus. When dry, it is of a pale ochre, but

is probably pearly white when fresh. We have the same species

from Cuba, attaining an inch or more in diameter.

65. A. (Pleurotus) semicaptus, B. & C. Pileo e resupinato

breviter reflexo irregulari albido pulverulento ; margine crenato ;

lamellis angustis distantibus integris concoloribus. Curt. no.

5362. On dead branches of birch, New England, C.J. Sprague,

288 Rev. M.J. Berkeley and Rev. M. A. Curtis on new

Gregarious; pileus at first resupinate, then reflexed, about

4 inch across, irregular, narrow, dirty white, pulverulent, with

a little thin film extending on the matrix from the resupinate

portion ; margin waved or crenate; gills narrow, entire, distant,

of the same colour as the pileus. Spores cymbiform, white,

so05 ich long. .

A very curious and distinct species. Occasionally the white

film extends over the whole matrix.

66. A. (Pleurotus) Blakeii, B. & C. Paileo reniformi, conchato,

rufo, glabro, postice puberulo ; lamellis latis ventricosis tenuibus

subconcoloribus, interstitiis venosis. Curt. no. 6289. On dead

fir, Maine, Rev. J. Blake.

Pileus 4.an inch across, reniform, conchate, quite smooth, of

a deep red brown, obscurely downy behind; margin incurved ;

gills paler than the pileus, broad, ventricose, thin, distant ; in-

terstices veiny ; stem none,

67. A. (Pleurotus) candidissimus, B. & C. Niveus; pileo reni-

formi, 1. dimidiato, glabro, villo parco affixo, margine sulecato ;

lamellis distantibus, interstitiis levibus. Curt.no.6191. Maine,

C. J. Sprague.

Pileus 4 inch across, reniform or dimidiate, stemless, pure

white, opake, smooth, like kid-leather; margin suleate; gills

white, slightly ventricose, attenuated behind, moderately broad,

distant ; interstices even.

A very beautiful and delicate species.

68. A. (Pleurotus) racodium, B.& C. Pileo griseo, conchato,

atro-strigoso; lamellis griseis. Curt. no. 4058. On rotten

wood, Pennsylvania, Dr. Michener.

Pileus ~ inch across, conchiform, grey, clothed behind with

dense black bristle-like hairs; margin striate; gills of the same

colour as the pileus, moderately distant.

Closely allied to A. applicatus, but distinguished by the dense

black hairs, which make it look, when dry, like a Spheria.

69. A. (Volvaria) emendatior, B. & C. Pileo plano umbonato

glabro ; stipite sursum deorsumque incrassato, volva marginata ;

lamellis remotis. Curt. nos. 5074, 2546. On rich garden soil,

New England, C. J. Sprague; Lower Carolina, M. A. Curtis.

Pileus 3 inches across, flat, with an obtuse umbo, smooth,

white; margin thin, striate; stem 3 inches high, } inch thick,

slightly incrassated above and below, very slightly arachnoideo-

fibrous, solid ; volva forming merely a short rim ; gills ventricose,

remote, free and rounded behind, white; at length flesh-coloured,

extending in front beyond the rugged margin of the pileus, as

in Montagnites. Spores broadly cymbiform, gz, inch long.

Smell disagreeable, but not strong. In the button state the

pileus is areolate.

species of North American Fung. 289

70. A. (Pluteus) chrysophlebius, B. & Rav. Pileo convexo flavo

reticulato-rugoso ; stipite gracili basi hirsuto sub-bulboso; la-

mellis latis remotis ex albo carneis. On putrid hickory logs,

September, South Carolina, H. W. Ravenel.

Pileus 3 an inch across, convex, yellow, with darker reticu-

lated veins radiating from the centre; stem 1-2 inches high,

not 1 line thick, enlarged above, slightly bulbous, white and

hirsute at the base; gills broad, remote, white, then flesh-

coloured.

An exquisite species, allied to A. phlebophorus, from which it

differs in habit and in colour.

71. A. (Entoloma) Murraii, B.& C. Stramineus, pileo tenui

striato glabro; stipite gracili; lamellis latis distantibus adnexis.

Curt. no. 5800. In wet grounds, New England, D. Murray.

Straw-yellow. Pileus 1 inch across, convex, changing to a

rich red brown when dry, regularly striate ; margin crenulate ;

stem 2 inches high, | line thick; gills broad, distant, attenuated

behind and adnexed; interstices veined. Spores irregular,

330 inch long.

An extremely pretty species.

72. A. (Clitopilus) abortivus, B. & C. Pileo e convexo plano,

depresse-tomentoso griseo; stipite subsequali subtiliter floccoso

albido; lamellis decurrentibus carneis. Curt. no. 5737. In

damp wood, Sept., C. J. Sprague.

Pileus 2 inches or more across, at first convex, then plane,

clothed with close felted pubescence of a clear light grey,

smoother in age ; flesh compact ; margin incurved ; stem 3 inches

high, 4 inch thick, minutely downy, especially below, often

tufted and connate, nearly white, solid, with a loose shining

pith; gills strongly decurrent, crowded, thin, pale flesh-coloured,

becoming deeper in age. Spores irregular, not elongated and

even, as in A. prunulus, s>55 ch long. Often abortive, and

_ then presenting subglobose umbilicate downy masses.

Closely allied to A. popinalis, which is also frequently abor-

tive, but distinguished by its downy pileus and the gills not

being grey. The stem also appears to be firmer.

73. A. (Clitopilus) melilotus, B. & C. Graveolens; pileo con-

vexo centro depresso glabro ; stipite subzequali striato, fibrilloso ;

lamellis latis decurrentibus. Curt. no. 5798. On the ground,

New England, D. Murray. !

Pileus 2 inches across, convex, depressed in the centre, smooth ;

_ margin incurved; stem 24 inches high, 4 inch thick, striate,

fibrillose ; gills broad, thin, decurrent ; spores irregular, 3555

inch across.

This is evidently a very well-marked species, distinguished

by its strong scent of melilot when dry. We are able at present

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. iv. 19

290 Rev. M. J. Berkeley and Rev. M. A. Curtis on new

to characterize it very imperfectly, but it is too marked to be

omitted entirely.

74. A. (Leptonia) assularum, B.& C. Pileo e campanulato

explanato, umbonato glabro virgato albido; stipite fuligineo;

lamellis ex albo carneis secedentibus. Curt. no. 2842. On

rotten bits of wood in swamps, Sept., South Carolina, M. A.

Curtis.

Pileus 13 inch across, campanulate, then expanded, umbonate,

smooth, virgate, whitish with the centre dark; margin striate ;

flesh thin, stem nearly 3 inches high, 13 line thick, fuligimous,

flexuous, nearly equal; gills white, at length flesh-coloured, sub-

ventricose. Spores irregular.

Evidently distinct from the other white-gilled Leptonie which

grow on wood.

75. A. (Leptonia) variicolor, B. & C. . Pileo umbilicato glabro

pallide fusco; stipite farcto; lamellis postice abrupte attenuatis

adnatis purpureo-albis. Curt. no. 5530. Amongst bushes in

damp ground, Connecticut, C. Wright.

Pileus 3-14 inch broad, umbilicate, smooth, pale brown;

flesh thin; stem 2 inches high, 14 line thick, greenish blue,

smooth, stuffed with woolly fibres; gills broad, distant, some-

what ventricose, abruptly attennated. behind, and adnate, pale

purplish white. _ Spores irregular, 55455 inch in diameter.

Allied to A. asprellus.

76. A. (Nolanea) guadratus, B. &.C. Pileo membranaceo co-

nico demum reflexo aurantiaco-fusco ; stipite fistuloso aurantiaco-.

luteo; lamellis carneo-aurantiacis latis ventricosis. Curt. no.

5735. Amongst wet mosses in pine swamps, New England,

C. J. Sprague.

Pileus 13 inch across, membranaceous, at first obtusely coni-

cal, then depressed, striate, of a clear orange or brown orange ;

stem 3 inches high, tender, fistulose to the very top of the pileus,

orange-yellow; gills very broad, ventricose, almost triangular,

at first adnexed, then decurrent as the pileus becomes depressed,

of a beautiful incornate orange; spores, when seen from above,

quadrangular, +7';5 inch across, sometimes irregular.

One of the most splendid and singular species of the genus.

77. A. (Kecilia) pyrinus, B. & C. Graveolens; pileo umbili-

cato fusco; stipite compresso fistuloso; lamellis ‘albidis. . Curt.

no. 5066. In swampy ground, New England, C.J. Sprague.

Pileus 1 inch across, at first broadly convex, then flat, umbi-

licate, dark brown im the centre, grey at the crenate edge ; stem

13 inch high, 3-4 mch thick, hollow, at length compressed ;

gills whitish, slightly decurrent ; | spores irregular, angular.

Odour like that of ripe pears.

78, A. (Naucoria) siparioides, B. & C. Pileo hemispheerico

species of North American Fungi. 291

flavo-fusco subtiliter squamulato-verrucoso; stipite fistuloso fibril-

loso fusco, basi flavo-tomentoso ; lamellis latis secedentibus dis-

tantibus. Curt. no. 5051. On the mud of an exsiccated swamp,

New England, C. J. Sprague.

Pileus 3-? inch across, hemispherical, yellow-brown, minutely

and thickly squamulato-verrucose; flesh thin, brittle; stem

1 inch high, not 1 line thick, fistulose, brown, fibrillose at the

base, abruptly swollen, and covered with a dull pale-yellowish

down; gills plane, distant, attached, but soon free, and with

their edge denticulate; spores subelliptic, 75455 inch long.

This is undoubtedly close to A. sipartus, which sometimes

grows in the same kind of locality ; but in that species the spores

are gz'55 inch long, not to mention other points.

79. A. (Naucoria) pennsylvanicus, B. & C. Pileo e conico

umbilicato subcarnoso squamuloso ; stipite fibrilloso-furfuraceo ;

Jamellis latiusculis denticulatis adnexis subdistantibus. Curt.

nos. 3954, 956. Amongst fragments of wood, Pennsylvania,

Dr. Michener. :

Pileus about 1 inch broad, at first conical, obtuse, then ex-

panded and umbilicate, tawny, clothed with minute, erect, some-

times wart-like scales; stem 1 inch high, 1 line thick, hollow,

clothed with furfuraceous fibrils; gills rather broad, distant,

brown, edged with white denticulations; spores subelliptic,

La —xp5y inch long. |

2750 3000 ba '

‘The spores are much smaller than in A. conspersus, with which

it agrees in many respects.

80. A. (Crepidotus) malachius, B.& C. Sparsus; pileo cunei-

formi subflabellato albo molli; stipite brevissimo, albo tomen-

toso; lamellis ventricosis confertis ex albo flavidis. Curt. no.

5730. On the sides of old stumps in wet woods, New England,

Aug., C. J. Sprague.

Gregarious, but scattered, horizontal ; pileus 1-2 inches across,

smooth, white, cuneiform, subflabellate; flesh rather thick be-

hind, very thin in front ; stem 1—2 lines long, white, tomentose ;

gills at first white, then yellow-brown, ventricose, obtuse be-

hind, thin, crowded. Spores nearly globose, ;3455 inch in dia-

meter.

This species resembles A. nephrodes in the kid-like pileus,

but the gills and spores are very different.

81. A. (Crepidotus) pecten, B. & C. Pusillus; pileo pectini- .

formi crenato-suleato tomentoso e resupinato reflexo; lamellis

latiusculis umbrinis. Curt. no. 4991. On dead branches,

Upper Carolina, M. A. Curtis.

- Pileus 2 lines across, ochraceous, flabellate, strongly sulcate

and crenate, tomentose, attached by a little white down; stem

none; gills moderately broad, umber; margin fringed with

3 19%

292 Rev. M. J. Berkeley and Rev. M. A. Curtis on new

minute clavate hairs; spores subelliptic, pale ochre, soy9—s570

inch long. 2

Looks at first ike a minute Schizophyllum.

82. A. (Crepidotus) putrigena, B. & C. Imbricatus; pileo

subreniformi, albido tomentoso; margine striato; lamellis ex

albido ferrugineis. Curt. no. 2566. On damp rotten logs, Dec.,

Santee Canal, South Carolina, H. W. Ravenel.

Densely imbricated ; pileus 3-? inch or more across, subreni-

form, dirty white, tonientose; clothed with thicker white down

at the point of attachment ; margin slightly striate ; stem none ;

gills broad, at first dirty white, then ferruginous from the spores ;

spores nearly globose, s;455 inch in diameter.

This is at once distinguished, without other marks, by the

subglobose spores resembling those of A. malachius and ne-

phrodes.

If this is the same as an Agaric sent me by Mr. Ravenel,

which agrees in the spores, it attains much larger dimensions.

83. Coprinus Spragueit, B. & C. Tenerrimus; pileo e cam-

panulato conico tomentoso plicato; stipite fistuloso pallide cin-

namomeo; lamellis paucis angustis. Curt. no. 5303. In wet

springy eround, New England, C. J. Sprague.

Pileus ? inch across, at first campanulate, then conical, pale

brown, darker in the centre, downy, plicate, interstices pale ; ;

stem 2 inches high, 1 line thick, pale cinnamon, fistulose ; gills

few, narrow, tender, brown; spores subcymbiform, z;'5y inch

long.

This is clearly different from C. plicatilis; and the difference

is confirmed by the spores being narrower and smaller. The

same species, apparently, occurs in Pennsylvania and Upper Ca-

rolina (4289 & 485).

84. C. Wright, B.& C. Pileo ex ovali plano striato glauco

furfuraceo ; stipite fistuloso glabro; lamellis liberis cinereis.

Curt. no. 5534. On little bits of grass, &c., im flower-pots,

Connecticut, C. Wright.

Pileus j-3 inch broad, at first oval, then flat and expanded,

radiato-striate, of a glaucous grey, with small brown chaffy

specks; stem 2 inches high, not 3 a line thick, whitish, smooth,

pellucid, fistulose, attached by a ‘little down at the base ; gills

moderately distant, narrow, free, dark grey; spores subcymbi-

form, zs'x¢ inch long.

A minute but distinct species.

85. Hygrophorus cerulescens, B. & C. Pileo plano subumbo-

nato viscido czruleo-alutaceo ; stipite glabro pallide ceruleo ;

lamellis distantibus crassis decurrentibus pileo obscurioribus.

Curt. no. 5434. In woods, amongst dead leaves and sticks,

which adhere to it, New England, C. J. Sprague.

_species of North American Fungt. 293

Pileus 2 inches across, nearly flat, thick and obtuse in the

centre, viscid when moist, shining with a satiny lustre when

dry, of a delicate blue-drab ; stem 23 inches high, 4 inch thick,

attenuated downwards, smooth, pale blue, at first firm, then soft

and hollow; gills few, rather thick and fleshy, decurrent, darker

than the pileus; interstices corrugated.

A very beautiful species.

86. H. aurantiaco-luteus, B. & C. Pusillus, aurantiacus ; pileo

e convexo subumbilicato striato glabro ; stipite gracili; lamellis

arcuatis decurrentibus. Curt. no. 5571. Amongst moss (Di-

cranum), Connecticut, C. Wright.

Gregarious, deep orange. ileus ; inch across, at first con-

vex, then flat or somewhat depressed, smooth, striate; stem

13 inch high, not 1 line thick, attenuated downwards, smooth ;

gills arched, strongly decurrent.

This species has precisely the habit of Agaricus fibula.

87. Lactarius hygrophoroides, B.& C. Pusillus; pileo sicco

pulverulento stipiteque brevi flavo-rubris ; lamellis decurrentibus,

distantibus, luteis; interstitiis rugosis. Curt. no. 6194. On

the ground, Aug., Maine, C. J. Sprague.

Pileus 14 inch across, convex, at length plane, pulverulent,

yellowish red; stem not 1 inch high, 3 inch thick, of the same

colour as the pileus; gills very distant, decurrent, yellowish ;

interstices rugose.

This species has somewhat the habit of L. volemum.

*L. calceolus, B. Two forms of this curious species occur in

New England, a larger and a smaller.

88. L. subtomentosus, B. & Rav. Pileo subtomentoso com-

pacto stipiteque cavo basi albo-umbrinis ; lamellis latis distan-

tibus decurrentibus albidis; lacte ex albo flavescente acrido.

On the ground in swamps, South Carolina, Sept., H. W. Ravenel.

Pileus 2-3 inches across, convex, umber-brown, dry, sub-

tomentose, firm; stem 1 inch high, 4 inch thick, of the same

colour as the pileus, except at the base, where it is white, hol-

low ; gills distant, broad, decurrent ; milk-white, becoming yel-

lowish, acrid.

Allied to Lactarius fuliginosus.

89. Cantharellus princeps, B. & C. Maximus, aurantiacus ;

pileo infundibuliformi-rugoso, stipite deorsum attenuato ; plicis

reticulatis. Curt. no. 6196. Maine, C. J. Sprague.

Orange. Pileus 5 inches or more across, deeply infundibuli-

form, rugose ; stem 5% inches high, 1 inch thick, attenuated

downwards; folds forming an open network.

This is the largest of the genus, and most distinct. Unfor-

tunately we cannot give a more perfect description, as we have

no notes.

294 Rev. M. J. Berkeley and Rev. M. A. Curtis on new

90. C. Petersii, B. & C. Pusillus; pileo depresso. sub-

zonato stipiteque gracili dealbatis; plicis distantibus decurren-

tibus ; interstitiis venosis. Curt. no. 6077. Amongst moss at

the base of trees, Alabama, Hon. J. M. Peters.

Pileus 1 inch across, depressed, white, opake, with one or two

concentric furrows; stem 1 inch high, 1 line thick, white like

the pileus; folds moderately broad, distant, decurrent ; inter-

stices wrinkled.

Resembling somewhat the white variety of C. awrantiacus, but

a smaller plant, with broader folds.

91. C. lignatilis, B. & C. Rufus; pileo tenui infundibuli-

formi striato glabro; stipite subsequali plicis tenuibus decur-

rentibus. Curt. no. 1979. On rotten logs, South Carolina,

H. W. Ravenel.

Reddish brown ; pileus 2 inches across, smooth, infundibuli-

form, deeply striate; stem 2 inches or more high, 7-3 inch

thick, smooth ; folds thin, decurrent.

Of this we have no notes; but the peculiar habitat and cha-

racters will distinguish it.

92. C. Wrightu, B.& C. Pileo plano demum depresso, pal-

lide rubro; stipite solido striato rufescente sursum incrassato ;

plicis demum decurrentibus glauco-rubris; interstitiis venosis.

Curt. no. 5559. On the ground in the shade of trees, Connee-

ticut, C. Wright. !

Pileus 3-13 inch across, plane, at length depressed, dull red,

edge irregularly deflexed; stem 14 inch high, 2 lines thick,

solid, striate, somewhat fibrous, brownish red, incrassated up-

wards ; folds at first free, at length decurrent, waved, of a pale

glaucous red; interstices veined; spores fusiform, with the

endochrome retracted to either extremity, 3z/;y inch long.

Analogous to Agaricus laccatus.

93. Marasmius velutipes, B. & C. Pileo umbilicato tenui -

striato ocbraceo-fusco, |. fusco; stipite striato velutino pallido,

1. basi ferrugineo; lamellis angustis confertis adnexis. Curt.

no. 2548. On leaves in dried swamps, Aug., M. A. Curtis.

Pileus 4—? inch across, ochraceous, brown or dark brown,

thin, dry, striate, umbilicate: stem 13-2 inches high, 1 line

thick, straight, clothed with pale velvety down, sometimes a little

tawny below, hollow ; gills narrow, crowded, pale, slightly adnate.

Differing materially from M. archyropus in the nature of the

clothing of the stem, and from M. spongiosus in the more

crowded narrow gills and umbilicate pileus.

94, M. Olneti, B. & C. Pileo convexo glabro rufescente

striato ; stipite albo subtiliter pulverulento-tomentoso insititio ;

lamellis liberis collariatis albis. Curt. no. 1821. On dead twigs,

Rhode Island, Olney.

species of North American Fungi. 295

Pileus 4 inch across, convex, smooth, striate, pale rufous;

stem 13 inch high, not a line thick, white, minutely pulverulent-

tomentose, especially below; gills white, distant, minutely

toothed, free, forming by their junction a little collar round the

top of the stem. .

95. M. viticola, B. & C. Pileo depresso subcoriaceo tenui

sulcato striato rufo ; stipite brevi insititio fusco pruinoso, furfu-

raceo; lamellis pallidis distantibus; interstitiis levibus. Curt.

no. 4604. On dead vine branches, Alabama, Hon. J. M.-Peters.

Pileus 2 of an inch broad, dry, subcoriaceous, depressed, sul-

cato-striate, pale rufous; stem 1 inch high, dark brown, pul-

verulent; gills distant, pale, slightly adnate, moderately broad,

ventricose ; interstices even.

The stems are sometimes confluent.

96. M. pruinatus,B. & C. Pileo campanulato sulcato prui-

nato rugoso; stipite setiformi nitido cinereo; lamellis paucis,

interstitiis levibus. Curt. no. 5064. On little bits of grass,

&c., New England, C. J. Sprague.

Pileus 4 an inch across, campanulate, pale umber, pruinose,

minutely wrinkled ; stem 2 inches high, setiform, pale cinereous

or tinged with reddish brown, shining with a satiny lustre ;

gills ochraceous, few, distant, interstices even. A thin white

mycelium like a corticium spreads over the matrix.

_ 97. Heliomyces decolorans, B. & C. Albus, exsiccatione rufus ;

pileo glabro rugoso sulcato; stipite rigido nitido; lamellis latis

decurrentibus. Curt. no. 6079. On dead wood, Alabama,

Hon. J. M. Peters.

- Pileus 1 inch or more across, white at first as well as the gills,

but changing in drying to a deep tawny brown, smooth, wrin-

kled, sulcate ; stem 2 inches high, shining, more permanent in

colour, but sometimes becoming rufous; gills broad, distant,

decurrent ; interstices wrinkled.

The change of colour is exactly that which takes place in

Hygrophorus eburneus.

98. Pazillus rudis, B.&C. Pileo subcuneiformi sordide fla-

vido tomentoso, margine inflexo ; stipite nullo; lamellis crassi-

usculis obtusis postice costatis. Curt. no. 5521. On pine

timber of a railroad embankment, growing horizontally in the

crevices between the timbers, Connecticut, C. Wright.

Pileus 2 inches or more across, tomentose, dirty yellow brown,

wedge-shaped when growing freely, but often attached behind

with a narrow reflected. margin, which is strongly imcurved ;

stem none; gills rather thick, obtuse, costate behind, ferrugi-

nous, not reticulate; spores dirty yellow, subelliptic, with a

pase globose nucleus and hyaline gelatinous coat, yy'79 inch

ong.

296 = Dr. J. E, Gray on a new Antelope from Africa.

Undoubtedly allied to Pawillus panuoides, but at once distin-

guished by the peculiar spores. |

99. Panus strigosus, B. & C. Maximus; pileo excentrico de-

presso stipiteque valido strigosis ; lamellis latis distantibus de-

currentibus. Curt. nos. 6197, 5170. On oak stumps, New

England, C. J-Sprague; Pennsylvania, Dr. Michener.

White; pileus 8 inches across, excentric, clothed with coarse

strigose pubescence; margin thin; stem 2-3 inches high, 1 inch

or more thick, strigose like the pileus; gills broad, distant,

decurrent.

Allied to Panus levis. :

100. Panus operculatus, B. & C. Fasciculato-erumpens ; pileo

cupuleformi apice affixo rufo furfuraceo-villoso glabrescente ;

lamellis angustis tenuibus primum velo operculatis. | Curt.

no. 5697: On bark, New England, D. Murray. )

Fasciculate, erumpent; pileus cup-shaped, 4 an:inch or more

across, fixed by the apex, rufous, clothed with scurfy pubescence,

which at length vanishes; gills narrow, of the same colour as

the pileus, at first covered by a tympanoid veil.

Allied to P. Delastrii, Mont.

XXXII.—Notice of a new Antelope (Kobus) from Central Africa.

By Joun Epwarp Gray, F.R.S.

Tue British Museum has lately received, through Mr. Samuel

Stevens, a number of heads and horns of Antelopes, &c., from

Awan Bahr il Gazal (lat. 6° 70! N.), in Central Africa, which have

been brought to England by Mr. Petherick, who has been in

the country collecting ivory, &e, I will first give a list of the.

animals brought, to show their geographical range, and then

proceed to give a short notice of the new species.

1. Bos Taurus, Gray, Cat. of Ungulata in Coll. B. M. p. 17.

Variety with the horns elongate and subspiral. Nader-Sobat,

lat. 11°N. ;

2. Bubalus Caffer, Gray, Cat. p. 28. Horns.

3. Adenota Lechée, Gray, Cat. p. 98. Male skin, in a bad

state; skull of half-grown male and female. Awan and Raik.

4. Kobus Maria, n. s.. Two heads, male and female. Awan.

5. Kobus ellipsrymnus, p. 99. Head of male and female.

Raik.

6. Alcelaphus Bubalis, p. 123. Several heads, of both sexes.

Djour.

7. Damalis Senegalensis, p. 126. Head of male and females.

Azack.

8. Tragelaphus sylvatica, p. 189. Head of male.

Dr. J. E. Gray on a new Antelope from Africa. 297

9. Giraffa Camelopardalis, p. 181. Head of male; pale

variety.

10. Rhinoceros bicornis,. Skull, with horns of a large size;

half-grown.

11. Hippopotamus amphibius. Skull. From Senaar, lat.

12° 13’ N.

I propose to name the new species, after my wife, who has so

assisted me in my studies,

Kobus Maria,

Head of Male.

Head of male blackish-brown; lips, chin, gullet, orbits and tem-

ple enclosing the base of the ears, and the ears, whitish; the

sides of the nose brownish; the hair of the cheek, side of the

lower jaw, gullet, and upper part (all that remains) of the neck

elongate, rigid ; the horns elongate, rather slender, widely lyrate,

with very strong transverse ridges and incurved tips.

Head of female brown, with the chin and gullet, base of the

ears, and two small spots (one over the front and the other be-

hind the lower edge of the eye) whitish; the hair of the head

black, with brown tips; of the lower part of the cheek, lower

jaw, and neck very long. Hornless.

298 Bibliographical Notices.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.

Reports of Explorations and Surveys to ascertain the most practi-

cable and Economical Route for a Railroad from the Mississippi

River to the Pacific Ocean, made under the Direction of the

Secretary of War in 1853-6. Vol. x. Washington, 1859. 4to.

We have already on two occasions noticed the work of which the

present volume forms a part, as containing large and valuable con-

tributions towards our knowledge of the Fauna and Flora of North

America, and we have explained the circumstances which led to its

production. The 10th volume, which has now been received, con-

tains the 3rd and 4th Parts of the General Report upon the Zoology,

and the separate Reports of several of the different Expeditions upon

the same subject. Of the General Report upon the Reptiles of

North America we are forced to content ourselves with the plates

only, the War Department having “considered it advisable to omit

the publication” of this portion of the work on account of “ the

General Natural History Reports having been extended so much

beyond the limits originally contemplated.” We do not thank the

War Office for this. After bearing the burden of the nine thick

quarto volumes already issued, it was hardly worth while to kick at

the few sheets of letter-press necessary for the General Report on

Reptiles, for which the plates had been already prepared. We fear,

after all, that the Government at Washington have not quite liberated

themselves from the penny-wise and pound-foolish system which

prevails in relation to scientific undertakings on this side of the

Atlantic. However, the plates, of themselves, will be of great assist-

ance to those who are attempting to follow Messrs. Baird and Girard

into the numerous new genera and species which they have created

amongst the American animals of this class, and may, we hope, con-

vince European naturalists of the validity of these new subdivisions,

concerning which at present they seem to be rather incredulous*.

The General Report on the Fishes collected by the Expeditions,

of which the War Department have favoured us with the letter-press

as well as the plates, next follows. It is from the pen of Dr. Charles

Girard, and, in our opinion, contrasts rather unfavourably with those

upon the Mammals and Birds, already issued. The subdivision of

genera is here carried to an almost incredible extent ; the numerous

supposed new species are but shortly and imperfectly characterized ;

and the whole execution, particularly from the misprints being glaring

and numerous, bears evident marks of haste. For all that, such a

general résumé of the present state of our knowledge of this class of

animals, as found in the North American continent, cannot be other-

wise than an important work, and one that the ichthyologists of

Europe will do well to make themselves well acquainted with.

* See ‘ Catalogue of Colubrine Snakes in the Collection of the British ~

Museum,’ by Dr. A. Giinther (London, 1858), and the same author’s

remarks in Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858, p. 385,

Bibliographical Notices. 299

The remainder of the volume is occupied by the special Zoological

Reports of some of the separate Expeditions sent out to survey the

Pacific Railroad routes,—namely, of those under the commands of

Lieutenants Beckwith, Whipple, Parke, Williamson, and Abbott.

It would have been better, we think, to have merged all these Re-

ports into the General Report, and to have issued the whole in one

connected series. It is tiresome to be referred from the Special

Report to the General for the description of a species or the characters

of a genus, and from the General to the Special for remarks on the

habits of animals, their mode of propagation, &c. But it is easy to

criticize ; and all the points to which we have alluded detract but

little from the great general value of this work. We fear it will be

long before our own Government issues a series of ‘‘ Blue-books”’ so

generally acceptable to the scientific world, or so likely to escape the

usual fate of the British article—being sold for waste paper.

Animal Physiology. By Wiiu1aM B. Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S.,

_F.G.8., F.L.S. New edition, thoroughly revised and partly re-

written. Sm. 8vo. London, H. G. Bohn, 1859.

Or the series of scientific manuals prepared many years ago by

Dr. Carpenter, and published by W. S. Orr and Co. of Amen Corner,

the treatise on Animal Physiology was certainly one of the best. It has

already passed through two or three editions ; and we have now to

announce the publication of a new edition thoroughly revised by the

author.

The book has undergone considerable alterations in many parts,

in order to bring it up to the present state of science ; and three

chapters especially have been almost entirely re-written. These are:

the first chapter, treating “of the vital operations of animals, and

the instruments by which they are performed,” which contains an

excellent digest of the distinctive characters of animals, with an ac-

count of the nature of their various tissues and the chemical consti-

tuents of the latter; the second chapter, giving a general view of the

classification of the animal kingdom, which is greatly improved ;

and the last chapter, which treats of the phzenomena of reproduc-

tion. The changes in the latter are very extensive, as may be sup-

posed from the great progress made within the last few years in our

knowledge of these matters; and the reader will find in it a very

good, although succinct account, not only of the ordinary develop-

ment of the ovum, but also of the alternation of generations, and of

the singular phenomena to which Siebold restricts the term Par-

thenogenesis. On the whole, we may safely recommend the present

edition of Dr. Carpenter’s little book as the best popular account of

the structure and functions of the animal body for the use of the

general reader.

300 Royal Society :—

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.

ROYAL SOCIETY.

[Received May 30, 1859. ]

‘On the frequent Occurrence of Vegetable Parasites in the Hard

Structures of Animals.” By Professor A. Kolliker, of Wirzburg.

As far as I am aware, Quekett was the first to point out that

vegetable parasites, viz. Conferve, occur frequently in the skeleton

of Corals (Lectures on Histology, vol. ii. p. 153. fig. 78. and p. 276) ;

but although he mentions in the same place that the ¢ubulz described

by Carpenter in the shells of Bivalves have also a great resemblance

to Conferve, he did not venture any further step, and he adheres

to the view of Carpenter, who regards them as a typical structure.

Some years later, Rose (‘‘On Parasitic Borings in Fossil Fish-

Scales,’’ Transactions of the Microscopical Society of London, vol. x.

p- 7, 1855) discovered a peculiar tubular structure in fossil fish-

scales, which he regarded as being occasioned by parasites, and

possibly by Infusoria, but he was not able to give any good proof

of this hypothesis. The same must be said of E. Claparéde (Mill.

Archiv, 1857, p. 119), who found similar canals in the shell of

Neritina fluviatilis, and showed that they do not really belong to

the shell—without being happier in determining the nature of the

parasite, only suggesting that it might possibly be a sponge.

Such was the state of things, when Prof. Wedl of Vienna and myself,

independently of each other, took up the question. The observations

of Wedl, which concern only the parasites of the shells of Bivalves

and Gasteropods, were communicated to the Vienna Academy on the

14th of October, 1858, and are therefore previous to my own, which

were presented to our Wurzburg Society on the 14th of May, 1859 ;

but Ireceived Wedl’s memoir only on the 1 6th of May, and may there-

fore say that my observations, which, besides, are extended over man

more groups of animals, were quite independent of those of the

Austrian microscopist. This being the case, it may be regarded as a

good proof of the correctness of our observations and the truth of

our conclusions, that we agree in the principal facts, there being

only this discrepancy between us, that Wedl calls the parasites Con-

Serve, whilst I regard them as Unicellular Fungi. The botanists

will decide this question better than we; only I beg leave to say that

all the numerous parasites observed by myself were unicellular, and

that the sporangia were quite of the same kind as those of uni-

cellular fungi. I may further add that the frequent anastomoses

of the parasitic tubes remind one of the anastomoses observed in the

mycelium of some unicellular fungi, whereas such connexions have

not yet, so far as I know, been observed amongst the Conferve.

I now give a short enumeration of the animals in whose skeleton

I observed these vegetable parasites.

Prof. A. Kolliker on Vegetable Parasites in Animals. 301

1. Spongie.

Two undetermined species of sponges, which I obtained through

the kindness of Mr. Bowerbank, show a great many parasitical tubes

in the horny fibres of their skeleton. These are most elegant and

numerous in one species from Australia, in which the tubes form a

superficial network in the outermost parts of the horny sponge-fibres

and straighter canals in their interior, and possess a great many

round sporangia, which in some cases even showed young outgrowths

in the form of short ramifying tubes. !

2. Foraminifera.

In an extensive collection of sections of Foraminifera which I owe

to the kindness of my friend Prof. Carpenter, there were many

genera which showed numerous filaments of fungi in their shell itself,

viz. Polystomella, Orbitolina, Heterostegina, Amphistegina, Cal-

carina, Alveolina, and Operculina. The last genus shows best that

these parasitic tubes, which sometimes are very large, are quite

different from the two kinds of tubes rightly described by Carpenter

as belonging to the shell itself. They generally run at right angles

to the finer tubuli, and are easily distinguished from both kinds of

typical tubuli by their irregular course, and by their frequent branch-

ing, and even anastomosing. They are absent in many specimens

of the above-named genera, and could not be found in Cycloclypeus,

Nummulina, and Nonionina.

3. Corals.

All the genera of Corals which I investigated contained parasitical

fungi, viz. Astrea diffusa, Porites clavaria, Tubipora musica,

Corallium rubrum, Oculina diffusa, Oculina, sp., Alloporina mirabilis,

Madrepora cornuta, Lobalia prolifera, Millepora alcicornis, Fungia,

sp. The fungi were most frequent in the genera Tubipora, Astrea,

Porites, and Oculina, the last three of which contained also many spo-

rangia, which in the red coral were very scarce and. often wanting.

4. Bivalves.

I agree with Wedl that the tubuli described by Carpenter in the

shells of Bivalves are all parasites. Many of them agree in every

respect with those found in other hard structures of the Inver-

tebrata, of whose parasitical nature there can be no doubt; and even

possess sporangia, as those of Thracia, Lima, Cleidotherus, Anomia,

Ostrea, Meleagrina. With respect to those of the genera Litho-

domus, Arca, Pectunculus, Nucula, Cardium, it is true that their’

straight course and more regular distribution speak in favour of their

typical occurrence; but as in some cases true parasites also are ver

regularly distributed through the shells, there can be no doubt that

even these do not really belong to the structure of the shells.

5. Brachiopods.

The test of some Terebratule shows, besides the large well-known

canals, minute tubuli running straight through the fibres. A vertical

302 Royal Society.

section of Terebratula australis, which I got from Prof. Carpenter,

showed that the minute canals referred to belong to a vegetable

parasite of the same kind as those of the Bivalves.

6. Gasteropods.

Nearly all examined Gasteropods, viz. Cerithium tuberculatum,

Aporrhais pes-Pelecani, Turbo rugosus, Murex brandaris, Murex

trunculus, Haliotis, Vermetus, Trochus, Littorina littorea, Terebra

myurus, Tritonium eretaceum, contained vegetable parasites in their

shells ; and in some these were as numerous as in the Bivalves, and

showed also sporangia. Besides these fungi, the shell of Trochus

also contained in its most superficial layers unicellular pyriform algee —

with green contents. |

7. Annelids.

Even in this group the unicellular parasites were found, viz. in

the calcareous tubes of two Serpule from the Scotch coast.

8. Cirrhipeds.

The same parasites also occurred very numerously in the shells of a

large Balanus. On the other hand, the genera Diadema and Lepas

were free from them ; and with regard to the straight tubes of Polli-

cipes described by Quekett, which also occur in Tudicinella, I am

inclined to reckon them amongst the typical structures.

9. Fishes.

The scales of Beryzx ornatus, from the clay, contain very numerous

and pretty parasitic structures, which almost exactly agree with those

figured by Rose in his fig. 5.. They undoubtedly also belong to the

simplest form of fungi, but are of greater interest, inasmuch as they

are fossil and seem to constitute a new genus. I was not able to find

parasites in any other fish-scales, notwithstanding that I examined

scales of all living and many fossil species of Ganoids and many

Teleostet.

These are the facts which I have been able to gather, up to this

time... I have no doubt that-all will ageee with me in regarding this

question as one of great interest for the zoologist as well as for the

‘botanist. The former will now be obliged to study these parasitical

structures as thoroughly as possible, in order to decide which tubular

structures of the hard tissues of animals are typical and which are .

not ; and for the botanist a new field of investigation is opened, which

not only draws attention by the somewhat strange forms offered for

investigation, but is also of great interest in a physiological point of

view. It seems to me probable that the parasites dissolve the car-

bonate of lime of the hard structures into which they penetrate, by

means of an exudation of carbonic acid, which secretion would seem

to take place only at the growing ends of the fungial tubes, as they

never lie in larger cavities, but are always closely surrounded by the

calcareous mass. In some cases, as in the horny fibres of sponges,

it seems probable that the parasites simply bore their canals by

Zoological Society. 303

mechanical force, as is the case when vegetable parasites make their

way through the cell-membranes of Conferve or other plants.

Besides this, it deserves also to be remembered that nearly all the

parasites here spoken of occur in marine animals.

In concluding this notice, I may further mention that these

parasites affurd an excellent means for demonstrating the doudle-

refracting power of the shells of the several genera mentioned in

this communication. I was first struck with this fact in examining

a horizontal section of Lima scabra obtained from Dr. Carpenter,

and finding that many tubuli appeared double. In following this

matter, it was easy to show that all the tubuli running in a certain

direction, and in an oblique way through the section, appeared

simple at the upper surface of it, and became double in the inferior

layers, so that the distance of the two images increased with the.

shortening of the focus. When the preparation was inverted, the

reverse was the case. The same phenomena as in Lima were also

observed in Anomia, Ostrea, Murex truncatus, Turbo rugosus,

Tritonium cretaceum, and Balanus, the shells of which animals have

therefore all such a structure that they refract the light in the same

way as the well-known double-refracting crystals*.

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

January 11, 1859.—Dr. Gray, F.R.S., V.P., in the Chair.

Nores on THE “ Moorvuxk”’ (Casvarius BENNETTII!).

By Grorce BENNETT.

On the 26th of October 1858, the ‘Oberon’ cutter of forty-eight

tons arrived in Sydney, having two fine young specimens of the

**Mooruk ” on board, stated to be male and female. On going on

board I found them confined in a very small space ; and the Captain

informed me he had had them eight months, that he procured

them soon after his arrival at New Britain for Sydney, and since

that time had been trading about the islands, having these birds on

board; they were fed principally upon yams. I observed they were

in poor condition, but healthy in appearance, and plumage in good

order. They were about half the size of the specimen sent to En-

gland; but one, apparently the male bird, appeared a little larger

than the other. Captain Devlin informs me that the natives capture

them very young, soon after they are hatched, and rear them b

hand. The natives rarely or never can capture the adult bird, as

they are so very shy and difficult of approach—the native weapons

being ineffectual against so rapid and wary a bird. These birds are

very swift of foot, and possess great strength in the legs; on the

* According to Brewster (Bibl. Univ. de Genéve, 1836, ii. 182), who seems the

only person who has hitherto observed the double-refracting power of a shell,

viz. of the mother-of-pearl, that shell (Meleagrina) shows the same phenomena

as the double-axed double-refracting Arragonite,—on which question [ am not as

yet able to give an opinion.

304. Zoological Society :—

least alarm they elevate the head, and, seeing danger, dart among

the thick brush, and thread about in localities where no human

being could follow them, and disappear like magic. This bird, with

its strong legs and muscular thighs, has an extraordinary power of

leaping: it was from this circumstance the first bird brought from

New Britain was lost: from its habit of leaping, it one day made a

spring on the deck and went overboard ; as it was blowing a strong

breeze at the time, the bird perished. In warm weather, the Captain

informs me, they are fond of having a bucket of salt water thrown

over them, and seem to enjoy it very much. I succeeded in pur-

chasing these birds; and Captain Slater (the present commander of

the ‘Oberon’) brought them to my house in a cab; and when

placed in the yard, they walked about as tame as turkeys. They

‘approached any one that came into the yard, pecking the hand as if

desirous of being fed, and were very docile. They began by pecking

at a bone in the yard, probably not having tasted any meat for some

time, and would not, while engaged upon it, touch some boiled pota-

toes which were thrown to them; indeed we found afterwards they

fed better out of a dish than from the ground—no doubt, having been

accustomed early to be fed in that manner. They were as familiar

as if born and bred among us for years, and did not require time to

reconcile them to their new situation, but became sociable and quite

at home at once. We found them next day rather too tame, or, like

spoilt pets, too often in the way. One or both of them would walk

into the kitchen ; while one was dodging under the tables and chairs,

the other would leap upon the table, keeping the cook in a state of

excitement ; or they would be heard chirping in the hall, or walk into

the library in search of food or information, or walk up stairs, and

then be quickly seen descending again, making their peculiar chirping,

whistling noise; not a door could be left open, but in they walked,

familiar with all. They kept the servants constantly on the alert: if

the servant went to open the door, on turning round she found a

“‘Mooruk” behind her ; for they seldom went together, generally

wandering apart. from each other. If any attempt was made to

turn them out. by force, they would dart rapidly round the room,

dodging about under the tables, chairs, and sofas, and then end by

squatting down under a sofa or in acorner ; and it was impossible to

remove the bird, except by carrying it away : on attempting this, the

long, powerful, muscular legs would begin kicking and struggling, and

soon get released, when it would politely walk out of its own accord.

I found the best method was to entice them out, as if you had some-

thing eatable in the hand, when they would follow the direction in

which you wished to lead them. They sometimes also give a smart

kick to any person attempting to turn them out forcibly. The house-

maid attempting to turn the bird out of one of the rooms, it gave her

a kick and tore her dress whilst she was very politely driving him

before her. They walk into the stable among the horses, poking

their bills into the manger. When writing in my study, a chirping,

whistling noise is heard; the door, which was ajar, is pushed open ;

and in walk the “ Mooruks,’’ who quietly pace round the room, in-

Mr. G. Bennett on the ** Mooruk.” 805

specting everything, and then as peaceably go out again. If any

attempt is made to turn them out, they leap and dodge about, and

exhibit a wonderful rapidity of movement, which no one would sup-

pose possible from their quiet gait and manner at other times. Even

in the very tame state of these birds, I have seen sufficient of them

to know that, if they were loose in,a wood, it would be impossible to

catch them, and almost as difficult to shoot them. One day, when

apparently frightened at something that occurred, I saw one of them

scour round the yard at a swift pace, and speedily disappear under

the archway so rapidly that the eye could hardly follow it, upsetting

all the poultry in its progress, as they could not get out of the way.

The lower half of the stable-door, about 4 feet high, was kept shut

to prevent them going in; but this proved no obstacle, as it was

easily leaped over by these birds. ‘They never appeared to take any

notice of, or be frightened at, the Jabiru or Gigantic Crane, which

was in the same yard, although that sedate, stately bird was not

pleased at their intrusion. One day I remarked the Jabiru spread-

ing his long wings, and clattering his beak, opposite one of the

‘**Mooruks,”’ as if in ridicule of their wingless condition. ‘‘ Mooruk,”’

on the other hand, was pruning its feathers and spreading out its

funny little apology for wings, as if proud of displaying the stiff

horny shafts with which they were adorned. The ‘ Mooruks”’ often

throw up all their feathers, ruffling them; and then they suddenly

fall flat as before : they appear to have great power in raising all the

feathers ; and the wings are used to aid them in running, but never

seem used for defence. Captain Devlin says, the natives consider

them to a certain degree sacred, and rear them as pets; he is not

aware that they are used as food, but if so, not generally ; indeed

their shy disposition and power of rapid running, darting through

the brake and bush, would almost preclude their capture. It re-

minds me (from the description) of the habits of the Menura, or Lyre-

bird of Australia ; only it is much larger and more powerful in its

actions. The natives carry them in their arms, and are very kind

to and have a great affection for them; this will account for their

domesticated state with us.

The noise of these birds, when in the yard, resembled that of the

female Turkey; at other times the peculiar chirping noise was ac-

companied by a whistling sound also. The contrast of these birds

with the Jabiru was very great. The “‘ Mooruks” were sometimes

moving about like the female Turkey in rapid motion or excite-

ment, or, when walking quietly, always inquisitive and poking their

beaks into everything and familiar with every person. ‘The Jabiru,

on the other hand, was a perfect picture of sedate quietness, looking

upon all play as injurious to his constitution or derogatory to his

dignity, remaining stiff in his gait and serious in his demeanour.

Only one egg was brought, and that was partly broken; I have it

in my possession. The Captain informs me that they can be pro-

cured from the natives, and have generally a hole in them about the

size of a shilling, through which the contents have been extracted.

The height of the largest or male bird, to the top of the back, wa

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. iv. 20

306 Zoological Society :—

2 feet 2 inches, and of the female 2 feet. The height of the largest

or male bird, when erect, to the top of the head, was 3 feet 2 inches,

and of the female 3 feet.

DESCRIPTION OF THE ADULT STATE OF VOLUTA MAMILLA,

Gray. By Dr, J. E. Gray, F.R.S., V.P.Z:8., erc.

We have had in the British Museum for years a young specimen

of a shell from Van Diemen’s Land, which I named Voluta ma-

milla, It is figured under that name in Sowerby’s ‘ Conchological

Thesaurus,’ t, 50. f, 57, 58; it is described by me in my ‘‘ Obser-

vations on the Species of Volutes,’’ Proc, Zool. Soe, 1855, p. 55,

under the name of Scapha mamilla ; and it is noticed under the genus

Cymbium by the Messrs, A. and. H. Adams, in their ‘Genera of

Mollusca.’

But many eonchologists have been inclined to regard this specimen

as a mere monstrosity of some other species,—an idea that could only

have been entertained by such as were ignorant of the general struc-

ture and physiology of molluscous animals. |

We have lately received from Van Diemen’s Land three fine spe-

cimens of this shell,—two of them fully grown, and the other inter-

mediate in size between the young specimen we formerly possessed

and the adult state of the species. It may be observed that these

shells were all taken while the animals were growing ; the shells have

consequently the thin edge incident to that state of the animal, and

not the rounded thickened edge to the outer lip which the shell as-

sumes while it is in a state of rest after its former growths. Though

probably the full size of the species, they are none of them what

conchologists generally call adult shells. But this form of the outer

lip is no proof of the adult state of the shell; for the animal con-

stantly increases the size of the shell after such thickening and

periods of rest; thus the thickening of the edge of the lip is only

a proof that the shell was taken and the animal destroyed while the

animal and shell were not increasing their size.

The adult shell greatly resembles Scapha magnifica in form and

colouring; but the apex is much larger, irregular, with the apex of

the whor! on one side of the tip; and the system of colouring is much

broader, and coarser in its character.

ScAPHA MAMILLA.

Shell ovate; nucleus very large, spire rather irregular, one-

coloured, orange, with the apex on one side; the last whorl irregu-

larly markled with dark purple-brown lines having triangular pale

spots, and with a subcentral and broad posterior sutural colourless

band. Pillar dark orange, with three oblique plaits. Throat

yellow.

This form of the nucleus is found in another species of the genus

Scapha, but not in such a highly developed state, viz. in Scapha

Susiformis, also inhabiting Van Diemen’s Land ; and it is also found

in the genus Fulgoraria.

Dr. J. E. Gray on Notopteris. 307

Several conchologists, for example the Messrs. Adams, have sup-

pene that this shell, on account of the size of the nucleus, ought to

e referred to the genus Cymbium, which is characterized by having

an irregular callous tip to the nucleus ; but if the nucleus of V. ma-

milla is properly examined, it will be found that it is distinctly

spiral, but has the apex of the first whorl of the nucleus excentric

or bent on one side; and this is not very uncommon in several

species of Chrysostoma and Fusus, &c. .

The species of Seapha may be thus divided, according to the form

and surface of the whole of the nucleus :—

I. Spire of nucleus regular, with a central apex.

a. Nucleus large; whorls erenulated near the suture.

S, vespertilio, S. rutila, |

S. nivosa, S, magnifica.

S. Sophia. ,

b. Nueleus large; whorls smooth.

S. aulica, S. leucostoma.

S. Deshayesii.

c. Nucleus moderate or small; spire often subcylindrical, generally

truncated or deciduous,

S. punctata. 8. Ferussacii.

8. colocyntha. S. pacifica.

S. magellanica. - S. concinna.

S. javanica,

II. Spire of nucleus rather irregular; the apex excentric, lateral.

_ §. fusiformis, apex moderate. S. mamilla, apex very large.

Notice or Notroprteris, A New Genus or Preropine Bar

FROM THE Frersrr Istanps. By Dr.J.E. Gray, F.R.S.,eTc.

Among a large collection of the skins of Mammalia, Birds, Fishes,

Crustacea, &c., sent to the British Museum by the Lords of the

Admiralty, which were collected by Mr. Rayner, Dr. Macdonald,

and the Medical Officers of H.M. Ship ‘ Herald,’ during the voyage

to the Feejee and other Pacific Islands, under the direction of Captain

Denman, R.N., there are two specimens of a small Pteropine Bat

from the island of Viti, which has the elongated face and the general

appearance of the Kiodote (Macroglossus), but is provided with an

_ elongated, free, slender, tapering tail, nearly as long as the hind legs,

which, like the tail of most Bats having this member enclosed in

the interfemoral membrane, is arched, the tip being bent ventrally

or downwards,

_ . Considering that the best genera of Bats are those established on

the external conformation of the members, I am inclined to propose

for this animal a new generic designation ; andI have no doubt that,

20%

308 Zoological Society :—

when its habits and manners are known, they will be found to differ

considerably from those of Macroglossus and Cephalotes, to which it

is most nearly allied.

NorToprtTerRis.

Head elongate ; muzzle produced, subcylindrica] ; nose simple,

muffle narrow, bald between the nostrils, with a deep central notch.

Ears small, lateral: Body covered with rather crisp hair. Wings

broad, short, arising from the middle of the back, bald, only sepa-

rated by a very narrow line of hair down the vertebral line, and with

soft hair on the under side near the body. Thumb elongate; lower

joint half the length of the upper, and enclosed in a web. The

index-finger, of three bony joints; the last joint short, clawless.

Interfemoral membrane deeply cut out, fringing the hind legs to the

heel, hairy above and on the under side near the body, bald at other

parts. ‘Tail elongate, slender, tapering, many-jointed, arising from,

and with the base attached to, the under side of the narrow interfe-

moral membrane; a3 long as the hind legs. The skull elongate,

produced and slender in front.

Cutting teeth 3 canines —— ; grinders —.

The cutting teeth conical, far apart; the upper are very small,

rudimentary, on the middle of the intermaxillary bone between the

end of the nose. and the canine teeth; the lower rather larger,

conical, blunt, separated from each other by a broad lunate space

near the front edge of the canine teeth; canine larger, grooved ;

grinders compressed, blunt.

The upper cutting teeth are conical, small, far apart, placed on the

middle of the slender produced intermaxillary bones, which have a

small depression near the anterior extremity, like a cavity, whence

a second chisel-shaped tooth might be developed ; but as there is

no appearance of the tooth in either of the skulls, perhaps it may be

where a tooth of this kind has been shed.

The lower teeth are small and blunt, placed near the front of the

base of the canine tooth. The edge of the front of the jaw between

these teeth is rather produced and sharp-edged, and is nicked near

the cutting tooth, giving the jaw somewhat the appearance of a se-

cond tooth, but it is not enamelled.

The canines elongate, conical, acute, curved.

The grinders are reniform, compressed, gradually diminishing in

size towards the back of the jaws; the front one on each side in each

jaw is largest, higher than the rest, and crenated on the crown; the

rest have a flat smooth crown.

The tongue was not preserved ; but, from the form of the muzzle

and of the cutting teeth, I think it is very probably elongate, like

that of the genus Macroglossus. |

In the absence of the claw on the index-finger, this animal agrees

with the genus Cephalotes from Timor, as it also does with the ac-

count of the wings and the teeth given in the systematic works ;

but it differs from that genus very essentially when the specimens

Dr. J. E. Gray on a new genus of Lophobranchiate Fishes. 809

of the two animals are compared. The head of Cephalotes is much

shorter and broader. The cutting teeth are exceedingly different :

in Cephalotes the cutting teeth are close together, the upper ones

chisel-shaped, the lower ones rather conical, entirely filling up the

very narrow space between the base of the large canines; while in

Notopteris they are only two, far apart, small and isolated.

The wings of the two genera arise from the centre of the back ;

and the bases of the wings, which cover the back, are naked. But

in Cephalotes the nakedness extends over the shoulders to a line

even with the front edge of the wings; in Nofopteris the naked

part only occupies the hinder half of the back or loins, the shoulders

being exposed and covered with hair like the rest of the body.

The tail in Cephalotes is short and rudimentary, flattened, and

formed of four or five very short joints, and not elongated and in-

curved as in the new genus.

I may observe that, though the index-finger of the Cephalotes

Peronii from Celebes (in the British Museum, received from the

Leyden Collection) is not provided with any distinct, well-developed

claw, the end of the bone is curved upwards and rather produced

into a resemblance of a claw,—there being no indication of such an

appendage in the animal from Viti.

Pteropus amplexicaudatus, from Timor, has a rather elongated

head, a short free tail; and the wings arise from the sides of the back,

with a broad hairy space between their bases; but this differs from

Cephalotes in having a small distinct claw on the end of the index-

finger, and in .having four chisel-shaped cutting teeth in the lower

jaw, occupying the whole of the rather wide space between the base

of the large canines; aud it has four rather conical cutting teeth in

the upper jaw.

Nororreris MACDONALDII.

Pale-reddish brown above, rather grayer beneath; the hinder

half of the back, which is covered by the bases of the wings, bald,

with a very narrow line of short hair down the vertebral line. The

rump and upper surface of the base of the interfemoral membran

covered with hair.

Hab. The Island of Viti Leon, Feejees. September 1857... Male

and female. Iris dark hazel. (John D. Macdonald.)

Male. Length of head and body 43, tail 2, fore-arm bone 24, leg

bone 14 inch.

Female rather smaller: arm-bone 2} inches.

Norice or A New Genus or LOPHOBRANCHIATE FISHES FROM

WESTERN AusTRALIA. By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S., etc.

Among the collections made by the Medical Officers of H.M.S.

‘ Herald,’ above referred to, is a curious and apparently new species

of Syngnathide, of which I give'a brief description.

HALIIcHtTHys.

Mouth elongate, quadrangular, with a spine on the middle of each

310 Zoological Soctety.

side of the upper edge. Body six-sided, Tail quadrangular. The

shields of the head and body with a more or less elongated spine,

each ending in a very long slender filiform beard. Under side of

body and tail flat, with a very slightly raised central ridge. Pee-

toral and dorsal fin distinct. Caudal fin none, or very rudimentary.

Egg-pouch ?; none apparent in the specimen.

HALIICHTHYS THENIOPHORA.

The head compressed, spinose, with a high, arched, central ridge

armed with spines, each having an elongated slender filiform beard

in front of its base ; the eye-brows produced, crested, with two large

curved spines on the upper edge ; the front spine furnished with a

very long filiform beard on the front edge; the lower edge of the

orbit with two spines, the base of the operculum with one, and the

upper edge with a prominent. ridge armed with two unequal spines,

the hinder one largest and compressed. The head at the back edge

of the operculum with an arched ridge armed with four large com-

pressed conical spines; and there is a compressed bifid one on the

nape between these two arched ridges. Body hexangular, or sub-

heptangular from the obscure ventral keel, formed of nineteen rings ;

the lower lateral angles are narrower than the rest, which are sub-

equal; each plate of the rings is armed with a subcentral spine ; and

the spines on the three or four darker rings of the body are furnished

with elongated filiform beards. The tail is quadrangular ; the under

side is rather the widest and flat, the others are concave; each

shield is furnished with a spine like those of the body, and the

greater part of the spines are furnished with a filiform elongated

beard. Caudal rings about forty-five, the apical ore obscure.

Dorsal fin over the vent 26-rayed.

The dry fish is black above, pale beneath, with three distant black

spots on each side of the body, and distant black cross bands on the

under side of the base of the tail.

Hab. Freycinet harbour, Shark’s Bay, W. Australia.

Mr. Gould read the following extract from a Letter addressed to

him by George Bennett, Esq., of Sydney, dated October 15th,

1858 :—

“The semipalmated Goose, I have seen domesticated in Sydney in

a poultry-yard, having been hatched by a common hen. This bird

in its anatomy evidently approaches the Cranes, and in habits also.

Especially when you see it running about the poultry-yard, it re-

sembles one of the Gruide more than a Goose. The bird I allude

to was one of many hatched under a hen from eggs procured from

the blacks at a station on the Mooruya River, near Broulee, south

of Sydney. ‘Ten eggs were procured and placed under two hens,

five for each, and in three days less than a month produced seven

young Geese, which were reared by the foster-mother. The eggs

are said to be cream-coloured, not larger than a small-sized goose-

eas The birds lay their eggs close to the water in the lagoons ;

they commence to lay about September. The bird was an adult, and

Miscellaneous. 811

differed materially from your drawing, which I consider to represent

either a distinct species or, from the peculiarity of the bill and feet,

a bird of the first year. The bill, feet, and legs were of a flesh-

colour; the plumage of the head, neck, wings, centre of the back,

tail, and thighs glossy-black ; remainder of the plumage white,

These birds are readily domesticated, and run about the poultry-

yard in the most amicable manuer possible, The beak, feet, and legs

were of the same colour when hatched; and the bird, dating from

ie time it was brought forth, would be one year and eight months

old.

MISCELLANEOUS.

Obituary Notices—Antuvur Hunrrey, F.R.S, &e.

