THE ANNALS

AND

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY,

INCLUDING

ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, ann GEOLOGY.

(BEING A CONTINUATION OF THE ‘ANNALS’ COMBINED WITH LOUDON AND

CHARLESWORTH S ‘MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.’)

CONDUCTED BY

CHARLES C. BABINGTON, Esa., M.A., F.B.S., F.LS., F.G.S.,

JOHN EDWARD GRAY, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.LS., F.ZS8. &e.,

WILLIAM 8S. DALLAS, F.LS.,

AND

WILLIAM FRANCIS, Ph.D., F.L.S.

*yysonlan Ing;

Po o™ id ( ‘

242\05

\ elon wases A

LONDON:

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS.

SOLD BY LONGMANS, GREEN, READER, AND DYER; SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, AND CO.,;

KENT AND CO.; BAILLIERE, REGENT STREET, AND PARIS:

MACLACHLAN AND STEWART, EDINBURGH }

HODGES AND SMITH, DUBLIN: AND ASHER, BERLIN.

1872.

“Omnes res creatz sunt divine sapientiz et potenti testes, divitix felicitatis

humane :—ex harum usu Jonitas Creatoris; ex pulchritudine sapientia Domini;

ex ceconomid in conseryatione, proportione, renoyatione, potentia majestatis

elucet. Earum itaque indagatio ab hominibus sibi relictis semper estimata ;

a yeré eruditis et sapientibus semper exculta; malé doctis et barbaris semper

nimica fwt.”—Linnavs.

“Quel que soit le principe de la vie animale, il ne faut quouvrir les yeux pour

yoir qu’elle est le chef-d’ceuvre de la Toute-puissance, et le but auquel se rappor-

tent toutes ses opérations.”—Bruckner, Théorie du Systéme Animal, Leyden,

1767.

ast. (EM ohh Rotate 2 The sylvan powers

Obey our summons; from their deepest dells

The Dryads come, and throw their garlands wild

And odorous branches at our feet; the Nymphs

That press with nimble step the mountain-thyme

And purple heath-flower come not empty-handed,

But scatter round ten thousand forms minute

Of velvet moss or lichen, torn from rock

Or rifted oak or cavern deep: the Naiads too

Quit their loved native stream, from whose smooth face

They crop the lily, and each sedge and rush

That drinks the rippling tide: the frozen poles,

Where peril waits the bold adventurer’s tread,

The burning sands of Borneo and Cayenne,

All, all to us unlock their secret stores

And pay their cheerful tribute.

J. Taytor, Norwich, 1818.

CONTENTS OF VOL. IX.

[FOURTH SERIES. ]

NUMBER XLIX.

I. On the Abyssal Theory of Light, the Protozoic-Absorption

Theory, and the Azoic-Mud Theory, propounded in the Reports of

H.MLS, ‘Porcupine,’ 1869 and 1870. By W.C. M‘InrosH........

II, Seventh Account of new Species of Snakes in the Collection

of the British Museum. By ALtBert Ginruer, M.A., M.D., Ph.D.,

Bs.S: {Plies SL ITV 5 Vii VE) Oe ea kak 2 ao A bs

IIL. A List of Species of the Genus Planaxis, with Descriptions of

eleven new Species. By Epgar A. Smiru, Zoological Department,

WPBMiAS ET MROUIE 482.2 «Sk S 200 5 care ctten trea hala tenga re

IV. Description of a new Species of Porzana from the Himalayas.

By AnrHi, Vistoutit WALDEN, Pits. 252 vice as. ud ths ts eld

V. Contributions to the Study of the Entomostraca. By GrorGE

Srrwarpson Brapy, C.M.Z.8., and Davin Ropertson, F.GS.

No. VI. On the Distribution of the British Ostracoda. (Plates I.

NiPc hai OE. me esha offs, arepoi din ets ener JS «OG mitted «eon ahh “EET

VI. The American Spongilla a Craspedote Flagellate Infusorian.

By H. James-Crark, A.B., B.S., Prof. Nat. Hist. Kentucky Univer-

aity, uexington, Ky.” (Plate XT.) 0... 605s cul) Glo qegeesite see

VIL. Additional Information on the Structure of Tethya dacty-

loidea, Cart. By H. J. Carrer, F.R.S. &c. (Plate X. figs. 1-5.)..

VIII. Fossil Coral allied to Merulina (Ehrenb.), from the Upper

Greensand of Haldon Hill, near Exeter. By W. Vicary, F.G.S.

(Plater X Moy Geet out onset te ets fa eto e ete anc 8a tee es Raa

IX. Descriptions of some Ceylonese Reptiles and Batrachians.

iby Dr ALBERT GUNSHER, HORS. cr oie: hog oe 20 dt yale genre

X. Notes on Arctocephalus Hookeri, Gray. By Dr. H. Bur-

RUNG OAED NS 4 cn} oka Pe SEaD aie Zs eel ae walt OMS SIEGE an coc mig ale oie ayer

XI. On the Distribution of Marine Animals on the Southern Coast

of New England. By A. EH. VERBILE ...:...-..ee cece ween eee

On the Systematic Position of the King Crabs and Trilobites, by

M. E. van Beneden; Cells in Crystalline Form, by Hermann

Karsten ; Anatomico-zoological Remarks upon Oncidiwm celti-

Page

iv CONTENTS.

Page

cum, Cuvier, by M. L. Vaillant; Drosera (Sun-dew) as a Fly-

catcher; Note on a Fragment of a Teleosaurian Snout from

Kimmeridge Bay, Dorset, by J. W. Hulke, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.S.

98—104

NUMBER L.

XII. Investigations upon the Structure and Natural History of

the Vorticelle. By Dr. RicHarp Greer. (Plates XII.—-XVI.).... 105

XIII. On the Microxylobius Westwoodii, Chevr., from St. Helena.

By I. Vernon) Wonaston, M.A:, FL.S. .n.ccus. .-\ omen ae 112

XIV. On the Anatomy of the Nervous System of Diphyes, afford-

ing presumptive evidence of the existence of a similar System in

the other forms of Oceanic Hydrozoa. By Joun Drnts Macponatp,

M.D., F.R.S., Staff-Surgeon of H.M.S. ‘Lord Warden’.......... 114

XV. Note on Prof. Heller’s Catalogue of the Hydroida of the

Admatic:, By the Rey. THomas Hiners) BAL cc 2. mete 116

XVI. Notule Lichenologice. No. XXXV. By the Rev. W. A.

Lereuton, B.A., F.L.S., F.B.S. Ed. — Recognitio Monographica

Ramalinarum. Scripsit WrLL1AM NYLANDER, Caen, 1870........ 122

XVII. Additions to the Australian Curculionide. Part I. By

PRANGIGAE, (PASCO, EDS ieee iru piectiocleeinsa cue olden sees 152

XVIII. On some Recent Researches in Vegetable Physiology.

By Vie Macro): MENG ITT "Say tsteg Me isn aieinieveae feted oosis albie saanetoe ean oe ea 142

XIX. Observations on the Systematic Relations of the Fishes.

By Prot Ep wARD.D COPE ss) ccceni tater niac emer he 155

Osteology of the Solitaire, by Prof. Alfred Newton ; Tapirus villosus ;

A Letter concerning Deep-Sea Dredgings, addressed to Prof.

Benjamin Peirce, Superintendent, United States Coast Survey,

by Louis Agassiz; On the Fecundation of the Crayfish, by M.

S. Chantran ; Baptisia perfoliata, the Arrangement and Morpho-

logy of its Leaves, by Prof. Asa Gray ; On a new Micrometric

Goniometer Eyepiece for the Microscope, by J. P. Southworth

168—175

NUMBER LI.

XX. On the Horns, Viscera, and Muscles of the Giraffe; with a

Record of the post mortem examination of two Specimens killed by

a fire. By Dr. James Muris, F.LS., F.G.S.,&c¢. (Plates VIL. &

VET) 9 Sas sin'e Bish Reacts OS A RR oleh an ans ee ay

CONTENTS. Vv

Page

XXI. Descriptions of two new Species of Humming-Birds. By

Mernny GOR GCC, casa yel resale eins vere inoestais Six bibelehn vieyegaleha's'Saats n 195

XXII. Investigations upon the Structure and Natural History of

the Voracelie., “By Dr. RICHARD GREER 0)... 0/4000 ch ede eee eds 196

XXII. On the Nomenclature of the Foraminifera. By W. K.

PanrkKER, F.R.S., and Prof. T. Rupert Jonss, F.G.S.—Part XV. The

Speciestigured™ by Hhrenberet ous tts a2 evened snalvia cele ane ieee 211

XXIV. On some Recent Researches in Vegetable Physiology.

Bye Mie MO re Lge is aeeiap, Sk Maa ds Shy aca eecee 230

XXYV. On the Development of Syngamus trachealis. By Prof.

_ OLSEN (tak a eiiah ra a aE PR eR PPR RE SS ei ous ram INA lle 236

New Books :—Figures of Characteristic British Fossils, with Descrip-

tive Remarks, by W. H. Baily, F.L.S., F.G.S., &. Part III.

Plates 21-30. Upper Silurian and Devonian.—A Manual of

Zoology for the use of Students; with a General Introduction

on the Principles of Zoology, by Henry Alleyne Nicholson, M.D.

&e. Second Edition, revised and considerably enlarged. . 240, 241

Osteology of the Solitaire, by Prof. Owen, F.R.S. &c.; Argas reflexus

s. Rhynchoprion columbe, by George Gulliver, F.R.S.; Habits

of Tropic Birds, by the Earl of Pembroke; Fish-nest in Sea-

weed of the Sargasso-Sea. Extracts from a letter from Prof.

Agassiz to Prof. Peirce, Superintendent, United States Coast

Survey ; Morphology of Carpellary Scales in Larix, by Thomas

Meehan; Supplementary Note on the Genns Lichenocrinus, by

BB. Meek. 2.0.0... eee e ence ence meee eee enees 241—247

NUMBER LII.

XXVI. Descriptive Notes on a nearly entire Specimen of Pleurodus

Rankinii, on two new Species of Platysomus and a new Amphicentrum,

with Remarks on a few other Fish-remains found in the Coal-measures

at Newsham. By Arspany Hancock, F.L.S., and Tuomas ATTHEY.

AGI etic DROVE ize MME) Set eet atcha avihiahe hiacie MR corte Oe Lee 249

XXVIL The Mollusca of St. Helena. By J. Gwyn Jerrreys,

Tere et ie 3 cise oats haere 0! arin ieee eaiie) +t = wh dniglel gal oe wiley go 262

XXVIII. The Origin of the Vertebrate Skeleton. By Harry G.

Srrevey, St. Johiis College, Cambridge .........0cceeecsceeenee 265

XXIX. On the Nomenclature of the Foraminifera. By W. K.

ParkER, F.R.S., and Prof. T. Rupert Jonrs, F.G.S.—Part XV.

Lhe; Species fisured: by Bhrenberge ois... os eiceeinneeivines sons a ean ee

Vi CONTENTS.

, Page

XXX. Ona Four-bearded Water-Terrapin from North Australia.

Pay Ds, ARAL Oe RSs OCC ai eres te e's Wie oe yn ee Se 303

XXXI. On a probably new Species of Actinia. By R. Kyun, Esq. 304

XXXII. Description of a supposed new Species of Cuckoo from

Celebes. By ArtHuR, Viscount WALDEN, P.Z.S. .............- 505

XXXIII. On the Skin &e. of the Rhytina, suggested by a recent

Paper of Dr. A. Brandt’s. By James Murtm, F.L.S. &c. (Plate

PROMO ete tere ferret a otete raise te cla, siete veneer Sie oats ecal® aieie ie ee .. 806

XXXIV. A Trip to Queensland in Search of Fossils. By Dr. G.

ENNIS tees eciareleg aos att Glee etiaeert a Mucts oa laje a Ge Creve 314

Osteology of the Solitaire, by Prof. Alfred Newton; On the Grey

Seal (Halicherus gryphus), by Dr. J. EK. Gray, F.R.S. &e.; On

the Acclimatization and Anatomy of Pertcheta diffringens, Baird,

by M. L. Vaillant; On the Animal of the Glass-rope, by Dr. J.

KE. Gray, F.R.S. &ce.; On Prognathodus Giintheri (Egerton), a

new Genus of Fossil Fish from the Lias of Lyme Regis, by Sir

P. de M. Grey Egerton, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., F.G.S.; On Felis

pardinordes, by Dr. J. KE. Gray, F.R.S. &c.; Discovery of a re-

markable Fossil Bird, by Prof. 0. C. Marsh; Pigs of the Society

Islands; Flyingfish; The Sunfish viviparous.......... 321—328

NUMBER LIIL.

XXXV. On Onetrodes Eschrichtii, Liitken, a new Lophioid Fish

from Greenland. By Dr. Cur. Lirken. (Plate 1X.)............ 329

XXXVI. Remarks on several Species of Bullide, with Descrip-

tions of some hitherto undescribed Forms, and of a new Species of

Planaxis. By Enear A. Suiru, Zoological Department, British

IIISSEE ss atic cho ass ce Se cv eons SVs ek non A ee 544

XXXVI. On the Affinities of Palzeozoic Tabulate Corals with

Hxisting Species, By A..E. VeRBta 14. ..6.5. ues ei oped s 355

XXXVIII. On the Morphology and Affinities of Graptolites. By

Prof. ALEMAN, FBS: BLS, Se. 05 2h pn ee 364

XXXIX. Descriptions of three new Species of Eremias. By Dr.

BAC RUINTEIBR NEB. sys, sal aligns cndoomut lauds 2s, oe. 381

XL. Note on Trionyx gangeticus, Cuvier, and Trionyx hurum,

B, Hamilton. By Joun Anpurson, M.D. ; Caleutta; nim nie oe6 582

XLI. Investigations upon the Structure and Natural History of

the Vorticelle. By Dr. RicHarp GREBF ...................... 584

CONTENTS. vu

Page

XLII. On some supposed new Species of Birds from Celebes and

the Togian Islands. By ArrHur, Viscount WALDEN, P.Z,S., F.R.S. 398

XLIII. On a new Species of Thrush pertaining to the Genus

Oreocinela; By Jom GouLD, FUR Bikes 656 selec cae 401

Proceedings of the Royal Society J. ics siege 6 sce, Solate sete 402—404

On the Genus Osteocella, by Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &c.; Further

Remarks on the Relationship of the Limulide (Xiphoswra) to

the Lurypteride and to the Trilobita, by Henry Woodward, Esq.,

F.G.S.; On some Pupipara parasitic LDS Chiroptera, ie Dr.

F. Radom See BO ERIC IGcaa rit tac ieiticmncke bye aver petninicae c AeeRe we 405—407

NUMBER LIV.

XLIV. On two new Sponges from the Antarctic Sea, and on a new

Species of Tethya from Shetland ; together with Observations on the

Reproduction of Sponges commencing from Zygosis of the Sponge-

animal. By H. J. Carrer, F.R.S. &c. (Plates XX., XXL, &

CRI IDR Paved tomes br ition Rely tity o nap ald sled Boomers ee .. 409

XLV. On the New-Zealand Bottlenose (Lagenorhynchus clanculus,

Guy); By Dr JAMS TRO ROR SBT. ce os olela fo ve cs are eed sre" 436

XLVI. Notice of two new Fishes from Celebes. By Dr. ALBERT

REASTIRY UT ELsn els lek wears aosbot stad aie Ave abuse nhs sielto/e cipal peckoter a Simla OMepaenae Cue 438

XLVII. On a Subfossil Whale (Eschrichtius robustus) discovered

in Cornwall. By WiLi1am Henry Fiower, F.R.S............. 440

XLVUI. Notes on the Classification of the Sponges. By Dr. J.

IEPA MA eRe hen ats csthanlates ausp. 4 Syeda vidi ons £0. SoStaLN aasretenenl cee 442

XLIX. Investigations upon the Structure and Natural History of

the-Jorkeelie. By Dr. RicnaRp GREER 5.0 isso was he oes 462

L. On Indian Mud-Tortoises (Trionyxr). By Dr. J. E. Gray,

MBAR ae OGte. FC ee ale Ane teaesl a es «photo ereeiaremearelg she woe cc lola Sian alt eatea 473

New Books :—A History of the Birds of New Zealand, by Walter

Lawry Buller, Se.D., F.L.S., F.G.8., &e. Part I.— A Synony-

mic Catalogue of Diurnal Lepidoptera, by W. F. Kirby .. 475, 478

The late GkorGE Ropert Gray; Jukella, a new Alcyonarian from

Sir C. Hardy’s Island, by Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &c.; Thouarella

antarctica, from the Falkland Islands, by Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &c.;

Prize Question proposed by the Danish Royal Society of Sciences

vill CONTENTS.

Page

for the Year 1872; The Ears of Sea-lions and Sea-bears, by Dr. J.

E. Gray, F.R.S. &c.; The Sea-Serpent again! by J. Cobbin; Ob-.

servations on the Extinct Whalebone-Whales (Balenoida) the

remains of which have been found in the Vienna Basin, by Prof.

Poem TOE Mein, cos Gyn cgicls dass ate lla raioiG iletejevays'@ ease inate 480—484

PLATES IN VOL. IX.

at bw ew British Ostracoda.

a |

| Species of Snakes.

yt Muscles of the Giraffe.

IX. Oneirodes Eschrichtii.

X. Structure of Tethya dactyloidea.—New Species of Fossil Coral.

XI. Development of Spongilla arachnoidea.

XII.

XIV. sStructure of the Vorticelle.

WAL

eT Joris rarvens thomitheiewekatOeal ;

XVUL ( Pish-remains from the Newsham Coal-measures.

XIX. Skin of Rhytina and Parasite.

a bNew Sponges from the Antarctic Sea.

XXII. Tethya zetlandica.

THE ANNALS

AND

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[FOURTH SERIES. ]

US Siacevionncencoatinges per litora spargite muscum,

Naiades, et circttm vitreos considite fontes:

Pollice virgineo teneros hic carpite flores:

Floribus et pictum, dive, replete canistrum.

At vos, o Nymphe Craterides, ite sub undas;

Ite, recurvato variata corallia trunco

Vellite muscosis e rupibus, et mihi conchas

Ferte, Des pelagi, et pingui conchylia succo.”’

NV. Parthenii Giannettasii Ecl. 1.

No. 49. JANUARY 1872.

I.—On the Abyssal Theory of Light, the Protozoic-Absorption

Theory, and the Azoic-Mud Theory, propounded in the

Reports of H.M.S. ‘ Porcupine, 1869 and 1870. By W.

C. M‘IntTosu.

In recording the following remarks I must disclaim any in-

tention to cast reflections on the scientific energy or the expe-

rience of marine animals of the three excellent naturalists

who were chosen by the Royal Society to represent British

_zoologists in these expeditions. Such would certainly be un-

worthy, more especially as I had the pleasure of receiving

(through the intervention of Mr. Jeffreys) part of the collection

of Annelids (all from a depth of less than 500 fathoms) in the

first expedition, and the whole of the Annelida of the second.

Having made this necessary acknowledgment, I must also

admit that certain parts of the reports of my friends struck me

at once, on hearing the first read and on perusing the second,

as being slightly at variance with my own views on such

subjects. Some of the latter, however, are points on which

more than one opinion may be held; and the following re-

marks *, therefore, are intended to be tentative rather than

dogmatical.

* These were included for the most part in a paver read before the

Royal Society of Edinburgh, on the Ist of May, 1871.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. ix. 1

2 W.C. M‘Intosh on the Abyssal Theory of Light.

1. The Abyssal Theory of Light.

The distinguished dredgers in the expeditions were struck

by the luminosity of many of the animals procured from great

depths in the Atlantic, such as Aleyonarian Zoophytes, Brittle-

stars, and Annelids. In some places, indeed, the mud itself

was full of luminous specks*. In their Report on the Dredg-

ings of 1869}, they broach the idea that the abyssal regions

might depend solely for their light upon the phosphorescence

of their inhabitants, and that this luminosity in the dark

abysses of the sea fulfils, in regard to the great object of the

supply of food, the functions performed in the upper world by

the light of day. In other words, the phosphorescence of an

animal would, on the one hand, enable it to see its prey, and,

on the other, would discover it to its enemies{. Moreover,

according to the report, since the young of certain starfishes are

much more luminous than the adults, it is probable that this 1s

part of the general plan which provides an enormous excess of

the young of many species, apparently as a supply of food,

their wholesale destruction being necessary for the due restric-

tion of the multiplication of the species, while the breeding

individuals, on the other hand, are provided with special ap-

pliances for escape or defence.

Now, without entering on the present occasion into the

literature of the subject (a labour which has been so ably ac-

complished by Ehrenberg, De Quatrefages, and other authors),

it will be seen, on referring to a single passage in the article

on this subject (Todd’s Cyclopedia) by the late accomplished

Dr. Coldstream, that marine zoologists have long been familiar

with such notions. ‘Considering,’ says Dr. Coldstream,

“that in the ocean there is absolute darkness at the depth of

800 or 1000 feet (133-166 fathoms), at least that at such

depths the light of the sun ceases to be transmitted, Macculloch

has suggested that, in marine animals, their luminousness may

be ‘a substitute for the light of the sun,’ and may be the

means of enabling them to discover one another as well as

their prey. He remarks, ‘It seems to be particularly bril-

liant in those inferior animals which, from their astonishing

powers of reproduction, and from a state of feeling apparently

little superior to that of vegetables, appear to have been in a

* We shall suppose that due precautions were taken to prevent the

entrance of the myriads of surface-forms.

t+ Proc. Royal Soc. No. 121 (1870), pp. 431, 482.

{ Thus a young Hyas araneus having dense tufts of Obelia geniculata

waving from its carapace and limbs, must, on the one hand, like an Indian

beauty with her fire-flies, be the cynosure of all (predatory) eyes, and, on

the other, be enabled to throw such a flood of light on the food-question

as to distance many rivals.

W.C. M‘Intosh on the Abyssal Theory of Light. 3

great measure created for the supply and food of the more

perfect kinds.’ ”

Phosphorescence, however, is a feature so broadly and

diversely distributed amongst marine animals, not only abys-

sal, but pelagic and littoral, that, on a careful view of the

subject, some objections to such a theory present themselves.

On land the idea that the phosphorescence of certain insects

(Lampyris, Elater, &c.) may guide them to their prey, was

early promulgated by entomologists (e.g. Kirby and Spence).

Further, since the light in Lampyris is usually most brilliant

in the female, it has been connected with sexual characteris-

tics, especially as these females are wingless; but it must be

remembered that both larva, pupa, and male are likewise

luminous. The provision, besides, continues after the repro-

ductive season. The luminous .myriopods, again, show that

the presence or absence of wings has little to do with the

matter. Kirby and Spence have also observed that certain

insects can control their phosphorescence, in order, as they

suppose, to escape being captured by nocturnal birds. On the

whole, we can scarcely predicate of such animals, any more

than the botanists can with regard to the Fungi, that their

luminosity subserves them for the light of day.

Amongst the inhabitants of the ocean, phosphorescence ap-

pears in all the invertebrate subkingdoms, from Protozoa to

Annulosa. Certain infusorial animalcules (Ceratiwm, Peridi-

nium, Syncheta) and the well-known Noctiluca are luminous.

Of Ceelenterata there are Hydroid Zoophytes, true Meduse, and

Aleyonaria; while Pyrosoma and, it may be, others are simi-

larly provided among the mollusks. In the Annulosa, again,

there are Brittle-stars, Planariew, Annelids, and Crustacea.

If, as the report says, luminosity subserves the purpose of

guiding animals to their prey, or of causing them to be preyed

apon (an unfortunate result), or even of illuminating the

abysses of the ocean, we should find traces of a general resem-

hlance in habits, structure, or physiology, which would at

least indicate the bearings of a provision so important. Thus,

for instance, we should look for a similar state of matters

in the dark caves of Illyria and Dalmatia, or in those of

Kentucky.

On surveying the marine animals possessed of this property

of phosphorescence, they are found to live under circumstances

so varied that it is truly difficult, not to say hazardous, to

attribute the function assigned in the report to the pheno-

menon. Thus Noctiluca miliaris occurs in such swarms as to

give the whole surface of the ocean a sparkling appearance,

Tere blowing on the surface of sea-water taken at random

4 W.C. M‘Intosh on the Abyssal Theory of Light.

in July off many of our shores where Laminarie abound,

produces phosphorescence from a vast number of minute

medusa-buds. The same takes place most strikingly in ves-

sels in which specimens of Obelia geniculata attached to

tangle-blades are immersed. On touching the seaweed, a large

number of such luminous points appear on the zoophytes, the

stems most irritated sending off beautiful flashes, which glitter

like a faintly dotted line of fire, the pomts not being harshly

separated, but blending into each other; while the shock im-

parted by the instrument detaches the minute medusa-buds,

which scintillate from the parent stem upwards to the surface

of the water. Dr. Allman would therefore have found this a

much more interesting species for his observations than O.

dichotoma*, The immense abundance of these minute phos-

phorescent organisms (medusa-buds) in some parts of the

Zetlandic seas may explain the following fact, reported to me

by Mr. Gatherer, the intelligent naturalist of Fort Charlotte,

Lerwick. During the prevalence of a south-easterly gale, the

late Dr. Cowie, of Lerwick, was riding at night along Deal’s

(or Dale’s) Voe, when, happening to touch his beard, he found

both it and his fingers gleam with phosphorescent points ; and

the same ensued on rubbing his sleeve. The gale had proba-

bly swept the spray and thousands of its minute inhabitants

landwards, and showered them on the person of the rider.

If Thawmantias, or any other phosphorescent Medusa, which,

when swimming freely, has its disk-margin shining like a

dotted fiery ring of great beauty, be taken from the water and

rubbed on a woollen surface, such as a carpet, a considerable

luminous area is produced, showing that the entire mass of

the animal has this property when thus violently irritated ;

moreover the surface just mentioned, as well as the fingers,

remain in a gleaming condition for some time. Iam aware that

this view slightly differs from that of so distinguished and so

cautious an observer as my friend Mr. Busk, who, along with

Dr. Allman and probably Panceri, confines the seat of light to

the marginal tentacular bulbs ; but I cannot conscientiously say

otherwiset. If Beroé be treated in the same rough manner,

it 1s found to be less phosphorescent, and the luminosity of

the area disappears sooner. It did not signify, in any case

observed by me (Beroé excepted, as I did not examine it es-

pecially on this point), whether the examination were made at

* This author (Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinb. vol. iv. p. 519) is of opinion that

Bervé and other Ctenophora are among the chief sources of the phos-

phorescence of the sea in our latitudes.

+ The state of matters in ApAlebina, where the light gleams along the

simple tentacular processes, supports this view.

W.C. M‘Intosh on the Abyssal Theory of Light. 5

night or by day in a darkened room or recess ; and this feature

of itself would raise a doubt as to such having any connexion

physiologically with the capture of prey or of being conspi-

cuous to marauders.