Iv is with the most painful feelings that we have to announce

to our readers the death of Professor Arthur Henfrey, which took

place on the 7th of September, at the age of thirty-nine. Inthe

prime of life, in the fulness of his intellectual vigour—with the

great battle of fame, the life-struggle of the professional man of

science, nobly fought and won—with the rewards of his perse-

vering and conscientious exertions within his grasp,—this great

and. gentle spirit has passed from the scene of his labours,

leaving a mournful void in the affections of his personal friends,

and casting a blight over those expectations which every one

must have formed for him, of a brilliant and useful career in the

department of science to which-he had devoted himself.

Professor Arthur Henfrey was born at Aberdeen, of English

parents, on the Ist of November, 1819. He studied medicine

at St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, where he was a great favourite

with his teacher, Dr. Frederick Farre. On leaving the Hospital,

in 1843, when he became a member of the Royal College of

Surgeons, the delicate state of his health, arising from a ten-

dency to bronchial affections which adhered to him through-

out his life, prevented him from the practice of his profession ;

and from that time he devoted himself exclusively to the study

of Botany, in which science he had already acquired great pro-

ficiency } and by a course of unremitting diligence in investiga-

tion, he speedily placed himself in the foremost rank of English

botanists. In the year 1847 he was appointed Lecturer on

Botany at the St. George’s Hospital School of Medicine, and in

1854 succeeded the late Professor Edward Forbes in the Botanical

chair at King’s College. This position he retained until his

death, and in the course of the last few years added to it the

offices of Examiner in Natural Science at the Royal Military

Academy and to the Society of Arts. At the same time his

labours were incessant, both in botanical observation and in

312 Miscellaneous.

literature; and it is to be feared that these unintermitted exer-

tions in the cause of science must have been one of the causes

of the melancholy catastrophe which we now deplore, as he was

suddenly attacked by an effusion on the brain, which closed his

life after only four days’ illness.

It is almost unnecessary for us to dwell upon the scientific

merits of Professor Henfrey ; his claim to occupy a place in the

first rank of botanists has long been undisputed, and the amount

of work which he found time to perform is perfectly marvellous.

Whilst constantly engaged in the personal investigation of the

structure and physiology of plants, and in preparing the original

papers in which his observations were communicated’ to the

world, and which appeared in the pages of this Journal, in the

‘ Transactions’ of the Royal and Linnean Societies, the ‘Journal of

the Agricultural Society,’ &c., his untiring industry also enabled

_ him not only to furnish numerous translations and abstracts of

foreign memoirs to the Natural History Journals, and to review

many botanical works in the pages of the same periodicals and of

the ‘Quarterly Review,’ but also to translate several distinct works, —

both from the German and French languages, and to write some

excellent elementary works on botanical subjects, of which his

‘Elementary Course of Botany,’ published in 1857, is the last

and most important. For three years also he was editor of the

‘ Journal of the Photographic Society ;’ and since the commence-

ment of the new series of the ‘ Annals,’ in 1858, he has been

one of its most active editors." Nor must the deep research and

critical acumen displayed in the articles which he wrote in the

‘Micrographic Dictionary’ be forgotten, the last sheets of a

second edition of which he had forwarded to the printer a few

days before his decease.

With all this pressure of almost incessant toil upon his hands,

with health which necessitated the greatest care at all times and

often laid him for days upon a bed of sickness, the uniform

kindness and gentleness of his disposition was never for a

moment obscured; and while the vast stores of his knowledge,

always freely offered for the instruction of his friends, must of

themselves have generated a respect for him in the minds of all

who came in contact with him, his friends alone could fully know

the extreme amiability of character which coexisted in him with

the highest intellectual powers and the most unwearying energy.

The kindliness and charity which pervaded his whole nature, his

true spirit, and his cheerful and unassuming manners, endeared

him to all who knew him well; and his melancholy and un-

timely death leaves them the painful consciousness that his loss

creates a vacancy which, to them, can never be supplied.

Miscellaneous. 313

Biographical Notice, with Extracts from the Correspondence, of the

late Mr. Motley, who was massacred at Kalangan, May \st, 1859.

By Henry Denny, A.L.S. &e. ,

Mr. James Motley was born May 2nd, 1822, at Osmondthorp

House, near Leeds, and inherited from his father, Thomas Motley,

Esq., an ardent love for Natural History. A near relative, in a

letter to me, says, “I was much with him in his early years. In

our walks he could not pass a flower, or snail, or bee, that was new

to him without stopping to examine it, and asking all about its

habits. He knew the names of all the trees and plants at Osmond-

thorp before he could pronounce them; and his fondness for botany

and geology increased with his riper years. He was educated at

St. Peter’s School, York, under the Rev. Mr. Creyke (now Arch-

deacon), and from thence entered St. John’s College, Cambridge, to

study for the Church; he eventually, however, chose Civil Engi-

neering as a profession, to assist in some extensive mining operations

which his father was connected with in Wales. These proving an

unfortunate speculation in a pecuniary point of view*, he obtained,

at the recommendation of Sir H. de la Beche, an appointment in a

similar capacity at Labuan, and proceeded thither in February 1848,

where he remained five years, when, owing to some disagreement

with the Company under whom he went out, he left Borneo and

passed a year at Singapore, when he again returned to Borneo under

an engagement with a Dutch Company, formed at Batavia for working

coal-mines in the Netherland Indian possessions. This proved an

undertaking of no small labour, as he had to commence operations

by a trigonometrical survey of the country and fixing the limits

of the Company’s possessions, which were only vaguely expressed in

the contract. The spot selected, after more than 100 borings, was

at Kalangan in Banjarmassing, on the south coast of Borneo. This

speculation promised to be a successful one, the coal being of

excellent quality, the pit containing three seams of coal of four feet

six inches, three feet, and two feet respectively. The transport, how-

ever, from the pit was difficult, on account of the small river which

was capable of carrying coal-boats being lost in a dense forest.

Mr. Motley overcame this obstacle by cutting an entirely new one,

which proved an interesting geological operation, as throwing much

light on the formation of the coal-measures of the island which he

considered as undoubtedly late Tertiary. He says, “I have here

a coal-field so plainly growing under my eyes, and containing just

the same plants as I find fossil in the measures we are working,

that probably no one was ever in so favourable a position for ob-

serving even very minute points of resemblance. 1 have, in fact,

the same state of things which would exist in the fen-counties of

England if they possessed a tropical climate, or if man had never

been there with dykes, dams, canals, and cultivation. The phze-

* At this period he published a volume of poetry entitled ‘Tales of the Cymri,’

founded on the early traditions of Wales, which evinced considerable ability, both

as a scholar and poet.

314, Miscellaneous. —

nomenon of social plants occupying the ature almost exclusively (a

state of things which must have existed during the European coal

eera to a great extent) can here be easily studied, while in England we

have hardly more than two instances of social plants on a large scale,

viz. Calluna vulgaris and Zostera marina; and of these only the

latter grows under coal-making conditions, and would, I suspect,

yield, when fossilized, just such ribands of carbonaceous matter as

we see in many of the carboniferous shales. I must not anticipate

too much, but I will only tell you that every time I go into the

marshes (through which I have been cutting a canal of several miles

in length) I see exemplifications of all sorts of coal-pheenomena, so

atent and evident as to make me feel almost clairvoyant for the last

hundred thousand years or so. The fossils of our coal-measures, of

which I possess about 200, comprise Murex, Dolium, Mitra, Pyrula,

Scalaria, Magilus, Cerithium, Strombus, Natica, Avicula, Hemi-

cardium, Solen, Psammobia?, several species of Crustacea and

Echinus, Flustra ?, a flustroid Sertularia, Caryophyllea, a Sponge,

teeth of fish (chiefly Squalide, but very rare), a few scales, tooth of

a Diodon, tooth of a Sauroid fish. Interstratified with these beds,

which are frequently more or less calcareous, are shales with fossil

resin in several states, and Dicotyledonous leaves, generally very

imperfect ; no Ferns, Calamites, Lepidodendra, and Stigmaria. I

am now writing a paper, aud have made large collections of notes on

the coal-fields for the Society of Natural History at Batavia, of which

I am a member ’’—besides attending to his laborious duties as En-

gineer! He employed a native collector of Natural History to

proceed into the interior, who preserved skin§ and the specimens

tolerably well; but, as he remarks, ‘‘ 1 know, of course, less of the

habits of the animals than I did of those at Labuan, where I collected

and preserved them myself: my man has just returned from the in-

terior after seven months’ absence, and has brought me some novelties,

among the rest an enormous Oran Outan.”’ In another letter he

he says, “1 do not forget Leeds or the Museum of the Philosophical

Hall, which was my Alma Mater in what has always been the greatest

pleasure of my life—Natural History. I will send you a lot of

bird-skins, and some bottles of reptiles, and freshwater fish, fresh-

water and land shells, and an Ouran Outan if I can get one; my

collector was in their district and got only two in two months. The

three species inhabit very distant localities in different directions. He

is now in pursuit of the small species; and I do not expect him back

much before the end of the year. I hope he will bring me a fine

lot of water-birds, as he goes to a district of freshwater marshes,

I have commissioned him to get all the shells he can: half the land

shells of Borneo seem to be new.... The Cassowary is not here; it is

said to be on the east coast, though I do not quite believe it ; there may

be one, but Iam pretty certain, from the vague reports I have heard,

that it is not the common one at all events.,..The Dugongs are rare

on this coast ; but I am also too far from the sca (16 miles of wilder- ©

ness by land, and a day at least by the river) to get many marine

specimens. I am, however, not sorry for this; for, although I am

Miscellaneous. 815

very fond of marine zoology, I have here more chance of getting

something new.. I do more at present in Botany than in Natural

History, and am in correspondence with Sir W. J. Hooker, to whom

I have just sent 1300 species, also a collection of Cryptogams to

Mr. Mitten of Hurst Pierpoint, a pupil of the veteran Bower. I

have greatly improved my garden, which will soon be very beautiful.

I have in cultivation about 150 species of Orchidee alone, and a

vast number of epiphytal Ferns. Of Palms I have now 26 species

about my house; among the most interesting plants here are the

Hoyas, of which we have an immense variety, and some among them

very beautiful. I have a large collection. Their cultivation is not

difficult ; it is only necessary to hang them up on my garden paling,

made of split palm-wood, and there they very soon fix themselves

and are almost always in flower. I have managed to inoculate one

of my pupils with a taste for Natural History, and we have com-

tiented making together a collection of insects. Nobody who has

not tried it knows the difficulty of keeping insects here from ants

while drying. There are ‘some species which seem proof against

everything in the way of smell, except always balsam of copaiba ; that

never fails, but it is, after all, a perfume which one cannot well have

about one’s house or person. One of the miners here, a rough

’ Northumbrian, declared, with many expletives, that he was d d

if he had not been three years in India and had seen a new sort of

ant every day; and I think it quite possible that he could have done so.

Acollection of them would be very interesting ; but I have been deterred

by the difficulty of getting all the various states with any certainty

of their identity in species. Do you know whether there exists any

Monograph upon Ants? I am sorry to say I do not get very many

Lice for you. I have told my hunter to collect them, and he has

brought me some; but he says it makes his skin creep to collect them,

—a feeling with which I must confess to have some sympathy, though

I have no doubt it is a weakness you have got over long ago. I

send two species—one from a large species of Heron akin to the Ad-

jutant, and the other from a musk-scented Sorex whose name I do

not yet know. ‘There is a popular belief (whether true or not) that

the Oran Outan has no lice; at least none have been found, and I

suppose they must be very rare. The number of letters which I

receive with requests for specimens from persons who have no claim

upon me you would scarcely believe. I receive applications from

literally the ends of the earth. I have now such from Calcutta,

Sydney, New York, and New Orleans, all of which lie still sleeping

ina bundle. I assure you it is not possible for me to answer all

such letters, much less to send what they ask for. One person, from

Germany, has had the coolness to ask me to furnish him with

vocabularies of as many as possible of the dialects of Borneo. Talking

of languages, Babel is reported to have been in Mesopotamia, but I

believe it is here; I speak every day, more or less, four languages—

English, French, Malay, and Dyak,—and I ought to speak Dutch ;

we have also Javanese, Chinese, Bangenese, &c.”

From his zeal in the pursuit of Natural History, there is no doubt

316 Miscellaneous.

that many valuable additions would have been the result of his labours

if his life had been spared. In March last he despatched a box of

specimens for the Leeds Museum, amongst which is a series of the

fossils of the Borneo Coal-field, which must prove highly interesting,

differing so materially as they do from those of the European Coal-

fields: these have not yet arrived. Unfortunately, however, the

same mail which brought a cheerful letter from him announcing the

transmittal of the above, dated March 24th, in which he stated his

first cargo of coals was being shipped for Samarang, brought also

the sad intelligence of a revolt of the natives and the massacre of all

the Europeans in Kalangan, on May Ist, a detailed account of which

occurrence was subsequently transmitted to his father by one of the

directors of the Company at Batavia. It was as follows :—

: ‘‘ Batavia, May 23, 1859.

* Dear Sir, —My name is perhaps only slightly known to you; but

in the absence of my friend and co-director, Mr. Tiediman, it becomes

my painful duty to communicate to you very sad tidings. I feel

almost incompetent to the task, and had rather that another had

been the instrument of bearing to a father’s heart all the grief and

sorrow which this letter will cause. I only trust, as I do earnestly

pray, that He who is near to all who call upon Him in faith will

afford you strength to receive with resignation the trials with which

it has been His will to visit you. The Government steamer Ardgens,

which arrived from Banjarmassing two days ago, has brought the

fearful tidings of the destruction of our fine establishment of Ka-

langan, and the murder of our European employés, not leaving one

of them alas! to tell the tale. The massacre took place on the

morning of the Ist of thismonth. The people had been paid as usual

on that day, and dispersed. Everything was quite quiet to all

appearance; and though the insurgents were in movement about

Pengaron and the neighbourhood, and had on the 28th made an

unsuccessful attack on that place, no fears were entertained of an

outbreak at Kalangan. Between seven and eight in the morning,

however, the insurgents, assisted by some of the mine people, set

about to do their work of carnage. The first of the establishment

attacked, and immediately killed, was Overseer Hupperetz, and next

to him Overseer Bovelt, and then your son, who, on the first

report of disturbances, had left his house unarmed, and proceeded

the length of the bridge, when, after a struggle of some duration, he

was overcome by numbers, and fell an early victim. Mr. Wymalen

was able to retire to his house, and defended himself and family for

nearly three hours, when the house was set on fire, and four children

were barbarously butchered. Mr. Van Heecheren, Mr. Eisager, and

Dr. Huisaigen shared the same fate. Of Mrs. Motley and her three

children it is also reported that they have not escaped ; and in fact

Mr. Ouddabye writes positively from Banjermassing to this effect ;

but, as this report is not confirmed in all its details, there may still

remain a faint hope, but nothing more, that this excellent lady and

her children, by the aid of servants, may have effected a temporary

concealment, and escaped through the country. I would fain give

Miscellaneous. 817

you hope on this point ; but I must convey my conviction that the

worst is almost certain, but cannot with certainty. be known until

the reinforcements to be despatched from this and Samarang in three

or four days arrive there, and enable Colonel Anderson, the present

acting resident, to recover Kalangan, or establish a communication

with it. I sincerely trust to be able to give you certain tidings by

next mail.

“Not only at Kalangan have these terrors been enacted, but near

Poctoi Petak, in the missionary settlement, four missionaries, three

of their wives, and nineteen children have been sacrificed ; in fact,

the intention of the insurgents seems to have been (incited by some

priests lately returned from Mecca) to exterminate the whole of the

Europeans in that division of Borneo; and in this they would have

fully succeeded, had the small force under Col. Anderson arrived two

days later, which alone enabled them to hold their ground at Ban-

jermassing.

“J am well aware, my dear sir, that in affliction such as yours

human sympathy will not console you ; but that you may receive the

precious consolations of Him who is to be found of all who call upon

Him in time of trouble, is the earnest and sincere prayer of

‘Yours very truly,

“‘ Thos. Motley, Esq., Stanley Terrace, ‘ ALEX. FRAZER.

Douglas, Isle of Man.”

On the 18th of July another letter was received from Mr. Motley,

dated April 18th (the last he wrote), cautioning his father against any

anxiety on his account should any rumour of disturbances in Borneo

reach England, as he had himself heard some reports, which he did

not believe. Alas! in twelve days more he had become a victim,

and, it is too probable, all he held most dear i this world. -

Philosophical Hall, Leeds, Aug. 11, 1859.

On a New British Snake. By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &e.

The Hon. Arthur Russell has brought to the British Museum a

specimen of a female Coronelia austriaca (Coluber levis, Lacépéde),

which was found near the flag-staff at Bournemouth in Hampshire.

This snake is commonly found in company with the Lacerta stir-

pium, which has only been discovered in England in the same loca-

lity. They are equally generally spread and common in different

parts of Northern and Eastern Europe. The snake is said to feed

often on the lizard. It is curious that as yet the lizard has only

been seen in this single locality, though the sandy district in which

they are found forms a broad belt across the south of England. The

snake may have been overlooked as an Adder, as it is nearly of the

colour of the paler specimens (about the usual size) of that species.

It is easily known from it by the want of the lozenge-shaped spots

on the back, which are replaced in C. austriaca by three rows of

small darker spots, by the smooth ses, and the shielded head. Ca

There is a dark blotch on the crown, and a dark streak under the

eyes on each side of the head. 7 )

818 Miscellaneous.

On the genus Camptonyx.

M. P. Fischer, in the ‘ Journal de Conchyliologie’ for June 1859,

gives the genus Camptonyx, Benson, as a synonym of Valenciennesia,

Rousseau, and includes the recent Kattiwar species, C. Theobaldi,

as a second form of that genus.

M. Fischer could not have consulted the original paper in the

‘Annals’ for May 1858 ; otherwise he would have observed that the

relations of Camptonyx with the fossil Valenciennia had been pre-

viously noticed, and that the different positions of the siphonal

channels had been relied on as sufficient to prevent their union.

M. Fischer has attributed Campt. Theobaldi to Cochin China,

while quoting the true habitat, “sur la péninsule qui sépare les

Golfes de Kutch et de Cambay.”’ The locality of this peninsula,

between Bombay and the mouths of the Indus, will serve the views

of M. Fischer still better than the remote station which he has erro-

neously assigned to the recent shell.— W. H. B.

September 26, 1859,

Anatomical and Physiological Investigation of the Pleurobranchus

aurantiacus. By M. Lacaze-DutTHiers.

Digestion.

Mouth protractile into a trunk; lingual bulb containing three

corneous pieces : one median, comb-like, im consequence of the accu-

mulation of an immense number of small sharp lamellar teeth; and

two in the form of laterally symmetrical plates, covered with small

points regularly arranged like the teeth of a file. :

Esophagus long. Stomach simple, large, placed on the left side.

Intestine short, without convolutions, scarcely flexuous, opening on

the right side behind the branchia.

Accessory glands.—Liver voluminous, blackish, its exeretory. ca-

nals opening at the union of the stomach and intestine, formed of

ceca with cellular contents, often occupied by calcareous calculi or

calculi of some other nature, probably biliary, usually of a dark

tint.

Two kinds of salivary glands, one of which, not yet described, as

far as I know, is placed upon the dorsal face of the pedal disk, that

is to say, upon the lower floor of the visceral cavity, and opens by a

single canal between the trunk and the tongue ; it is formed of large

cca, clothed with a cellular tissue of very large cells. ‘The other

salivary glands are, identical with those of other Mollusca, except

that their position is different, their parenchyma being intermixed

with the liver. :

Circulation.

The study of this is most important. The venous cireulation is

lacunar in the highest degree. ‘The tissue of the animal swells up

like a sponge; great venous tissues, irregular around the stomach,

circular at the base of the foot and of the dorsal tegumentary lobe,

conduct the blood, on the one hand to the branchia, on the other

to the branchial vein, near its union with the auricle.

Miscellaneous. 319

Heart transverse and dorsal, Arterial eireulation analogous to

that presented by the other Mollusca.

The external orifice of the apparatus of circulation, placed above

the generative apertures upon the right side before the branchial

vein, in the form of a button-hole, is only visible in dead and much-

softened animals. It disappears with the greatest facility amidst

the wrinkles produced by the contractions. It communicates with

a canal which opens into the vein coming from the branchia, in front

of the auricle. The internal opening of this canal into the vein is

oblique, and placed upon a falciform fold directed towards the heart,

which may evidently play the part of a valve.

All injections, whatever be their nature, or the means by which

they are propelled, reach the heart by this orifice from the ex-

terior.

The external orifices of the circulation have not been remarked

and well determined upon the integuments of any of the Mollusca, ex-

cept the Dentalia and Pleurobranchi. In these examples ruptures

cannot have been taken for orifices. I hope to be able to gene-

ralize this fact, not by considerations independent of observation, but

by anatomical data, which everything leads me to think accurate,

IT should mention that Gegenbaur, Leuckart, and Langer have already

indicated relations between the circulatory apparatus and the exte-

rior, by the intermediation, however, of the corpus Bojani either

directly or through the pericardium in the Pteropoda and Acephala.

We have this fact now demonstrated also in the Gasteropoda.

It is evident, if we come to the generalization of these facts, that

the ideas we have of the nutrition of animals, taking the higher

creatures as our type, must be modified for the Mollusca; and the

circulation in this group will no doubt present itself in quite a new

light.

. Nervous System.

Three ganglionic centres, as in the other Mollusca. The supra-

cesophageal and pedal ganglia very distinct, forming a collar. The

right postero-lateral ganglion (the same designated by authors by

different names, such as pallio-splanchnic, genito-respirator, &c.)

very small, placed close to the collar on the right side.

This last centre furnishes two very slender nerves, of which one

passes to the generative organs, the other to the branchia.

From the pedal centre the nerves of the foot arise. The otolithes

are applied against it.

From the supra-ceesophageal centre arise the nerves of the tentacles,

of the supra-buccal velum, of the trunk, the eyes, and the dorsal

tegumentary lobe. The two latter are very voluminous. One of

them, that of the right side, gives off very distinct filaments to the

branchia. It appears, therefore, that the right postero-lateral gan-

glia, called respiratory ganglia by some authors, are not the only

ones that preside over the function of respiration. 3

- The great sympathetic nerve is well developed, arises by two ori-

gins from the supra-cesophageal ganglia, forms two ganglia under

the cesophagus, and is distributed over the digestive tube and the

320 Miscellaneous.

lingual apparatus. The trunk and the tongue are thus clearly di-

stinguished by the nature of the nerves which animate them.

Reproduction.

Hermaphroditism ; fundamental and accessory glands, as well as

the other parts, analogous in structure and arrangement to those

found in most Gasteropoda.

Special Secretions.

The skin is filled with triangular spicula, or with oval calcareous

particles. The latter occur (although in form less regular than in

the skin) in the walls of the digestive tube, and even in the neuri-

lemma of the nerves.

The corpus Bojani is placed to the right of the mass of the vis-

cera, and is entirely internal; it turns under the branchia by a

distinct pore, which is easily seen. This forbids the supposition

which might perhaps be raised, that the excretory pore of the corpus

Bojani has been mistaken in this case for the internal orifice of the

circulation. In Pleurobranchus testudinarius I have met with

numerous calculi in the interior of its tissue. With nitric acid and

ammonia they gave the well-known purple-red colour characteristic

of uric acid. This is a fresh proof, in addition to so many others,

that this body may be regarded as a kidney.—Comptes Rendus,

June 27, 1859, p. 1155. .

Note on Cyclostoma articulatum. By 8. P. Woopwarp, F.G.S.

This land-snail is peculiar to the Island of Rodriguez, and belongs

to the subgenus Tropidophora (Troschel), characteristic of the

Mascarene Islands. Numerous examples were collected in February

1858 by the late Madame Ida Pfeiffer, who conveyed them to the —

Mauritius, where they continued active, but took no food during a

stay of two months. Three individuals remained alive after the

voyage to England, which occupied ten weeks; and several others

were sufficiently preserved for examination. They were brought

over packed in paper and rags, in a tin pot with a lid, and were not

taken out until a fortnight after their arrival. One of these snails

lived for some months under a bell-glass with moss and ferns, and

afforded frequent opportunities for examination. The animal was

of a pale buff colour, with darker tentacles and muzzle ; the tentacles

were acute, rugose, and slightly annulated ; the muzzle annulated,

grooved beneath, and bilobed at the end, which was constantly used

in walking. The foot was ample, with a deep central groove dividing

it into two lateral elements moved alternately in walking. When it

retired and closed its shell, it still adhered, and sometimes became

suspended, by a tenacious thread of mucus.

Madame Pfeiffer also brought home specimens of Cyclostoma ca-

rinatum and C.(Otopoma) Lasteri, from Mauritius, which were in a

tolerably fresh state. The lingual dentition of these species differs

slightly from that of C. articulatum.—Proc. Zool. Soc. May 24,

1859,

THE ANNALS

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[THIRD SERIES.]

No. 23. NOVEMBER 1859.

XXXIII.—On the Reproduction of the Bark-Lice (Chermes, &c.) ;

a further Contribution to the Knowledge of Parthenogenesis.

By Rupoirs LevcKart*. si

[ With a Plate. ]

In my small work upon the alternation of generations and par-

thenogenesis in Insects (Frankfort, 1858), I have proved that. a

spontaneous evolution of the eggs takes place in the Coccina

and allied animals. Among the latter I particularly cited the

genus Chermes, which is usually referred to the Aphides by

entomologists, and may indeed approach most closely to those

animals on the whole, although in many respects it constitutes

the transition to the Coceina.

What I was able to state then with regard to Chermes related,

however, exclusively to the wingless generation of these so-

ealled Bark-lice. I had ascertained that all the individuals of

this generation were of the female sex, and that they laid eggs

capable of evolution without the cooperation of males. The

winged individuals had not at that time been investigated, with

the exception of a few specimens of C. Laricis, which were also |

found to be virgin females.

Hoping to be able to extend my observations to the latter

also, and thus to obtain an insight into the entire history of the

reproduction of these remarkable creatures, my statements with

regard to Chermes in general were rather short and aphoristic,

forming to a certain extent only an appendix to the observations

upon the Coccina and the Aphides with viviparous generations.

‘As I have paid much attention to the animals in question in

the course of the past summer, and, in my opinion, have arrived

* Translated from the ‘ Archiv fiir Naturgeschichte,’ 1859, p. 209, by

W.S. Dallas, F.L.S., Keeper of the York Museum.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. iv. 21

322 M. Leuckart on the Reproduction of Bark-lice.

at a pretty good conclusion with regard to them, I have thought

it the less advisable to keep back my observations, as they not

only furnish us with a new and interesting contribution to

the knowledge of Parthenogenesis, but also throw some light

upon many other long-known peculiarities in the reproduction

of insects.

But, before I commence with the special exposition of my

investigations, a few words on the mode of life of the animals

may not be out of place, sv far as this may be ascertained by

mere external observation, especially as it is fully described

from actual observation in the works of De Geer (Mémoires,

tome iii. pp. 66-84, tab. 8), Kaltenbach (Monographie der

Familien der Pflanzenliuse, 1843, pp. 193-206), and Ratzeburg

(Forstinsekten, 1847, Theil iii. pp. 195-205, tab. 12, 13) *.

We treat in the first place of the common Fir-louse (C. Abve-

tis, Linn.), which is divided into two species by both the last-

mentioned authors, namely C. Abietis, Kalt.= C. viridis, Ratzeb.,

and C. strobilobius, Kalt.= C. coceineus, Ratzeb. The distinction

of these two species, which, however, may be justified by the

size and position of their galls, is of no consequence to us ; for

both forms, which are very nearly allied even externally, agree

so closely biologically and anatomically, that I have looked in

vain for a distinction between them. (I will not, however, omit

to mention, in passing, that my investigations were made prin-

eipally upon the first of these two species or varieties.)

By the investigations of the above-mentioned entomologists

it is satisfactorily established that the Fir-louse passes the win-

ter in the wingless state, in the form of a plump insect not

larger than a grain of sand, beneath the protective covering of a

whitish woolly coat, at the base of the scaly young buds of the

Fir. It is only in the following spring (April) that the little

animal begins to grow. It is then always found in its old

place, immoveable; and on closer examination its rostrum is ob-

served to be inserted deeply into the axis of the awakening bud.

That our insect pierces the individual leaves, as asserted by

Kaltenbach and also by De Geer, is incorrect; I have never

seen it elsewhere than in the above situation, and might even

suppose that it remains in this position until its death, without

ever changing the place of insertion of its rostrum to any extent.

Close above the perforation, even at this time, before the evolu-

tion of the buds, the axis of the young shoot, with the leaves

attached to it, begins to swell; thus commences the first founda-

* Hartig’s memoir (Germar’s Zeitschrift fiir die Entomol. iii. p. 366) is

not in my possession at the moment; and I pass it over with the less

reluctance, as his statements are frequently inaceurate and erroneous,—at

least as regards C. Abietis.

M. Leuckart on the Reproduction of Bark-lice. 323

tion of those remarkable pine-apple-like galls which, as we shall

see hereafter, serve as the dwelling-place of the second genera-

tion of our animal.

After the Fir-louse, constantly increasing in size, has re-

peatedly changed its skin in the course of the next three weeks,

and at the same time renewed its woolly covering (Kaltenbach),

which, as is well known, pushes out gradually from the skin of

the body in single threads, as a secretion (wax ?), the oviposition

commences, still before the evolution of the young shoot. The

eggs are attached to the bud behind the mother by means of a

short style, and are usually also clothed at the same time with cast

woolly threads ; they gradually accumulate here in such quanti-

ties, that as many as 200 of them may not unfrequently be

counted* towards the close of the oviposition, which, indeed, does

not arrive until the death of the mother, when the oldest eggs

are already hatched.

The exclusion of the young takes place in the latter half of

May, soon after the young shoot has broken out through the

enveloping scales with its axis, which is abbreviated and thick-

ened at its lower end. The young brood immediately quits its

birthplace, and moves forward in a mass, to find a new dwelling

between the closely approximated swelled leaves of the shortened

shoot. Here the young brood completes what its mother had

begun. Hundreds of suckers sink mto the juicy leaves; and

under the influence of this continual irritation the leaves close

up to form that globular or oval head+ which we have already

mentioned as the dwelling-place of the second generation. An

amalgamation of the leaves, such as has been supposed by some,

does not take place, although their outer margins are closely

applied to each other. Tolerably spacious cell-like cavities also

remain between the leaves in the interior; and each of these is

almost constantly inhabited by several young plant-lice, some-

times a dozen together.

These animals of the second generation are more slender and

mobile than the individuals which have lived through the winter,

from which we started in our investigations; they also appear

to be by no means so continually attached by the rostrum. At

least, on opening a cell, a number of animals living free in the

interior are almost always found, whilst the rest adhere to the

walls. These animals, like their free parents, clothe themselves

* Kaltenbach is far below the mark when he estimates the number of

eggs deposited by a single mother “at thirty or more.”

T Very frequently, however, these galls are attached excentrically upon

the shoot, and are then, of course, less regularly rounded. Perhaps in such

cases the insect has not penetrated with its rostrum quite to the middle of

the abbreviated axis.

21*

324 M. Leuckart on the Reproduction of Bark-lice.

with a woolly down, but this is very much shorter. Like

their parents, they are subject to a repeated change of skin

as the size of their bodies increases, but they do not by this

means perceptibly alter in their appearance. Towards the end

of July these larvee become converted into pupz ; they then pre-

sent wing-cases, and are all attached, almost immoveably, with

the legs retracted, by means of the rostrum, to the wall of the

cell. In about a fortnight the metamorphosis is complete ;

the cells of the galls open, by the separation of the leaves,

which gradually dry; and from the gaping fissures the crowd

of pups, which have again become capable of motion, escape,

usually in the sunshine. These ascend the leaves in the vicinity,

cling firmly with their legs, and then, by another change of

skin, become converted in a few minutes into winged Aphis-like

creatures, which remain sitting close together for a time on the

leaves, and then disperse in all directions.

In the course of a few days, single individuals of these Aphides

are found dead, with their wings spread out in a rooflike form,

here and there upon the leaves, and beneath them a small aggre-

gation of pedunculated eggs, partly enveloped in the woolly.

hairs, adhering to the abdomen of the mother. The young,

which escape from the eggs in the course of a few weeks, dis-

perse themselves, and seek the developed buds in the vicinity,

usually singly, seldom two or more together; upon these, as

above stated, they hibernate, and in the next year, with a more

abundant nourishment, produce a new progeny.

Our present knowledge of the Fir-lice is confined to the pre-

ceding observations. No one has yet seen the copulation of these

animals, nor has any one yet proved with certainty the exist-

ence of a male. It is a mere assumption that a copulation pre-

cedes the oviposition of the winged animals; and it is nothing

more than an assumption when Ratzeburg (op. cit. p. 201)

regards the smaller individuals of this winged generation as

males, and considers the elongated form of their abdomen, and

the presence of an obtuse penis-like organ (Ruthe) protrusible

by pressure with the compressorium, as characteristic attributes

of their sex. The same questions still remain to be answered

with regard to the reproduction of the Fir-lice, that ‘De Geer

proposes at the end of his account of the natural history of these

animals.

I am happy that my investigations enable me to give some

more definite information upon-the conditions in question. This,

however, is not in favour of an opinion which not long since

held the place of an irrefragable law, and which also influenced

the earlier observers in their suppositions.

I have convinced myself that the reproduction of our Fir-lice

M. Leuckart on the Reproduction of Bark-lice. 325

takes place in both generations by a parthenogenetic process, by the

spontaneous development of the eggs.

Although I have examined fully two hundred of our animals,

I have never met with a male among them. All the individuals,

wingless and winged, large and small, were females, and, indeed,

virgin females. This was the case not only with animals taken

before oviposition, but also with those engaged in depositing

their eggs, and even with those whose eggs already presented

distinct traces of the commencement of evolution, or even con-

tained developed embryos. More than once I isolated the eggs

of such virgin animals, and afterwards saw them hatch.

After such observations, there can be no doubt that the Fir-

lice generally propagate without males. But whether males are

entirely wanting, or whether they merely make their appearance

_ from time to time, under certain favourable circumstances, and

then fecundate the females, I must leave undecided; yet it-

almost appears to me as if certain anatomical conditions, to which

I shall have to refer hereafter, rendered the first supposition to

a certain extent credible.

It is, however, not only the common Fir-louse (C. Adbvetis)

that behaves in this manner. Towards the end of April I several

times observed on the young shoots of the Fir a wingless Louse

(C. Picea, Ratzeb.?), which presented an extraordinary resem-

blance to the individuals of the first generation of C. Abvetis, but

was distinguished therefrom partly by its darker, almost black

colour, and partly by its far smaller size. I can state nothing

with regard to the mode of life of this species: I afterwards

sought in vain upon the infected trees for galls, and must leave

it undecided whether our animal, like C. Abietis, subsequently

produces a second winged generation; this, however, is very

probable. But I am certain that all the individuals examined, :

amongst which were several with eggs already deposited although

not numerous, proved to be unfecundated females, exactly as in

the corresponding state of C. Adietis.

I can assert the same thing of the nearly allied Phylloxera

coccinea, Von Heyden, of which I met with numerous wingless

females, at the commencement of July, on the lower surface of

oak-leaves, with eggs deposited in rings. In this case, also, the

older eggs (about 30-40 in number) contained an embryo al-

ready far advanced in development, although no trace of semen

was to be detected in the mothers. Previous observers have

overlooked the existence of this first generation of wingless

females: they speak of winged animals which made their ap-

pearance in August and September, and fastened their eggs to

the oak-leaves exactly in the same way as the wingless females.

Unfortunately, I have not succeeded in finding these winged

326. M. Leuckart on the Reproduction of Bark-lice.

Phylloxere, but I have scarcely any doubt that they would have

proved without exception to be female animals. From all ana-

logy, these winged individuals are the progeny of the wingless

forms observed by me, which, on their part, represent the first

generation of Chermes, and will have passed the winter either as

young animals, or, as their later appearance would almost lead

us to believe, as eggs. |

If the latter supposition be well founded, our Phylloxera

would be distinguished thereby not only from Chermes Abietis*,

but also from C. Laricis, which otherwise approaches it most

closely in form and mode of life (residence on the surface of the

leaves, and incapability of forming galls). Be 6s:

With regard to. the conditions of reproduction, however, the

same statements apply to the latter as to other species pre-

viously referred to. The Larch-louse also only exhibits the

female sex in both wingless and winged individuals; it always

consists, as far as I am aware, only of parthenogenetic virgins.

But with regard to the relation in which these two forms of

individuals stand to each other, I have not been able to arrive at

so clear a conclusion as in the case of C. Abietis. Nevertheless

it almost appears as if C. Laricis behaved somewhat differently

in.this respect. According to the statements of Kaltenbach and

Ratzeburg, there is indeed no doubt that the minute creatures

which pass the winter on the still undeveloped buds are de-

veloped first of all only into wingless individuals; but it is

equally certain that in this case the winged individuals make

their appearance very early, and occur for a long time together

with wingless females. J found such winged individuals as early

as the end of May, a few weeks after the first eggs, which in

this species are but few in number, were met with. Moreover,

according to Ratzeburg’s observations, the eggs of the first ge-

neration do not produce winged individuals exclusively, as. in

C. Abietis, but wingless forms are produced at the same time ;

the latter, however, are somewhat different from the original

wingless animals, and produce a third generation in the same

year. That the winged individuals lay eggs, like the wingless

ones, was unknown to Ratzeburg; I have, however, convinced

myself of this in the most certain manner, but must remark that

the number of these eggs is less than that produced by the wing-

less females.

By the greater number of the consecutive generations, and

also by the fact that these generations are represented, at least

in part, simultaneously by winged and wingless individuals,

* It was by mistake that, in my memoir on the alternation of generations

and Parthenogenesis in insects, I stated that the eggs of C. Abietis passed

through the winter.

Mr. F. P. Pascoe on some new Anthribide. 327

Chermes Laricis evidently approaches the ordinary Aphides in

its conditions of reproduction, except that the viviparous indivi-

duals, as also in Phyllowera, are replaced by egg-laying females,

and that male individuals are entirely wanting (at least, as a

general rule).

[To be continued. |

XXXIV.—On some new Anthribide.

By Francis P. Pascoz, F.L.S. &c.

In common with many other families of Coleoptera, the Anthri-

bidee have received very little attention from entomologists.

This is, perhaps, partly owing to their being scattered in small

numbers over every part of the world, and Europe possessing

only about twenty of them out of the twelve hundred which our

collections are calculated to contain. Of these, according to

M. Jekel, who has specially studied the family, not more than

two hundred are published ; and there are consequently a num-

ber of new forms, only a few of which I have here attempted to

describe, and these principally derived from Mr. Wallace’s re-

searches in the Indian Archipelago. Indeed the family may be

considered to have its head-quarters in those islands: in all

Mr. Wallace’s collections, including those from New Guinea,

they formed, from the number both of species and individuals, a

very characteristic feature, and in this respect afforded a marked

contrast to collections from extra-tropical Australia. It is pro-

bable, however, that we shall hereafter find the northern or tro-

pical part of the Australian continent to assimilate more to the

opposite shores of New Guinea, and that the very distinctly

marked region extending from Java to the latter island will have

Ceylon, and perhaps a portion of Southern India, on the one

hand, with tropical Australia, and not New Guinea, on the other,

as outlying or transition provinces.

As no attempt has yet been made to classify the family, which

contains at least three distinct types of form, I have thought it

best to avoid any remarks respecting the affinities or position of

the new genera here proposed*. It is, perhaps, as well also to

observe that the individuals of many Anthribide vary much

more than is usual in regard to size, markings, and the relative

proportion of their parts, particularly of the rostrum and an-

tenne.

* In order to condense as much as possible, I have generally omitted all

characters which belong to the Anthribide as a family; and even those

here given may perhaps hereafter be curtailed without disadvantage.

328 Mr. F. P. Pascoe on some new Anthribide.

Xenocerus insignis.

X. aterrimus, albo-varius ; antennis tarsisque albo-annulatis.

santennis corpore quadruplo longioribus, articulis quarto et

quinto basi albis.

2 antennis dimidio corporis vix longioribus, articulis quarto et

quinto basi, septimo basi excepta, et octavo albis.

Hab. Amboyna. :

Male. Deep black ; two lines between the eyes, a spot on the

front, three stripes on the prothorax (the lateral ones shorter and

narrower), a sutural patch expanding below the middle into a

broad band, and sides of the thorax beneath, white ; antenne

four times as long as the body, base of the fourth and fifth joints

white; tarsi with the base of the first and second joints of the

four posterior, and the base of the last of the posterior only,

whitish-cinereous. In the female, the white on the prothorax is

more diffused, shading gradually into the black, and the whole

of the upper two-thirds of the elytra is white, except at the

shoulders and two black spots near the centre of the patch ; the

tarsi have all the joints, except the penultimate, whitish at the

base. Length 10 lines.

Nearly allied to, or perhaps only a variety of X.semiluctuosus, Bl.

ZYGHENODES.

Head broadly triangular in front, expanded at the sides into

a thin process bearing the eye. Antenne slender, longer than.

the body, 11-jointed, the first thick and longer than the second,

which is short and obconic, the remainder filiform and subequal,

except the three last, which are somewhat stouter; antennal groove

broad, commencing beneath the lateral process, and continued

to the mandible. Eye oblong. Labrum very small. Mandibles

robust. Maxillary palpi moderate, poimted. Prothorax trans-

verse, width of the elytra, semicircular anteriorly, narrowed sud-

denly behind, the carina distant from the base, and curving

shortly round to the front. LElytra short. Legs moderate ;

anterior coxz approximate, the middle distant ; first tarsal joint

longer than the rest together. Prosternum simple; mesoster-

num broad, truncate posteriorly.

Zygenodes Wollastoni.

Z. nigra, guttis cinereo-albis ornata ; capite antice cinereo-albo.

Hab. Borneo. ,

Dull black, pubescent ; head between the eyes, prothorax, and

elytra, covered with small ashy-white spots; front of the head

from the eyes to the mandibles entirely ashy-white ; body be-

neath, and legs, with a pale ashy pubescence. Length 3 lines.

Dedicated to the author of ‘Insecta Maderensia.’ |

Mr. F. P. Pascoe on some new Anthribide. 329

Corrhecerus Jekelit. ‘

C. rufo-brunneus, ochraceo-irroratus ; oculis auratis; pedibus ochra-

ceis, tarsis brunneo variis.

Hab. Brazil (Para).

Reddish brown, closely pubescent, with numerous small

ochreous spots, which on the elytra are more or less confluent,

giving them a somewhat patchy appearance; antenne reddish

brown, the club darker, except the last joint, which is white ;

under surface and legs ochreous, the last three tarsal joints of

the anterior and middle two of the four posterior dark reddish

brown; eyes golden brown. Length 3} lines.

The antenne are ciliated, as in C. barbicornis, F., but the eyes

are rather more reniform. Dedicated to M. Henri Jekel of Paris,

author of ‘ Fabricia Entomologica’ and other works.

NESsSIA.

Head sub-depressed ; rostrum very broad. Labial palpi elon-

gate, hairy. Eyes obliquely oblong. Antenne short, arising

from beneath the rostrum; the first and second joints robust,

the rest slender and gradually decreasing in length, the ninth

and tenth shortly triangular, and, with the eleventh, forming a

compressed club ; all the joints with a setose hair at their tips

on each side; antennal groove deep, directed obliquely outwards.

Prothorax narrowed in front, the carina sub-basal, passing

obliquely downwards at the side to about half the length of the

prothorax, and terminating in a recurved hook. Llytra rather

short, subdepressed. Legs moderate; tarsi short, the first and

last joints of nearly equal length.

Nessia didyma.

N. hirta, rufo-brunnea, sparsim nigro-maculata ; elytris basi striato-

punctatis, singulis apicem versus maculis duabus albis.

Hab. Borneo. 3

Clothed with short, dense, reddish-brown hairs ; rostrum and

round the eyes yellowish; two black interrupted stripes on the

prothorax ; elytra striato-punctate chiefly near the base, with a

a few scattered black spots, one especially near the apex larger

than the rest, above this are placed two narrow approximate

white spots ; under surface with a dull greyish pubescence; eyes

black. Length 6 lines.

Nessia centralis.

N. rufo-brunnea, flavescenti-hirta; elytris macula magna communi

rufo-fusca.

Hab. Borneo.

Light reddish brown, clothed with short yellowish hairs ; the

330 Mr. F. P. Pascoe on some new Anthribide.

prothorax clouded with darker brown ; elytra slightly striated,

with a few brownish spots and a large deep chocolate-brown

patch in the middle common to both; beneath brown, with a

dull greyish pile; eyes black. Length 34 lines.

Litocerus mestus.

L. anthracinus, obscure cinereo-guttatus ; antennis basi rufo-piceis.

Hab. Borneo.

Shining bluish-black, with several small, scattered, dull ashy

spots; rostrum broad, finely punctured ; prothorax rather trans-

verse ; elytra broadly punctate-striate; antenne with the two

basal joints pitchy red, beneath dull black. Length 3 lines.

Litocerus figuratus.

L. cervino-brunneus, fusco-maculatus ; rostri dimidio basali griseo ;

antennarum articulis tribus basalibus testaceis.

Hab. Borneo.

Light reddish brown, with large distinct stripes and spots of

dark chocolate-brown; prothorax with two principal stripes

and an irregular ring on each side; elytra with an oblong spot,

followed by another below, which expands on each side into an

irregular cruciform figure, between this and the shoulder, other

irregular spots, varying a little in individuals; legs testaceous

brown, slightly varied with darker; rostrum with the basal half

greyish; antenne dark brown, with the three basal joints testa-

ceous. Length 4 lines.

Apparently allied to L. maculatus, Ol.

Litocerus sellatus.

L. fuscus, sparsim ochraceo-guttatus ; elytris medium versus plaga

magna communi ochracea ; antennis dimidio basali testaceo-variis.

Hab. Borneo.

Dark: brown, pubescent, sparingly spotted with ochraceous ;

elytra slightly punctate-striate, with a large common transverse

ochraceous spot before the middle; antennze with the lower half

of the basal joints testaceous. Length 3 lines.

EczeEsaRIs.

Head moderate, narrowed below the eyes, dilated at the apex,

the rostrum tricarinated. Antenne half as long as the body,

the first two joints short and thick, the third to the eighth very

slender, the ninth and tenth broadly triangular, and, with the

last, forming a short club. Antennal groove short, oblique.

Eyes oblong. Palpi short; terminal joint of the labial ovate,

hairy internally ; maxillary pointed. Labium transversely qua-

Mr. F. P. Pascoe on some new Anthribide. 331

drate. Prothorax narrowed anteriorly ; the carina sub-basal,

slightly curved forwards at the angle. LElytra short, rounded at

the sides and apex. Legs moderate, middle coxz somewhat

distant, tibie very stout, first tarsal joint elongate. ~

_Eczesaris atomaria.

E. nigra, ochraceo-irrorata; antennarum articulis 3-8° brunneis ;

oculis auratis ; tarsorum articulo ultimo albo.

Hab. Aru.

Dull black, pubescent, everywhere covered, except the tarsi,

with small, distinct, ochraceous spots; eyes golden brown; an-

tenn with the third to the eighth joints rufous brown; tibiz

and tarsi closely ciliated, the last joint of all the tarsi white.

Length 4 lines. |

Acorynus rusticus.

A. pubescens, fuscus, obscure ferrugineo ochraceo fuscoque varius ;

prothorace subvittato; elytris fusco-maculatis ; antennis rufo-

piceis. ,

Hab. Borneo.

Pubescent, brownish, varied with dull rusty ochraceous and

dark brown patches, which on the prothorax assume somewhat

the form of stripes of dark brown and ochraceous only, but on

the elytra the ochraceous is mingled with light brown, the dark

brown forming three distinct spots on each, placed longitudi-

nally; antennz reddish pitchy; legs varied with ochraceous,

especially on the femora and apical half of the first tarsal joints ;

under surface with short rusty ochraceous hairs. Length

7 lines.

Acorynus amabilis.

A. tomentosus, pallide rufo-griseus ; prothoracis disco bivittato ; oy:

tris macula basali, alteraque apice, et pone medium fascia maculi-

formi fuscis ; antennis, tarsis tibiisque fuscis.

Hab. Aru.

Covered: with a short, dense, pale reddish-grey pile; rostrum

in front, mandibles, eyes, and antenne black ; prothorax with

two broad brownish bands on the disc; elytra rather short, a

little swollen at the base, with slightly oblique striz, a spot at

the shoulder, a smaller one at the apex, and a spot-like band

below the middle dark brown; lower part of the tibie and tarsi

black. Length 5 lines.

Dirreza.

Head small, rounded in front, without a rostrum. Antenne

(¢) very short, inserted before the eye, the first jot moderate,

832 Mr. F. P. Pascoe on some new Anthribide.

thickened, the second longer than the third, the fourth longest,

- rather compressed and very much enlarged, fifth to the eighth

shortly conic, the three last forming a compact, somewhat com-

pressed club. Eye oblong, slightly emarginate. » Palpi moderate,

pointed. Antennal groove obsolete. Prothorax rounded ante-

riorly, broadest behind, the carina close to the elytra, bent for-

wards and downwards, and terminating at half the length of the

prothorax. Elytra elongate, cylindrical, as wide as the prothorax.

Legs short; coxee of the middle pair approximate. Abdomen

of six segments.

It is possible that this may be the same as Cidecerus of M.

Montrouzier (Faune de Woodlark, p. 46); but he describes the

third antennal joint as being the enlarged one, and the club as

consisting of four joints.

Dipieza Waterhouse.

Dd. cylindrica, elongata, lanuginosa, albo vel griseo fuscoque varia ;

antennarum articulo quarto clavaque nigris, reliquis rufo-testaceis.

Hab. Aru.

Elongate cylindrical, covered with coarse curled hairs; head

pale greyish brown ; prothorax indistinctly striped with brown,

greyish and a little white; elytra greyish at the shoulders; a

large discal patch also greyish mixed with dark brown, around

this and the apex white, the latter with two dark brown spots ;

legs varied with grey and white; eyes, fourth antennal joint,

and the club black, the rest of the joints reddish yellow; under

surface covered with whitish hairs. Length 4 lines.

Dedicated to G. R. Waterhouse, Esq., of the British Museum.

PENESTICA.

Head flattened in front, concealed above by the prothorax ;

the rostrum but slightly developed. Antenne short, the first

three joints subequal and longest, the fourth shorter, fifth to the

eighth gradually shorter and broader, the three last forming a

somewhat dilated club. Maxillary palpi slender, pointed. Pro-

thorax rounded anteriorly, very convex, the carina basal, and

extending at a right angle along the side. Elytra shortly cylin-

drical. Legs moderate ; .coxe of the middle pair distant ; tarsi

short.

Penestica tnepta.

P. hirta, albescens, griseo nigroque varia; antennis piceo-rufis, clava

nigra.

Hab. Aru.

Covered with whitish, varied with grey and dark brown, short,

Nomenclature of the Foraminifera. 333

close-set hairs ; prothorax clouded with grey and having a few

indistinct dark brown patches; elytra obliquely striated at the

base, with fine greyish patches (in each of which is a central

dark brown spot)—. e. one at the base and one at the apex of

each elytron, and a large common transverse one in the middle,

—the sides also greyish ; legs and under surface greyish white ;

antenne pitchy red, with the club and eyes black. Length

3 lines.

[To be continued. |

XXXV.—On the Nomenclature of the Foraminifera.

By W. K. Parxer, M. Mier. Soc., and T. R. Jonzs, F.G.S.

II. On the Species enumerated by Walker and Montagu:

The Foraminifera figured and described in Walker’s ‘Test. Min.’—

Subsequently to 1758 (the date of Linnzus’s 10th edition of

the ‘Systema Nature’), and prior to 1789, when Gmelin pro-

duced his edition of the ‘ Syst. Nat.’, several authors noticed and

figured recent and fossil Foraminifera. Among these, Leder-

miller (1764) figured several, but did not aim at giving either

specific determinations, or even names. Martini (1769) merely

copied the figures and names given by Gualtieri and Plancus ;

and so also did others. Guettard (1770) figured several forms

of fossil Nummulites, Orbitolites, &c., which may be more or

less easily recognized. Schroeter (1776-87), Gronovius (1781),

and Spengler (1781)* supplied valuable materials for the Rhi-

zopodist, as we have indicated in our former paper (Annals and

Mag. N.H. 3 ser. vol. iii. p. 474). Soldani (1780) in his ‘ Sag-

gio orittografico,’ &c., illustrated a large series of Foraminifera,

but did not adopt the binomial nomenclature in his descriptions.

We shall turn to the consideration of this work when we take in

hand the much larger, and indeed enormous, accumulation of

microzoic materials which Soldani has so industriously and ela-

borately depicted in his great work, ‘'Testaceographia et Zoo-

phytographia,’ &c. (1789-98).

There is, however, one work of the period referred to that

requires of us critical examination, as far as the Foraminifera

figured and described in it are concerned; and therefore, in

pursuance of the object of these papers, we now offer some re-

marks on the species and varieties of Foraminifera represented

by the figures in plates 1 and 3 of the ‘ Testacea minuta rariora,’

&e., by G. Walker t.

* This date was madvertently omitted in our last communication. In

the Bibliographic list appended to Prof. Williamson’s ‘ Monograph. Brit.

Foram.’ (p. 102) this date should be attached to the reference to Spengler.

+ Testacea minuta rariora nuperrime detecta in arena littoris Sandvi-

334 Messrs. W. K. Parker and T. R. Jones on the

The history and character of this work are so well given by

Prof. Williamson in his elegant Monograph on the Recent Fora-

minifera of Great Britain (1857) that we borrow the following

extract from pages v and vi of the introduction of that work :—

“The earliest British writer in whose works I have discovered

any notice of the Foraminifera is Hookef, the father of micro-

scopical science in this country. In his ‘ Micrographia,’ pub-

lished in 1665, he figures a single specimen, apparently of a

Rotalia, which he found in some sea-sand. This figure is copied

in the ‘ Micrographia Illustrata’ of the elder Adams (1747)... No

further progress was made until the time of Mr. Boys, the well-

known conchologist, whose labours converted Sandwich Bay

into classic ground. His discoveries amongst minute shells led

to the publication of the ‘Testacea Minuta Rariora,’ for which

work the drawings were made by Mr. George Walker, an intelli-

gent bookseller at Faversham, whilst the well-known Edward

Jacob wrote the descriptions*. The volume contained thirty-

six figures of Foraminifera, divided into twenty-two supposed

species; but the descriptions are very brief, rarely exceeding

half-a-dozen words ; and though the twelfth and thirteenth edi-

tions of Linnzeus’s ‘Systema Nature’ had appeared, containing

both descriptions and binomial designations for the Linnzan

forms, Walker avoided assigning trivial names to his objects,

‘through the fear of giving such as might in any way interfere

with those already given by Linnzus to shells of the same

kinds}.’ The fact that subsequent conchologists have usually

ascribed to Walker several of the specific names now employed,

requires a word in explanation. In 1787, George Adams the

younger published his volume of ‘ Essays on the Microscope.’

A second edition of this work, with considerable additions and

improvements, appeared in 1798, edited by Frederic Kanmacher,

who introduced into this edition Walker’s figures of the Fora-

minifera, and appended to them generic and specific names in

censis a Gul. Boys, Arm. S.A.S. Multa adidit, et omnium Figuras ope

ae ampliatas accurate delineavit Geo. Walker. 4to, London

1784}.

* “No date is attached to this work; but the copy in the library of

Mr. J. G. Jeffreys, with the use of which I have long been favoured, and

which was originally in the possession of Dr. Turton, contains the manu-

script date of May lst, 1784. That this was the date of publication is

rendered increasingly probable by the fact that the copy in the library of

the British Museum, which formerly belonged to Sir Joseph Banks, con-

tains a manuscript letter from Jacobs to Sir Joseph, written to accompany

the two copies of the work that Walker sent to the worthy baronet. The

letter is dated May 2nd, 1784. For this fact I am indebted to Dr. Gray,

of the British Museum.”

+ Test. Mimut. Rar., Introduction, p. v.

Nomenclature of the Foraminifera. 335

accordance with the binomial plan of Linneus. These names

were chiefly modifications of prominent terms selected from

Walker’s, or rather Jacob’s, brief descriptions : for example, the

Nautilus subarcuatus geniculis exertis of the latter became the

Nautilus subarcuatulus of Adams. These facts would lead us to

ascribe the names usually given to the more common British

Foraminifera to Adams rather than to the authors of the ‘Tes-

tacea Minuta Rariora;’ but my kind friend Dr. Gray has called

my attention to a note on p. 844 of Dillwyn’s ‘Catalogue of

Recent Shells,’ where, under the head of Nautilus lobatulus, the

author observes, ‘It first appeared with the present name in

the “ Essays on the Microscope ;”” and Adams there says he had

obtained a manuscript corrected copy of the minute shells, to

which Walker had added all the trivial names [which he has

used].? ‘This,’ as Dr. Gray observes to me in a recent com-

munication, ‘sets the matter at rest why they are quoted as

Walker’s.’ ””

It is in the second, or Kanmacher’s, edition of Adams’s ‘ Es-

says on the Microscope*’ that the binomial appellations are

given to Walker’s figures, or rather to some of them, which are

faithfully copied in Kanmacher’s 14th plate. In a note at

page 633, Kanmacher says, ‘ Being possessed of Mr. Jacob’s

own corrected copy of the work (Test. Min.), to which he has

annexed the trivial names, I am thereby enabled to affix them

to the several’shells here enumerated.’? Kanmacher’s observa-

tions (including an extract from a letter written by Sir J. Banks

to Mr. Jacob) on the joint work of Walker, Boys, and Jacob,

- and on the study of minute shells, are well worth reading

(p. 630, &c.).

_ The specimens examined and figured by Walker were obtained

by Mr. Boys and himself from the shore-sands of Sandwich,

Faversham, Sheppey, and the intervening coast; and amongst

them we have some fossil Foraminiferat washed by the action

of the sea and streams from the tertiary clays and sands of the

respective neighbourhoods, and mixed with the recent shells in

the mud and sands of the coast f.

* Essays on the Microscope, by the late George Adams. The second

edition, with considerable additions and improvements, by Frederick Kan-

macher, F.L.S., 4to, London, 1798.

f Still more fossil specimens from these localities were afterwards

figured and described by Cel. Montagu, who worked over Mr. Boys’s col-

lection, which appears to have been increased by materials accuniulated

during several years subsequent to the time when Walker and Jacob had

it in hand.

{ This was remarked by one of us some years since (Quart. Journ. Geol.

Soe. vol. viii. p. 267). Foraminifera from the Chalk also are m many

places abundantly mixed with the sea-sand of the Kentish coast; and

336 Messrs. W. K. Parker and T. R. Jones on the

(A. a—e). Walker, Test. Min. figs.* 1, 2,3, 4,& 10. These

are Miliole, of the Quinqueloculine type. Some are young -

forms, as figs. 2 and 10. Fig. 10 is the double primordial

chamber of a carinate Quinqueloculinat. Fig. 2 represents a

young striated shell in a more advanced stage of growth than

that shown by fig. 10. These forms, which are characteristic-

ally the young forms of the Quinqueloculine varieties of Miliola,

have been named Adelosina by D’Orbigny.

Figs. 1 & 3 represent small specimens of Q. Seminulum§ ;

fig.3 is probably a flattish individual||, broken through the

middle. Although showing only three chambers (and inso-

much Triloculine), fig. 4 (Vermiculum subrotundum, Montagu) is

probably an undeveloped form of the common inflated Q. Sem-

nulum, var. secans**,

(B.) Fig. 5 is a specimen of the common Polymorphina+t, of

small growth. This is well known as P. communis, D’Orb.

(with interminable degrees of size and shape; but the name

lactea (Kanmacher, for Walker and Jacob) is an older appella-

tion. :

(C. a—d.) Fig. 6 is a well-formed Lagenatt, with strong riblets,

and presenting one of the countless modifications of the costate

ornament. This is the Serpula (Lagena) sulcata of Walker and

Jacob (in Kanmacher’s edition of Adams’s ‘ Essays’) ; also- the

L. striata of Montagu. In quoting Kanmacher, Turton in his

‘Linn.’ misnamed this Lagena “Serpula Lagena,”’ instead of

S. (L.) sulcata. Montagu appears not to have referred to Kan-

macher, but to have used Turton’s list; and he supplied the

trivial name “ striata” from the description in the ‘ Test. Minut.,’

whence also Jacob had previously taken the name sulcata, pub-

lished by Kanmacher.

Prof. Williamson has hence been led to figure and describe as recent two

fossil specimens of Frondicularia well known as belonging to the Chalk.

* The figures on the plates in Walker’s work are numbered consecutively

throughout.

+ For the plan of growth of Miliole, see Parker, ‘On some Indian Mi-

holitide,’ Microsc. Transact. new ser. vol. vi. p. 53; and Williamson’s

Monogr. Recent Foram. p. xviii.

t ‘* From Sandwich and Reculver; though not common.”

§ Fig. 1 is referred with a doubt to this species by Walker and Jacob,

who also observe, “ It varies in size and shape, and is found in every por-

tion of the sea-sand which hath been examined.” It is the Vermiculum

intortum of Montagu, who hesitates to place it with M. Seminulum.

|| “ From Sandwich ; very rare.”

1 Montagu also intimates that it must have been a mutilated specimen.

** “Tn sand of all the different parts of the shore.”

+f “From Sandwich; not common.”

tt “From Sandwich, Reculver, and Sheppey; very rare.”

Nomenclature of the Foraminifera. 337

Fig. 9 is a smooth Lagena*, less globose than that shown by

fig. 6, and tapering gently to the neck.

Fig. 8 is a smooth short-necked Lagenat, or rather represents

a specimen having no external, but an internal neck-tube,—a

form known as Enfosolenia (Ehrenberg). Fig. 7 represents the

Entosolenia marginatat, a compressed Lagena with intussus-

cepted apertural tube. The relations of the externally and the

internally tube-necked Lagene are so close that we cannot regard

them as forming two distinct specific types. To this opinion we

strongly bent in the paper on the Norway Foraminifera§ ; and

we feel far more convinced by subsequent observations.

For the reasons which guided us in the consideration of No-

dosaria (Ann. N. Hist. 3rd ser. vol. ii. pp. 476, 478) we regard

Lagena sulcata as the type of the species. It exhibits essential

features of form and ornament. Rib-patterns appear abundantly

on these single-celled Foraminifers, and on their polythalamous

congeners, the Nodosarie and Uvigerine, and much less strongly

on the Polymorphine, which are also related, but more particu-

larly, to the Entosolenian group. The reticulate ornament,

formed by minute transverse concentric ridges uniting the

parallel ribs, or by sinuous riblets anastomosing with each

other, is more specially a feature in the latter group, though

traces of it are occasionally to be found on the typical L. sulcata.

The marginate condition obtains both in Entosolenian and Kcto-

solenian forms. The extrusion and intrusion of the aperture-

tube occur to an exceedingly variable extent, and are often com-

bined. The modifications of this feature are too numerous to

be here described. We may remark that both Ectosolenia and

Entosolenia often have tubes at each end of the shell; and .occa-

sionally there is a second internal tube attached to the side of

the interior, appearing as though the tube had been broken off

and its fragment had become attached during life. The Lagene

are occasionally elongate and spindle-shaped, with an aperture

at each end; these slender individuals are sometimes bent.

Professor Williamson figures the section of a double or twin

specimen of Entosolenia, in which two individuals had grown off

divergently from the primordial cell. :

Prof. Williamson prefers the smooth form || as a representa-

tive of the type, but objects to use as a specific name the term

“levis,” expressive of the absence of ornamentation, inasmuch

as, in this case, the varietal names, alluding to the ornament,

* «yom Sandwich; very rare.” + “From Sandwich; very rare.”

+ “From the Reculver; very rare.”

§ Annals Nat. Hist. 1857, vol. xix. ‘

| In our paper on the Norway Foraminifera (Ann, N. H. 1857, vol. xix.

p. 278) we also took this as the type.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. iv. 22

338 Messrs. W. K. Parker and T. R. Jones on the

would appear contradictory ; and he proposes “ vulgaris” as the

typical name. Taking LZ. sulcata* as the characteristic form of

‘the group, for the reasons already referred to, we think the

varietal names levis, squamosa, &c., whether expressing modifi-

cation or absence of the ornament, will not be contradictory,

and that a new specific name will not be required.

(D. a, 6). Figs. 63 and 64 represent the common and well-

known Rotaliat Beccarii, recognized as this species by Walker

and Jacob. They make the following remarks: ‘The colour,

while the fish is alive, is a fine pellucid crimson; when dead, is

white. It is found alive on the Fucus vesiculosus, and is a very

common shell on all the coast, and seems to be a universal lit-

toral one, by the numbers found at Rimini and in the sand of

the South Seas.” The sinistral and dextral positions of the spire,

which appeared to be an important feature to Walker and Jacob,

are non-characteristic in Foraminifera f.

(E.) Fig. 65 is the common Polystomella crispa. This also

was recognized as a Linnean species by Walker and Jacob. They

observe: ‘“‘The finest specimens are from Sheppey: not un-

common.”

(F. a.) Fig. 66 is a variety of Cristellaria Calcar, rapidly en-

larging in its whorls, ribbed, and keeled ; approaching var. Cassis.

This was from Sheppey, and most probably a fossil specimen

from the London Clay of that island.

(F. 6.) Fig. 67 is Cristellaria Calcar, orbicular and smooth.

“ From Sandwich and Seasalter: not common.” We find it to

be not uncommon in the recent state on the Kentish coast.

Prof. Williamson mentions many other British localities for it.

A large form occurs abundantly in the Tertiary sands and clays

of Kent; and probably Montagu’s specimen, ‘ Test. Brit. Suppl.’

p. 75, pl. 18. figs. 7 & 8, “ from the Boysian Collection,” was one

of these fossils.

(F.c.). Fig. 72 is a very young Cristellaria, probably of the

Marginuline or crozier-like growth. “ From Seasalter and Sand-

wich ; very rare.”

(F.d.) Fig. 73 is a well-developed, strongly ribbed, Marginu-

* Kanmacher’s application of Jacob and Walker’s MS. names should

be strictly adhered to ; and sulcata must be taken as the specific name.

Among Prof. Williamson’s synonyma of his Lagena vulgaris a part only

of Walker’s diagnosis is quoted; S.(.) sulcata is referred to “ Adams,

1787,” instead of Kanmacher, 1798; and Turton’s S. Lagena (Linn. Syst.

vol. iv. 1802, p. 609) is omitted.

+ We agree with Prof. Williamson in discarding the name Rosalina, the

iy, once thought to exist between the two forms having very little

value.

{ Prof. Williamson has some good remarks on this point at p. 49

of his Monograph.

Nomenclature of the Foraminifera, 839

line Cristellaria*, probably fossil. It was “from Sheppey

Island : very rare.”

(G. a.) Fig 68 appears to be a small Nonioninat+, common on

our shores, and of world-wide distribution, namely a delicate

variety of the N. asterisans of Fichtel and Moll. Montagu,

however, refers to this figure as being the same as that of his

“Nautilus depressulus,” which is a small Cristellaria. This

mistake must have arisen from his finding his specimen mixed

up with this little Nonionina in the Boysian collection. The

many narrow, curved chambers, the rounded septal face, the

sunken septal lines (“many depressed joints”), and the some-

what umbilicated spire, unmistakeably distinguish this from

Montagw’s.

(G. b.) Fig. 70 is another variety of Nonionina asterisans, with

still more sunken joints or septal lines, and with a more open

spire. It is common in some littoral sands. Walker found it

at the Reculver,—“ exceeding rare.”

_ (H.a.) Fig. 69 is a common form of Truncatulina lobatula,

having the outline of the cells uniform or flush ; the septal lines

being merely “furrowed.” According to Walker, it was from

Sandwich,—“ not common.”

Montagu (Test. Brit. Suppl. p. 78) refers to this figure when

describing a little Nonionina; and Williamson (Monogr. p. 4:2)

makes it a Polystomella. We believe that they must both be

wrong, because in the specimen figured by Walker the two faces

are decidedly unsymmetrical. :

(H. 4.) Fig. 71 represents the usual lobed form of Truncatu-

lina lobatulat, which is characteristically littoral. Walker found

it at Whitstable,—“ not common.”

The more even-surfaced shell, fig. 69, is smaller than the last

mentioned, and is generally found in deeper water. The raised,

smooth, and nearly conical form, known as 7. refulgens, D’Orb.,

inhabits still deeper zones. These three are few-celled varietal

forms of Planorbulina farcta, Fichtel and Moll, sp., and usually

attach themselves to sea-weeds and shells. Varied by their greater

or less regularity of growth, and by the relative convexity of

their cells, these varieties readily run into each other and into

the Planorbuline (or Acervuline) forms, of which P. farcta is the

type.

(L) Fig. 741s a not uncommon modification of the Vaginulina

Legumen of the British coasts. “From Sandwich: exceeding

* For further remarks on Cristellarie, see Ann. N. H. 1857, xix. p. 290.

+ “From Reculver: very rare.” .

{ In Ann. N. H. 1859, iti. p. 482, we have shown that the term er

nautiloides, formerly thought to have reference to T. lobatula (Ann. N. H,

1857, xix. p. 293), belongs to quite another animal. oak

340 Messrs. W. K. Parker and T. R. Jones on the

rare,” according to Walker. We may here remark that we

retain “ Vaginulina” as a subgeneric term, in preference to

“ Dentalina,” used by Professor Williamson, because Vaginulina

is the most perfect mean between the two extremes Nodosaria and

Cristellaria ; whereas Dentalina is as intimately connected with

Nodosaria on the one hand, as Marginulina is with Cristellaria

on the other. At the same time, we must repeat that there is

no real divisional line existing between any of these forms.

(J.) Fig. 89, described by Walker and Jacob (p. 25) as

*Echinus subrotundus planus lobatus. The colour. opaque

white. From Reculver; rare;” is manifestly (from its minute

size, faintly drawn spire, and peculiarly placed aperture) a com-

mon variety of Globigerina bulloides, D’?Orb., which is found on

our shores. Walker’s fig. 89 has not been previously recognized

(we believe) as representing a Foraminifer.

The opposite Table shows the species and varieties figured by

Walker.

The Foraminifera figured and described in Montagu’s ‘ Test. Brit.’

and ‘ Supplement.’

Subsequent to Walker’s work on the minute shells of the

Kentish coast, little was done in England in the natural history

of the Foraminifera until Colonel G. Montagu produced his

‘Testacea Britannica*,’ in 1803, and the ‘ Supplementt}’ in 1808.

Walker’s species, however, had received names in Kanmacher’s

second edition of G. Adams’s ‘ Essays on the Microscope’ (1798) ;

and John Adams and other naturalists had noticed a few of the

more common littoral species.

On the Continent several fossil forms, chiefly Nummulites,

had been during this time noticed and figured by Tozzetti, Faujas,

Fortis, and others ; and Soldani had produced his gigantic Mo-

nograph on the fossil and recent Foraminifera and other minute

shells of Tuscany. With the same date as that of the ‘ Test.

Brit.’, there was published at Vienna a handsome volume devoted

to Foraminifera—the ‘Testacea Microscopica,’ &c., by Fichtel

and Moll, containing good figures and careful descriptions.

This work we hope to analyze in our next communication.

Professor Williamson has the following useful remarks on

these works in the Introduction to his Monograph (p. vi.) :—

** The appearance of Montagu’s ‘ Testacea Britannica’ in 1803,

and the ‘Supplement’ in 1808, marked a new era in the study

* Testacea Britannica; or, British Shells.” Parts I. & II. 4to, Romsey

and London, 1803. In the ‘ Bibliegraph. Zool. et Geol.,’ published by the

Ray Society, the date of this work is misprinted “ 1803-1808.”

+ Supplement to the Testacea Britannica, with additional plates. 4to,

Exeter and London, 1808.

341

Table of the Species and Varieties of Foraminifera figured in Walker’s ‘ Testacea Minuta.’

Walker and Jacob’s MS. Names in Kan-

macher’s edition of Adams’s ‘ Essays on

the Microscope’ (1798).

References

to Walker’s

*Test. Minut,’

Corrected Names.

2 Vos

> PPP

Q2AAdy

SOR aeoao Bs

My SOP

SOR RSA

Nomenclature of the Foraminifera.

Qh Q my my

See

Page

633

634

Pl. fig.

14 2

14 3

14 4

14 5

14 6

14 29

14 30

14 31

14 32

14 33

14 34

14 35

14 36

14 37

14 38

14 46

Serpula bicornis ...

S. perforata ...,.....

ee Serre

S. (Lagena) sulcata.

COPS HTHC ee eeSeeeSeeeeeette

Serpula retorta......

Nautilus Beccarii ...

N. crispus ......00004

N. Calear. <2. .....:.

N. levigatulus ......

N. depressulus ......

N. wmbilicatulus ...

N. erassulus .........

N. lobatulus .........

N. carinatulus ......

N. subarcuatulus ...

SSeS H ASSET EH ESE EEEEBEH SES

Echinus lobatulus...

Page Pl. fig.

(SURCUR See Oe WO Oe Nee OR

18 3°63

18 3 64

18 3 65

19 3 66

19 3 67

19 3 68

19 3 69

20 3 70

20 3 71

20 3 72

20 3 73

21 3 74

25 3 89

WONIANA Ob]

Miliola (Quinqueloculina) Seminulum, L.

(young).

33 3) 33

39 39 29

Pts — as var. subrotunda, Montagu.

Polymorphina lactea, Walker & Jacob*.

Lagena sulcata, W. & J. (L. striata, Montagu.)

L. (Entosolenia) marginata, Mont.

L. (Entosolenia) globosa, Mont.

L. sulcata, W. & J., var. levis, Mont.

Miliola (Quinqueloculina) Seminulum, L. (young).

} Rotalia Beccarii, L.

Polystomella crispa, L.

Cristellaria Calcar, L., var. Cassis, Fichtel § Moll.

C. Calear, L., var. levigatula, W. & J.

Nonionina asterisans, F. & M., var. depressula, W. & J. ;

Truncatulina lobatula, W. & J., var. umbilicatula, W. § J. ‘[F. & M.

Nonionina asterisans, F. &° M., var. crassula, W. & J. [ Type, Planorbulina farcta,

Truncatulina lobatula, W. & J. [ Type, Planorbulina farcta, F’. § M. |

Cristellaria (young). j

C. (Marginulina) subarcuatula, W. & J. ['Type, C. Calear, L. }

Nodosaria (Vaginulina) Legumen, L. [ Type, N. Raphanus, L. ]

Globigerina bulloides, D’Orbigny, var. lobatula, W. & J.

Type, Lagena sulcata, W. & J.

* According to Kanmacher ;- see above, p. 335.

342 Messrs, W. K, Parker and T, R. Jones on the

of British Foraminifera. Not only were several new forms added

to the list, but improved figures and more elaborate descriptions

were substituted for the imperfect ones hitherto published. In

the first of these publications the difficulty of defining the limits

of specific variation obviously dawned upon the mind of the

author; and in describing his Vermiculum intortum (Miliolina

Seminulum) he distinctly states that this is so variable in its

formation, that, without great attention, it might be formed

into several species,—a warning that might have been received

with advantage by many of Montagu’s successors in the study

of Foraminifera. Shortly after the appearance of Montagu’s

first volume, the publication of the ‘Testacea Microscopica’ of

Fichtel and Moll indicated that these accurate observers had

obtained further light respecting the variableness of many of the

Foraminifera,—a fact especially demonstrated by their descrip-

tion of Nautilus Calcar (Cristellaria Calcar) ; but notwithstand-

ng his previous experience, when publishing his ‘ Supplement,’

Montagu was unable to follow these authors in their accurate

determinations. ‘If,’ he remarks, speaking of the numerous

forms of N. Calcar delineated by these writers, ‘these can be

admitted as the same species, we may bid defiance to specific

definition.’ Nevertheless Fichtel and Moll were in all proba-

bility right.”

The ‘ Test. Brit.’ (which consists of two parts continuously

paged—Part I., with Introduction and pp. 1-292, and Part II.

pp- 293-606) contains thirty short descriptions of specimens

that, with few exceptions, were in ‘the Boysian Collection,”

and more than half of which had been already described and

figured by Walker. Montagu gave figures of six previously

undescribed forms, but does not appear to have personally ex-

amined all the Boysian specimens, having in some instances

worked from drawings and notes received from Mr. Boys. In

the ‘Supplement,’ five years afterwards, he described more fully

eleven forms, refiguring most of them; and introduced, with

figures of all but one, six that he had not previously noticed.

By this time Montagu had had the opportunity of personally

examining “the Boysian Collection,” presented to him by Mr.

Henry Boys, and which seems to have been increased by addi-

tions made from the coast-sands since Walker first had it in

hand. This examination led Montagu to correct and improve

some of his previous descriptions* ; but at the same time, from

some cause or other, he was evidently led into mistakes as to

the identity of specimens already figured by Walker. Thus

* He had also been enabled to enlarge his knowledge of these minute

shells by comparing his recent specimens with fossil Foraminifera brought

from Italy by Messrs. Mead and Higginson.

Nomenclature of the Foraminifera, 343

Walker’s “ umbilicatulus,” “ depressulus,” and “ levigatulus ” -

are species or varieties different from those so named by Mon-

tagu. ‘The difficulty of recognizing essential differences in mi-

nute and very similar forms, the mixing of specimens, or the

shifting of labels (numerals) may probably account for these

discrepancies.

In criticismg Montagu’s nomenclature of the Foraminifera, as

well as in noticing Walker’s figures, we frequently refer to Prof.

Williamson’s Monograph of the Recent British Foraminifera,

the latest and best work on the subject. As the works of these

three authors comprise the main bulk of all the published ori-

ginal researches on British Rhizopods, it has been especially

necessary to keep Prof. Williamson’s elaborate and well-illustrated

Monograph in view. Besides the occasions we have of noting

our agreement with many of his determinations, we have also

incidentally to notice points of disagreement between his views

and our own, without systematically corroborating or discussing

all the species which he has enumerated. We hope, however, at

some future time to compare notes with our highly valued

brother-naturalist ; and in the meantime we believe that he will

be as ready to take into consideration the points of difference

which we notice, as to recognize and be gratified by our general

concurrence with the results of his long-continued and important

researches.

Occasional references are also made by us to the works of

Maton and Rackett, Turton, and others; also to names adopted

by Lamarck and D’Orbigny. The two last-named authors will

supply us with matter for future papers; and then we shall treat

of the generic names borrowed from them for the species figured

by Walker and Montagu.

It may be well to observe in this place that we wish our

readers to remember that, although we protest against the adop-

tion of the numerous published binomial appellations of known

Foraminifera as specific names, yet we are quite cognizant of the

general convenience, and sometimes of the necessity, of retain-

ing the published names of varietal forms for use among zoolo-

gists, and still more especially among paleontologists.

(A. a.) Pl. 14. fig. 9, p. 522. “Vermiculum oblongum.” This

is a common Triloculine form of Miliola, belonging to the typi-

cal species, M. Seminulum, Linn., and has been convenientl

designated Triloculina oblonga by D’Orbigny (Tabl. Céphal.,

Annales des Sc, Nat. vol. vii. p. 300, No. 16). Montagu collected

his specimens at Salcombe Bay, Devonshire. It is of frequent

occurrence on most shores.

(A. 6, c.) P. 519. * Vermiculum bicorne” and “ V. perforatum.”

See above, p. 341. |

344 Messrs. W. K. Parker and T. R. Jones on the

(A. d.) P. 520. “Vermiculum intortum.” This is Walker’s

fig. 1. Montagu felt much hesitation in separating it from

Linné’s S. Seminulum.

(A.e.) P. 521. “Vermiculum subrotundum.” See above,

p: 336.

Maton and Reckett, in the ‘ Linnean Transact.,’ 1807,

vol. viii. p. 245, referred Vermiculum intortum, Montagu, and

Serpula ovalis, "Adams (Linn. Trans. 1800, vol. v. p. 4. pl. 1.

f, 28-30), to Linné’s Serpula Seminulum. They also united

Montagu’s Vermiculum bicorne and V. perforatum, terming it

S. bicornis. Further, they expressed their doubt whether S.

Seminulum, S. subrotunda, S. oblonga, and S. bicornis ought not

to be considered rather as varieties than as distinct species.

- Prof. Williamson (Monogr. p. 84) refers M. subrotunda, Mont.,

to M. trigonula, Lam.; but in this determination we entirely

differ from him.

(B.) P. 522. “Vermiculum lacteum.”” Polymorphina lactea.

See p. 336. . |

(C.a.) P. 523. “Vermiculum striatum.” Serpula (Lagena)

sulcata of Walker and Jacob, according to Kanmacher. Mon-

tagu, by following Turton, missed the name applied by Jacob,

and gave another. See p. 336.

(C. b-d.) Pp. 523 and 524. “ Vermiculum globosum,” “V.

leve,” and “V. marginatum.” Montagu thus termed those

Lagene which remained unnamed by Kanmacher. .

(C.e.) Pl. 14. f. 3, p. 525. “Vermiculum perlucidum.” <A

six-ribbed variety of Lagena sulcata, Walker. From Seasalter

(Whitstable Bay).

(C. f.) Pl. 14. f. 2. p. 526. “ Vermiculum squamosum.” <A

reticulate and common variety of the globose Entosolenian La-

gene. From Seasalter.

(D.a.) Pl. 6. f. 4, p. 197. “ Nautilus Radicula.” This 1s di-

stinct from the specimen figured at pl. 14. f. 6, which is a Cla-

vulina (see p. 350). Montagu evidently felt the difficulty of

placing the two together. Fig. 4 represents a specimen from

Sandwich ; and, since it is described as being of an “ opaque

brown” colour, it was possibly a fossil specimen. This elegant

smooth variety of Nodosaria is common in the London Clay, but

wanting in our recent British fauna. The regularity of form

and smoothness of surface vary indefinitely among the recent

and fossil congeners of N. Radicula; and indeed, at page 86 of

the Supplement, Montagu refers to these “ numerous varieties.”

(D. b.) Pl. 14. f. 4, p. “198.. “ Nautilus j jugosus.” <A tapering

and slightly curved form of Nodosaria Raphanus, with the septal

lines constricted. This specimen was “ received from Mr. Boys,”

and was probably derived from the Thanet Sands or the London

Nomenclature of the Foraminifera. 345

Clay. In the latter this form is abundant. It is the Nodosaria

obliqua, Linn. sp., as Montagu thought. D’Orbigny’s Dentalina

acuta is an analogous variety.

(D. c.) Pl. 14.£5,p.199. “ Nautilus costatus.” The figure

shows a straight and few-ribbed variety of Nodosaria Raphanus.

This also is most probably fossil.

(D. d.) Supplem. pl. 19. f. 2, p. 83. ‘‘ Nautilus costatus, var.”

A fragment of a straight symmetrical Nodosaria. In describing

this variety, Montagu correctly remarks that this form is “ sub-

ject to very great variation.” Probably fossil.

_ (D.e.) Pl. 14. f. 1, p. 525. “ Vermiculum Urne.” ‘ Found in

sand from Sheppey.” Probably the first cell of a Nodosaria

(from the London Clay of Sheppey), showing the fractured wall.

of the next or second cell, encircling the base of the conically-

produced septal face. The opposite, or lower, projecting point

is the usual-terminal pricklet.

(D. f.) Pl..6. f. 5, p. 198. “N. subarcuatus.” One of the

innumerable Dentaline modifications of Nodosarie. Montagu

mentions having seen a drawing of another variety. Both were

from Sandwich. The “brown epidermis” may probably have

been due to fossilization.

Several varieties of these delicate tapering shells abound in

the Tertiary clays (the cliff-washings of which afforded Boys and

Walker so many Foraminifera) ; aud some occur recent on our

coasts, though they are neither large nor plentiful. In the

Mediterranean and elsewhere they abound on deep mud bot-

toms. Authors have noticed and figured hundreds of the varie-

ties, recent and fossil, as distinct species. D’Orbigny’s Dentalina

communis (from the Adriatic, and fossil in the Chalk) has the

chambers oblique and distinct, and is a good sub-type; but

Lamarck’s older name, Nodosaria dentalina (An. s. Vert. vil.

p- 596, no. 2) is well adapted for this group. Montagu’s spe-

cimen, above referred to, has the septal lines of its earlier seg-

ments unmarked, and the later chambers are globose.

Prof. Williamson has taken Montagu’s “ N. subarcuatus ” as

the type of the Dentaline group. In this we cannot agree; for

we do not regard this shell as a good typical form. The well-

grown specimens of Dentalina communis (N. dentalina) of the

Adriatic and Mediterranean far better represent the characters of

the slender tapering arcuate Nodosarie furthest removed from

N. Raphanus.

(D. 7.) P. 197, and Supplem. pl. 19. f. 4 & 7, p. 82. “ Nau-

tilus rectus.” At p. 197, N. Legumen is described under this

name: but in the “ Supplement” these forms are separately and

correctly defined. Montagu’s N. rectus is a thickish and nearly

straight form of Nodosaria dentalina, very common in the Lon-

346 Mesené W. K. Parker and T. R. Jones on the

don Clay, whence the “opaque brown” specimen submitted by

Boys to Montagu was probably derived. D’Orbigny has recog-

nized Montagu’s figured specimen as a variety of his Dentalina

communis (Tabl. Céph., Ann. d. Sc. Nat. vii. p. 254, no. 35), which

is the same as Lamarck’s N. dentalina.

(D. h.) Suppl. pl. 19.f.5,p.86. “ Nautilus spinulosus.” A frag-

ment of a pretty spinose Dentaline Nodosaria, very common in

the London Clay. It passes, on one hand, losing its ornament,

into N. dentalina; and, on the other, by means of finely costate

forms, into NV. Raphanus, the prickles bemg equivalent to un-

developed riblets, and often passing into regular costee. D’Or-

bigny has re-named this variety Dentalina Adolphina, m his

‘Foram. Bassin Vienne ;’? and D. floscula, D’Orb., Nod. hispida,

D’Orb., and Nod. aculeata, D’Orb., are like varieties. The D.

spinescens of Reuss is the same.

(D. i.) Supplem. pl. 19. f. 6, p.82. “ Nautilus Legumen.” This

is the recent Nodosaria (Vaginulina) Legumen, Linn. sp.

(D. 7.) Suppl. pl. 80. f. 9, p.87. “ Nautilus linearis.” A de-

licate Vaginuline modification of Nodosaria, intermediate between

Vaginulina Legumen, Linn., and V. Badenensis, D’?Orb. Mon-

tagu obtained his specimen from “ the shell-bank near Dunbar,

North Britain ;” Prof. Williamson has received this shell from

other British localities. A fragment from the Norwegian coast

is figured in our paper, Annals N. H. 1857, vol. xix. pl. 11. fig. 2.

(E. a.) P.191, and Supplem. pl. 18. f. 1, p. 78. “ Nautilus

umbilicatulus.” Montagu refers to Walker’s fig. 69 for this

shell ; but Walker’s two aspects of the specimen show an un-

symmetrical shell, like a Truncatulina*. In Montagu’s further

description in the “Supplement,” he describes specimens col-

lected by himself from a Sabella (“in the Bay of Kingsbridge”);

and his figure differs materially from Walker’s, and represents a

small variety of Nonionina. asterisans, Fichtel and Moll, sp. It

cannot be the Polystomella+ striatopunctata, ¥. & M. sp., which

Prof. Williamson has called P. umbilicatula (Monograph, p. 42),

* See above, p. 339.

+ In the Anni N: H. 1857, xix. p. 288, we referred this P. striatopunctata

to Nonionina; but, in spite of its extreme similarity of form to the small

Nonionime, we now adhere to Mr. Williamson’s opinion of its being a

Polystomella. We must, however, go further, and regard it as specifically

the same as P. crispa.

We may here observe that the tribe of small Nonionine converging

round N. asterisans, although conveniently considered as a subspecific

group, yet in reality are essentially of the same specific type as that to

which Polystomella crispa belongs. They may be said to be arrested or

feebly developed conditions of the form in which a luxuriant growth of

exogenous shell-matter symmetrically bridges over the septal sulci and the

aperture, and otherwise thickens and ornaments the shell.

Nomenclature of the Foraminifera. — 347

referring to Walker’s fig. 69 (erroneously) and to Montagu’s

pl. 18. fig. 1, as the same form. Walker’s fig. 68 (Nonionina

depressula) is the variety nearest to Montagu’s figured specimen.

Intending to take Nonionina crassula (Walker and Montagu)

as the specific type, we have noticed under this name a little

Nonionina from Norway, in the Ann. N. H, 1857, xix. p. 286;

but we believe that the form described by Fichtel and Moll as

Nautilus asterisans best represents the essential characters of the

specific group to which Non. depressula, Walker, Non. crassula,

Walker, Non. umbilicatula, Montagu, Non. incrassata, F. & M.,

and many other varieties belong. The Norwegian form above

referred to will therefore stand with us as Nonionina asterisans,

F. & M., var. wmbilicatula, Mont.

(E. 6.) P. 191, and Supplem. pl. 18. f. 2, p. 79.“ Nautilus

crassulus.” This is the same.as Walker’s fig. 70, and is a va-

riety of Nonionina asterisans, F. & M. sp., which is a form having

an extreme variability of outline and of thickness. The septal

lines may be flush with the chamber-walls, or sulcate, or limbate

in many modifications. In this specimen from Reculver we

have an open umbilicus and sulcate septal lines, both in greater

degree than in the former variety, pl.18. fig. 1.

Similar varieties of this Nontonina abound in shallow seas,

and are among the few Foraminifera that live high up in estua-

rine waters and in salt-marshes. The Foraminifera represented

by pl. 18. figs. 1-6, and fig. 9 in pl. 14 (Nonionina umbilicatula,

N. crassula, Rotala inflata, R. Beccaru, Polystomella crispa,

and Triloculina oblonga) are the group especially affecting these

habitats.

- (F.) Supplem. pl. 18. f. 3, p. 81. “ Nautilus inflatus.” This

is a Rotalia of a typical specific form (as already remarked by

Williamson), and characteristic of a subgenus. This sandy-

shelled Rotalia, exhibiting a structural condition rare, .if not

unique, among the genus, differs from its congeners so strikingly

in this particular, and in its almost globigerine mode of growth,

that we propose to refer it to a separate subgenus under the

name Trochammina*. |

' The species under notice, which has always an arenaceous

shell, has its fullest development in shallow water, where it is

sometimes very abundant. For instance, some of the clay from

the Peterborough Fens yields it profusely. Montagu had it

from Deyon, and Prof. Williamson has found it elsewhere on

our coasts; usually it is rare. It occurs also at Leghorn. In

deeper water it is represented by attenuated varieties, ultimately

becoming Spirilline. The contrary to this habit holds good with

* From tpoxos, rota; and dppos, arena.

348 Messrs. W. K. Parker and T. R. Jones on the

Rotalia repanda, F. & M.sp., whose varieties are depauperated on

shore, but found to be typically fine in abyssal dredgings.

_ (@.) Pp. 186, 187, and Supplem. pl. 18. f. 4&6, p. 74. “Nau-

tilus Beccarii,” and ‘ N. Beccarii perversus.” Dextral and

sinistral forms of Rotalia Beccarti, L. (See above, p. 338.)

(H.a.) P. 515. “ Serpula lobata.” Fig. 71 of Walker (Trun-

catulina lobatula) is here referred to, also the Serpula nautiloides

of Gmelin. The latter is a sessile form of Lituola (Placopsi-

lina).

Maton and Rackett re-transferred this shell to the nautiloid

group after Montagu had placed it among the Serpule. —

_ (H. db.) Supplem. p. 160. “ Serpula concamerata.” According

to the description given, this is a minute Rotalian form, and

may belong to either of the chief sub-groups of the genus Ro-

talia (viz. Calcarina, Rotalia proper, Planorbulina, and Trocham-

mina). Prof. Williamson (Monogr. p. 52) has used the name

Rotalina concamerata as typically indicative of certain forms

comprising Rosalina globularis, D’Orb., Rotalina Boueana, D’Orb.

&c. It appears however, to us, that in Prof. Williamson’s pl. 4,

figs. 101-103 represent an ordinary specimen of Rotalia repanda,

F. & M. (R. Boueana is the same form); and that figs. 104 and

105 represent Rosalina globularis, which is a variety of Rotalia

trochidiformis, Lamarck. 3

In our paper on some Norwegian Foraminifera (Ann. N. H.

2 ser. vol. xix.), we have also misarranged some of these Rotalia,

led by the extreme similarity (as to external form) of the great

typical R. repanda (op. cit. pl. 10. fig. 22-24) to R. vesicular 18;

Lam., which is a flat variety of R. trochidiformis, whilst the

smaller form (pl. 11. figs. 18, 14) is really a variety of R. tro-

chidiformis, beng the R. globularis of D’Orb., Modéles, No. 69

(not No, 66, as in ‘ Monogr.’ p. 52).

Prof. Williamson gives no definite reason for his application

of this name used by Montagu. We are still of opinion that

Montagu in this case referred to some Planorbuline (or Trunca-

tuline) form, as we indicated in Ann. N. H. 2 ser. vol. xix. p. 294,

note. .

(I.) P. 187; and Supplem. pl. 18. f. 5. ‘ Nautilus crispus.”

The well-known Polystomella crispa, L.

(J. a.) P. 189, pl. 15. f. 4, and Supplem. p. 76. “ Nautilus

Calcar.” A characteristic keeled specimen of Cristellaria Calcar,

but not essentially distinct from those figured in pl. 18. figs. 7-9,

nor from Walker’s figs. 66 & 67. The Nautilus rotatus figured

in Wood’s Catal. and referred to N. Calcar by Maton and

Rackett, is a different shell.

(J. 6.) P. 188, and Supplem. pl. 18. f. 7 & 8, p. 75. “ Nautilus

levigatulus.” A large-sized ‘pale ferruginous brown” speci-

Nomenclature of the Foraminifera. 349

men of Cristellaria Calcar is figured in the ‘Supplement’ under

this name, from the “ Boysian Cabinet.’ In this variety the

umbo has encroached upon the limbated septal lines; but there

is nothing to render this variety essentially distinct from those

shown in pl. 15. f. 4, and pl. 18. fig. 9. Without doubt this

specimen, which has its last chamber broken, was fossil. It is

the C. Wetherelli, Jones, Quart. J ourn. Geol. Soc. vol. viii.

267.

Y The N. teaiialin of Walker (fig. 67) is a recent typical C.

Calcar. Montagu appears to have had some difficulty in ee

nizing Walker’s specimen, though in the ‘Su upplement? ( p. 75)

he intimates that his N. Calcar and Walker’s N. levigatulus

“have been generally confounded.”

(J. c.) P.190, and Supplem. pl. 18. f. 9, p. 78. “ Nautilus

depressulus,” At p. 190, Walker’s fig. 68 is referred to, and

his description given, of a Nonionina; but in the ‘ Supplement’

a small keelless Cristellaria Calcar, probably recent, is figured

and described. This has no relation whatever with the Nautilus

depressulus of Walker. (See above, p. 339.)

Those who have followed Montagu’s nomenclature have been

led into the same mistake; and we necessarily consider that in

Prof. Williamson’s ‘ Monograph, ? p. 25, “ Nautilus depressulus,

Adams, 1798, N. depressulus, Turton, N. depressulus, Mont.

Suppl. p. 78, N. depressulus, Pennant,” &c., should be erased

from the synonyma of C. Calcar.

Maton and Rackett gave the name of N. rotatus to Montagu’s

fig. 4. pl. 15. In Wood’s ‘ Index Test.’ (pl. 138. fig. 5) a variety

of Rotalia Partschiana, D’Orb., is represented under Maton and

Rackett’s name. The lower face of this Rutalia (shown in the

figure referred to) closely resembles a Cristellaria. Wood’s “N.

rotatus ” should also, therefore, be removed from the synonyma

of C. Calcar.

(J.d.) Suppl. pl. 19. f. 1, p. 80. “ Nautilus subarcuatulus.”

The Marginuline form of Cristellaria Calcar. It was from “ the

Boysian cabinet ;” and as this collection contained specimens

from various parts of the Kentish coast, it is quite probable that

we have here a fossil shell from the Thanet Sands, in which this

form is not uncommon*, In the ‘ Test. Brit.,’ p. 196, “ N. sub-

arcuatulus” is placed as a synonym under “ N. Semilituus.”

(J. e.) P. 196, and Suppl. pl. 19. f. 3. p. 80. “ Nautilus Semi-

lituus.” At p. 196, Walker’s fig. 73 is referred to, and his de-

scription of NV. subarcuatulus given under the name of “ N. Semi-

lituus, Gmel.,” which is a misnomer, as mentioned in Ann. N.H.

1859, iu. p. 480. In the ‘Supplement,’ however, a different shell

* Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe. vol. viii. p. 267.

850 On the Nomenclature of the Foraminifera.

is described under this name, similarly misapplied. This is an

interesting Marginuline variety of Cristellaria Calear with orna-

mented septal lines, which is remarkably abundant and of large

size in the London Clay*. We have here doubtless a specimen

from that source. The pinched-in youngest chamber (taking on,

as it were, a Dentaline character) frequently occurs in this fossil

variety. San Domingo has a similar, but smaller, variety im its

Tertiary clays; and a still more minute form is found in the

clays of the English Oolites. Montagu’s opinion that this is

related to the crozier-shell (Peneroplis planatus) figured by Plan-

cus is quite erroneous. (See above.)

Maton and Rackett followed Montagu in mixing “semi-

lituus” with “subarcuatulus” (Linn. Trans. vol. viii. p. 118),

and in similar mistakes. So also did Dillwyn in his ‘ Descrip-

tive Catalogue of Recent Shells, 1817, as well as Turton, Pen-

nant, Fleming, &c. 7

(J. f.) Supplem. p. 86. “ Nautilus bicarinatus.” Described

as being more arcuate than “N. subarcuatus, tab. 6. f. 5,”

rounded posteriorly, and furnished with two longitudinal ribs,

“one along the arc, and another on the opposite side.” From

Sandwich.

Prof. Williamson has placed this among the synonyma of

Cristellaria subarcuatula (Monogr. p. 29); and is most probably

right in thus regarding it as a narrow Marginuline Cristellaria.

(J.g.) P.195. “ Nautilus carmatulus.” Young of Cristellaria

Calcar.

(K.) P.197, pl. 14. f.6. ‘ Nautilus Radicula.” | This is the

Clavulina communis of D’Orbigny, which is a dimorphous form

of Verneuilina tricarinata, D’Orb.; that is, the trihedral arrange-

ment characteristic of Verneutlina proper becomes soon replaced

by a single series of chambers. Montagu, in his description

(p. 198), refers to all the characters peculiar to this form, ex-

cepting its roughness of surface. He evidently had in hand

specimens both of the form under notice and the very similarly

shaped Nodosaria Radicula, which differs in its aperture and its

terminal point, as he has noticed. From Sandwich. It is the

Nodosaria rustica, Jones, Morris’s ‘Catal. Brit. Foss.’ 1854,

p. 38, and is very common in the London Clay. We have not

met with it recent on the British coast, but abundantly in the

Mediterranean.

* The Marginulina Wetherellui, Jones, Morris’s Catalogue Brit. Foss.

1854, p. 37, |

Table of the Corrected Nomenclature of the Foraminifera figured and

described in the ‘ Testacea Britannica’ and ‘ Supplement.’

3 2 5 &

a OS

Montagu’s Names, O25 Corrected Names.

AZ SE

A. a.|Vermiculum oblongum/|!803|Miliola (Triloculina) oblonga, Mont. [ Type,

M. Seminulum, L.|_

A. b.|V. bicorne......+. PN ....|M. Seminulum, DL. (young).

A.¢.|V, perforatum .........|e++0+. M. Seminulum, L

A.d.|V. intortum .........08 1803|/M. Seminulum, LD.

A.e./V. subrotundum ...... 1803|M. Seminulum, L., var. subrotunda, Mont.

A.f.|V. retortum ...... david sfandaes M. Seminulum, L. (young).

B. [V. lacteum e..seseesersleceees Polymorphina lactea, Walker and Jacob.

C.a./V. striatum ........e08- 1803) Lagena suleata, W. & J. Type,

C. 5.) V. clobosum.........0+ 1803) L. (Entosolenia) globosa, Mont. Lagena

GuclV. leves..ceecess Gi eckake 1803) L. suleata, W. & J., var. levis, Mont. { suleata,

Cc. d./V. marginatum......... 1803) L. (Entosolenia) marginata, Mont. | W.&J.

D.a.|Nautilus Radicula......|....+- Nodosaria Radicula, L. V8

D.5.|N. jUQOSUS....eeserseseee 1803|N. Raphanus, L., var. obliqua, L. of

D. c.|N. costatus .....s.c.00. 1803|N. Raphanus, L., var. costata, Mont. Ee

D.d.|N. costatus, var. ...... 1808|N.Raphanus,L.,var.Raphanistrum, L. | 8

D.e./Vermiculum Urne ...|1803|Nodosaria (fragment). 2

D. f.|Nautilus subarcuatus, .|1803|Nodosaria dentalina, Lam., var. sub- zs

arcuata, Mont. |

D.g.JN. reCtUsS ....ccccscoeees 1803|N. dentalina, Lam., var. recta, Mont. a

D.h.|N. spinulosus ......... 1808)N. dentalina, Lam. var. spinulosa, Mont. | 3

D.72.)N. Legumen .......ssseefeceees N. (Vaginulina) Legumen, L. Zi

D. j.|N, linearis .......ceseee0 1808/N. (Vaginulina) Legumen, L., var. line- S.

aris, Mont. Je

E. a.|N. umbilicatulus* ...|1808|Nonionina asterisans, Fichtel § Moll, var.

umbilicatula, Mont.

E. B.)N. crassulus .......0sca[eeeees N. asterisans, Fd M., var. crassula, W. & J.

F. IN, inflatus.......... »..../1808|Rotalia (Trochammina) inflata, Mont.

a. f 2 sae seeseoces eee } Rotalia Beccarii, Ei.

. Beccarii perversus

H. a./Serpula lobata .......+.Je.0+++ Truncatulina lobatula, W.& J. | Type, Planor-

H. b./S, concamerata ......... 1808|Planorbulina? concamerata, bulina farcta,

Mont. F, & M.

I. (Nautilus crispus ...006)+++++ Polystomella crispa, L.

J.a.|N, Calear

J.b.|N, levigatulus + } Setaieegs Cristellaria Calear, DL.

J.c.\N. depressulus {

J.d.\N. subarcuatulus ....|.... |C. Calcar, L., var. subarcuatula, W. & J.

J. e.\N. Semilituus §...... 1808/C. Calear, L., var. Semilituus, Montagu.

J. f.\N. bicarinatus ...... 1808 /C. Calear, L., var. bicarinata, Mont.

J.g.|N. carinatulus ...... ..+.|C. Calear, L. (young).

K. |N. Radicula (Pl. 14,..|.... |Verneuilina (Clavulina). communis, D’ Orb.

f. 6). [ Type, V. tricarinata, D’Orb.]

* Walker’s “umbilicatulus” is a Truncatulina. Montagu’s figured

specimen is decidedly a Nonionina.

t This name was given by Walker and Jacob to a smooth Cristellaria

Calcar, of the typical form. Montagu’s specimen is of larger growth, and

umbonate, but scarcely requires a varietal name.

{ The term “depressulus” is applied by Walker and Jacob to a Nonio-.

nina. Montagu’s figured specimen is a true Cristellaria Calcar.

§ Not the “ Semilituus” of Linneus. See p. 349.

352 Mr. A. Murray on Coleoptera from Old Calabar.

XXXVI.—List of Coleoptera received from Old Calabar, on the

West Coast of Africa. By ANpRew Murray, Edinburgh.

(Continued from p. 123.]

Spheridiide.

Cyctonotum, Erich.

1. C. Mulsanti, mihi.

Nigrum, nitidum, convexum, subtilissime punctatum. _Elytris

lateribus fortiter declivis, versus apicem repansis, decem-

punctato-striatis, striis postice profundioribus ; interstitiis

sine punctis majoribus, stria suturali scutellum attingente, et

ceteris profundiore, striis sextis et septimis haud marginem

attingentibus, ceteris utrinque inclusis. Pedibus piceis.

Long. 24 lin., lat. 13 ln.

Shining black, convex, very finely punctate. Head very

smooth, with the faintest trace of a lowering of the surface on

each side of the middle of the front before the eyes. Thorax

deeply emarginate in front, with the anterior angles projecting ;

sides with margins slightly edged, and somewhat rounded in to

the posterior angles. Scutellum moderate. Elytra with ten

punctate strie, which are deepest at the apex; the interstices are

not impressed with larger punctures in addition to those of the

general surface; the 6th and 7th do not reach the apex, but are

embraced by the remainder on each side; the sutural stria,

which is deepest, reaches the scutellum; the sides of the elytra

decline sharply, so as to be nearly vertical, and the margin, par-

ticularly at the apex, is repanded almost like a hollow shelf.

The legs are piceous.

I have named this species in honour of my esteemed friend

M. Mulsant of Lyons, who first pointed out characters for the

distinction of the species of this genus in his Monograph of it

in the 7th volume of the ‘ Annals of the Society of Agriculture

of Lyons.’

Spu£ripium, Fab.

1. S. Senegalense, Casteln. vol. ii. p. 61.

Nigrum, nitidum, orbiculare, convexum, subtilissime et dense

punctatum, partibus oris, thoracis et elytrorum marginibus

atque suture apice flavo-testaceis ; elytrorum disco macula rafa

obscura vix perspicua instructo; subtus obscurum, nigrum,

pubescens; pedibus glabris flavo- testaceis, femoribus nigro-

fasciatis. ©

Long. 12 lin., lat. 1 lin.

Caateluga’ s description omits the scarcely visible red spot on

the disk of the elytra, and describes the apex of the suture as’

Mr. A. Murray on Coleoptera from Old Calabar. 353

having a yellow spot common to both, whereas it is merely the

yellow margin of the elytra continued round to the apex and up

the suture for a short distance. He does not notice the black

band on the thighs; but as this is not well marked on the an-

terior thighs, it may have escaped him. I have no doubt it

is the same species as his; and these discrepancies may be

accounted for by the shortness of his description. I do not

think we can refer them to variableness in the species, for it

appears to be more constant than the other species of the genus,

es my specimens being alike; and I have had many through my

ands. ?

Pausside.

. Pavussus, Linn.

1. P. Murraii, Westw. Journ. Linn. Soc. vol. i. p. 74 (1857).

Prothorace bipartito clavaque antennarum postice excavata;

piceo-rufus sub lente creberrime punctatus ; capite inter ocu-

los transverse elevato et in medio fossulis duabus minimis

transversis impresso, angulis posticis parteque postica pro-

thoracis extus porrectis et fere latitudine elytrorum, podice

setis longis marginato.

Long. 3 lin., lat, 1 lin.

| Histeride.

Hoxo.erra, Payk.

1. H. arcifera, Mars., Ann. d.1. Soc. Ent. d. France, 3 sér. vol. i.

p. 159.

Oblongo-ovata, complanata, nigra, nitida; fronte sequali; pro-

noto stria marginali angulata; elytris margine inflexo levi,

stria subhumerali abbreviata, tribus dorsalibus obliquis, se-

cunda appendiculata ; propygidio punctis sparsis, duabusque

striis oppositis arcuatis. cincto; pygidio punctatissimo.

Long. 43 lin., lat. 2 lin.

Not having previously seen the H. arcifera in nature, I cannot

speak positively as to my species being it; but the description

accords in every respect with that given of that species by M.

‘ de Marseul, with the exception of the size, mine appearing to

be nearly a third larger.

Macrosternvs, Mars.

1. M. Lafertei, Mars. Ann, d. 1. Soc. Ent. d. France, 3 sér. vol. i.

p. 248.

Latius ovatus, valde complanatus, nitidus, supra nigro-ceruleus ;

fronte concava, stria transversa nulla; pronoto lateribus punc-

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.3. Vol. iv.

854 Mr. A. Murray on Coleoptera from Old Calabar.

tulato, stria marginali interrupta; elytris stria utraque sub-

humerali integra, dorsali prima integra, secunda antice abbre-

viata, tertia late interrupta; pygidio punctato utrinque foveo-

lato, tibiis anticis quadridentatis.

Long. 31 lin., lat. 1-2 lin,

Pxiacopgs, Erich.

1. P. Senegalensis, Payk, Mon. Hist. 13. 5, pl. 4, 5 (1811).

Ovalis, parum convexus, niger, nitidus; fronte impressa, stria

sinuata integra; pronoto stria marginal tenui haud_ inter-

rupta, laterali valida utrinque uncinata; elytris margine

inflexo punctato, duabus striis, interna ad suturam prolon-

gata, subhumerali externa postice, interna antice abbreviatis,

dorsalibus 1-3 integris, ceteris apicalibus punctatis ; propy-

gidio bifoveolato pygidioque punctatis.

Long, 7 lin., lat. 34 lin. -

Puiatysoma, Leach.

1. P, Murrayi, Mars., Ann, d. 1. Soc. Ent. d. France, 3 sér. vol. v.

| p- 403.

Oblongo-ovatum, depressum, nigrum, nitidum ; fronte plana,

stria transversa integra, pronoto stria laterali haud interrupta ;

elytris striis dorsalibus 1-3 integris, quarta dimidiata; pygi-

dio marginato, ocellato-punctato; mesosterno sinuato mar-

ginatoque; tibiis anticis 4-dentatis, intermediis 4-, posticis

3-spinosis.

Long. 4 lin., lat. 1? lin.

Pacuycrarus, Mars.

1, P. eyanescens, Mars., Ann. d. 1. Soc. Ent. d. France, 3 sér.

vol, i. p. 458.

Orglig' supra parum convexus, ceruleus seu viridis metallicus,

nitidus ; antennis pedibusque rufo-brunneis ; clypeo impresso

a fronte distincto stria integra, pronoto lateribus fortius punc-

tato, stria marginali interrupta; elytris striis 1-3 dorsalibus

integris, 4*, 5%, suturali et subhumerali externa dimidiatis ;

mesosterno antice marginato. ,

Long. 2-24 lin., lat. 1-13 lin.

Contrrus, Marseuil.

1. C. didymostriatus, Mars., Ann, d. 1. Soc. Ent. d. France, 3 sér.

vol. i. p. 546.

Ovatus, convexus, niger, nitidus, soxndshelia bidentatis oa

Mr. A. Murray on Coleoptera from Old Calabar. 355"

tis ; fronte stria semicirculari integra ; pronoto striis tenuibus,

-marginali integra, 2 lateralibus ad angulum anticum evanes-.

- centibus alterutra in medio redintegrata; elytris striis didy-

mis, suturali, 5 dorsalibus subhumeralique interna integris,

externa abbreviata; tibiis anticis tridentatis.

Long. 5 lin., lat. 33 lin.

Hister, Linn.

1. H. major, Linn., Mars., Ann. d. 1. Soc. Ent. d. France, 3 sér.

vol. i. p. 173.

Ovato-subquadratus, convexiusculus, niger, nitidus ; fronte lata,

stria sinuata integra, labro inciso; pronoto fulvo longius

cincto, striis lateralibus integris pone oculos interruptis ; ely--

tris margine inflexo bisuleato, subhumerali imterna et 1-3

dorsalibus integris, ceteris brevibus seu obsoletis; pygidio

dense punctato ; prosterno lobo brevi acuminato ; tibiis anticis

3-dentatis, posticis tuberculato-longispinosis.

Long. 7 lin., lat. 4 lin.

2. H. Calabaricus, Mars., Ann. d. 1. Soe. Ent. d. France, 8 sér.

vol. v. p. 415.

Ovalis, parum convexus, niger, nitidus, antennis pedibusque

brunneis ; fronte plana stria semicirculari subrecta, mandibulis

canaliculatis ; ; pronoto stria laterali externa brevi, interna

integra ; elytris fossa subhumerali levi bisulcata, stria sub-

humerali interna ad humerum producta, 1-3 dorsalibus inte-

gris, 4-5 apicalibus, suturali dimidiata; propygidio pygidio-

que basi parce punctatis, utrinque foveolatis ; mesosterno

emarginato stria integra; tibiis anticis tridentatis, posticis

dense biseriatim spinosis.

Long. 33-24 lin., lat. 23-13 ln.

This species varies greatly im size, as bemay be seen from the

above dimensions.

3. H. Loande, Mars., Aun. d. |. Soc. Ent. d. sia 3 sér.

"vol. ii. p- 236.

Oblongo-ovatus, subconvexus, niger, nitidus ; antennis pedibus-

que rufo-brunneis ; fronte impressa, stria retrorsum angulata ; ;

mandibulis bidentatis, canaliculatis ; pronoto stria laterali

interna haud interrupta, externa brevi ; elytris fovea marginali

1-sulcata, striis dorsalibus 1-3 integris, 4* interrupta, 5* ab-

breviata, suturali dimidiata; propygidio bifoveolato pygidio-

que parce punctatis ; mesosterno recto, marginato; tibiis

anticis tridentatis, posticis biseriatim multispinosis.

Long. 24 lin., lat. 1} lin.

23%

856 Mr.A. Murray on Coleoptera from Old Calabar.

CaLocra#ra, Marseul.

1. C. Costifera, Mars., Ann. d. 1. Soc. Ent. d. France, 3 sér. vol. v.

p- 430.

Ovalis, convexa, nitida, nigra, ore antennis pedibusque fusco-

ferrugineis ; fronte punctulata, foveolata marginataque ; pro-

noto rugose punctato, margine laterali elevato, ad angulum

bifoveolato; elytris sutura, margine, externa sextaque costis

integris, margine inflexo bisulcato; propygidio pygidioque

dense punctulatis; metasterno in medio sulcato primoque

ventris segmento grosse punctatis; tibiis anticis latis extus

multidenticulatis, posticis apicem versus parce spinosis.

Long. 14 lin., lat. 2 lin.

Tripatus, Leconte.

1. J. agrestis, Mars., Ann. d. 1. Soc. Ent. d. France, 3 sér.

vol. iii, p. 155.

Orbicularis, convexus, niger, nitidus; antennis pedibusque fer-

rugineis ; fronte concava, puncticulata ; pronoto punctis parcis

et tenuibus, stria marginali interrupta; elytris margine in-

flexo, bistriato, 2 striis subhumeralibus integris, dorsali unica

media brevi, obsoleta, grosse et raro punctatis.

Long. 14 lin., lat. 1 lin.

NITIDULIDA.

Carpophilide.

Bracuypepuuvs, Erich.

1. B. rubidus, mihi.

Nitidus, sat latus et depressus, lete rufo-ferrugineus, capite

elytrorumque apice nigris; capite punctato, antice medio

leviter elevato. Thorace lato, punctato, postice medio bi-im-

presso, et angulis posticis excavatis. Scutello lato, fere rotun-

dato. Elytris plus quam sesqui thorace longioribus, rugose

punctato-striatis, strus haud apicem et marginem attingen-

tibus, interstitiis leviter, apice et margine dense et rugose

punctatis. Abdomine quinque segmentorum composito, pri-

mis duobus brevibus, ceteris longioribus, ultimo longissimo,

supra quatuor segmentis solum aspectabilibus, aciculariter

punctatis, marginatis, apice ultimi segmenti nigricante. Pe-

dibus punctatis ; femoribus subtus fere levibus.

Long. 33 lin., lat. 1 lin.

Shining, rather broad and much depressed; of a clear ferru-

ginous red colour, except the head and apical half of the elytra,

which are black, and the extreme point of the last segment of

the abdomen, which is blackish. Head punctate, impressed on

Mr. A. Murray on Coleoptera from Old Calabar. 357

each side in front, the impressions meeting between the eyes so as

to leave a slight elevation like a flat nose, broadest in front ; tips

of the mandibles dark. Thorax broad, punctate, with the margins

edged, bi-impressed on each side of the middle of the base; base

slightly emarginate, middle portion straight, and with a slight ten-

dency to project backwards, as in Lebia, and the posterior angles

curved very slightly backwards; within the posterior angles

is an elongated fovea or flattened hollow extending nearly half-

way up along the margin. Scutellum broad, very nearly rounded,

so as to look like a small segment of a circle ; but the rounding

is not quite perfect ; it might be resolved into a five-sided figure

with the angles rounded, of which the base occupies the anterior

side. Elytra not quite twice the length of the thorax, but very

nearly so, roughly punctate-striate, the striz not reaching the

apex nor the margin, both of which are closely and rugosely

punctate; the interstices lightly punctate; the sutural striz

deepest on each side of the suture near the scutellum, and there

closely punctate; the sides decline suddenly and nearly verti-

cally, and there is a high-raised sharp edge. Abdomen with

five segments, of which the first two are short and less firm in

texture than the rest, the two next longer and equal to each

other, and the last longest; above, the four last segments only

are seen* ; the three last are strongly acicularly punctate, and

have a raised elevation a short space within the side, and extend-

ing across the base of the segment, making a short, projecting,

more raised sort of tooth or angle at its marginal angle or termi-

nation ; the second appears scarcely punctate, and this elevation

is wanting in it. Under side and legs punctate, middle of abdo-

minal segments and under side of thighs nearly smooth.

2. B. niger, mihi.

Precedenti valde affinis, sed major, niger et ubique magis fortiter

punctatus.

Long. 4 lin., lat. 14 lin.

Very closely allied to the preceding, but larger, wholly black,

and with the punctation throughout coarser, and every charac-

ter somewhat exaggerated or better defined.

I have hesitated whether to give this as a variety of the pre-

ceding or as a different species, but have come to the conclu-

sion that it is to be viewed as distinct. I have received only

two specimens of each; the characters, such as they are, are

constant in both; and although I can find no better nor more

_ * Tt is possible that in life only the three last are seen; they are of a

firmer texture, are punctate, and have the raised margin. It is therefore

probably due to the relaxation of the connecting tissues, caused by my

specimens having come home in spirits, that the second segment is par-

tially seen from above in them.