The free gonozooids of many of the Hydroid zoophytes,

therefore, and the true Medusz are pelagic and phosphorescent

animals, whose active life is passed at or near the surface of

the water, so that they can scarcely be included under the

head of abyssal inhabitants, though some descend during

quiescence to the bottom. We have no proof that the lumi-

nosity of such forms occurs only at night; for, as before men-

tioned, I have found various species, like the annelids and the

Coleopterous larva recently described by Dr. H. Burmeister*, ex-

hibit this property as vividly during the day as during the night,

if taken into a suitable place for observation, and without

any previous seclusion in darkness as described by Dr. Allman

in Beroé. Meduse, besides, do not, so far as I know, form a

common food of other marine animals in our seas (their most

notable enemies, perhaps, in this respect beg each other),

and their habits and structure do not point to their exercising

the luminosity for the sake of seizing their prey. Moreover

there does not seem to exist the provision mentioned in the

report, whereby, in virtue of their lessened phosphorescence,

the breeding individuals are preserved. There is nothing in

the history of Pennatula or Pavonaria which would lead us to

infer such interpretations of their luminosity ; and though the

former sometimes occurs in the stomach of the cod, it must be

borne in mind that inconspicuous mollusks and annelids are

at least as common, not to mention stones and iron nails.

Phosphorescence could be of little service to the brillant

Pyrosoma in capturing prey; and, to balance the fancy that

this was given for the sake of attracting plunderers, we have

the fact that the allied and equally palatable Salpe of the

British waters are not luminous.

It is asserted that the young of the starfishes emit more

light than the adults in order that they may the more readily

court destruction; but it may be asked, are the young of the

Hydroid Zoophytes, of Beroé, or the young Annelida more

luminous than the adults? Apparently not; and in some cases

rather the reverse. Further, we may inquire as to the facts

bearing on this question in those starfishes which are not phos-

phorescent. The structure of the group and their habits in

feeding, again, show that such illumination could only be of

service to their enemies. But we have no reliable data to

* Proc. Linn, Soc. (Zool.), vol. xi. no, 54, p. 419.

6 W.C. M‘Intosh on the Abyssal Theory of Light.

demonstrate that one marine species which is luminous is more

preyed on than another which is not. ;

Some interesting features are presented by the Annelids.

Chetopterus norvegicus, for instance, is a most beautifully

phosphorescent form, bright flashes being emitted from the

posterior feet; but the most vivid luminosity is at a point on

the dorsum between the lateral wings of the tenth segment.

Here the copious mucus exuded by the animal can be drawn

out as bluish-purple fire of great intensity, which, besides,

now and then gleams along the edges of the wing-like pro-

cesses, at once illuminating the surrounding water and elicit-

ing the admiration of the observer. A very characteristic

odour, somewhat resembling that produced by phosphorus in

combustion, is given out by the animal during such experi-

ments. The common Harmothoé imbricata, again, discharges

bright greenish scintillations from the point of attachment of

each dorsal scale; and thus, under irritation, the flashes are

arranged in pairs along the body, or in a double moniliform

line. The separated scales, also, continue to gleam for some

time, chiefly at the surfaces of attachment. If severely pinched,

the worm wriggles through the water, emitting sparks of green

light from the bases of the feet. The same phenomenon 1s

readily produced in a fragment either of the anterior or poste-

rior end of the body. The large Polynoé scolopendrina and a

Zetlandic Hunoa are similarly phosporescent, the light pro-

ceeding from the dorsal surface of the bases of the feet. A

Eusyllis common under stones and on the blades of tangles is

also highly luminous. Under irritation, a fine green light is

emitted from the ventral aspect of each foot. ‘The scintilla-

tions seem to issue from many minute pores at each space,

flash along both sides of the worm posterior to the point of

uritation, and then disappear, a faint trace only being visible

for a few seconds. On one occasion, after a severe pinch, the

animal remained luminous behind the injured part for nearly

half a minute, while the surface of granular light on each

segment was larger than usual; and in some instances those

of opposite sides were connected on the ventral aspect by a

few phosphorescent points. Moreover, for some time atter,

mere shaking of the vessel caused a repetition of the brilliant

flashes. ‘The body behind the irritated point had a decidedly

paler pinkish hue (under a lens) immediately after the emis-

sion of the luminosity. When at rest, a spark appeared

here and there at intervals. As in all such marine forms,

immersion in spirit elicited the luminosity, a moniliform band

of greenish phosphorescence (brightest at the tail) being

instantly produced on each side: at the end of five minutes

W.C. M‘Intosh on the Abyssal Theory of Light. 7

the body was still faintly luminous, while from the injured

points the soft parts protruded. A pale Aphlebina (Poly-

cirrus), very generally distributed, is so phosphorescent that, on

simply blowing on the water of the dissecting-trough or other

shallow vessel in which it lies, the most vivid pale bluish lumi-

nosity gleams for a moment along every one of the mobile ten-

tacles, which are often elegantly disposed in a stellate manner.

Now, with the exception of Harmothoé imbricata and Eunoa,

all the luminous annelids above-mentioned are inhabitants

of tubes of greater or less density. Chetopterus lives under

stones between tide-marks, amongst old shells and stones in

deep water, or sunk in sand and gravel at low water in tubes

resembling thick parchment covered with pebbles, shells, and

seaweeds. Polynoé scolopendrina frequents the tubes of the

speckled Terebella nebulosa ; indeed I have never found it any-

where else than in these or similar galleries. The latter species

is not luminous, while the former is; yet both are placed

under the same circumstances, and, of the two, perhaps P. sco-

lopendrina has less need for such extraneous aid in procuring

nourishment. Many of the Polynoide which have similar

habits are not phosphorescent, while the succeeding form,

which greatly resembles Zerebella in habits and structure, is

luminous. With such a varied history, the only theory that

seems feasible is one which would endow the Polynoé with the

property of attracting prey for the benefit of Zerebel/a or itself

—a somewhat analogous part to that ascribed by the fancy of

the older naturalists to the pea-crab in the horse-mussel! The

yellow Aphlebina, again, a close ally of Terebella, is beautifully

phosphorescent. This and the two foregoing are compara-

tively safe from the attacks of marauding fishes or crabs, the

two former in tubes immersed in sand or under stones, and the

latter in obscure chinks and fissures of muddy rocks, boulders,

and old shells. It will not do to affirm that they are pro-

tected because they are luminous, since many species which

are not so have exactly the same habits and shelter, while

other phosphorescent annelids are without such a safeguard.

Lastly, Husyllis occurs in swarms in delicate tubes on Lami-

narian blades covered with Obelia, as well as under ascidians

on stones between tide-marks. The effect produced in its

former situation may sometimes be seen on a gigantic scale on

the West Sands at St. Andrews, after a heavy storm has

tossed on shore a bank of tangles and other seaweeds about a

mile long. Throughout this extent, wherever the people are

engaged at night in securing the valuable mass as manure,

countless myriads of minute glittering points cover the sea-

weeds, carts, and weapons. Whether the phosphorescence be

8 W.C.M‘Intosh on the Protozoic-Absorption Theory.

due to the zoophytes, the annelids, or both, does not signify

for our argument. Both are found between tide-marks, and in

immense quantities in the Laminarian region immediately be-

yond, where there is abundance of light. Neither, therefore,

supposing it were able to profit by that gift, requires its lumi-

nosity to aid it in its search for nourishment; nor do the

Nudibranchs which prey on the zoophyte, or the devourers

of the annelid, stand in need of this artificial guide to their

respective means of support.

The abyssal theory of light thus gains little suecour from

the Annelids.

It is stated in the report that, since fishes feed principally

at night, the phosphorescence of the larve on the surface, for

instance, is an example of a provision for feeding the herring.

The stomachs of cod, haddock, whiting, flounders, and other

fishes, however, give no such result in regard to luminous anne-

lids. Even if such were the case in the herring, it would not

be a solid basis on which to found the abyssal theory of light.

On the whole, then, the present state of our knowledge does

not warrant the supposition that luminosity is given to marine

animals for the purpose of preying or being preyed upon;

moreover, that the abysses of the ocean are not better supplied

with this provision than the littoral region and the shallow

Laminarian zone—indeed much less than the surface of the

sea itself. It may yet be a question, according to some ob-

servers, whether the phosphorescence may not In some cases

act a part exactly the reverse of alluring, and so tend to pre-

serve the species from attack. A speculation to this effect

could be as easily established as the foregoing. The theory

has much of the visionary character of Cirsted’s scheme as

to the occurrence of marine animals in variously coloured

strata corresponding to the solar spectrum; and some other

explanation must be advanced as to the presence of well-

formed eyes in certain animals at great depths in the sea.

2. The Protozoic-Absorption Theory.

In regard to the speculation that marine Rhizopoda have

the power of absorbing, after the manner of the Entozoa, the

organic matter which certain analyses of oceanic water showed

to exist therein, some reflections suggest themselves.

In the first place, there does not appear to be any serious

difficulty in accounting for the supply of nourishment to the

abyssal Rhizopoda, since the whole ocean lies at their com-

mand. Minute organisms and minute organic particles of all

kinds surely abound, and currents, however slow, must bring

a constant supply for even a larger population of such micro-

W.C.M‘Intosh on the Protozotc-Absorption Theory. )

scopic animals than has yet been discovered*. Besides, the

minute jellies and disintegrating particles of their fellows of

the deep are not unpalatable, and probably in many cases are

preferable to “ diffused protoplasm ”’ imbibed by their surfaces.

If the reporters had prefixed to their theory}, which is

clearly a modification of Dr. Wallich’s t, a statement of a

series of exact scientific experiments proving that the Protozoa

in question, or other free animals, lived not upon minute

organic particles, as other Rhizopoda do, but upon this mvi-

sible ‘‘ protoplasm” diffused through sea-water, or if they

had observed that when disintegrating particles were placed

near such Rhizopoda there was no contact, but only a

patient expectation till the protoplasm got diffused through

sea-water, so as to enter their tissues by absorption, then there

would have been a basis for their argument. Such a founda-

tion there would have been, also, if they had stated the fact

that the beautiful and highly complex Eunice norvegica, an

annelid five inches long, provided with intricate dermal, mus-

cular, digestive, nervous, circulatory, branchial, and other

systems, can be preserved alive in fifteen ounces of the purest

(unchanged) sea-water, in a clean glass vessel§, for three

years—that large Nemerteans, like Lineus marinus, can be

kept for a longer period, and regenerate lost portions of their

bodies (though their general bulk diminishes), no trace of

nourishment of any kind being visible, nor any change made

in the water. Further, they might have drawn upon their

experiences in this respect with many other Annelids, Echino-

derms, Mollusca, and Ccelenterates, and called attention to the

remarkable tenacity of life in sea-water, under apparently

complete absence of all nourishment; and, reviewing such

facts by the light of their discovery of ‘decomposable organic

matter,” might have shown that, since animals so highly or-

ganized thus sustain life in sea-water, there must be some in-

herent aliment, capable of absorption, therein, and conse-

quently that there can be no difficulty in believing that vast

myriads of animals of the simplest structure live altogether on

this pabulum in the ocean-bed.

The mere occurrence of some “ decomposable organic mat-

ter’ (to wit, ‘ dilute protoplasm ”’) in sea-water in general, or

any sea-water in particular, it appears to me, cannot be ba-

lanced for a moment in such a case against well-ascertained

facts as to the mode of nourishment in the Rhizopoda. Be-

* An interesting De bearing on this question has recently been pub-

lished by Dr. Karl Mobius, Zeitsch. w. Zool. xxi. Bd. 2. p. 294, and Ann.

Nat. Hist. ser. 4, vol. viii.

t Proc. Roy. Soc. No. 121, p. 476 et seg.

¢ North-Atlantic Sea-bed, pt, i. p. 181. § A jar with a glass cover,

10 W.C. M‘Intosh on the Azoic-Mud Theory.

sides, it is well known that a large quantity of organic matter

in solution (‘diffused protoplasm ” be it called) exists in many

freshwater lochs and ponds; yet it has not been brought to

light that the Rhizopodous faunz of these ever resort to this

old prescription of nutritive baths, after the fashion of the

Gregarine and other parasites*.

Moreover it does not seem to be a sound inference to assert

(and this also is a modified form of Dr. Wallich’s argument)

that, because the Protozoon has the power of “ drawing” from

the sea-water “the mineral ingredients of the skeleton it

forms,” it is nourished by direct absorption of the “ dilute

protoplasm” so conveniently dissolved in the surrounding

medium. So far as our experience of such formations goes,

the calcareous and siliceous spicula and the horny fibres of

sponges, the tests of Foraminifera, and other such organisms

are (of course with the exception of the instances in which

foreign bodies are used) as much the peculiar secretions and

excretions in virtue of the inherent properties of their tissues

as the crystalline styles in the gastric organs of certain mol-

lusks, the stylets in the Nemertean proboscis, and the spicula

of the Echinoderms. It is no rough “ drawing”’ of ‘ mineral

ingredients’ from the sea-water which takes place at all, but

a much more intricate vital process; for, just as the primitive

layers in the vertebrate embryo form the respective classes of

tissues, as each annelid produces its characteristic bristles,

each Synapta its peculiar anchors and plates, each armed

Nemertean its stylets, each mollusk its shell, and each coral-

polyp its special mass, so the elementary tissues in the several

Rhizopoda as invariably secrete or excrete their peculiar in-

ternal or external “skeletons,” and that, too, in many cases,

as infallibly as though each had inherited the die from its

ancestor. It is true that in marine animals the surrounding

medium is favourable, but this will not of itself affect the main

question at issue. ‘lhe same line of argument used by the

reporters may be applied to every other subkingdom of ani-

mals inhabiting the ocean, from mammals to ccelenterates ;

yet it is highly problematical if a minute coral-polyp would

rest satisfied with a meal of this “dilute protoplasm” any

more than, in our opinion, a Protozoon would. ‘The specula-

tion does not appear to be worthy of confidence.

3. The Azotc-Mud Theory.

In the summary of the results of the last cruise of the

* It is a pity the solution of “ aos * was not a little stronger;

for thereby many marine animals, such as Arenicola, would have been

saved some trouble.

W.C. M‘Intosh on the Azotc-Mud Theory. MM

“Porcupine,” Dr. Carpenter, who assumes the entire respon-

sibility of this part of the Report*, has advanced the theory

that it is the turbidity of the bottom-water which renders the

deeper parts of the basin of the Mediterranean barren of life.

“ All marine animals,”’ he says, ‘‘ are dependent for the aéra-

tion of their fluids on the contact of water either with their ex-

ternal surface or with special (branchial) prolongations of it.

Now if this water be charged with suspended particles of ex-

treme fineness, the deposit of these particles upon the respiratory

surface will interfere with the aérating process, and will tend

to produce asphyxia.” He further cites the case of oyster-

beds, which cannot be established in situations to which fine

mud is carried. He, moreover, points out the important bearing

this theory of his will have in regard to the vast azoic deposits

of the geologists, whe, since the lapse of Prof. E. Forbes’s

views as to the absence of animal life at great depths, have

been puzzled for a solution of the difficulty. Such a theory,

of course, ought only to be built on well-ascertained facts,

some of which, however, do not seem quite in agreement

therewith.

Thus Terebelle and Gephyrea in vast numbers are charac-

teristic of muddy beaches, such as those between St. Peter

Port and St. Sampson’s, in Guernsey, and near Rat Island,

Herm. Not only these, but many other annelids are found no-

where else than amongst mud or muddy sand, and this is often

of such a nature that the sea-water which covers them must

always be loaded with minute particles of mud. So distinctly

is this the case, as at Lochmaddy, that the fronds of the sea-

weeds (both those covered and those uncovered by the tide)

in quiet creeks are coated with a deposit of fine mud. Yet

marine life, from sponges upwards, is nowhere more abundant

than in such muddy regions. Indeed the contrast in this re-

spect between these creeks and the rocks washed by open (not

rough) water is marked.

Certain mollusks, it may be true, like very young salmon,

do not thrive in muddy water, yet some of the most delicate

and beautiful annelids, with the finest branchial plumes, live

amongst the most tenacious chalk-mud, as it is called, which

it has been my lot to encounter. Yet these annelids are so

sensitive to other impurities that a very slight admixture of

fresh water (although the supply be taken from the sea) is

instantly fatal, as I, unfortunately, have reason to remember.

The habits of the littoral annelids are also instructive in this

respect. Many of the Polynotdw, Ophiodromus, numerous

Nereide, Lumbrinereis, the large Marphysa sanguinea, Onu-

* Proc. Roy. Soc. No. 125 (1870), p. 202.

12 W.C. M‘Intosh on the Azotc-Mud Theory.

phis (Hyalinecia) tubicola (in deep water), Arenicola, several

of the Spionide (e. g. Nerine foliosa and Scolecolepis vulgaris),

Ctrratulus, Sabellaria, many of the Terebellide and Sabellide

habitually live amongst mud or ooze, often of a putrid descrip-

tion, while Tubifex and other annelids swarm in the mud of

the Thames. Some of the Nemerteans, again, a group of

animals with most sensitive ciliated skins, which, moreover,

are supposed to subserve the purposes of respiration, live con-

stantly amongst fine and often odoriferous mud. No branchial

organs can be more delicate than those of many of the above-

mentioned annelids, and no skins more tender than those

of the Nemerteans; yet, according to this theory, they are

placed in most unfavourable circumstances, to a very great

extent more calamitous than the condition of any denizen of

the muddy depths of the Mediterranean can be. They must,

indeed, pass a life alternately of asphyxia and semiasphyxia.

Further, the curious type Balanoglossus, Delle Chiaje, has an

elaborate and delicately ciliated branchial apparatus, forming

part of the dorsal arch of the first region of the alimentary

canal, the only possible separation, as shown by Kowalewsky,

being by an incurvation of the body-wall, which, of course,

can hardly be complete. Now this animal lives in muddy

sand, and swallows it wholesale, so that, not to speak of the

currents of muddy water which otherwise bathe its respiratory

organs, we have at least an occasional application of mud in

mass to this important surface.

In glancing at the other divisions of the animal kingdom,

also, we observe that many littoral sponges are found on ex-

tremely muddy ground, in some the terminal spicula alone

being visible through the oozy coating. The siliceous sponges,

again, all over the world, affect a muddy bottom. Muddy

ground is a favourite haunt of zoophytes and other ccelente-

rates. In the sandy mud of certain parts of the West Voe of

Scalloway (where, by the by, a few oysters are) Scrobicularia

and other mollusca live and thrive; yet the stinking odour of

the ooze is most penetrating, the comparatively still water

probably preventing the decaying tangles and other débris

from being carried off. Other mollusks, such as Corbula gibba,

abound on a muddy bottom; and ascidians and mussels are

not only powdered by the mud of their respective sites, but

the latter are often almost imbedded in it. Those familiar

with the habits of the common Carcinus menas would be

cautious in attributing a deleterious character to mud of any

description. In general, muddy ground is found to be much

more productive in marine life of all kinds than where the

rocks, seaweeds, and sands are pure. I need only instance, in

Dr. A. Giinther on new Species of Snakes. 13

conclusion, the muddy ground on which the horse-mussels

thrive in Bressay Sound and in the Voes on the west coast of

Shetland. The agglomerated masses of mussels, tangle-roots,

stones, and odoriferous mud teem with marine life. Even

where the margin of the sea is rendered perfectly turbid from

mud (and this, too, calcareous), as at White-Cliff Bay, in the

Isle of Wight, marine animals are abundant between tide-

marks.

There is doubtless some reason why animals were not found

by Dr. Carpenter in the dredgings referred to; but it is, on the

whole, unlikely that such barrenness was due to the muddy

condition of the water per se. Whether his alternative re-

straining condition, viz. ‘‘the stagnation produced by the al-

most entire absence of vertical circulation,’ be founded on a

more secure basis, must remain, as he adds, a matter of future

inquiry.

I1.—Seventh Account of new Species of Snakes in the Col-

lection of the British Museum. By ALBERT GUNTHER,

M.A., M.D., Ph:D:, F.R.S.

[Plates IIL. IV., V., & VL]

THE following species of Ophidians have been added to the

collection of the British Museum since the publication of the

last paper on the same subject in this Journal (June 1868, 1.

pp- 413-429). The total number of species in that collection

amounts now to 920, and that of the typical specimens to 366.

In the following lists a part of the species are marked with an

asterisk (*) ; of these, as well as of a few others, I have added

descriptions or short remarks.

I. List of Species which were formerly desiderata.

Typhlops travancoricus, Bedd. Travancore. Capt. Beddome.

Typhlops striolatus, Pirs. Khassya. T.C. Jerdon, Esq.

Typhlops exiguus, Jan. Belgaum. Dr. Leith.

Plectrurus sanguineus, Bedd. Anamallays. Capt. Beddome.

Rhinophis punctatus, Mill. Ceylon. T. H. K. Thwaites, Esq.

Adelphicos quadrivirgatum, Jan. Java. M. Boucard.

Ablabes reticulatus, Jerdon. Khassya. T.C. Jerdon, Esq.

Cyclophis monticola, Jerdon. Khassya. T.C. Jerdon, Esq.

Colophrys rhodogaster, Cope. Rio Chisoy. O. Salvin, Esq.

Simotes albocinctus, Cant. EE. I. archipelago. Dr. van Lidth de

Jeude. q

Coronella (Liopeltis) sagittifera, Jan. Tucuman, Mendoza. Pur-

chased.

14 ‘Dr. A. Giinther on new Species of Snakes

*Liophis purpurans, D. dé B. Demerara. Zool. Soc. Museum.

*Tachymenis piceivittis, Cope. Tehuantepec. M. Boucard.

*Spilotes fasciatus, Ptrs. Surinam; Hr.'Kappler. Peruvy. Amazons:

Mr. Bartlett.

Zamenis himalayanus, Steindachner. Kashmere (10,000 feet). T.

C. Jerdon, Esq.

*Zamenis spinalis, Ptrs. North China or Japan. A. Adams, Esq.

*Tretanorhinus nigroluteus, Cope. Panama. Zoolog. Society.

Helicops Brandtii, Rnhrdt. Brazil. Prof. Reinhardt.

Leptognathus pavoninus, Cuv. Surinam, Berbice, W. Ecuador.

*Elaps multifasciatus, Jan. Nicaragua and Bogota. Purchased.

Atheris chloroéchis, Schleg. Lagos. Purchased.

Il. List of the new Species procured and described since

June 1868.

*Geophis meestus, Gthr. Costa Rica. Purchased.

*Opisthotropis ater, Gthr. West Africa. Purchased.

*Leptocalamus torquatus, Gthr. ‘South America.” Mr. Cuming.

*Microdromus virgatus, Gthr. Costa Rica. Purchased.

*Ablabes gracilis, Gthr. Costa Rica. Purchased.

*Coronella pecilolemus, Gthr. Upper Amazons. Mr. Bartlett.

*Tachymenis bitorquata, Gthr. - Peruv. Amazons. Mr. Bartlett.

*Simotes formosanus, Githr. Formosa. R. Swinhoe, Esq.

*Zamenophis australis, Gthr. Cape York. Purchased.

*Zamenis ater, Gthr. Algeria. J. Brenchley, Esq.

*Dromicus madagascariensis, Gthr. Madagascar. Purchased.

*Herpetodryas tetratenia, Gthr. Bogota. Purchased.

*Diplotropis bilineata, Gthr. Costa Rica. O. Salvin, Esq.

*Hapsidophrys niger, Gthr. Gaboon. Purchased.

*Phylodryas psammophideus, Gthr. Tucuman. Purchased.

*Dendrophis salomonis, Gthr. Solomon Islands. G. Krefft, Esq.

Dendrophis caudolineolatus, Gthr. Ceylon. R. H. Barnes, Esq.

*Aheetulla diplotropis, Gthr. Tehuantepec. M. Boucard.

*Ahetulla modesta, Gthr. Rio Chisoy. O. Salvin, Esq.

*Aheetulla lagoensis, Gthr. Lagos. Purchased.

*Chrysopelea vicina, Gthr. Island of Misol. Purchased.

*Hydrethiops melanogaster, Gthr. Gaboon. Purchased.

Psammophis Leithii, Gthr. Sindh. Dr. A. H. Leith.

*Leptognathus annulatus, Gthr. Costa Rica. Purchased.

*Leptognathus Copei, Gthr. Surinam? Dr. van Lidth de Jeude.

*Leptognathus dimidiatus, Gthr. Mexico. Purchased.

*Leptodira semiannulata, Gthr. Loanda. Purchased.

*Leptodira rhombifera, Gthr. Rio Chisoy. O. Salvin, Esq.

Dipsas Barnesii, Gthr. Ceylon. R. H. Barnes, Esq.

*Dipsas approximans, Gthr. Upper Amazons. Mr. Bartlett.

*Hydrophis Holdsworthiu, Gthr. Western Ceylon. E. W. H. Holds-

worth, Esq.

*Rhinelaps fasciolatus, Gthr. West Australia. Mr. Duboulay.

*Diemenia Schlegelii, Gthr. Island of Misol. Purchased.

in the Collection of the British Museum. 15

*Cacophis modestus, Gthr. West Australia. Mr. Duboulay.

*Pseudonaja affinis, Gthr. Australia. G. Krefft, Esq.

*Atractaspis micropholis, Gthr. Africa. St. G. Mivart, Esq.

Geophis latifrons.

Giinth. Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. 1868, i. p. 415.

A variety of this species from the Upper Amazon is black,

the trunk being encircled by about 52 narrow, nearly equidis-

tant, white rings. -The rings are only one or two scales broad,

the narrower and broader being alternately arranged. Tail

coloured as the trunk. The white occipital band of the typi-

eal specimen is also present in this variety, but is limited to

the side of the head, and does not extend across the occipitals.

Abdomen with large irregular black cross bands. Ventral

shields 148.

A second variety has 11 pairs of black rings on the trunk,

the rings of each pair being separated only by a narrow white

line. ‘The interspaces of the ground-colour are much wider

than the rings. Ventrals 145. Upper Amazons.

Geophis lineatus, D. & B.

= Rhabdosoma trivirgatum, Jan, and = Rhabdosoma puncto-

vittatum, Jan.

Specimens from Trinidad have been presented by L. Guppy,

Esq.

Geophis mestus.

Head rather broad, short and depressed; body and tail of

moderate length. Eye small. Anterior frontals about one

eighth the size of posterior. Vertical as broad as long,

six-sided, with the anterior angle rather obtuse, and with

the posterior somewhat pointed; its lateral edges are very

short, convergent. Occipitals rounded behind, shorter than

the vertical and postfrontals together. Six upper labials,

the third and fourth entering the orbit; the fifth is the

largest, and forms a suture with the occipital; an elongate

temporal behind this suture. One postocular. The first pair

of lower labials form a suture together ; anterior chin-shields

not quite twice as large as posterior. Scales in fifteen rows,

smooth. Ventrals 148; anal entire; subcaudals 41. Colora-

tion very similar to that of Homalocranium mestum—viz. en-

tirely black, with a broad white collar, nearly entirely occupy-

ing the occipitals and temple. Lower parts blackish.