358 Mr.J. Miers on the Genera Aptandra, Cathedra,

distinguishing characters than those above given, still there is

something in the look of the two which satisfies me that they

are not the same. This sort of primd facie evidence is often as

convincing to an entomological eye as more defined and less

empirical characters,

[To be continued. |

XXXVII.— Additional Observations upon the Genera Aptandra,

Cathedra, Liriosma, Leretia, Poraqueiba, and Emmotum.

By Joun Miers, F.R.S., F.L.S., &e.

APTANDRA,.

In completing the drawing to illustrate this genus, as described

in this work (2nd ser. vil. 201),I have been able to add the

details since obtained of the structure of its fruit and seed. This

information, which fixes beyond doubt the position of Aptandra

in the system, is derived from the analysis of the only fruit that

accompanied a specimen of the Heisteria tubicina of Poéppig,

which I received from Mr. Spruce. This plant is described by

Poppig in his ‘Nov. Gen.’ ii. 85, and is figured by him in

plate 241, but only from immature fruit. We have satisfactory

_ proof that it really belongs to Aptandra by the presence of an

ovary in the same specimen, which is somewhat advanced in

growth, and around the style of which the peculiar monadel-

hous staminal tube still remains, which is precisely similar to

that I have shown in Aptandra Spruceana. The calyx, which in

the flower is barely a line long, in the fruit grows to a very

large size, becoming campanular with an entire spreading mouth,

and it half envelopes the dry globular drupe, which is nearly an

inch in diameter. Its pericarp is smooth, coriaceous, indehis-

cent, half a line in thickness, unilocular, and monospermous ;

the nucleus, in this instance, was greatly shrivelled, and in con-

sequence much corrugated, and was covered with mildew, so

that the nature of its decayed seminal envelopes could not be

ascertained: a firm integument adhered closely to the pericarp,

which appeared to me to be the external tunic of the seed rather

than of the endocarp ; but of this I cannot be sure: the nucleus

adhered to the bottom of the cell bya round cicatrix, which ap-

pears to be the remnant of the free central placenta, upon which

the ovules are attached in the floral ovary. The nucleus con-

sisted of a homogeneous fleshy substance, which, after being

well macerated and cut open transversely, showed no signs of

any embryo; but in its centre was a large vacuity, the sides of

which were pressed together by the shrinking of the mass: this

vacuity presented a very polished surface; and from it several

rays branched towards the circumference, leaving so many fleshy

Liriosma, Leretia, Poraqueiba, and Emmotum. 3859

wedges between the radiating spaces; near the summit these

spaces terminated in one point, and in the solid part above this

I discovered with some difficulty a very minute embryo, about

half a line in diameter, consisting of two distinct, orbicular, flat,

foliaceous cotyledons, with a notch on the margin for the inser-

tion of the radicle, which was unfortunately lost in its extraction ;

but the polished indentation of the entire embryo, left in the

substance of the albumen, indicated its shape and relative size

in regard to the cotyledons. The evidence of this structure is

therefore nearly complete. In the diminutive size of the em-

bryo, imbedded in the summit of the albumen, this structure

quite agrees with that of Heisteria and other genera of the Ola-

cacee; and it may be further remarked that I have observed in

the albumen of Heisteria and Liriosma a constant large vacant

space, running from its base up its centre, and terminating in

the more solid part below the summit, in which the small em-

bryo is imbedded.

From the structure of the ovary, fruit, and seed, combined

with other characters, it is manifest that Aptandra is nearly

allied to the Olacacee, agreeing with that order in the form.and

eestivation of the calyx and petals. The singular enlargement of

the calyx, which ultimately half envelopes the fruit, occurs in a

very similar manner in Olax, Heisteria, and some other genera ;

but Aptandrais very distinct from every genus of that family in the

remarkable confluence of the stamens into a long, thick, mona-

delphous tube, which embraces the style, and bears a number of

extrorse anther-cells, adnate below its summit, just as in Canella,

but which burst by the deflection of their outer valves, as in

Dichidanthera.

This striking peculiarity might well claim the right of Ap-

tandra to be the type of a distinct family allied to Olacacee; but

I will not venture to propose it until other analogous genera

are discovered : in the meantime it may remain as a suborder of

that family, bearing the name of Aptandree. ,

To the generic characters of Aptandra, as before given (loc.

cit. p. 201), we may therefore now add :—

Drupa magna, sicca, globosa, calyce persistente aucto cupulari

laxe semicincta, pericarpio coriaceo indehiscente, 1-locularis,

_l-sperma. Semen imo loculi affixum; integumenta ignota;

albumen copiosum, carnosum, a basi ultra medium radiatim

_excavatum ; embryo parvus, in illo summum versus sepultus,

cotyledonibus orbicularibus, valde foliaceis, radicula brevi te-

reti supera 4-plo longioribus.

1. Aptandra Spruceana, loc. cit. vii. 202; Contrib. Bot. i. 3.

- tab. 1. eS ed Bohan ve

860 Mr. J. Miers on the Genera Aptandra, Cathedra,

2. Aptandra tubicina, Bth. MSS. —Heisteria tubicina, Pép. Nov.

Gen. iii. 35. tab. 241 ;—foliis ellipticis, apice repente lineari-

attenuatis, utrinque glabris, subtus ferrugineo-punctulatis,

rachi nervisque anastomosantibus levibus et rubellis, venis -

valde reticulatis ; paniculis axillaribus, petiolo 4-plo longiori-

bus, folio 7-plo brevioribus, pedicellis in fructu clongatis et

incrassatis, in flore capillaribus ; drupa globosa, calyce aucto

laxe campanulato semi-inclusa.—Prope Panuré, Rio Uaupés,

in Brasilia Septentr. (Spruce, 2741).

- This is described as a short tree with lax branches; the axils

are about 14 inch apart; the leaves are 54 inches long and

2 inches wide, upon a petiole 3 lines in length. The inflores-

cence is about 3? inch long; the pedicels, which are capillary in

flower, become ‘thickened in fruit, especially towards their sum-

mit, and are upwards of an inch in length; the antheriferous

tube, which I have represented in the drawing, exactly resembles

that of the preceding species. The fruit is described in a pre-

ceding page. |

3. Aptandra Benthamiana, n. sp. ;—ramulis fuscis, angulatis ;

foliis ellipticis, versus summum gradatim angustioribus, apice

- angusto et rotundato, utrinque opacis, lurido- fuscescentibus,

coriaceis, crassiusculis, nervis omnino immersis et vix distin-

guendis, margine undulato incrassato haud reflexo; pani-

culis in apicibus ramorum axillaribus, late ramosis, folio

dimidio brevioribus; floribus parvulis, numerosis, pedicellis

' Jongissimis, capillaribus. —Prope San Carlos, Rio Negro,

Brasilia Septentr. (Spruce, 3000).

Its leaves are 3 inches long and 1 inch broad, on a terete

petiole 5 lines in length ; the inflorescence is 1 inch long, 14 inch

broad, the capillary pedicels measuring 6 lines.

4, Aptandra liriosmoides, Spruce MSS., n. sp. ;—foliis oblongis

_yel lanceolato-oblongis, imo obtusis, apice subattenuatis, ob-

tusiusculis, et mucronulatis, glaberrimis, superne opacis, fusco-

viridibus, inferne e punctulis numerosissimis cinereo-albes-

centibus, margine ferrugineo; uervis sese intra marginem

arcuatis, tenuiculis, utrinque parce prominulis, rachi superne

sulcato et albido, subtus- prominente ; paniculis late ramosis-

simis, folio tertio brevioribus; floribus parvulis, pedicellis

capillaribus.—Prope Panuré, Rio Uaupés, Brasilia Septentr.

' (Spruce).

The axils of the branches are shorter than in the other spe-

cies, being from } to 2 inch apart; the leaves are 23 inches

long and 11-12 lines broad, on a petiole 3 lines in length :

Liriosma, Leretia, Poraqueiba, and Emmotum, 361

the inflorescence is 3 inch long, spreading to an inch in breadth ;

the delicate pedicels are 7 lines long, the flowers in bud being

1} line in length.

CATHEDRA.

This genus has been described in a former volume (2nd ser.

vil. 452); and the Diplocrater of Mr. Bentham (Kew Journ. Bot.

ii. 367) does not appear to me to differ from it. Throughout

the Olacacee there is a general disposition to a vast increment

of the calyx, as in Olax, Heisteria, and Liriosma; in Schépfia it

is the disk that enlarges and becomes adnate to the fruit; but

in Cathedra not only a considerable growth takes place in both

the calyx and the disk, but generally one, and sometimes two

of the cupuliform bracts, at first scarcely distinguishable, sud-

denly swell rapidly after the fall of the corolla, and the growing

ovarium thus becomes surrounded by 3 or 4 distinct free cups,

which are more or less concentric or superimposed. The ripe

fruit is not known; but I have represented * the appearance of

these disks when the ovary has attained ten times the size it had

at the period of the fall of the corolla. I now add the details

of two other species from Spruce’s collections :—

1. Cathedra rubricaulis, nob., huj. op. 2 ser. vil. 458 ; ‘Contrib.

Bot. i. 15. pl. 2.—Corcovado, Rio de Janeiro.

2. Cathedra Gardneriana, nob., loc. cit.

83. Cathedra acuminata.—Diplocrater acuminata, Benth. loc. cit.

p- 367 ;—ramis glabris, striatellis, ramulis floriferis virgatis,

fusco-pruinosis, sub lente brevissime hirtellis; folis oblongo-

ellipticis, summo abrupte attenuatis, acutis, utrinque glabris,

submembranaceis, subtus brunnescentibus; nervis paucis,

paullo prominentibus, reticulatis, petiolo tenui, subbrevi;

floribus minimis, axillaribus, paucis, fasciculatis, breviter pedi-

cellatis.—Barra do Rio Negro, Brasilia Septentr. (Spruce, —

anno 1850-1851).

A tree 15-20 feet in height; the internodes of the branchlets

are 1-14 inch apart; the leaves are 33—4 inches long, 13-1} in.

broad, on a petiole 3 lines in length: “about 3-6 flowers in éach

axillary fascicle ; pedicels equal to the length of the flower, only

3 line; disk equal i in size to the calyx, both cupuliform ; petals 6.

4. Cathedra crassifolia, Benth. MSS. ;—ramulis glabris, cortice

rimoso ; folis oblongo-ellipticis, utrinque acutis, apice anguste

attenuatis, subcoriaceis, utrinque opacis et rugulosis, nervis

paucis superne immersis, subtus vix prominulis, margine re-

flexo; floribus paucis, axillaribus, fasciculatis, e nodo promi-

362 Mr. J. Miers on the Genera Aptandra, Cathedra,

~ nente ortis.—Fluv. Guainia et Casiquiare, Brasil. Septentr.

(Spruce, 38514).

Its leaves are 34 inches long, 1{ in. broad, on a petiole 4 lines

in length. The flowers are 13 line long, on a pedicel of 1 line.

LIRgIosMA.

_ I have enumerated four species belonging to this genus of the

Olacacee, to which five others are now added.

1. Liriosma candida, Pop. Nov. Gen. ii. 83. tab. 239.

2. Liriosma pauciflora, A. DC. Prodr. viii. 673; Deless. Icon.

_y. tab. 41; huj. op. 2 ser. viii. 106, cum synon.—Bahia

(Blanchet) ;—foliis obovatis, imo obtusis, gradatim acutis,

’ glaberrimis, crassiusculis, utrinque pallide viridibus, supra

subnitidis, nervis hinc prominentibus, subtus omnino im-

' mersis, margine vix reflexo: 2} poll. longis, 13 poll. latis—

Bahia (Moricand, 2593). )

3, Liriosma Gardneriana, A. DC. loc. cit.; huj. op. 2 ser. viii.

108, cum synon.; Contrib. Bot. i, 19. pl. 3.—Prov. Ceara

Brasiliz (Gardner, 1537).

4, Liriosma Velloziana, A. DC. loc. cit.; huj. op. 1. c. 107, cum

' synon.; Contrib. Bot. i. 20. pl. 3.— Dulaccia singularis,

Vell. Flor. Flum. p. 32, et vol. 1. tab. 78.—Rio de Janeiro.

5. Liriosma pallida, n. sp. ;—foliis oblongis, gradatim angustiori-

. bus et longe acuminatis, membranaceis, utrinque pallidis,

glaberrimis, reticulatis, petiolo brevi; racemo axillari, brevi,

_ sub-6-floro ; pedicello calyce corollaque puberulis. — Prope

Panuré, Rio Uaupés, Brasil. Septent. (Spruce, 2572).

Its branches and branchlets are slender; the pale leaves, of

very thin texture, are 2 inches long and 8 lines broad, on a nar-

row petiole that does not exceed a line in length: the racemes

are 5 or 6 lines long, the pedicels are 1 line long, and the flower

in bud 2 lines in length; they are somewhat secund.

6. Liriosma inopiflora, n. sp. ;—foliis ellipticis vel ovatis, imo

subacutis, apice obtusatim attenuatis, et mucronulatis, sub-

coriaceis, utrinque glaberrimis, supra nitidis, in nervis sulca-

tis, subtus pallidioribus, glauco-lividis, concavis, nervis paucis

’ brevibus sese arcuatis, margine cartilagineo reflexo, petiolo

brevi, glabro, transverse rugoso; racemulis brevissimis, axil-

laribus, floribus 2—3, rarius pluribus, subsecundis, rachi pe-

dicellisque puberulis, calyce et corolla glabris; drupa ovali,

- apiece umbilicata.—Prope San Carlos, Rio Negro, Amazonas

- (Spruce, 3487). |

A species allied to L. pauciflora, but with much shorter

Liriosma, Leretia, Poraqueiba, and Emmotum. 363

racemes and smaller flowers ; its leaves are much darker, thicker,

more opaque beneath, more acute at base, all (even younger

ones) quite glabrous, excepting along the midrib above; nervures

shorter, more spreading ; calyx and corolla smooth; branchlets

virgate, of a golden-yellow colour and puberulous: its leaves are

32 inches long, 17 inch wide, the petiole being 13 line in length ;

the racemes are 4 lines long, the pedicels 1 line, the flowers be-

fore opening 2 lines long; the drupe is 8 lines long and 5 lines

in diameter.

7. Liriosma ovata, n. sp. ;—foliis late ovatis, imo obtusis, prope

summum attenuatis, hinc obtusis et emarginatis, crassiusculis,

supra lucidis, subtus opacis, fuscis, utrinque glabris, nervis

paucis sese arcuatis breviter divergentibus omnino immersis,

subtus vix visibilibus, margine tenui reflexo, costa mediana

superne pubere, subtus glabra, sulcata, petiolo brevi ruguloso ;

racemulis brevibus axillaribus glabris, 4—6-floris, floribus mi-

noribus, glabris.—Barra do Rio Negro, Amazonas. (Spruce,

in flore, sine numero, coll. 1850-51; in fructu immaturo,

No. 1366).

- In this species the leaves are 27-22 inches long, 13-13 inch

broad, on a petiole 2 lines in length; the racemes are 3 lines

long. :

8. Liriosma acuta, n. sp. ;—ramulis virgatis, strictis, glabris,

striatis; foliis distantibus, oblongis, imo valde. obtusis, infra

medium versus summum gradatim acutis, acuminatis, con-

coloribus, subpallidis, utrinque opacis, supra glabris, sub-

convexis, nervis immersis, subtus sub lente sparse puberibus,

nervis prominulis, reticulatis, margine tenui revoluto, junio-

ribus minoribus et utrinque viridibus, petiolo brevi ; racemulis

axillaribus, brevibus, paucifloris. — Rio Negro, Amazonas

(Spruce, 1508). |

The branchlets are long and virgate, the internodes about

1 inch apart; the leaves 8-4: inches long, 13-13 inch broad, on

a petiole 2 lines long: the floral racemes, in my specimen, are

-in avery young state; they are only 3 lines long, both in flower

and fruit. The drupe, supported on a very short pedicel, is

11 lines long and 7 lines in diameter ; the sarcocarp, in a dried |

state, is very thin; the putamen is also very thin, marked exter-

nally and internally by nine longitudinal lines ; the integuments

are membranaceous; the albumen is very thick and fleshy,

marked by three longitudinal grooves, which terminate at the

base in three short hollow spaces, uniting in a long hollow

cylindrical cavity in the axis which extends to 3 of the length

of the albumen ; in the solid apex, over this space, the minute

364 Mr.J. Miers on the Genera Aptandra, Cathedra,

embryo is imbedded ; the radicle is superior, short, thick, and

clavate; the cotyledons are of equal length, but much thinner

and narrower. 3

9. Liriosma macrophylla, Bth. MSS.—Olax macrophylla, Bth.

Trans. Linn. Soc. xviii. 678 ;—ramulis glabris, striatis ; foliis

lanceolato-oblongis, utrinque acutis, summo gradatim acumi-

natis, acutissimis, textura tenui, ubique glaberrimis, superne

sublucidis, subtus pallidioribus, opacis, nervis paucis sese

arcuatis breviter divergentibus, paullo prominentibus, reticu-

latis, rachi subtus prominulo et sulcato, margine valde re-

flexo, petiolo brevissimo, crassiusculo, transverse ruguloso ;

racemis axillaribus, 6—10-floris.—Rio Casiquiare, in Brasilia

Septentrionali (Spruce, 8312).

The leaves are 54-53 inches long, 23—23 inches broad, on a

petiole of 2 lines; the raceme is 3-4 lines long; the drupe is

9 lines long, 5 lines in diameter, supported on a pedicel 2 lines

in length.

To some of the genera of the Icacinacee formerly described I

have to make the following additions :—

LERETIA.

1. Leretia Vellozii, nob., huj. op. 2 ser. ix. 8392; Contrib. Bot.

i, 62. pl. 7.—L. cordata, Vell. Flor. Flum. iii. tab. 2.— Rio

de Janeiro.

2. Leretia ampla, n. sp. ;—ramulis angulatis, glaberrimis, cortice

laxo, rugoso ; foliis majusculis (floralibus minoribus), oblongis,

imo obtusis, e medio gradatim acutis, mucronatis, submem-

branaceis, utrinque glaberrimis, subnitidis, pallescentibus et

concoloribus, nervis conspicuis obliquis sese arcuatis subtus

prominentibus, valde reticulatis, venis transversalibus, mar-

gine integro, petiolo rubro, tereti, striato; paniculis laxis,

folio brevioribus, infra axillas oppositifoliis, vel terminalibus,

valde ramosis, multifloris, vix pubescentibus ; floribus minori-

bus, petalis extus adpresse pilosis, intus breviter cottoneo- et

incano-tomentosis.—Prope San Carlos, Rio Negro, Amazonas

(Spruce, 3776).

Its leaves are 82 inches long, 3? inches broad, on a petiole

4 inch in length; the floriferous leaves are only half this size,

or still smaller. The very branching inflorescence is 24 inches

broad, as well as long ; the flowers in bud are somewhat globose,

1 line in diameter, on short pubescent pedicels.

3. Leretia nitida, n. sp.;—ramulis angulatis, glabris, lenticellis

Liriosma, Leretia, Poraqueiba, and Emmotum. 365

notatis ; foliis ellipticis, utrinque acutis, summo attenuatis et

hine interdum obtusis, crassiusculis, ubique glaberrimis, supra

intense viridibus, nitidis, infra pallidioribus, nervis obliquis

sese arcuatis, infra prominulis, valde reticulatis, margine re-

flexo, petiolo subbrevi, canaliculato; paniculis axillaribus et

terminalibus folio dimidio brevioribus, fulvo-pruinosis, petalis

extus pruinosis, intus pilis longis ferrugineo-sericeis donatis.

Rio Negro, Amazonas (Spruce, 1528).

Its leaves are 5 inches long, 1? inch broad, on a petiole 3 lines

in length. The inflorescence is 2 inches long, spreading to a

breadth of 14 inch ; the flowers in bud are 12 line long, on pe-

dicels of 4 a line in length.

PoRAQUEIBA.

When the structure of this genus was described (huj. op.

2 ser. ix. 482), I had not been able to detect any apparent de-

hiscence of the anther-cells: those in the species of which the

diagnosis is given below, were, however, sufficiently ripened to

show their mode of opening. I find that in each of the four

distant cells a rupture takes place, by one of its margins, along

the line of its junction with the connective, as has been correctly

described by M. Tulasne, and nearly in the manner I have shown

to occur in Emmotum (loc. cit. x. 177). This genus must there-

fore be referred to the tribe Emmotee (loc. cit. ix. 223). To

the generic diagnosis of Poraqueiba, as above cited, we must add,

to the description of the anthers—

loculis singulatim margine unico a connectivo soluto, hinc

rima longitudinali lateraliter dehiscentibus.

1. Poraqueiba Guianensis, Aubl., huj. op. 2 ser. ix. 483; Con-

trib. Bot. 1. 71.—Guiana Gallica.

2. Poraqueiba Surinamensis, nob., ibid. p. 483 ; Contrib. Bot.

i. 72. tab. 10.—Surinam.

3. Poraqueiba sericea, Tulasne, ibid. p. 484; Contrib. Bot. 1.

72.—Ega, Amazonas.

4. Poraqueiba acuminata, n. sp.;—ramulis cylindricis, tomen-

tillis; foliis ovatis, basi rotundatis vel truncatis, apice subito

acuminatis, crassis, coriaceis, superne nitidiusculis, subtus fla-

vido-pruinosis, nervis supra omnino immersis, subtus promi-

nentibus, parallele obliquis, ad marginem vix revolutum ar-

cuatim nexis, venis transversis reticulatis, rachi supra sulcato,

subtus valde prominente, petiolo longo crasso canaliculato ;

racemis axillaribus folio tertio brevioribus, rachi crasso, ramis

crassiusculis distantibus, brevibus, divergentibus, floribus fere

' 366 Mr. J. Miers on the genus Emniotum. °

séssilibus, hine agglomerato-spicatis —Barra do aes Negro,

Amazonas (Spruce, 1748).

' This species is distinguished by its thicker and more coria-

ceous leaves, with their underside and nervures thickly covered

by a densely pruinose covering ; the nervures above (about eight

on each side) are wholly immersed and smooth above, extremely

prominent and thick beneath ; the main peduncle of the inflo-

rescence is much thicker, and the flowers are perfectly sessile.

The leaves are 8-10 inches long, 44-5? inches broad, the petiole

being 1 inch long and 4 inch thick: the raceme is 2? inches long;

its thick branchlets are 6—10 lines long, diverging at nearly a

right angle: the flowers, at the period of bursting, are 14 lne

long.

. EMMoTUM.

To this genus I am enabled to add only partial details of its

carpological structure, derived from an examination of Spruce’s

specimen (No. 1989) of Emmotum: acuminatum, with which I

received a single fruit. This is a drupe of a depressed globular

form, 8 lines in diameter, its vertical axis being 5 lines long;

its coriaceous sarcocarp, about 4 inch thick, covers a rugosé

osseous indehiscent nut of about the same thickness; the latter

is 5-celled, three or four of these cells beimg much smaller,

and evidently semi-abortive ; the other cell contained no seed,

nothing remaining within but the dried and shrivelled integu-

ments.

1. Emmotum orbiculatum, nob., huj. op. 2 ser. x. 178 ; Contrib.

Bot. i. 108.— Pogopetalum orbiculatum, Benth. Linn. Trans.

xviii. 685. tab. 42.—In Brasilia Septentrionali.

2. Emmotum acuminatum, nob., loc. cit. 178; Contrib. Bot. i.

108. tab. 21 8.—Pogopetalum acuminatum, Benth. loc. cit.

685.—Rio Negro Brasiliz.

3. Emmotum fagifolium, Desv. in Ham. Prodr. 29; nob., loc. cit.

p- 179; Contrib. Bot. i. 189. tab. 21 a.—Pogopetalum acu-

tum, Benth. in Hook. Lond; Journ. Bot. ii. 377.—Guiana

Gallica.

4. Emmotum affine, nob., loc. cit. 180; Contrib. Bot. 1. 110.—

Pogopetalum affine, Planch.—Brasilia (Sellow).

5. Emmotum nitens, nob., loc. cit. 180; Contrib. Bot. i. 110.

tab. 22 a.—Pogopetalum uitens, Benth. loc. cit. u. 377.—

Brasilia intertropica.

6. Emmotum glabrum, Bth. MSS. ;—foliis ellipticis, utrinque

acutis, apice longe attenuatis, glaberrimis, subcoriaceis, supra

fusco-yiridibus, subtus pallide ferrugineis, margine revoluto,

» nervis omnino immersis, lineis striatis transversis interruptis

creberrime parallelis utrinque insculptis, costa media rubella;

margine revoluto, petiolo canaliculato; paniculis brevibus;

petiolo 2-3-plo longioribus, pedunculo pedicellisque pubes-

centibus, corolla et calyce glabris, hoc dentibus ciliatis, petalis

lanceolatis, carina interna dense lanatis.—Rio Guainia et Rio

Casiquiare in Brasilia Septentrionali (Spruce, 3536).

The leaves are 3? inches long, 13 inch broad, on a petiole

3 lines in length; the racemes are 6-9 lines long, the flowers in

bud 12 line long; the petals are clothed internally with dense

silky long hairs, springing from the prominent keel ; the stamens

are somewhat shorter than the petals; the filaments are com-

pressed and glabrous ; the two cells of the anthers are separated,.

and fixed upon the margins of an obcordate connective; the

ovary is densely clothed with adpressed white sericeous hairs,

surmounted by a glabrous style of equal length*.

XXXVITI.—WNotes on the Hydroid Zoophytes.

By Prof. AruManf.

I. Laomedea tenuis, n. sp.

A sMALL species of Laomedea was found in August last, attached

to the fronds of Laminaria digitata, dredged from about three

fathoms water, off the town of Stromness. It was associated

with L. geniculata, and, though tolerably abundant, might, from

its great delicacy, have been easily overlooked.

I believe it to be an undescribed species, which may be di-

stinguished by the following diagnosis :— |

Stem geniculate ; polypiferous ramuli having the same diameter’

as the stem, springing alternately from the geniculations; the

entire stem and ramuli distinctly annulated ; polype-cells with

deeply-cleft margins; polypes very extensile, with 16 or 18

tentacula. Capsules medusiferous, large, cylindrical, with the

proximal end conical, and with the remote end broad and trun-

cated. |

The present species is nearly allied to L. lacerata, which it

resembles in its deeply-cleft polype-cells and in the form of its.

polypes, but must be distinguished from it by its polypiferous

ramuli equalling the main stem in thickness, by the form of its »

capsules, and by their contents, which are here Medusz, while

in L. lacerata they are sporosacs.

* A drawing of this species, with analytical details, will be given im

‘ Contributions to Botany,’ plate 22 s. :

+ The species described in the present notes formed the subject of a paper

read by the author at the late Meeting of the British Association at Aberdeen..

368 Prof. Allman on the Hydroid Zoophytes.

In the specimens examined, each capsule contained but a

single Medusa, which sprang from the side of a blastostyle, and

occupied the greater part of the capsule. '

There can, I think, be no doubt that some minute Meduse

which I found free in the phial containing my specimens of L.

tenuis, and which, so far as comparison was practicable, closely

corresponded with those which lay contracted in the interior of

the capsules, had been liberated from the present zoophyte.

They were provided witha deep umbrella, having its. transverse

and vertical diameter each equal to about ;%> of an inch. The

form of the umbrella is rendered peculiar by the abrupt narrow-

ing of its summit. The roof of the bell descends as a conical pro-

jection into the axis, and from the truncated apex of this inverted

cone there hangs a conical manubrium, whose mouth is furnished

with four tentacles, each terminating in a spherical cluster of

thread-cells.

Four gastrovascular canals take their origin in the base of the

manubrium, and, after ascending along the sides of the conical

projection from the roof, descend in the walls of the umbrella to

open into the circular canal. At the point where each radiating

canal enters the circular canal there is a bulbous dilatation, from

which two marginal tentacles are given off; and in the middle

point between each of these bulbs there is a similar, though

smaller, bulbous dilatation of the circular canal, which gives

origin to a single tentacle. The tentacles have their endoderm

presenting the usual vacuolated condition ; and the thread-cells

of their ectoderm are uniformly distributed over their surface,

showing no tendency to an arrangement into distinct groups.

The velum is moderately wide. There are no lithocysts or

ocelli. : 3

In the further development of the Medusa, the marginal ten-

tacles are probably multiplied in each group; at least, in one

specimen I found three tentacles springing from a single bulb.

The Medusa also appears to belong to a type in which the gene-

rative elements are developed in the walls of the manubrium,

thus affording an exception to the usual condition of the Medusze

in the Campanulariade, where the generative elements are formed

in special bodies which bud from the radiating canals*.

* In Sarsia and its allies the generative elements are formed, as is well

known, in the walls of the manubrium, where they lie between the endo-

derm and ectoderm, a position quite similar to that assumed by them in

the sporosac of Clava, Hydractinia, certain species of Coryne, of Laomedea,

Sertularia, &ec., as well as in the Medusa-buds of Eudendrium ramosum,

Van Beneden, and certain other species of Coryne.

In Laomedea dichotoma, L. geniculata, &c., the generative elements are

never formed in the manubrium of the Medusa bud, but in peculiar bodies

seated on the course of the radiating canals. Now these bodies, at least in

Prof. Allman on the Hydroid Zoophytes. 369

TI. Clava disecreta, nov. sp.

In August last I obtained, upon the under surface of a stone

near low-water mark, upon the shore of one of the small rocky

islands of Orkney, a species of Clava which may be defined by

the following short diagnosis :—

Char.—Polypes not grouped. into clusters, but distributed at

intervals upon a branched creeping stolon.

Clava discreta differs from C. multicornis chiefly in the pecu-

liar development of the stolon, which consists of a branched

creeping tube, invested with a distinct polypary, and sending

up, at intervals of from about } to } an inch, very short free

simple stems whose height scarcely exceeds the diameter of the

stolon, and from whose summit the polypes emerge. The

polypes are thus widely separated from one another, instead of

being collected into clusters as in C, multicornis. They are of a

light brown colour, and are also smaller than those of C. multi-

corms, scarcely exceeding 7 inch in height. In other respects

they closely resemble them. ‘The tentacula are about twelve in

number, and the sporosacs are grouped in two or three clusters

just behind the proximal tentacula.

The only specimen of this species I obtained was attached to

the dead stolon of some other zoophyte, probably a Coryne, which

it accompanied in its ramifications over the under surface of the

stone on which it grew.

III, Dicoryne stricta, nov. gen. and sp.

The subject of the present note was dredged at Orkney in

August last, in water of about three fathoms depth. It vested

an old Buccinum undatum which contained a Hermit Crab, and

the Medusa of Laomedea dichotoma, which I carefully examined with

regard to this point, are constructed precisely on the plan of the sporosacs

in Clava, Hydractinia, &e. These sporosacs must be viewed as special

zooids representing one term in the “alternation of generations” of the

individual. Just so must the reproductive bodies (sporosacs) which bud

from the radiating canals of the Medusa of Laomedea dichotoma be regarded

as special zooids, and as representing a term in the life-series of the zoo-

phyte.

In Eudendrium ramosum, for example, we have therefore this series re-

presented by two terms :—

[Ovum] polype, medusa ;

while in Laomedea dichotoma it is represented by three :—

[Ovum] polype, medusa, sporosac.

_ In the Eudendrium, the series stops with the production of a seaual

zooid in the form of a Medusa; in the Laomedea it goes on through the

non-sexual Medusa-bud until it finds its termination in the sexual sporosac-

bud of the latter.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. iv. 24

870 Mr. F. Walker on some undescribed Ceylon Insects.

which was partly covered with Hydractinia echinata. Its generic

and specific characters are embraced in the following diagnosis:—

DIcoryNE.

Char.—Cecenosare branched, clothed with a polypary and ad-

hering by a tubular network. Polypes claviform, of two kinds,

one sterile, the other proliferous, both borne upon the common

ccenosare, and issuing from the extremities of the branches.

Sterile polypes with a verticil of filiform tentacula situated be-

hind the mouth; proliferous polypes destitute of tentacula (and

mouth ?), and having the gonophores clustered round their base.

D. stricta. Stem rising to the height of about 4 an inch, irre-

gularly branched; branches ascending at a very acute angle

from the stem. Polypary slightly dilated at the extremities of

the branches, somewhat corrugated near the base, but without

distinct annulations. Tentacula about 16, in a slightly alternat-

ing verticil.

The only specimen of Dicoryne stricta I obtained was male.

The polypary possessed but little transparency, and, as well as

the polypes, was of a light brown colour. From the basal tubu-

lar network, besides the branched colonies, there also sprang

unbranched stems which ascended vertically to the length of

about a line, and bore each a terminal polype. These are appa-

rently young zooids not yet complicated by branching, though

many of the polypes seemed to have attained maturity, and pre-

sented the same difference of form as in the branched colony,—

being in some cases tentaculiferous and sterile polypes ; in others,

polypes destitute of tentacles, and loaded with gonophores.

The habitat of D stricta seems to be entirely similar to that

of Hydractinia echinata*. ;

XXXIX.—Characters of some apparently undescribed Ceylon

Insects. By F. Wa.ker.

[Continued from vol. ii-p-266. | Lv. - 224

Order HYMENOPTERA.

Fam. Formicide.

Formica ExerciTA. Fem. Nigra, densissime et scitissime punc-

tata, antennis subfiliformibus, scapo flagelloque apice rufescentibus,

* In Professor Huxley’s beautiful and philosophic memoir on the

Oceanic Hydrozoa, just published by the Ray Society, he has proposed a

terminology, partly special for the particular groups which form the subject

of his memoir, and partly intended to apply to the Hydrozoa in general.

I would gladly have adopted several of Professor Huxley’s terms in the

present paper, if I could have done so without accompanying them with defi-

nitions which would have inconveniently increased the length of these notes.

Mr. F. Walker on some undescribed Ceylon Insects, 871

clypeo subcarinato incisuris duabus anticis, coxis femoribusque

rufis, his apice nigris, alis fuscis, venis nigricantibus, stigmate

nigro. Mas. Gracilis, antennis apice rufis, pedibus piceis.

Female, Black, very thickly and finely punctured. Antennee

subfiliform ; tips of the scape and of the flagellum reddish. Cly-

peus slightly keeled, with a notch on each side in front. Legs

moderately stout; coxee and femora red, the latter with black

tips. Wings brown; veins blackish, in structure much like those

of Polyrhachis militaris; stigma black. Length of the body

4 lines; of the wings 8 lines. Male. More slender. Antennee

slender, red towards the tips. Legs slender, piceous, Length cf

the body 3} lines; of the wings 7 lines.

Formica ExunpDANS. Mas. Nigra, elongata, scitissime punctata,

antennis piceis filiformibus corpore vix brevioribus, abdomine

longi-fusiformi, segmentorum marginibus pedibusque pallide pi-

ceis, alis cinereis, venis nigricantibus, stigmate nigro.

Male. Black, elongate, very finely punctured. Antenne piceous,

filiform, nearly as long as the body. Abdomen elongate fusiform ;

hind borders of the segments and legs pale piceous; scale of the

peduncle large. Wings cinereous; veins much like those of the

preceding species; stigma black. Length of the body 4 lines

of the wings 6 lines.

ForMicA MERITANS. Mas. Nigra, elongata, nitens, pubescens

capite impresso, ore fulvo, antennis piceis filiformibus corpore

paullo brevioribus, metathorace elongato transverse impresso, seg-

mentorum abdominalium marginibus posticis rufis, pedibus piceis

longiusculis, alis nigro-fuscis, venis stigmateque nigris.

Male. Black, elongate, shining, pubescent. Head with an im-

pression between the ocelli and the base of the antenne. Mouth

tawny. Antenne piceous, filiform, a little shorter than the body.

Metathorax elongate, slightly impressed across the middle. Pe-

duncle of the abdomen conical. Hind borders of the abdominal

segments red. Legs piceous, rather long. Wings blackish brown ;

veins and stigma black, the former like those of I’. exercita in

structure. Length of the body 5 lines, of the wings 6 lines.

Formica Latesrosa. Mas. Testacea, antennis gracillimis, scapo

longissimo, metathorace levi, abdomine nigro, petiolo testaceo,

pedibus longis debilibus, alis albis, venis stigmateque testaceis.

Male. Testaceous. Antenne very slender; scape very long,

slightly increasing in thickness from the base to the tip, much

more than half the length of the flagellum. Metathorax smooth.

_ Abdomen black; peduncle and its node testaceous. Legs long,

slender. Wings white; veins and stigma testaceous, the former

in structure like those of F’. ewercita. Length of the body 4 lines ;

of the wings 7 lines.

Formica pANGENS. Mas. Testacea, scitissime punctata, capite su-

pra piceo, antennis filiformibus corpore valde brevioribus, scapo

24%

372. Mr. F. Walker on some undescribed Ceylon Insects.

brevissimo, abdomine elliptico, antice piceo, pedibus brevyiusculis,

alis cinereis, venis testaceis, stigmate nigro.

Male. Testaceous, slightly shining, very finely and minutely

unctured. Head piceous above. Antennee filiform, much shorter

than the body; scape very short. Abdomen elliptical, very little

longer than the thorax; fore-half piceous. Legs rather short.

Wings cinereous; veins testaceous, in structure like those of Ta-

pinoma erratica; stigma black. Length of the body 2% lines ;

of the wings 4 lines.

ForMIcA INGRUENS. Feem. Nigra, scitissime punctata, capite mag-

no, mandibulis tarsisque testaceis, antennis corporis dimidio non

longioribus, scapo longo subclavato, flagello rufescente subclavato,

abdomine lato brevi-elliptico, pedibus robustis breviusculis, alis

cinereis parvis, ventis piceis, stigmate nigro.

Female. Black, shining, very finely punctured. Head large; _

mandibles testaceous. Antenne about half the length of the body;

scape subclavate, much more than half the length of the flagellum ;

the latter reddish, subclavate. Abdomen short-elliptical, very

much broader than the thorax. Legs short, stout; tarsi testa-

ceous. Wings cinereous, narrow, short; veins piceous, in struc-

ture like those of F. pangens; stigma black. Length of the body

2} lines, of the wings 4 lines.

FoRMICA DETORQUENS. Fem. Nigra, scitissime punctata, capite

parvo, antennis subfiliformibus corporis dimidio paullo longioribus,

scapo longo, abdomine elliptico, pedibus breviusculis, tarsis testa-

ceis, alis pallide cinereis, venis stigmateque testaceis.

Female. Black, shining, very finely punctured. Head small, a

little more than half the length of the body. Antennze nearly

filiform ; scape much more than half the length of the flagellum.

Abdomen elliptical, hardly longer or broader: than the thorax.

Legs short; tarsi testaceous. Wings pale cinereous; veins and

stigma testaceous; the former in structure much like those of

Tapinoma erratica, but the discal areolet is open on the exterior

side. Length of the body 12 line; of the wings 3 lines.

ForMIcA DIFFIDENS. Fem. Fulva, gracilis, aptera, capite nigro

elongato, mandibulis magnis fulvis, antennis fulvis subfiliformibus,

metathorace petioloque longis, abdomine nigro elliptico, pedibus

posticis piceis, tarsis posticis testaceis.

Female. Tawny, slender, apterous. Head black, elongate. Man-

dibles large, tawny. Antenne tawny, nearly filiform; seape

moderately long. Metathorax and peduncle long. Abdomen

black, elliptical, shorter than the thorax. Hind legs piceous ;

hind tarsi testaceous, long, slender. Length of the body 2 lines.

The description is taken from an injured specimen.

Formica opscuRANs. Fem. Nigra, sat gracilis, scitissime punctata,

capite longi-quadrato, mandibulis magnis fulvis, antennis corporis

dimidio vix brevioribus, scapo longo subclavato, flagello fulvo sub-

Mr. F. Walker on some undescribed Ceylon Insects, 878

clavato, mesothorace sublineato, abdomine latiusculo, pedibus pi-

ceis, alis albidis, venis stigmateque testaceis.

Female. Black, rather slender, slightly shining, very finely

punctured. Head elongate-quadrate ; mandibles large, tawny.

Antennee nearly half the length of the body; scape subclavate,

about two-thirds of the length of the flagellum ; the latter tawny,

subclavate. Prothorax and metathorax well developed ; mesothorax

with a slight middle line. Abdomen broader than the thorax.

Legs piceous. Wings whitish; veins and stigma testaceous; the

former in structure like those of T’apinoma erratica. Length of

the body 4 lines; of the wings 6 lines.

FoRMICA INDEFLEXA. Jem. Picea, gracilis, aptera, scitissime

punctata, capite sat magno, mandibulis parvis, antennis subfilifor-

mibus corporis dimidio non longioribus, flagello basi scapoque

testaceis, thorace subcompresso, pedibus fulvis, tibiis nigris basi

fulvis, tarsis testaceis.

Female. Piceous, slender, apterous, very finely punctured. Head

rather large; mandibles small. Antennze slender, not more than

half the length of the body, nearly filiform; scape tawny, much

shorter than the flagellum, the latter tawny towards the base.

Thorax somewhat compressed ; metathorax, peduncle and its node

well developed. Abdomen mutilated. Legs tawny; tibiee black,

tawny at the base; tarsi testaceous. Length of the body 4 lines.

Formica consuttans. Mas. Nigra, elongata, scitissime punctata,

capite parvo antice fulvo, mandibulis minimis, antennis piceis fili-

formibus corpore valde brevioribus, scapo brevissimo, abdomine

rufescente elliptico fascia media nigra, pedibus testaceis, alis cine-

reis, latiusculis, venis testaceis, stigmate piceo.

Male. Black, elongate, slightly shining, very finexy punctured.

Head rather small, tawny in front; mandibles very small. An-

tenn piceous, slender, filiform, much shorter than the body ;

scape very short. Abdomen reddish, elliptical, a little broader

than the thorax, with a black middle band. Legs testaceous,

slender. Wings cinereous, rather broad; veins testaceous, in

structure much like those of Formica exercita; stigma piceous.

Length of the body 3 lines ; of the wings 5 lines.

Po.tyruacnis mLAupAtTus. Mas. Niger, subaurato-tomentosus,

clypeo subsulcato lateribus elevatis, antennis filiformibus corpore

paullo brevioribus, scuto bispinoso, scutello emarginato, meta-

thorace lateribus elevatis incisis postice bispinoso, abdomine lato

brevissime elliptico, pedibus robustis.

Male. Black, apterous, with slightly gilded tomentum. Cly-

peus with a very slight middle furrow, and with a ridge along

‘each side. Antenne filiform, a little shorter than the body;

scape very long, but shorter than the flagellum. Scutum with

two long sharp spines, which are directed obliquely forward ;

scutellum shield-shaped, truncated at the tip, emarginate on each

side. Metathorax with a notched ridge on each side. Peduncle-

374 Mr. F. Walker on some undeseribed Ceylon Insects. —

thick, widening hindward ; two posterior spines, which are directed

hindward. Abdomen very short, elliptical, much broader than

the thorax. Legs robust. Length of the body 4} lines.

MyRMICA CONSTERNENS.- Mas. Testacea, gracilis, nitens, capite

parvo supra nigro, antennis filiformibus thorace non longioribus,

abdomine subfusiformi, pedibus parvis, alis albidis, venis stigmate-

que testaceis. Neut.? Nigra, capite magno elongato, antennis

testaceis subclavatis, thorace testaceo compresso, abdomine brevi-

ovato, pedibus testaccis. - é

Male. Testaceous, slender, shining. Head small, vertex black.

Antennee filiform, paler than the body, not longer than the thorax.

Peduncle with two small nodes. Abdomen nearly fusiform, a little

longer than the thorax. Legs short, slender. Wings whitish ;

veins and stigma testaceous, the former in structure much like

those of Polyrhachis militaris. Length of the body 23 lines; of

the wings 5 lines.

Worker? Black. Head large, elongate. Antenne short, tes-

taceous, subclavate. Thorax testaceous, compressed, narrower

than the head, attenuated and partly black hindward. Abdomen

short-oval, broader than the head. Legs testaceous; femora

mostly piceous. Length of the body # line.

CREMATOGASTER PELLENS. Fam. Fulvus, gracilis, pubescens, capite

subrotundo, mandibulis latis trigonis, antennis testaceis clavatis,

metathorace bidentato, abdomine longi-elliptico, pedibus testaceis

breviusculis, alis albidis amplis, venis stigmateque testaceis.

Female. Tawny, shining, minutely pubescent. Head nearly

round ; mandibles short, broad, triangular. Antennee testaceous,

clavate, shorter than the thorax. Metathorax with two short

stout spines. First node of the peduncle much longer than the

second. Abdomen long-elliptical, very convex beneath, longer

and broader than the thorax. Legs short, testaceous; femora

sometimes darker. Wings whitish, ample; veins and stigma

testaceous, the former in structure like those of Crematogaster

castaneus. Length of the body 4 lines; of the wings 8 lines.

CREMATOGASTER DEPONENS. Fem. Niger, nitens, punctatus, capite

elongato subsulcato, mandibulis piceis latis trigonis, antennis bre-

viusculis rufescentibus subclavatis, thorace fusiformi subecompresso,

metathorace bidenticulato, petioli nodis conicis, abdomine rufo

fusiformi, pedibus rufis breviusculis, alis fuscescentibus, venis

stigmateque nigris. |

Female. Black, shining, punctured. Head elongate, with a

slight longitudinal furrow ; mandibles piceous, short, broad, tri-

angular, with minute teeth. Antennee short, reddish, subclavate.

Thorax fusiform, slightly compressed ; metathorax with two mi-

nute teeth. Peduncle with two conical nodes. Abdomen red,

fusiform, longer and broader than the thorax. Legs red, short.

Wings brownish ; veins and stigma black, the former very strongly

marked, extending to the border, in structure somewhat like those

Mr. F. Walker on some undescribed Ceylon Insects. 875

of Formica rufa and of Orematogaster castaneus, but differing

slightly from both. Length of the body 3} lines; of the wings

6 lines. |

CREMATOGASTER FoRTICULUS. Neuf. Niger, sat angustus, scitis-

sime punctatus, capite subquadrato, mandibulis parvis piceis, an-

tennis subclavatis thorace non longioribus, abdomine longi-ellip-

tico latiusculo, pedibus breviusculis, tarsis pallide-testaceis.

Worker. Black, rather narrow, slightly shining, very” finely

punctured. Head subquadrate, a little broader than the thorax ;

mandibles small, piceous. Antennee subclavate, as long as the

thorax. Abdomen long-elliptical, longer and broader than the

thorax. Legs rather short; tarsi pale testaceous. Length of the

body 1# line.

PsEUDOMYRMA?! ALLABORANS. Mas. Nigra, gracilis, brevis, nitens,

capite antice fulvo, antennis subclavatis pallide luteis, petioli nodis

magnis globosis, abdomine fusiformi . suturis pallidis, pedibus

fulvis breviusculis robustis, alis albidis, venis stigmateque nigris.

Fem. Antennis clavatis, femoribus posticis nigris. Neut. Capite

lato, thoracis segmentis bene determinatis ; abdomine longi-ellip-

tico.

Male. Black, slender, smooth, shining. Head tawny in front.

Antennee pale luteous, subclavate. Peduncle with large globose

nodes. Abdomen fusiform, longer than the thorax ; sutures pale.

Legs tawny, short, stout. Wings whitish; veins and stigma

black. Length of the body 2 lines; of the wings 3 lines. Fe-

male. Antennze clavate. Hind femora black. Length of the

body 3% lines. Worker. Head broader than the thorax. Seg-

ments of the thorax much developed. Abdomen long-elliptical,

not longer than the thorax. Length of the body 3 lines.

Arra pipita. Neut. Picea, pubescens, scitissime scabrosa, capite

maximo quadrato scite striato bituberculato, scuto gibbosulo, scu-

tello minimo, metathorace valde declivi, petioli nodo 2° globoso

lato, abdomine brevi-elliptico, pedibus fulvis.

Worker major. Piceous, pubescent, very finely scabrous. Head

quadrate, very large, twice the breadth of the thorax, finely striated

longitudinally, with two protuberances above. Antenne reddish,

subclavate. Scutum somewhat gibbous; scutellum very small.

Metathorax very slanting. First node of the peduncle rather

narrow, minutely quadridentate; second globose, much broader.

Abdomen short-elliptical. Legs tawny. Length of the body

3 lines.

Worker minor’. Head much smaller. Thorax less developed.

Second node of the peduncle narrower. Abdomen black, round.

Legs short, stout. Length of the body 2 lines. :

This is probably a distinct species.

Meranopuus pimicans. Neué. Rufescens, convexus, brevis, latus,

scabrosus, pilosus, capite subquadrato, antennis clavatis, scutello bi-

376 Bibliographical Notice.

spinoso, metathorace bispinuloso, abdomine latiore nigro brevi-

elliptico, pedibus breviusculis.

Worker. Reddish, convex, short, broad, scabrous, pilose. Head

subquadrate, a little broader than the thorax. Antenne clavate.

Scutellum with two long acute spines, which are directed obliquely

hindward. Metathorax with two small spines. Abdomen black,

short-elliptical, broader than the thorax. Legs short. Length of

the body 2 lines. 7 |

Fam. Mutillide.

TipH1A DECRESCENS. Jem. Nigra, nitens, scitissime punctata,

antennis subtus rufis, prothoracis margine postico rufescente,

abdomine fusiformi subtus apice rufescente, pedibus rufis, coxis

femoribusque nigris, his apice rufis, alis cinereis, venis stigmateque

nigris.

Female. Black, shining, very finely punctured. Head a little

broader than the thorax; clypeus somewhat truncated, with a

transverse furrow at its base. Antenne red beneath. Hind border

of the prothorax reddish. Metathorax with two striee, which con-

verge hindward. Abdomen fusiform, reddish beneath at the tip.

Legs red, short, thick; coxeze and femora black, the latter with

red tips. Wings cinereous; veins and stigma black ; third sub-

marginal areolet extending almost as far as the marginal areolet,

about half the length of the third discoidal areolet. Length of

the body 3 lines; of the wings 5 lines.

[To be continued. }

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICE.

An Illustrated Index of British Shells, with Coloured Figures of

all the Species. By G. B. Sowrersy, F.L.S. Simpkin and Co.

1859.

We are glad to find collectors of British shells supplied with a

useful and beautiful manual of species at a comparatively small price.

Hitherto they have been unable to procure any work containing the

whole or any large portion of the species, without incurring an ex-

pense of many pounds. Mr. Sowerby now gives them the whole six

‘hundred species, well figured, and arranged in such a manner that

the reader can turn to a given plate and its opposite page, and learn

‘at a glance what he wishes to know of the localities, habits, and

relative characters of all the species of a given genus. The author

claims to introduce about fifty new species. Some of these have been

figured in other books as mere varieties, others are figured for the

first time from specimens described by Mr. Jeffreys and others in the

‘Annals.’ We are by no means inclined to decide on the specific

value of the distinctions asserted; but the author has left us in no

doubt as to what they are. We wish success to this well-conceived

and well-executed endeavour to supply a public want.

Zoological Society. 377

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

January 11, 1859.—Dr. Gray, F.R,S., V.P., in the Chair.

On THE GorRILLA (TROGLODYTES GORILLA, Sav.)*.

By Pror. Owen, F.R.S., V.P.Z.S., &ce.

Before referring to earlier indications of the truly extraordinary

animal of which an entire specimen has now been obtained,— indications

scarcely more instructive or convincing to the naturalist than those

afloat on the Unicorn or Succatyro,—the author proceeded briefly to

recapitulate the steps which led to the determination and full know-

ledge of the great anthropoid Ape of Africa called T'roglodytes

gorilla.

The first authentic information he had received of its existence

was by a letter from Dr. Savage, dated ‘Gaboon River, West Africa,’

April 24, 1847, inclosing a sketch of the cranium, and requesting

that the results of Prof. Owen’s comparison might be communicated

to him. That letter and those results are given in the ‘ Proceedings

of the Zoological Society’ for February 22, 1848; together with

the description of three skulls, two of male and one of a female,

which had been transmitted from the Gaboon to England, and

which established the distinction of the species (Troglodytes gorilla)

from the Chimpanzee (Troglodytes niger)+.

The skulls obtained by Dr. Savage, at the Gaboon, were taken by

him to Boston, U. S., and were described by the Doctor and Prof.

Wyman, in the ‘Journal of the Natural History Society of Boston,’

vol. v., 1847, and the name Troglodytes gorilla was proposed for the

species, the discovery of which is due to Dr. P. S. Savage.

Translations of Dr. Wyman’s and Prof. Owen’s papers being pub-

lished in the ‘Annales des Sciences Naturelles’, the attention of

Continental Naturalists was strongly excited toward this unexpected

addition to the Mammalian class ; and the inducements held out for

the collection of specimens speedily led to the acquisition of the

requisite materials for completing the zoographical history of the

animal which it seems now agreed to call ‘ Gorilla.” The additional

materials which reached London, enabled the author to communi-

cate to the Zoological Society (‘Proceedings of the Zool. Soe.’ for

Noy. 11th, 1851.)} a description of the entire skeleton of the Trog-

lodytes gorilla; of which, however, owing to the number and cost

of the illustrations, two parts only have yet appeared in the ‘Trans-

actions of the Society’ (vol. iv., pt. iil., p. 75, pls. 26-30 & pt. iv.,

p- 89, pls. 31-36.): but the main facts are recorded in the au-

thor’s Catalogue of the ‘ Osteological Collection in the Museum of

the Royal College of Surgeons,’ 4to, pp. 782-804. Entire skeletons

* This paper will be printed in the ‘ Transactions,’ illustrated with several

plates. ; :

t ‘ Transactions of the Zool. Soc.’ vol. iii., p. 381, pls. 58-63.

tf See also ‘ Literary Gazette,’ Nov. 15, 1851.

378 _ Loological Society :-—

of the full-grown Troglodytes gorilla are now set up in the Museum

of the College, and in the British Museum ; and Dr. Gray has finally

acquired for the National Collection the stuffed specimen of a nearly

adult male Gorilla.

All the foregoing specimens were obtained from a part of the west

coast of tropical Africa traversed by the rivers ‘ Danger’ and ‘ Ga-

boon,’ in latitudes 1° to 15° 8,

A corresponding series of illustrations, first crania, then the

skeleton, finally an entire specimen of the Troglodytes gorilla,

have successively reached the Museum of the Garden of Plants,

Paris, and have afforded materials for interesting and instructive

memoirs from the accomplished Professors in that noble establish-

ment for extending and diffusing the science of Natural History.

De Blainville had caused a lithograph to be prepared of the

skeleton of the Gorilla, shortly before his demise. His successor,

Prof. Duvernoy, communicated a description of this skeleton to the

Academy of Sciences in 1853, which is published, with some inter-

esting particulars of the anatomy of the soft parts, in the_‘ Archives

du Muséum d’ Histoire Naturelle,’ tome vii. (1855). The Memoirs

and Observations by his accomplished colleague the Professor of

Mammalogy and Ornithology, Isidore Geoffroy St. Hilaire, on the

Gorilla will be found in the ‘Comptes Rendus de lAcadémie des

Sciences,’ January 19, 1852, and subsequent numbers ; in the ‘ Revue

de Zoologie,’ No. II., 1853; the whole being summed up in the

part of his excellent ‘Description des Mammiféres nouveaux,’ &c.

4to, which appeared in vol. x. of the ‘Archives du Muséum, 1858.’

The differences in the results of the observations by the American,

French, and English authors, relate chiefly to the interpretation of

the facts observed. Dr. Wyman agrees with Prof. Owen in referring

the Gorilla to the same genus as the Chimpanzee, but he differs

from him in regarding the latter as being more nearly allied to the

Human kind. Professors I. Geoff. St. Hilaire and Duvernoy regard

the differences in the osteology, dentition, and external characters of

the Gorilla to be of generic importance, and enter it in the Zoolo-

gical Catalogue as Gorilla Gina, the nomen triviale being taken

from ‘ Weggeena;’ ‘N. Gina’ and ‘D. jina,’ as the name of the

beast in the Gaboon tongue, has been diversely written by voyagers*.

The French naturalists also concur with the American in placing

the Gorilla below the Chimpanzee in the scale. The author returned

to the discussion of those questions at the conclusion of his paper,

when he also referred to the notion current in some works that the

long-armed apes (Hylodates), and not the Orangs or Chimpanzees,

were the most anthropoid of apes. |

Entering upon the description of the exterior characters of the

* The main discrepancy, in regard to matter of fact, is that the arms of the

Gorilla are stated by Isid. Geoffroy, to be much longer, whilst Prof. Owen

found them to be relatively shorter, than those of the Chimpanzee.

“ Bras { de proportions presque humaines ..........++ Genre I. Troglodytes.

beaucoup plus longs que chez homme .., Genre II. Gorilla.”

i Isid, Geoffr., p. 15

Prof. Owen on the Gorilla. 379

adult male Gorilla, the stuffed skin of which is now in the British

Museum, Prof. Owen first called attention to the shortness, almost

absence, of the neck, due to the backward articulation of the head

to the trunk and the concomitant development of the spines of the

neck-vertebree ; also to the chin which, in the usual pose of the

head, descends below the manubrium sterni; to the great size of the

scapulee, to the elevation of the acromion, and the oblique position

of the clavicles which rise from their sternal attachments obliquely

to above the level of the angles of the jaw. The brain-case, low and

narrow, passes in the old male in an almost straight line from the

occiput to the superorbital ridge, the prominence of which gives the

most forbidding feature to the physiognomy of the Gorilla. It is

a feature strongly marked on the skeleton, but is exaggerated in

the stuffed animal by the thick supraciliary roll of integument

which forms a scowling penthouse over the small déep-set eyes.

The nose is a more prominent feature than in the Chimpanzee or

Orang-utan ; there is a slight median rise along its upper half,

answering to the feeble prominence of the same part of the nose-

bones, but the lower or alar part of the nose offers two thick pro-

jections, arching, each across its own nostril, and becoming thicker

as it subsides in the upper lip. There is a median longitudinal

depression between these arched flaps; but their prominence brings

them into view in the profile of the face. The point of median

confluence of the alee projects a little beyond the fore part of the

‘septum narium.’ The resemblance to the lowest form of the negro

nose is much closer in the Gorilla than in the Chimpanzee. The

mouth is wide, the lips large and thick, but of uniform thickness,

-the upper one terminating by a straight, almost as if incised, margin ;

but being relatively shorter than in the Chimpanzee. The dark

pigment is continued from the base of the lip to this margin, and

no part of the red inner lining would be visible when the lips were

naturally closed: a little of this lining, which forms what is com-

monly understood by ‘lip’ in man, might be shown by the under lip

of the Gorilla, but it is obscured by added pigment, as in most negro

races. The chin is short and receding, but the whole face is promi-

nent. The circumference of a front view of the head presents an

oval with the great end downward and the upper end very narrow,

owing to the parietal ridge, in the old male. The superorbital or

cranial part is confined to the upper fourth in this view, and the

bestial aspect of the visage is much increased when the huge promi-

nent tusks are exposed by opening the lips. The eyelids have eye-

lashes almost as in man ; but the eyebrow is not defined, the hair of

the head extending to the supraciliary roll, which is almost devoid of

hair. Ina direct front view the ears are rather above the level of

the eyes: they are as much smaller in proportion to the head, as in

the Chimpanzee they are larger, in comparison with man; but in

structure they resemble the human auricle more than does the ear of

any other ape. |

The tragus and anti-tragus, the helix and anti-helix, the concha,

the fossa of the anti-helix and the lobulus are distinctly defined : the

380 Zoological Society :—

chief difference is the large size of the concha compared with the

fossa of the anti-helix and the lobulus: but though the lobulus is

small it is distinctly marked and pendulous, while it is sessile in the

Chimpanzee and Orang. Both tragus and anti-tragus are nearly as

prominent asin man. The helix is reflected or folded centrally from

its origin to opposite the auti-tragus as in man, whereas, in the

Chimpanzee the fold subsides opposite the fossa of the anti-helix,

and the rest of the margin of the auricle is simple, not folded. The

upper part of the helix is more produced in the Gorilla than in man,

and the greatest breadth of the ear is above the concha, in which the

incisura intertragica is less deep than in man.