One specimen from the elevated parts of Costa Rica, near

Cartago. Total length 64 inches; tail 1 inch.

16 Dr. A. Giinther on new Species of Snakes

Catostoma chalybeum (Wagl.).

A variety of this species, from the elevated country of Costa

Rica near Cartago, has a series of large, subquadrangular,

white spots along each side of the body. Sometimes the spots

of both sides are confluent and form white cross bars. Ven-

trals 144. In specimens of a uniform black coloration, from

Mexico, I count 130 ventral shields.

OPISTHOTROPIS (g. n. Calamarid.).

Body and tail moderately slender, posteriorly somewhat

compressed ; head rather narrow, not distinct from neck. A

pair of anterior frontals; a single postfrontal, which is very

broad. Rostral rounded. Nostrils between two nasals, di-

rected upwards. One loreal; one ante-, two postoculars.

Eye small. Scales smooth anteriorly, with faint keels towards

the middle of the body, and strongly keeled behind and on

the tail, in 17 rows. Anal and subcaudals double. Maxillary

teeth equal in length, densely set, none grooved.

West Africa.

Opisthotropis ater. Pl. III. fig. B.

The upward direction of the nostrils reminds us in some

measure of the Homalopside ; but the pholidosis is that of a

Calamaroid snake. Rostral broad and low; anterior frontals

about as long as broad; postfrontal thrice as broad as long,

with an obtuse angle in front, but with the fronto-vertical

suture straight. Vertical triangular, occupying nearly the

entire width of the upper surface of the head, as broad as

long. Occipitals nearly twice as long as broad, obtusely

rounded behind. The nostril is small, in the upper part of

the suture between the two nasals ; loreal large, subquadran-

gular. The preorbital reaches to the upper surface of the

head, but not to the vertical; the upper postocular larger than

the lower. Seven labials, the fifth of which only enters the

orbit; the seventh very long, as long as the single temporal

shield above it. Ventrals 170; subcaudals 65. Upper parts

brownish black, lighter towards and on the abdomen. Length

of the head 3 inch, of trunk 10 inches, of tail 3 inches.

West Africa.

LEPTOCALAMUS (g.n. Calamarid.).

Body and tail slender, subcylindrical; head narrow, not

distinct from neck. T'wo pairs of frontals. Rostral rounded.

Nostrils small, between two nasals. Loreal united with pre-

ocular; two postoculars. . Eye small. Scales smooth, in 17

in the Collection of the British Museum. 17

rows. Anal and subcaudals double. The posterior maxillary

tooth (1—3) is large, trenchant, not grooved, separated from

the others by a small interspace.

South America.

Leptocalamus torquatus. Pl. III. fig. A.

This snake might be taken at the first glance for an Hlapo-

morphus, from which it is distinguished by the number of

scales and the dentition. Rostral broad and low; posterior

frontals about thrice the size of the anterior ; vertical quadran-

gular, with a very obtuse angle in front, and with a right one

behind ; it occupies nearly the entire width of the upper sur-

face of the head. Occipitals considerably longer than broad.

obtusely rounded behind. The preocular is nearly as long

as the two nasals together; two small postoculars. Seven

upper labials, the third and fourth entering the orbit. Tem-

porals 142. Ventrals 183; subcaudals 53+. Reddish-

olive above, with a very indistinct darker vertebral line; lower

parts uniform white; a broad white collar across the posterior

half of the occipitals and first rows of scales.

Length of the head } inch, of trunk 94 inches, of tail (mu-

tilated) 3 inches.

One specimen, purchased of Mr. Cuming, said to be from

“South America.”

Micropromvs (g. n. Calamarid.).

Physiognomy and habit as in Hlapomorphus and Homato-

cranium. Head small, depressed, not distinct from neck.

Hye rather small. Upper shields of the head normal. Loreal

none, replaced by the conjunction of the nasal, posterior frontal,

and preocular. Nasal simple. Scales smooth, without apical

groove, in fifteen rows. Anal and subcaudals double. The

last maxillary tooth is the largest, separated from the others

by an interspace, and smooth.

Central America.

Microdromus virgatus. Plate IV. fig. B.

Rostral shield just reaching to the upper surface of the

snout; anterior frontals scarcely half the size of posterior,

narrow ; vertical five-sided, longer than broad ; occipitals as

long as the vertical and frontals together, rounded behind.

One ante-, two postoculars. Seven upper labials, the third

and fourth entering the orbit, the hindmost the largest. Tem-

porals 1+1. The first pair of lower labials not in contact

with each other. Anterior chin-shields much larger than the

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. ix. 2

18 Dr. A. Giinther on new Species of Snakes

scale-like posterior. Ventrals 180; subcaudals 71. Upper

parts greyish, with a white collar; a pair of brown bands

edged with black, and two scales broad, run along the back

from the collar to about the middle of the tail. A similar

band along each side of the body, and sometimes a narrow

blackish line along each edge of the abdomen. Lower parts

uniform white. Upper labials white, with a black spot below

the eye and on the rostral shield.

This snake does not appear to be uncommon in the elevated

country of Costa Rica, near Cartago.

Total length 124 inches, tail 3 inches.

Streptophorus Sebe (D. & B.).

Having seen numerous examples of this snake collected at

Cartago in Costa Rica, I regard the Str. maculatus of Peters

(Berlin. Monatsber. 1861, p. 924), likewise from Costa Rica,

as a variety. Specimens with or without spots on the abdo-

men, with or without black on the head and neck, occur in the

same locality, the ornamental colours being subject to great

individual variation.

Ablabes gracilis. Pl. III. fig. D.

Body and tail slender, subcylindrical; head narrow, not

distinct from neck. A pair of narrow anterior frontals ;

posterior frontals confluent into one large shield. Rostral

rounded. Nostrils small, between two nasals. One loreal ;

one anteocular and one postocular. Eye small. Scales smooth,

with a single apical groove, in fifteen series. Anal and sub-

caudals double. The posterior maxillary teeth become gra-

dually larger, and are smooth. Rostral shield very broad and

low ; anterior frontals narrow, nearly the entire upper surface

of the snout being occupied by the single posterior frontal.

Vertical broad and long, five-sided, with the posterior angle

produced and pointed; occipitals as long as the vertical and

posterior frontal together. Nasal shields small; loreal longer

than deep; preocular narrow, not extending to the upper

surface of the snout. Seven upper labials, the third and

fourth entering the orbit. Temporals 1+1+4+2. The first

pair of lower labials form a suture together; two pairs of

chin-shields, subequal in size. Ventrals 149; subcaudals 69.

Upper parts nearly uniform blackish brown, the anterior and

lateral scales somewhat lighter in the centre. An indistinct

narrow brownish collar. Lower parts yellowish.

One specimen from the elevated country of Costa Rica, near

Cartago. Total length 12 inches, tail 3 inches,

in the Collection of the British Museum. 19

Coronella pecilolemus.

This species resembles externally Liophis regine and L.

teniurus ; but the dentition is syncranterian, the three or four

posterior teeth gradually increasing in length. The head is

rather narrow and elongate. The anterior frontals two-thirds

the size of posterior ; vertical narrow and elongate, but shorter

than the occipitals, which are rounded behind. Loreal as high

as long ; one anteocular, not reaching the vertical; two post-

oculars. Eight upper labials, the fourth and fifth below the

orbit. Temporals 1+2, the foremost very elongate. Six

lower labials are in contact with the chin-shields. Scales in

seventeen series, without pores. Ventrals 159; anal divided ;

subcaudals 67. Upper parts nearly uniform blackish ; a faint

reddish-brown streak along each side of the back of the tail

and hind part of the trunk, bordered below by an indistinct

blackish streak. Lower parts white chequered with black,

the black spots being less numerous on the posterior part of

the trunk, and disappearing entirely on the subcaudals; they

are more numerous and confluent on the anterior half of the

abdomen, the lower side of the head being yellowish with

rounded black spots. A yellow band along the upper labials,

continued on the side of the throat.

Two specimens were collected by Mr. Bartlett on the Upper

Amazons. ‘Total length 154 inches, tail 34 inches.

Liophis purpurans.

Ablabes purpurans, D. & B. p. 312.

Diadophis purpurans, Jan, Iconogy. livr. 15, pl. 5. fig. 5.

This snake is very closely allied to L. cobella, Merremii,&c.,

with regard to its general habit, pholidosis, and coloration. I

would also describe the dentition rather as diacranterian than

as isodont, the two posterior teeth being decidedly larger than

the preceding, and separated from them by a slight yet con-

spicuous interspace.

Tachymenis bitorquata.

Rostral low, scarcely extending to the upper surface of the

head ; anterior frontals transverse, one fourth the size of pos-

terior; vertical very broad, subtriangular, scarcely longer than

broad, and somewhat shorter than the occipitals, which are

obtusely rounded behind. Nostril between two nasals; loreal

large; preorbital single, widening above, and in contact with

the vertical; two postoculars. Eight upper labials, the fourth

and fifth entering the orbit. Temporals 2+3. Scales in

oblique rows, in nineteen series. Ventrals 195; anal entire ;

subcaudals 97. Each scale yellow, with a black margin;

20 Dr. A. Giinther on new Species of Snakes

upperside of the head black; neck with two black collars on

a yellowish ground. Lower parts uniform yellowish.

A single specimen is 9} inches long, of which the tail is

13 inch; it was obtained by Mr. Bartlett on the Peruvian

Amazons.

Tachymenis piceivittis..

Coniophanes piceivittis, Cope, Proc. Am. Phil. Soc. 1869 (July), p. 149.

Tachymenis teniata, Peters, Berl. Monatsber. 1869 (Decemb.), p. 876.

One specimen from Tehuantepec, purchased of M. Boucard.

Simotes formosanus.

Scales in nineteen rows. Ventrals 164; anal entire; sub-

caudals 54. Two preoculars, the superior of which is the

larger ; two postoculars. Seven upper labials, the third and

fourth entering the orbit. Posterior chin-shields only half

the size of the anterior. Light brownish; many scales with

a black edge, these black edges forming a great number of

reticulated transverse lines extending across the back and

sides. Lower parts uniform yellow ; a rather indistinct whitish

line along each edge of the abdomen.

Mr. Swinhoe has obtained one example at Takou, Formosa.

It is 22 inches long; tail 44 inches.

Spilotes fasciatus.

Peters, Monatsber. Berl. Akad. 1869, p. 443.

Scales in twenty-three or twenty-four series, those on the

back keeled. Ventrals and subcaudals 193 +125, or 200+

125, or 207+120; anal entire. Eye large. Vertical bell-

shaped, with converging outer margins; occipitals not much

longer than vertical. The single preocular is either in contact

with the vertical or very nearly reaches it. 'Two postoculars.

Eight upper labials, of which the fourth, fifth, and sixth enter

the orbit; the eighth is very long, as long as the three pre-

ceding together. Loreal scarcely longer than deep. Tem-

porals 2+2+2, or 3. Scales elongate and much imbricate,

Upper parts uniform brown in the adult; lower parts yel-

lowish ; towards the middle of the trunk the ventral shields

become more and more mottled with brown; and further be-

hind the lower parts are of the same dark colour as the upper.

A young specimen is more greyish, finely mottled and clouded

with brown.

Of this beautiful species we have three examples, one with-

out locality ; the second (young) is from Surimam, and the

third (adult) from the Peruvian Amazons. The first is 57

inches long, the tail being 17 inches; it has the dorsal scales

in the Collection of the British Museum. 21

provided with exceedingly strong keels, whilst the keels are

rather slight in the two others.

This species is allied to Sp. pacilonotus, which has the

preocular separated from the vertical by a considerable inter-

space.

ZAMENOPHIS (g. n. Colubrin.).

Body rather elongate, with angular abdomen; back flat;

tail of moderate length; ventral shields 200 or more in num-

ber, obtusely keeled on the sides; head flat; eye of moderate

size, with round pupil. Shields of the head normal; two

preoculars. Scales smooth, in seventeen series, without pores.

Anal entire; subcaudals two-rowed. The last maxillary tooth

or teeth larger than, and separated by a very short interspace

from the others.

North Australia.

This is a new addition to the small number of innocuous

snakes of Australia. It cannot be placed among the Coronel-

line forms having a distinctly compressed abdomen with an-

gular ventral shields. Among the Colubrina it approaches

most nearly to Zamenis, as far as technical characters are

concerned. But its physiognomy is very different; and the

true Zamenis having its geographical limits so well defined, I

have availed myself of the (technical) character of the entire

anal shield for distinguishing this Australian snake as a new

generic type.

Zamenophis australis.

Head flat, as in Coronella. The rostral is rounded, with

the posterior angle extending on the upper surface of the head

and entering between the two frontals. Anterior frontals

about one third the size of posterior. Vertical pentagonal,

with the lateral margins nearly parallel, and with a right angle

behind, longer than broad. Occipitals narrower and rounded

behind, as long as the vertical and posterior frontals together.

Nostril open in the anterior nasal; loreal as large as inferior

preocular ; the upper preocular does not reach the vertical ;

two postoculars ; nine upper labials, the fourth and fifth en-

tering the orbit. Temporal shields in two longitudinal series :

two elongate ones in the upper series, and three shorter ones

in the lower. Two pairs of chin-shields equal in size. Scales

short, polished. Ventrals 204; subcaudals 79. Upper parts

uniform brownish black; lateral scales with the apex of a

lighter colour; lower parts uniform brownish yellow, each

ventral with a brownish spot at the lateral corner.

Cape York. ‘Total length 24 inches; tail 53 inches.

22 Dr. A. Giinther on new Species of Snakes

Zamenis ater.

Scales in seventeen rows. Habit moderately slender; eye

of moderate size; loreal region not concave; two anterior and

two posterior oculars. Hight upper labials, the fourth and

fifth of which enter the orbit. The upper preocular not reach-

ing the vertical, Temporals 1+2, the anterior long. Ven-

trals 142; anal double; subcaudals 60. Upper parts uniform

deep black ; abdomen whitish.

Three specimens, presented by J. Brenchley, Esq., are said

to be from Biscra (Algeria) ; the largest is 26 inches long, the

tail being 6 inches.

Zamenis spinalis.

Masticophis spinalis, Peters, MB. Ak. Wiss. Berlin, 1868, p. 91.

A fine specimen of this snake was contained in a collection

made by Mr. A. Adams in various parts of the Chino-J apanese

Region. Unfortunately no record of the exact locality where

it was obtained is preserved; but so much appears to be pro-

bable, that the statement of the dealer of whom the specimen

in the Berlin Museum was purchased (viz. that it came from

Mexico) is not correct.

Dromicus madagascariensis, Pl. V. fig. A.

Scales in nineteen rows, smooth, without apical groove.

Loreal square ; one anteocular extending to the upper surface

of the head, but not reaching the vertical; two postoculars.

Eight upper labials, the fourth and fifth entering the orbit.

Temporals 1+2. Ventrals 168, without keel; anal bifid;

subeaudals 95. Upper parts black; on each side of the back,

along the fourth and adjoining halves of the third and fifth

outer series of scales, a yellowish band, which commences on

the side of the neck and is continued to the extremity of the

tail. The second and adjoining halves of the first and third

outer series are blackish, forming a stripe which passes into

a black lateral band of the tail, Abdomen whitish, anterior

ventral scutes with a black spot at the suture with the scales.

The posterior maxillary tooth is considerably larger than, but

scarcely separated by an interspace from, the preceding teeth.

In one specimen the frontal shields are confluent into a single

pair.

Two specimens from Madagascar, purchased on distinct

occasions. The larger is 22 inches long. At the first glance

this species may be taken for Herpetodryas Berniert.

in the Collection of the British Museum. 23

Herpetodryas occipttalis.

Giinth. Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. 1868, i. p. 420.

The example from which I described this species was

young, and showed a varied coloration, like many other spe-

cies of this genus in their young state. The adult (3 or 4 feet

long) is of a uniform dull greenish-olive coloration, this colour

extending over the outer fourth of the ventral shields. Middle

of the ventrals uniform yellowish.

Herpetodryas tetratenia.

Scales in seventeen rows, all keeled, with the exception of

the outermost. Ventrals 150, not keeled; anal bifid; sub-

caudals 127. Head moderate; eye rather large. Rostral

just reaching the upper surface of the head; anterior frontals

obtusely rounded in front, about half the size of posterior.

Vertical as long as the snout, but shorter than the occipitals,

which are subtruncate behind. Loreal as high as long ; ante-

ocular extending to the upper surface of the head, but not

reaching the vertical; two narrow postoculars. Nine upper

labials, the fourth, fifth, and sixth of which enter the orbit.

Body greenish olive, with four black longitudinal bands: the

bands of the dorsal pair occupy three series of scales outwards

of the vertebral series ; they commence behind the neck as a

double series of spots, which are soon confluent; the scales

composing its anterior half are black with a narrow white

margin, and entirely black posteriorly ; on the tail the two

bands are confluent into a single band. The lateral band is

narrower, occupying the meeting edges of the second and

third outer series; it commences as a linear, subinterrupted,

zigzag tract in the anterior half of the trunk, but soon becomes

broader, and is continued to the end of the tail. Upper parts.

of the head and neck uniform greenish olive; a broad black

band along the side of the head, through the eye. The colour

of the side extends for some distance on the ventral shields,

which have anteriorly a black transverse margin, interrupted

in the middle.

One specimen from Bogota, purchased. Entire length

30 inches, tail 12 inches.

Philodryas psammophideus. Pl. IV. fig. A.

Habit slender; head narrow; eye of moderate size, with

round pupil. Rostral shield as high as broad, reaching to the

upper surface of the snout; anterior frontals two thirds the

size of posterior. Vertical narrow, much longer than the

snout, and as long as the occipitals. Loreal region not

24 Dr. A. Giinther on new Species of Snakes

grooved; loreal shield longer than deep; anteocular extend-

ing on the upper surface of the head, but not reaching the

vertical. Two postoculars. Hight upper labials, of which the

third, fourth, and fifth enter the orbit. 'Temporals 1+2+2.

Scales smooth, in nineteen rows, without pores. Ventrals 201;

anal divided; subcaudals 92. Posterior maxillary tooth

longest, grooved; anterior mandibulary teeth longer than the

succeeding.

The coloration of this snake resembles that of a Psammophis

or Ragerrhis. The ground-colour is a reddish olive ; a darker

band, three scales broad, runs from the occipitals along the

vertebral line, and is bordered on each side by a series of

black specks. A brown band through the eye to the side of

the neck, where it becomes indistinct and is continued in the

form of two or three darker lines. Lower parts yellow, with

a series of black dots along each side of the abdomen. Upper

labials yellow, the sixth with a black spot.

One specimen from Tucuman; it is 27 inches long, tail

7 inches.

DrpLoTroPis (g.n. Dryadin.).

Body and tail slender ; trunk with about 150 ventral shields,

which show only very faint lateral keels. Head somewhat

elongate, rounded in front, flat above; eye rather large, with

round pupil; nostril between two shields. Shields of the head

regular; loreal present; one anterior and two posterior ocu-

lars. Scales in fifteen series, on the anterior half of the back

elongate, lanceolate, on the posterior rhombic; many with a

single apical pore ; they are smooth, with the exception of those

forming the series next to the vertebral series ; these are pro-

vided with a strong keel, the keels forming a pair of raised

lines along the middle of the back. Anal bifid. The maxil-

lary teeth become gradually stronger posteriorly; none are

grooved.

Diplotropis bilineata. Pl. VI. fig. B.

Snout rather depressed. Rostral not extending on the upper

surface of the head; anterior frontals obtusely rounded, not

much smaller than posterior. Vertical nearly as long as the

snout and as the occipitals, which are rounded behind. Loreal

considerably longer than deep; anteocular extending to the

upper surface of the head, but not reaching the vertical; two

narrow postoculars. Labials eight, low, the fourth and fifth

entering the orbit. Temporals 1+2. Ventrals 144. Green ;

the raised keels are black, forming a pair of black dorsal lines,

which are indistinct on the foremost part of the body, and dis-

in the Collection of the British Museum. 25

appear on the tail. A very indistinct blackish horizontal

streak behind the eye. Lower parts uniform light greenish.

One example was obtained by one of Mr. Salvin’s collectors

in Costa Rica. It has lost a considerable portion of the tail,

the head and body being 29 inches long.

Hapsidophrys niger.

Similar in habit and form of the head to H. ceruleus.

Scales keeled, much imbricate, thin and loose, in thirteen

series, those of the outermost series much smaller and shorter

than the others. One anterior, three posterior oculars, the

latter very narrow. Eight upper labials, the fourth and fifth

entering the orbit. Temporals 1+1. Ventrals 203, not

keeled on the sides; anal bifid; subcaudals 140. Uniform

black, except the lower jaw, which is of a smutty brown.

Gaboon. One specimen, 61 inches long, the tail being

17 inches.

Dendrophis salomonis.

Allied to D. calligastra and striolata. Scales in thirteen

rows. Loreal present, sometimes confluent with the posterior

frontal. Eight upper labials, the fourth and fifth entering the

orbit. One preocular, not extending to the vertical ; two

postoculars; temporals 1+ 2+ 2. Ventrals 193 or 194,

strongly keeled; subcaudals 130. Scales with a single apical

pore; vertebral scales large. Yellowish, with iridescent re-

flexions. ‘The membrane between the scales is black ; many

scales with an elongate white spot on the outer margin. A

blackish ill-defined band from the nostril along the side of the

head and neck. Lower parts uniform yellow, with a dark

central line along the abdomen.

Solomon Islands. The larger of two examples is 32 inches

long, tail 123 inches.

Ahetulla diplotropis. Pl. VI. fig. A.

Scales in fifteen rows, smooth, with the exception of those

forming the two series nearest to the vertebral series; these

scales are strongly keeled, the keels forming a continuous

raised black line, as in the genus Diplotropis. Head as in A.

liocercus. Rostral broader than deep; vertical bell-shaped,

shorter than the occipitals, which are rounded behind. Loreal

twice as long as deep; preocular not reaching the vertical ;

two postoculars. Eight upper labials, the fourth and fifth

entering the orbit. Temporals 1+2. Eye of moderate size,

with round pupil. Ventrals 178-181, with a very faint lateral

keel; anal 1/1; subcaudals 140. The posterior maxillary

26 Dr. A. Giinther on new Species of Snakes

tooth is much longer than, and separated by an interspace

from, the preceding teeth. Green, with a yellow line along

the vertebral series. A black band commences behind the

eye and runs along the side of the fore part of the trunk; it

is soon broken up into irregular spots, which soon disappear

entirely. Lower parts uniform yellowish.

Three examples from Tehuantepec. Length 33 inches,

tail 11 inches.

Ahetulla modesta. Pl. VI. fig. C.

Scales in fifteen rows, very strongly keeled, except those in

the outermost series. Ventrals 171; anal bifid; subcaudals

171. Snout depressed, not pointed. Rostral shield just reach-

ing to the upper surface of the crown; anterior frontals sub-

truncated in front, about half the size of posterior. Vertical

not much longer than broad, rather shorter than the snout or

than the occipitals, which are truncated behind. Loreal longer

than deep. Anteocular extending to the upper surface of the

crown, but not reaching the vertical; two small and short

postoculars. Eight upper labials, the fourth and fifth of which

enter the orbit. Temporals 1+>5. Eye rather smaller than

in the other species of this genus. Uniform greenish-olive

above, light green below. A narrow black band from the eye

along the suture between the labials and temporals.

One specimen was obtained by one of Mr. Salvin’s collectors

on the banks of the Rio Chisoy, below the town of Cubulco ;

it is 52 inches long, the tail being 22 inches.

Aheetulla lagoensis.

Ventral shields with distinct lateral keels, 163 ; anal bifid ;

subcaudals 150. Nine upper labials, the fourth, fifth, and

sixth entering the orbit. Loreal twice as long as deep. One

preocular, not reaching the vertical, two postoculars. Five

lower labials are in contact with the chin-shields. 'Temporals

1+2. Scales with minute stria, in fifteen series. Denti-

tion syncranterian. Uniform green; scales without white

spots.

One specimen from Lagos, purchased. Total length 35

inches ; tail 13 inches.

Ahetulla heterolepidota.

Giinth. Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. 1863, xi. p. 286.

We have received this species in two different collections

made at Lagos.

in the Collection of the British Museum. 27

Chrysopelea vicina.

Scales in seventeen rows, those on the back keeled. All the

scales conspicuously shorter and less imbricate than in Chr.

rhodopleuron, to which this species is nearly allied. Ventrals

221; subcaudals 146. Rostral shield not twice as broad as

deep. Preocular in contact with the vertical. Temporals

2+2+42. Uniform brownish olive; greenish olive after the

loss of the epidermis ; lower parts uniform olive.

One specimen from the island of Misol. Total length

44 inches, the tail being 13 inches long.

This is not merely a local variety, as we have received the

true Chrysopelea rhodopleuron from the same locality. By the

characters given, the new species will be readily recognized.

Tropidonotus ferox.

Giinth. Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. November 1863.

Mr. Cope (Proc. Ac. Philad. 1868, p. 309) places this as a

synonym of 7’. mortuarius (Schleg.). The history of the latter

name is shortly as follows :—

1. The name was originally given by Daudin (Hist. Nat.

Rept. vol. vii. p. 187) to an Indian snake figured by Russell

on pl. 28 and described on p. 83. This snake is a dark variety

of Zropidonotus quincunciatus; and therefore Coluber mortua-

réus of Daudin is a synonym of this Indian species.

2. Kuhl (Beitr. z. Zool. p. 96) misapplied the name to an

example in his collection, quoting Russell, but not Daudin,

and apparently ignorant of the locality where his example was

obtained.

3. Schlegel (Hssai, p. 330) having received the example

mentioned by Kuhl and misnamed by him “ Coluber mortua-

rius,’ adopts this erroneous nomenclature, adding to the con-

fusion by giving incorrect references to the works of Russell

and Daudin. However, he describes Kuhl’s specimen in a

perfectly lucid manner*.

It is now evident that the specimen from Kuhl’s collection

is identical with the West-African species to which I first

gave a distinct name, viz. Tropidonotus ferox.

Tretanorhinus nigroluteus.

Tretanorhinus nigroluteus, Cope, Proc. Ac. Nat. Se, Philad. 1861, p. 298.

Helicops Agassiz, Jan, lconogy. livr. xxviii. pl. 2. fig. 1.

(Nicaragua), Panama; purchased of the Zoological Society

of London. Abdomen and two outer series of scales bright

* The species is figured by Jan under the same name, livr. xxviii. pl. 1.

fig, 2

oi .

28 Dr. A. Giinther on new Species of Snakes

scarlet during life. Ventrals 151 (136); anal 1/1; subcau-

dals 68.

Hypr2ruiops (g. n. Natric. vel Homalops.).

Body stout, cylindrical; form of the head as in Homalopsis.

A single anterior and two posterior frontals. Nostrils on the

upper surface of the snout, narrow slits between two nasals.

Scales keeled, short, in twenty-three series; anal and sub-

caudals divided. Loreal present. Maxillary teeth in an un-

interrupted series, slightly increasing in length posteriorly,

numerous and closely set ; none grooved.

This is another form intermediate between the Natricide

and Homalopside. Having entirely the physiognomy of the

latter, it differs by its dentition. From Atretéwm and Limno-

phis it is distinguished by the position and form of the nos-

trils, from Zretanorhinus and Neusterophis by the single an-

terior frontal.

Hydrethiops melanogaster. FP. III. fig. G.

The single anterior frontal is an isosceles triangle, touching

the rostral; posterior frontals small, but rather larger than the

anterior. Vertical not twice as long as broad, with parallel

outer edges, and with a right angle behind; occipitals as long

as the vertical and posterior frontals together, rounded behind.

Loreal large, longer than deep, with the lower posterior angle

rather produced. One preocular, extending to the upper sur-

face of the head, but not reaching the vertical. ‘Two post-

oculars, the lower of which is small. Nine or ten (eleven) upper

labials, the fourth and fifth or the fifth and sixth enterimg the

orbit. Temporals 14+2+43, the anterior in contact with the

upper postocular. Chin-shields two pairs, the anterior longer

than, and produced between, the posterior. Cleft of the mouth

bent upwards behind; a groove behind the eye between the

labials and temporals. Eye small. Ventrals 153; anal 1/1;

subcaudals 43. Upper and lower parts of a uniform shining

black ; a reddish or yellowish band runs along the side of the

head and trunk, along the three or two outer series of scales,

becoming narrower behind.

Gaboon.

The largest of four examples is 24 inches long, tail 4 inches.

West Africa appears to be much richer in freshwater snakes

than was formerly believed. We now know

1. Tropidonotus ferox, from Fernando Po.

2. Neusterophis levissima (exact locality unknown).

3. Limnophis bicolor, from Angola.

4, Hydrethiops melanogaster, from the Gaboon.

in the Collection of the British Museum. 29

Euophrys modestus (Gthr.).

Specimens of this snake have been obtained from Paraguay

and Buenos Ayres. It is not a Chinese species.

LEPTOGNATHUS.

The snakes of this genus feed chiefly on slugs, like the

Indian species of the family of Amblycephalide.

Mr. Cope has given a very lucid synopsis of the species of

this genus (Proc. Philad. Acad. 1868, p. 107), by which their

determination is much facilitated. I think he has attached

too great a value to the arrangement of the shields between

the eye and nostril and the number of labial shields; but the

limits of variation, which differ almost in every species, can

only be ascertained by the examination of numerous examples.

Leptognathus Mikanii (Schleg.).

The British Museum possesses several examples from

Western Ecuador, one of which agrees perfectly with Lepto-

gnathus oreas of Mr. Cope (Proc. Philad. Acad. 1868, pp. 108,

109), whilst the others lead up (with regard to pholidosis) to

the typical eastern form. All these western specimens, how-

ever, have the abdomen extensively mottled and chequered

with black. None of the other structural characters which

were supposed to be distinctive being constant, I refer these

specimens, with L. oreas, to L. Mikanii. One of our Ecuador

specimens approaches a prettily coloured variety from Tehuan-

tepec, from which the following notes are taken.

Posterior frontals large, not entering the orbit. Vertical as

broad as long, with an obtuse angle behind. Loreal entering

the orbit; another well-developed anteocular above it; two

postoculars. Eight upper labials, the fourth and fifth entering

the orbit. Temporals 24+3(2)+38. Three pairs of chin-

shields subequal in size, as broad as long; a pair of lower

labials form a suture together in front of the chin-shields.

Ventrals 188; anal entire; subcaudals ca. 85. Yellowish,

with numerous narrow black cross bands, 44 on the trunk and

23 on the tail, as broad as the interspaces of the ground-

colour; each more or less completely divided into two by a

yellow transverse line, which is broader within the anterior

black bands than within the posterior. The bands do not ex-

tend on the belly, which is chequered with black. Upper

parts of the head black, finely mottled with yellow.

The specimen is 12 inches long, tail 3 inches.

30 Dr. A. Giinther on new Species of Snakes

Leptognathus annulatus.

Scales smooth, in fifteen rows, the vertebral scales being

enlarged, hexagonal. Habit slender; neck very thin; head

broad and short. Eye of moderate size, with vertical pupil.

Anterior frontals short and small; posterior frontals large,

extending down on the sides of the snout, and forming the

antero-superior part of the orbit. Vertical with nearly parallel

outer edges, and with a right angle behind, shorter than the

occipitals. Loreal broadly entering the orbit; a small sepa-

rate preocular below. Two postoculars. Seven or eight upper

labials, the fourth and fifth or the fifth and sixth entering the

orbit. Temporals 1+2+3. The first pair of lower labials

not in contact with each other. Four pairs of chin-shields,

the anterior pair the smallest, the second the largest, much

longer than broad. Ventrals 164; anal entire; subcaudals

113. Upper parts light brownish powdered with darker, lower

yellowish mottled with brown. Body and tail encircled by

black rings, which are shorter than the head, but wider than

the interspaces ; there are about forty of these rings on the

trunk. Head irregularly spotted with brown.

One specimen from the elevated country of Costa Rica, near

Cartago. Total length 174, tail 6 inches.

Leptognathus Copet.

Scales smooth, in fifteen rows, those of the vertebral series

scarcely twice as large as those of the adjoining series. Habit

very slender and compressed; neck exceedingly thin ; head

very short and thick; eye large. One loreal, higher than

long ; two narrow pre- and two postoculars. Ten or eleven

upper labials, the fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh, or the fifth,

sixth, and seventh, entering the orbit. Ten lower labials, the

first pair in contact with each other. Three pairs of chin-

shields, the anterior of which is the largest, but not much

longer than broad. Temporals 1+2. Ventrals 218; anal

entire ; subcaudals ca.140. Ground-colour light reddish grey,

with fifteen large rounded brown spots, each with a black and

yellow margin ; the anterior extend round the whole trunk ;

the following are interrupted along the median line of the ab-

domen, and the middle and posterior also along the vertebral

line, so that each forms a pair of large rounded lateral spots.

Each interspace of the ground-colour with a small, ovate, la-

teral brown spot, at least in the posterior half of the body.

Snout white; forehead and crown of the head dark brown,

this colour forming a ring round the head, below the eye, and

in the Collection of the British Museum. 31

across the chin. A large round white spot on each side of the

occipital region.

A male was obtained from the collection of the late Dr. van

Lidth de Jeude ; it is probably from Surinam, and is 264 inches

long, the tail being 9 inches.

Leptognathus dimidiatus.

Scales smooth, in fifteen rows, those of the vertebral series

not enlarged. Body much compressed, neck slender, head

broad and short. Eye rather large, with vertical pupil. An-

terior frontals short and small; posterior frontals large, ex-

tending down ‘on the sides of the snout, and forming the

antero-superior part of the orbit. Vertical with nearly parallel

outer edges, and with a right angle behind, shorter than the

occipitals. Loreal confluent with the single preocular; two

postoculars. Eight upper labials, the fifth and sixth entering

the orbit. Temporals 1+2+43. Three pairs of chin-shields,

the anterior the largest, crescent-shaped, much longer than

broad; the middle shorter, but still longer than broad; the

posterior of about the same size as the middle, and divergent.

An azygos scale-like shield between the front chin-shields and

the minute median labial. The first pair of lower labials are

not joined together by a suture, being separated by the azygos

shield ; the five following lower labials are in contact with the

anterior chin-shields. Ventrals 186; anal entire; subcaudals

98. Body and tail with broad black rings separated by whitish

interspaces much narrower than the rings; there are 25 black

rings on the trunk and 16 on the tail. The white interspaces

are again each subdivided by a narrow black transverse line.

Upper parts of the head black, with small whitish spots irre-

gularly placed; a pair of large whitish spots on the neck,

forming a kind of collar. Anterior chin-shields black.

An adult female from Mexico (purchased) is 17 inches long,

tail 5 inches.

Leptodira semiannulata.

Scales smooth, in nineteen series. Ventrals 227; anal en-

tire; subcaudals 27+ (about one half of the tail is lost).

Head broad and depressed. Anterior frontals very small;

loreal rather longer than deep ; anteocular single, not reaching

the vertical; two postoculars. Eight upper labials, the third,

fourth, and fifth entering the orbit. ‘Temporals 2+3+3.

Chin-shields very small. The posterior maxillary tooth long

and grooved. Yellowish olive; back with about 32 brownish-

black transverse spots or bands, rather irregular in shape, and

separated by interspaces broader than the spots. The first

32 Dr. A. Giinther on new Species of Snakes

band occupies the neck, the head being entirely immaculate.

Lower parts whitish.

One specimen from Loanda, purchased; the snout has suf-

-fered considerably by bad preservation. Length without tail

(which is mutilated) 24 inches.

Leptodira rhombifera.

Scales smooth, in twenty-five series. Ventrals 170; anal

1/1; subcaudals 75. Head rather broad and depressed ; an-

terior frontals very small ; anteocular reaching or nearly reach-

ing the vertical ; two postoculars. Loreal rather longer than

deep. Eight upper labials, the fourth and fifth bemg below

the eye. Temporals 1+2. Pupil of the eye vertical. The

posterior maxillary tooth long and grooved. Brownish; trunk

with about 26 large subrhombic dark-brown spots edged with

black. Yellowish cross bands, brightest on the median line,

separate these rhombic spots from one another. Upper part

of the head brown, powdered with black. A black stripe with

a yellowish margin on each side connects the crown of the

head with the first rhombic spot. Abdomen yellowish; sub-

caudals powdered with brown.

One specimen was obtained on the banks of the Rio Chisoy,

near the town of Cubulco, by one of Mr. Salvin’s collectors.

It is 23 inches long, tail 5 inches.

Dipsas approximans.

This snake may be taken at the first glance for a Leptodira,

being in coloration similar to L. annulata and the species

allied to it; but it is more slender than any species of that

genus, though less so than a typical Dipsas.

Scales in nineteen rows, those of the vertebral series di-

stinctly the largest, and especially on the hinder part of the

body, where they are hexagonal; they are provided with a

pore at the tip. Ventrals 190; anal divided; subcaudals 94.

Form of the head and upper shields as in L. annulata.

Loreal square; the single anteocular nearly reaches the ver-

tical; two postoculars. Hight upper labial shields, the third,

fourth, and fifth of which enter the orbit. Temporals 1+2+43.

Eye of moderate size, with vertical pupil. Posterior maxil-

lary grooved ; of the anterior teeth, only those of the mandible

are somewhat elongate. Brownish, with an undulated (zig-

zag) dark brown band along the back. Head dark brown,

with an obscure streak from the eye towards the angle of the

mouth. Lower parts uniform yellowish. Sometimes the

ground-colour is so dark that the dorsal band is scarcely

visible. A young specimen is whitish with the dorsal band

in the Collection of the British Museum. 33

black ; head brownish above and the band on the temple very

distinct.

Several specimens from the Upper Amazons (Chyavetas)

were obtained by Mr. Bartlett. The largest is 31 inches

long, tail 9 inches.

Hydrophis stricticollis, Gthr.

Several adult examples of this species have been obtained

by Mr. Theobald, on the Bassien River, Pegu. The adult

have the ventral plates developed in the entire length of the

body, and the bands become very indistinct in the posterior

half of the trunk.

Hydrophis Holdsworthit.

Allied to H. pachycercus. Head and body of moderate width

and length; back very broad. Shields on the upper surface

of the head regular. Two pairs of chin-shields, both of which

are in contact with each other. Two or three postoculars.

The third upper labial is not in contact with the nasal, but

enters the orbit; the fourth labial below the orbit. The first

upper temporal is longer than high. Scales not imbricate ;

each with a very prominent spine. Thirty-one series of scales

round the neck, forty-five round the highest part of the body.

Ventral shields 326 in number, with a pair of spinous tuber-

cles, the anterior twice as broad as the scales of the adjoining

series, the posterior less broad. Four preeanal shields sub-

equal in size. Body with thirty black bands across the back,

extending but a short way down the sides; they are broadest

in the middle, tapering on each side. An indistinct dark spot

in the median line between the posterior cross bands. Tail

with five similar cross bands.

A male example, 33 inches long, was captured by E. W. H.

Holdsworth, Esq., on the Aripo Pearl-banks, on the western

coast of Ceylon.

Brachyurophis semifasciata.

Giinther, Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. 1863, xi. p. 21, pl. 3,

and 1865, xv. p. 97.

We have recently received two other (young) examples

from Perth, West Australia.

RHINELAPS (g. n. Hlapid.).

Body stout, cylindrical, covered with short polished scales

in seventeen series; tail short. Head not distinct from the

neck, with the snout flat and trenchant. Kye small, with

round pupil. Posterior frontal replacing the loreal, in contact

with two labials ; one anterior, two posterior oculars. Nasal

~ Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. ix. 3

34 Dr. A. Giinther on new Species of Snakes

subdivided by the nostril. Anal bifid; subcaudals two-rowed,

The poison-tooth placed rather far backwards ; no other teeth

behind it.

It is with some reluctance that I propose a distinct generic

name for this snake; but the dentition and the arrangement

of the shields between the eye and nostril have hitherto been

used as generic characters, and in one or the other of these two

points Rhinelaps differs from the other Australian genera.

Rhinelaps fasciolatus. Pl. V. fig. B.

Rostral shield broad, depressed, trenchant in front, extend-

ing on the upper surface of the snout. The anterior frontals

are only half as large as the posterior, which are in contact

with the second and third labials, Vertical six-sided, as much

produced in front as behind, as long as the occipitals, which

are rounded behind. Nasal single, but nearly entirely divided

into two by the nostril, which is subanterior. Anteocular

large, in contact with, or nearly reaching, the vertical; two

postoculars. Six upper labials, the first very small, the sixth

not much larger than the fifth, Temporals1+1. Ventrals

161; subcandals 26. Body light reddish, with a great num-

ber of narrow, slightly undulated, brownish-black, transverse

bars across the back; they are narrower than the interspaces

between them, and nearly all are broken up into transverse

series of spots. Head white, with a large black patch cover-

ing the interocular space and occipitals, and separated by a

narrow interspace from a broad black collar, which, again, is

followed by a narrower black cross bar. Lower parts uniform

white.

One specimen was found by Mr. Duboulay at Perth, West

Australia; it is 13} inches long, tail 13 inch.

Diemenia Miilleri (Schleg.).

Schlegel has evidently confounded two species under the

name of Hlaps Miilleri. He states that the two original ex-

amples were from 8. Miiller’s collection made in New Guinea;

and both are figured in ‘Verh. Nat. Gesch. Nederl. overz. Bez.

Rept.’ pl. 9. figs. 1&2. The one (fig. 1) has 176 ventrals

and 32 caudals, and the other (fig. 2) only 148 ventrals and

24 caudals. A third specimen, brought by Quoy and Gaimard

from Rawak, had-166 ventrals and 36 caudals.

Iam not able at present to form an opinion about the last

example; but, having received specimens agreeing with those

collected by Miiller, I feel convineed that they are distinct.

I retain the name given by Schlegel for the species figured

on pl. 9. fig. 1. The specimen in the British Museum is from

North Ceram, and agrees in every respect with the figure

> a ™~

in the Collection of the British Museum. 35

referred to: it has 178 ventral shields and 34 subcaudals—

numbers nearly identical with those of the typical example.

For the second species I propose the name of

Diemenia Schlegelir.

This is a conspicuously shorter species, having only (148,

Schlegel,) 149 or 155 ventral shields, and (24, Schlegel,) 24 or

21 subcaudals. The shields of the head are very much the

same as in the other species. Temporals 2+2+43, the lower

of the first series being intercalated between the last two

labials, and not in contact with the postoculars. Scales in

fifteen rows. The lower parts are more or less dotted with

brown; and the lateral bands of the head are indistinct, if

present.

a Of this species we have two examples from the island of

Lisol.

Cacophis modesta. PI. III. fig. C.

Scales smooth, in seventeen series. Head of moderate width

and length, not depressed. Rostral shield somewhat project-

ing (as in Liophis controstris), higher than broad. Anterior

Arontals one third or one fourth the size of posterior. Vertical

five-sided, much longer than broad; occipitals as long as ver-

tical and postfrontals together, rounded behind. Nasal simple,

pierced in the middle by the nostril, in contact with the single

pale: Two postoculars. Six upper labials, the sixth as

ong as the two preceding together. Temporals 1+2+3, the

foremost in contact with the occipital, lower postocular, and

two posterior labials. Eye of moderate size, with round pupil.

Ventrals and subcaudals 154+48, 157+49, 1654+42. Anal

bifid. Upper parts uniform greenish olive, the lower whitish.

In one specimen a darker collar, edged with yellowish in

front and behind, is distinctly visible ; this specimen has also

greyish spots on the abdomen. Anteocular generally yellow.

This species has the appearance of a Diemenia, from which

genus it differs by its pholidosis. We have obtained three

examples from Western and North-western Australia; the

largest is 16 inches long, the tail being 3 inches. One was

obtained at Perth by Mr, Duboulay.

Pseudonaja affinis, Pl. IV. fig. C.

This snake is readily distinguished from P. nuchalis by a

greater number of scales, which are arranged in nineteen

series. The rostral shield is much produced backwards above,

but less so than in its congener. Vertical, two thirds as broad

as long. Nostril wide, the division of the nasal being indi-

36 Dr. A. Giinther on new Species of Snakes.

cated below the nostril only ; one pre-, two postoculars. Six

upper labials, the sixth the largest, as long as the fourth and

fifth together. 'Temporals 1+2+43, the anterior the largest,

the others scale-like. Ventrals 216; anal bifid ; subcaudals

ca. 70. Uniform brown above; a few scales, irregularly seat-

tered, are black. Ventral shields yellowish, with a blackish

margin.

The British Museum received one example from Mr. Krefft,

without indication of the exact locality ; it is 54 inches long,

tail 9 inches.

Elaps multifasciatus (Jan).

I am not quite certain whether, by using this name, I have

correctly determined two specimens—one from Nicaragua

(Chontales), and the other from Bogota. Our specimens have

only 239 ventral shields, whilst Jan states 278. One of the

principal characters of our specimens is that the anteocular is

in contact with the nasal; and, unfortunately, the figure given

by Jan is so indistinctly drawn, that the arrangement of the

shields of the snout cannot be made out.

Atractaspis corpulentus (Hallowell). Pl. III. fig. F.

Having recently received an Atractaspis from the Gaboon

(that is, the locality where Hallowell’s origimal specimen was

obtained), I find that it agrees so well with Hallowell’s de-

scription that I cannot entertain a doubt about its identifica-

tion. I find at the same time that I was mistaken in referring

a specimen noticed in Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. 1866, xviii.

p- 29 to this species, and that that specimen belongs to another

(sixth) species, which is not yet named. ‘The characters of

the true A. corpulentus are as follows :—

Black above, blackish below. Body stout. Ventrals 179

(—182, Hallowell) ; subcaudals (25, Hallowell, —)27. Scales

in twenty-five series. Normally two pairs of frontals. One

pre-, one postocular. Five upper labials, the third and fourth

entering the orbit. ‘Temporals 1+3, the anterior very large,

in contact with the occipital, postocular, fourth and fifth la-

bials. The first pair of lower labials in contact with each

other; the pair of chin-shields following these labials form

part of the labial margin; the succeeding lower labial rather

shorter than the opposite third and fourth upper labials.

Atractaspis micropholis. Pl. ILI. fig. E,

Atractaspis corpulentus, Giinth. in Ann, & Mag. Nat. Hist. 1866, xviii,

p- 29, nec Hallowell.

Black above, lighter below. Body stout. Ventrals 210;

subcaudals 29. Scales in twenty-five series. Two pairs of

Mr. E. A. Smith on the Genus Planaxis. 5 if

frontals. One pre-and one postocular. Six upper labials,

the third and fourth of which enter the orbit, and are much

larger than the anterior and posterior pairs. Temporals 1 or

2+3, all small, scale-like, the anterior in contact with the

postocular, fourth and fifth labials, but not with the occipital.

Lower labials small, the anterior in contact with each other

in front of the chin-shields, which do not enter the labial

margin.

The single specimen known is 13 inches long, the tail being

one inch. It is not known from which part of Africa it was

obtained.

Ill.—A List of Species of the Genus Planaxis, with Descrip-

tions of eleven new Species. By EpGAR A. SMitH, Zoological

Department, British Museum.

THE genus Planaxis was founded by Lamarck in 1822, in the

‘Hist. des Anim. sans Vert.’ vol. vu. p. 50, to include a group

of shells generally of a somewhat ovate-conical form, more or

less transversely sulcated, and having for the generic character

the columella provided with a callosity at the upper part, ab-

ruptly truncated at the base, and forming with the outer lip

a small basal channel.

Only two species (which I now unite) were known to La-

marck ; but since then the number has greatly increased, and

now forty-four distinct forms have been described, and un-

fortunately several of them more than once by various authors

under different names, as will be observed from the following

list.

1. Planaxis sulcatus. B.M.

A dark fuscous-coloured species, sparingly dotted with

squarish white spots, strongly spirally ribbed and _ lirate

within the outer lip.

Buccinum suleatum, Born, Mus. Vindob. p. 258, pl. 10. f. 5, 6.

Planaxis buccinoides, Deshayes, Anim. s. Vert. ed. 2, vol. ix. p. 287.

Var. a. Shell elongate, acuminate; spiral ribs ornamented

with equal-sized black and white squarish spots.

Planaxis sulcata, Lamarck, 1. c. p. 236.

Var. 6. Shell shorter; black spots flowing into irregular

longitudinal stripes.

Buceinum pyramidale, Gmelin, Syst. Nat. p. 3488.

Planaxis undulata, Lamarck, 1. c. p. 236.

Hab. Australia, Philippines, Mauritius, 8. Africa.

38 Mr. E. A. Smith on Species of

Born, in the Mus. Vindobon., first described and figured

a.species of Planaxis under the name of Buccinum sulcatum.

Deshayes subsequently characterized the same species with

the name P. buccinoides (Anim. s. Vert. ed. 2, vol. ix. p. 237),

at the time quoting Born’s figure.

Lamarck, in the Anim. s. Vert. vii. p. 51, described two

species, P. sulcata and P. undulata.

I have carefully compared the figures he quotes as repre-

senting these species, and also those referred to by Deshayes

in the second edition of the above work; and having also

examined a numerous series of specimens, I can arrive at no

other conclusions than these, viz. :—1, that his P. sulcata is a

variety of Born’s shell (P. buccinotdes, Desh.) with an elongate

acuminate spire, with the whorls ornamented with black and

white squarish spots about equal in size; and, 2, that his P.

undulata is a shorter, more obtuse form of the same species,

with the dark spots flowing into one another, and thus form-

ing irregular undulating longitudinal stripes.

2. Planaxis encausticus.

P. testa solida ; spira brevis, valde erosa; anfr.6?; ultimus magnus,

ad peripheriam obtusatim angulatus, sordide albus, zonis duabus

obscuris lurido-fuscis cinctus, altera supra, altera peripheriam

infra, et infra suturam macularum nigrescentium serie ornatus,

superficie partibus alteris irregulariter brunneo punctatus, trans-

versim superne obsolete, basi validiore angustissime sulcatus,

incrementi lineis obliquis striatus; apertura magna, spiram longe

superans, teste longitudinis 2 equans; columella leviter curvata,

callo postico magno albo-brunneo; canalis basalis parum pro-

fundus; labrum margine integro, tenui, nigro-fuscum, superne

medioque albo maculatum, intus pallidiore, 8- albido-liratum.

Long. 20 mill., diam. 12. Coll. Sylvanus Hanley.

Hab. Aracan (Theobald).

Of the form, solidity, and size of the short variety of P.

sulcatus. It may be known by these peculiarities:—1, the

smoothness of the body-whorl, which has the appearance of

being overlaid with a thin white enamel; 2, the sulci are

extremely narrow, merely impressed strie; 3, the periphery

is left white between two obscure lurid-fuscous bands; 4, the

basal channel is very shallow and partly filled up by a callous

deposit. The oblique lines of growth are the vestiges of a

thin epidermis.

3. Planaxis Savignyt. B.M.

Planaxis Savignyt, Deshayes, Mag. de Zool, 1844, pl. 109,

Hab. Red Sea. res

the Genus Planaxis. 39

This species has much of the general appearance of P.

sulcata; but the difference of colour and style of. painting

may be sufficient to separate it.

4, Planaxis crassispira. B.M.

P. testa perelongato-ovata; spira crassa; anfr. 6, planiusculi, spira-

liter valide costati; coste plane, albe, nigro-brunneo punctate,

in anfr. ultimo 16; interstitia luteola; in anfr. ult. zone 2 pur-

purascentes, superior nigro-maculata, altera supra et altera infra

peripheriam albam ; apertura perparva; labrum intus fuscum,

medio albo-maculatum, margine tenui et crenulato, subito incras-

satum et intus 9-liratum; columella curvata et callo postico

munita.

Long. 18 mill., diam. 83.

Hab. ——?

The breadth of the upper whorls is very marked compared

with that of other species. The aperture also is conspicu-

ously small.

5. Planaxis brevis.

Planaxis brevis, Quoy, Voy. Astrolabe, vol. ii. p. 488, pl. 33. figs. 30-32.

Hab. Guam and New Guinea.

6. Planaxis breviculus. B.M.

Planaxis breviculus, Desh. Mag. de Zool. 1844, pl. 108; Issel, Mem.

Accad. Torin. xxiii. pl. 1. figs. 5 & 6.

Hab. ? Var. Persian Gulf (Col. Pelly).

The British-Museum collection contains a very dark bluish-

black variety from the Persian Gulf, covered with an olive-

brown epidermis. The lire within the mouth are very fine

indeed. The young form of this variety approaches P. Men-

keanus, Dkr.

7. Planaxis Menkeanus.

Planaxis Menkeanus, Dunker, Malak. Blatt. 1861, p. 41.

Hab. Red Sea.

8. Planaxis planicostatus. B.M.

Planaxis planicostata, Sowerby, Append. Tankerville Cat. p. 18, 1825;

Reeve, Element. Conch. pl. B. fig. 17.

Buccinum planaxis, Wood, Index Test. Suppl. p. 12, pl. 4: fig. 15 a;

1828.

Planaxis canaliculata, Duval, Rey. Zool. 1840, p. 107.

cireinata, Lesson, Rey. Zool. 1842, p. 187.

Hab, Galapagos Islands’ and Panama.

40 Mr. E. A. Smith on Species of

9. Planaxis obscurus. B.M.

Planazis obscura, A. Adams, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1851, p. 271.

Hab. ?

It is a question whether this species should not be placed

as a variety of P. planicostatus; but it would be hazardous to

do so until more specimens are at hand and the locality

known. The chief difference consists in the narrowness of

the sulci, and the mouth being of a uniform brown colour.