_ The skin of the face is naked and much wrinkled; a pretty deep

indent divides the nasal ala from the cheek, and becomes shallower

as it bends upward, inward, and downward to the median indent

between the ale. The hairy part of the scalp is continued to the

superorbital prominence, and thence the hair-clad skin is continued

outward and downward upon the sides of the deep cheeks, where

the hair is long. The chest is of great proportional capacity, and

the shoulders very wide across. The profile of the trunk behind

describes a slight convexity from the nape, which projects beyond

the occiput, downward to the sacrum: there is no imbending at

the loins, which seem wanting. ‘The abdomen is prominent both

before and at the sides. The pectoral regions are slightly marked -

and show the pair of nipples placed as in the Chimpanzee and Man.

In the male the penis is short and subconical, the prepuce is devoid

of frenum; the scrotum is broader and more sessile than in man:

the perineum is longer, the anus being placed further back than in

man. There is no trace of ischial callosities. The gluteei are better

developed and give more of the appearance of nates than in any other

anthropoid ape, but they do not project so as to meet beyond the

anus and conceal it.

The chief deviations from the human structure are seen in the

limbs, which are of great power, the upper ones prodigiously strong,

mene by comparison the legs, through the want of ‘calves’, look

eeble.

The first characteristic is the almost uniform thickness of each

segment of the limb: this is seen in the arm, from below the short

deltoid prominence to the condyles, neither biceps nor triceps

making any definite swelling ; a like uniform thickness is seen in the

antibrachium from below the olecranon to the wrist: the leg a little

increases in thickness from the knee to the ankle: the short thigh

shows some decrease as it descends: but there is a general absence

of those partial muscular enlargements which impart the graceful

varying curves to the outlines of the limbs in man. Yet this, upon

dissection, is found to depend rather on excess, than defect, of deve-

lopment of the carneous as compared with the tendinous parts of the

limb-muscles, which thus continue of almost the same size from their

origin to their insertion, with a proportionate gain of strength to the

beast. The difference in the length of the upper limbs between the

Gorilla and Man is but little in comparison with the trunk ; it appears

Prof. Owen on the Gorilla. 881

greater through the arrest of development of the lower limbs. Very

significant of the closer anthropoid affinities of the Gorilla is the

superior length of the arm (humerus) to the fore-arm, as compared

with the proportions of those parts in the Chimpanzee. The hair of

the arm inclines downward, that of the fore-arm upward, as in the

Chimpanzee. The thumb extends a little-beyond the base of the

proximal phalanx of the fore-finger; it does not reach to the end of

the metacarpal bone of that finger in the Chimpanzee or any other

ape: the thumb of the Siamang (Hylobates syndactyla) is still

shorter in proportion to the length of the fingers of the same hand:

the philosophical zoologist will see great significance in this fact. In

man the thumb extends to, or beyond, the middle of the first pha-

lanx of the fore-finger.

The fore-arm in the Gorilla passes into the hand with very slight

evidence, by constriction of the wrist, the circumference of which,

without the hair, was fourteen inches, that of a strong man averaging

eight inches. The hand is remarkable for its breadth and thickness,

and for the great length of the palm, occasioned both by the length

of the metacarpus and the greater extent of undivided integument

between the digits than in man; these only begin to be free opposite

the middle of the proximal or first phalanges in the Gorilla. The

digits are thus short, and appear as if swollen and gouty ; and are.

conical in shape after the first joint, by tapering to nails, which, being

not larger or longer than those of man, are relatively to the fingers

much smaller. ‘The circumference of the middle digit at the first

joint in the Gorilla is 54 inches ; in man, at the same part, it averages

23 inches. The skin covering the middle phalanx is thick and cal-

lous on the back of the fingers, and there is little outward appear-

ance of the second joint. The habit of the animal to apply those

parts to the ground, in occasional progression, is manifested by these

eallosities. ‘The back of the hand is hairy as far as the divisions of

the fingers ; the palm is naked and callous. The thumb, besides its

shortness, according to the standard of the human hand, is scarcely

half so thick as the fore-finger. The nail of the thumb did not ex-

tend to the end of that digit; in the fingers the nail projected a little

beyond the end, but with a slightly convex worn margin, resembling

the human nails in shape, but relatively less.

In the hind limbs, chiefly noticeable was that first appearance in

the quadrumanous series of a muscular development of the gluteus,

causing a small buttock to project over each tuber ischii. This

structure, with the peculiar expanse, as compared with other Qua-

drumana, of the iliac bones, leads to an inference that the Gorilla

must naturally and with more ease resort occasionally to station and

progression on the lower limbs than any other ape.

The same cause as in the arm, viz. a continuance of a large pro-

portion of fleshy fibres to the lower end of the muscles, coextensive

‘with the thigh, gives a great circumference to that segment of the

limb above the knee-joint, and a more uniform size to it than in man,

The relative shortness of the thigh, its bone being only eight-ninths

the length of the humerus (in man the humerus averages five-sixths

382 Zoological Society :-—

the length of the femur), adds to the appearance of its superior rela-

tive thickness. Absolutely the thigh is not of greater circumference

at its middle than is the same part in man.

The chief difference in the leg, after its relative shortness, is the

absence of a “calf,”’ due to the non-existence of the partial accumu-

lation of carneous fibres in the upper half of the gastrocnemii muscles,

causing that prominence in the type-races of mankind. In the Go-

rilla the tendo-achillis not only continues to receive the ‘‘ penni-

form’”’ fibres to the heel, but the fleshy parts of the muscles of the

foot receive accessions of fibres at the lower third of the leg, to which

the greater thickness of that part is due, the proportions in this ~

respect being the reverse of those in man. The leg expands at once

into the foot, which has a peculiar and characteristic form, owing to

the modifications favouring bipedal motion being superinduced upon

an essentially prehensile quadrumanous type. The heel makes a

more decided backward projection than in the Chimpanzee ; the heel-

bone is relatively thicker, deeper, more expanded vertically at its

hind end, besides being fully as long as in the Chimpanzee. This

bone, so characteristic of anthropoid affinities, is shaped and propor-

tioned more like the human calcaneum than in any other ape. The

malleoli do not make such well-marked projections as in man; they

are marked more by the thickness of the fleshy and tendinous parts

of the muscles that pass near them, on their way to be inserted into

parts of the foot. Although the foot be articulated to the leg with

a slight inversion of the sole, it is more nearly plantigrade than in

the Chimpanzee or any other ape. The hairy integument is con-

tinued along the dorsum of the foot to the clefts of the toes, and

upon the first phalanx of the hallux: the whole sole is bare.

The hallux (great toe, thumb of the foot), though not relatively

longer than in the Chimpanzee, is stronger; the bones are thicker in -

proportion to their length, especially the last phalanx, which in

shape and breadth much resembles that in the human foot. The

hallux in its natural position diverges from the other toes at an

angle of 60 deg. from the axis of the foot ; its base is large, swelling

into a kind of ball below, upon which the thick callous epiderm of

the sole is continued. The transverse indents and wrinkles show the

frequency and freedom of the flexile movements of the two joints of

the hallux: the nail is small, flat, and short. The sole of the foot

gradually expands from the heel forward to the. divergence of the

hallux, and seems to be here cleft, and almost equally, between the

oase of the hallux and the common base of the other four digits,

These are small and slender in proportion, and their bases are en-

veloped in a common tegumentary sheath as far as the base of the

second phalanx. A longitudinal indent at the middle of the sole,

bifurcating—one channel defining the ball of the hallux, the other

running towards the interspace between the second and third digit—

indicates the action of opposing the whole thumb (which seems rather

like an inner lobe or division of the sole), to the outer division ter-

minated by the four short toes. _What is termed the ‘‘instep”’ in

man is very high in the Gorilla, owing to the thickness of the carneo-

Prof. Owen on ths Gorilla. 383

- tendinous parts of the muscles as they pass from the leg to the foot

over this region. The mid-toe (third) is a little longer than the

second and fourth; the fifth, as in man, is proportionally shorter

than the fourth, and is divided from it by a somewhat deeper cleft.

The whole sole is wider than in man—relatively to its length much

wider,—and in that respect, as well as by the offset of the hallux,

and the definition of its basal ball, more like a hand, but a hand of

huge dimensions and of portentous power of grasp.

In regard to the outward coloration of the Gorilla, only from the

examination of the living animal could the precise shades of colour

of the naked parts of the skin be truly described. Much of the

epiderm had peeled off the subject of the present description ; but

fortunately in large patches, and the texture of these had acquired a

certain firmness, apparently by the action of the alcohol upon the

albuminous basis. The able taxidermist, Mr. Bartlett, has availed

himself of this circumstance in the correct and satisfactory prepara-

tion of the specimen now mounted for the British Museum. The

parts of the epiderm remaining upon the face indicated the skin

there to be chiefly of a deep leaden hue; it is everywhere finely

wrinkled, and was somewhat less dark at the prominent parts of the

_ supraciliary roll and the prominent margins of the nasal ‘alee :’’ th

soles and palms were also of a lighter colour.

Although the general colour of the hair appears, at first sight,

and when moist, to be almost black, it is not so, but is rather of a

dusky grey : it is decidedly of a less deep tint than in the Chimpanzee

(Trogl. niger): this is due to an admixture of a few reddish, and of

more greyish hairs, with the dusky-coloured ones which chiefly con-

stitute the ‘ pelage”’: and the above admixture varies at different

parts of the body. The reddish hairs are sonumerous on the scalp,

especially along the upper middle region, as to make their tint rather

predominate there ; they blend in a less degree with the long hairs

upon the sides of the face. The greyish hairs are found mixed with

the dusky upon the dorsal, deltoidal and anterior femoral regions ;

but, on the limbs, not in such proportion as to affect the impres-

sion of the general dark colour, at first view. The hairs are wavy,

approaching to a woolly character. Near the margin of the vent

are a few short whitish hairs, as in the Chimpanzee. . The epiderm

of the back showed the effects of habitual resting, with that part

against the trunk or branch of a tree, occasioning the hair to be more

or less rubbed off: the epiderm was here very thick and tough.

It is most probable, from the degree of admixture of different

coloured hairs above described, that a living Gorilla seen in bright

sunlight, would in some positions reflect from its surface a colour

much more different from that of the Chimpanzee than appears by a

comparison of the skin of a dead specimen sent home in spirits. It

can hardly be doubted, also, that age will make an appreciable differ-

ence in the general coloration of the. Tvoglodytes gorilla.

The adult male Gorilla measures five feet six inches from the sole

to the top of the head, the breadth across the shoulders is nearly

three feet, the length of the upper limb is three feet four inches,

384, Zoological Society :—

that of the lower limb is two feet four inches ; the length of the head

and trunk is three feet six inches, whilst the same dimension in man

does not average three feet,

_ In the foregoing remarks the author had given the results of direct

observations made on the first and only entire specimen of the Gorilla

which had reached England. _ At the period when they were made,

no other description of its external characters had reached him ; and

if the majority of them be found to agree with previously recorded

observations by naturalists enjoying earlier opportunities of studying

similarly preserved specimens, the rarity and importance of the species

might excuse, if it did not justify, a second description from direct

scrutiny of a new specimen by an old observer of the anthropoid

Quadrumana. A much more important labour, however, remained.

The accurate record of facts in natural history was one and a good

aim; the deduction of their true consequences was a better. Pro-

fessor Owen proceeded, therefore, to reconsider the conclusions from

which his experienced French and American fellow-labourers in

natural history differed from him, and in which it seemed he stood

alone. |

The first—it may be called the supreme—question in regard to the

Gorilla was, its place in the scale of nature, and its true and precise

affinities. |

Is it or not the nearest of kin to human kind? Does it form, like

the Chimpanzee and Orang, a distinct genus in the anthropoid or

knuckle-walking group of apes? Are these apes, or are the long-armed

Gibbons, more nearly related to the genus Homo? Of the broad-

breast-boned quadrumana, are the knuckle-walkers or the brachiators,

t.e. the long-armed Gibbons, most nearly and essentially related to

the human subject ? The author proceeded to discuss the first as the

most important question.

At the first aspect, whether of the entire animal or of the skeleton,

he freely admitted that the Gorilla strikes the observer as being a

much more bestial and brutish animal than the Chimpanzee. All the

features that relate to the wielding of the strong jaws and. large

canines are exaggerated ; the evidence of brain is less, its chamber is

more masked by the outgrowth of the strong occipital and other

cranial ridges. But the impression so made—that the Gorilla ‘is

less like Man—is the same which is derived from comparing a young

with an adult Chimpanzee, or some small tailless monkey with a full-

grown male Orang or Chimpanzee. ‘Taking the characters that cause

that impression at a first inspection of the Gorilla, most of the small

South American monkeys are more anthropoid than it; they have a

proportionally larger and more human-shaped cranium, much less

prominent jaws, with more equable teeth,

Referring to the skeletons of the adult males of the Gorilla, Chim-

panzee, Orang, and Gibbon, Professor Owen remarked that the glo-

bular cranium of the last, and its superior size compared with the

jaws and teeth, seemed to show the Gibbons to be more nearly akin

to man than are the larger tailless Apes... And this conclusion had

been adopted by a distinguished French paleontologist, M. Lartet,

Prof. Owen on the Gorilla. 885

and accepted by a high geological authority at home*. They cite the

experienced Professor of Human Anatomy at Amsterdam as support-

ing this view ; but Prof. Owen had failed to find any statement of

the grounds upon which it was sustained. In the art. Quadrumana

of Todd’s ‘‘ Cyclopzedia of Anatomy,” cited by Lartet,+ Prof. Vrolik

briefly treats of the osteology of the Quadrumana according to their

natural families. In ‘‘a first genus, Simia proper, or ape,” he in-

cludes the Chimpanzee or Orang, noticing some of the chief points

by which these apes approach the nearest to man. He next goes

to ‘‘the second genus, the Gibbons” (Hylodates); he notices their

ischial callosities, and the nearer approach of their molars, in their

rounded form, to the teeth of Carnivora than the molars of the

genus Simia. Then, comparing the Siamang with other species of

fylobates, Vrolik says, ‘‘its skeleton approaches most to that of

man ;”” which may be true in comparison with other Gibbons, but

certainly is not so as respects the higher Simie. No details are

given to illustrate the proposition even in its more limited appli-

cation ; but the minor length of the arms in the Siamang, as com-

pared with Hylobates lar, was probably the character in point.

The appearance of superior cerebral development in the Siamang

and other long-armed apes is due to their small size and the con-

comitant feeble development of their jaws and teeth. The same

appearance makes the small platyrrhine Monkeys of South America

equally anthropoid in their facial physiognomy, and much more

human-like than are the great Orangs and Chimpanzees. It is an

appearance which depends upon the precocious growth of the brain

as dependent on the law of its development. In all Quadrumana the

brain has reached its full size before the second set of teeth is ac-

uired, almost before the first set is shed. If, however, a young

orilla, Chimpanzee, or Orang, be compared with a young Siamang

of corresponding age, the absolutely larger size and better shape of

brain, the deeper and more numerous convolutions of the cerebrum,

and the more completely covered cerebellum in the former, unequi-

vocally demonstrate the higher organization of the shorter-armed

Apes. ‘In the structure of the brain,’ writes Vrolik,t in accord-

ance with all other comparative anatomists, “they *”? (Chimpanzee

and Orang-utan) “approach the nearest to man.” The degree to

which the Chimpanzee and Orang so resembled the human type

seemed much closer to Cuvier, who knew those great apes only in

their immaturity, with their small milk-teeth and precociously de-

veloped brain. Accordingly, the anthropoid characters of the Simia

satyrus and Simia troglodytes, as deduced from the facial angle and

dentition, are proportionally exaggerated in the ‘ Régne Animal.” §

As growth proceeds, the milk-teeth are shed, the jaws expand, the

great canines succeed their diminutive representatives, the temporal

* Lyell, Sir C. “ Supplement to the Fifth Edition of a Manual of Elementary

Geology,” 1859, p. 15.

+ “ Comptes Rendus de l’Académie des Sciences, Juillet 28, 1856.”

t Art. Quadrumana, “ Cyclopedia of Anatomy,” vol. iv. p. 195.

§ Ed. 1829, pp. 87, 39.

Amn. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. iv. 25

386 Zoological Society :—

muscles gain a proportional increase of carneous fibres, their bony

fulera respond to the call for increased surface of attachment, the

sagittal and occipital crests begin to rise: but the brain grows no

more; its cranial box retains the size it showed in immaturity; it

finally becomes masked by the superinduced osseous developments

in those apes which attain the largest stature and wield the most

formidably armed jaws. Yet under this show of physical force, the

brain of both Orang and Chimpanzee is still the better and the larger,

than is that of the little long-armed ape, which retains throughout

life so much more of the characters of immaturity, especially in the

structure of the skull.

The Siamang and other Gibbons have smaller, lower but longer

upper canines, relatively, than in the Orangs and Chimpanzees; the

permanent ones more quickly attain their full size, and are sooner in

their place in the jaws ; consequently the last molar teeth, m3, come

last into place as they do in the human species. But, if this be

interpreted as of importance in determining the relative affinity of

the longer-armed and shorter-armed apes to man, it is a character in

which, as in their seeming superior cerebral development, the Hylo-

bates agree with some much lower Quadrumana with still smaller

canines.

The systematic zoologist, pursuing this most interesting compa-

rison with clear knowledge of the true conditions and significance of

a globular cranium and small jaws within the quadrumanous order,

first determines and takes as his compass or guide-point the really

distinctive characters of the human organization.

In respect to the cerebral test, he looks not so much for the rela-

tive size of the brain to the body, as for its relative size in the species

compared one with another in the same natural group. He inquires

what quadrumanous animal shows absolutely the biggest brain? what

species shows the deepest and most numerous and winding convolu-

tions? in which is the cerebrum largest, as compared with the cere-

bellum? If he finds all these characters highest in the Gorilla, he

does not permit himself to be diverted from the just inference because

the great size and surpassing physical power attained in that species

mask the true data from obvious view: 7

The comparative anatomist would look to the ceecum and the

ischial integument: if he found in one subject of his comparisons

(Troglodytes) a long ‘‘ appendix vermiformis ceeci,”’ as in man, but

no “ callosities,’’—in another subject (Hylobates) the ischial callosi-

ties, but only a short rudiment of the czecal appendix,—he would

know which of the two tailless Apes were to be placed next ‘the

Monkeys with ischial callosities and no vermiform appendix,” and

which of the two formed the closer link toward man. He would

find that the anthropoid intestinal and dermal characters were asso-

ciated with the absolutely larger and better developed brain in the

Gorilla, Chimpanzee, and Orang; whilst the lower quadrumanous

characters exhibited by the cecum and nates were exhibited by the

smaller-brained and longer-armed but rounder-skulled and shorter-

jawed Gibbons.

Prof. Owén on the Gorilla. 387:

Pursuing the comparison through the complexities of the bony

framework, he might first glance at the more obvious proportions ;

and such, indeed, as would be given by the entire animal. The

characteristics of the limbs in Man are their near equality of length,

but the lower limbs are the longest. The arms m Man reach to

below the middle of the thigh; in the Gorilla they nearly attain

the knee; in the Chimpanzee they reach below the knee; in the

Orang they reach the ankle; in the Siamang they reach the sole;

im most Gibbons the whole palm can be applied to the ground

without the trunk being bent forward beyond its naturally inclined

position on the legs. These gradational differences coincide with

other characters determining the relative proximity to Man of the

apes compared. In no Quadrumana does the humerus exceed the

ulna so much in length as in Man; only in the most anthropoid,

viz. the Gorilla and Chimpanzee, does it exceed the ulna at all in

length ; in the rest, as in the lower quadrupeds, the fore-arm is longer

than the arm.

The humerus, in the Gorilla, though less long, compared with thé

ulna, than in Man, is longer than in the Chimpanzee ; in the Orang

it is shorter than the ulna; in the Siamang and other Gibbons it is

much shorter, the peculiar length of arm in those ‘‘long-armed’’ apes

is chiefly due to the excessive length of the antibrachial bones.

- The difference in the length of the upper limbs, as compared with

the trunk, is but little between Man and the Gorilla. The elbow-

joint in the Gorilla, as the arm hangs down, is opposite the “‘ labrum

ilii,”” the wrist opposite the “ tuber ischii;’’ it is rather lower down

in the Chimpanzee ; it is opposite the knee-joint in the Orang ; it is

opposite the ankle-joint in the Siamang.

_ Man’s perfect hand is one of his peculiar physical characters ;

that perfection is mainly due to the extreme differentiation of the

first from the other four digits, and its concomitant power of oppo-

sing them as a perfect thumb. An opposable thumb is present in

the hand of most Quadrumana, but is usually a small appendage com-

pared with that of Man. It is relatively largest in the Gorilla. In

this ape the thumb reaches to a little beyond the base of the first

phalanx of the fore-finger ; it does not reach to the end of the meta-

carpal bone of the fore-finger in the Chimpanzee, Orang, or Gibbon ;

it is relatively smallest in the last tailless ape. In Man the thumb

extends to or beyond the middle of the first phalanx of the fore-

finger. The philosophical zoologist will see great significance in the

results of this comparison. Only in the Gorilla and Chimpanzee are

the carpal bones eight in number, as in man; in the Orangs and

Gibbons they are nine in number, as in the tailed monkeys.

The scapulee are broader in the Gorilla than in the Chimpanzee,

Orang, or long-armed apes; they come nearer to the proportions of

that bone in Man. But a more decisive resemblance to the human

structure is presented by the iliac bones. In no other ape than the

Gorilla do they bend forward, so as to produce a pelvic concavity ;

nor are they so broad in proportion to their length in any ape as in

the Gorilla. In both the Chimpanzee and Orang the iliac bones are

25%

388. Zoological Society :—

flat, or present a concavity rather at the back than at the fore part.

In the Siamang they are not only flat, but are narrower and longer,

resembling the iliac bones of tailed monkeys and ordinary quadrupeds.

The lower limbs, though characteristically short in the Gorilla,

are longer in proportion to the upper limbs, and also to the entire

trunk, than in the Chimpanzee ; they are much longer in both pro-

portions and more robust than in the Orangs or Gibbons. _ But the

guiding points of comparisons here are the heel and the hallux.

The heel in the Gorilla makes a more decided backward projection

than in the Chimpanzee ; the heelbone is relatively thicker, deeper,

more expanded vertically at its hind end, beside being fully as long

as in the Chimpanzee: it is in the Gorilla shaped and proportioned

more like the human calcaneum than in any other ape. Among all

the tailless apes the caleaneum in the Siamang and other Gibbons

least resembles in its shape or proportional size that of Man.

Although the foot be articulated to the leg with a slight inversion

of the sole it is more nearly plantigrade in the Gorilla than in the

Chimpanzee. The Orang departs far, and the Gibbons farther, from

the human type in the inverted position of the foot.

The great toe which forms the fulcrum in standing or walking is,

perhaps, the most characteristic peculiarity in the human structure ;

it is that modification which differentiates the foot from the hand,

and gives the character to the order Bimana. In the degree of its

approach to this development of the hallux the quadrumanous animal

makes a true step in affinity to Man.

The Orang-utan and the Siamang, tried by this test, descend far

and abruptly below the Chimpanzee and Gorilla in the scale. In the

Orang the hallux does not reach to the end of the metacarpal of the

second toe ; in the Chimpanzee and Gorilla it reaches to the end of

the first phalanx of the second toe; but in the Gorilla the hallux is

thicker and stronger than in the Chimpanzee. In both, however,

it is a true thumb, by position, diverging from the other toes, in the

Gorilla, at an angle of 60° from the axis of the foot.

4 Man has twelve pairs of ribs, the Gorilla and Chimpanzee have

thirteen pairs, the Orangs have twelve pairs, the Gibbons have thir-

teen pairs. Were the naturalist to trust to this single character,

as some have trusted to the cranio-facial one, and in equal ignorance

of the real condition and value of both, he might think that the

Orangs (Pithecus) were nearer akin to man than the Chimpanzees

(Troglodytes) are. But man has sometimes a thirteenth pair of

ribs; and what we term “ribs’’ are but vertebral elements or

appendages common to nearly all the true vertebree in man, and

only so called, when they become long and free. The genera Homo,

Troglodytes, and Pithecus, have precisely the same number of ver-

tebree ; if 7’roglodytes, by the development and mobility of the pleur-

apophyses of the twentieth vertebra from the occiput, seem to have

an additional thoracic vertebra, it has one vertebra less in the lumbar

region. So, if there be, as has been observed, a difference in the

number of sacral vertebree, it is merely due to a last lumbar having

coalesced with what we reckon as the first sacral vertebra in Man.

Prof. Owen on the Gorilla. 389 »

The thirteen pairs of ribs, therefore, in the Gorilla and Chimpan-

zee, are of no weight, as against the really important characters sig-

nificative of affinity with the human type. But, supposing the fact

of any real value, how do the advocates of the superior resemblance

of the Siamang’s or Gibbon’s skeleton to that of man dispose of the

thirteenth pair of ribs?

In applying the characters of the skull to the determination of the

important question at issue, those must first be ascertained by which

the genus Homo trenchantly differs from the genus Simia, of Lin-

neeus. ‘To determine these osteal distinctions, the author stated

that he had compared the skulls of many individuals of different

varieties of the human race together with those of the male, female,

and young of species of Troglodytes, Pithecus, and Hylobates ;

Professor Owen referred to his ‘ Catalogue of the Osteological Series

in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons,’ 4to, 1853, for

the detailed results of these comparisons. On the present occasion

he would restrict himself to a few of these results.

The first and most obvious differential character is the globular

form of the brain-case, and its superior relative size to the face,

especially the jaws, in man. But this, for the reasons he had already

assigned, is not an instructive or decisive character, when comparing

quadrumanous species, in reference to the question at issue. It is

exaggerated in the human child, owing to the acquisition of its full,

or nearly full size, by the brain, before the jaws have expanded to

lodge the second set of teeth. It is an anthropoid character in

which the Quadrumana resemble man, in proportion to the dimi-

nution of their general bulk. If a Gorilla, with milk-teeth, have a

somewhat larger brain and brain-case than a Chimpanzee at the same

immature age, the acquisition of greater bulk by the Gorilla, and of a

more formidable physical development of the skull, in reference to the

great canines in the male, will give to the Chimpanzee the appearance

of amore anthropoid character, which really does not belong to it,—

which could be as little depended upon in a question of precise affi-

nity as the like more anthropoid characters of the female, as com-

pared with the male, Gorilla or Chimpanzee.

Much more important and significant were the following cha-

racters of the human skull :—the position and plane of the occipital

_ foramen ; the proportional size of the condyloid and petrous pro-

cesses; the mastoid processes, which relate to balancing the head

upon the trunk-in the erect attitude; the small premaxillaries and

concomitant small size of the incisor teeth, as compared with the

molar teeth. The latter character relates to the superiority of the

psychical over the physical powers in man: it governs the feature in

which man recedes from the brute; as does also the prominence of

the nasal bones in most, and in all the typical,-races of man. The

somewhat angular form of the bony orbits, tending to a square,

with the corners rounded off, is a good human character of the

skull, which is difficult to comprehend as an adaptive one, and

therefore the better in the present inquiry. The same may be said

of the production of the floor of the tympanic or auditory tube into

the plate called “ vaginal.”

390 ~ Zoological Society :—

Believing the foregoing to be sufficient to test the respective

degrees of affinity to man within the limited group of Quadrumana

to which it was proposed, in the present memoir, to apply them, the

author would not dilute his argument by citing minor characters.

The question at issue was the respective degrees of affinity as be-

tween the anthropoid apes and man. Cuvier deemed the Orang

(Pithecus) to be nearer akin to man than the Chimpanzee (Troglo-

dytes) is. That belief has long ceased to be entertained. ' Professor

Owen proceeded, therefore, to compare the Gorilla, Chimpanzee, and

Gibbon, in reference to their human affinities.

Most naturalists entering upon this question would first look to

the premaxillary bones, or, owing to the early confluence of those

bones with the maxillaries in the Gorilla and Chimpanzee, to the

part of the upper jaw containing the incisive teeth, on the size and

direction of which depends the prognathic or brutish character of a

skull, Now the extent of the premaxillaries below the nostril is not

only relatively but absolutely less in the Gorilla, and consequently

the profile of the skull is less convex at this part, or less ‘* progna-

thic’’ than in the Chimpanzee. Notwithstanding the degree in

which the skull of the Gorilla surpasses in size that of the Chimpan-

zee, especially when the two are compared ona front view, the

breadth of the premaxillaries and of the four incisive teeth is the

same in both. In the relative degree, therefore, in which these bones

are smaller than in the Chimpanzee, the Gorilla, in this most im-

portant character, comes nearer to Man. In the Gibbons the inei-

sors are relatively smaller than in the Gorilla, but the premaxillaries

bear the same proportional size in the adult male Siamang.

Next, as regards the nasal bones. In the Chimpanzee, as in the

Orangs and Gibbons, they are as flat to the face as in any of the

lower Simie, In the Gorilla, the median coalesced margins of the

upper half of the nasal bones are produced forward, in a slight

degree it is true, but affording a most significant evidence of nearer

resemblance to Man. In the same degree they impress that anthropic

feature upon the face of the living Gorilla. In some pig-faced

baboons there are ridges and prominences in the naso-facial part of

the skull, but they do not really affect the question as between the

Gorilla and Chimpanzee. All naturalists know that the Semno-

pitheques of Borneo have long noses, but the proboscidiform append-

age which gives so ludicrous a mask to those monkeys is unaccom-

panied by any such modification of the nose-bones as gives the true

anthropoid character to the human skull, and to which only the Go-

rilla, in the ape tribe, makes any approximation.

No Orang, Chimpanzee, or Gibbon shows any rudiment of mas-

toid processes; but they are present in the Gorilla, smaller indeed

than in Man, but unmistakeable; they are, as in Man, cellular,

pneumatic, and with a thin outer plate of bone. This fact led the

author, in a former memoir, to express, when, in respect to the Go-

rilla, only the skull had reached him, the following inference, viz. :

‘from the nearer approach which the Gorilla makes to Man in com-

parison with the Chimpanzee or Orang, in regard to the mastoid

processes, t*at it assumed more nearly and more habitually the

Prof. Owen on the Gorilla. 391

upright attitude than those inferior anthropoid apes do.” * This

inference has been fully borne out by the rest of the skeleton of the

Gorilla, subsequently acquired.

In the Chimpanzee, as in the Orangs, Gibbons, and inferior

Simie, the lower surface of the long tympanic or auditory process is

more or less flat and smooth, developing in the Chimpanzee only a

slight tubercle, anterior to the stylohyal pit. In the Gorilla the

auditory process is more or less convex below, and developes a ridge,

answering to the vaginal process, on the outer side of the carotid

canal. The processes posterior and internal to the glenoid articular

surface are better developed, especially the internal one, in the

Gorilla than in the Chimpanzee the ridge which extends from the

ectopterygoid along the inner border of the foramen ovale, terminates

in the Gorilla by an angle or process answering to that called ‘ sty-

liform ’’ or ‘‘ spinous”? in Man, but of which there is no trace in the

Chimpanzee, Orang, or Gibbon.

- The orbits have a full oval form in the Orang; they are almost

circular in the Chimpanzee and Siamang, more nearly circular, and

with a more prominent rim in the smaller Gibbons ; in the Gorilla

alone do they present the form which used to be deemed peculiar to

man. There is not much physiological significance in some of the

latter characters, but on that very account, the author deemed them

more instructive and guiding in the actual comparison. The occi-

pital foramen is nearer the back part of the cranium, and its plane

is more sloping, less horizontal in the Siamang than in the Chim-

panzee and Gorilla. Considering the less relative prominence of the

fore-part of the jaws in the Siamang, as compared with the Chim-

panzee, the occipital character of that Gibbon and of other species of

Hylobates marks well their inferior position in the quadrumanous

scale.

In the greater relative size of the molars, compared with the inci-

sors, the Gorilla makes an important closer step towards Man than

does the Chimpanzee. The molar teeth are relatively so small in the

Siamang, that, notwithstanding the small size of the incisors, the

proportion of those teeth to the molars is only the same as in the

Gorilla: in other Gibbons (Hylodates lar), the four lower incisors

occupy an extent equal to that of the first four molars, in the Chim-

panzee equal to that of the first three molars, in the Siamang equal

to that of the first two molars and rather more than half of the third,

in Man equal to the first two molars and half of the third: in this

comparison the term molar is extended to the bicuspids.

The proportion of the ascending ramus to the length of the lower

jaw tests the relative affinity of the tailless apes to Man.

- Ina profile of the lower jaw, the author compares the line drawn

yertically from the top of the coronoid process to the horizontal length

along the alveoli. In Man and the Gorilla it is about ;4;ths, in the

Chimpanzee ;5,ths, in the Siamang it is only ;4ths. ‘The Siamang

further differs in the shape and production of the angle of the jaw,

and in the shape of the coronoid process, approaching the lower Simie

* Transactions of the Zoological Society, vol. iii. p. 409.

392° Loological Society :—

in both these characters. In the size of the post-glenoid process, in

the shape of the glenoid cavity which is almost flat, in the propor-

tional size of the petrous bone, and in the position of the foramen

caroticum, the Siamang departs further from the human type, and

approaches nearer that of the tailed Simie, than the Gorilla does,

and in a marked degree.

. Every legitimate deduction from a comparison of cranial charac-

ters makes the tailless Quadrumana recede from the human type in

the following order :—Gorilla, Chimpanzee, Orangs, Gibbons, and

the last named in a greater and more decided degree.

- These comparisons have of late been invested with additional

interest from the discoveries of remains of quadrumanous species in

different members of the tertiary formations.

. The first quadrumanous fossil, the discovery of which by Lieuts.

Baker and Durand is recorded in the ‘Journal of the Asiatic

Society of Bengal,’ for November, 1836, has proved to belong, like

subsequently discovered quadrumanous fossils in the Sewalik (pro-

bably miocene) tertiaries, to the Indian genus Semnopithecus. The

quadrumanous fossils discovered in 1839, in the eocene deposits of

Suffolk, belong to a genus (Lopithecus) having its nearest affinities

with Macacus. The monkey’s molar tooth from the pliocene beds

of Essex is most closely allied to the Macacus sinicus. The remains

of the large monkey, four feet in height, discovered in 1839 by

Dr. Lund in oa limestone cavern in Brazil was shown by its molar

3—3

dentition (p* — — m =—,) to belong to the platyrrhine family now

peculiar to South America. The lower jaw and teeth of the small

quadrumane discovered by M. Lartet in a miocene bed of the South

of France, and described by him and De Blainville, are so closely allied

to the Gibbons, as scarcely to justify the generic separation which

has been made for it under the name Pliopithecus.

Finally, a portion of a lower jaw with teeth and the shaft of a

humerus of a quadrumanous animal (Dryopithecus), equalling the size

of those bones in Man, have been discovered by M. Fontan, of Saint-

Gaudens, in a marly bed of Upper Miocene age, forming the base of

the plateau on which that town is built. The molar teeth present

the type of grinding surface of those of the Gibbons (Hylodates),

and, as in that genus, the second true molar is larger than the first,

not of equal size, as in the human subject and Chimpanzee. The

premolars have a greater antero-posterior extent, relatively, than in

the Chimpanzee, and in this respect agree more with those in the

Siamang. The first premolar has the outer cusp raised to double

the height of that of the second; its inner lobe appears from

M. Lartet’s figure to be less developed than in the Gorilla, certainly

less than in the Chimpanzee. The posterior talon of the second

premolar is more developed, and consequently the fore and aft extent

of the tooth is greater than in the Chimpanzee; thereby the second

premolar of Dryopithecus more resembles that in Hylobates, and

departs further from the human type.

The canine, judging from the figures published by M. Lartet*,

* ‘Comptes Rendus de l’Académie des Sciences.’ Paris, vol. xliii.

‘Prof. Owen on the Gorilla. 393

seems to be less developed than in the male Chimpanzee, Gorilla, or

Orang ; in which character the fossil, if it belonged to a male, makes

a nearer approach to the human type: but it is one which many of

the inferior monkeys also exhibit, and is by no means to be trusted

as significant of true affinity, supposing even the sex of the fossil to

be known as being male.

~The shaft of the humerus, found with the jaw, is peculiarly

rounded, as it is in the Gibbons and Sloths, and offers none of those

angularities and ridges which make the same bone in the Chimpanzee

and Orang come so much nearer in shape to the humerus of the

human subject. The fore part of the jaw, as in the Siamang, is more

nearly vertical than in the Gorilla or Chimpanzee ; but whether the

back part of the jaw may not have departed in a greater degree from

the human type than the fore part approaches ‘it, as is the case in

the Siamang, the state of the fossil does not allow of determining.

One significant character is, however, present,—the shape of the

fore part of the coronoid process. It is slightly convex forwards,

which causes the angle it forms with the alveolar border to be lessopen.

The same character is present in the Gibbons. The front margin

of the lower half of the coronoid process in Man is concave, as it is

likewise in the Gorilla and Chimpanzee. Prof. Owen was acquainted

with this interesting fossil, referred to a genus called Dryopithecus,

only by the figures published in the 43rd volume of the ‘Comptes

Rendus de l Académie des Sciences.’ From these it appears that

the canine, two premolars, and first and second true molars, are in

place ; the socket of the third molar is empty, but widely open above ;

from which the author concludes that the third molar had also cut

the gum, the crown being completed, but not the fangs. If the last

molar had existed as a mere germ, it would more probably have been

preserved in the substance of the jaw.

In a young Siamang, with the points of the permanent canines

just protruding from the socket, exhibited by Prof. Owen, the crown

of the last molar was complete, and on a level with the base of that of

the penultimate molar ; whence he inferred that the last molar would

have cut the gum as soon as, if not before, the crown of the canine

had been completely extricated. This dental character, the confor-

mation and relative size of the grinding teeth, especially the fore

and aft extent of the premolars, all indicate the close affinity of the

Dryopithecus with the Pliopithecus and existing Gibbons ; and this,

the sole legitimate deduction from the maxillary and dental fossils,

is corroborated by the fossil humerus, fig. 9, in the above-cited plate.

There is no law of correlation, by which, from the portion of jaw

with teeth of the Dryopithecus, can be deduced the shape of the

nasal bones and orbits, the position and plane of the occipital fora-

men, the presence of mastoid and vaginal processes, or other cranial

characters determinative of affinity to Man; much less any ground

for inferring the proportions of the upper to the lower limbs, of the

humerus to the ulna, of the pollex to the manus, or the shape and

development of the iliac bones. All those characters which do de-

termine the closer resemblance and affinity of the genus T7roglodytes

394, Zoological Society :—

to man, and of the genus Hylobates to the tailed monkeys, are at

present unknown in respect of the Dryopithecus. A glance at fig. 5

(Gorilla), and fig. 7 (Dryopithecus), of the plate of M. Lartet’s

memoir, would suffice to teach their difference of bulk, the Gorilla

being fully one-third larger. The statement that the parts of the

skeleton of the Dryopithecus as yet known, viz. the two branches

of the lower jaw and the humerus, “are sufficient to show that in

anatomical structure, as well as stature, it came nearer to man than

any quadrumanous species, living or fossil, before known to zoolo-

gists *,”’ is without the support of any adequate fact, and in contra-

vention of most of those to be deduced from M. Lartet’s figures of

the fossils. Those parts of the Dryopithecus merely show—and the

humerus in a striking manner—its nearer approach to the Gibbons ;

the most probable conjecture being that it bore to them, in regard

to size, the like relations which Dr. Lund’s Protopithecus bore to

the existing Mycetes. Whether, therefore, strata of such high

antiquity as the miocene may reveal to us “forms in any degree

intermediate between the Chimpanzee and man”? awaits an answer

from discoveries yet to be made ; and the anticipation that the fossil

world ‘may hereafter supply new osteological links between man

and the highest known Quadrumana}’’ must be kept in abeyance

until that world has furnished us with the proofs that a species did

formerly exist which came as near to man as does the Orang; the

Chimpanzee, or the Gorilla.

Of the nature and habits of the last-named species, which really

offers the nearest approach to man of any known ape, recent or

fossil, the author had received many statements from individuals

resident at or visitors to the Gaboon, from which he selected the

following as most probable, or least questionable.

Gorilla-land is a richly-wooded extent of the western part of _

Africa, traversed by the rivers Danger and Gaboon, and extending

from the equator to the 10th or 15th degree of south latitude. The

part where the Gorilla has been most frequently met with presents a

succession of hill and dale, the heights crowned with lofty trees, the

valleys covered by coarse grass, with partial scrub or scattered shrubs.

Fruit trees of various kinds abound both on the hills and in the

valleys; some that are crude and uncared for by the Negros are

sought out and greedily eaten by the Gorillas; and as different

kinds come to maturity at different seasons, they afford the great

denizen of the woods a successive and unfailing supply of indigenous

fruits. Of these Professor Owen specified the following sources :—

The palm-nut (Zlais guiniensis) of which the Gorillas greatly

affect the fruit and upper part of the stipe, called the ‘t cabbage.”

The Negroes of the Gaboon have a tradition that their forefathers

first learnt to eat the “cabbage,” from seeing the Gorilla eat it,

concluding that what was good for him must be good for man.

The “ ginger-bread tree’ (Parinarium excelsum), which bears a

- plum-like fruit.

* Lyell (Sir Charles), ‘Supplement to the Fifth Edition of Manual of Ele-

mentary Geology,’ 8yo, 1859, p. 14. T Ibi

Prof. Owen on the Gorilla. 395

_. The papau tree (Carica papaya).

The banana (Musa sapientium), and another species (Musa para-

disiaca).

The Amomum Afzelii and Am. grandifiorum.

A tree, with a shelled fruit, like a walnut, which ‘the Gorilla

breaks open with the blow of a stone.

A tree, also botanically unknown, with a fruit like a cherry.

Such fruits and other rich and nutritious productions of the vege-

table kingdom, constitute the staple food of the Gorilla, as they do

of the Chimpanzee. The molar teeth, which alone truly indicate

the diet of an animal, accord with the statements as to the frugi-

vorous character of the Gorilla: but they also sufficiently answer to

an omnivorous habit to suggest that the eggs and callow brood of

‘nests discovered in the trees frequented by the Gorilla might not be

unacceptable.

The Gorilla makes a sleeping place like a hammock, connecting

the branches of a sheltered and thickly-leaved part of a tree by means

of the long tough slender stems of parasitic plants, and lining it with

the broad dried fronds of palms, or with long grass. This hammock-

like abode may be seen at different heights, from 10 to 40 feet from

the ground, but there is never more than one such nest in a tree.

They avoid the abodes of man, but are most commonly seen in the

months of September, October, and November, after the negroes

have gathered their outlying rice-crops, and have returned from the

bush” to the village. So observed, they are described to be

usually in pairs; or, if more, the addition consists of a few young

ones, of different ages, and apparently of one family. The Gorilla

is not gregarious. The parents may be seen sitting on a branch,

resting the back against the tree-trunk—the hair being generally

rubbed off the back of the old Gorilla from that habit—perhaps

munching fruit, whilst the young Gorillas are at play, leaping and

swinging from branch to branch, with hoots or harsh cries of bois-

terous mirth.

If the old male be seen alone, or when in quest of food, he is

usually armed with a stout stick, which the negroes aver to be the

weapon with which he attacks his chief enemy the elephant. Not

that the elephant directly or intentionally injures the Gorilla, but,

deriving its subsistence from the same source, the ape regards the

great proboscidian as a hostile intruder. When, therefore, he dis-

cerns the elephant pulling down and wrenching off the branches of

a favourite tree, the Gorilla, stealmg along the bough, strikes the

sensitive proboscis of the elephant with a violent blow of his elub, and

drives off the startled giant trumpeting shrilly with rage and pain.

In passing from one detached tree to another, the Gorilla is said

to walk semi-erect, with the aid of his club, but with a waddling

awkward gait; when without a stick, he has ‘been seen to walk asa

biped, with his hands clasped across the back of his head, instinet-

ively so counterpoising its forward projection. If the Gorilla be

surprised and approached while on the ground, he drops his stick,

betakes himself to all-fours, applying the back part of the bent

396 Zoological Society :—

knuckles of his fore-hands to the ground, and makes his way rapidly,

with an oblique swinging kind of gallop, to the nearest tree. There

he awaits his pursuer, especially if his family be near, and requiring

his defence. No negro willingly approaches the tree in which the

male Gorilla keeps guard. Even with a gun the experienced negro

does not make the attack, but reserves his fire in self-defence. The

enmity of the Gorilla to the whole negro race, male and female, is

uniformly attested.

The young men of the Gaboon tribe make armed excursions into

the forests, im quest of ivory. The enemy they most dread on

these occasions is the Gorilla. If they have come unawares too near.

him with his family, he does not, like the lion, sulkily retreat, —

but comes rapidly to the attack, swinging down to the lower

branches, and clutching at the nearest foe. The hideous aspect of

the animal, with his green eyes flashing with rage, is heightened by

the skin over the prominent roof of the orbits being drawn rapidly

backward and forward, with the hair erected, causing a horrible and

fiendish scowl. If fired at and not mortally hit, the Gorilla closes

at once upon his assailant, and inflicts most dangerous, if not deadly

wounds, with his sharp and powerful tusks. 'The commander of a

Bristol trader told the author he had seen a negro at the Gaboon

frightfully mutilated by the bite of the Gorilla, from which he had

recovered. Another negro exhibited to the same voyager a gun-

barrel bent and partly flattened by the bite of a wounded Gorilla, in

its death-struggle. Negroes, when stealing through the gloomy

shades of the tropical forest, become sometimes aware of the proxi-

mity of one of these frightfully formidable apes by the sudden dis-

appearance of one of their companions, who is hoisted up into the

tree, uttering, perhaps, a short choking cry. | In a few minutes he

falls to the ground a strangled corpse. The Gorilla, watching his

opportunity, has let down his huge hind-hand, seized the passing

negro by the neck, with vice-like grip, has drawn him up to higher

branches, and dropped him when his struggles had ceased.

The strength of the Gorilla is such as to make him a match for a

lion, whose tusks his own almost rival. Over the leopard, invading

the lower branches of the Gorilla’s dwelling-tree, he will gain an

easier victory; and the huge canines, with which only the male

Gorilla is furnished, doubtless have been assigned to him for defend-

ing his mate and offspring.

The skeleton of the old male Gorilla obtained for the British

Museum in 1857, shows an extensive fracture, badly united, of the

left arm-bone, which has been shortened, and gives evidence of long

suffering from abscess and partial exfoliation of bone. The upper

canines have been wrenched out or shed some time before death, for

their sockets have become absorbed.

The redeeming quality in this fragmentary history of the Gorilla is

the male’s care of his family, and the female’s devotion to her young.

It is reported that a French natural-history collector, accompanying

a party of the Gaboon negroes into the Gorilla woods, surprised a

female with two young ones on a large boabdad (Adansonia), which

Prof. Owen on the Gorilla. 897

stood some distance from the nearest clump. She descended the tree

with her youngest clinging to her neck, and made off rapidly on all

fours to the forest, and escaped. The deserted young one on seeing

the approach of the men began to utter piercing cries: the mother,

having disposed of her infant in safety, returned to rescue the older

offspring, but before she could descend with it her retreat was cut off.

Seeing one of the negroes level his musket at her, she, clasping her

young with one arm, waved the other, as if deprecating the shot:

the ball passed through her heart, and she fell with her young one

clinging to her. It was a male, and survived the voyage to Havre,

where it died on arriving. Professor Owen had examined the skeleton

of this. young Gorilla in the museum of natural history at Caen, and

was indebted to Professor Deslongchamps, Dean of the Faculty of

Sciences in that town, for drawings of the skeleton of this rare specimen.

There might be more difficulty in obtaining a young Gorilla for

exhibition than a young Chimpanzee ; but as no full-grown Chimpan-

zee has ever been captured, we cannot expect the larger and much

more powerful adult Gorilla to be ever taken alive. A bold negro,

the leader of an elephant-hunting expedition, being offered a hundred

dollars if he would bring back a live Gorilla, replied, “ If you gave me

the weight of yonder hill in gold coins, I could not do it!”

All the terms of the aborigines in reference to the Gorilla imply

their opinion of his close kinship to themselves. But they have a

low opinion of his intelligence. They say that during the rainy

season he builds a house without a roof. The natives on their hunt-

ing excursions light fires for their corafort and protection by night ;

when they have gone away, they affirm that the Gorilla will come

down and warm himself at the smouldering embers, but has not wit

enough to throw on more wood, out of the surrounding abundance,

to keep the fire burning,—*‘ the stupid old man!”

Every account of the habits of a wild animal obtained at second

hand from the reports of aborigines has, commonly, its proportion of

*apocrypha.”’ The author had restricted himself to the statements

that had most probability and were in accordance with the ascertained

structures and powers of the animal, and would only add the averment

and belief of the Gaboon negroes, that when a Gorilla dies, his fellows

eover the corpse with a heap of leaves and loose earth collected and

scraped up for the purpose.

A most singular phenomenon in natural history, if one reflects on

the relations of things, is this Gorilla! Limited as it is in its numbers

and geographical range, one discerns that the very peculiar conditions

of its existence—abundance of wild fruit—needs must be restricted

in space ; but concurring in a certain part of Africa, there lives the

creature to enjoy them.

The like conditions exist in Borneo and Sumatra, and there also a

correlative human-like ape, of similar nature, tooth-armour, and force,

exists at their expense. Neither Ourangs nor Gorillas however

minister to man’s use either directly or indirectly. Were they to

become extinct, no sign of the change or break in the links of life

would remain, What may be their real significance?

398 Loological Society.

Reverting finally to the ancient notices which might relate to

the great anthropoid ape of Africa, Prof. Owen referred to his first

Memoir, of February, 1848, in which was quoted (Trans. Zool, Soc.,

vol. iii. p.418) Dr. Falconer’s ‘ Translation of the Voyage of Hanno,’

(London, 1797) with his dissertation vindicating the authenticity

of the “ Periplus.’’ Professor Owen had lately been favoured by

the venerable Bishop Maltby, the first amongst our Greek scholars,

with the following translation of the passage supposed to allude to

the species in question :—‘‘ On the third day, having sailed from

thence, passing the streams of fire, we came to a bay called the Horn -

of the South. In the recess there was an island like the first, having

a lake, and in this there was another island full of wild men. But

much the greater part of them were women, with hairy bodies, whom

the interpreters called ‘Gorillas.’ But, pursuing them, we were not

able to take the men; they all escaped, being able to climb the

precipices, and defended themselves with pieces of rock. But three

women (females), who bit and scratched those who led them, were

not willing to follow. However, having killed them, we flayed them,

and conveyed the skins to Carthage ; for we did not sail any further,

as provisions began to fail.’’ This encounter indicates, therefore,

the southernmost point on the west coast of Africa reached by the

Carthaginian navigator.

To the inquiry by Bishop Maltby, how far the newly-discovered

great ape of Africa bore upon the question of the authenticity of the

Periplus, Prof. Owen had replied :—‘ The size and form of the great

ape, now called ‘Gorilla,’ would suggest to Hanno and his crew no

other idea of its nature than that of a kind of human being; but

the climbing faculty, the hairy body, and skinning of the dead speci-

mens, strongly suggest that they were large anthropoid apes. The fact

that such apes, having the closest observed resemblance to the negro,

being of human stature and with hairy bodies, do still exist on the

west coast of Africa, renders it highly probable that such were the

creatures which Hanno saw, captured, and called ‘ Gorullai.’ ”’

The brief observation made by Battell in west tropical Africa,

1590, recorded in Purchas’s “ Pilgrimages, or Relations of the

World,’ 1748, of the nature and habits of the large human-like

ape which he calls ‘‘ Pongo,’’ more decidedly refers to the Gorilla.

Other notices, as by Nieremberg and Bosman, applied by Buffon to

Battell’s Pongo, were deemed valueless by Cuvier, who altogether

rejected the conclusions of his great predecessor as to the existence of

any such ape. ‘This name of Pongo or Boggo, given in Africa to

the Chimpanzee or to the Mandril, has been applied,” writes Cuvier,

‘by Buffon to a pretended great species of Ourang-utan, which was

nothing more than the imaginary product of his combinations.”

After the publication of Cuvier’s ‘Régne Animal,’ the supposed

species was, by the high authority of its. author, banished from

natural history; it has only been authentically reintroduced since

the intelligent attention of Dr. Savage was directed to the skull

which he first saw at the Gaboon in 1847, and took Professor

Owen’s opinion upon.

399

MISCELLANEOUS.

On Pelamys Sarda, a British Fish. By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &e.

Mr. W. Bearrtir, Secretary of the Montrose Natural History and

Antiquarian Society, has sent me the following description and a

photograph of a specimen of Pelamys Sarda, which was captured in

a bag (salmon-) net at the mouth of the North Esk, in June last

(1859). There is no doubt of its being Pelamys Sarda, from the

figure. Mr. Beattie observes that “the Pelamys Sarda figured by

Yarrell as a vignette to his article on Bonito resembles the Esk Scomber

very closely, except in the oblique bars, which in his figure are broad

and transverse.’ I may observe that the specimen taken at the Esk is

only 4 inches shorter than that described by M. Valenciennes as taken

on the coast of Canary by Webb and Berthelot, and is larger than

the ordinary size of the Mediterranean specimens, according to the

observation of Sir John Richardson.

Pelamys Sarda.

Description of Specimen.— Length from the point of the nose to

the centre of the tail, which is crescent-shaped, 21 inches; extreme,

225 in. Girth, at thickest, 12 inches. Weight 4 lb. 6 0z. From

the centre of the eye to the point of the nose 24 inches. From the

centre of the eye to the origin of the branchial fin, 34 inches. Ex-

panse of tail 42 inches. Space between pectoral and anal fins 8 in.

From first dorsal fin to point of nose 53 inches. Body round, taper-

ing from the vent to the tail.

* A triangular space behind and above the gill-opening, and includ-

ing the origin of the branchial fin, covered with projecting scales

larger than those on other parts of the body. From the upper and

anterior angle of this space, several rows of prominent scales extend

backward along each side of the front dorsal, and converge toward

the second dorsal fin. Lateral line waved till opposite the termina-

tion of the anal fin, when it runs in a straight line to the tail.

D. 22 VIII. or IX.

Origin of dorsal fin behind origin of pectoral. Ten dark bars run

obliquely forward from the back at an angle of 30°.

‘Upper jaw and teeth project over the lower jaw. Teeth conical,

curved inwards, those in the lower jaw larger. Front teeth in upper

jaw short. Two teeth in front of each lower jaw bent backwards ;

these, with the larger ones on the side, measure 4 inch in length.

On the sides of the lower jaw the long teeth alternate with smaller

ones.— Wm. B.”

Occurrence of the. Rufous Sedge Warbler in South Devon.

A second specimen of the Rufous Sedge Warbler (Aedon galac-

totes) has been killed near Start Point, South Devonshire, on the

25th of September last. It was shot by William D. Llewellyn, Esq.,

by whom it was presented to the British Museum. That gentleman

observed that its flight much resembled that of a Lark, and that

it was exceedingly thin. Its visit was probably occasioned by the

strong southerly wind which had prevailed for several days. The

400 Miscellaneous.

former specimen of this rare bird, which Mr. Yarrell figured in his

second Supplement to the ‘ History of British Birds,’ was obtained

on the downs near Brighton, in the autumn of 1854.—G. R. G.

On the New British Snake*. By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &e.

Mr. Bond has presented to the British Museum a fine large spe-

cimen of Coronella austriaca, which he took when searching for

Lacerta Stirpium at St. Leonard’s, near Ringwood, in the New

Forest, in the year 1854. He always considered it as distinct ; but

several of his friends regarded it as only a variety of the young

collared snake, Tropidonotus Natriz.

On a new species of Catharus. By P. L.Scrarer, M.A., F.LS.

CATHARUS OCCIDENTALIS.

Cinnamomeo-brunneus, vertice saturatiore: subtus cineraceus, gula

albicante, cervice et pectore fusco subobsolete flammulatis : ventre

medio et crisso albis : rostro fusco-nigricante, hujus basi et pedi-

bus pallide corylinis.

Long. tota 6°5, alee 3:5, caudee 2°9, tarsi 1°15.

Hab. Western Mexico, Oaxaca, Totontepec (Boucard).

M. Sallé’s recent collections from M. Boucard contain four ex-

amples of this Catharus. It seems clearly distinct from C. Melpo-

mene of Eastern Mexico, in its rather larger size, shorter tarsi, and

spotted neck and breast; these parts in C. Melpomene being imma-

culate.—Proc. Zool. Soc. June 28, 1859.

Prize Questions.

The following questions have been submitted to competition by

the Utrecht Society of Arts and Sciences :—

1. Inquiries into the development of one or more species of the

Mollusca, Annelides, or Crustacea, an account of which has not yet

been written, with figures illustrative of the text.

2. A series of researches on the heat generated by plants

A gold medal of the value of 30 ducats (£13 st.), or an equivalent

in silver, will be awarded to each successful competitor. The answers

to the first question must be sent in (post free) previous to the 30th

of Nov. 1860—to the second, before the 30th of Nov. 1861; addressed

to Dr. J. W. Gunnine, the Secretary of the Society at Utrecht.

The author is at liberty to avail himself either of the Dutch, German

(in Roman characters), English, French, or Latin language ; but the

answers must not be in his own hand-writing. They are to be ac-

companied by a sealed envelope, enclosing his name, and, if a member

of the Society, having the letter “‘L’’ onthe address. The successful

answers will be published in the Society’s works.

Further information may be obtained on application to the Secre-

tary of the Society.

* The reader is requested to make the following correction in the former notice :

p- 317, line 3 from the bottom, for smooth sides read smooth scales.—Ep.

THE ANNALS

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[THIRD SERIES.]

No. 24. DECEMBER 1859.

XL.—On the Forms and Structure of Fern-stems. By Grorer

Oaitvizr, M.D., Lecturer on the Institutes of Medicine in

Marischal College and University, Aberdeen*.

[With three Plates. |

On the Vegetative Axis of Ferns.—For the following observa-

tions the author makes no further claim to originality than that

they were suggested to him by researches which he was led to

undertake from finding the subject scarcely noticed at all in our

common botanical works.