The epidermis is similar.

10. Planaxis nucleus. B.M.

Purpura nucleus, Lamarck, Anim. s. Vert. vol. vii. p. 249, ed. 2, vol. x.

p. 88.

Planaxis semisulcata, Sowerby, Gen. Rec. & Foss. Shells, pl. 70. fig. 3.

Hab. West Indies, Jamaica.

11. Planaxis nicobaricus.

Planaxis nicobaricus, Zelebor, Verhandl. zool.-bot. Gesellsch. Wien,

1866, vol. xvi. p. 910; Frauenfeld, Reise Novara, Mollusk. p. 9, pl. 2.

fig. 12.

Hab. Nicobar Islands.

12. Planaxis nigritellus. B.M.

ara nigritella, Forbes, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1850, Dec. p. 273, pl. 11.

g. 6.

acutus, Menke, Zeitschrift f. Mal. Nov. 1850, p. 169.

obsoletus, Menke, /. c. p. 170.

Hab. Mazatlan.

The name acutus was employed by Krauss for a Cape

species two years previous to Menke. This, together with

the reasons given by P. P. Carpenter in the ‘ Mazatlan Cata-

logue,’ p. 364, are sufficient to establish the retention of

Forbes’s species.

13. Planaxis acutus. B.M.

Planasxis acuta, Krauss, Siidafrik. Moll. p. 108, t. 6. fig. 2.

Hab. Natal.

14. Planaxis castaneus. B.M.

P. testa solida, elongato-conica, castanea ; spira elongata, apice acu-

minato; anfr. 6, convexiusculi, spiraliter striati (in anfr. ultimo

strie circiter 20, basi validissime), incrementi lineis obliquis

parum conspicuis; apertura parva, ovata, spiram non equans,

intus pallide fusca; labrum margine tenui, subito incrassatum,

the Genus Planaxis. 41

intus 7- albido-denticulatum ; columella modice arcuata, basi ex-

pansa, rimam parvam fere tegens, callo postico parvo, cum labro

canalem indistinctum formans.

Long. 103 mill., diam. 5.

Hab. ?

This is a very solid, small species, with the whorls trans-

versely striated; the striee at the base of the body-whorl are

much deeper than those encircling the rest of the shell, and

produce the appearance of spiral ribs. The first stria below

the sutural line is rather distant from it, thus giving the whorls

the aspect of having an infrasutural raised belt.

15. Planaxis Hanley?.

P. testa elongato-ovata, omnino brunnea; spira convexo-conica ;

anfr. 7, parum convexi, primi 3-4 politi, cateri leviter spiraliter

anguste sulcati, incrementi lineis obliquis ornati; anfr. ult. per-

magnus, basi sulcis validissimis; apertura magna; columella su-

perne callosa cum labro incisuram distinctam formans ; labrum

tenuiusculum, patulum, intus tenuiter liratum.

Long. 12 mill., diam. 53. Coll. 8. Hanley.

Var. Testa columelle callo postico producto cum labro incisuram, ut

in Pupina, formante. Coll. S. Hanley.

Hab. Sandwich Islands.

I feel much pleasure in dedicating this species to Mr. Syl-

vanus Hanley, who has very kindly allowed me access to his

vast collection.

It is much larger than P. atropurpureus, P. niger, or P.

abbreviatus, but belongs to the same group.

Its principal characteristics are the strong basal sulcations

of the body-whorl, the well-marked posterior channel, and the

patulate outer lip. As is the case in several of the species of

the genus, the first stria below the suture is rather distant,

thus producing the appearance of an infrasutural raised belt.

The loop-like sinus in the variety reminds one very much

of the incision in the genus Pupina.

16. Planazxis similis.

P. testa elongato-ovata, omnino brunnea, spira conica; anfr. 7,

planiusculi; primi 3-4 politi, ceteri valide spiraliter sulcati,

incrementi lineis obliquis ornati; anfr. ultimi sulci 17 ad basim

paululum validiores; apertura parva, angusta; columella callo

postico parvo, cum labro incisuram parvam formante; labrum

’ erassum, haud dilatatum, intus 15-liratum.

Long. 113 mill., diam. 53. Coll. Sylvanus Hanley.

_ Hab. Sandwich Islands.

42 Mr. E. A. Smith on Species of

Although m many respects similar to P. Hanley?, I think

the strong uniform sulcations, the narrow non-dilatate aper-

ture, and the very thick outer lip are sufficient distinctions to

separate the two forms.

It is also somewhat similar to P. castaneus, from whick: it

is distinguished by stronger but less numerous spiral sulca-

tions ; and the lirations are twice as numerous within the lip,

which is thick at the margin, and not acute as in P. castaneus.

17. Planaxis niger. B.M.

Planaxis nigra, Quoy, Voy. Astrolabe, p. 49, pl. 33. figs. 22-24.

Hab. New Ireland.

18. Planaxis atropurpureus. B.M.

Planaxis atropurpurea, Récluz, Revue Zool. 1843, p. 261.

—— Albersi, Dunker, Novit. Conchol. Suppl. ii. p. 16, pl. 2. figs. 35-37.

Hab. South Seas (fécluz) ; Loanda (Dkr.).

19. Planazxis labiosus. B.M.

Planaxis labiosa, A. Adams, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1851, p. 272.

plumbea, Pease, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1861, p. 244.

—— Bronni, Dunker, Malak. Blatt. 1862, p. 41.

Hab. Sandwich Islands.

20. Planaxis teniatus.

Planaxis teniatus, Philippi, Zeitschrift fiir Malak. 1848, p. 165.

Hab. ?

21. Planaxis Gould.

P.anaxis cingulata, Gould, Proce. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. vol. vii. Dec. 1860.

Otia Conch. p. 140.

Hab. Ousima (Gould).

The name cingulata having been applied ten years’ pre-

viously to another species by A. Adams, I here change it to

that of Gouldit.

22. Planawxis cingulatus. B.M.

Planaxis cingulata, A. Adams, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1851, p. 271.

Hab. China Seas.

23. Planaxis eboreus. B.M.

P. testa parva, alba, ovato-acuminata, apice'piceo ; anfr. 8,. convexi-

usculi, valide spiraliter sulcati; coste inter sulcos dimidiate, in

anfr. ultimo 14, basi minime ; apertura ovata; labrum margine

the Genus Planaxis. 43

tenui, acuto, et maculis 5 brunneis notatum, intus incrassatum,

8-denticulatum ; columella areuata, callo postico parvo.

Long. 6 mill, diam. 3.

Hab. West Indies, St. Thomas and St. Vincent.

An ivory-white species without other marking than a brown

apex and a few brown dots on the exterior of the outer lip.

The chief peculiarity of this shell, however, consists in the

spiral ribs being divided into two equal parts by an impressed

line, thus giving them a concave appearance.

24. Planaais suturalis.

P. testa parva, alba; spira turrita, elongata, apice acuminato; sutura

subcanaliculata ; anfr. 8, planiusculi, spiraliter sulcati; anfr. ult.

sulcis 11 cinctus, ad peripheriam obtusatim angulatus, basi con-

tractus, cum columella caudam brevem formans ; apertura ovata,

spira longe brevior; columella arcuata, callo postico parvo non

tuberculari; canalis basalis profundus ; labrum crassum, intus 10-

denticulatum.

Long. 63 mill., diam. 3. Coll. Sylvanus Hanley.

Hab. Chinese seas.

‘A very pretty species, at once distinguished from P. eboreus

by its turreted spire, deep suture, and the spiral ribs being

flat, and not bipartite.

25. Planazxis striatulus. B.M.

Planazis striatulus, Philippi, Zeitschrift fiir Malak. 1851, p. 91. ~

Hab. ?

26. Planazxis ater. B.M.

Planaxis atra, Pease, American Journ. Conch. vol. y. p. 72, pl. 8. fig. 4.

Hab. Marquesas Islands.

27. Planaxis abbreviatus. B.M.

Planaxis abbreviata, Pease, Proc. Zool. Suc. 1865, p. 515; American

Journ. Conch. iv. p. 101, pl. 12. fig. 16,

Hab. Sandwich Islands.

28. Planaxis incisus.

Planaxis incisus, Philippi, Zeitschrift fiir Malak. 1851, p. 92.

Hab. ?

This appears to approach P.. abbreviatus in several of its cha-

racters. ‘The size, colour, character of the incision above, and

number of the lire within the aperture are similar.

44 Mr. E. A. Smith on Species of

29. Planaxis lineatus. B.M.

Buccinum lineatum, Da Costa, Brit. Conchol. p. 180, pl. 8. fig. 5; Dill-

wyn, Cat. vol. ii. p. 626. no. 91; Wood, Ind. Test. pl. 23. fig. 92.

Buccinum pediculare, Lamarck, Anim. s. Vert. vol. vil. p. 275; Kiener,

Coq. Viv. p. 72. no. 71, pl. 25.

Planaxis lineata, Duval, Rev. Zool. 1840, p. 107 ; Jay, Cat. Shells, ed. 4,

1850.

Hab. West Indies, St. Vincent and Jamaica.

30. Planazxis succinctus. B.M.

Planaxis succincta, A. Adams, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1851, p. 272.

Hab. West Indies.

The difference between this species and lineatus, Da Costa,

is very slight, consisting chiefly in its having the spire more

acuminate and the spiral brown lines finer and fewer in number

upon a pale yellow ground, instead of white as in lineatus.

31. Planaxis Hermannsent.

Planaxis Hermannseni, Dunker, Novit. Conchol. Suppl. ii. p. 16, pl. 2.

figs. 33, 34.

Hab. Benguela, west coast of Africa.

Dunker observes that it is allied to P. ineatus, Da Costa,

but distinguished by its larger size and more inflated last

whorl. Also approaches P. striatulus, Philippi.

32. Planaxis virgatus. B.M.

P. testa elongata, acuminata, lutea, lineis spiralibus paucis et virgis

obliquis irregularibus rufo-fuscis ornata ; anfr. 8, parum convexi ;

primi 4 et ultimus basi transversim valide sulcati, ceteri leves vel

indistincte striati ; apertura anguste ovata ; labrum margine acuto,

intus incrassatum, denticulatum ; columella postice haud callosa.

Long. 8 mill., diam. 4.

Hab. Fiji Islands, New Caledonia.

This species somewhat approaches P. ineptus, Gould. It

differs, however, in its much larger size, oblique brown irre-

gular stripes, and the entire absence of a posterior callosity.

The last whorl is a little contracted at the lower part, thus

forming a short cauda.

33. Planaaxis variabilis. B.M.

P. testa parva, elongato-acuminata, alba, lineis spiralibus numerosis

pallido-rufis cincta; anfr. 8, planiusculi, apice et basi valide,

medio leviter spiraliter sulcati; apertura parva, spira paululum

brevior ; columella basi brunneo tincta, callo postico nullo ; labrum

crassum, intus denticulatum.

Long. 6 mill., diam. 3.

the Genus Planaxis. 45

Var. angulata, Testa anfr. superne oblique angulatis, lineis obliquis

rufescentibus ornatis. Coll. Sylvanus Hanley.

Hab. Fiji Islands. Var. Chinese seas.

This species differs from P. virgatus, its nearest ally, in its

much smaller size, greater solidity, and the narrow conical

form. .

34. Planaxis longispira.

P. testa elongata, angusta, albida, linea paululum suturam supra et in

anfr. ult. lineis duabus rufis cincta, altera supra, altera peripheriam

infra ; spira elongato-conica ; anfr. 8 ?, leves, politi, apice ? (defi-

ciente) basique anguste sulcati, suturam infra zona pellucida cincti;

apertura parva, spira longe brevior; columella arcuata, brunneo

tincta, cum labro callo tenui juncta ; labrum crassiusculum, intus

denticulatum.

Long. 7 mill., diam. 3. Coll. Sylvanus Hanley.

Hab. Chinese seas (Collingwood).

Known by its very long acuminate spire, the smoothness of

the whorls, and the two spiral reddish lines encircling the

body-whorl.

35. Planaxis tenuis.

P. testa elongata, angusta, tenuis, polita, semipellucida, alba, linea

paululum suturam supra, et in anfr. ult. lineis tribus pallido-rufis

cincta ; spira convexo-conica, sutura distincta; anfr. 8—9 convexi-

usculi, spiraliter levissime sulcati, apicem basimque versus vali-

diores, suturam infra zona sordido-vitrea cincti; anfr. ult. an-

gustus, elongatus, ad peripheriam rotundus; columella callo pos-

tico nullo ; labrum tenuiusculum, intus haud denticulatum.

Long. ,diam. . Coll. Sylvanus Hanley.

. Hab. ?

Resembling a variety of P. virgatus in colour; but it is

thin, semipellucid, with the spire less conical and more con-

vex, the body-whorl narrow and rounded at the periphery,

and the outer lip thin and not denticulate; and the infra-

sutural vitreous band at once separates it.

36. Planaxts ‘neptus. B.M.

Planaxis inepta, Gould, Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. vol. vii. Dec. 1860 ;

Otia Conch. p. 140.

Hab. Kikaia Bay (Gould).

37. Planaxis lineolatus. B.M.

Planaxis lineolata, Gould, Otia Conch, p. 60. _

| Hab. Wilson’s Island (Gould), near the Sandwich Islands.

46 Mr. E. A. Smith on Species of Planaxis.

38. Planaxis zonatus. B.M.

Planaxis zonata, A. Adams, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1851, p. 271.

Hab, Calapan, Philippine Islands.

39. Planaxis fasciatus.

Planaxis fasciata, Pease, American Journ. Conch. vol. iv. 1868, p. 102,

pl. 12. fig. 7.

Hab. Paumotus.

40. Planaxis areolatus.

Planaxis areolatus, Lesson, Rev. Zool. 1842, p. 187.

Hao, peanitl,

41. Planaxis buccineus.

Planazis buccinea, A. Adams, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1851, p. 272.

Hab. West Indies.

42. Planaxis (Hinea) brasilianus. B.M.

Buccinum brasilianum, Lamarck, Anim. s. Vert. vol. vii. p. 272; Kiener,

Coq. Viv. p. 70. no. 69, pl. 17. fig. 59.

Planazxis mollis, Sowerby, Genera of Shells, 1820-24, fig. 2.

Buccinum levigatum, Wood, Ind. Test. Suppl. pl. 4. fig. 29, 1828.

~ Var. a. Smaller and slightly angulated at the periphery. B.M.

Planaxis fulva, A. Adams, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1851, p. 271.

? Var. 6. Dwarfed form. B.M.

Planaxis pigra, Forbes, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1850, p. 278, pl. 11. fig. 5.

Hab. Brazil [?] (Lamarck), Australia.

I have very carefully studied the typical specimens of P.

fulva in the Cumingian collection; and the only characters I

can detect in which they differ from P. brasilianus are their

smaller size and the very slight angulation at the periphery.

I place P. pigra as a variety with a note of interrogation.

Although of much smaller size than full-grown examples of

P. brasilianus, there being in the National Collection a large

series of the latter the gradual links between them can be

traced ; and, allowing for difference of habitat, it may be but a

_ dwarfed form.

43. Planaxis imbricatum, Lamk.

from the island of Chiloe, mentioned by Lesson in the ‘ Revue

Zoologique,’ 1842, p. 187.

44, Planaxis niger, Lesson,

included in Messrs. H. and A, Adams’s list of the species of

Viscount Walden on a new Species of Porzana. 47

the genus in their ‘Genera of Recent Mollusca,’ vol. i.

p- 322.

I am unable to find where the above two species have been

described. Can the former be Monoceros imbricatum, Lamk.,

from the above locality ? and can the latter be a mistake for

nigra, Quoy ?

In the sixth volume of the ‘ Zoological Record,’ p. 549,

Von Martens mentions a species of Planaxis “ from the Gulf

of Akaba, shortly described by Issel, Malac. Mar. Ross.

p- 196.”

Subgenus HoLcosroma.

Holcostoma piligerum., B.M.

Planaxis pirger, Philippi, Zeitschrift fiir Malak. 1848, p. 164.

Holcostoma setigerum, A, Adams, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1853, p. 174, pl. 20,

fig. 5.

Hab. Mauritius.

Subgenus Quoyia, Gray, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1847, p. 138.

Quoyta decollata.

Planazis decollata, Quoy & Gaimard, Voy. Astrolabe, vol. ii. p. 489,

pl. 33. figs. 33, 34.

Quoyia decollata, Gray, Proc. Zool, Soc. 1847, p. 138. no. 59.

Hab. New Guinea (Q. & G.), Philippines (Cuming).

IV.—Description of a new Species of Porzana from the Hima-

layas. By Artuur, Viscount WALDEN, P.Z.S.

Porzana bicolor, n. sp.

' Chin greyish white, passing into pure grey on the throat;

entire head, throat, neck, breast, abdomen, flanks, and thigh-

coverts ashy grey ; nape, back, uropygium, shoulder-coverts,

and scapulars ferruginous olive ; tail, upper and lower tail-

coverts dark slate-colour, almost black; quills above ash-

coloured, washed with light brown, underneath pale brown ;

under wing-coverts pale brown tinged with ashy; shoulder

edge white, quill-shafts underneath white; bill black at the

tip, dark green at base. Wing 4°50 inches; tarsus 1°50;

middle toe 1°50; hallux 0°37, nails not included; bill from

gape 1°12, from forehead 0°87.

This well marked and handsome rail was shot at Rungbee,

Darjeeling.

48 Messrs. Brady and Robertson on the

V.— Contributions to the Study of the Entomostraca.

By GEORGE STEWARDSON Brapy, C.M.Z.S8., and Davip

Rosertson, F'.G.S8.

No. VI. On the Distribution of the British Ostracoda.

[Plates I. & II.]

WE propose in the present paper to give (1) descriptions of a

few new or imperfectly known species, (2) catalogues of some

recent gatherings which present points of interest, and (3) a

summary of our present information as to the distribution of the

known British species of Ostracoda. Upwards of three years

have now elapsed since the publication of the “ Monograph of

the Recent British Ostracoda” in the ‘Transactions of the

Linnean Society ;’ and during that time, by the assiduous

working of old fields, and the occasional investigation of new

ones, many new species have been added to our list, and much

valuable knowledge has been gained as regards geographical

and bathymetrical distribution. But the papers * in which

these results have been published being much scattered, and

perhaps sometimes inaccessible, it seems desirable to present

them here in a condensed form.

Of the one hundred and ninety-nine species now known.:as

inhabitants of the British Islands and their adjacent seas, some

six or seven may be said to stand on a rather precarious basis,

having been admitted on the strength of one or two specimens

only, perhaps “‘ waif and stray,” or for some other reason being

imperfectly understood. In this category may be mentioned

Cypris elliptica, C. Joanna, Argillaecia cylindrica, Cythere

borealis, C. mirabilis, C. marginata, Cytheridea inequalis, and

possibly a few others. The whole may be broadly grouped

under two heads, comprising the inhabitants respectively of the

sea and of fresh water. But among the purely marine forms it

is of interest to note that some are strictly littoral (A) in habitat,

while others almost exclusively affect considerable depths of

water; there is, again, a small but well-defined group, the mem-

bers of which are scarcely ever to be found (setting aside acci-

* The papers here summarized are as follows :—“ A Monograph of the

Recent British Ostracoda,” Trans. Linn, Soc. 1868. “Last Report of

Dredging amongst the Shetland Islands” (by the Rev. A. M. Norman),

Brit. Assoc. Report, 1868. ‘Notes of a Week’s Dredging in the West

of Ireland,” Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. 1869. “On the Ostracoda and Fora-

minifera of Tidal Rivers,” ¢bid. 1870. ‘The Crustacean Fauna of Salt.

Marshes,” Nat. Hist. Trans. North, & Durham, 1868. “On Entomostraca

taken chiefly in Northumberland and Durham, in 1869,” cbid. 1870. “A

Review of the Cypridinidee of the European Seas,” Proc. Zool. Soc. 1871.

Distribution of the British Ostracoda. 49

dental interlopers) except in decidedly brackish water (B), and

yet again another, which we may regard as an offshoot from

the brackish group, and whose members (C) seem to luxuriate

chiefly, though not perhaps entirely, in waters which, though

fresh, are subject in some slight degree to tidal influence ; and

in cases where these occur apart from the conditions here noted,

we should be disposed to conclude either that such occurrence

is accidental and perhaps not permanent, or that the local

conditions have been materially changed at some not very

remote epoch.

The following lists embrace the typical members of the

last-named groups :—

Group A (littoral). Cythere porcellanea, Brady.

Cythere badia, Norman. Echoes 2 pee dy

rubida, Brady. : 7 :

ipa As ae Bord. Cytheridea torosa (Jones).

Xestoleberis aurantia (Baird). Loxoconcha elliptica, Brady.

i ae pusilla, B. § R.

Cytherura nigrescens (Baird). Bish Rome Dau

cellulosa (Norman). ytherura : ly.

Paradoxostoma variabile (Baird). | Group C (subbrackish).

actus pee a S mala Cypris incongruens, Ramdohr.

fs I aE nC) pen Cypridopsis obesa, B. & R.

Seis. hibou io ahs Se ra Goniocypris mitra, B. & R.

opt ae Metacypris cordata, B. & R.

Candona compressa, Koch.

candida, var. tumida, B. & R.

Group B (brackish or estuarine).

Cypris prasina, Fischer. Cythere fuscata, Brady.

— — salina, Brady. Limnicythere Sancti Patricii,

Cypridopsis aculeata (Lilijeborq). B.S R.

Potamocypris fulva, Brady. Darwinella Stevensoni, B. §& R.

Cythere castanea, G. O. Sars.

As regards geographical distribution, the chief fact which

we are at present able to point out is the admixture, at the

northern extremity of our area, of a distinct glacial or arctic

fauna, characterized by such species as Cythere borealis, C.

concinna, CO. costata, C. emarginata, C. leioderma, C. mira-

bilis, Cytheridea Sorbyana, C. papillosa, and C. punctillata ;

while, on the other hand, our southern and south-western

shores harbour certain species which do not seem to thrive so

well in more northern latitudes, and which are conspicuously

absent from our eastern coast: in this list may be mentioned

Bairdia inflata, B. acanthigera, and Cythere emaciata. Two

species which are common in most other districts (Cythere

villosa and Loxoconcha impressa) are also of rare occurrence

on the eastern coast, the place of the latter being occupied to

a large extent by L. guttata, and of the former by C. lutea

and perhaps C. albomaculata.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. ix. A

50 Messrs. Brady and Robertson on the

A glance, however, at the table appended to this paper will

at once show that our knowledge of the Ostracoda of some

parts of the British seas is as yet very scanty, and that there

are in fact only a few districts (columns 4, 7, 8, 9) which have

been examined with tolerable completeness. Much may still

be done even in these better-explored provinces, while the

freshwater inhabitants of most districts are at present entirely

untouched.

1. The Freshwater Lakes of Mayo and Galway.

Of the almost innumerable lakes scattered through these two

counties we have at different times more or less thoroughly

examined twenty of the most accessible, namely those lying

near the roadside between Galway and Clifden, and others

within easy reach of the towns of Roundstone, Clifden, and

Westport. The names of these (according to the Ordnance

maps) we give as nearly as possible in their natural order,

beginning with the most southerly :—Lough Aubwee, L. Corrib

(at Oughterard), L. Agraffard, Park Lough (Derryneen), L.

Shindilla, Loughaughnarhin, L. Ardderry, Ballinahinch L.,

L. Naserahoge, L. Cam, L. Naweelaun, L. Bollard, L. Fadda,

L. Doolagh, Seaville L., Cregduff L., L. Enask, L. Inagh,

L. Moher, Coolbarreen L.

These lakes are uniformly of a character unfavourable to a

great abundance of Entomostraca or any form of animal life,

the bottoms being either stony or composed of a tough com-

pact peat which does not easily disintegrate, and thus would

appear to supply very scantily either food or shelter. Floating

aquatic weeds, such as Myriophyllum and Potamogeton, occur

also very sparingly ; and though sedges and water-lilies are

in some lakes plentiful enough, we have never found these

very productive in Ostracoda. The following list embraces

all the species taken by us; and not one of these occurred in

‘ any great abundance :—

Cypris levis, Miiller. Candona candida (Miiller).

ovum (Jurine). —— lactea, Baird.

compressa, Baird, diaphana, B. & R.

striolata, Brady. —— Kingsleii, B. § R.

—— (?)tessellata, Fischer. Notodromas monachus (Miiller).

reptans (Baird). Metacypris cordata, B. & R.

Cypridopsis vidua (Miller). Limnicythere Sancti Patricii, B. § R.

—— obesa, B. § R. Loxoconcha elliptica, Brady.

villosa (Jwine). Darwinella* Stevensoni, B. §& R.

* The generic name Polycheles, under which we originally described

this species, being preoccupied, we now propose in its place the term

Darwmella.

Distribution of the British Ostracoda. 51

The chief point of interest here is the occurrence of several

species which we have been accustomed to regard as inhabi-

tants of brackish water only, and of some (viz. Candona dia-

phana, CO. Kingsleii, Metacypris cordata, and Darwinella Ste-

vensont) which we had previously supposed to be limited to

the subbrackish fens and rivers of the East-Anglian district.

We have, however, but little knowledge of the contents of our

inland waters; and it is quite probable that further research

may very much modify our views as to distribution. Mean-

time it may be noted that the Irish specimens of Metacypris

and Darwinella are of very poor growth and very scanty in

point of numbers.

Cypris tessellata, Fischer.

The specimens which we doubtfully refer to this species,

though almost exactly similar to English examples in outline,

are considerably smaller, and the shell is very vaguely sculp-

tured, exhibiting only an approach to the characteristic tes-

sellation of the typical form. This peculiarity, however, we

have previously observed in young specimens, and even to

some extent in adults from certain localities; and it would

not of itself have led us to doubt seriously the identity of the

Irish specimens but for a concurrent difference in the post-

abdominal rami, which are long and slender, slightly ciliated

on the inferior margin, and have the three terminal claws or

setee almost close together, the first seta being short, the second

about three times as long as the first, and the third nearly

twice as long as the second: the small seta usually found near

the middle of the lower margin is wanting. he lakes in

which these specimens occurred are Loughs Inagh and Cool-

barreen.

Metacypris cordata, B. & R. Pi. IL. figs. 9, 10.

Originally described from the shell only. We are now able

to add a definition of the contained animal, which belongs di-

stinctly to the family Cytheride.

Superior antenne slender, six-jointed, the third, fourth, and

sixth joints nearly equal in length, fifth slightly longer, last

jeint bearing four slender sete, two of which are moderately

long ; fourth and fifth joints also bearing two or three slender

apical sete ; inferior antenne, mandible, jaw, and feet as in

Cythere, the mandible-palp, however, short and indistinctly

jointed ; abdomen ending in two short curved sete.

Hab. Lough Aubwee, near Galway.

52 Messrs. Brady and Robertson on the

2. East of Ireland (freshwater).

Grand Canal, Dublin. Belfast Canal.

Cypris reptans (Baird). (Lock at junction of River Logan.)

es Gane Ae Cypridopsis obesa, B. & R.

compressa Band Cythere castanea, G. O. Sars.

; .

Cypridopsis obesa, B. § R. a Laianaey Bae. :

Ree cea carious viridis, Miller.

eG pea Cea ; Loxoconcha impressa (Baird),

ae ae me Cytherura Robertsoni, Brady.

similis, Baird,

Limnicythere inopinata (Baird).

Darwinella Stevensoni, B. & R.

Candona similis, Baird. PI. I. figs. 1, 2.

Candona similis, Baird, Brit. Entom. p. 162, pl. 19. figs. 2, 2 a.

Carapace subelliptical, greatest height in front of the mid-

dle, and scarcely equal to half the length; extremities well

rounded, the posterior much the smaller: superior margin

very slightly arched, sloping gently from before backwards ;

inferior almost straight. Seen from above, regularly ovate,

widest in the middle, thence tapering evenly to the acumi-

nate extremities; width equal to rather more than one-

third of the length. Shell thin, transparent. Length 34

inch.

This species is known to us only from two or three speci-

mens taken in the Grand Canal at Dublin; but these agree so

completely (except as regards the coloured markings, which

may have been destroyed by prolonged drying amongst mud)

with Dr. Baird’s description that we do not hesitate to refer

them to C. similis. Since the foregoing sentence was written

a few specimens of the same species have likewise occurred

to us in the neighbourhood of Sunderland, as noted below

(p. 58).

3. Northern Coast of Scotland (marine).

For several dredgings from this district, obtained during one

of the surveying-expeditions of H.M.S. ‘ Porcupine,’ we are

indebted to our friend Mr. D. O. Drewett. The dredgings are

from the following localities (all purely marine, and very si-

milar in character, so that it is scarcely necessary to give se-

parately the lists of species from each) :—Dornoch Frith,

4 fathoms; Loch Erribol; three miles off Port Skerran,

30 fathoms; Kyle of Tongue, 4 fathoms; Scarpa Bay, Ork-

ney; Scarpa Flow, 17 fathoms; ten miles off Hoy Head,

50 fathoms; Scrabster Roads, 7 fathoms. Our list includes

Distribution of the British Ostracoda. 53

also the contents of one dredging made by Mr. Robertson in

Stromness Bay.

Pontocypris mytiloides (Norman).

trigonella, G. O. Sars.

Bairdia inflata (Norman).

Potamocypris fulva, Brady.

Cythere pellucida, Baird.

castanea, G. O. Sars.

porcellanea, Brady.

tenera, Brady.

crispata, Brady.

viridis, Miiller.

lutea, Miiller.

—— villosa (G. O. Sars).

—— albomaculata, Baird.

convexa, Baird.

—— cuneiformis, Brady.

—— finmarchica (G. O. Sars).

tuberculata (G. O. Surs).

—— pulchella, Brady.

angulata (G. O. Sars).

—— quadridentata, Baird.

emaciata, Brady.

—— dunelmensis (Norman).

Jonesii, Baird,

(?) acerosa, Brady.

Loxoconcha tamarindus (Jones).

impressa (Baird).

—— guttata (Norman).

Loxoconcha multifora (Norman).

Ilyobates bartonensis (Jones).

Xestoleberis depressa, G. O. Sars.

EKucythere Argus (G. O. Sars).

declivis (Norman).

Cytheridea elongata, Brady.

Cytherura nigrescens (Baird).

similis, G. O. Sars.

affinis, G. O. Sars.

undata, G. O. Sars.

—— striata, G. O. Sars.

—— flavescens, Brady.

cuneata, Brady.

angulata, Brady.

gibba (Miiller).

acuticostata, G. O. Sars.

cellulosa (Norman).

Pseudocythere caudata, G. O. Sars.

Cytheropteron latissimum( Norman).

Bythocythere constricta, G. O. Sars.

Cytherideis subulata, Brady.

Sclerochilus contortus (Norman).

Paradoxostoma variabile (Baird).

abbreviatum, G. O. Sars.

—— flexuosum, Brady.

ensiforme, Brady.

orcadense, n. sp.

Paradoxostoma orcadense, n. sp. Pl. I. figs. 5-7.

Carapace, as seen from the side, elongated, subreniform or

subtriangular, highest near the middle, lower in front than

behind; height much less than half the length; extremities

rounded, the anterior being the narrower: superior margin

sloping gently forwards almost in a right line from its highest

point, but well arched behind ; inferior sinuated in the middle.

Seen from above, ovato-cuneate, widest near the posterior ex-

tremity ; width equal to nearly one third of the length, sub-

acuminate in front, rounded behind. Animal unknown.

Length 34 inch.

Hab, Stromness Bay, Orkney; sandy bottom.

4. South Wales and Bristol Channel.

Canal and Dykes on Cardiff Moor.

Cypris reptans (Baird). Candona candida (Miiller).

—— prasina, Fischer. albicans, Brady.

gibba, Ramdohr. —— lactea, Baird.

—— compressa, Baird. hyalina (?), B. §& R.

Cypridopsis vidua (Miiller’). Limnicythere inopinata (Baird).

obesa, B. & R. Cytheridea torosa, Jones (var.

aculeata (Lzlljeborg). teres).

Potamocypris fulva, Brady. Darwinella Stevensoni, B, & R.

54.

Messrs. Brady and Robertson on the

Off Penarth Head (muddy bottom).

Cypris compressa, Baird.

-—— gibba (Ramdohr).

cambrica, nov. sp.

Cypridopsis obesa, B. § R.

Candona albicans, Brady.

Potamocypris fulva, Brady.

Pontocypris mytiloides (Norman).

Argilleecia angustata (Brady).

Cythere castanea, G. O. Sars.

porcellanea, Brady.

tenera, Brady.

Jeffreysii, Brady.

viridis, Miller.

villosa (G. O. Sars).

Limnicythere inopinata (Baird).

Xestoleberis aurantia (Baird).

Loxoconcha granulata, G. O. Sars.

guttata (Norman).

—— tamarindus (Jones).

Cytherura nigrescens (Baird).

striata, G. O. Sars.

cuneata, Brady.

quadrata, Norman.

— acuticostata, G. O. Sars.

cellulosa (Norman).

Cytheropteron punctatum, Brady.

Cytherideis subulata, Brady.

Paradoxostoma variabile (Baird).

abbreviatum, G. O, Sars.

ensiforme, Brady.

flexuosum, Brady.

Iifracombe, off Lantern Hill (8-8 fathoms).

Cythere albomaculata, Baird.

lutea, Miller.

—— villosa (G. O. Sars).

convexa, Baird.

crispata, Brady.

—— viridis, Miller.

cuneiformis, Brady.

—— pellucida, Baird.

castanea, G. O. Sars.

tenera, Brady.

Robertsoni, Brady.

finmarchica (G'. O. Sars).

—— semipunctata, Brady.

pulchella, Brady.

emaciata, Brady.

Cytheridea elongata, Brady.

EKucythere Argus (G. O. Sars).

Loxoconcha impressa (Baird).

Loxoconcha tamarindus (Jones).

guttata (Norman).

multifora (Norman).

Xestoleberis aurantia (Baird).

Cytherura flavescens, Brady.

nigrescens (Baird).

striata, G. O. Sars.

Cytheropteron pyramidale, Brady.

Bythocythere constricta, G.O.Sars.

Cytherideis subulata, Brady.

Sclerochilus contortus (Norman).

Paradoxostoma variabile (Baird).

abbreviatum, G. O. Sars.

—— ensiforme, Brady.

— obliquum, G. O. Sars.

hibernicum, Brady.

Asterope teres (Norman).

The gatherings from Cardiff Canal and Dykes appear to

show some slight admixture of salt water, while, on the other

hand, that from Penarth Head contains several Cypride,

which we must suppose to have been derived from some

neighbouring freshwater outlet; it is scarcely likely that

Cypris compressa, O. gibba, Cypridopsis obesa, Candona albi-

cans, or Limnicythere inopinata are permanently established in

a living condition in absolutely salt water, though the shells

of several of these show that they must have been either living

or only recently dead when captured. We should have been

disposed to class Cypris cambrica in the same list; but the

former being unknown as a freshwater species, and bearing at

the same time a strong resemblance to ‘“‘ Cytheridea”’ zetlandica,

which was taken undoubtedly living between tide-marks, we

Distribution of the British Ostracoda. 55

ean scarcely do otherwise than regard it for the present as a

new marine form. The single specimen in our gathering is,

unfortunately, only an empty shell; so that we cannot speak

confidently as to its generic position.

In the Ilfracombe list the chief point of interest is the oc-

eurrrence of Cytheropteron pyramidale (Brady), a species new

to Britain, but perhaps too nearly allied to C. latessimum to

be altogether satisfactory. ‘The species was originally de-

scribed from Norwegian examples, in No. 1 of these ‘‘ Contri-

butions.”” Amongst the specimens which we here assign to

Cytheridets subulata are some of an unusually large size and

of slightly more tumid and arcuate outline than the typical

form; but whether these differences are sexual or varietal, or

whether they constitute an altogether distinct species, we are

not, owing to the emptiness of the shells, able decidedly to say,

One of these is figured in Pl. I. figs. 12,18; fig. 13, however,

is unsatisfactory, the outline being too nearly ovate, and not

attenuated sufficiently in front.

Cypris prasina, Fischer. .

The species named by us in a previous paper (“On the

Ostracoda and Foraminifera of Tidal Rivers’) C. fretensis,

appears to be properly referable to C. prasina, though the

term, signifying a shade of green, is a misnomer as regards

our specimens, which are in all cases of a dirty white.

Cypris(?) cambrica, n. sp. Pl. I. figs. 3, 4.

Carapace, as seen from the side, subtriangular; greatest

height behind the middle, and equal to half the length; ante-

rior extremity obtusely, posterior rather obliquely rounded :

superior margin well arched, somewhat gibbous behind the

middle, inferior almost straight. Seen from above, regularly

ovate, with tapering acuminate extremities, widest in the

middle ; width considerably less than one half the length.

Shell thin, semitransparent, yellowish. Length 5}; inch.

Cytherura quadrata, Norman. PI. I. figs. 10, 11.

The specimens here noted and figured are interesting as

being the only ones on record, with the exception of the ori-

ginal types, which were taken in Shetland by Mr. Norman.

Though certainly different in proportion of length to height,

this species seems to us to come, perhaps, dangerously near to

CO. striata, from which the shell differs in no other essential

respect.

Paradoxostoma flecuosum, Brady. PI. I. figs. 8, 9.

A more extensive series of specimens from various localities-

56 Messrs. Brady and Robertson on the

shows that the figures and descriptions originally given in the

“ Monograph of Recent British Ostracoda”’ require emenda-

tion. The conspicuously angular example from which the

figures were drawn was probably a male, and is a much less

common form than that now described.

Carapace, as seen from the side, elongated, flexuous, rather

narrower in front than behind; greatest height equal to one

third of the length, and situated near the middle; extremities

tapering, rounded; superior margin well and evenly rounded,

inferior deeply sinuated in front of the middle. Seen from

above, compressed, oblong, tapering to the extremities, which

are acuminate ; greatest width in the middle, and equal to less

than one fourth of the length. Shell thin and fragile, smooth;

when viewed with a high power, it is, if in good condition,

seen to be marked with very delicate and closely set longitu-

dinal striations. Length 5 inch.

5. Northumberland and Durham District.

Lochend Loch, Edinburgh*.

Cypris gibba, Ramdohr. Candona albicans, Brady.

reptans (Baird). lactea, Baird.

compressa, Baird. Goniocypris mitra, B. & RF.

Candona candida (Miiller). Limnicythere inopinata, Baird.

—— compressa (Koch).

Bolam Lake, Northumberland.

Cypris compressa, Baird. Candona candida (Miiller).

levis, Miiller. Cythere albomaculata, Baird.

Cypridopsis vidua (Miiller). _ Limnicythere inopinata (Baird).

Belsay Lake, East, Northumberland.

Cypris reptans (Bazrd). Cypris levis, Miller.

—— gibba, Ramdohr. Candona candida (Miiller’).

—— compressa, Baird. lactea, Baird.

ovum (Jurine). Limnicythere inopinata (Baird).

Pond on Boldon Flats, near Sunderland.

Cypris reptans (Baird). Cypris levis, Miller.

—— gibba, Ramdohr. Candona candida (Miiller).

—— compressa, Baird. similis, Baird.

Seaton Burn, Northumberland, above the Sluice.

Cypris reptans (Barrd). Cythere gibbosa, B. § R.

gibba, Ramdohr. Limnicythere inopinata (Batrd),.

——- prasina, Fischer. Cytheridea torosa (Jones), var.

Candona candida (Miiller). teres.

Cythere castanea, G. O. Sars. Loxoconcha elliptica, Brady.

porcellanea, Brady. | Cytherura Robertsoni, Brady.

* This locality, though not coming with geographical accuracy under

our fifth heading, may be regarded as belonging to the same zoological

province.

Distribution of the British Ostracoda. :

Seaton Burn, below the Sluice.

Cypris gibba, Ramdohr.

prasina, Fischer.

Cythere pellucida, Baird.

—— castanea, G. O. Sars.

—— porcellanea, Brady.

—— tenera, Brady.

viridis, Miiller.

albomaculata, Baird.

— gibbosa, B. § R.

—— Robertsoni, Brady.

—— cuneiformis, Brady.

angulata (G. O. Sars).

villosa (G'. O: Sars). .

semipunctata, Brady.

Limnicythere inopinata (Baird).

Cytheridea torosa (Jones), var.

teres.

Loxoconcha elliptica, Brady.

Cytherura nigrescens (Baird).

striata, G. O. Sars.

—— angulata, Brady.

— Robertsoni, Brady.

cellulosa (Norman).

clathrata, G. O. Sars.

Cytherideis subulata, Brady.

Paradoxostoma variabile (Baird).

ensiforme, Brady.

—— Fischeri, G. O. Sars.

hibernicum, Brady.

North of Whitley, on muddy sand-covered rocks, between tide-marks.

Pontocypris mytiloides (Norman).

Cythere albomaculata, Baird.

lutea, Miiller.

viridis, Miller.

pellucida, Baird.

castanea, G. O. Sars.

tenera, Brady. ;

—— Robertsoni, Brady.

—— villosa (G. O. Sars).

cuneiformis, Brady.

Loxoconcha tamarindus (Jones).

Xestoleberis aurantia (Baird).

Cytherura nigrescens (Baird).

angulata, Brady.

cuneata, Brady.

— undata, G. O. Sars.

cellulosa (Norman).

clathrata, G. O. Sars.

Cytherideis subulata, Brady.

Sclerochilus contortus (Norman).

Paradoxostoma variabile (Baird).

ensiforme, Brady.

obliquum, G. O. Sars.

_ Seaton Carew, near Hartlepool, on muddy rocks at low-water mark.

Cythere albomaculata, Baird.

pellucida, Baird.

villosa (G. O. Sars).

borealis, Brady.

Cytheridea punctillata, Brady.

cornea, B. § &.

Loxoconcha elliptica, Brady.

Cytherura nigrescens (Baird).

similis, G. O. Sars.

——- undata, G. O. Sars.

striata, G. O. Sars.

Cytherura cellulosa (Norman).

Cytheropteron latissimum (Nor-

man).

Cytherideis subulata, Brady.

Sclerochilus contortus (Norman)

& var. abbreviatus.

Paradoxostoma abbreviatum, G.

O. Sars.

ensiforme, Brady.

—— pulchellum, G. O. Sars.

Off Seaton Carew, 4 fathoms; bottom of rather muddy sand.

Cythere semipunctata, Brady.

pellucida, Baird.

—— castanea, G. O. Sars.

porcellanea, Brady.

viridis, Miiller.

Robertsoni, Brady.

villosa (G. O. Sars).

Loxoconcha pusilla, B. & R.

—— tamarindus (Jones).

Xestoleberis depressa, G. O.

Sars.

Cytherura nigrescens (Baird).

similis, G. O. Sars.

—— flavescens, Brady.

—— striata, G. O. Sars.

angulata, Brady.

— cuneata, Brady.

— cellulosa (Norman).

58 Messrs. Brady and Robertson on the

Cytheropteron latissimum (Nor- | Paradoxostoma abbreviatum,

man). G. O. Sars.

Cytherideis subulata, Brady. —— ensiforme, Brady.

Fischeri, G. O. Sars.

Sclerochilus contortus (orman).

flexuosum, Brady.

Paradoxostoma variabile (?),

(Baird).

No new species occur in the gatherings from this district ;

but the following interesting poimts may be noted. Gronio-

cypris mitra has not been met with in any other locality out

of the range of the “ East-Anglian” or Fen-district. Can-

dona similis was previously unknown to us except from the

Dublin specimens described above (p. 52).. The occurrence

of Cythere albomaculata in a purely freshwater lake at Bolam

is very remarkable, it beg a species which in general,

though very abundant in marine littoral situations, seems

rather to shun any admixture of fresh water. The Bolam

specimens are very poor and stunted, but-there can be no

doubt whatever as to their identity. Cythere cuneformis we

have been used to consider a deep-water species; but the

specimens obtained between tide-marks at Whitley are the

only living ones we have seen, and are very fine and well-con-

ditioned. Paradoxostoma obliquum, from the same locality,

and also living, is new to the east coast. The single specimen

of Cythere borealis from Seaton Carew is much battered and

worn, but can scarcely be referred to any other species. It

has not previously been met with, except in the Arctic seas.

Cytherideis subulata, Brady. PI. I. figs. 12, 13, and

Pl. II. figs. 11-13.

The Seaton Carew shore specimens of this species are the

first which we have found in the living state; and from the

one or two which were available for dissection, we have been

enabled to gather the following generic characters :—

Genus CYTHERIDEIS, Jones.

Superior antennee (PI. II. fig. 11) slender, sparingly setose ;

last joint short, and bearing six short terminal sete ; penulti-

mate and antepenultimate joints each bearing a single apical

seta. Mandible (fig. 12) slender and curved, divided below into

about four very small indistinct teeth; palp four-jointed, its

first joint bearing on the inferior margin a conical tooth-like

process ; third joint set along its entire length with a comb-

like series of straight equal sete; in other respects asin Cy-

there. Hirst segment of the maxille (fig. 13) much stouter

and larger than the rest.

Distribution of the British Ostracoda.

~ The form of C. subulata already mentioned as occurring at

Ilfracombe is figured in PI. I. figs. 12, 13.

6. Frith of Clyde.

Kames Bay, Cumbrae; on sandy rocks near low-water mark.

Potamocypris fulva (Brady).

Cythere albomaculata, Baird.

— lutea, Miiller.

convexa, Baird.

—— villosa (G. O. Sars).

viridis, Miiller.

angulata (G. O. Sars).

—— rubida, Brady.

—— hadia, Norman.

—— pellucida, Baird.

pulchella, Brady.

—— gibbosa, B. & R.

Cytheridea elongata, Brady.

Loxoconcha impressa (Baird).

tamarindus (Jones).

Xestoleberis aurantia (Baird).

Cytherura cellulosa, G. O. Sars.

undata, G. O. Sars.

flavescens, Brady.

cuneata, Brady.

—— nigrescens (Baird).

Cytherideis subulata, Brady.

Paradoxostoma yariabile (Baird).

hibernicum, Brady.

Rothesay Bay, 2-12 fathoms; Roseneath, for half a mile east of Pier,

mud and sand.

* Species occurring in Rothesay gathering only.

” ”

*Pontocypris mytiloides (Norman).

+Cythere lutea, Miiller.

—— villosa, G. O. Sars.

—— pellucida, Baird.

t castanea, G. O. Sars.

af porcellanea, Brady.

—— tenera, Brady.

viridis, Miiller.

t convexa, Baird.

—— Robertsoni, Brady.

erispata, Brady.

cuneiformis, Brady.

angulata (G. O. Sars).

—— tuberculata (G. O. Sars).

concinna, Jones.

— dunelmensis (Norman).

* antiquata (Baird).

Jonesii (Baird).

Cytheridea punctillata, Brady.

papillosa, Bosquet.

elongata, Brady.

subflavescens, Brady.

+Eucythere Argus (G. O. Sars).

-—— declivis (Norman).

+Llyobates bartonensis (Jones).

Loxoconcha impressa (Baird).

granulata, G. O. Sars.

tamarindus (Jones).

guttata (Norman).

* ;

| *

Roseneath only..

*Loxoconcha multifora (Norman).

+Xestoleberis depressa, G'. O. Sars.

+Cytherura nigrescens (Baird).

% similis, G. O. Sars.

striata, G. O. Sars.

cuneata, Brady.

undata, G, O. Sars.

angulata, Brady.

producta, Brady.

> gibba, Miiller.

acuticostata, G. O. Sars.

_ t—— cellulosa (Norman).

+Cytheropteron nodosum, Brady.

: inornatum, n. sp.

*___ alatum, G. O. Sars.

T angulatum, n. sp.

+Bythocythere constricta, G. O. Sars.

—— turgida, G. O. Sars.

simplex (Norman).

Sclerochilus contortus (Norman).

+Xiphichilus tenuissima (Norman).

+Paradoxostoma variabile (Baird).

+ abbreviatum, G. O. Sars.

t ensiforme, Brady.

*__— flexuosum, Brady.

+Philomedes interpunctata (Baird).

*Asterope Marie (Baird).

*Polycope orbicularis, G. O. Sars.

60 Messrs. Brady and Robertson on the

Greenock, off the Pier, 2-6 fathoms.

Cypris compressa, Baird.

Cypridopsis obesa, B. §& R.

Candona albicans, Brady.

Cythere pellucida, Baird.

castanea, G. O. Sars.

—— porcellanea, Brady.

viridis, Miiller.

—— crispata, Brady.

lutea, Miiller.

— villosa (G. O. Sars).

—— angulata (G. O. Sars).

tuberculata, G. O. Sars.

eibbosa, B. & R.

Cytheridea papillosa, Bosquet.

—— torosa (Jones), var. teres.

Eucythere Argus (G. O. Sars).

Loxoconcha tamarindus (Jones).

pusilla, B. & R.

—— impressa (Baird).

oranulata, G. O. Sars.

—— fragilis, G. O. Sars.

Cytherura nigrescens (Baird).

cuneata, Brady.

Robertsoni, Brady.

cellulosa (Norman).

Paradoxostoma variabile (Baird).

The first three species in the Greenock list were in all pro-

bability washed down from some habitat higher up stream ;

but the gathering is characterized by the presence of several

species indicating a sensible admixture of fresh water: e. g.

Cythere castanea, OC. porcellanea, C. gibbosa, Cytheridea torosa,

Loxoconcha pusilla, L. fragilis, and Cytherura Robertsont.

Some, if not all, of these may doubtless be occasionally met

with in purely marine situations ; but their presence together,

constituting one third of all the marine species in the gather-

ing, gives an unmistakably brackish aspect to the group.

The most noteworthy species in the Clyde lists are Bytho-

cythere turgida, which occurred in greater abundance and

better condition than we have previously witnessed, and three

species of the genus Cytheropteron, two of which (C. dnor-

natum and C. angulatum) are new to us in the recent state,

though we had found the latter sparingly as a fossil in certain

glacial clays. The other species (C. alatum, Sars) has been

recorded by Mr. Norman as an inhabitant of the British Seas,

on the strength of a single specimen dredged a few miles east

of the Island of Balta, Shetland. We are now able to add

two habitats in the Frith of Clyde, Kilchattan Bay and

Rothesay Bay, both in the Island of Bute. Mr. Norman

having already (last Shetland Dredging Report) quoted Sars’s

description of the species, it is needless here to redescribe it:

we, however, give figures (Pl. IT. figs. 4, 5, 6) from British

examples, which will more vividly realize one of the most

beautiful and remarkable of British Ostracoda. The Clyde

specimens are rather smaller, and have the spinous armature

of the ale less perfectly developed than those from Norway,

for examples of which we are indebted to the kindness of Dr.

Sars; they also exhibit, when viewed from above, a remark-

able appearance on each valve, as of a large obsolete indenta-

Distribution of the British Ostracoda. 61

tion, covered in up tothe edge of the valve with a thin trans-

parent coating of shell. When closely examined, the Norwe-

gian specimens likewise exhibit traces of this structure, but

very indistinctly.

Argillecia cylindrica, G.O. Sars.

A few specimens which appeared to be referable to this

species were dredged off Greenock Pier. Further examina-

tion of the living animal, however, is needful before we can

pronounce positively as to its identity.

Pontocypris hispida, G. O. Sars.

Some very fine and well-characterized examples were

dredged off Cumbrae; and we have some even finer from

Ventry Bay, Ireland. From a careful comparison of these

with undoubted specimens of P. mytiloides, we think there

can be no doubt that the two forms are only varieties of one

and the same species. The chief distinctive characters, ac-

cording to Sars, are as follows :—

P. mytiloides, dark brown, sparingly hispid, with short

hairs ; 8 posterior serrations.

P. hispida, yellowish, densely hispid, with long hairs ;

5 posterior serrations.

Some of our examples of P. hispida, however, are even

darker in colour than is usual with P. mytiloides ; the degree

of pubescence is subject to very great variation; and the same

may be said of the-number and prominence of the marginal

serratures: of the anatomical differences pointed out by Sars,

all we can say is that we have failed to detect any such in our

specimens. Under these circumstances, we cannot hesitate

to class both forms under the specific name mytiloides.

Cytheropteron inornatum, n. sp. Pl. II. figs. 1-3.

Carapace, as seen from the side, subrhomboidal, highest in

the middle, greatest height equal to about two thirds of the

length: anterior extremity narrowed, obliquely rounded;

posterior produced in the middle into a very broad, subtrun-

cate beak: superior margin well arched; inferior almost

straight, slightly sinuated in front of the middle, and curved

upwards behind. Seen from above, broadly triangular, the

base or posterior side of the triangle produced into a very

large central mucro; lateral angles almost rectangular, the

sides thence tapering evenly with a very slight curve to the

acuminate anterior extremity; greatest width equal to nearly

62 Messrs. Brady and Robertson on the

four fifths of the length. End view subtriangular, with broad

truncate apex, concave sides, and almost straight base. Sur-

face of the shell perfectly smooth, or marked with a very few

distant puncta, the posterior portion behind the ale more or

less rugose; lateral alee very prominent, produced to a

rectangular point. Animal unknown. Length =! inch.

Hab. Rothesay, Frith of Clyde.

This species approaches very nearly one which we have

been accustomed to refer to C. vespertilio* (Reuss), but differs

in having a less arcuate dorsal margin, in the absence of

spines at the alar angles, and in the less distinctly papillose

or punctate shell: the corrugations of the posterior extremity

we have not noticed in C. vespertilio.

Cytheropteron angulatum, n. sp. Pl. II. figs. 7, 8.