External Characters of Fern-stems.

By the corm or vegetative axis of Ferns, it is hardly necessary

to mention, is meant that part which, in our indigenous species,

is commonly termed the root, as being more or less buried in

the soil, though it does not differ essentially from the arbores-

cent stem of the Tree-ferns of tropical and southern latitudes.

Even in our British species, however, the corm or vegetative axis

presents considerable diversity of form. The author has to re-

gret that his opportunities of investigating the varieties of this

organ have been so limited. He has been restricted, not only

to our indigenous species, but, with few exceptions, to those

growing in his own neighbourhood; for, though specimens of

fern-fronds are readily enough to be had in exchange, few col-

lectors preserve the rhizomes. From the examination, however,

of such species as he has been able to procure, he believes that

the corms of our British Ferns—if not of the tribe generally—

may be reduced to the three forms of a stoloniferous rhizome,

and a caudex, simple or branched.

* Communicated by the Author, having been read before the British

Association, Sept. 15, 1859.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. iv. 26

402 Dr. G. Ogilvie an the Forms and Structure of Fern-stems.

These varieties depend on the relations and proportionate

development of the principal structural elements—the proper

axis, the rootlets, and the fronds, whose bases remain perma-

nently attached to the stem after the leaf-like portions have

withered and decayed away. Organs corresponding to these

enter into the constitution of all the higher plants. In the

larger forms of vegetation, they are clearly marked off from each

other by a wide local separation, the radical fibres coming off

from one extremity of the stem, and the leaves from the other ;

but this arrangement is not an essential of the vegetable orga-

nization ; for in various subterranean and creeping stems, such

as those of the rose and the iris, the strawberry and many

grasses, we have both rootlets and leafy shoots coming off side

by side from a greater or less extent of the vegetative axis ; and

even where this assumes an arborescent character, such inter-

mixture, though less frequent and less complete, is still an

arrangement of occasional occurrence, as in the Banyan and

other species of Ficus, Pandanus, Dracena, &c. All these va-

riations we have represented in Ferns. In Tree-ferns, as in

arborescent forms of other types of vegetation, we have the

length of the stem interposed between the rootlets and the bases

of the fronds; and though generally, when the plant attains

some height, adventitious roots are emitted from the sides of the

stem, still they spring from its lower part, and are separated

from the growing leaves by a very considerable interval. But

in our indigenous species the stems are all more or less of the

kind termed rhizomes by botanists, and emit rootlets and leaf-

stalks side by side along their whole extent, or nearly so; and,

as has just been remarked, it is to diversities in their disposition

and proportionate development that the variations in the form

of the stem are in great measure due.

In the first or stoloniferous variety, the axis is long, slender,

and much branched, its subdivisions running horizontally along

or just under the surface of the ground, and sending off from

below numerous black wiry rootlets, and from the upper aspect

the scattered petioles of the fronds. The extremities of the

rhizome are scaly, the petioles smooth and naked. When a root

of this kind is dissected out of the soil—an operation involving

no small expenditure of time and trouble, from its tortuous and

brittle character—we can readily distinguish the formations of

successive years. At the growing points of the stolons we have

the petioles quite fresh, and still bearing leaves; behind these,

we have the bases of the last and former years’ fronds in different

stages of decay; and lastly, only the creeping stem itself, and

this, as we trace it backwards, in a continually iicreasing state

of decay, which finally makes it impossible to follow it any fur-

Dr. G. Ogilvie on the Forms and Structure of Fern-stems. 408

ther. By this disappearance of the common connecting portion

of the rhizome, the later branches assume the position of inde-

pendent plants, and the forest of fronds covering the turf may

be compared to the vigorously vegetating leaf-shoots of a sub-

terranean shrub whose trunks have already mouldered away.

Roots of this description occur in all our Polypodies (PI. VIII.

figs. 1,2), in the Bracken, in Hymenophyllum, and probably also

in Adiantum, Trichomanes, and in Lastrea Thelypteris.

The common Polypody, however, has one peculiarity, in which

it stands alone among our indigenous Ferns,—that its petioles

break off by articulations, so that the older portions of the stem

do not bear the stumps of former leaf-stalks, but only cicatrices

marking their insertions.

To this variety the form described as the simple caudex stands

in the most marked contrast. Its characteristic features are the

number and spiral arrangement of the petioles of the leaves. At

its growing extremity these form one of the graceful circles of

bright green foliage, which are so pleasing a feature in the vege-

tation of our larger Ferns. The axis itself is sometimes of con-

siderable thickness, but its real dimensions are not distinguish-

able at first sight, from its being so completely ensheathed in the

persistent bases of the decayed fronds of former years. Its direc-

tion of growth varies from horizontal to vertical (Pl. X. figs.7, 8).

In the former case, it creeps along or just under the surface of the

ground, and forms a more or less considerable angle with the

terminal crown of fronds, the axis of which is always vertical,

owing to a corresponding curvature of the petioles at their points

of origin. In cases, again, where the axis of the stem approaches

the vertical, as in some foreign species of Blechnum, Struthio-

pteris, &c., it gradually rises above the ground in the course

of growth, and assumes on a small scale the features of the

arborescent form, the terminal circle of leaves corresponding

with that elegant palm-like crown of foliage which is so promi-

nent a characteristic of the Tree-ferns. The correspondence

between such a caudex and the corm of a Tree-fern is brought

‘out more clearly by cutting off all the bases of the old fronds at

their points of insertion, when we obtain a nearly cylindrical

stem, marked with rhomboidal scars, answering to those which,

in most arborescent species, indicate the points of insertion of

fallen petioles (Pl. X. fig. 9).

In this operation we have to clear away numerous radical

fibres, as well as the petioles of old fronds, for the rootlets are

equally abundant in this as in the former or stoloniferous

variety, though, from the closeness of the leaf-stalks, between

whose insertions they originate, they form but a secondary fea-

ture, except at the lower parts of the corm, where the decay of

26%

404 Dr.G. Ogilvie on the Forms and Structure of Fern-stems.

the petioles allows them greater prominence. This form of stem

would probably be better termed a right or straight than a

simple caudex, for it generally bears Jateral buds, giving rise to

secondary rhizomes (PI. X. fig. 10). Sometimes these appear to

be deciduous, or to be pushed off by the growth of the petioles.

In any case, they will of course become independent plants when

the decay of the lower extremity of the caudex reaches their

points of origin. )

As examples of this form of caudex may be mentioned, Lastrea

Filiz mas, L. dilatata, L. cristata, Polystichum aculeatum, and

P. Lonchitis.

The other form of caudex is intermediate between this last

variety and the stoloniferous rhizome first described; for the

axis branches so repeatedly in a dichotomous manner, by the

duplication of its terminal buds, that, when dissected out, it has

somewhat the character of the stoloniferous rhizome; but in its

natural state it is so thickly set both with foot-stalks and root-

lets, that nothing is to be distinguished but a mass of tangled

roots, more or less tufted above and densely fibrous below.

A caudex of one kind or other occurs in all our larger Ferns

except Pteris aquilina, and in the majority it appears to be

branched. So at least it is in Allosurus crispus, Blechnum bo-

reale, Osmunda regalis, Lastrea Oreopteris, and in Filix feemina

and the genus Asplenium generally. (Pl. VIII. fig. 3; IX. figs. 4,

5, 6.) ;

It is doubtful if the branched caudex ever becomes arbores-

cent as a normal occurrence*. Branched Tree-ferns are cer-

tainly met with, but rather, it would seem, as an occasional

abnormality than as a regular form.

Among our native Ferns, Ophioglossum and Botrychium are

remarkable for their vernation being straight, not circinate, as

in the rest of the group, and the last-mentioned species also

for the edges of the solitary petiole cohering, so as to embrace

the point of the axis and form a cavity which lodges the embryo

of the next year’s frond; within iés petiole the rudiments of the

frond of the succeeding year may in like manner be detected.

The stem itself may probably be considered a modification of

the simple caudex.

Among the Fern-allies of our flora, the stoloniferous is the

most common form of stem. In Equisetacez it is subterranean,

like that of the Ferns; but in Pilularia and Lycopodium it

creeps along the surface of the ground. In the larger species

* An analogical argument in favour of this may be drawn from Palm-

stems, which are normally simple from the development of a single terminal

bud, but which are branched in a few species, as Phenia, or form lateral

buds, as in Areca, Caryota, and Chamerops.

Dr. G. Ogilvie on the Forms and Structure of Fern-stems. 405

of Lycopodium the successive stages of annual growth, and the

separation of the shoots as independent plants by the gradual

decay of the older portion of the stem, are more clearly brought

out than even in the stoloniferous roots of Ferns. In Jsoétes we

have a peculiarly modified form of the simple caudex.

Internal Structure of Fern-stems.

The next point to be noticed is the internal structure of the

vegetative axis of the Fern, principally as it affects the disposi-

tion of the fibro-vascular bundles. Woody fibre and vessels

(which, except in a few degraded species, are a universal charac-

teristic of phanerogamic plants) occur, it is well known, only in

the higher forms of cryptogamic vegetation—the Ferns and

allied orders,—and even there but sparingly and with some

remarkable peculiarities both in their minute structure and their

general disposition. The most observable structural characters are

the dark colour of the woody or hard tissue, and the large size,

angular section, and scalariform markings on the ducts. In the

disposition, too, of the fibro-vascular tissue, the stems of Ferns

present some remarkable peculiarities, quite as distinct as those

characteristic of the better-known divisions of the so-called En-

dogenous and Exogenous stems. ‘These differences do not so

much affect the original constitution of the stem as the mode in

which the successive annual increments are applied to the pri-

mary axis. In vascular shoots of the first year, whether Dico-

tyledonous, Monocotyledonous, or Cryptogamic, there is com-

paratively little difference. In each we have a single circle of

fibro-vascular bundles imbedded in the general cellular tissue of

the stem; but when the new bundles of subsequent years come

to be added, we find the characteristic differences clearly brought

out. Thus the peculiarities of the Exogenous stem depend on

the addition to the exterior of the wood and interior of the

liber of former years, of annual layers, forming in section con-

centric circles of ligneous and cortical tissue. Hence the accre-

tions to the wood of a Dicotyledonous stem have been repre-

sented by a number of cones of continually increasing dimen-

sions placed one over the other, and slightly truncated at the

top. In horizontal sections the wood of such a stem presents a

series of concentric rings, which represent the bases of the cones,

interrupted by radiating bands of muriform tissue, which are the

outward continuations of the cellular interspaces between the

bundles of the original circle, and represent the small residue of

the cellular element of the stem left after the abundant develop-

ment of fibro-vascular tissue characteristic of the Dicotyledonous

organization. In a tangental section, these same bands are

seen cut across, and may be observed to occupy the meshes left

406 Dr. G. Ogilvie on the Forms and Structure of Fern-stems.

by the interlacement of the longitudinal fibro-vascular bundles.

Though the formation of wood in Dicotyledonous plants is

spoken of as being on the exterior, and has hence given rise to

the stem being termed Exogenous, still it is to be remembered

that at the growing points the fasciculi do in fact pass from the

petioles of the leaves into the interior of the stem, and only gain

that position which characterizes the rest of their course by

curving outwards again to apply themselves to the exterior of

those of older formation. |

In the Monocotyledonous stem, again, the fibro-vascular

fasciculi, though they tend at last in the same way to place

themselves on the outside of those of older development, lose

themselves here, by the dispersion and occasional anastomosis

of their elements, in what has been termed the fibrous layer

of the stem, and do not descend any way on the exterior,

or form any new continuous envelope like an annual layer of

Exogenous wood. Hence, should we wish to represent the in-

crements of a Monocotyledonous stem by a series of superposed

truncated cones, we must make them, not, as in Dicotyledons,

of continually increasing dimensions, so that the outer shall

completely envelope the inner, but we must make them all of

the same size, so that the series as a whole may have, not a

conical but a cylindrical outline, the outer cones being borne up

by those within and below them, whose bases they can no longer

cover. ‘They are also more truncated or more open at the top,

from the larger size of the cellular core of the terminal bud.

Such a stem, on horizontal section, is described as presenting

three regions :—1st. A central, which in some respects corre-

sponds to the pith of a Dicotyledon, but which contains im-

bedded in the cellular tissue the ends of numerous fibro-vascular

bundles, divided in their descending but at the same time out-

ward-bound course through the interior of the stem. 2ndly. A

cortical zone, also of cellular tissue, differing from the bark of a

Dicotyledon in not being generally separable from the stem, and

in rarely contaiming any fibrous tissue. 8rdly. Intermediate

between the central and cortical regions, a ring of densely-matted

fibrous tissue, formed by the anastomosis of the lower and outer

ends of the fibro-vascular bundles.

In the stems of Ferns, the fibro-vascular element is but very

sparingly developed in proportion to the cellular, and the dis-

position of the fasciculi assumes in consequence a different

appearance from that in either of the higher groups; the vas-

cular bundles are well developed in the petioles of the fronds,

but they enter no further into the structure of the stem than

simlpy to effect a union with those derived from the fronds of

former years. They have no downward course in the stem; the

Dr. G. Ogilvie on the Forms and Structure of Fern-stems. 407

arched fibres in the interior, characteristic of the Endogenous

stem, and the annual layers of descending woody tissue on the

exterior (so conspicuous a feature in that of Exogens), are alike

wanting ; for the fasciculi, immediately on entering the stem,

branch out and anastomose with those derived from former pe-

tioles, forming a very beautiful reticulated cylinder near the

exterior, analogous evidently to the “ fibrous layer” of the Mo-

nocotyledonous stem, but presenting, instead of the dense fibrous

interlacement of the latter, a network of thick cords of scalari-

form tissue, ensheathed in a layer of brownish pleurenchyma, and

separated by large open meshes, through which the. cellular

tissues of the central and cortical regions are freely continuous

with each other (Pl. X. fig.11). The pile of superposed trun-

cated cones, diagrammatically representing the Exogenous stem

—already cut down all to one length, and more opened at the

top to adapt them to the Endogenous type—must now be re-

duced to a series of simple rings placed one upon another.

On a longitudinal section along the axis, a fern-stem presents

a uniform expanse of cellular tissue, marked only by an inter-

rupted line near each margin, indicating the position of the

fibro-vascular bundles of the reticulated cylinder, the interrupted

spaces answering to the meshes of the network (fig. 10). Ona

horizontal section we have a corresponding interrupted circle

formed by the cut extremities of the fibro-vascular anastomosing

cords (fig. 12). This circle divides the section into a large central

- and a smaller cortical region, both composed of cellular tissue, as

in the Monocotyledonous stem, but without the descending fibres

which form so conspicuous a feature in the interior of the latter.

In a certain point of view, these regions correspond to the pith

and cellular bark of a young Dicotyledonous stem, in which the

cellular tissue has not yet been displaced by the fibro-vascular

element; and the interspaces of the reticulations may be held

to represent the medullary rays. Indeed, in all the fibrous

tissues of Dicotyledonous plants a tendency may be observed to

such an interlacement about the medullary rays: it is quite ob-

vious to the naked eye in the bast-fibres of the Lime and many

other trees; it has been noticed in the medullary sheath of

Coniferze, and it may be seen with great distinctness under the

microscope, in tangental sections of mahogany and other hard

woods.

The stems of Tree-ferns are said to be generally hollow, but

the character is not an essential one. Fistulous stems are well

known to occur both in Endogenous and Exogenous plants*, and

* In Endogens, the Cocoa-nut and other Palms and most grasses, in

Exogens, many Umbelliferse, Composite, and Labiate furnish instances of

this.

408 Dr. G. Ogilvie on the Forms and Structure of Fern-stems.

probably always depend on the shrinking of a lax cellular tissue

originally filling the space. Hollow stems are not described as

occurring in any of our indigenous Ferns, but it may generally

be observed that in the decayed portions of a rhizome the central

cellular tissue is the first to disappear. |

The most elegant and instructive preparation of a fern-stem

is made by dissecting off the outer cortical layer so as to expose

the reticulated structure of the fibro-vascular cylinder. Two sets

of fasciculi will then be seen to be connected with its exterior,

—the one derived, as already noticed, from the bases of the

petioles, the other continuous with the rootlets.

The rootlets of Ferns are emitted in succession from below

upwards, in proportion as they are required for the nutriment

and mechanical support of the plant. The latter is probably the

main use of the so-called adventitious roots, which are sent

forth in such numbers from the lower part of the stem in some

Tree-ferns as to cause a remarkable increase in the diameter of

the base. The nutriment introduced by the roots must be

carried up by imbibition through the cellular matter of the

stem, or through the fibro-vascular network derived from the

bases of petioles long since decayed. In any case, it is evident

that, whatever may be alleged in favour of regarding a Dicoty-

ledonous tree as a mere aggregation of slender stem-bound phy-

tons, whose leaf-bearing shoots form its present foliage, while

their downward extremities are continuous with the active spon-

gioles of the roots, such a view cannot be held tenable in the

ease of Ferns. In this group at least, and probably also in

Monocotyledons, we must admit two fundamentally distinct foci

of vital action—the leaf-bud and the rootlet,—the former ori-

ginating from the upper extremity of the stem, the latter con-

necting itself with its lower portions. In neither of these forms

of vegetation can the rootlets be regarded (as some would regard

them in Dicotyledons) merely as the onward continuation of

fasciculi sent down from the leaves, for the bundles of the leaf-

stalks descend, in Monocotyledonous plants, but a small way

along the stem, and in Ferns not at all; while, in arborescent

species, the radicles are emitted only from the inferior parts, far

below the point reached by the former.

There is every reason to believe that the emission of the root-

lets is a purely local action, and Prof. Henfrey’s description of

it in Monocotyledons seems to apply also in Ferns*. According

to this author, the first rudiment of the rootlet is a funnel-

shaped circle of fasciculi in the cortical region at the base of the

stem, which, on the one hand, implant themselves upon the

fibrous layer within, and, on the other, converge to form the

* Ann. Nat. Hist. i. 187.

Dr. G. Ogilvie on the Forms and Structure of Fern-stems:; 409

central axis of the rootlet, and force their way outwards through

the tissue of the cortical zone in which they were developed.

Without venturing to say how far this local formation of root-

lets may occur also in Dicotyledons, it may be remarked that in

all forms of radical fibres the vascular bundles have an arrange-

ment different from that in the stem, and such as would follow

from this mode of formation,—the fasciculi lying in the axis of

the rootlet, to the exclusion of the pith or cellular core which

occupies the central region in all the upward shoots. It may be

observed also, that, even in Dicotyledons, a certain vegetative

independence is indicated in the origin of rootlets, from the

local application of moisture so fostering their production as to

cause their development even from abnormal parts.

It does not appear that the assumption of two distinct deve-

lopments of vegetative power in the guise of leaf-buds and root-

lets—or, as they might be termed, phyllophytons and rhizophy-

tons,—is at all opposed to the analogy of other forms of organi-

zation ; for we observe a corresponding diversity of individualized

organs in various compound animals, as, for instance, in the

alimentary, generative, and protective appendages of Hydracti-

nia, the polypes and avicularia of the Polyzoa, and the cirrhi and

ovarian capsules of the Physograda,—parts which may certainly

be assumed to be mere modifications of a common original form,

but between which it would not be easy to point out much com-

munity of structure in proof of such co-relative derivation.

There still remains for consideration the arrangement of the

dark-coloured tracts commonly regarded as of the nature of

woody tissue; but for the present it may suffice to notice the

great diversity which prevails in different species in the disposi-

tion of these fasciculi. Thus, in Osmunda we have an accumu-

lation of dark tissue on the exterior of the caudex; in Blech-

num boreale, again, it occupies the interior ; in Pterts aquilina it

forms broad bands interposed between an outer and inner layer

of vascular tissue; while in Filiz mas it exists only as a thin

stratum ensheathing the latter; in Lastrea dilatata it occurs in

isolated masses in the cellular core of the rhizome.

_ The author may remark, in conclusion, that but a few days

ago his attention was called by a friend to an incidental notice

—the only one he has yet met with—of the fibro-vascular system

of Ferns, in a paper on Sigillaria in the ‘Edinburgh Philosophical

Journal’ for 1844, by Mr. King of Newcastle, which, from its

geological title, he had previously overlooked. Mr. King’s re-

marks, so far as they go, will be found quite in accordance with

the foregoing. He surmises that in Tree-ferns (owing to the

greater development of the longitudinal fasciculi) the regular

rhomboidal meshes may be reduced to long narrow slits. This

410 Dr. G. Ogilvie on the Forms and Structure of Fern-stems.

is the more probable from an arrangement precisely of this.

kind obtaining in creeping rhizomes, such as those of the bracken.

It is well known to botanists that there is a similar diversity in

the extension of the medullary rays of Exogens: they are much

larger, for instance, in the oak than in most other woods, and

in the Clematis they reach the whole length of the internodes,

so that, when they decay, the- stem breaks up by the separation

of its component woody wedges. | |

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Piate VIII.

Fig. 1. A portion of the branched and creeping rhizome of Polypodiwm

Phegopteris, showing the fringe of wiry rootlets and the persistent

bases of old leaf-stalks. rein,

Fig. 2. The branched and creeping rhizome of Polypodium vulgare. - It is

more thickly set with rootlets than the last, and marked with the

scars of fallen petioles. :

Fig. 3. The dichotomous caudex of Blechnum boreale, with the axis exposed

by cutting off, close to their origin, all the foot-stalks of former

years’ fronds.

Puate IX,

Fig. 4. The dichotomous caudex of a large bushy specimen of Allosurus —

crispus, stripped of the rootlets, the petioles of former years, and

of most of the fronds. ;:

Fig. 5. The dichotomous caudex of Asplenium Filia feemina, exposed by a

section along the axis of its several branches, to show the con-

nexion of the bases of the leaf-stalks of successive years with the

core of the stem.

Fig. 6. Another specimen of the same species, with the caudex stripped of

its rootlets and petioles, the scars with which it is marked indi-

cating their points of attachment. Of these there must be con-

siderably more than a thousand: the plant had certainly upwards

of a hundred fresh fronds when dug up. .

PLATE X.

[Illustrations of the rhizome of Lastrea Filix mas. |

Fig. 7. A caudex which has been forced into an upright line of growth.

Fig. 8. Another specimen, showing the usual horizontal direction of growth,

the terminal bud forming an angle with the rhizome.

Both these specimens are in their natural state.

Fig. 9. Tessellated appearance of the surface of the caudex when the pe-

tioles are cut off close to their origin. The dots indicate the cut

ends of the vascular bundles going to the fronds.

Fig. 10, Perpendicular section of an upright caudex, showing the inter-

rupted line on each side of the axis, where the reticulated fibro-

vascular cylinder has been divided by the section. The figure

shows also the connexion of the bases of the petioles, and a

lateral bud arising from one of them.

Fig. 11. A portion of a preparation showing the netted fibro-vascular cy-

linder of the caudex, removed entire by careful dissection from

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M. Leuckart on the Reproduction of Bark-lice. 411

the cellular matrix. The further side of the cylinder is imper-

fectly shown, from having been out of focus in the photograph.

The secondary fasciculi, proceeding to the leaf-stalks and root-

i lets, give the exterior a bristly appearance.

Fig. 12. A diagrammatic transverse section of the caudex. The interrupted

circle represents the cut extremities of the fasciculi of the netted

cylinder, and the scattered dots on its exterior those of the

secondary fibro-vascular bundles of the petioles and rootlets.

[The above figures are mostly from photographs of the original

specimens (now in the Museum of the Royal Botanic Garden,

Edinburgh) by Mr. Andrew Adams of Aberdeen. |

XLI.—On the Reproduction of the Bark-Lice (Chermes, &c.);

a further Contribution to the Knowledge of Parthenogenesis.

By Rupotpx LevucKarr.

[Concluded from p. 327. |

Before tracing these differences and analogies further, it is

necessary, however, that we should glance at the anatomical

arrangement of the generative apparatus in our Bark-lice (Pl. VI1.

fig. 1).

In the four or five species (three or, if C. Abietis is to be

regarded as two species, four Chermes, one Phyllozera) there is

a perfectly unmistakeable analogy in the formation of the female

parts; and this is the more striking, as it at the same time fur-

nishes a perceptible distinction from the female organs of the

true Aphides*, which propagate both by oviparous and vivipa-

rous generations. On the whole, however, the type of the

organs in question is the same as that we meet with in the

latter.

With regard to the ovaries, it must first be indicated that the

ege-tubes of our animals are in all cases composed of two, or

even three (Phylloxera) chambers (fig. 1). From the previous

statements with regard to the structure of the egg-tubes in the

ordinary Aphides, we might suppose that this is the expression

of a thorough-going distinction between these two groups; but

I have ascertained by my investigations of this year, that among

the Aphides there are species with plurilocular egg-tubes, al-

though the greater number of them certainly have only one

chamber, like the Coccina. Among these species with pluri-

* As far as we know, Chermes and Phylloxera are the only Aphides with

solely oviparous generations. That there are also species with only vivi-

parous generations, as stated by Kaltenbach, appears to me very doubtful.

In Schizoneura, which is said amongst others to be in this case, I have

proved the existence of an oviparous autumnal generation in the small

memoir already repeatedly mentioned.

412 M. Leuckart on the Reproduction of Bark-lice.

locular egg-tubes are Aphis Quercus and A. platanoides*, the

wingless females of which exhibit three (and A. platanoides even

four) deposits, representing eggs, in the individual egg-tubes.

(Dr. Claus of Marburg has also met with wingless females with

plurilocular egg-tubes, in two apparently unnamed species of

Aphis from Betula alba.)

If this latter observation were not sufficient of itself to efface

the distinction which apparently prevails, with regard to the

formation of the egg-tubes, between our Bark-lice and the other

true Aphides, I must further indicate that the second, superior.

germ in Chermes (especially in Chermes Laricis, fig. 1) 1s not

unfrequently formed only at a later time, or not until the pre-

ceding egg approaches its perfect maturity; that therefore,

under such circumstances, the same egg-tube may consist some-

times of one and sometimes of more chambers, according to the

age and state of development of its contentst. Moreover the

eggs in the different tubes arrive at maturity at different times,

so that tubes of one and two chambers may not unfrequently be

met with together in the same ovary. In the same way, at cer-

tain times, the tubes of Phylloxera consist only of two chambers f{,

those of Aphis platanoitdes of three, &e.

Although, therefore, the distinction between the unilocular

and plurilocular egg-tubes does not appear to be very great,

still, on the other hand, it is not to be altogether disregarded.

This is most distinctly evidenced in the different destiny of the

superior clavately-inflated extremity of the egg-tube, which, with

its peculiar cellular corpuscles, has sometimes been regarded as

a proper superior chamber. In the Plant-lice with unilocular

egg-tubes this terminal piece, with its contents, is gradually lost

during the evolution of the egg-germs; in the species with

plurilocular egg-tubes it remains unchanged, just as it was with

the first egg-germ, without ever diminishing perceptibly in size

or becoming aborted.

* Dr. Claus called my attention to the fact that the nurses of this spe-

cies are not unfrequently attached after death to the surface of the leaves

inhabited by them, by means of a rather large convex disc. On closer

examination I recognized in this dise the cocoon of a larva which, from

its appearance, would probably be that of an Ichneumonidous insect. This

larva lives, up to the time of its change to the pupa state (and indeed

always singly), as a parasite in the Aphides, but afterwards breaks through

at the ventral surface, and then spins its cocoon between its previous host

and the surface of the leaf.

+ This is also in accordance with the fact that the egg-tubes of our spe-

cies of Chermes (C. Abietis) are at first developed as simple tubes, exactly

- the same way that I have described for the egg-tubes of Aphis and

occus.

{ Individual egg-tubes of C. Abietis also now and then exhibit a third

egg-rudiment.

M. Leuckart on the Reproduction of Bark-lice. 413

In the small treatise on Parthenogenesis already repeatedly

cited, I have referred to this superior portion of the unilocular

egg-tubes in the Aphides as the “ vitelligene ;’” and indeed its

resemblance to the vitelligenes of the plurilocular egg-tubes

described by Stein is unmistakeable. Supposing this interpre-

tation to be correct, all analogy would lead us to expect that a.

vitelligene of this nature would be repeated between each two

egg-germs in the plurilocular egg-tubes of our plant-lice. But

this is not the case. The Aphides with plurilocular egg-tubes

also possess only a single vitelligene, and this only at the upper —

end of the egg-tubes (fig. 1).

This cireumstance must render it doubtful, notwithstanding

any similarity, whether it be correct to regard the terminal piece

in question as a “ vitelligene.” We might now suppose, with

apparently greater justice than previously, that the structure in

question is a so-called germigene, and regard the individual

cellular corpuscles in its interior as egg-germs; and this per-

haps might be done the more readily, as the compartment in

question resembles, in the formation and appearance of its con-

tents, the terminal piece of the so-called germ-stock in the vivi-

parous Aphides, the individual cellular corpuscles of which,

according to Leydig, become converted directly into the future

germs. In this way, therefore, we may establish an analogy

between the genitalia of the viviparous and oviparous Aphides,

which may also perhaps, in another respect, serve as a guide for

the comprehension of the entire mutual relation of these two

forms of individuals.

I admit that I do not regard this question as yet ripe for

decision. It is certain that, from our present observations, the

consideration of this terminal piece as a germigene is somewhat

seductive ; but the aspect and nature of the cellular corpuscles

in its interior are different from those ordinarily met with else-

where in the germigenes of insects ; and, moreover, I have never

yet succeeded (nor, indeed, with the viviparous Aphides) in con-

vincing myself by direct observation of the conversion of these

cells into egg-germs. On the contrary, we may detect certain

differences in size, behaviour towards reagents, &c., between the

germinal vesicles of the youngest ova and the nuclei of these

cellular corpuscles (which, nevertheless, must be identical if the

latter are to be regarded as egg-germs), such as are scarcely in

favour of any such assumption. Thus, for example, in Lecanium

Hesperidum I found the germinal vesicles of the youngest ova

0:02 millim. in diameter, whilst the nuclei of the cellular cor-

puscles in the terminal compartment measured 0-037 millim.

In Coccus Hesperidum the germinal vesicle, at a still earlier grade

of development, was 0009 millim., also smaller than the nuclei,

414 M. Leuckart on the Reproduction of Bark-lice.

which measured 0°013 millim. The same thing applies to the

Aphides. To this we must add the fate of these cellular cor-

puscles in the unilocular egg-tubes of the Aphides and Coccina,

which is also scarcely in favour of the opinion that they are

converted into egg-germs, although indeed cases of abortive

egg-germs are not very rare.

On the other hand, the interpretation of the compartment in

question as a “ vitelligene” appears by no means to be contra-

dicted by its simplicity in the plurilocular egg-tubes of our

Aphides. We certainly must not assume, as Stein does, that in

the case in question the granular yelk is exclusively furnished by

the cells of the vitelligene. This one-sided interpretation may

probably find but few supporters at the present day. I think

we have arrived pretty generally at the opinion that, besides

the cellular corpuscles of the vitelligene, the ordinary epithelial

cells of the egg-tubes also take part in the deposition of the yelk.

This part is mdeed probably only a subordinate one; but in our

Aphides it may suffice for the completion of the maturity of the

egg, the rather as the contact with the terminal compartment is

not interrupted until a somewhat late period—indeed not until

the yelk has already grown to a very considerable mass.

With regard to the histological structure of the egg-tubes,

there is nothing particular to mention, unless it be the circum-

stance that our Bark-lice closely resemble the other Aphides in

the great number of the cellular corpuscles occurring in the

terminal compartment. Between these and the structureless

proper membrane we not unfrequently see a delicate epithelial

layer, which, however, also occurs in the same place in the allied

animals, and does not appear to be by any means deficient even

in the viviparous Aphides. The process of egg-formation is ex-

actly the same as described by me in Aphis and Coccus. Even

the short and solid peduncles adhering to the inferior pole of

the egg-shells in Chermes constitute no characteristic distinction

of our animals, since I have found the same structure on the

eges of Aphis Quercus and A. platanoides*.

With regard to the number of egg-tubes in the ovaries of

our Bark-lice, we find very considerable discrepancies, not only

in different species, but also in the different winged and wing-

less individuals of the same species. In the latter respect it

prevails as a law—if we may judge from C. Abietis and C. Laricis

—that the winged individuals, as they are on the whole of a more

slender structure, also possess a smaller number of egg-tubest.

* It may be mentioned here, in passing, that the small winged males of

A. platanoides possess three perfectly separated, pyriform testicular tubes

on each side.

Tt This also appears to apply to the winged and wingless viviparous

M. Leuckart on the Reproduction of Bark-lice. 415

The greatest number of egg-tubes occurs in the wingless fe-

males of Chermes Abietis, which is also by far the most prolific

of all Bark-lice. In this species I have counted 20-24 egg-

tubes on each side—a number which almost reminds one of the

structure of the ovary in the Coccina*, to which our plump

animals (like the rest of the wingless Bark-lice) also bear an

external resemblance. In the winged individuals the number

of egg-tubes varies between far greater extremes: I have met

with individuals with 24 and 30 egg-tubes in all, and with

others which had only 10. The latter specimens were at the

same time much smaller than the others; they are Ratzeburg’s

so-called males. In the number of egg-tubes, Chermes Abietis is

approached most closely by the genus Phyllozera, the wingless

females of which usually exhibit five egg-tubes on each side.

Chermes Picea, in the wingless state, possesses three or four egg-

tubes on each side (sometimes also nine in all). The number is

lowest in C. Laricis, the wingless individuals of which very con-

stantly possess six egg-tubes, whilst the winged examples (fig. 1)

usually present only four (but sometimes five) in all.

The oviducts to which the egg-tubes are attached are, as in

the Aphides, of but inconsiderable length, and have a distinct

muscular layer, with fibres which principally run in a transverse

_ direction and are repeatedly branched. A very similar but

still more strongly developed muscularity is also possessed by

the single oviduct.

In the oviparous Aphides and the Coccina there are, as is

well known, two different kinds of accessory structures on this

oviduct,—a pair of sac-like or tubular organs with fatty con-

tents, which we shall indicate as a lubricating gland (Schmier-

driise), and at a greater or less distance above these, a roundish

or pyriform pouch, the receptaculum seminis. The case is very

different in our Bark-lice (fig. 1). On a superficial examination

we find only two accessory organs, which are attached at about

the limit of the posterior third of the oviduct, and show themselves

to be the lubricating gland, notwithstanding several peculiari-

ties, both by their structure and the nature of their contents.

Above this gland we may seek in vain for another appendage ;

but, on the other hand, far below, immediately over the obtuse

individuals amongst the Aphides; at least, I have hitherto met with the

unilocular germ-tubes first described by me only in winged individuals of

these animals. Nevertheless, it can by no means be said that all winged

Aphis-nurses possess unilocular germ-tubes. I also know species the

winged nurses of which are provided with plurilocular and multilocular

germ-tubes.

* In the true Aphides I have never met with more than four egg-tubes

on each side. R

416 M. Leuckart on the Reproduction of Bark-lice.

and conical ovipositor (undoubtedly the same structure that

Ratzeburg indicated as the penis, but which occurs in exactly

the same way in all individuals), we see a very inconsiderable

pedunculated pouch appended to the sexual passage. The stalk

of this organ is lined with a tolerably strong chitinous plate; but

this covering gradually disappears towards the upper part, and

at last vanishes so completely that it requires great attention,

and particularly favourable preparation, to enable us to make

sure of the existence of a cavity in the interior. The wall of the

pouch consists of delicate, clear, vesicular cells.

It would, of course, be most interesting to ascertain the phy-

siological signification of this organ, as by this means the ques-

tion would be decided whether these Bark-lice are or are not

furnished with a receptaculum seminis. For this purpose, un-

fortunately, I possess no data. I have never observed any pe-

culiar contents in the vesicle in question, nor have I ever dis-

covered it in other Aphides. If, under such circumstances, we

may suppose it possible that this represents a seminal receptacle,

on the other hand, its position and appearance are so little in

favour of this supposition that I am far more inclined to assert

that there is an entire absence of a seminal receptacle in our

Bark-lice. We are acquainted with many insects in which the

secretory appendages on the oviducts are increased (even in the

Cicada, which are allied to the Aphides, we meet with many

such structures) ; it is therefore possible that the Bark-lice may

be amongst this number.

The lubricating glands which, in the Aphides, usually appear

as roundish pouches, and rarely (e. g. 4. platanoides) as long and

wide tubes, likewise differ in their"organization in the Bark-lice.

Phylloxera possesses on each side (fig. 4) a cylindrical appendage

repeatedly notched, the short and stump-like branches of which

all lie in the same plane. The cellular walls are of considerable

thickness, and enclose a thin chitinous tube, which, at its lower

end, close to its insertion into the oviduct, becomes dilated into

a flask-shaped cavity. The contents of these tubes consist of

the same yellowish oil which is elsewhere met with in the lubri-

cating glands. It may be expelled by pressure from the tube

into the flask-shaped cavity, which is also usually filled with it,

and thence into the oviduct. At the point where the two acces-

sory glands open into the oviduct, the latter is of considerable

width. At the same place there is, in the interior of the oviduct,

a peculiar loop-like structure, which, on closer examination,

proves to be a narrow, much-curled, chitinous band, clothing the

oviduct in an annular form exactly at the level of the accessory

glands, and amalgamating on sat side with the chitinous wall

of the flask-shaped oil-vesicle. This band does not, however, lie

M. Leuckart on the Reproduction of Bark-lice, A17

loose in the oviduct; it is rather only an annular thickening in

the delicate chitinous coat which lines the entire oviduct.

In Chermes (figs. 1-3) there is the same chitinous band as in

Phylloxera, and also an evident, though less distinctly separated,

funnel-shaped or pouch-like oil-vesicle; but the gland is very

strikingly different. It appears on each side as a flattened ear-

like appendage of an oval form, with a space of a similar shape

in its interior, and a delicate, strongly granulated, chitinous

lining. The exterior surface of this chitinous wall is drawn into

numerous folds, which are continued between the neighbouring

cells of the gland, and are gradually lost. At the point of in-

sertion of the glands, the oviduct (fig. 2) forms an inflation of

considerable size but with little muscularity, which is constricted

in the middle by the elastic contraction of the chitinous band.

As soon as an egg passes this spot, this constriction is effaced,

whilst the chitinous band at the same time gradually expands

(fig. 3) and acquires a rather smooth appearance. I will not

here dwell further upon the mechanical importance of this ar-

rangement, hitherto discovered only in the Bark-lice; it is,

however, evident that in it the elasticity of the chitinous band

is of the highest importance. |

To the preceding account of the structure of the generative

organs in the Bark-lice, and their remarkable mode of reproduc-

tion, I shall take the liberty of adding a few further observa-

tions. ;

_ The first relates to the occurrence of the two different forms

indicated by us amongst the parthenogenetic females of these

animals. :

_ We have characterized these two forms as wingless and winged.

It must not, however, on this account be supposed that their

distinctions are limited to the presence or absence of organs of

flight, and that the differences here occurring may be compared

to those which we meet with as regards the formation of the

wings in many species of Orthoptera (see Fischer, Entomol.

Zeitung, 1852, p. 15) and Hemiptera. The distinctions of these

two forms are far more considerable; they extend to the entire

external organization of the individuals in question, to their size,

form, and the structure of the segments of the body, and affect

even the internal structure in a remarkable manner. Without

a knowledge of their genetic relations, the two forms would ne-

cessarily be regarded not merely as representatives of different

species, but even of different genera. ‘The difference is scarcely

less than that in the sexes of the Coccina. In other words, it is

a complete dimorphism that we here meet with.

_ That these distinctions are also expressed in the mode of life

is no more than might have been expected; and indeed, on the

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol, iv.

418 M. Leuckart on the Reproduction of Bark-lice.

most superficial examination, the part which the two kinds of

individuals have to play in the history of our Bark-lice is seen to

be distinct. The wingless females serve especially for the

maintenance, the winged ones, on the contrary, principally for

the diffusion of the species. The former are highly fertile for

a long time, but at the same time (probably in intimate connex-

ion with this property—see Leuckart, art “ Zeugung,” in Wag-

ner’s ‘ Handworterbuch,’ iv. p. 719) scarcely in a condition to

quit their dwelling-place. The existence of the species would

perhaps be endangered in many ways, if the timely appearance

of winged females did not furnish the means of finding new

dwelling-places and sources of nourishment. But with the

transfer of the ova the task of these winged females is fulfilled.

After depositing the eggs, a few days after their birth, they

perish.. :

A very similar dimorphism also occurs, as is well known, in

the so-called nurses of the ordinary Plant-lice, which in the first

generations are likewise wingless, but in the later ones are almost

always furnished with wings.

These are circumstances to which very little attention has

hitherto been paid. We usually speak merely of the difference

of two sexes, and tacitly suppose a complete agreement between

all the individuals of these sexes. With such a notion, it cer-

tainly appears highly anomalous when, in the communities of

the social insects, we suddenly meet, besides the unmistake-

able males and females, with other forms of individuals, and

recognize these as a peculiar, remarkable modification of these

sexual animals. The .Plant-lice show us that a similar poly-

morphism also occurs elsewhere among Insects, and that espe-

cially the female individuals of these animals very frequently

differ from each other even by peculiarities of their structure,

according to the difference of their appointed tasks.

A second observation refers to the relation of the Partheno-

genesis occurring in these Bark-lice (and in certain Coceina) to the

so-called alternation of generations in the Aphides.

That these two modes of reproduction are in many respects

allied and similar has already been pointed out by me in another

place (‘ Generationswechsel und Parthenogenese,’ p. 44). Not

long ago, indeed, it was thought right to speak of an infinite

difference between the Aphis-nurses and females; but such a

notion now appears erroneous. Our object is rather to test the

extent and value of these analogies—to ascertain especially

whether the constantly-reviving assertion recently supported by

Claus (Generationswechsel und Parthenogenese im Thierreiche,

1858, p. 22), that the so-called nurses of the Aphides are essen-:

tially nothing but parthenogenetic females, is correct.

M. Leuckart on the Reproduction of Bark-lice. 419

The decision of this question is intimately connected with our

Opinion as to the nature of the reproduction occurring in the

so-called nurses; it depends upon whether we regard this as an

asexual reproduction or not.

The preliminary question that naturally first presents itself

here is, where are we to seck in general for the distinguishing

characteristics of sexual and asexual reproduction. If we indi-

cate that reproduction alone as sexual in which a cooperation of

two kinds of reproductive matter (in other words, a fecundation)

takes place, there remains, of course, no ground for bringing the

alternation of generations in the Aphides into the question at all.

But then, to be consistent, we must refer Parthenogenesis to

asexual propagation, as indeed is done by Radlkofer (‘Ueber das”

Verhaltniss der Parthenogenesis zu den anderen Fortpflanzungs-

arten,’ 1858). Whether this view will some day find general

acceptance, | do not know; but to me it appears to be rather

bold to regard the same substratum, an egg, sometimes as a

sexual, and sometimes, just according to circumstances, as an

asexual reproductive material*. In my opinion, it is always the

same—always the product of the same (sexual) activity, whether

the cycle of conditions under. which it is developed into a new

creature be closed by the access of semen, or without this,

Wherever we have to do with an egg, there also, in my opinion,

sexual reproduction always takes place.

It appears to me, therefore, that it is less the occurrence of a

fecundation than the nature of the developing substratum that

must guide us in the assumption of a sexual or asexual propa-

gation.

_ In the case now. especially before us, there would also be the

question whether the germ-corpuscles of the viviparous Aphides

can be regarded as eggs.

That these germ-corpuscles are cells like the eggs, and indeed

cells which become converted into the embryo in a manner ana-

logous to that of the eggs, can no more be doubted, after the

recent investigations, than the morphological relations of the

germ-tubes and ovaries in which the reproductive matters in

question originate. It is even possible that future investigations

may demonstrate an essential accordance in the mode of produc-

tion of these two kinds of structures. All this must incline us,

to a certain extent, to regard the germ-cells and ova of the

Aphides as morphologically identical structures.

* The criterion of sexual and asexual reproduction put forward by Radl-

kofer, namely the idiotypic or zelotypic nature of the product, cannot

suffice here (as indeed in other cases in the alternation of generations with

larval nurses); for the product of parthenogenesis furnishes, e.g. in Chermes

Abietis, not (zelotypic) copies of the parents, but individuals of a different

and independent original development (idiotypes). So

420 M. Leuckart on the Reproduction of Bark-lice.

On the other hand, however, it cannot be denied that many

considerations come in the way of the assumption that the two

kinds of reproductive bodies occurring in the Aphides are both

of the nature of ova.

T will not dwell too much upon the fact that, according to

this supposition, the Aphides would produce two kinds of eggs.

We are acquainted with similar facts in other animals, especially

the Daphnia and Rotifera*, the reproduction of which might

also be adduced in favour of this view, inasmuch as, accordmg

to the investigations of Lubbock (Phil. Trans. 1857, i. p. 98)

and Cohn (Zeitschrift fiir Wiss. Zool. 1858, p. 284), the animals

in question also possess the faculty of Parthenogenesis. It is

true that the two kinds of eggs of the above-mentioned animals

are by no means so strikingly different as the eggs and germ-

cells of the Aphides ;. but we must also admit that the peculiari-

ties of the latter (judging from my observations upon the ova of

the Cestoid worms and their development) by no means over-

step the bounds of the empirically established limits of egg-

formation, remarkably as these peculiarities, on the other hand,

approach to the nature and destiny of unmistakeable germ-cells.

(Generationswechsel und Parthenogenese bei den Insekten, p. 20.)

- It appears to me to be of far more importance, that the germ-

granules of the Aphides are evidently not calculated for any

fecundation. I have taken a previous opportunity of pointing

out this distinction (Generationswechsel und Parthenogenese,

p- 110). At that time it appeared to me sufficiently great, not-

withstanding any similarity to Parthenogenesis, to cause me to

regard the reproduction of the Aphides as an alternation of

generations. An egg which excludes all fecundation still ap-

pears to me to be a somewhat problematical structure; but this

furnishes no sufficient reason for denying the possibility of such

egos. Claus here refers to the eggs of the worker bees, which

would also never be fecundated, and we might cite other cases,

and especially our Bark-lice, in which. even the organization of

the sexual passages, in the same way as in the viviparous Aphides,

appears to betray the absence of a sexual intercourse. But all

these cases only present limited analogies, inasmuch as the

obstacles to fecundation in them (as, indeed, Claus admits) con-

sist only in external, more or less accidental conditions, and are

by no means caused, as in the Aphides, by the nature of the

germinal product.

* The Freshwater Bryozoa can scarcely be adduced here, as, accordin

to Allman (Monogr. of the Freshwater Polyzoa, p. 37), the so-calle

winter-eggs of these animals are not eggs at all, but structures of very

different organization and development, which the author regards as

asexual reproductive bodies (statublasts).

M. Leuckart on the Reproduction of Bark-lice, 421

A second circumstance, of great importance in the inquiry

into the nature of the reproduction of the Aphides, is that the

germ-granules of these animals are only developed in certain

individuals, whilst other individuals, making their appearance

under particular circumstances, lay unmistakeable eggs, and

fertilize these in the usual manner.

From the point of view of the alternation of generations, such

a regular alternation of fertilized and unfecundated individuals

appears quite natural, and even necessary ; but in the domains of

Parthenogenesis, as far as our present knowledge goes, we seek in

vain for an analogous case. Although in the Bark-lice, in Lecanium

Hesperidum, Solenobia lichenella, and other animals which usually

propagate exclusively by Parthenogenesis, a fecundation (by the

males, which are still entirely unknown to us) may perhaps take

place from time to time, there is still not the least ground for

assuming a regular, and, under certain circumstances, necessary

repetition of this process. In all these cases we must take the

possibility of a fecundation mto consideration for every distinct

individual; a fecundation which takes place only occasionally,

and then necessarily, in particular individuals, but is and must

be just as regularly dispensed with in the intervals, has been

recognized at present only amongst animals which are developed

in accordance with the alternation of generations.

If, in spite of all these considerations, the reproduction of the

Aphides is to be ranged under Parthenogenesis*, we are com-

pelled, as, indeed, Claus very justly felt, to establish a peculiar

form for it. This would then stand in precisely the same rela-

tion to the ordinary Parthenogenesis, in which each individual

produces eggs capable of spontaneous development, as the alter-

nation of generations to ordinary asexual reproduction, which,

as-is well known, in the animals with an alternation of genera-

tions, is likewise transferred only to particular individuals, pecu-

liarly organized for the purpose.

The Parthenogenesis of the Aphides would thus still remain

to a certain extent allied to the alternation of generations, even

if it did not positively coincide therewith.

We must leave it to future observers to decide positively as to

the justice of one or other of these views. Our observations upon

Parthenogenesis are still so recent, and the possibilities of the

differences and combinations occurring here so little known and

weighed, that it appears scarcely possible at present to formulize

* It may be mentioned here, in passing, that, from analogy with the

Aphides, the propagation of Gyrodactylus elegans must also be regarded

as Parthenogenesis. Here also there is the same analogy between the

nurses and sexual animals, the brood-stock and germ-stock, the germ-cell

and the egg (germinal vesicle).

422 M. Leuckart on the genus Sacculina.

in either direction. We also still want many important data,

necessary, and perhaps decisive, in the estimation of the con-

ditions now under consideration. Under such circumstances we

cannot emphatically enough recommend the continued careful

study of the Aphides. We must still admit the truth of the

concluding sentence appended by the acute De Geer to his

memoirs upon the Aphides :—“ The Aphides are insects which

are in a position to overthrow the entire supposed system of gene-

ration, and to confuse those who attempt to investigate this

mystery of nature.”

Giessen, Sept. 1858.

Postscript.

In the course of the present summer I have been no more

successful than last year in discovering male Bark-lice, or even

detecting any trace of their existence. The only thing that I

can add to the preceding statements, is that the comparative

time of the evolution varies considerably according to external

circumstances. Whilst, last year, the second winged generation

made its appearance only in August, I observed it this year as

early as the end of June.

Giessen, July 12, 1859.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE VII.

Fig. 1. Sexual apparatus of the winged female of Chermes Laricis.

Figs. 2 & 3. Lower part of the smgle sexual passage of Chermes Abietis,

with the two lubricating glands.

Fig. 4. The same part in Phylloxera Quercus.

XLIL.— Observations on the genus Sacculina, Thompson (Pachy-

- bdella, Diesing ; Peltogaster, Rathke). By R,. Luuckarr*.

[ With a Plate.]

In his “ Travelling Observations in Seandinaviat,” and “ Contri-

butions to the Fauna of Norway tf,” Rathke has described, under

the new generic name of Peltogaster, two species of a very pe-

culiar flat and sac-like parasite, which is attached, by means of

a “ sucker-like structure,” to the abdomen of the Paguri and of

certaiz Brachyurous Crustacea. Rathke regarded this remark-

able animal as a worm, but at the same time indicated (at least

in the anatomical description contained in the memoir first

quoted above) certain analogies with Cyclops and the Lernee.

* Translated from Wiegmann’s ‘Archiv,’ 1859, p. 232, by W. S. Dallas,

F.L.S., Keeper of the York Museum.

+ Neueste Schriften der naturf. Gesellsch. in Danzig, 1842, Bad. iii.

Heft 4, p. 105.

{ Verh. der K. L. C. Akad. Bd. xx. Abth. i. p. 245.

| AnnbeMag. Nat. Hist... VIA PVE,

JT Basiveé, 8c

M. Leuckart on the genus Sacculina. 423

He also remarks expressly that Peltogaster can hardly be placed

in the same group with the true suctorial worms and Trematoda,

which it approaches as regards its organ of adhesion. Notwith-

standing this, however, and although in the interim the simi-

larity of Peltogaster with “the parasitic females of some of the

lower Crustacea” had been pointed out by me*, we find our

animals placed amongst the Leech-like parasitic worms in the

‘Systema Helminthum’ published by Diesing some years after-

wards (1850), and now indeed distributed into two genera,—the

species with a terminal sucking-dise found by Rathke under the

abdomen of Carcinus Menas being formed into the type of a

new genus, Pachybdella, Dies. (P. Rathkei, Dies., Peltogaster

Carcini, Rathke).

That this attempt at a systematic arrangement is a mistake,

cannot be a matter of doubt to any one after the critical and

historical remarks of Steenstrupt. Steenstrup proves that the

animals in question were not only discovered by Kroyer t on

Pagurus and Hippolyte simultaneously with Rathke, but were

already described and figured unmistakeably by Cavolini§ in

the last century. Cavolini also observed the young of our ani-

mals, which at certain times issued in abundance from the free

opening of the body regarded by Rathke as the mouth. He

even recognizes their unmistakeable similarity to the larval forms

of the Cyclops. But that the sacs from which these larve pro-

ceeded were animals, and, indeed, the parents of the larve, re-

mained unknown to the Italian observer ; he regarded them as

mere ovisacs which were in this case abnormally attached to a

- strange animal (Pagurus). Both by Kroyer and Rathke the

animal nature of the sacs in question was certainly recognized ;

but their relations remained almost equally uncertain to the

Danish zoologists. In their opinion, these parasites form a

new genns with several species (Kréyer was acquainted with

three from Pagurus pubescens, P. Bernhardus, and Hippolyte

pusiola), which, on the one hand, appears to have some analogy

with the Lernee, but, on the other, possesses a certain affinity

also to the Hirudinea and other Entozoa.

Some years after Rathke and Kroyer, the same creatures, as

Steenstrup remarks, were also observed by Bell|| on the abdo-

men of Carcinus Meenas and Portunus marmoreus, from the

English Channel, and cursorily described by him. Bell appears

* Morphol. der wirbellosen Thiere, 1848, p. 72, note 2. .

+ Wiegmann’s Archiv, 1855, p. 15; transjated in Ann. Nat. Hist. 2nd.

ser. vol. xvi. p. 153. 3

+ Monogr. der nordischen Hippolyte-Arten, in Vid. Selskab. Naturv. og

Math. Afh. ix. p. p. 56. '

§ Abh. iiber die Erzeugung der Fische und Krebse, p. 161. taf. 2.

| Hist. Brit. Crust. 1845, p. 108.

424 M. Leuckart on the genus Sacculina. ‘

not to have been acquainted with the labours of his prede-

cessors; he enters into no discussion of the systematic nature

of the parasites observed, but remarks that the pit by which they

are attached is probably to be regarded as the mouth, and the

second free opening (mouth according to Rathke) as the anus.

I am happy that it is in my power to add to the preceding

observations, made known by Steenstrup, another, made in

the year 1836, which is the more important as it reposes upon

a perfectly natural notion of our animals, and also introduces

them into the system under the generic name of Sacculina. The

observation is due to Thompson, whose numerous important

discoveries have, singularly enough, nearly all been destined to

~ remain for a long time unnoticed, and to fall into almost com-

plete oblivion. Unfortunately, I know the memoir of our au-

thor (which was published in the ‘Entomological Magazine,

iii. p. 452) only from Wiegmann’s ‘Jahresbericht’ (1837,

p- 248), in which, however, it is treated with a certain degree

of mistrust. I learn from it that Thompson observed on the

abdomen of Carcinus Menas a new parasitic Crustacean “ be-

longing to the Lerneade,” which hung down by a neck-like

process between the membranous interstices of the tail of the

Crab, “like a bilobed leathern bag.” From the wide orifice a

granular substance was pressed out, which, under the micro-

scope, proved to be a mass of larve, “resembling those of Ler-

neocera*,”

So far the report. It is unmistakeably the Peltogaster Car-

cini that is here described ; and there is no doubt that this ani-

mal, from the form of its larve, its mode of life, and habitus,

belongs to the Lerneade, although the circumstance that the

larvee are excluded within the body of the mother must certainly

be regarded as a remarkable departure from the other animals

of this group. Consequently, if we restore the name Sacculina

either for Peltogaster in Rathke’s sense, or at least for the form

characterized by Diesing as Pachybdella, we are only discharging

an old and almost superannuated debt.

That Thompson’s view was perfectly correct, has also sub-

* Thompson does not regard his Sacculina.as belonging to the Ler-

neade, but says “ that it agrees with no tribe of the Crustacea;” and, from

his remarks, he seems to think that its nearest affinity is with Cirripedes.

He compares the larva with Argulus armiger of Latreille, a microscopic

Crustacean discovered by Slabber. He appears also to regard the Saceu-

lina as hermaphrodite, saying that its body is ‘‘ entirely filled with the

ovaria, and an enormous testicular gland.” His ovaria evidently corre-

spond with the organ described in the text as the “ brood-chamber,” and

his “ testicular gland”’ is evidently identical with the cordate body described

by Leuckart as containing the true ovary and cement-gland,—W., 8. D.

M. Leuckart. on the genus Sacculina. 425

sequently been confirmed by the investigations of Oscar Schmidt*.

Schmidt likewise observed the larvee of Peltogaster (Sacculina)

Carcini, and by that means, independently (without knowing

any other investigations than those of Rathke), arrived at a cer-

tain conviction that here we have to do with a Crustacean of the

group Parasita.

The similarity of these animals with the Lerneade could not

escape Steenstrup ; but, unacquainted as he was with the inves-

tigations of Thompson and Schmidt, by putting together Pelto-

gaster and a parasite with Onisciform young also observed in

Crabs by Cavolini, and by the apparently accordant statements

of Rathke that a small Onisciform Crustacean, described as

Lnriope pygmea, Rathke, sometimes occurred in the brood-cavity

(Bruthohle; stomach of Rathke), he allowed himself to be

misled into arranging our parasites with the Isopod genus Bo-

PYFUBs: ©):

It is, however, scarcely to be doubted that Steenstrup has

now given up this opinion, especially since Kroyer} and Lind-

strém { have published their observations on the larval state of

the species of Peltogaster, which are exactly conformable with

the other statements. It appears, however, from the investiga-

tions of the former, as though the young state of the different

species presented many diversities ; at least, he states that the

larva of one species of Peltogaster, and of the small and globular

form parasitic upon Hippolyte (Sylon, nov. gen.) belonged to a

more advanced period of development than those of a second

species of the genus Peltogaster, which latter (as may also be

asserted of those of the genus Sacculina, according to Schmidt)

agree closely with Cavolini’s figures, that is to say, present a so-

called Nauplius-form. The anatomical investigations furnished

no decisive result, and left the author himself in doubt as to the

existence of a mouth. |

I have had but few opportunities of observing these remark-

able animals,—first at Heligoland in the year 1846, afterwards

at Nice, and again a few weeks ago, in company with Dr. Pagen-

stecher of Heidelberg, at Heligoland. The first time I met with

Peltogaster Paguri, Rathke, at the latter place, and the second

time with a Sacculina, but of each only a single example. The

Sacculina was attached, as usual, to the tail of a Crab, Hyas

* Zeitschr. fiir die ges. Naturwissenschaften, Halle 1853, p. 101; Hand-

atlas der vergl. Anat. taf. x. fig. 7; a third memoir in the Journal the

‘ Weltall, 1854, p. 19, is still unknown to me.

+ Ofvers. Kongl. Dansk. Vid. Selskab. Forhandl. 1855, p. 127, trans-

lated in Zeitschr. fiir die ges. Naturwiss. viii. p. 419. This paper of

Krdéyer’s is, however, only to be regarded as a prelimmary one. I do not

know whether a more complete memoir by our author has since appeared.