Carapace, as seen from the side, flexuous, subrhomboidal ;

greatest height in the middle, and equal to nearly two thirds

of the length: anterior extremity rounded ; posterior obliquely

subtruncate, narrowed, and forming an obscurely upturned

beak : superior margin boldly arched, somewhat flattened in

- the middle ; inferior nearly straight, curving upwards towards

the hinder extremity. Seen from above, subpentagonal, boat-

shaped, widest in front of the middle, acuminate in front,

broadly and rectangularly truncate behind; from the widest

point the sides converge suddenly and almost rectilinearly

forwards; behind they are markedly sinuous and less abruptly

convergent; greatest width a little less than the height. The

surface of the shell is exceedingly rugged, the lateral ale not

very much produced, but having, some little distance within

and parallel to the margin, a strongly marked longitudinal

ridge, from which several irregularly flexuous ribs stretch

transversely across the valves, coalescing here and there into

large rounded eminences, and having in their interspaces nu-

merous irregularly angulated depressions. Length 5!, inch.

Hab. Roseneath, Frith of Clyde.

This very remarkable and distinct species occurs also, in

the fossil state, in some of the glacial clays of the Clyde

district.

7. Spitzbergen.

Cythere laticarina, Brady. . Cythere concinna, Jones.

emarginata, G. O. Sars. —— mirabilis, Brady. ©

—— tuberculata, G. O. Sars. dunelmensis (Norman).

— globulifera, Brady. Cytheridea papillosa, Bosquet.

* See Brady, “On Ostracoda from the Arctic Seas,” Ann. & Mag. Nat.

Hist. July 1868.

Distribution of the British Ostracoda. 63

Cytheridea punctillata, Brady. Cytheropteron latissimum (Nor-

—— sorbyana, Jones. man).

- Xestoleberis depressa, G. O. Sars. | PBythocythere turgida, G. O. Sars.

Cytherura similis, G. O. Sars. Sclerochilus contortus (Norman).

concentrica, MS. Paradoxostoma variabile (Baird).

—— undata, G. O. Sars. Polycope orbicularis, G, O. Sars.

We are indebted to our friend the Rev. H. W. Crosskey,

F.G.S., for the opportunity of publishing this list, which,

though it does not strictly fall within the scope of the present

paper, is well worthy of comparison with the British lists. It

will be seen that all the species are known as inhabitants of

the British seas, more particularly of those washing the north

of Scotland and Shetland. Besides those given in the list,

there were amongst the specimens examined only one or two

unknown or of doubtful identity. These dredgings were ob-

tained by Mr. Lamont in his Polar Expedition of 1869, and

were by him obligingly handed to Mr. Crosskey.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. .

PuaTE I.

Fig. 1. Candona similis, seen from left side. x60

Fug. 2. The same, seen from above. ;

Fig. 3. Cypris (?) cambrica, seen from left side. x 60

Fig. 4. The same, seen from above. :

Fag. 5. Paradoxostoma orcadense, male (?), seen from left side.

Fig. 6. The same, female (?), seen from left side. or

Fig. 7. The same, ditto, seen from above. :

Fig. 8. Paradoxostoma flecuosum, seen from left side. 84

Fig. 9. The same, seen from above. :

Fig. 10. Cytherura quadrata, seen from left side.

: x 84.

Fig. 11. The same, seen from above.

Fig. 12. Cytherideis subulata (? variety), seen from left side. x50

Fig. 13. The same, seen from above. :

Prate ‘IE.

Fig. 1. Cytheropteron inornatum, seen from left side.

Fig. 2. The same, seen from above. x 84.

Fig. 3. The same, seen from the front.

Fig. 4. Cytheropteron alatum, seen from left side.

Fig. 5. The same, seen from below. x 84,

Fig. 6. The same, seen from front.

Fig. 7. Cytheropteron angulatum, seen from left side. ery |

Fig. 8. The same, seen from above. :

Fig. 9. Metacypris cordata, superior antenna. % 250,

Fig. 10. The same, inferior antenna.

Fig. 11. Cytherideis subulata (typical form), superior antenna. | \ 949

Fig. 12. The same, a as mandible and palp. {

Fig. 13. The same, maxilla. 300.

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“** (UpULLOT) SLATDOP

saagy dong

aoe 43, £ I ‘stjenbeeut

‘ ipoug ‘susdsoavyqus

hipoug ‘eorpueyyez

veprroyydy

‘(panuiquod) LTAV,

Prof. H. James-Clark on the American Spongilla. 71

VI.—The American Spongilla a Craspedote Flagellate Infu-

sorian. By H. JAmes-Ciark, A.B., B.S., Prof. Nat.

Hist. Kentucky University, Lexington, Ky.*

[Plate XI.]

THE argument of Hiickel and others, that the Sponges are

essentially compound Polypi, is virtually based upon the as-

sumption that the minor (afferent) and major (efferent) ostioles

of the former correspond to the mouths of the latter, and that

the profusely branching afferent and efferent canals of the

Sponges are strictly comparable with similar canals in the

polypidom of Halcyonarians—and, by implication, that the

cilia-bearing cells of the interior lining wall of the zoophyte

find their homologues in the ciliated cell-like bodies of the in-

terior chambers of the Porifera. If, now, it should turn out

that these last are not altogether mere cell-components of a

tissue, but are each, severally, an independent body, although

closely connected with others in a common bond, then the

attempted parallelism between the two groups must utterly

fail of confirmation. ‘The tendency of Carter’s later investi-

gations, and our own too, is to show that this is no vain

supposition.

For ourselves, we hold that each et/iated body of the sponge

is a cephalic member (a cephalid in this case) of a polycephalic

individual +. We believe, as far as we can understand his un-

decided, rather hesitating position, Carter’s latest decision is

that the sponge is a community of amecebous individualsf,

and not a polycephalic unit. Yet, whichever view prevails, the

tendency is the same, and the polyp theory is negatived most

unquestionably. The incompatibility of the interior organisms

of the two groups above mentioned is so great that it would

seem as idle to elaborate a proof of it as to attempt the demon-

stration of an axiom. ‘The question is really circumscribed,

according to the method of Hiickel, to arguing that, since a

system of branching canals in the sponge reminds one very

strongly of the intricate network of passage-ways in the basal

parts of certain polyps, therefore the two are homologous and

bear an identical relation to the rest of the organism. Carter

has answered this far-fetched homology with considerable de-

tail in a recent paper (“On new Sponges,” &e., Ann. & Mag.

* From Silliman’s American Journal, December 1871.

+ See our article on ‘ Polarity and Polycephalism,” Sill. Am. Journ.,

January 1870.

¢{ See Carter, “On Fecundation in the two Volvoces; on Eudorina,

Spongilla,’ &c., Ann. & Mag, Nat. Hist., January 1859, also for July

1871, ”On new Sponges,” &c.

72 Prof. H. James-Clark on the American Spongilla

Nat. Hist., July 1871) ; and we do not, therefore, feel called

)

upon to add more to it.

The principal aim of this article is to furnish new material

in proof of the polycephalism of the Spongiz, and particularly

in regard to their relation with the Protozoa flagellata. We

are highly pleased to find that Carter has lately (wt sup., July

1871) confirmed our earliest observations* as to the organiza-

tion of the collar-bearing monads of Leucosolenia, by an in-

vestigation of Grantia compressa. He has also accepted our

interpretation of the horn-like processes of the sponge-cell of

Spongilla alba, that they are the outlines of a membranous

collar in profile.

We have now to bring forward a fourth example of a cras-

pedote flagellate monad cephalid in a sponge. It seems to be

a Spongilla; but specifically, at least in its monads, it differs

from the English forms. For convenience’ sake we will call

it Spongilla avrachnoidea, from its resemblance to an irregular

spider-web. It lives in freshwater streams and ponds, usually

about the bottom of the stems of water plants, or wherever

there is considerable shade, apparently avoiding the light, as

we seldom, if ever, found it in open water. In size it varies

from a few inches to a half a line in diameter, of no definite

shape, and has a uniform fuscous or yellowish-brown colour,

and is wrapped about by a filmy, transparent, colourless enve-

lope (‘investing membrane,” Carter). The brown colour is

inherent to the terior mass, in which the groups of monads are

imbedded ; in fact the latter are themselves as strongly coloured

by brown granular contents. ‘The “ investing membrane”? is

also slightly tinged with amber colour by the large and small

spicules which are imbedded in it. Excepting in very small

specimens, foreign matter is often so thickly spread over the

surface as to obscure the view and seriously interfere with a

correct interpretation of the relation of parts. We have been

most fortunate in our endeavours with the minuter individuals,

which occasionally, we found, would allow a view through and

through their entire bulk, and of course left full opportunity for a

satisfactory study of the details of special parts without our re-

sorting to the dissecting-needles. ee one who knows by ex-

perience the intense contractility of the living sponge can

appreciate the advantage of not being obliged to destroy and

sever parts of an organism from their natural relations. Pre-

mising that thus every thing has been studied “ in place,”

even to the details of the monads, we shall endeavour to de-

* Memoirs Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. vol. i. 1867, “ On the Spongiee ciliate

as Infusoria flagellata;” Ann, & Mag. Nat. Hist., Feb., March, and April

1868,

as a Craspedote Flagellate Infusorian. 73

scribe this sponge as if it were to be the type for future com-

parison. '

General plan.—The whole individual sponge is endowed

with a double envelope (Pl. XI. fig. 1,@a', cd) the outer and

inner parts of which are directly continuous with each other at

many points. The outer division (a, a’) lies at a considerable

distance from the monadigerous mass (g), and is, as it were,

suspended on the points of the larger far-projecting spicules

(e), just as a tent canvas is supported on the ends of poles.

The inner division (c) closely embraces the monadigerous mass

like an epidermis, and even plunges between the hollow groups

of monads, forming to them a basis of support. The outer and

inner divisions are continuous with each other at many points,

as stated just now, but only where the larger spicules project.

There the envelope (d) runs along the spicules, completely

embracing them, as if in a sheath, from their tips to their

bases, where they rest on the brown mass of monads. In brief,

we might say that the sponge is covered with a miniature co-

lonnade, whose ceiling is the outer division of the envelope, the

pillars are the bundles of spicules, and the floor is tapestried

by the inner division, which about the pillars hangs from the

ceiling in lofty folds. The continuity of the outer division of

the envelope is broken by numerous round or oval openings

of various and frequently changing sizes, sometimes very large,

which allow a free ingress of the water to the space just be-

neath. These are the afferent ostioles (os), through and into

which a constant current of floating particles may be seen

moving with considerable vivacity. Here and there, scattered

at wide distances, finger-like hollow processes from the outer

division arise singly and at various angles. Each is termi-

nated by a large aperture, the efferent ostiole, from which a

current of water and floating matter emerges with more or less

spasmodic irregularity. The smaller individuals, from half a

line to half an inch in diameter, possess only one such ostiole;

and those an inch in diameter seldom have more than two or

three like conduits; but they are very large, sometimes a

quarter of an inch in length when fully extended, and of the

proportions and taper of the human fore finger.

Plunging the focus of the objective to the floor of the co-

lonnade, the inner division (c) there is found to be pierced by

much more numerous openings (7), but far smaller in diameter

and quite methodically arranged, each one corresponding to

and overlying a hollow group of monads (4). ‘The outer divi-

sion is further embellished with irregularly scattered minute

spicules (e!), which lie imbedded in the cytoblastema, parallel

with the surface of the envelope, and occasionally crossing

74 ~—- Prof. H. James-Clark on the American Spongilla

each other at various angles. ‘To complete this general sketch,

we will state more definitely the relation of the constituents of

the monadigerous mass. There are essentially but two ele-

ments here,—namely, the inner division (c) of the investing

membrane, and the groups of monads (4) which are imbedded

in it below its surface. In a fully expanded individual these

groups seldom le so closely as to touch each other. ‘They

vary considerably in size and are usually globular or spheroidal

and form a single stratum, with rather narrow interspaces (c!)

between them.

It seems proper here, at least for the sake of precision, that

the cytoblastematous basis, in which the monad groups are im-

bedded, should be considered apart from the epithelium-like

inner (c) investing membrane which overlies it, although the

two are essentially one, the epithelioid membrane, by prolong-

ing itself between (at c!) and beneath the groups, forming for

them a continuous foundation. In this light, then, we shall

speak of the monadigerous mass as consisting of three elements, ’

—namely, the inner investing membrane proper, the group of

monads, and the cytoblastematous basis. ‘This basis seems to

constitute a large part of the bulk of the body, since it occupies

all of the interior space beneath the monad groups. In spe-

cimens which grow over flat surfaces in depressed patches, or

around stems of plants, it forms a relatively thin layer; but

where the body stands out as an irregularly rounded mass,

sometimes an inch in diameter, the cytoblastematous basis

fills up the interior, in enormous proportion to the bulk of the

monad layer.

ORGANOGRAPHY.

The Investing Membrane.—The investing membrane (fig.1, a

a'cd) consists essentially of two histiological elements—namely,

a very diffuse cytoblastema (a’), and irregularly disposed cells

(6, 61, 6”) scattered through it. The intercellular cytoblastema

forms a very thin layer (a’) between the cells (4) ; but where

the latter are imbedded in it, its outer and inner faces are as

wide apart as the considerable depth of the cells demands ; and

thus it happens that the membrane (both the outer and the

inner divisions) presents in profile (a’, c, d@) such an irregular

thickness. The cytoblastema (a) is colourless, hyaline, and ap-

parently homogeneous under a low power; but when magnified

to about four hundred diameters, it displays a very finely

granular aspect. It occupies wide intervals between the cells,

certainly more than one half, and fully three fifths of the whole

area of the membrane. Its apparent extent, in a general view,

is even more than that, owing to the extreme transparency of

as a Craspedote Flagellate Infusorian. 75

the cells and their consequent inconspicuousness. That the

cytoblastema, notwithstanding its low, undeveloped state, is the

true contractile element in this membrane there can scarcely

be a doubt, when we consider both its wide-spread preponder-

ance and its relative continuity, as contrasted with the scattered,

disconnected condition of the cells (6?) which are imbedded in

it. Sometimes it is barely possible to discover even the trace

of a cell on the border of an afferent ostiole (os); and in that

case we must infer, inevitably, that it is cytoblastema which

opens and closes the aperture. We find it, too, embracing the

extreme tips of the larger spicula, where the cells utterly fail

to appear.

The cell-element (6) of this membrane is also in a lowly con-

dition, only partially developed. There is no cell-wall. What

may appear to be a wall is really the thin stratum of cytoblas-

tema (a') overlying the distal and proximal faces of the cell.

This is our conclusion after the most critical scrutiny with a

carefully corrected objective. Were it not, indeed, for the

usually constant presence of a distinct nucleus (n) in each cell,

we should be strongly inclined to look upon it as merely a dense

collection of coarser granules than are generally diffused through

the cytoblastemic layer. The irregular and jagged outline and

the caudate projections of the cells (4?) also tend to tempt one

to the latter view. The cell-element in this case, then, corre-

sponds only to what is usually considered the cell-contents and

a nucleus. ‘The contents are composed of coarse and fine grey

granules, which at times are quite conspicuous, but most fre-

quently are so transparent and slightly refractive as to appear,

collectively, unless specially focused upon, as a faint blotch in

the investing membrane. ‘This renders it all the more difficult

to trace the outline of the cell, and particularly where it throws

out irregular caudate prolongations to blend with those of

other cells. We have been able to detect but one layer of cells

in this membrane* when it is well stretched out. The depth

of the cells, as may be seen in a sectional profile view (6), is

about equal to their breadth; and their length is from one half

to more than twice their breadth; but frequently they are as

broad as long. They stand in no particular relation to the

ostioles, and, as stated above, sometimes scarcely touch their

border. The nucleus (n) may be readily detected by its peculiar

strong refraction and its considerable superiority in size over

the granules. Its bright refractiveness in this connexion re-

minded us of a contractile vesicle ; but, although suspecting it of

such a function, we could detect no change other than might be

* Carter figures two or three cells overlying each other in Spongilla

alba (Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist., July 1857, pl. 1. fig. 7).

76 ~=Prof. H. James-Clark on the American Spongilla’

produced by the varying length and breadth of the cell, and the

shifting of the relative position of the coarse granules. In the

inner division (c) of the investing membrane the cells are usu-

ally smaller than those in the outer division, but differ in no

respect otherwise, either in form or arrangement. They lie

flat on their sides in the cytoblastematous layer ; but, except

in profile, they are most difficult to discover, on account of the

underlying brown mass of monad groups and granular inter-

stitial substance.

We have been unable to discover any distinct cell-elements

in the cytoblastematous mass immediately around and beneath

the monad groups, nor have we found it possible to distin-

guish it from the cytoblastema lying on the surface; and

since the continuity between the two is unbroken, we must,

perforce, consider them as one. The underlying portion of the

cytoblastematous mass, however, is characterized by irregularly

scattered, moderately coarse, brown granules (c'). These serve

very well as a dark frame or setting to the monad-chambers

(h), and by contrast bring them out more strongly.

The Monad Cephalids.— We now proceed to describe the most

essential feature of this animal, the monads. They are the

characterizing, the dominating element, in reference to which

the whole organism is contrived and constructed. They are

not cells; they are the heads of a polycephalic individual, and

consequently correspond functionally to the tentaculated heads

of Polypi, and not to their interior epithelial cells. We must

first describe what we call the monad-chamber.

The monad-chambers (fig. 1, h, fig. 2, fig. 4) are deep

spherical hollows which form the receptacles of the groups of

monads (7). They are mere cavities, and have no lining wall*.

They may be easily recognized in young specimens as clear,

more or less circular, areas scattered in pretty close proximity

to each other over the “‘ cytoblastemic mass.”’ Each chamber

has a single, small, circular aperture (¢) which perforates the

inner (c) investing membrane, and allows egress into the cir-

culatory apartment (f). The aperture (7) varies in size at times,

and may even be completely closed. We have never seen it

open wider than one third the diameter of the chamber, and

very rarely more than one fifth as wide. ‘That it is a true per-

* The hollow groups of monads were originally described by Carter

(Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist., July 1857) as lining a hypothetic vesicle,

which he named the ‘‘ampullaceous sac.” He has since (Ann. & Mag.

Nat. Hist., January 1859) revoked that view and adopted another. We

believe him to be, excepting the inferred “ ampullaceous sac,” in the

main, right in his first interpretation ; but as our species are different we

cannot speak definitely.

as a Craspedote Flagellate Infusorian. 77

foration, and not a clear spot, may be demonstrated by bring-

ing a chamber into profile, so that its aperture (fig. 4, 7) lies

on the extreme border; for then an actual break in the con-

tinuity of the investing membrane becomes evident.

Entering this aperture, we do not meet with any obstacle

for a little distance around it; there is a clear open space

(fig. 4) ; but pressing onward beyond that, either to the right

or the left or directly forward, the cavity appears filled by a

collection of vibrating bodies. They seem to be arranged radi-

atingly from and about the centre. Close inspection, however,

modifies this view, and it turns out that they are based upon

the periphery of the chamber, and converge towards its centre,

where is a small unoccupied space. We presently recognize

these converging bodies to be craspedote flagellate monads (7),

so closely packed together, side by side, as to form a continuous

stratum (figs. 2 and 4) over the whole concave face of the cham-

ber, excepting immediately about the aperture. Every feature

of the monad is strongly marked; even the cylindrical collar is

so heavy and conspicuous that its outlines may be seen with as

low a power as two hundred diameters. We have studied

these bodies with a 3-inch objective, and found it not at all

difficult to focus down upon the details of their organization

without pressing upon or even touching the specimen.

These monads are in every general essential identical with

those which we originally fund in Leucosolenia, and like those

also recently described by Carter (Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist., July

1871) in Grantia compressa. They are attached to the concave

face of the chamber by their posterior end (fig. 4, 7); and the

anterior extremity, with its flagellum (fig. 3, 7) and collar (h),

projects freely into the open space, and toward the centre of

the apartment. When fully expanded, the length of the body

and collar together is about one third, or a little more, of the

diameter of the chamber, so that nearly one third of the latter

is unoccupied at the centre, except by the tips of the flagella

converging from every direction. As the monads lie touching

each other on every side (fig. 2), they mutually flatten their

bodies, sometimes so much so as to give them a strong polygonal

outline; or, when the whole mass is expanded, they scarcely

impress each other, and therefore retain a rounded contour.

By plunging the focus so as to look into the aperture of a cham-

ber, down upon the monads at the bottom (fig. 2) of it, an end

view of each cephalid is obtained. From this point the fore-

shortened cylindrical collar looks like a strong dark circle (fig.

3°, k), which retains its conspicuousness as we plunge down

further, even to the base, where it is attached to the body (7).

The outline of the latter is considerably without the “ dark

78 Prof. H. James-Clark on the American Spongilla

circle,” the two being concentric to each other. At the same

time we see in the centre of the dark circle a black spot (/)

which may also be focused up and down upon, and hence

it is inferred to be a continuous line foreshortened. Other views

(fig. 3, 2) confirm this, and show that it is a single flagellum.

The monads are so transparent, and the organization so di-

stinct, that the collar and flagellum may be seen clearly from

an opposite point of view, looking directly through the body

of the cephalid. This, too, is the best position from which to

study the contractile vesicles.

A sectional profile view of a group (fig. 4), to be obtained

by pees the focus halfway through a chamber, serves best

to disclose the manner in which the posterior ends (7) of the

monads are affixed to the concave face of their receptacle ; and

we also here obtain a strictly profile aspect of amonad. Figure

3 is such a view, representing a single cephalid under a much

higher power than in figures 2 or 4. An excellent and least-

obstructed side view, but not strictly a profile, is to be had by

focusing upon the monads immediately about the aperture of

the chamber. Here we look directly into the doorway, or

through the bordering transparent epithelioid membrane which

it penetrates.

The body proper (fig. 8,7) of a cephalid is a little shorter

than it is broad, on the whole spheroidal in shape. Its pos-

terior end is broadly rounded; and so is its anterior extremity.

In front arises a cylindrical membranous “collar” (£), which

tapers slightly and projects forward to a distance equal to con-

siderably more than twice the length of the body. Its diameter

is not more than two thirds, or even less than that, of the body.

Although colourless and homogeneous, it is remarkably con-

spicuous, on account of the thickness of the membrane of which

it is composed. Near its open extremity it is more transparent

and less obvious than towards its basal attachment.

The flagellum () arises from the centre of the anterior end of

the body, in the midst of the area which is surrounded by the

membranous cylinder (£), and, without tapering, extends a

little further than the open end of the latter. It vibrates usu-

ally throughout its length, but is most active near its tip. We

have never seen it assume a rigid, arcuate position, as in some

other species of monads. It is particularly remarkable for its

want of transparency, and looks like a black thread more than

any vibrating cilium that we have ever met with. Its action,

at times, is rather that of a strong wriggle than a vibration.

The contractile vesicles (v)—The body of the monad is di-

stinctly marked by a coarse, scattered, brown granulation, with

two or three rather large clear spots at a considerable distance

as a Craspedote Flagellate Infusorian. 79

from each other, but always close to the periphery. These

clear areas are the contractile vesicles (v). They do not occupy

any particular place in the body, although usually they are not

in front. The systole and diastole are extremely slow, but

very distinet, if sufficient patience is summoned to watch them

fixedly and without interruption. ‘The last third of the systole

is abrupt; and then only does the vesicle appear to contract sud-

denly ; whereas by watching it through a complete circuit of

diastole and systole, one learns that its function is, on the whole,

performed very slowly. This very abrupt movement, quite

happily, may serve to rebut any such objection as that the

otherwise tardy action is merely the result of protoplasmic con-

traction of the body as in certain palmellate zoospores. Their

immovable position, as regards the body-contents, is another

item of rebutting evidence.

The sprcula (fig. 1, e e’) are very slender, slightly curved,

needle-shaped bodies, gradually tapering to a sharp point at

eachend. They havea bright amber colour, and a rather dark,

strongly refractive outline. From tip to tip they are slightly

roughened by irregularly scattered, low, but acute prominences

or knobs. There are two kinds of spicules, large and small;

but they differ in no other respect. The larger (e) are from

four to six times as long and thick as the smaller ones;

they occur in bundles of two, three, or four, and act as props

to hold up the outer investing membrane, as described in the

early part of this article. They seldom arise perpendicularly

from the monadigerous mass, but more or less obliquely, and,

in forming bundles, stand across each other like stacked arms,

We seldom found spicules penetrating the monadigerous mass

far beyond the epithelioid inner investing membrane. They

evidently belong, universally, to the investing membrane, and

assist it in forming a framework in which the inner mass is

suspended. The smaller spicules (e') are strictly confined to

the outer division (a) of the investing membrane, and lie there

on their sides, completely immersed in its thickness. They are

scattered irregularly and sparsely about, and frequently cross

each other at varying angles. We observe no nearer approach

to a methodical arrangement among either the large or the

small spicules; yet their very irregularity, being after a kind,

and constant in that kind, may be recognized in some sense as

methodical.

General Considerations.—Seeing the secluded position of the

monad cephalids, deeply ensconced in little chambers below the

general surface of the circulatory apartment, it is not directly

evident that their flagella have any agency in keeping up the

inflow and outflow of currents through the afferent and efferent

80 Prof. H. James-Clark on the American Spongilla

ostioles. Nowhere else are vibrating or non-vibrating cilia or

cilia-like bodies to be met with than in the monad-chambers ;

and since the efferent ostioles are irregularly interspersed

among the much more numerous afferent ostioles, we cannot

conceive how the flagella in any way could influence currents

to move in a particular direction from the smaller apertures

toward the larger ones. ‘They no doubt keep up a direct flow

of matter into the sunken chambers; but the current comes

from the inner depths of the circulatory apartment, and far

away from the ostioles. In this way, only a turbulence of float-

ing matter is sustained; but the general great current is due to

a far different cause. We conceive that the contraction and

expansion of the body-mass in general, modified by the alternate

opening and closing of the afferent and efferent ostioles, is the

true motive power in this phenomenon. We have observed,

often, that the outer division of the investing membrane is not

kept at a uniform distance from the central monadigerous mass :

at one place it will be found to be close to its inner division, so

that the circulatory apartment is very shallow there; while at

another point the two divisions of the membrane are widely

separated, and the circulatory apartment is very deep, and be-

tween the shallow and the deep apartments a curtain is drawn,

more or less completely, extending from one pillar-like bundle

of spicules to another. Hach of these temporarily enclosed

portions of the general apartment, it is plain now (although

our actual observation on this point is very defective), may

contract or expand without disturbing the contents of any

other. Such an apartment, with its afferent ostioles closed,

may be contracting and forcing a current out at its efferent

ostiole, while a neighbouring apartment may have its efferent

ostiole closed, and, expanding, draw in currents through its

open afferent ostioles.

We regret that we have not the means, in this locality, for

completing these researches. Our specimens were gathered

and studied on the spot where they lived, in the western part

of Massachusetts, several hundred miles away from our pre-

sent residence. Unfortunately we put off the attempt to feed

the sponge with coloured matter until we had completed other

methods of investigation, and then we were prevented by cir-

cumstances from carrying out our designs.