{ Ofvers. Kongl. Vetensk, Akad. Férhandl. 1856, xii. p. 361.

426 M. Leuckart on the genus Sacculina.

Aranea, on which, as far as I know, it has not yet been observed.

It was of moderate size, 6 lines long and the same in breadth;

in its form it differed so much from the ordinary Sacculina

that I think I am justified in describing it as a distinct species

(Sacculina inflata, n. sp.). The dorsal and ventral surfaces

were considerably arched ; and the posterior orifice, which is ex-

traordinarily extensible, was situated upon one of the surfaces

at some distance from the margin of the body (PI. VII. fig. 5).

Although, by the anatomical examination of this single spe-

cimen, I by no means obtained even an approximately complete

insight into the structure of this animal, some remarks upon it

may not be out of place here, considering the complete uncer-

tainty of our present knowledge.

In the first place, I have scarcely any doubt that the so-called

sucking-pit of our animal is actually the mouth. This view is

especially supported by the fact that this so-called sucking-pit

does not, as would be supposed from the previous descriptions,

merely adhere to the body of the Crab externally, but, with its

funnel-shaped margins, completely penetrates the integuments in

the membranous interstices between two segments, so that the

tolerably wide and gaping orifice surrounded by these margins

stands in direct communication with the cavity of the body of

its host. No mandibuliform structures or projections could,

however, be detected on these margins. That the fluids of the

cavity of the body of the Crab pass into the interior of our Sac-

culina is, under these circumstances, a matter of course*. Close

behind the oral funnel, as also in the posterior extremity of the

body of this parasite, a broad and clear space (that is to say, a

space filled with colourless fluid) was seen shining through the

integuments, which can hardly be anything but the intestinal

eanal filled with the blood of the Crab. This space attained its

greatest development at the hinder extremity of the body, where

it extends above the middle on the dorsal surface (the surface

turned from the posterior orifice). It is true that after the

opening of the Sacculina, when the fluid just mentioned flowed

out, no structure could be found, amongst the confusion of the

masses floating in the interior, that could be recognized with

certainty as an intestine, or even as a reservoir of the above

fluid; but if we consider that even in Lernea, the wall of the

- * According to recent observations by Wright and Anderson (Edinb.

New Phil. Journal, vii. p. 312), a canal rises from this oral orifice in Pelto-

gaster Paguri, which, after entering the body of the host, becomes much

ramified, and penetrates this in every direction. (Thompson says, “ On

removing them (the parasites) by force, the neck presents the appearance

of irregular branched joints, and a large opening is seen, which has every

appearance of being continuous between the rectum of the _ =f -

cavity of the parasite.”-—W. 5. D.] '

M. Leuckart on the genus Sacculina. 427

intestine, which is destitute of a muscular coat, possesses little

to characterize it, this negative result must not be estimated at

too high a value, especially considering the other circumstances

that occur here.

_ The external integuments consist of a thick and resistent

yellowish chitine-layer, which has not the least resemblance to

the integuments of the worms, but in its appearance and physi- —

cal behaviour closely approaches the chitinous shield of the

Arthropoda. From its appearance under the microscope, one

might almost suppose that it is composed of numerous mem-

branes stuck together and much folded,—a supposition which

acquires still more probability from the fact that similar thin

and folded chitine-lamelle are also to be met with in abun-

dance in the interior of our animal, especially in Rathke’s

ovaries.

Segmentation, as is well known, is wanting in the Sacculine ;

the chitinous skin is throughout of the same thickness and

nature. Beneath the chitine coat there lies, besides the ordinary

epidermoidal cellular layer, a tolerably thick whitish layer, which

separates readily from the outer integuments, and appears to be

a sort of fatty body, or a cutaneous muscular sac permeated by

fat. In it, besides numerous cellular bodies and granules, we

find the above-mentioned chitinous lamelle, and single broad

muscular fibres with most beautiful transverse striation. In the

part surrounding the posterior orifice, these muscular fibres

attain their greatest development ; they become developed here

into a regular sphincter, which is so powerful, that, in the con-

tracted state, it forms a distinct wart-like elevation (fig. 5).

During life, the body of the animal is very frequently seen in

slow undulating movement, which is evidently the result of the

cooperation of the cutaneous muscles.

The posterior orifice (which in Peltogaster with a ventral

mouth is turned forwards, that is, towards the head of the host

and the orifice of the shell) is certainly not the mouth, as Rathke

supposed, but rather a cloacal aperture. It does not lead mto

the alimentary organ, but into the brood-chamber of our Saccu-

line. ‘This cavity occupies by far the greater part of the whole

body, and has its own chitinous walls, which pass over, at the

margin of the orifice, into the external integument, and, durmg

the contraction of the sphincter, form a number of radiating

folds at this point. The thickness of this chitinous wall is cer-

tainly much less than that of the external integuments, but still

very considerable.

. The contents of this brood-chamber consist of a great quantity

of flat bands, of about 1 line in breadth on an average; these

issue from each other in an iuregular dichotomous ramification’

428 M. Leuckart on the genus Sacculina.

(fig. 6), and, being repeatedly bent and coiled up, fill the entire

space of the cavity, without, however, being anywhere firmly

connected: with its walls. When unfolded, it appeared as if

all these bands composed only a single body, repeatedly ramified,

like a Flustra.

Even with the naked eye, these bands are seen to consist of

an aggregation of small globules; on examination with the

microscope, the globules proved to be ova, which were united

together by a common clear and structureless interstitial mass,

This interstitial mass formed, to a certain extent, a framework,

each of the spaces of which contained an egg, just as is the case

in the ovisacs of Cyclops. ‘There could not be the least doubt

that the body in question constituted a band-like and much-

ramified egg-tube, which in this case, instead of hanging freely

down from the body as in other allied animals, was enclosed in

a peculiar brood-chamber.

The ova were nearly all in the same grade of development.

They contained a Nauplius-like embryo with a single eye, like

Cyclops, and with three pairs of long natatory feet. They did

not seem to have attained their complete development, as indeed

appeared from the fact that not a single free embryo was to be

found in the brood-chamber. As the attempt to free the em-

bryos from their egg-shells by pressure under the glass cover

was also unsuccessful, I am unfortunately not in a position to

state anything more exactly with regard to their form and

structure.

The viscera remaining in our Sacculine after the removal of

this egg-tube (which was previously seen both by Cavolini and

Rathke) consisted, besides the above-mentioned fatty body and

the membranes of the brood-chamber, of a large cordate body

of compact structure, which lay upon the ventral surface (that

furnished with the cloacal aperture), and terminated with its -

posterior pointed end close in front of the cloacal aperture. It

seemed as if this body was to a certain extent lodged in the chi-

tinous walls of the brood-chamber. At any rate, it cohered with

this membrane, and, on the other hand, presented similar rela-

tions to the fatty body above mentioned.

The organization of this body is very complicated, and was

but imperfectly unravelled. It consists of a framework of chi-

tinous lamell, which pass through it in various directions, and

form a kind of lattice, such as is indeed figured by Rathke, but

represented as far too regular. In the interstices of this frame-

work there is a mass the analysis of which is difficult, in which,

however, two kinds of structures could be distinctly recognized.

One of these structures was the ovary; the other, no doubt, the

cement-gland.

M. Leuckart on the genus Sacculina. - 429

The ovary consists of a confused mass of numerous cecal

tubes; it is therefore probably similar in structure to that of the

other parasitic Crustacea. Here and there closed sacs with

jagged processes were also met with, just as has recently been

described by Claus in Chondracanthus*,

The ovarian eggs were usually smaller than those of the egg-

tubes, and partly also still destitute of a membrane. The ger-

minal yesicle could only be rendered distinct with difficulty

amidst the numerous larger and smaller oil-drops of the tena-

cious yelk. (Considering the relation which subsists, in allied

forms, between the ovary and the intestinal membrane, the nu-

cleus of our animals might also enclose within it a portion of

the intestine.)

The cement-gland, which accompanies the tubes of the ovary

almost everywhere, appears, in its peripheral portion, as a cylin-

der of 0°21 millim. in diameter, branched like a stag’s horn.

Its thick walls are formed by closely approximated cylindrical

cells, having a transverse diameter of 0°01 millim. and a length

of 0:035 millim., and continued at the centre of their extremity

into tail-like processes of considerable length. The contents of

these cells consist of a strongly refractive substance. An ex-

ternal envelope could not be detected upon these walls; it ap-

peared as if they were only held together by the agglomeration

of the cells.

With regard to the efferent terminations and orifices of these

glands, nothing could be ascertained with certainty ; but future

observers may probably be led into the nght track by the two

pairs of lateral orifices discovered by Rathke. Even Rathke

regarded one pair of these apertures as the openings of the

ovary. As to the second aperture, he was in doubt whether

it formed the issue of cement-glands, or of male organs, but

decided at last in favour of the latter, although he had no definite

ground for this course. _

Nothing can now be urged in favour of the hermaphroditism

assuined by Rathke, especially as, in my investigations, no trace

of seminal filaments could be discovered. The existence of

dwarfed males in the brood-chamber is far more probable, but

my investigations in this direction furnished no result.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE VII.

Fig. 5. Sacculina inflata, laid upon its back ; natural size.

Fig. 6. A portion of the ramified ovisac; natural size.

* Ueber den Bau und die Entwickelung parasitischer Crustaceen;

Cassel, 1858, p. 13.

430 Mr. T. V. Wollaston on Coleopterous Insects from China.

XLITI.—Deseriptions of two Coleopterous Insects from the North

of China. By T. Vernon Wottaston, M.A., F.L.S. -

Tue two insects the descriptions of which I have given below

were collected by Mr. Fortune in the north of China; and I

propose to dedicate them to my learned and excellent friend the

Bario do Castello de Paiva, Professor of Botany in the Académie

Polytechnique of Oporto, and a member of many scientific socie-

ties both in Portugal and France, whose botanical researches

in Madeira and the Canary Islands have been so long and so

justly appreciated by the leading naturalists of his own country.

Fam. Melolonthide.

Genus Hoplia, Ulliger.

Hoplia Paive.

H. subovata, supra depressa nigra, prothoracis limbo, linea centrali

lineaque breviore intermedia necnon elytrorum sutura fasciisque.

tribus transversis squamis subviridescenti-albido-luteis dense vesti-

tis, antennis pedibusque rufo-ferrugineis plus minus vestitis, illa-

rum clava obscuriore.

Variat corpore (supra et infra) squamis pallidis vestito, lineis fasciis-

que plus minus suffusis.

Long. corp. lin. 33-4.

H. subovate, beneath exceedingly convex and densely clothed

with yellowish-white scales, having an iridescent or greenish tinge ;

above much depressed, black ; but more or less beautifully varie-

gated with paler scales of the same colour as those below. Pro-

thorax with the margins, a central line, and a shorter interme-

diate one on either side (connected with the anterior margin,

but not reaching to the hinder one)‘ covered with pale scales.

Elytra with the suture and three transverse fascize (sometimes

distinct and sometimes interrupted) likewise pale. Limbs rufo-

ferruginous, and more or less clothed with paler scales; the

club of the antenne darker.

[In some specimens the entire upper surface appears to be

almost clothed with paler scales, leaving the bands and fascize

exceedingly obscure; nevertheless even in examples such as

these their form is more or less traceable. |

Fam. Erotylide.

Genus Languria, Latreille.

Languria Paive.

L. obseure cyanea, nitida, ubique punctulata, prothorace convexo

rufo maculis quatuor rotundatis distinctis necnon per marginem

Mr. F. P. Pascoe on some new Anthribide. 431

posticum maculis quatuor minoribus plus minus confluentibus

ornato, elytris leete cyaneis striato-punctatis.

Long. corp. lin. 6}.

ZL. dark cyaneous, shining, and free from pubescence. Head

deeply and closely punctured. Prothorax much more sparingly

(and less deeply) punctured, with a very short deep oblique

fovea on either side behind, bright rufous, with four large rounded

spots (two of which are on the disk, and the other two further

apart, towards either anterior angle), and with four smaller ones

along the hinder margin (the inner two of which are confluent

at their base), dark: the extreme hinder margin itself, and the

centre of the fore margin, more or less, also dark. Hlytra

brightly cyaneous, finely and regularly striate-punctate, and

with the interstices closely and minutely punctulated. Body

beneath punctured (the abdomen densely so), dark cyaneous,

with the anterior portion of the metasternum rufous.

XLIV.—On some new Anthribide.

By Francis P. Pascon, F.L.S. &c.

[Continued from p. 333. ]

APOLECTA.

Head -exserted, oblong, convex in front, with a short broad

rostrum widely emarginate at the apex. Antenne approximate,

very long, slender, filiform, arising from a large semicircular

cavity in front of the rostrum and beneath the eye, the first joint

long and much thicker than the rest, the second short, a little

tumid at the apex, the rest perfectly linear. Kyes distant, lateral,

round, entire. Labruim slightly emarginate. Terminal joint

of the maxillary palpi elongate, obconic; of the labial, ovate.

Prothorax narrowed anteriorly, the carina forming an angle in

the centre towards the base, gradually receding as it approaches

the side, where it curves forward to about half the length of the

prothorax. Hlytra convex, rather wider than the prothorax, the

sides subparallel. Legs slender.

This genus has for its type the Mecocerus? parvulus of Mr,

Thomson (Arch, Ent. tom. i. p. 437), which differs in many

respects from the true Mecoceri,—i. ¢. in the form and insertion

of the antenne, rostrum, carina, &e. .

Apolecta has a very wide range, being found in Ceylon, Java,

Malacca, Borneo, and Aru; but all the species have been hitherto

unpublished, except the two here mentioned.

_Apolecta gracillima.

A, rufo grisea, nigro-maculata; elytris plaga magna communi pone

432 Mr. F. P. Pascoe on some new Anthribide.

medium, pedibus antennisque (articulis duobus ultimis exceptis)

nigris.

Hab. Singapore. |

Oblong, with a reddish grey or a pale dull orange pile; spot

between the eyes, three stripes on the prothorax, a large trans-

verse patch common to both elytra posteriorly, and a few small

spots, principally on the shoulders and base, black: antennze above

five times as long as the body, black, except the last two joints,

which are white. Length 3 lines, of the antenne 15. |

HaABRISSUS.

Head oblong, with a short broad rostrum, prolonged at the

apex. Antenne short, slender, arising from a groove midway

between the eye and mandible, the first two joints short and

slender, the last three forming a very moderately thickened club.

Eyes round, entire, scarcely approximate. Lip rounded anteriorly.

Mandibles stout, triangular. Palpi slender, pomted. Prothgrax

narrow in front, gradually enlarging to the carina, which is sub-

basal and divided at the side into two short divergent branches.

Scutellum very small. Elytra oblong, convex, slightly rounded

at the sides. Legs moderate, first tarsal joint as long as the rest

together. Mesosternum short, broad, slightly bilobed behind.

A genus which has a strong resemblance, particularly as to

the antenne, to the South American Corrhecerus, from which,

however, it differs in its entire eyes, prolonged apex of the

rostrum, which is terminated by the small lip (almost descending

to the external margin of the mandibles when closed), and dicho-

tomous termination of the carina.

Habrissus pilicorns.

H. ovato-oblongus, cinereus, fusco varius, tarsis fulvescentibus,

unguibus nigris.

Hab. Aru.

Ovate-oblong, covered with a short, dense, ashy pile, varied

with dark brown patches, head and prothorax tinged with yellow,

the brown on the latter forming a series of indistinctly curved

and slightly connected spots ; elytra punctato-striate, a brownish

patch on the anterior two-thirds, in which are several ashy spots,

then a band of the same colour, followed by another brownish

patch, the apex also ashy ; pygidium ashy, with a black spot on

each side; legs ashy, tibise at the base and apex, and claws

black; antennze with a few long scattered hairs, black, the first

two joints reddish yellow. Length 5 lines. British Museum.

Basitropis peregrinus.

B. elongato-parallelus, dense tomentosus, fuscus fulvescente varie-

Mr. F. P. Pascoe on some new Anthribide. 433

gatus ; pedibus obscure brunneo-testaceis ; abdomine infra griseo-

subsericeo.

Hab. Port Essington.

Elongate-parallel, covered with a dense dark brown tomentum

varied with pale yellowish grey, particularly on the elytra, where

it also forms an obscure band near the apex ; legs dull testaceous

brown; body beneath with a pale greyish pile, the abdomen

subsericeous ; antennz very stout, tomentose. Length 34 lines.

Basitropis ingratus.

B. ovato-oblongus, tomentosus, fuscus, lutescente-variegatus; pedibus

griseo-variis ; abdomine griseo-picta, lateribus fusco-maculatis.

Hab. Port Essington.

Ovate-oblong, tomentose, dark brown obscurely varied with

dull ochreous ; legs varied with reddish-brown and grey; body

beneath sparingly covered with coarse greyish hairs, abdominal

segments with a reddish-brown spot on each side; antennz

reddish-brown, slightly tomentose, comparatively slender. Length

23 lines. British Museum.

Basitropis has hitherto been a stranger to Australia; the two

species described above are therefore interesting additions to its

scanty list of Anthribidee.

Basitropis mucidus.

B. oblongus, piceus, fuscus, obscure griseo-varius ; prothorace basi

lateribus rectis.

Hab. Borneo.

Oblong, pitchy, with a sparse pubescence sprinkled with dark

brown and grey in nearly equal proportions, but everywhere

showing the glossy surface beneath; sides of the prothorax at

the base nearly straight; antenne and legs dull ferruginous

obscurely varied with grey, the first and second joints of the

club as long as they are broad. Nearly allied to B. nitidicutis

of M. Jekel, but is much shorter and proportionably stouter.

Length 3} lines.

Eucorynus Stevensit.

H. oblongus, hirtus, fuscus, griseo-varius ; antennis rufo-brunneis,

clava nigra ; tarsis griseo-annulatis.

Hab. Dorey.

Oblong, slightly depressed ; head dull greyish mixed with

brown ; prothorax finely punctured, dark brown with a few

greyish spots; elytra punctured in rows, dark brown mixed with

greyish, principally near the apex ; antennz about half the length

of the body, dull reddish-brown, the club black ; legs dark brown

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. iv. 28

43.4 Mr. F. P. Pascoe.on some new Anthribide.

with greyish rings, which are most marked on the tibie ; under

surface dull brown. Length 4 to 6 lines.

Dedicated to Samuel Stevens, Esq. of Bloomsbury Street, to

whom I owe my best thanks for many valuable specimens.

Eucorynus setosulus.

E. oblongus, hirto-setosus, fuscus, albo-irroratus ; pedibus albo-annu-

latis ; antennis nigris, articulo septimo albo.

Hab. Philippine Islands. (Manilla ¢ ?)

Differs from E. Stevensii in its coarser and decidedly setose

hairs, deeper and larger punctures, longer and thicker antenne,

and in its more lengthened form. British Museum.

APATENIA,

Head narrow, the rostrum lengthened, broad, with a short

central costa, the apex entire. Antennze inserted at about mid-

way between the rostrum and mandibles, scarcely longer than

the head, the first two joints thick, the third to the sixth more

or less cylindrical, the seventh and eighth subtriangular, the

ninth, tenth, and eleventh forming a club the first two joints

of which are ‘triangular and the last ovate. . Eyes large, obliquely

lateral, ovate, entire. Mandibles robust, strongly toothed. Palpi

slender, pointed. Labrum narrow, elongate. Prothorax slightly

transverse, narrow in front ; carina sub-basal, extending at a right

angle to about halfway along the side of the prothorax. Llytra

slightly depressed. Legs moderate, tarsi rather short.. Meso-

sternum rounded posteriorly.

Apatenia viduata.

A, cinereo-nigra, subargentata, maculis atro-velutinis ornata ; pedibus

griseo-variis.

Hab. Borneo.

Oblong-ovate, ashy black, with a slight silvery tint in certain

lights; head thickly punctured, two black spots between the

eyes ; prothorax pubescent, indistinctly clouded with four or five

black patches, a weli-defined ochreous spot posteriorly ; scutel-

lum small, triangular; elytra slightly depressed, regularly punc-

tate, rather wider than the prothorax, finely tomentose, with a

few black velvety spots, and a large one on each behind the mid-

dle; legs obscurely varied with ashy ; ; under surface dull black.

Length 4 lines.

MIsTHOSIMA.

Head rather broad in front, the rostrum subquadrate, rather

short, entire at the apex. Antenne slender, shorter than the

body, arising from a large rounded cavity below and a little in

Mr. F. P. Pascoe on some new Anthribide. 435

front of the eye; the two basal joints tumid, the last three form-

ing a slender interrupted club. Eyes distant, nearly round,

entire. Palpi slender, pointed. Labrum transverse, rounded

anteriorly. Mandibles slender, toothed. Prothorax transverse,

rounded in front and at the sides; the carina basal, terminating

in a short curve at the side. Scutellum small, rounded poste-

riorly. Hlytra oblong, convex, parallel with the base of the

prothorax. Legs slender, anterior pair the longest ; first tarsal

joint longer than the rest together. Mesosternum short, slightly

rounded posteriorly.

Misthosima mera.

M. oblongo-ovata, rufo-brunnea, griseo-pubescens; pedibus fulvo-

ferrugineis.

Hab. Borneo.

Oblong-ovate, reddish brown, covered with a greyish pile,

which appears to be rather easily rubbed off, then giving the

specimen a mottled appearance ; antenne with two basal joints

- reddish yellow, the rest gradually darker, the club black; legs

and body beneath dull yellowish red, slightly pubescent. Length

2 lines. | }

Misthosima marmorea.

M. oblonga, fusca, griseo-pubescente-varia ; pedibus ferrugineis.

Hab. Borneo.

Oblong, dark brown, variegated with a greyish pubescence,

i. e. little straggling patches composed of short, scant hairs:

antenne with the two basal joints reddish yellow, the remainder,

with the legs, ferruginous. Length 2 lines.

PLINTHERIA.

Head narrow, gradually contracting below the eyes, the ros-

trum long, expanding towards the apex, which is broadly emar-

ginate. Antenne as long as the body, arising from a scarcely

perceptible groove nearly at the extremity of the rostrum; the

second joint longer than the first and not thicker than the third,

which is longest, the remainder to the eighth slightly but gra-

dually decreasing in length, the last three forming a short com-

pact club. Eyes round, entire, prominent. Labrum rounded.

Mandibles short, triangular. Palpi rather long, pointed. Pro-

thorax about equal in length and breadth, narrowed in front,

contracted posteriorly; carina sub-basal in the centre, then bend-

ing slightly forwards and terminating in a short curve at the

side. Scutellum small, triangular. Elytra short, convex, wider

than the prothorax at the base. Legs moderate, the anterior

longest, the first tarsal joint longer than the rest together.

28%

436 Mr. F. P. Pascoe on some new Anthribide.

Plintheria luctuosa.

P. nigra, albo-variegata; tibiis, apice excepto, fusco-testaceis ;

antennis rufo-variis, clava nigra.

Hab. Dorey.

Oblong-ovate, brownish black varied with patches of whitish

hairs, particularly on the elytra, which in some specimens as-

sume a tessellated appearance ; head and rostrum coarsely, the

apex finely punctured; prothorax with close shallow punctures ;

elytra deeply and regularly punctured ; legs black, the basal two-

thirds of the tibize and antennz dull reddish brown, the club of

the latter black. Length 24 lines.

Esocus.

Head rather broad in front, contracted below the eyes; the

rostrum of moderate length, slightly dilated at the apex, which

is entire, and with a short central costa. Antenne short, arising

from a shallow groove above the dilated apex, the first two joints

thick, of nearly equal length, the third longer, the rest rapidly

decreasing to the eighth, the last three forming a short, broad,

compact club. Eyes distant, prominent, oblong, entire. Labrum

rounded anteriorly. Prothorax narrow in front, gradually wider

towards the base, the carina sub-basal, shortly recurved at the

side. Scutellum small, transverse, rounded posteriorly. Elytra

wider than the prothorax, subgibbous towards the base. Legs

of moderate length, first tarsal joint as long as the rest together.

Esocus lachrymans.

E. niger, subnitidus, guttis elongatis albo-pubescentibus ornatus.

Hab. Borneo.

Oblong-subovate, black, slightly shining, with elongated

white hairy spots; head minutely punctured, the rostral costa

very nearly central; prothorax slightly punctured, with three

principal) vittiform spots; elytra gibbous behind the scutellum,

with remote rows of shallow punctures; antenne and legs en-

tirely black. Length 3 lines.

Hucws.

lead broad in front, swollen at the side below the eye; the

rostrum rather short, ending in a large transversely subqua-

drate, entire apex; between this and the eye, on each side, a

strongly-marked costa. Antenne short, arising from the middle

of the rostrum directly above its dilated apex, the first two joints

thick, of nearly equal length, the third longest, the last three

forming an elongate, slender, pointed club. Eyes subapproxi-

Mr. F. P. Pascoe on some new Anthribide. 437

mate, frontal, large, round, entire. Labrum rounded anteriorly,

Prothorax narrowed in front, the side nearly straight, the carina

sub-basal, arched forwards, forming an acute angle at its flexure

and continued but a short way on the side of the prothorax.

Scutellum very small, transverse, rounded behind. Elytra short,

convex, the sides slightly rounded. Legs of moderate length,

the first tarsal jot much longer than the rest together.

Hucus melanostoma.

H. ovatus, fuscescente-pubescens, griseo-varius ; oculis, rostro, man-

dibularum apice nigris. :

Hab. Borneo.

Ovate, head and prothorax with a ferruginous-brown pubes-

cence mingled with grey, especially on the sides of the latter, on

the elytra a darker brown in longitudinal patches partially en-

closed by the grey, while posteriorly this latter is surrounded by

the brown ; eyes, rostrum, and tips of the mandibles dull black ;

legs and antenne ferruginous, obscurely clouded with dark

brown. Length 13 line.

PHAULIMIA,

Head rather broad in front, narrower below the eyes, rostrum

short, quadrate, entire at the apex. Antenne arising from a

lateral groove midway between the eye and mandible, very short,

the first two joints tumid, the last three forming a broadly di-

lated club. Eyes oblique, oblong, entire, not approximate.

Maxillary palpi rather long, pomted. Mandibles slender. Pro-

thorax slightly transverse, narrowed anteriorly, the carina sub-

basal, forming a right angle at its flexure and terminating at

about half the length of the prothorax. Elytra short, shghtly

depressed, the sides nearly parallel. Legs short, coxe of the

anterior only slightly approximate, the rest distant, tarsi with

the first joint as long as the rest together.

Phaulimia ephipprata.

P. griseo-rufa, obscure fulvo-varia; elytris macula magna communi

basali fusca.

Hab. Borneo.

Ovate, pubescent, slightly depressed, pale greyish red, obscurely

varied with fulvous; on the prothorax the darker colour is con-

fined to a few oblique patches, on the elytra it is tessellated on

the interstices formed by the punctate strie, and at their base a

large dark brown spot; antenne and legs yellowish red; the —

club black. Length 14 line.

438 Mr. F. P. Pascoe on some new Anthribide.

Dysnos.

Head moderate, rounded at the sides, with a very short broad

rostrum but slightly emarginate at the apex. Antenne shorter

than the body, arising from an oblique groove below and a little

in front of the eye; the first two joints tumid, of nearly equal

length, the last four formmg an elongated interrupted club

which terminates in a subulate process. Eyes lateral, ovate,

oblique, slightly emarginate, not approximate. Labrum and

mandibles small. Palpi short, pointed. Prothorax wider than

the elytra at the base, longer than broad, rounded slightly at

the sides, convex above; the carina nearly basal, forming an

obtuse angle at its flexure, and continued to within a third of

the anterior margin. Scutellum very minute. LElytra convex,

the sides nearly parallel. Legs short, the second and third

tarsal joints dilated, the anterior tibize and tarsi longest.

Dysnos auricomus.

D. fusco-lanosus obscure aureo-varius ; elytris striato-punctatis ; an-

tennarum basi pedibusque fusco-rufis.

Hab. Aru.

Subovate, scarcely elongate, covered with short dark-brown,

and on the thorax nearly black hairs; with these are obscurely

interspersed others of a golden yellow or greenish hue, the effect

of which, under a strong lens and im a certain light, is to give

the appearance of dark spots on a hght ground; eyes brown;

antenne slightly ciliated, the base brownish red, the club black ;

legs dull reddish brown; under surface pitchy, closely punc-

tured. Length 2 lines.

Arecerus rufipes.

A. ovatus, fusco-tomentosus ; capitis fronte griseo ; elytrorum inter-

stitiis prothoraceque nigris, his fulvo-maculatis; antennarum.

funiculo pedibusque rufis.

Hab. Borneo.

Ovate, covered with a dark brown tomentum; front of the

head with greyish hairs; prothorax black, slightly varied with

grey ; elytra with the alternate interstices elevated, black, spotted

with fulvous; antennz yellowish red, the club black; legs dull

yellowish red. Length 2 lines.

Arecerus areolatus:

A, jate ovatus, nigro tomentosus; elytrorum interstitiis cinereo-

maculatis ; antennis basi rufis; pedibus nigris.

Hab. Borneo.

Broadly ovate, covered with a black tomentum; elytra with

Dr. J. E. Gray on Zoophytes with Pinnated Tentacles. 439

the alternate interstices elevated, pure black, spotted with ashy ;

antennze reddish only at the base; legs black. Length 2 lines.

Besides the difference in colour, which in this genus is per-

haps not very important, and the greater width, which attains its

maximum at the junction of the prothorax with the elytra in

this species, whilst in A. rufipes it is at about the upper third of

the elytra, it is also distinguished by the joints of the club being

very decidedly longer ; both are also very nearly allied to Arace-

rus* Coffee, F., which, however, is smaller and more convex, with

proportionably longer antenne, and generally has a patch of

several longish grey hairs on the shoulders; from this I find it

difficult to distinguish Tropideres fragilis of Mr. Walker, from

Ceylon, the type of which is in my collection.

XLV.—On the Arrangement of Zoophytes with Pinnated Tentacles.

By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S., V.P.Z.S., Pres. Ent. Soc., &c.

CoNsIDERABLE attention has been paid by various authors to

the arrangement of the stony Corals (Actinaria), by MM. Milne-

Edwards and Haime, and by Mr. Dana among others; but com-

paratively little progress has been made in the arrangement of

the Zoophytes with pinnated tentacles, or Alcyonaria, since the

time of Lamarck.

I have for years been studying these animals and the corals

which they form, and have only been prevented from publishing

the result of my studies by the desire to feel more sure with

regard to the distinction between the species of the family of

Gorgoniade, and to ascertain with greater certainty than I have

yet been able the true synonymy of the species of the genera of

that family. '

In the meantime I would suggest the following arrangement

of the families, as that which best explains the relation of the

various genera to each other.

Order I. SABULICOL.

Coral-tree symmetrical, with a simple base, supported by

more or less distinct calcareous spicula, and strengthened by a

single, fusiform, elongate, calcareous, central axis. Living with

the base sunk in the sand or mud of the sea-coast.

Fam. 1. Pennatulide.

Body free, more or less pen-like, with a naked peduncle and a

* More correctly Areocerus ; but I hold that the orthography of the ori-

ginal authority ought never to be departed from, except in the case of some

very gross and insufferable blunder. Schénherr first proposed Arecerus in

his “ Curculionidum Dispositio Methodica,” p. 40, and repeated it without

alteration in his “‘ Synonymia.” |

440 Dr. J. EB. Gray on the Arrangement of

single central axis.. The upper part with the polypes placed in

transverse series on one, rarely on all sides. Axis fusiform,

elongate, cylindrical and quadrangular, caleareous, as long as

the coral. ; ’

Dana divides the Pennatulide into two subfamilies :—1. Pen-

natuline, polypes retractile; 2. Pavoninz, polypes not retrac-

tile (including Pavonia and Umbellularia)! I may observe here

that I do not think the character derived from the retraction and

non-retraction of the polypes is of much importance ; for it is

observed that all the Gorgonie figured by Ellis from specimens

preserved in spirits have the polypes expanded, and it is the

same with most Pennatule and many Alcyonia.

I. Penniformes. Tlie coral pen-shaped. The polypes in trans-

verse pinnules, placed on each side of the ventral surface of the

central rachis or stem.

Tribe 1. Funicutinex. ‘The coral elongate, linear, slender ;

the pinnules small, crowded.

Funiculina. Virgularia. Lygus. Scytalium.

Tribe 2. PennatuLteax. The coral moderately broad, pen-

shaped; the pinnules broad, expanded. .

*Pennatula. ** Sarcoptilus. Pteromorpha. Pteroeides.

II. Claviformes. The coral club-shaped or leaf-like. The

polypes scattered on one side (rarely on both) of the upper

part of the club.

Tribe 3. KopHopeLEMNONIE#. The coral club-shaped, with

the polypes only on one surface of the club, leaving the other

bare.

Kophobelemnon.

Tribe 4. VeretitteEx. The coral club-shaped. The polypes

on all sides of the club.

Lituaria. Sarcobelemnon. Cavernularia. Veretillum.

Tribe 5. Runittem. The coral expanded, foliaceous, with a

slender stalk. The polypes only on one surface of the expanded

disk.

Renilla.

Fam. 2. Umbellulariade.

The body free, umbellate, with a long stem and a single cen-

tral axis. The upper part with a cluster of polype-bearing cells

placed in concentric series, forming a large head. Axis fusi-

form, elongate, as long as the stem of the coral.

Umbellularia.

Zoophytes with Pinnated Tentacles. 44]

Order II. SPONGICOLA or HYALOPHYTA.

Subsymmetrical, living sunken by. the base into a sponge,

strengthened by silicious spicula, and supported by a central axis

formed of numerous twisted, elongated silicious fibres.

The axis is formed of many twisted fibres, its lower end

tapering, and parasitically imbedded in a fixed sponge, and thus

kept in an erect position.

The animal matter or bark is strengthened by silicious spi-

cula, similar to, but shorter. and thinner than the fibres of the

axis. The fibres are formed of numerous thin concentric layers.

Valenciennes and other French naturalists, overlooking the

structure of the spicula in the bark, have regarded the latter as a

parasitic kind of Alcyonarium growing on some unknown sub-

stance,—an idea that requires the belief in the existence of two

peculiar bodies which are always found together and are unknown

in any other state, instead of regarding them as parts of the

same animal growth ; this is proved to be the case not only by

their being always found in union, but by the fact that the axis,

which is supposed to be the supporting part, is of the same

texture as the spines found in the bark, the one passing gradu-

ally into the other; and I have no doubt that, in the living state,

the fibres of the axis are as much surrounded by flesh as the

spicula in the bark itself.

Fam. 1. Hyalonemide.

Hyalonema.

Order III. RUPICOLA.

Coral tree-like’ or expanded, fixed by an expanded base, sup-

ported by more or less abundant fusiform calcareous spicula,

and often supported by a central calcareous or horny tree-like

axis with an expanded base. [Living attached by the base of

the coral: and axis to rocks on the sea-shore.

This order is divided into three suborders.

Suborder I. Lirnopnyra.

Coral arborescent, supported by a continuous or jointed cal-

careous axis, which effervesces with muriatic acid.

+ Axis continuous, not jointed.

Fam. 1. Coralliadz.

Axis inarticulate, solid, calcareous. Bark granular, with

irregular-shaped spicula.

*Corallium. . Annella. Ellisella. (Junceella and Ctenocella.)

?Gorgonella. , Scirpearia. Umbracella. **Subergorgia.

A 2 fs

4 of, - = y =< ~

Py AA Ste & .——

ig & ) aS tas 4

oe oo

§ P

‘

» a =. ‘ ;

a rf: ~—S ws if g — Oe, ts Da» ant “> Zr tA % Raed, f< eS ¢ AS

4.4.2 Dr. J. E. Gray on the Arrangement of

Fam. 2. Primnoade.

Axis inarticulate, solid. Bark formed of flat imbricate scales.

Polype-cells prominent, covered with imbricate scales.

Primnoa. » Callogorgia. » Primnoella.

++ Axis articulated.

Fam. 3. Melitzade.

Axis spongy, permeated by flexuous tubular canals inter-

rupted by harder, swollen, calcareous joints. Bark granular ;

cells in series on the edge of the branchlets.

Melitea. Mopsella. ?Solanderia.

ive sit

Fam. 4. Isidezx,

Axis calcareous, solid, divided by narrowed horny joints.

Bark granular, with irregular-shaped spicula.

Isis (Cynosaire). Isidella. Mopsea.

Suborder II. Curatopnyta.

Coral arborescent, supported by a continuous (or jointed ?)

horny axis, which does not effervesce in muriatic acid.

Fam. 1. Gorgoniade.

Bark granular, persistent, with sunken irregular-shaped

spicula, with a more or less distinct groove down each side, and

with the cells in series on each side of the branchlets.

* Coral arborescent or reticulated; cells on side of the branchlets.

Gorgonia. Arborescent; branchlets subcompressed ; cells on

side, moderate. :

Pterogorgia. Arborescent; branchlets much compressed; cells

minute, on edge.

Rhipidogorgia. Reticulated, fan-like; cells on sides.

*k Coral frondose ; cells on surface of frond.

Hymenogorgia. Axis branched, filiform, branches separate.

Phyllogorgia. 4 branches netted.

Phycogorgia. Axis expanded, foliaceous, thin.

Fam. 2. Plexauride.

Bark granular, persistent, cork-like, without any impressed

lateral grooves. Cells placed equally on all sides of the branches.

Plexaura (Bebryce). Cells not raised, simple.

Rhinogorgia. Cells not raised, bounded by a conical process.

Eunicea. Cells more or less produced, simple.

Gonidora. Cells convex; mouth radiated.

ZLoophytes with Pinnated Tentacles. 443

Fam, 3. Muriceide.

Bark composed of large imbricate calcareous spicula, without

any lateral grooves, Cells equally on all sides of the branchlets.

Muricea. Pile

Fam. 4. Acanthogorgiade. —

Bark thin, formed of slender filiform spicula, without any

lateral grooves. Cells campanulate, on all sides of the branches,

with ridges of elongated spicula, and with a number of elongate

setaceous spines on the margin.

Acanthogorgia.

? Fam. 5, Antipathide.

Bark fleshy, easily deciduous, soft, simple, only strengthened

by large and small, scattered, silicious ? plates.

Leiopathes. Antipathes.

I have observed pinnate tentacles in Lezopathes, and indica-

tions of them in one Antipathes. Dana describes them as simple

in two species of Antipathes which he saw alive; so that the

position of this family is open to doubt.

Fam. 6. Sarcogorgiade.

Bark fleshy, when dry skin-like, smooth, without spicula ;

the edges of the cells strengthened with granular spicula.

Sarcogorgia.

Suborder III. Sarcopuyta.

Coral arborescent, lobulated or expanded, only strengthened

by internal or external calcareous spicula, which effervesce in

acid.

Fam. 1. Briareide.

Coral arborescent, fleshy, supported by a central axis formed

of numerous intertwined fusiform spicula.

Briareum. ;

Fam. 2; Alcyoniade.

Coral arborescent or lobed, fleshy, strengthened with imbedded

calcareous spicula. Cells simple. Polype retractile or semi-

retractile.

Aleyonium (Lobularia). Sympodium. Ammothea.

Fam. 3. Xeniade.

Coral expanded or arborescent, fleshy, soft, creeping or

branched. Polype elongate, subcylindrical. Tentacles not re-

tractile.

* Xenia. Anthelia. Rhizoxenia. Evagora. **Cornularia.

us ? alof

Add H. von Mohl on the Arrangement of the

Fam. 4. Nephthyade.

Coral arborescent or expanded, fleshy, membranaceous, often

very cellular. Cell of the polypes covered externally with large

fusiform calcareous spicula.

* Nephthya (Spoggodia). ? Alcyonidia. ** Nidalia. *** Clavu-

laria.

Fam. 5. Tubiporide.

Coral calcareous, tubular. Tubes united by transverse plates

formed by the expanded edges of the tubes iia the buds.

Polypes cylindrical.

Tubipora.

XLVI.—On the Arrangement of the Polarizing Microscope in the

Examination of Organic Bodies. By Hueco von Monu*.

Tuart polarized light is so rarely made use of in the microscopic

examination of organic bodies, principally arises from the cir-

cumstance that the German and French microscopes, which are

almost exclusively used on the Continent, are so badly arranged

as to be almost valueless for detecting double refraction in those

organic structures which act but feebly upon polarized light.

Hence, to mention a few instances, Ehrenberg was unable to

' detect this property in the leaf-scales of Olea Europea, and in

the silicious valves of the Diatomacez; nor could Schacht dis-

cover double refraction in the primary membrane of the cells of

plants; and Pereira, who occupied himself so much with pola-

rized light, was unable to see the black cross in the starch-gra-

nules of rice ; whilst these structures under my polarizing micro-

scope form most beautiful objects, so that not only can I resolve

the lines in Pleurosigma angulatum into dots, as well as with

common light, but their six-sided form is quite distinct.

Even in my first attempts to use this instrument in phyto-

tomic experiments, I found that a bright and distinct image

could be obtained only by exposing the object to very concen-

trated polarized light. The necessity of this is evident from the

fact, that three-fourths of the light reflected by the mirror is

necessarily lost in its passage through the polarizing apparatus,

which loss must be considerably increased by the reflexion

taking place at the surfaces of the lenses of the microscope.

When, moreover, it is remembered that the depolarizing action

of most organic structures is much more feeble than that of in-

organic crystals, it may be easily understood that the image of the

former is dull and imperfect, or that they remain invisible, if very

intense illumination is not applied. Experiment also convinced

* Translated from Poggendorff’s Annalen, No. 9. 1859, p. 178.

Polarizing Microscope in the Examination of Organic Bodies. 445

me that the intensity of the light can hardly be too great ; hence

I took especial care, in the selection of the apparatus, to ensure

obtaining as much light as possible.

For this reason, and to obtain colourless light, I avoided

tourmalines or Herapathite, and made use of Nicol’s prisms.

In regard to the polarizing apparatus itself, it is advantageous

to use, as the polarizer, a Nicol’s prism of tolerably large dimen-

sions, through which a broad beam of polarized light may pass

to the objects. The illumination of the object, however, is not

brighter with a large than with a small Nicol’s prism ; for when

the polarized light, after emerging from the prism, is condensed

to a luminous image upon the object by the condenser. to be

mentioned presently, this is equally bright, whether the prism

be large or small; but the size of the image depends upon the

size of the transverse section of the Nicol’s prism used : hence,

when this is too small, observation is rendered difficult by a

small portion only of the object, lying in the centre of the field,

being illuminated. The Nicol’s prism need not, however, be of

unusually large dimensions: a diameter of from 10 to 12 lines

answers every purpose. As, however, a prism of this size is

2 inches long, care must be taken that there is sufficient room

between the mirror and the stage to admit both the prism and

the condensers. Hence this space should never be less than

4: inches.

_ As regards the position of the polarizing Nicol’s prism, the

question arises whether the relative direction of its oblique ter-

minal faces to the plane of the mirror is a matter of indifference,

or whether the horizontal diameter of its rhombic terminal faces

should hold a definite position to the horizontal axis of rotation of

the mirror. For, when all the lenses are removed from the micro-

scope, on placing a Nicol’s prism upon the eye-piece, and turning

the mirror to the light, it will be found, on rotating the prism, that

the light reflected from the mirror into the microscope is polar-

ized to a considerable extent, and that a marked darkening is

produced when the transverse diameter of the rhombic terminal

face of the prism is parallel to the horizontal axis of rotation of the

mirror, and thus also to the window through which the light pro-

ceeds. Hence, when the polarizing prism is fixed in this posi-

tion under the object, less light will be transmitted to the latter

than when the prism is rotated 90° and retained in this position

during the observation. This circumstance is in general of no

great importance; for with the bright illumination which must

be provided under all circumstances, the loss of light caused by

a less favourable pgsition of the polarizer is of far less importance

in regard to the brightness-of the image than might at first be

supposed. |

446 H. von Mohl on the Arrangement of the

Many opticians place the analyzing prism immediately behind

the object-glass. This certainly has the advantage of allowing

the eye to be placed close to the eye-piece, so that a view of the

entire field can be obtained. But this unimportant advantage is

counterbalanced by decided objections, and especially by the

circumstance that the sharpness of the image is more or less

impaired when the light between the object-glass and the eye-

piece is allowed to pass through such a massive body as a Nicol’s

prism, the surfaces of which, moreover, are not usually ground

perfectly flat. It is therefore indisputably better to place the

prism above the eye-piece, where it much less impairs the beauty

of the image. The objection that the field is thus limited is of

no importance, as it is easy to find a prism with which this de-

fect does not occur, or merely at the outer margin, which is of

little consequence. If the prism is fixed in a tube adapted to

the eye-piece, we have, moreover, the advantage that it can be

rotated on its axis at pleasure, and may be easily removed and

replaced ; whilst placing the prism in the tube of the microscope

and rotating it within the latter is a complicated arrangement,

and involves a waste of time.

Passing to the microscopic apparatus : in the case of this also

the greatest possible intensity of light is the first condition of

successful results. The most important point is the illuminating

apparatus. As regards the mirror, an ordinary plane one may

be used; but the best consists of a not too small glass prism,

the section of which forms an equilateral triangle. If the sur-

faces of this are from 15 to 18 lines in length, that is sufficient.

It is essentially necessary that the parallel rays of light, after

traversing the Nicol’s prism, should be strongly condensed upon

the objects. The best apparatus for this is an achromatic con-

denser consisting of three lenses of about 3 lines focus and large

angle of aperture, such as exists in the large English microscopes.

Stops are only injurious for the present purpose ; but it is evi-

dent that the condenser must be capable of being placed in the

direction of the axis of the microscope, so that its focus may

fall exactly upon the objects. Amici, whose advice I solicited,

in case he might improve my arrangements, wrote to me in the

negative, considering my apparatus as satisfactory, but suggested

that I might substitute a colourless flint-glass plano-convex lens,

5 lines in diameter, and with the convex side downwards, for the

achromatic condenser. The result was perfectly satisfactory, espe-

cially when ordinary day-light was used, and by no means inferior

to that obtained with various achromatic condensers ; but when

sun-light was used, as described below, this lens was not so good

‘as the achromatic condenser. For the polarizing microscope to

yield a good image, the concentration of the light upon the

Polarizing Microscope in the Examination of Organic Bodies. 447

object must be so great, that delicate transparent objects,

such as anatomical vegetable preparations, must be almost in-

visible in the bright light of the field before the analyser is

applied; an amount of illumination such as is used in ordinary

microscopic observations is totally insufficient ; and this is the

principal reason why such imperfect results have been obtained

by most observers with the polarizing microscope.

With regard to the object-glass, those who have several at

hand will do best by using such as transmit most light. For

low powers, magnifying about 200 diameters, the better kind of

German object-glasses, e.g. the Nos. 1 and 2 of Keller’s micro-

scope, will answer every purpose; but where higher powers are

required, as the jth, 4th, and jth, the English glasses are very

much the best,especially those made by Ross. The highest object-

glasses will of course be used only for the most delicate objects,

in which minute details are to be investigated; but, when the

illumination is well managed, they transmit sufficient light to

allow of the most difficult object being seen distinctly.

Equally important with the arrangement of the polarizing

microscope, and the selection of the pieces of apparatus ensuring

the greatest intensity of the light, is the choice of the source of

the light used for illumination.

When the power required does not exceed 200 or 300 dia-

meters, and when the object exerts considerable polarizing power

(as, e.g., the membrane of most vegetable cells, the fibres of

spiral vessels, the granules of starch, &c.), common daylight is

sufficient ; and on many rather dark days in the winter I found

no difficulty in making these investigations. A far more favour-

able result is certainly obtained, on those days when there is full

sunshine, by inclining the mirror towards a part of the sky not

far from the sun. The light from white cumuli also affords

good illumination, except that the constant change of the bright-

ness interrupts observation and fatigues the eyes. These sources

of illumination, however, are insufficient in the case of very dif-

ficult objects, in which either a very high power is required,

or which act but feebly upon the polarized light; thus, to give

an instance in a well-known object, on illumination by ordinary

daylight I could distinctly recognize the double refraction pro-

duced by the silicious carapace of Pleurosigma angulatum, but

I could not detect the six-sided dots in it. In such cases it

requires a far more intense illumination to obtain a bright and

sharp image. In regard to this point, all may be accomplished

by adopting the arrangement of the solar microscope, the direct

light of the sun being received upon a mirror and allowed to fall

perpendicularly upon a ground-glass plate fixed in the shutter,

the condenser being so arranged that the image of this illumi-

448 H. von Mohl on the Arrangement of the

nated glass plate coincides with the object. When low powers

are used, this illumination may be too strong, which evil may

easily be remedied by altering the position of the condenser ;

but when the higher powers are used, and the objects are very

delicate, the results obtained with it are surprising. It is evi-

dent that there is no occasion to darken the room in which the

observations are made.

But, as all have not the privilege of occupying a detached

house, and the opportunity of making use of sun-light through-

out the day, and as we are often without bright sun-light, it

would be desirable to find a substitute in strong artificial illumi-

nation. Whether this is possible, I do not know. Experiments

made with lamp-light did not yield satisfactory results. How

far the application of Drummond’s light might answer the pur-

pose, I have not experimentally determined. I should, however,

have no doubt that good results might be obtained with Drum-

mond’s light, since those obtained with lamp-light are by no

means to. be entirely despised; and the question is not one

of the application of light .of the highest degree of intensity, as

with the solar microscope,—in the case of which, former experi-

ments convinced me that the light produced by the oxy-hydrogen

blowpipe and heated lime by no means forms a substitute for

sun-light.

I may take this opportunity of making a few remarks upon

the use of plates of selenite in observations with the polarizing

microscope. When one of these is placed between the polarizer

and the object, as is well known (the polarizer and analyzer

being crossed), the dark field of the microscope becomes light,

and presents one of the colours of Newton’s rings, according to

the thickness of the plate used. On viewing, under these cireum-

stances, a doubly refracting object lying in the focus of the

microscope, this, in a certain relative position to the prisms,

appears of a different colour from that of the field, often of great

brilliancy, and which passes into the complementary colour, when

either the selenite plate or the object is rotated 90°. It is usually

stated that the plate of selenite is of important value when the

object but slightly polarizes light and therefore cannot be di-

stinguished in the dark field of the microscope, or exhibits merely

very obscure indications of radiation of light. In this case, after

the insertion of the selenite plate in such manner that the object

appears of a different colour from that of the field, and, on the

rotation of the plate, passes into the complementary colour, the

doubly refracting power of the object is more distinctly evident.

Now I will not deny that, in many doubtful instances, this pro-

ceeding leads to a decisive result ; but it is very frequently unsa-

tisfactory, because the selenite plates are too thick, and thus act

Polarizing Microscope in the Examination of Organic Bodies. 449

very strongly upon the light coming from the polarizer, rendering

the field too luminous, and imparting to it too tense a colour.

In these cases, the difference between the intense colour of the

field and the but slightly differing colour of a very delicate and

feebly polarizing object is so difficult to detect, in many instances,

that the use-of the entire process is very doubtful. On the other

hand I cannot too strongly recommend for this purpose the use

of very thin plates of mica instead of the selenite. Mica being

so tough and readily split, renders it an easy matter to separate

such thin laminz that, when inserted between the polarizer and

the object, the field is not coloured, but merely appears more

luminous; so that when a very thin plate is used, it becomes

dark-grey, and the thicker the plates, the whiter the colour. If

a doubly refracting object is then placed under the microscope ;

according to its position as regards the plate of mica, it becomes

more or less brilliantly white, or more or less dark-black. These

so strongly contrasted degrees of brilliancy of the object, and

their difference from the uniform grey colour of the field, are

more easily and distinctly perceptible to the eye than differences

of colour; so that in many cases in which, when the selenite

plate is used, a doubtful result is obtained, the use of the plate

of mica is successful. A satisfactory result, however, is only ob-

tained when the thickness of the plate of mica and its corre-

sponding action upon the polarized light coincide with the

intensity of the doubly refracting power of the object. The

more feeble the latter, the thinner must be the plate of mica, and

the less luminous it must render the field. A series of four or five

plates, the thinnest of which brightens the field but little, whilst

the thickest produces considerable brightness but no colour, is

sufficient for all cases.

In a paper upon the examination of vegetable tissues by the aid

of polarized light (‘ Ann. Nat. Hist.’ 1858, vol.i.), I have shown

that different vegetable elementary organs, having the same struc-

ture but of different chemical composition, are opposed in their

action upon polarized light, one exhibiting positive, the other

negative colours. ‘To recognize this relation, the diminution of

the grey colour of the object produced by the plate of mica, to

a more or less deep black, or its augmentation to white, may be

used ; and the application of the mica plates deserves the pre-

ference in all those cases in which the object acts but feebly

upon polarized light. In the case of objects, however, which

possess this property to a considerable degree, the selenite plates

are preferable, because the contrast of the brilliant comple-

mentary colours, apparent under these circumstances, is very

striking. To produce these colours clearly, a series of selenite

plates of increasing thicknesses should also be kept, because,

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.3. Vol. iv. 29

OND 280 ¥ Bibliographical Notice.

with objects which strongly polarize light, thicker plates are

requisite for this purpose. I therefore use plates which render

the field of the microscope of a red colour of the first to the fourth

order. In the examination of the elementary organs of plants,

the red of the Ist and 2nd order was sufficient, and I seldom

found it requisite to use the red of the 3rd and 4th order.

These plates are best inserted between the polarizer and the

condenser. Hence these pieces of apparatus of the polarizing

microscope must be separate and sufficiently apart to allow of

the interposition of the plates, which must be capable of rotation

horizontally.

It is scarcely necessary to remark that it is best to cement

the plates of mica and selenite between two thin glass plates, and

to fix them with paste or some such substance in a circular form.

In conclusion, a word upon the preparation of organic bodies

for examination under the polarizing microscope.—As is well

known, many organic bodies can only be examined microscopi-

cally under water; these are prepared for the polarizing microscope

in exactly the same manner as for the ordinary microscope. In

those objects, however, which may be dried without structural

change, as sections of vegetable cellular tissue, starch-granules,

&e., it is far better to place them in some more highly refractive

liquid than water, as oil of turpentine, or Canada-balsam ; the

more nearly the refractive power of the organic body and of the

“wena liquid agree, the more transparent does the object

ecome, and the more difficult to be distinguished under the

ordinary microscope, whilst it yields a so much more beautifully

distinct image in the polarizing microscope. Very few struc-

tures form an exception to this rule—such as the silicious cara-

ace of the Diatomacee after the application of a red heat, which

in fact strictly speaking cannot then be considered as organic

bodies ; these are best examined in the dry state.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICE.

Ceylon: an Account of the Island, Physical, Historical, and Topo-

graphical; with Notices of its Natural History, Antiquities,

and Productions. By Sir James Emerson Tennent, K.G.,

LL.D., &c. 2 vols. Longman & Co..

Tue natural history of the island of Ceylon is a subject so extensive

and so important, whether regarded in a scientific or in a commercial

point of view, that we must hail with pleasure every new contribution

to our knowledge of its animal and vegetable productions ; while such

is its mineral wealth and the importance of its gems, that we are no

longer surprised at the early traditions of their splendour and pro-

fusion having given rise to fabulous stories of their abundance and

Bibliographical Notice, 451

value, Regarding the fauna of Ceylon, little has been published in

any collective form, with the exception of a volume by Dr. Kelaart,

entitled ‘Prodromus Faunze Zeilanice,’ several valuable papers by

Mr. Edgar L. Layard, Mr. J. Nietner, and Dr. Kelaart in this

Journal, and also some very imperfect lists appended to Pridham’s

compiled account of the island. Knox, in the charming narra-

tive of his captivity, published in the reign of Charles II., has

devoted a chapter to the animals of Ceylon; and Dr. Davy has

described the principal reptiles ; but, with these exceptions, the sub-

ject is almost untouched in works relating to the colony. Yet a

more than ordinary interest attaches to the inquiry, since Ceylon,

instead of presenting, as is generally assumed, an identity between

its fauna and that of Southern India, exhibits a remarkable diversity

of type taken in connexion with the limited area over which they are

distributed. The island, in fact, may be regarded as the centre of a

geographical circle possessing within itself forms whose allied spe+

cies radiate far into the temperate regions of the north, as well as

into Africa, Australia, and the isles of the Indian Archipelago. “In

the chapters that I have devoted to its elucidation,” says Sir James,

**T have endeavoured to interest others in the subject by describing

my own impressions and observations with fidelity and with as much

accuracy as may be expected from a person possessing, as I do, no

greater knowledge of zoology and the other physical sciences than is

ordinarily possessed by any educated gentleman. It.was my good

fortune, however, in my journeys to have the companionship of

friends familiar with many branches of natural science—the late Dr.

Gardner, Mr. Edgar L. Layard (an accomplished zoologist), and others;

and I was thus enabled to collect on the spot many interesting

facts relative to the. structure and habits of the numerous tribes of

animals. These, chastened by the corrections of my fellow-travellers,

and established by the examination of collections made in the colony

and by subsequent comparison with specimens contained in museums

at home, I have ventured to submit as faithful outlines of the fauna

of Ceylon.”

Such is Sir James Tennent’s modest introduction to the work

before us; and most efficiently and delightfully has he accomplished

his task: careful research and profound scholarship give value to

every page; and the accuracy of his descriptions is surpassed only by

the elegance of his language and the felicity of his illustrations.

We will, however, as we lightly skim through the book as far as it

belongs to our own subject, briefly indicate the scenes which he

describes.

“Ceylon, from whatever direction it may be approached, unfolds

a scene of loveliness and grandeur unsurpassed, if it be rivalled, by

any land in the universe. The traveller from Bengal, leaving be-

hind the melancholy delta of the Ganges and the torrid coast of

Coromandel, or the adventurer from Europe, recently inured to the

sands of Egypt and the scorched headlands of Arabia, is alike en-

_ tranced by the vision of beauty which expands before him as the

island rises from the sea,—its lofty mountains ony luxuriant

452 Bibliographical Notice.

forests, and its shores, till they meet the ripple of the waves, briglit

with the foliage of perpetual spring. The Brahmins designated it

by the epithet of Lanka, ‘the resplendent,’ and in their dreamy

rhapsodies extolled it as the region of mystery and sublimity; the

Buddhist poets gracefully apostrophized it as ‘a pearl upon the

brow of India;’ the Chinese knew it as the ‘island of jewels ;’

the Greeks as the ‘land of the hyacinth and ruby;’ the Maho-

metans, in the intensity of their delight, assigned it to the exiled

parents of mankind as a new Elysium, to console them for the loss

of Paradise; and the early navigators of Europe, as they returned

dazzled with its gems and laden with its costly spices, propagated

the fable that far to seaward the very breeze that blew from it was

redolent of perfume. In later and less imaginative times Ceylon has

still maintained the renown of its attractions, and exhibits in all

its varied charms ‘the highest conceivable development of Indian

nature.’ ”” ,

The general features of the country are given with an accuracy

the very truthfulness of which imparts beauty to the description, and

makes us wish, ‘at least for once, in person to witness a scene so lovely,

to have one glimpse of a region so paradisiacal.

The climate of Ceylon, from its physical configuration and insular

detachment, contrasts favourably with that of the great Indian pen-

insula. Owing to the moderate dimensions of the island, the eleva-

tion of its mountains, the very short space during which the sun is

passing over it in his regression from or approach to the solstices,

and its surrounding seas being nearly uniform in temperature, it is

exempt from the extremes of heating and cooling to which the neigh-

bouring continent of India is exposed. The range of the thermo-

meter exhibits no violent changes, and never indicates a temperature

insupportably high. The mean, on an annual average, scarcely ex-

ceeds 80° at Colombo, though in exceptional years it has risen to 86°.

The line is faint that divides the seasons. No period of the year is

divested of its seed-time and harvest in some parts of the island ; and

the ripe fruit hangs on the same branches that are garlanded with

opening buds. Moreover, as every plant has its own period for the

production of its flowers and fruit, each month is characterized by its

own peculiar flora.

April is by far the most oppressive portion of the year. A mirage

fills the hollows with mimic water; the heat in close apartments be-

comes extreme, and every living creature flies to the shade from the

suffocating glare of mid-day. At the end of the month the mean

temperature attains its greatest height, being about 88° in the day,

and 10° lower at night. a

May is signalized by the great event, the change of the monsoon,

and all the grand pheenomena that accompany its approach.

‘Long before the wished-for period arrives, the verdure produced

by the previous rains becomes almost obliterated by the burning

droughts of March and April. The deciduous trees shed their

foliage, the plants cease to put forth fresh leaves, and all vegetable

life languishes under the unwholesome heat. The grass withers on

Bibliographical Notice, 453

the baked and cloven earth, and red dust settles on the branches of

the thirsty brushwood. ‘The insects, deprived of their accustomed

food, disappear under ground or hide beneath the decaying bark ;

the water-beetles bury themselves in the hardened mud of the pools ;

and the Helices retire into the crevices of the stones or the hollows

amongst the roots of the trees, closing the apertures of their shells

with the hybernating epiphragm. Butterflies are no longer seen

hovering over the flowers, the birds appear fewer and less joyous,

and the wild animals and crocodiles, driven by the drought from

their accustomed retreats, wander through the jungle, and even ven-

ture to approach the village wells in search of water. Man equally

languishes under the general exhaustion ; ordinary exertion becomes

distasteful ; and the native Singhalese, although inured to the climate,

move with lassitude and reluctance.

“Meanwhile the air becomes loaded to saturation with aquecus

vapour drawn up by the augmented force of evaporation acting

vigorously over land and sea: the sky, instead of its brilliant blue,

assumes the sullen tint of lead, and not a breath disturbs the motion-

less rest of the clouds that hang on the lower range of hills. At

length, generally about the middle of the month, but frequently

earlier, the sultry suspense is broken by the wished-for change.......

As the monsoon draws near, the days become more overcast and hot;

banks of clouds rise over the ocean to the west ; and, in the peculiar

twilight, the eye is attracted by the unusual whiteness of the sea-birds

that sweep along the strand to seize tlie objects flung ashore by the

rising surf. At last the sudden lightnings flash among the hills, and

shoot through the clouds that overhang the sea—and, with a crash

of thunder, the monsoon bursts over the thirsty land, not in showers

or partial torrents, but in a wide deluge, that in the course of a few

hours overtops the river banks and spreads in inundations over every

level plain.”

Snow is unknown in Ceylon; fail occasionally falls in the Kan-

dyan hills; and in 1852 the hail which thus fell was of such size

that half-a-dozen lumps would fill a tumbler. ‘‘ In shape they were

oval and compressed, but the mass appeared to have formed a

hexagonal pyramid, the base of which was two inches in diameter

and about half an inch thick, gradually thinning towards the edge.

They were tolerably solid internally, each containing about the size

of a pea of clear ice in the centre, but the sides and angles were

spongy and flocculent, as if the particles had been driven together

by the force of the wind, and had coalesced at the instant of

contact.”

*« A curious pheenomenon, to which the name of ‘ anthelia’ has been

given, is to be seen in singular beauty at early morning in Ceylon.

When the light is intense, and the shadows proportionally dark—

when the sun is near the horizon, and the shadow of a person walk-

ing is thrown upon the dewy grass—each particle furnishes a double

reflexion from its concave and convex surfaces, and to the spectator

his own figure, but more particularly his head, appears surrounded

by a halo as vivid as if radiated from diamonds.” Scoresby describes

the occurrence of a similar pheenomenon in the arctic seas,

454, Bibliographical Notice.

The variation of the tides is so slight that navigation is almost

unaffected by it, the ordinary rise and fall being only 18 or 24 inches,

with an increase of about a third at spring tides. On both sides of

the island, during the south-west monsoon, a broad expanse of the

sea assumes a red tinge “considerably brighter than brick-dust ;”

and this is confined to a space so distinct, that a line seems to sepa-

rate it from the green water which flows on either side. On obtain-

ing a portion of the water so coloured, and examining it under the

microscope, it proved to be filled with infusoria.

Nearly four parts of the island are undulating plains, slightly

diversified by offsets from the mountain-system which entirely covers

the remaining fifth. Every district, from the depths of the valleys

to the summits of the highest mountains, is clothed with perennial

foliage ; and even the sand-drifts, to the ripple on the sea-line, are

carpeted with verdure, and sheltered from the sunbeams by the cool

‘shadows of the palm-groves.

“Although the luxuriant vegetation of Ceylon has at all times

‘been the theme of enthusiastic admiration, its flora does not probably

exceed 3000 Pheenogamic plants. The littoral vegetation of the sea-

border exhibits little variation from that common throughout the

Eastern Archipelago; but it wants the Phenix paludosa, a dwarf

date-palm which literally covers the islands of the Sunderbunds at

the delta of the Ganges. Retiring from the strand, there are groups

of Sonneratia, Avicennia, Heritiera, and Pandanus or Screw-pine.

“A little further inland the sandy plains are covered with thorny

jungle; and wherever man has encroached on the solitude, groves of

cocoa-nut palms mark the vicinity of his habitations. Remote from

the sea, the level country of the north has a flora almost identical

with that of Coromandel; but the arid nature of the Ceylon soil,

and its drier atmosphere, is attested by the greater proportion of

Euphorbias and fleshy shrubs, as well as by the wiry and stunted

nature of the trees, their smaller leaves, and thorny stems and

branches.

“Conspicuous amongst them are acacias of many kinds: Cassia

fistula, the wood-apple (Feronia elephantum), and the mustard-tree

of Scripture (Salvadora Persica), which extends from Ceylon to the

‘Holy Land. The margosa (Azadirachta Indica), the satin-wood,

the Ceylon oak, and the tamarind and ebony, are exaniples of the

larger trees ; and in the extreme south and west the Palmyra palm

takes the place of the cocoa-nut, and not only lines the shore, but

fills the landscape on every side with its shady and prolific groves.

. Proceeding southward on the western coast, the acacias dis-

appear, and the greater profusion of vegetation, the taller growth of

the timber, and the darker tinge of the foliage, all attest the influ-

ence of the increased moisture both from the rivers and the rains.

The brilliant Izvoras, Erythrinas, Buteas, Jonesias, Hibiscus, and a

variety of flowering shrubs of similar beauty, enliven the forests with

their splendour ; and the seeds of the cinnamon, carried by the birds

from the cultivated gardens near the coasts, have germinated in the

sandy soil, and diversify the woods with the fresh verdure of its

polished leaves and delicately tinted shoots. |

Bibliographical Notice. 455

“‘Pepper-worts festoon the forest. Along with these the trunks

of the larger trees are profusely covered with other delicate creepers,

chiefly Convolvuli and Ipomeas ; and the pitcher-plant (Nepenthes

distillatoria) lures the passer-by to halt and conjecture the probable

uses of the curious mechanisia by means of which it distils a quantity

of limpid fluid into the vegetable vases at the extremity of its leaves.

The Orchidez suspend their pendulous flowers from the angles of

branches; whilst the bare roots and the lower part of the stem are

occasionally covered with fungi of the most gaudy colours, bright

red, yellow, and purple.

“Of the east side of the island the botany has never yet been

examined by any scientific resident ; but the productions of the hill

country have been largely explored, and present features altogether

distinct from those of the plains. For the first two or three thou-

sand feet the dissimilarity is less perceptible to an unscientific eye ;

but as we descend, the difference becomes apparent, in the larger

size of the leaves, and the nearly uniform colour of the foliage, ex-

cept where the scarlet shoots of the iron-wood tree (Mesua ferrea)

Seem like flowers in their blood-red hue. Here the broad leaves of

the wild plantains (Musa teztilis) penetrate the soil among the

broken rocks; and in moist spots the graceful bamboo flourishes in

groups, whose feathery foliage waves like the plumes of the ostrich.

“Here peaches, cherries, and other European fruit trees, grow

freely ; but as they become evergreens in this summer climate; as

if exhausted by perennial excitement, and deprived of their winter

repose, they refuse to ripen their fruit.

‘The tea-plant has been raised with entire success in the hills on

the estate of the Messrs. Worms, at Rothschild, in Pusilawa; but

the want of any skilful manipulators to collect and prepare the leaves

renders it hopeless to attempt any experiment on a large scale, until

assistance can be secured from China to conduct the preparation.

** Still ascending, at an elevation of 6500 feet, as we approach the

mountain plateau of Neura-ellia, the dimensions of the trees again

diminish; the stems and branches are covered with Orchidese and

mosses, and around them spring up herbaceous plants and balsams,

with here and there broad expanses covered with Acanthacee, whose

seeds are the favourite food of the jungle-fowl, which are always in

-perfection during the ripening of the Nilloo. It is in these regions

that the tree-ferns (Alsophila gigantea) rise from the damp hollows

and carry their gracefully plumed heads sometimes to the height of

20 feet. At length in the loftiest range of the hills the Rhododendrons

‘are discovered—no longer delicate bushes as in Europe, but timber-

trees 50 to 70 feet in height, and of corresponding dimensions,—

every branch covered with a blaze of crimson flowers. In these

forests are also to be met with some species of Michelia, the Indian

representatives of the Magnolias of South America, several arboreous

Myrtacee and Ternstreemiacee, the most common of which is the

camelia-like Gordonia Ceylonica. These and Vaccinia Gaultheria,

Goughia, and Gomphandra establish the affinity between the vegeta-

tion of this region and that of the Malabar ranges, the Khasia and

Lower Himalaya.” a a, ; ’

456 Bibliographical Notice,

The list of Mammalia belonging to the Singhalese fauna is by

no means numerous. Troops of monkeys inhabit the forests, career-

ing in ceaseless chase through the loftiest trees; but these are all

ranged under five species, four of which belong to one group, the

Wanderoos ; the other is the little, graceful, grimacing Rilawa (Ma-

cacus pileatus), the universal pet and favourite of both natives and

Europeans. The only other quadrumanous animal is the little Loris,

which, from its sluggish habits, has acquired the name of the ‘‘ Ceylon

Sloth.” The multitude of dats is one of the features of the evening

landscape: they abound in every cave and subterranean passage, in

the tunnels on the highways, in the galleries of the fortifications, in

the roofs of the bungalows, and the ruins of every temple and build-

ing. At sunset they issue from their diurnal retreats, and roam

through the twilight in search of crepuscular insects; and as night

approaches, and the lights in the room attract the night-flying

Lepidoptera, the bats sweep round the dinner-table and carry off

their tiny prey within the glitter of the lamps. The colours of some

are brilliant as the plumage of a bird.

Of the Carnivora the one most dreaded by the natives is the dear,

which makes the depths of the forests its habitual retreat. Leopards,

or rather panthers (Felix pardus), are the only formidable members

of the tiger race in Ceylon, but they are neither very numerous nor

very dangerous, as they seldom attack man. The jackals (Canis

aureus) in the low countries hunt in packs; and the small number

of hares in the districts they infest is ascribed to their depredations.

They are occasionally subject to hydrophobia; and instances are

frequent of cattle being bitten by them, and dying in consequence.

Of the Mungoos or Ichneumons five species have been described,

some of which feed upon the most poisonous serpents. Numbers

of smaller quadrupeds enliven the forests and lowland plains with

their graceful movements. Squirrels are in great variety ; and of the

*< flying squirrel’’ (Sctwropterus) there are two species, of which one

(S. Layardii) is peculiar to the island. Rats are abundant, and of

several kinds, among which the tree-rat and the coffee-rat may be

noticed ; these latter inhabit the forests, and, like the Lemmings of

Norway and Lapland, migrate in vast numbers. The Malabar coolies

are so fond of their flesh that they evince a preference for those

districts in which the coffee plantations are subject to these incur-

sions. They fry the rats in oil, or convert them into curry. The

** pig-rat,”’ or Bandicoot (Mus bandicota), likewise furnishes a dish

relished by the planters.

Of the Hdentata the only example in Ceylon is the scaly ant-eater

(Manis pentadactyla), usually known by its Malay name of Pengolin,

a word indicative of its faculty of rolling itself up into a compact ball ;

these live principally upon the termite ants. When at liberty, they

burrow in the ground to a depth of seven or eight feet, where they

reside i pairs.

Four species of deer, some varieties of the humped ox which have

been introduced from the opposite continent of India, and the buf-

falo, represent the Ruminantia. The elephant and the wild boar

are the only Pachyderms in the island. Among the rarer mammals

Bibliographical Notice. 457

the Dugong (Halicore Dugong, F. Cuv.) may be. enumerated as

occurring on various points of the coast.

Of the Birds of the island upwards of three hundred and twenty

species have been indicated by the persevering labours of Dr. Tem-

pleton, Dr. Kelaart, and Mr. Layard; but many yet remain to be

identified. In fact, to the eye of a stranger their prodigious numbers,

and especially the myriads of water-fowl, which, notwithstanding the

presence of the crocodiles, people the lakes and marshes in the

eastern provinces, form one of the marvels of Ceylon.

Among the Reptiles, one of the earliest, if not the first remarkable

animal to startle a.stranger, is the Iguana, a huge lizard of from four

to five feet in length, which may be seen at noon-day searching for

ants and insects in the middle of the highway and along the fences,

This, however, is but the stranger’s introduction to innumerable

varieties of lizards, all most attractive in their sudden movements,

and some unsurpassed in the brilliancy of their colouring, which

bask on banks, dart over rocks, and peer curiously out from the

chinks of every ruined wall. The true Chameleon is found, but not

_in great numbers. The Ceratophora are likewise remarkable ; but

the most familiar and attractive of the class are the Geckoes, which

frequent the sitting-rooms, and, being furnished with pads to each toe,

are enabled to ascend perpendicular walls and adhere to glass and

ceilings. Crocodiles are abundant, and afford a fertile theme, as do

tortoises and turtles. Of Snakes the Singhalese profess to distinguish

a great many kinds; but so cautiously do serpents make their ap-

pearance that the surprise of long residents is invariably expressed

at the rarity with which they are to be seen. Davy, whose attention

was carefully directed to the poisonous serpents of Ceylon, came to

the conclusion that but four out of twenty species examined by him

were venomous, and of these only two, the 7%c-polonga (Dabota ele-

gans) and the Cobra de Capello (Naja tripudians), were capable of

inflicting a wound likely to be fatal to man. The third is the Cara-

willa (Trigonocephalus hypnale), a brown snake of about twelve

inches in length; and for the fourth the Singhalese have no name

in their language,—a proof that it is neither deadly nor abundant.

In the numerous marshes there are many varieties of Frogs, which,

both by their colours and extraordinary size, are calculated to excite

the surprise of strangers ; the graceful Tree-frogs (Hy/a) may likewise

be found in great numbers crouching under broad leaves to protect

them from the sun. They possess in a high degree the power of

changing their colour; and one which had seated itself on the gilt

pillar of a dinner-lamp was scarcely to be distinguished from the

or molu to which it clung.

An interesting chapter is devoted to the fishes of Ceylon, number-

ing upwards of six hundred species and varieties. The notices con-

cerning the Mollusca, Insecta, Crustacea, Arachnida, Myriapoda,

and Radiata are likewise important and copious. Lists are given,

which want of space precludes the possibility of more than adverting

to. We trust, however, that we have said enough to indicate, at

least, the copious stores of information contained in this really

458 Zooloyical Society :-—

valuable addition to our literature: We have of course confined

our remarks to that department of the work which is more imme-

diately devoted to the natural history of the country ; and yet this

is by no means the scope of the book before us. ‘The Singhalese

chronicles have been ransacked, Buddhism and Buddhist monuments

explored with careful minuteness, population and caste, sciences and

the social arts, agriculture and commerce, manufactures and litera-

ture, are in turn treated of, and the medieval history of Ceylon

traced with the hand of a master and an erudition rarely brought

to bear upon such a subject.

The second voluine is devoted to the modern history and resources

of the country, including a chapter upon Elephants, replete with

anecdote, and illustrated, as indeed is the rest of the work, with

woodcuts of no ordinary excellence.

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES,

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

Jan. 25, 1859.—E, W. H. Holdsworth, Esq., F.L.S., in the Chair.

Notes oN THE Hapsirs or THE MyYcTERIA AUSTRALIS OR

New Houvann Jasiru (Gigantic Crane oF THE CoLo-

nists). By Greorcre Bennett. i

A short time since, I purchased this rare bird, which was brought

alive to Sydney from Port Macquarie, and so little being known

respecting its habits, I considered the following notes might be in-

teresting to the Society. It appears to be a young male, and walks

about the yard of the house quite domesticated, making no attempt

to fly, nor showing any inclination to leave its domicile. These

birds have a wide range over the colony, more particularly about

the northern coasts of Australia, and are seen occasionally within —

the heads and about the sand-banks of the Clarence and Macleay

‘Rivers ; they are very difficult of approach, and consequently but

few have been obtained, this being the first specimen ever brought

alive to Sydney. Among the principal residents in the interior, some

inform me that they have only seen four, others only one, during a

residence of from twenty-five to thirty years in different parts of the

colony. In Leichhardt’s Expedition (according to the account of

Mr. Murphy, now residing in Sydney) only two were seen ; and these

could not be approached sufficiently near to be shot. In 1839 a

specimen was shot on Hunter’s River, and another on the north

‘shore near Sydney about three years since, both of which were pre-

sented to the Australian Museum. The person who shot the last

bird had the eee difficulty in procuring it, from its being so very

shy and watchful: he was obliged to follow it for several days in

its haunts about the salt-water creeks, until he could get sufficiently

near to shoot it, which, being a good marksman, he achieved as soon

as he could approach within range. Both these specimens were full-

Mr. G. Bennett on the Mycteria australis. 459

grown males, and in fine and brilliant adult plumage. These birds

being so rarely seen, and difficult to procure when seen, are valuable

as specimens when dead, and much more so when alive. Many of the

residents of the northern districts had seen the bird, but rarely, and

at a distance, and were aware how difficult it was to procure it ;

but none had ever seen it in captivity before, and it was therefore

regarded with great interest. ‘The number of skins of this bird I

have seen during my residence of twenty-two years in the colony

only amounts to four. The bird is very graceful: its attitudes, and

bearing, whether in a state of repose, stalking rapidly, or walking

gently over a lawn or yard with its measured, noiseless steps, have a

combination of grace and elegance, and it displays an independence

of manner that might be expected in a bird so wild and roaming in

its habits. It is gentle and good-tempered, soon gets reconciled to

captivity, and seems to take pleasure in being noticed and admired,

remaining very quiet to be looked at—keeping a bright eye upon the

spectator, however, during the time. Although, when first seen, it

has an uncouth appearance, from the large size of the mandibles in

proportion to the body, yet on a closer acquaintance its manner

wins upon you, anda feeling of attachment arises towards it from

its placid, tame, domesticated manner, elegance of form, graceful

carriage, and beautiful metallic brilliancy of plumage, more espe-

cially over the head and neck.

This bird had been in captivity four months previous to its arrival

in Sydney, having been captured by the blacks. It permits any one

to approach it, only timidly moving away when an attempt is made

to touch it. It sometimes stands quite erect, or on one leg, with the

other thrown out ; or rests upon the tarsi, like the Emeu and Mooruk,

and again upon one leg, with the bill inclined upon the breast. It

was very hungry on its arrival at my house, and with the greatest

facility devoured 15 lb. of beef cut into small pieces, placed in a

tub of water, or caught the meat in the mandibles when thrown to

it. It also feeds on fish and reptiles. When the food is hard or

gristly, it is reyeeted from the mandibles after trying to masticate it,

and bruised with the point of the beak until it becomes sufficiently

soft to be swallowed. It feeds generally in the mornings and even-

ings ; and although the mandibles look so large, it picks up the

smallest object with great readiness, and clatters the mandibles with

a loud noise when catching flies. It preens its feathers, and removes

any dirt or insects from them very neatly with the bill, accompanying

the action with a degree of ease and grace pleasing to observe. When

a tub of water was placed near it, it placed one leg in it; and after

drinking, filled its bill with water and threw it out again, as if washing

out the mandibles. The eye is very large and remarkably brilliant,

and yet imparts to the bird a great docility of expression, making it

appear—what it is—an amiable bird, familiar with all around it,

liking to court admiration, yet on the watch for any act of aggres-

sion. It appears pleased to see any stranger, and evinces but little

fear. The horses coming into the yard even close to it, or any

noise, do not seem to annoy it; it only moves gently out of the way.

460 Zoological Society :—

When suddenly startled, it will flap its long and powerful wings as

if preparing for flight; and it may be regarded as a bird of flight,

the whole bulk of the body being so light in comparison with its

powerful organs of flight. This bird is partial to salt-water creeks

and lagoons. It is usually seen in such localities on the Hunter, Mac-

leay, and Clarence Rivers, which consist, near the entrance and for

some miles distant, of salt water with numerous sand-banks, where

these birds may be occasionally observed busily engaged in fishing.

The beak of this bird is large, broad, conical, and pointed ; the lower

mandible is slightly curved upwards ; the colour is black. The head

is large, and neck thick; both the head and neck are of a rich

deep glossy green, changing when it reaches the occiput into beau-

tiful iridescent colours of violet and purple, which, when viewed

under a brilliant sunshine or in a changing light, display the irides-

cent tints in a most brilliant manner, shining with a metallic efful-

gence equal to that seen in the Peacock. The greater wing-coverts,

scapularies, lower part of the back and tail, dark brown mixed with

rich bluish green, which changes in the adult to a rich glossy green

tinged with a golden lustre. The smaller wing-coverts, lower part

of the neck and back, and upper part of the breast white speckled

with ashy brown, which becomes white in the adult; lower part of

the breast, thighs, and inner part of the wings white. Eyes brilliant,

and dark hazel in colour. ‘The legs are blackish with a dark tinge

of red, becoming in the adult of a bright red colour, which, as I have

been informed, when the bird flies with the legs stretched out, looks

like a long red tail. The legs are usually dirty with excremental

matter, imparting to them a white appearance, so that the natural

colour is seldom seen, except when they just emerge from the water.

It is a large feeder, and these birds must consume, in their native

haunts, a great quantity of fishes and reptiles. It measures 3 feet

10 inches to the top of the head, and is not yet full-grown ; they are

said to attain 4 to 5 feet in height. It is shy in disposition and diffi-

cult of approach in its wild state ; this can readily be supposed when

it is observed in captivity ; for although very docile and readily tamed,

still the keen, watchful eye appears always upon you, with a brilliant

and piercing look, which causes a feeling of the impossibility of

escaping its penetrating glance. Its feeding-grounds and places of

rest being about sand-pits, sand-banks, and exposed morasses near the

sea-coasts, it is impossible to approach this wary bird without being

seen. The first evening it was at my house, seeking for a roosting

place, it walked into the hall, gazed at the gas-lamp which had just

been lighted, and then proceeded to walk up-stairs, but not liking

the ascent, quietly walked down again and returned into the yard,

and afterwards went to roost in the coach-house between the carriages,

to which place it now retires regularly every evening soon after

dark. It is always observed to face the sun, and moves about the

yard, following the course of that luminary ; it may always be found

in that part of the yard where the sun is shining, and with the

face invariably towards it. When hungry, it follows the cook about

.(who usually feeds it); and if she has neglected its food, looks into

Miscellaneous. 461

the kitchen as if to remind her of the neglect, and waits quietly, but

with a searching eye, during the time the meat is cutting up, until

it is fed. It is amusing to observe this bird catch flies: he remains

very quiet, as if asleep, and on a fly passing him, it is snapped up in

his beak in an instant. The only time I observed any manifestation

of anger in him was when the “ Mooruks” were introduced into the

yard where he was parading about: these rapid, fussy, noisy birds

running about his range excited his indignation ; for on their coming

near him, he slightly elevated the brilliant feathers of the head, the

eyes became very brilliant, he ruffled his feathers, and clattered his

mandibles as if about to try their sword-like edge upon the intruding

** Mooruks ;” buthis anger subsided with these demonstrations, except

an occasional flapping of his powerful wings. One day, however, on

one of the ** Mooruks” approaching too near him, he seized it with

his mandibles by the neck, on which the ‘‘ Mooruk” ran away and

did not appear in any way injured.

MISCELLANEOUS.

On the Electrical Organs of Fishes. By M. Scuuurze.

Tue remarkable researches of M. Bilharz upon the Malapterurus

commenced a new era in the history of the electrical fishes, by the

discovery of the so-called electrical nervous plates. The subsequent

works of MM. Kolliker, Ecker, Kupffer, and Keferstein tend to

show that these plates exist in all the electrical fishes. M. Schultze

now furnishes us with more exact details upon these interesting

organs in the Torpedo.

In their microscopic appearance, the prisms of the Torpedo exactly

resemble those of the Gymnotus; nevertheless the employment of

the microscope soon shows some remarkable differences of structure

in them. ‘The transverse partitions, which in the Gymnoti are

formed by fibrous conjunctive tissue, present a far more delicate tex-

ture in the Torpedos, being composed of gelatinous conjunctive tissue

or mucous tissue (Schleimgewebe). This difference, however, is in

relation to the great development which the gelatinous conjunctive

tissue in general acquires in the organs of the Plagiostomi. These

partitions are traversed by vessels and nerves, like the more resistant

and fibrous walls of the prisms. In the spaces enclosed between the

gelatinous transverse septa, other transverse partitions, of far greater

solidity, are arranged ; these are, properly speaking, the transverse

septa hitherto indicated by different authors. A gelatinous partition

therefore alternates regularly with a more solid one; and in this

latter M. Schultze recognizes an electrical plate.

Hitherto the gelatinous partitions (the true septa, according to

M. Schultze) were regarded as spaces filled with a liquid, in which

the nerves and vessels were freely suspended. Pacini, and after him’

Remak and Kolliker, perceived that in each of these supposed spaces

the nerves form a delicate network applied against the Jower surface

of each of the solid partitions (electrical plates of Schultze). This

arrangement is confirmed by Schultze, who says that the nerves

462 Miscellaneous.

always adhere to the ventral surface of the electrical plate, whilst the

dorsal surface is completely free. The nervous network of the infe-

agrees perfectly with the figure given of it by M. Kolliker, and which

appears to be intimately united with the substance of the electrical

plate. These meshes are of extreme fineness, and can only be distin-

guished by means of a high magnifying power. The electrical plate

itself (septum of authors) is a perfectly transparent homogeneous

plate ; its thickness is only 0°001 to 0°002 line, and it presents here

and there a few scattered nuclei, It is hardly possible to give a po-

sitive proof of the continuity of tissue which M. Schultze assumes to

exist between this plate and the minute ramifications of the nervous

network, for the latter is of extreme tenuity. However, it is impos-

sible to separate the nervous network as a continuous layer from the

plate. The author depends principally upon chemical considerations

in claiming for these plates the part of electrical plates. In fact,

they are not formed of conjunctive tissue, but are of an albuminous

nature. Under the action of a solution of sugar and sulphuric acid,

they acquire a rose-colour, like the electrical plates of other electrical

fishes. Ebullition in water, which dissolves the conjunctive tissue of

the longitudinal walls of the prisms and the transverse gelatinous

septa, separates the plates from each other. These facts are suffi-

cient to show that Kolhiker was wrong in considering these plates as

of the nature of conjunctive tissue.

_ Relying on the preceding investigations of R. Wagner and Pacini,

without having examined the Torpedo for himself, Bilharz thought

that the homogeneous membranes with scattered nuclei, of these

fishes, might be compared with the electrical plates of Malapterurus.

This assimilation now appears to be well founded. Schultze, like

Leydig, certainly shows that not only nuclei but also true cells with

a very transparent membrane are found here and there in the homo-

geneous plates of the.Torpedos, while nuclei alone are met with in

the electrical plates of Gymnotus and Malapterurus. But this dif-

ference is evidently of no importance. The author thinks, moreover,

that these nuclei and cells are of purely embryonal signification, in-

asmuch as these elements would be destined to secrete the funda-

mental or essential substance of the plate in which the nervous fibrillee

terminate. In this point of view, the electrical plate would only be

a kind of tabular development of the axial cylinder,

The investigations of M. Schultze furnish a new confirmation of

the remarkable result previously enunciated by Kupffer and Kefer-

stein, that, in all electrical fishes, that face of the electrical plate to

which the nerves adhere is turned to the negative, and the free face

to the positive side of the fish.

M. Schultze terminates his memoir with some profound chemical

investigations upon the electrical organ of the Torpedos and the

pseudo-electric organ of the Rays, Amongst the substances detected

we shall indicate, especially, urea in very large quantities, syntonine,

and a peculiar albuminous body.—<Abhandl. der naturforsch. Ge-

selisch, zu Halle, 1859; Bibl, de Geneve, 1859, Bull. Scient, p. 83.

Miscellaneous. 463

Researches upon some of the lower Marine Animals.

By R. Levexarr and A, PaGENSTECHER.

Under this title, MM. Leuckart and Pagenstecher have published

the results of some investigations made at Heligoland. The following

are some of the most interesting of these notes :—

Amphiowus lanceolatus.

The authors, like M. Schultze, have examined immature indi-

viduals of this interesting vertebrate animal; but, while the latter

observer had only two specimens under his hands, they have been

able to collect a considerable number. They were struck by the

great want of symmetry which characterizes the young animals,—a

want of symmetry of which Johann Miller recognized traces in the

adult Amphioxus, and which has also been indicated by MM.

Schultze and Kélliker. It is manifested principally in the following

manner :—the mouth, the anterior branchial aperture, the olfactory

organ, and the eye are all situated on the left side; the branchial

ridges are differently arranged to the right and left of the median

line; and the loop-like organs, of problematical signification, included

between them are also different. The dorsal portion of the animal

is perfectly symmetrical; and the great development which it acquires

in the adult animal gradually renders the want of symmetry in the

ventral region less apparent.

The authors have ascertained that the chorda dorsalis of the

Amphioxus is provided with a longitudinal groove on its upper part,

so that its transverse section is cordate, In this groove is lodged the

inferior convexity of the spinal cord. The anterior extremity of the

medulla encloses a small cavity (a kind of ventricle), into which the

spinal canal opens. Perhaps, in this arrangement, we may see the

indication of a rudimentary brain.

The number of branchize varies between eleven and seventeen. The

new branchize make their appearance behind those already in exist-

ence. They are all placed immediately beneath the alimentary

wall of the animal is cleft along the median line in such a manner as

to allow the branchial apparatus to float freely in the sea. This long

fissure, which is called the posterior respiratory aperture by the

authors, allows the water which has been employed in respiration to

flow off. This respiratory apparatus of the young animal is easily

seen to be very different from that of the adult, as described by

Johann Miiller; it is probable that the respiratory apparatus of the

young animal becomes transformed directly into that of the adult by

the formation of a cartilaginous branchial skeleton, and the esta-

blishment of a direct communication between each branchia and the

interior of the intestine. At the same time, the fissure just indicated

must be closed in such a way as only to leave a single small aperture

-—the abdominal pere of Miiller.. Close to the mouth, on the left

side of the animal, there is a fissure imperfectly seen by Schultze,

which the authors have ascertained to be the anterior branchial

aperture.

464: Miscellaneous,

The young individuals observed by the authors did not possess the

least trace of a vascular system, or of generative organs.

The Pilidia, larve of Nemertine.

The observations of the authors completely bear out those of

Krohn, which show that the Nemertes (dlardus, Busch), which is

generally found in Plidium, is not a parasite upon those animals,

but that it is produced by them, by means of a sort of gemmation.

Besides the common species (Pilidium gyrans), the authors have in-

vestigated a new species, which they call P. auriculatum. They have

arrived at highly interesting results; they show that certain worms

of the Order Nemertine present a mode of development which may

be brought into complete parallelism with the remarkable genetic

history of most Echinoderms. The development of the Nemertes in

its Pilidium is precisely the same with that of an Echinus or an

Ophiura in its Pluteus. But, whilst in the Echinoderms it is only

the stomach of the larva that passes into the perfect animal, not only

the stomach, but also the cesophagus and the mouth of the Pilidium

are: preserved in the Nemertes.

Tomopteris.

The authors demonstrate that Burmeister was wrong in classing

Tomopteris among the Mollusca. They are true Annelides, as

Grube first maintained. It would even appear that their most natural _

position is beside Chetopterus.

Sagitta germanica.

Although the anatomy and a considerable portion of the develop-

ment: of the Sagitte have been sufficiently made known by the

works of Wilms, Krohn, Gegenbaur and others, the recent state-

ments of Meissner (1856) upon the evolution of these little animals

give a particular interest to the researches of MM. Leuckart and

Pagenstecher. In fact, although most observers are now agreed in

classing the Sagitte among Vermes, Meissner succeeded in unset-

tling the faith of some people, by describing in the young Sagitte

of the sea of Heligoland a chorda dorsalis and a spinal cord,—in a

word, organs which appear to give this animal a place amongst the

Vertebrata. The investigations of the authors, made upon the same

species that was studied by Wilms and Meissner, show that the older

authors were not deceived in placing the Sagitte amongst the true

Worms; and these two observers cannot at all account for the

evidently erroneous statements of Meissner.

Echinobothrium typus.

This Cestoid worm, which has already been studied by Van Be-

neden and others, lives as a parasite in various species of Rays. The

authors have been able to trace its development, which precisely

resembles that of other worms of the same Order. In the least ad-

vanced stage observed by the authors, the animal presents the form

of a vesicle (embryonal vesicle), of which one of the poles exhibits a

Miscellaneous. 465

depression or aperture formed by the turning-in of the wall towards

the interior ; this depression becomes a second vesicle, within the

former. It is at the bottom of this second vesicle that the scolex

sprouts forth. The latter increases in length until it can no longer ~

find room within the vesicle, when it issues out through the aperture.

It then exhibits a division into segments.

The embryonal vesicle contains in its walls a great number of cal-

careous concretions. The authors found that Claparéde was quite

right in supposing that the same relations would be found to exist

between the calcareous corpuscles and the vascular system of the

Cestoid Worms that he observed in the corresponding organs of the

Trematoda. These corpuscles are, in fact, lodged in inflated portions

of the finest branches of the vessels. The authors appear to think,

moreover, that there exist two vascular systems opening into the

game principal trunks; one of these being in relation with the cal-

careous corpuscles, while the other has nothing to do with them.

The segments of the Hehinobothrium separate from each other at

a period when the semen is not yet formed, which leads to the sup-

position that the proglottis-phase is of rather long duration. The

cystic form of the worm lives, as indicated by Van Beneden, in the

Prawns.

Development of Spio.

The authors describe nearly the whole series of metamorphoses of

a larva, belonging undoubtedly to the genus Spio. Some isolated

stages of these metamorphoses have been observed by Busch and

Lovén, and perhaps also by Slabber and Oersted. In its young

state the larva has a somewhat elongated body, furnished with two

bands of cilia, one placed about the middle, the other towards

the posterior extremity. Subsequently the anterior portion is deve-

loped, so as to form two ciliated cephalic lobes, between which

the mouth is situated ; two bundles of setae make their appearance,

and the segments of the body begin to be indicated. Soon after-

wards the eyes appear, each segment acquires its bundles of sete,

and the larva gradually approaches the form of the perfect animal.

—Archiv fiir Anat. und Physiol. 1858, p. 558; Bibl. de Geneve,

1859, p. 73.

On a new genus of Goat-sucker, and on a new species of Enicurus,

both from Darjeeling, from the Collection of Brian H. Hodgson,

Esq. By Greorce R. Gray, F.L.S.

Orotrurix, G. R. Gray, gen. nov.

This bird differs from the Indian Batrachostomi in the smallness

of its bill, and in the general markings of its plumage, which agree

in some measure with the species of true Podargus. |

The feathers over the upper mandible in front of the head and

above the ears are much prolonged into fine hair-like bristles; they

are composed of a long slender stem, having very slender branches

springing from the sides at various distances, and oe agreeing

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. iv.

466 Miscellaneous.

with those of the Australian genus Aigotheles. The bill is strong,

with the nostrils situated like those of Batrachostomus, and of simi-

lar form.

These characters induce the proposal of a new division for this

remarkably curious species, under the appellation of Ofothrix.

OTOTHRIX HODGSONI.

Head black, each feather banded and slightly margined with ru-

fous-white; the back and wing-coverts ferruginous, mottled with

black, and varied with occasional blotches of white; the quills,

secondaries, and tertials brownish-black, marked on the outer and

inner margins with blotches of rufous-white ; tail ferruginous,

speckled with black, obliquely banded on each web with rafous-

white, which is irregularly margined and marked with black, and

tipped with black, slightly edged with white. Beneath the body

white, tinged in some parts with rufous, and each feather irregularly

marked at or near the tip with black.

Total length 103”, wings 51.

Young bird.—Pale rufous, having each feather barred with black,

a band over the eyes crossing the forehead, and some spots on the

scapulars pure white. Under surface white, tinged with rufous, and

barred with brown.

This remarkable bird is named after Brian H. Hodgson, Esq., as

it forms part of the enormous collection of Birds made by that gen-

tleman in Northern India, especially Nepaul, Behar, &c., many of

which were new to science. Some of these have been described by

Mr. Hodgson in the ‘ Asiatic Researches,’ ‘ Journal of the Asiatic

. Society,’ &c., while others have been recently described in Dr. Hors-

field’s ‘Catalogue of the Birds in the Museum of the East India

Company.’ Not content with forming such large collections of

skins, he, at.the same time, had them represented in a series of in-

structive drawings, introducing the sterna and other anatomical illus-

trations of peculiarities in their organic structure; while many of

them also show the formation of the nests, &c., most of which par-

ticulars were hitherto unknown. ‘These collections together form a

series of materials for ornithologists that has been but rarely equalled

by the collection of any other naturalist of late years. We are

therefore well warranted in designating this singular bird in honour

of Mr. Hodgson, as showing our appreciation of his labours in the

cause of ornithological science.

ENICURUS NIGRIFRONS, Hodgs.

Black ; upper tail-coverts, a band across the middle of each wing,

the base of the middle feathers and the two outer feathers of tail,

and under surface white; the throat and breast mottled with black

and white ; bill black ; legs pale yellow.

Total length 6", wings 2" 11'", aa ue

This species is easily distinguished from all the rest of the species

e Enicurus by the black forehead and mottled breast.—Proe. Zool,

ce. Feb. 8, 1859.

Miscellaneous. 467

Notice of a Black-headed Gull found recently in Devonshire. |

By F. W. L. Ross, Esq.

Among the many objects of natural history which have been dis-

covered during the past months may be noticed the following re-

markable bird.

This bird, to which may be applied the term of the giant ef the

Black-headed Gulls, was shot by a boatman, Mr. William Pine, while

employed by W. Taylor, Esq., Bridgewater, who was engaged in

fishing for Bass in the river off Exmouth, about the end of May or

the beginning of June last; it was in company with a flock of ordi-

-nary Gulls. Its remarkable size and appearance attracted the atten-

tion of the boatman, who, having his gun with him, singled it out,

and fortunately obtained the bird, which has since been kindly pre-

sented by the above-mentioned gentleman to the writer.

The usual locality of this bird is the shores of the Caspian Sea,

but it is also recorded as having been found on the shores of the

Red Sea, the Ganges, and the Ionian Islands, as well as accidentally

on the margins of the Danube, in Hungary. One is led to suppose

that it is by no means a common bird, as examples are rarely seen in

collections. It is the

Larus ichthyaétus, Pall. Itin. iis Apend. n. 27; Id. Zoogr. i.

p. 322, t. 77; Riipp. Atlas, t. 17.

Great Gull, Lath. Gen. Syn. iii. pt. ii. p. 370.

Ichthyaétus Pallasi, Kaup.

Xema ichthyaétus, G. R. Gr. List of Gall. §c. B. M. p. 171.

Head entirely, and part of neck, pure black; the rest of neck,

beneath the body, upper tail-coverts, tail, ends of scapulars and

secondaries pure white; the rest of upper surface of a pale plum-

beous grey ; quills pure white, with the ends black and the tips

white, which latter colour is more prominent on the first quill, while

the second has the black also divided irregularly with white near

the end; a small white mark above and beneath the eyes. — :

Bill at its base livid yellow, with a crimson ring-like spot near the

tip, which is fuscous yellow; and the feet fuscous red. When first

obtained, the circles round the eyes were red.

Length 25 inches; wings 18 inches 6 lines ; tarsi 3 inches ; bare

part of thigh 1 inch 9 lines; bill from gape 33 inches, from fore-

head 2 inches 6 lines.

Pallas informs us that this bird when flying emits a hoarse, raven-

like cry of kéu, kédu. He further says that it lays its eggs on the

bare sand, without the least preparation of a nest : they are in shape

an oblong oval, marked with frequent brown spots, with some paler

ones intermixed. It is known on the borders of the Caspian Sea by

the name of ‘ Rybak,’ or ‘ Gluchar,’ and by the Tartars as ‘ Chara~

balta.’

Topsham, Nov. 24, 1859.

30%

468

INDEX to VOL. IV.

Acuera, new species of, 221.

Acinetz, on the conversion of, into

Vorticelle, 3.

Acorynus, new species of, 331.

Acrydium, new species of, 222.

Actiniz; on the means by which the,

kill their prey, 227; on digestive

power in the, 275.

Aedon galactotes, on the occurrence

of, in South Devon, 399.

Agabus, new species of, 120.

Agaricus, new species of, 284.

Allman, Prof., notes on the hydroid

Zoophytes, 48, 137, 367.

Amazilia, new species of, 96.

Amphioxus lanceolatus, observations

on, 463.

ee characters of the new genus,

Anchomenus, new species of, 118.

an on some of the lower marine,

463.

Anolis, new species of, 212.

Anomala, new species of, 220.

Antelope, notice of a new, from Cen-

tral Africa, 296.

_Anthribide, on some new, 327, 431.

Apatenia, description of the new ge-

nus, 434.

A coe aat viridis, on the habits of,

Apolecta, description of the new ge-

nus, 431,

Aptandra, on the species of, 358.

Arzecerus, new species of, 438.

Atta, new species of, 375.

Baird, Dr. W., on a new species of

Tenia, 240; on several species of

Entomostracous Crustacea from

Jerusalem, 280.

Baly, J. S., on new genera and spe-

cies of Phytophagous insects, 55,

124, 270.

Bark-lice, on the reproduction of the,

321, 411.

Bartlett, A. D., on the artificial pro-

pagation of salmon, 158.

Basitropis, new species of, 432.

Bats, new species of, 146.

Bennett, G., notes on the ** Mooruk,”’

303; on the habits of Mycteria

australis, 458.

-™

Benson, W. H., on the shell and ani-

mal of Hybocystis, with notes on

other living shells from India and

Burmah, 90; on the animals of

Rhaphaulus Chrysalis, Pupina ar-

tata, Otopoma clausum, Helix

Achatina, and H. pylaica, 93; on

the opercula of several species of

Megalomastoma, 238; on the ge-

nus Camptonyx, 318.

Berkeley, Rev. M. J., on North Ame-

rican Fungi, 284.

Blackwall, J., ov some newly-disco-

vered spiders, 255. ;

Books, new :— White’s Instructive Pic-

ture Book, 62; Explorations and

Surveys to ascertain the most practi-

cable Route for a Railroad from the

Mississippi to the Pacific Ocean,

298; Carpenter’s Animal Physio-

logy, 299; Sowerby’s Illustrated

Index of British Shells, 376 ; Ten-

nent’s Ceylon, 450.

Bornella, new species of, 269.

Brachypeplus, new species of, 356.

Brauwers, M., on the cellular forma-

tions, the growth, and the exfolia-

tion of the radical and fibrillar ex-

tremities of plants, 201.

Bronn, H. G., on the laws of evolu-

tion of the organic world durmg

the formation of the crust of the

earth, 81, 175.

Bulimus acutus, note on, 238.

Calothorax, new species of, 97.

Camptonyx, on the genus, 318.

Camptorhinus, new species of, 218.

Cantharellus, new species of, 293.

Carter, H. J., on Dracunculus and

microscopic Filaride, 28, 98.

Casuarius Bennettii, notes on, 303,

Catharus, on a new species of, 400.

Cathedra, on the species of, 361.

Cellulose, on the supposed existence

of, in starch-grains, 241.

Pisces on the reproduction of, 321,

411.

Chilocorus, new species of, 219.

Chrysochus, new species of, 125.

Chrysolampra, characters of the new

genus, 126.

Clava, new British species of, 369.

VN DEX.

Clotho, new species of, 257.

Clubiona, new species of, 255.

Coccinella, new species of, 219.

Ceelocreera, new species of, 356.

Comatula rosacea, on the embryo-

logy of, 64.

Conchology, gleanings in British, 189.

Contipus, new species of, 354.

Conurus, new species of, 224.

Coprinus, new species of, 292.

Corrhecerus, new species of, 329.

Coryne, new British species of, 141.

Coryne Briareus, description of, 54 ;

observations on, 175.

Corynodes, new species of, 125.

Cossonus, new species of, 218.

Crematogaster, new species of, 374.

Crustacea, new, species of Entomos-

tracous, from Jerusalem, 280.

Cryptostetha, new species of, 57.

Curtis, Rev. M. A., on North Ameri-

can fungi, 284.

Cyanomyia, new species of, 97.

Cyclonotum, new species of, 352.

Cyclostoma articulatum, note on, 320.

Cynochampsa laniarius, description

of, 77.

Cypris, new species of, 282.

Cystignathus, new species of, 217.

Daphnia, new species of, 281.

Dermoxanthus, characters of the new

geuus, 126.

Desmidophorus, new species of, 217.

Diabrotica, new species of, 270.

Diaptomus, new species of, 283.

Diclidanthera, observations on the

genus, 129.

Dicoryne, description of the new Bri-

tish genus, 369.

Dicynodon tigriceps, description of,

9 ‘y

Diphyllidia, new species of, 269.

Dipieza, description of the new genus,

331.

Doris, new species of, 267.

Doryphora, new species of, 55.

~ Draecunculus, on, in the Island of

Bombay, 28, 99.

D’Udekem, M. J., on the metamor-

phoses of the Vorticelle, 1.

Dysithamnus, new species of, 15]

Dysnos, description of the new genus,

438. |

Earth, on the laws of evolution of

the organic world during the for-

mation of the crust of the, 81, 175.

469

Echinobothrium typus, on the deve-

lopment of, 464.

Eczesaris, description of the new

- genus, 330

oe, Fi description of the new genus,

Elaps, revision of the South Ameri-

can, 161.

Elytrosphera, new species of, 58.

Emmotum, on the species of, 368.

Enicurus, new species of, 466.

Entomostraca, new species of, 280.

Eolis, new species of, 270.

Epeira, new species of, 262.

ree, description of the new genus,

436.

Estheria, new species of, 281.

Eucorynus, new species of, 433.

Fudendrium bacciferum, description

of, 52.

Fern-stems, on the forms and struc-

tures of, 401.

Filaride, on microscopic, 33, 99.

Fish, on the microscopic structure of

the skeleton of osseous, 67; ona

new genus of Lophobranchiate,

309; on a new British, 399; on

the electrical organs of, 461.

Flint-implements, on the occurrence

of, with the remains of extinct

Mammalia, 230.

Foraminifera, on the nomenclature of ~

the, 333.

Formica, new species of, 370.

Fungi, centuries of North American,

284.

iy aa planiceps, description of,

vit

Garreau, M., on the growth and ex-

foliation of the radical and fibrillar

extremities of plants, 201.

Gastrolina, new species of, 61..

Geological Society, proceedings of, 77.

Gorilla, on the, 377.

Gould, J., on new species of Hum-

ming-birds, 96.

Gray, G. R., on anew genus of Goat-

sucker, and on a new species of

Enicurus, 466.

Gray, Dr. J. E., on Bulimus acutus,

238; on the habits of Aplysiopte-

rus viridis, 239; on a new Ante-

lope, 296; on the adult state of

Voluta mamilla, 306; on Noto-

oteris, a new genus of Pteropine

Bat, 307; on a new genus of Lo=

470

phobranchiate Fishes, 309; on a

new British Snake, 317,400; on

Pelamys Sarda, a new British fish,

399; on the arrangement of Zoo-

phytes with pimnated tentacles, 439.

Giinther, Dr. A., on a new genus of

West African snakes, and revision |

of the South American Elaps, 161;

on some reptiles from St. Croix,

West Indies, 209.

Gyrinus, new species of, 121.

Habrissus, description of the new

genus, 432.

Haliichthys, new species of, 310.

Harpax, new species of, 220.

Heliomyces, new species of, 295.

Helix Achatina and H. pylaica, on

the animals of, 95.

Henfrey, Prof. A., on the develop-

ment of roots, 184; on the ana-

tomy of Victoria Regia, 228;

obituary notice of, 311.

Hicks, Dr. J. B., on certain sensory

organs in insects, 229.

Hister, new species of, 355.

Holdsworth, E. W. H., on Zoanthus

Couchii, 152; on digestive power

in the Actinie, 275.

Hololepta, new species of, 353.

Hoplia, new species of, 430.

Hucus, description of the genus, 436.

Humming-birds, new species of, 96.

Hybocystis, on the shell and animal

of, 90.

Hydroid zoophytes, notes on the, 48,

137, 174, 367.

Hygrophorus, new species of, 292.

Infusoria, on the developmentof the, 1.

Insects, descriptions of new, 55, 116,

124, 217, 270, 327, 352, 370, 430,

431; on certain sensory organs in,

229.

Jeffreys, J. G., gleanings in British

Conchology, 189.

Jones, T. R., on the nomenclature of

the Foraminifera, 333.

Kelaart, Dr. E. F., on some species of

Nudibranchiate Mollusks, 267.

Kobus, new species of, 296.

Kolliker, Prof. A., on the different

types in the microscopic structure

of the skeleton of osseous fishes,

67; on the frequent occurrence of

vegetable parasites in the hard

structures of animals, 300.

Lacaze-Duthiers, M., on the ana-

INDEX.

tomy and physiology of Pleuro-

branc‘ius aurantiacus, 318.

Lactarius, new species of, 293.

Lamellibranchiate mollusks, on the

-aquiferous and oviductal systems

in the, 65.

Lamprospherus, characters of the

new genus, 124.

Languria, new species of, 430.

Laomedea, new British species of,

138, 367.

Larus ichthyaétus, on the occurrence

of, in Devonshire, 467.

Latrodectus, new species of, 260.

Leretia, on the species of, 364.

Leuckart, R., on the reproduction of

the Bark-lice, 321, 411; on the

genus Sacculina, 422; on some of

the lower marine animals, 463.

Lina, new species of, 60.

Linyphia, new species of, 261.

Liriosma, on the species of, 362.

Litocerus, new species of, 330.

Lycoperdina, new species of, 219.

Macrosternus, new species of, 353.

Manicella fusca, description of, 51; -

observations on, 174.

Marasmius, new species of, 294.

Martius, Ch., on the heating of the

soil of high mountains, and its in-

fluence upon the limit of eternal

snow and Alpine vegetation, 158.

Mecinus, new species of, 219.

Megalomastoma, on the opercula of

several species of, 238.

Meranoplus, new species of, 375.

Miers, J., on the development of the

vegetable ovule called ‘anatropous,’

12; on Diclidanthera, 129 ; on the

genera Aptandra, Cathedra, Lirio-

soma, Leretia, Poraqueiba, and

Emmotum, 358.

Mimela, new species of, 220.

_ Misthosima, description of the new

genus, 434.

Mohl, H. von, on the supposed ex-

istence of cellulose in starch-grains,

241; on the arrangement of the

polarizing microscope in the exa-

mination of organic bodies, 444.

Mollusca, on some Tenasserim, 93;

on British, 189 ; on some species of

Nudibranchiate, from Ceylon, 267.

Mooruk, notes on the, 303.

Motley, Mr., biographical notice of

the late, 313.

INDEX.

Miiray, A.,’on Coleoptera ‘from Old

Calabar, 116, 352.

Mycteria australis, on the habits of,

458.

Myrmeciza, new species of, 151.

Myrmelastes, new species of, 239.

Myrmica, new species of, 374.

Nemertinz, on the larve of the,

464,

Nessia, description of the new genus,

329.

Notopteris, description of the new

genus, 307

Octopus, on a living, 144.

(Ecobius, new species of, 266.

(Edionychus, new species of, 273.

Ogilvie, Dr. G., on the forms and

structure of fern-stems, 401.

Oonops, new species of, 265.

Orphnus, new species of, 220.

“— clausum, on the animal of,

95.

pare sien description of the genus,

465

Onudenodon, characters of, 78.

Owen, Prof. R., on a mutilated skull

of a large Marsupial Carnivore, 63 ;

on some reptilian remains from

South Africa, 77 ; on the vertebral

characters of the order Plerosauria

(Ow.}, as exemplified in the genera

Pterodactylus (Cuv.), and Dimor-

phodon (Ow.), 226; on the affi-

nities of Rhynchosaurus, 237; on

the Gorilla, 377.

Pachycrerus, new species of, 354.

Pagenstecher, A., on some of the

lower marine animals, 463.

Panesthia, new species of, 220.

Panus, new species of, 296.

Parker, W. K., on the nomenclature

of the Foraminifera, 333.

Parthenogenesis, contributions to our

knowledge of, 321, 411.

Pascoe, F. P., on some new Anthri-

bidee, 327, 431.

Paussus, new species of, 353.

Paxillus, new species of, 295.

Pelamys Sarda, a new British fish,

on, 399,

Penestica, description of the new

genus, 332.

Phaulimia, description of the new

genus, 437.

Philhydrus, new species of, 123.

Phleothrips, new species of, 224.

Phyllorrhina, new species of, 147.

471

Pilidia, onthe development of the, 464.

Placodes, new species of, 354.

Plants, on the growth and exfoliation

of the radical and fibrillar extre-

mities of, 184, 201.

Platydactylus, new species of, 221.

Platysoma, new species of, 354.

Plectris, new species of, 220.

Pleurobranchus aurantiacus, anato-

mical and physiological investiga-

tion of the, 318.

Plintheria, description of the new

genus, 435.

Podocoryne carnea, notes on, 50.

Polarizing microscope, on the arrange-

ment of the, in the examination of

organic bodies, 444.

Polyrhachis, new species of, 373.

Poraqueiba, new species of, 365.

Prestwich, J., on the occurrence of

flint-implements~ with the remains

of extinct mammalia, 230.

Pseudomyrma, new species of, 375.

Pteraspis, on the occurrence of a, in

the Lower Ludlow Rock, 44.

Pteropus, new species of, 146.

Pterosauria, on the vertebral charac-

ters of the order, 226.

Ptychognathus declivis, description

of, 77.

Pupina artata, on the animal of, 94.

Reptiles from St. Croix, West Indies,

on some, 209.

Reptilian remains from South Africa,

on-some, 77.

Rhaphaulus Chrysalis, on the animal

of, 94.

Rhinolophus Hipposideros, on the

occurrence of, in Ireland, 80.

Rhizotrogus, new species of, 220.

Rhynchophorus, new species of, 218.

Rhynchosaurus, note on the affinities

of, 237.

Robertson, D., on Saxicava rugosa,

Rolleston, Dr. G., on the aquiferous

and oviductal systems in the La-

mellibranchiate Mollusks, 65.

Ross, F. W. L., on the occurrence of

Larus ichthyaétus in Devonshire,

467.

Royal Society, Proceedings of the,

63, 226, 300.

Sacculina, observations on the genus,

422.

Sagitta germanica, on the anatomy

of, 464.

Salmon, on the artificial propagation

of, 158.

Salter, J. W., on the occurrence of

Pteraspis in the Lower Ludlow

Rock, 44.

Saxicava rugosa a Byssus-spimner, 80.

Schultze, M., on the electrical organs

of fish, 461.

Sclater, P. L., on two species of Ant-

. birds, 151 ; on new species of Ame-

rican Parrots, 224; on new species

of American Ant-Thrushes, 239 ;

on a new species of Catharus, 400.

Scotophilus, new species of, 148.

Seymnus, new species of, 219,

Sipalus, new species of, 218.

Sisyphus, new species of, 219.

Sitophilus, new species of, 219.

Senile J.P. G., on a living Octopus,

44.

Snake, on a new.genus of West Afri-

can, 161; on a new British, 317,

400.

Spheridium, new species of, 352.

Spherodactylus, new species of, 215.

Sphenophorus, new species of, 218.

Spiders, descriptions of new, 255.

Spio, on the development of, 465.

Starch-grains, on the supposed exist-

ence of cellulose in, 241.

Steirodon, new species of, 222.

Stenolampra, characters of the new

genus, 127.

Stilodes, new species of, 59.

Suffolk, W. T., description of a col-

lecting basket for the sea-side, 157.

Teenia, new species of, 240.

Textrix, new species of, 258.

Theridion, new species of, 259.

Thomson, Prof. W., on the embryo-

logy of Comatula rosacea, 64.

Thylacoleo Carnifex, on a large skull

of, 63.

INDEX.

Tiphia, new species of, 376.

—— R. F., on new species of Bats,

146.

Tomopteris, note on, 464.

Tribalus, new species of, 356,

Tropideres, new species of, 220. .

Truxalis, new species of, 222,

Tubularia indivisa, on the develop-

ment of, 48.

Typophorus, new species of; 128.

Urolabes, new species of, 33.

Vegetable ovule, on the development

of the, called ‘ anatropous,’ 12.

Vegetable parasites, on the frequent

occurrence of, in the hard struc-

tures of animals, 300.

Victoria Regia, on the anatomy of,

228.

Voluta mamilla, description of the

adult state of, 306.

Vorticelle, on the metamorphoses of

the, 1.

Walker, F., on some undescribed

Ceylon insects, 217, 371.

Waller, Dr. A., on the means by which

the Actiniz kill their prey, 227.

Wollaston, T. V., on Coléopterous

Insects from the north of China,

430.

Woodward, S. P., note on Cyclostoma

articulatum, 320.

bis T.S., on Hydroid Zoophytes,

174.

Xenocerus, new species of, 328.

Zoanthus Couchii, observations on,

152.

Zoological Society, proceedings of

the, 144, 303, 377, 458.

Zoophytes, notes on hydroid, 48, 137,

174, 367; with pinnated tentacles,

on the arrangement of, 439.

Zygenojdes, description of the new

genus, 328,

END OF THE FOURTH VOLUME.

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