In regard to the afferent and efferent canals seen by Carter

(Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. 1857, w¢ swp.) in the monadigerous mass

(“ parenchyma,” Carter), we have not met with any trace of

them in the species described in this article. It is possible

they may exist in the oldest and largest individuals; but as we

worked only on very small and transparent specimens, our

as a Craspedote Flagellate Infusorian. 81

direct observations, in this respect, strictly apply to the latter.

It is more likely that ours is a different genus from the Spon-

gilla of Carter, in favour of which we cite the curious fact that

each aperture in the inner division (not mentioned by Carter)

of the investing membrane exactly overlies and is inseparable

from the entrance to a monad-chamber (‘‘ ampullaceous sac,”

partim, Carter) ; so that whatever enters these chambers must

go out by the same way that it came in, not out into a system

of branching canals burrowed in the monadigerous mass, but

into the great circulatory apartment.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XI.

Spongilla arachnoidea, Jas.-Cl.

The following letters apply to identical parts in all of the figures :—a,

investing membrane, outer division; a', sectional profile of the cyto-

blastema of a; 6, cells in the thickness of a; b', cells (like those at d)

about the spicules (e); 5°, cells of the investing membrane with their

nucleus, a surface view; 6°, temporary junction (by contact only) of

the outer (a) and inner (c) divisions of the investing membrane ; ¢, in-

vesting membrane, epithelioid inner division, in sectional profile; ce’, in-

terspaces between monad-chambers ; d, junction of the divisions of the

investing membrane along the spicules; e, larger spicules; e', smaller

spicules; f, circulatory apartment; y, monadigerous mass; h, monad-

chambers and monad groups; 7, aperture of h; 7, monads, or the body

proper in figs. 3 and 3a; 4, cylindrical collar of 7; 1, flagellum; n,

nucleus ; 0s, minor ostioles ; v, contractile vesicles.

Fig. 1. Magnified 320 diameters. Part of a very young Spongilla, of an

oblate spheroidal form, and about ;4 of an inch in diameter.

On the right is presented a face view of the investing membrane

and the underlying monadigerous mass. On the left the focus

is so adapted as to be fixed on a face view of the monad mass,

and at the same time on a sectional profile of the investing mem-

brane at a’, 6°, c, and d.

Fig. 2. Magnified 780 diameters. Interior of a monad-chamber seen

through the aperture; the monads appear in end view and

crowded together side by side like a pavement-work.

Fig. 3. Magnified 1600 diameters. A single monad, as seen in profile

in the monad-chamber. Only two contractile vesicles were

present in this specimen. The cylindrical collar (/) is extended

to its utmost.

Fig. 3a. Magnified 1600 diameters. Foreshortened front view of a

monad ; the body (/) in the distance; the hollow cylinder (A)

projecting toward the observer like a dark hoop, and the flagellum

(2) in the centre appearing as a black spot.

Fig. 4. Magnified 780 diameters. Sectional view of a monad-chamber,

bringing the aperture (7) into profile, as well as the monads

which lie at the same level, thus showing their convergence

about the central open space.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. ix. 6

82 Mr. H.J. Carter on the Structure of Tethya dactyloidea.

VII.— Additional Information on the Structure of 'Tethya

dactyloidea, Cart. By H. J. Carrer, F.R.S. &e.

[Plate X. figs. 1-5. ]

THIS sponge (erroneously termed “ sand-sponge,” because it

grew in the sand, whereas the term should rather be restricted

to sponges which build up their respective structures partly

with sand &c.) I described and figured in the ‘ Annals’ for

Jan. 1869, vol. iii. p. 15; and at p. 16 is the following line :—

‘More detail I cannot offer, as I have given away the speci-

men.” The fact is that I had left only the drawing and what

I remembered of the circumstances connected with the sponge

itself to assist me in retrieving for science all that I could glean

of this interesting form, which I found in the “ land-wash ”

on the south-east coast of Arabia, in the autumn of 1845, and

subsequently gave to one who could or will make no use of it.

What the woodcut in the ‘ Annals’ shows of it, with the

exception of the spicule, is almost a facsimile of the sponge of

its natural size ; for I had taken care to secure this long before

I parted with the specimen ; and, with the exception of having

stated that this sponge was “ hollow internally,” the text is

equally correct.

Searching, however, a few days since for an illustration of

the antheridium of Chara in my journal, I came upon the

whole microscopic description, with illustrations and measure-

ments, of 7. dactyloidea, and thus am able to offer the addi-

tional information which will complete the description of this

interesting sponge.

Omitting that which has already been published, the rest of

the matter in my journal runs as follows :—

“ July 1854.

“The free extremity [of the sponge] is provided with a

large aperture, which may be seen to divide into several canals

a short way in.

“ When the shreddy twisted fibres of the base or root are

examined, they are found to be composed of bundles of long

spicules overlapping each other in spiral arrangement, respec-

tively surrounded by granular sarcode, and finally ending in

anchor-shaped extremities, which were originally imbedded in

the sandy bottom of the sea where the sponge grew (PI. X.

figs. 1 & 2),

“When, again, the surface of the body is examined, the

projecting ‘spicules there, which are in little tufts, are also

found to be long and flexible; but their free extremities, in-

stead of being anchor-shaped, are all trifid extended, consist-

ing of one long and two short arms (fig. 3),

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Structure of Tethya dactyloidea. 83

“On making a vertical section of the sponge, the terminal

aperture is observed to divide into a number of branches,

sige subdividing, permeate the mass generally down to its

ase.

“Immediately where the aperture begins to be divided is a

portion of the fleshy substance which is more dense than the

rest, owing to the presence of a greater number of spicules

and their smaller size, from which also arises a framework

chiefly composed of acerate, slightly curved spicules of dif-

ferent lengths (fig. 4), that more or less, in bundles, extends

in a radiating manner backwards to the periphery of the body

generally. No spicules take the opposite direction, as in the

globular species (7. arabica, see ‘ Annals} vol. iv. p. 1, July

1869), where this denser part, which represents the ‘ nucleus,’

is at the base or middle, and not at the summit of the species.

“Throughout the fleshy mass, which is very tough and

elastic, are a number of little white specks, of different sizes,

which can be seen with a magnifying-glass of low power,

being about 4-4300ths of an inch in diameter. They are

spherical, filled with granules, and chiefly visible about the

middle of the body. With them, also, is occasionally seen a

much larger spherical one (viz, 11-4300ths of an inch in dia-

meter), which seems to have a hilous opening, and is covered

with points more or less quincuncially arranged. The former

are probably sponge-cells, and the latter the gemmules,

“Where these bodies were most numerous there was also

an abundance of minute C- and S-shaped siliceous bodies

[bihamates], which in some places were not single, but in

groups, as if developed in cells. These average 1-1800th of

an inch long in the curve” (fig. 5).

Thus on the south-east coast of Arabia we have a sponge

very like Schmidt’s Teti//a polyura (Atlantisch. Spong. Faun.

p- 66, tab. vi. f. 8), which came from Iceland, with only

these differences, viz. that in the latter the surface was not

uniform, but interrupted by nodular projections, and among

the inequifurcgte spicules there were also anchor-headed ones.

Of the colour Schmidt states nothing; and there are no

anchor-headed spicules represented on the surface of the body

in his figure, all being confined to the long bundles at the

base, where there is an equal absence of forked spicules (just

as in Tethya dactyloidea), as if they had been intended to act

as little grapnels in the sand, But how fares this inference,

when, in Tethya casula (‘ Annals,’ Aug. 1871, vol. viii. pl. 4),

there are no anchor-headed spicules in any part of the sponge,

and the long spicules which were imbedded in the sand, si-

milar to those of the foregoing species, are all forked ? Is it

84 Mr. W. Vicary on a Fossil Coral.

not that, whether recurved or extended, the presence of these

arms serves this purpose ?

Hence we have on the shores of Iceland, the south-east

coast of Arabia, and the Cape of Good Hope, a similar kind

of Tethya, all probably, certainly the two latter, fixed in the

sandy bottom of the sea by similarly extended bundles of

spicules, and all agreeing in possessing the minute bihamate

spicules in great abundance.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE X. figs. 1-5.

Fig.1. Tethya dactyloidea, Cart. Diagram of twisted bundle of anchor-

headed spicules of the root: aa, anchor-heads.

Fig. 2. 7 same, anchor-head much magnified, to show its characteristic

shape.

Fig. 3. The same, trifid or ineequifurcate head of spicule abundant in the

tufts which project from the surface of the body.

Fig. 4. The same, form of acerate spicule.

Fig. 5, The same, bihamate spicules.

N.B. Figs. 2, 3, & 5 are relatively magnified on the scale of 1-24th to

1-4800th of an inch.

VIII.— Fossil Coral allied to Merulina (Ehrenberg), from the

Upper Greensand of Haldon Hill, near Exeter. By W.

Vicary, F.G.S.

[Plate X. fig. 6.]

Merulina ?, n. sp.

Corallum composite, foliaceous, with the ridges rounded,

reticulately coalescent. Septa serrulate and alternately larger.

Ridges 1-20th of an inch wide ; distance between them 1-35th

of an inch; height of ridges 1-20th of an inch. Specimen

fragmentary ; natural size about one inch square. (Plate X.

fig. 6, magnified a little more than two diameters.)

Loc. Upper Greensand, Haldon Hill, near Exeter, Devon-

shire.

Mineral composition siliceous.

Obs. The Haldon Hills are situated about five miles to the

south-west of Exeter. Their base is composed of the New Red

Sandstone; and they are capped by the Upper Greensand.

The latter has been found to be prolific in species of corals,

compared with the Greensand of other localities, since it con-

tains ten species out of the sixteen which is the entire number

stated by Dr. Duncan, in his ‘ Monograph” published by the

Paleontological Society, to have been found in this forma-

tion.

At Black Down, on the eastern borders of Devon, where

Dr. A. Giinther on Ceylonese Reptiles and Batrachians. 85

the beds are evidently of the same age as those of Haldon,

only three species have been found. The Gasteropoda and

Conchifera are nearly the same at both places, but only one

species of coral, viz. Favia stricta.

In addition to the above-named number, 7. e. “ ten species,”

I have lately found the coral herewith figured, which I believe

to be nearly allied to Merulina, if, indeed, it does not belong

to that genus. Should this be the case, we shall then not

only possess a new species from Haldon Hill, but a form that

will assist the “‘ Dredging-cxpedition”’ (although in a reverse

Bee) to supply a link between the past and the present

orms.

IX.— Descriptions of some Ceylonese Reptiles and Batrachians.

By Dr. ALBERT GinTuHER, F.R.S.

Mr. G. H. K. Tuwaires, Director of the Royal Botanic Gar-

dens at Peradeniya, has presented to the British Museum a

very fine series of Reptiles, and especially Batrachians, which

appear to have been collected chiefly in the neighbourhood of

the locality named. It is only recently that we have received

specimens from that central district, which is inhabited by

many peculiar forms unknown in the littoral and best-explored

parts of the island. The majority of the new Batrachians

added by me on a former occasion (Proc. Zool. Soc. 1868,

p- 478) to the fauna of Ceylon are again represented in this

collection sent by Mr. Thwaites—for instance Nannophrys,

which grows to a length of 13 inches, Lxvalus femoralis, I. tem-

poralis, and I. macropus, Polypedates reticulatus, P. nasutus,

and P. cavirostris. ‘The three species of Ceratophora appear

to be common, especially C. aspera, which varies considerably

in the arrangement and development of the folds and tubercles;

Geckoélla punctata also inhabits this district. Rhinophis punc-

tatus, Rana (Hoplobatrachus) ceylanica (Peters), and ILaalus

Schmardanus (Kelaart) *, which I had never received before, are

evidently scarce, as only two examples of the first and one of

the two latter were in the collection. But our knowledge of the

reptilian fauna of this island is evidently still far from bemg

complete, nearly every collection containing some new forms ;

and particular attention should be paid to the small burrowing

snakes or snake-like lizards, and to frogs.

Mr. Thwaites’s collection contained the following new

species :—

* Three other, very fine, examples have been recently obtained by Mr,

Holdsworth.

86 Dr. A. Giinther on some Ceylonese

Nessia Thwattesi?.

Toes four in front and four behind. Nostril close to the

hind margin of the rostral shield, and without longitudinal slit

behind.

This species might be taken for a Sepoid, in consequence

of the situation of the nostril, which is in contact with the

hinder edge of the rostral shield. However no other shield

enters into the circumference of the nostril, which is entirely

within the rostral. Otherwise the pholidosis of the head is

very similar to that of the other two species known. ‘T'wo

loreals, one behind the other. Trunk surrounded by twenty-

six longitudinal, and seventy-two transverse series of scales.

Preanals and subcaudals like the other scales. Limbs rather

more developed than in N. Burtonii; the hind leg nearly as

long as the head. All the toes distinct and clawed; the an-

terior very short; the first of the posterior shorter than the

second, the second shorter than the third and fourth, which

are nearly equal in length. Ear-openings minute, hidden.

Upper parts brown, the lower of a lighter colour.

One specimen 4 inches long; tail 13 inch.

Calotes liocephatus.

No spines whatever on the side of the head. Dorsal crest

composed of slender spines of moderate length on the neck, a

low, merely serrated crest in the middle of the trunk, but re-

appearing in the sacral region as a short series of three or four

spines. A very distinct fold in front of the shoulder, covered

by granular scales, Gular sac very slightly developed.

About forty-five series of scales round the middle of the trunk.

Scales round the part of the tail in which the penis is hidden

much the largest. Green, with irregular dark cross bands on

the back. Upperside of the head marbled with dark green.

A narrow green band from the eye to above the tympanum.

Tail olive, with broad brown rings. Limbs with alternate

lighter and darker green rings.

One adult male is 15 inches long, the tail being 11 inches.

Hemidactylus Coctet.

Ceylonese specimens are not specifically distinct from those

of the continent, as has been ascertained also by Cantor (see

Kelaart, Prodr. Faun. Zeyl. i. p. 160). Examples occur in

which the ornamental colours are unusually dark, in the form

of clouded transverse bands.

Gymnodactylus frenatus.

The coloration of the young is extremely similar to that of

Eublepharis Hardwickit.

fieptiles and Batrachians. 87

Bufo kandianus.

Crown flat, without bony enlargement. Snout rather obtuse,

with angular canthus rostralis. Limbs and fingers of moderate

length ; the fourth finger longer than the second. Toes rather

short, completely webbed. Metatarsus with two small flat cal-

losities ; a cutaneous fold along the edge of tarsus. Skin with

small tubercles in small number. Parotord long and very nar-

row. Tympanum entirely hidden by the skin. Inner nares

narrow; Mustachian tubes very narrow. Upper parts uniform

brownish grey, except the snout, which is yellowish, the yel-

lowish part being sharply defined by an interorbital line.

Lower parts yellowish.

One specimen, apparently immature, is 30 millims. long ;

hind limb 40 millims.

Ivalus fimbriatus.

Snout flattened, not obtuse in front, with the loreal region

concave and sloping outwards; canthus rostralis distinct.

Eye large, prominent ; tympanum distinct, about one third of

the size of the eye. Skin of the upper parts covered with

rough tubercles and larger warts; an oblique fold on the

upper eyelid, but no prominent spines; hinder margin of the

forearm and foot fringed; a transverse series of white tuber-

cles below the vent. Throat finely granulated like the ab-

domen. Metatarsus with a single tubercle; fingers not

webbed. The interdigital web of the hind foot extends to the

outer phalanx of the third and fifth toes. Disks of the fingers

and toes moderately developed. The length of the body is

conspicuously more than the distance between vent and heel.

Upper parts dark brown, marbled with black; limbs with

dark cross bars; hinder side of the thigh immaculate ; cuta-

neous fringes white. Lower parts yellowish; throat with

small brown spots.

One example is 32 millims. long, the hind lmb being

47 millims.

Ixalus adspersus.

Snout short, not obtuse in front, with the loreal region flat,

subvertical, and with the canthus rostralis angular. Eye

large, prominent; tympanum distinct, about one fourth of the

size of the eye. Skin of the upper parts with scattered flat

tubercles ; throat granular, the granules being finer than those

on the abdomen. Metatarsus without fringe or fold, with a

single tubercle. Fingers not webbed; the interdigital web of

the hind foot does not reach the last phalanx of the third and

88 Dr. A. Giinther on Ceylonese Reptiles and Batrachians.

fifth toes. Disks well developed. The length of the body

equals the distance between the vent and distal end of meta-

tarsus. Upper parts dark violet (in spirits), with numerous

round, smaller and larger, bright yellow spots. Hinder side

of the thighs marbled with brown. Lower parts dirty yellow,

throat marbled with brown.

One specimen is 34 millims. long, the hind lmb being

48 millims.

Lxalus oxyrhynchus.

Snout rather elongate, sharply pointed, projecting beyond

the mouth; loreal region flat, vertical; canthus rostralis an-

gular. Eye of moderate size; tympanum distinct, one-third

the size of the eye. Upper parts smooth, with a pair of folds

commencing from the eyelid, and converging towards the

middle of the back. Throat smooth, not granular. Meta-

tarsus without fold, with a single tubercle. Fingers not

webbed ; the interdigital web of the hind foot does not reach

the last phalanx of the third and fifth toes. Disks small.

The length of the body is rather less than the distance be-

tween the vent and heel. Upper parts reddish olive, with a

large, hourglass-shaped brown blotch on the back ; its ante-

rior base is between the orbits, and laterally it is bordered by

the convergent folds of the skin. Limbs with a few blackish

bars; an almost black spot occupies the hand and its root.

Loreal region and a tympanic spot, the vent and hind parts

of the thighs, and the lower part of the foot black. Lower

parts white, throat dotted with brown.

Two specimens, the larger of which is 24 millims. long, the

hind limb being 42 millims.

Txalus pulchellus.

Snout depressed, obtuse, but rather longer than the eye,

without canthus rostralis. Tympanum covered by the skin.

Skin smooth ; abdominal surtace coarsely granular, the gra-

nules extending over a part of the throat. The length of the

body is a little more than the distance between vent and heel.

No fold along the tarsus ; metatarsus with a small tubercle.

Interdigital web rather broad, extending nearly to the ulti-

mate phalanx of the third and fifth toes. The two outer

fingers united by a membrane for a considerable part of their

length. Disks well developed. Upper parts yellow (in spi-

rits), mottled with violet, and with scattered minute black

dots; upper arm, anterior and posterior sides of the femur

colourless ; lower parts uniform white.

One specimen is 23 millims. long, the hind limb being

38 millims.

Dr. Burmeister on Arctocephalus Hookeri. 89

X.—Notes on Arctocephalus Hookeri, Gray.

By Dr. BURMEISTER*.

Unpber this title my esteemed friend Dr. J. E. Gray described,

in the year 1845 (The Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.SS.

‘Erebus’ and ‘ Terror,’ p. 4, pls. xiv. & xv.), a seal found

in the Falkland Isles and on the shores of Cape Horn,

which has been recognized by him as a well-founded spe-

cies.

This animal has not since been found and examined by any

competent scientific person. ‘The authors that speak of it,

as Peters in his Catalogue of Seals with external ears (Mo-

natsber. d. kin. Acad. d. Wiss. z. Berlin, 1866, viii. 269. no. 5),

give no other information than extracts from Dr. Gray’s de-

scription. Sclater alone believed that he recognized the same

species in a young seal that was brought alive to London from

Buenos Ayres, and purchased for the Menagerie of the Zoo-

logical Society (Proc. Zool. Soc. 1866, p. 80). This individual

was one of the two that had been seen alive here in St. Mar-

tin’s Street, No. 75, and which also is figured in the popular

newspaper ‘ The Field,’ vol. xxvii. no. 689, March 10, 1866,

p- 191, as also in these ‘Anales,’ tom. 1. p. 303.

The two figures, in the ‘ Field’ and by Sclater (//. cc.), are

very good, and represent the animal very naturally, as it was

drawn alive, as I can testify from my own repeated observa-

tions of the two specimens seen in Buenos Ayres.

Murie shares this opinion, in his note on the death of this

specimen, caused by the poor animal having swallowed a little

bit of canvas (Proc. Zool. Soc. 1867, p. 243). And again,

more recently (¢b¢d. 1869, p. 108), that author thought that he

could identify Otaria Hooker? of Gray with Otaria Philippi of

Peters; but in fact it is altogether different. .

Two years ago Sclater retracted his first opimion of this

animal, submitting to the judgment of Gray and Peters that

the living seal in London was none other than a young speci-

men of Otaria jubata s. leonina of older authors (Proc. Zool.

Soc. 1868, p. 190).

Considering this difference of opinion between men so di-

stinguished in science, it has appeared to me a matter of much

importance to have received the skin and skull of a male seal,

lately killed at the mouth of the Rio Parana, about 60 miles

above Buenos Ayres, by some fishermen, in the month of May

1869 ; but at the first glance, on examining the skin and skull

as they were, I also took it for Arctocephalus Hookeri of Gray;

* Translated from the ‘Anales del Museo Publico de Buenos Aires,’

1870, by J. P. G. Smith, Esq.

90 Dr. Burmeister on Arctocephalus Hooker.

and under this title I have introduced it in the list of Mammals

of the country published in the ‘ Anales,’ tom. 1. p. 464. no. 168 ;

but since then, the skull having been more perfectly cleaned,

and the body of the animal set up in its proper shape, I have

observed that it is not very different from the other specimens of

Otaria jubata s. leonina preserved in our museum. On studying

the animal with greater attention, I saw that it was nothing else

than a young male of this species, and that the Arctocephalus

Hookert of Gray represents a distinct species, and is in no

manner the young state of Otaria jubata, although by its ex-

ternal appearance the young Otaria jubata resembles a good

deal Arctocephalus Hookert.

Externally, the length of the ears is a marked character,

being much larger (0-030 métre in place of 0:015) in A. Hookert.

Then the two species may be distinguished by the fore flippers,

which have no nails in any of the specimens of Otaria jubata

that we have in our collection, although Gray figures them

distinctly in his Arctocephalus Hookeri (pl. xiv.).

The posterior flippers, also, are different. Gray figures five

claws on them, describing the second and third nails as the

larger, the fourth and fifth as less, and the first as the smallest.

Our specimens of Otaria jubata have three nails very large

(14-14 inch), the middle one of them the largest, and the

others (the first and fifth) generally wanting; or if they are

present, they are very small, scarcely visible, one line broad ;

the fifth is almost always wanting.

Lastly, the young males, which in shape and colour very

much resemble Arctocephalus Hookert, have a large dusky-

yellow blotch about the eyes, which is wanting in Arctoce-

phalus, and which appears very characteristic of the young

Otaria jubata. .

The skull shows other differences: it is more depressed in

Arct. Hooker in comparison with its length; and the anterior

part, which corresponds with the mandibles, is relatively

larger. The Arctocephalus has much smaller teeth than indi-

viduals of the same size of Otaria jubata; but the lateral

tubercles of the crown of the molars are much larger.

Lastly, the shape of the “palate” is very different: its

hinder portion is much narrower and shorter in Arctocephalus

Hookert, the posterior margin of the “‘ palate” of Otarta jubata

being shown almost to the anterior margin of the glenoid

cavity for the inferior mandible; whilst in Arctocephalus

Hookeri this margin does not pass beyond the posterior

angle springing from above the zygomatic arch. This

character is constant in every age of the animals, being pre-

sent even in the skull of a recently born Otaria jubata in

Dr. Burmeister on Arctocephalus Hookeri. 91

our museum, the skull of which is not more than five inches

wide.

From all these characteristics there can be no doubt of the

distinctness of Arctocephalus Hooker’ as a different species,

which must not be confused with the young state of Otaréa

Jubata.

I had already confirmed this opinion by repeated obser-

vations on different individuals of Otarta jubata in our mu-

seum, when I received, about a month ago, by favour of its

author, the work of J. A. Allen on Seals with ears, recently

published in the ‘ Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative

Zoology at Harvard College,’ vol. 11. no. 1 (Cambridge, U.S.A.),

in which the author, alluding to former publications, confesses

himself disposed to unite anew Arctocephalus Hookeri with

Otaria jubata, presuming that the noted differences were

irregular (“to be in an unusual state,” p.40). I cannot share

this opinion: characters which manifest themselves in three

different specimens that Gray enumerates in his ‘ Catalogue

of Seals,’ p. 54, are, according to my view, regular, and not

exceptional, especially if different authors acknowledge them

(cf. Peters, Monatsb. 1866, p. 668) ; and for this reason I

accept them as diagnostics. Also I ought to correct the note

(p. 18) in which the author affirms that the marine seals of

our museum were collected by Dr. Maack. The truth is that

this gentleman accompanied, by my invitation and at the ex-

pense of the Public Museum, the hunter for the museum,

Santiago Pozzi, in his excursion to Patagonia, without, how-

ever, giving him any other assistance than that of companion-

ship. Moreover the work of killing the animals and pre-

paring the skins was done by Pozzi, and not by Dr. Maack.

Very well founded, on the other hand, is the observation of

Dr. Murie that Otaria Philippi, Peters, is not identical

with Arctocephalus Hookert, Gray (p. 15). This species is

very near to Otaria falklandica (described by me, Ann. & Mag.

Nat. Hist. ser. 4, vol. i. p.99); but I do not believe the two

animals to be identical, which I endeavour to prove in the

Zeitschr. fiir d. ges. Naturw. vol. xxxi. p. 300. Otaria

Philippit is identical with Phoca porcina of Molina (Comp.

d. 1. Hist. Nat. de Chile, i. p. 314), Otaria porcina, Gay

(Hist. Nat. de Chile, Zoolog. i. p. 75); and if it were also

identical with Arctocephalus falklandicus of our Patagonian

coasts, this species ought to differ in its individuals in the

same manner as Otarta jubata s. leonina.

92 Prof. A. E. Verrill on the Distribution of Marine Animals

XI.—On the Distribution of Marine Animals on the Southern

Coast of New England. By A. EK. VERRILL*.

In connexion with the investigations concerning the fisheries

under the direction of Professor 8. F. Baird, U. 8. Commis-

sioner, thorough explorations of the adjacent waters were

undertaken in order to ascertain the character of the bottom

and the distribution of the lower animals, especially of those

that furnish food for certain fishes. The Fish Commission had

its headquarters at Wood’s Hole, Mass., situated on the point

of land between Vineyard Sound and Buzzard’s Bay. In

addition to the shore collections, extensive and systematic

dredging-operations were undertaken by means of a steam-

launch in the waters of Vineyard Sound and Buzzard’s Bay ;

and by the aid of a U.S. revenue-cutter, the steamer ‘ Moc-

casin, the dredgings were carried outward to the deeper parts

of Muskeget Channel, situated off Martha’s Vineyard, and

from thence to a point off the mouth of Buzzard’s Bayt.

These explorations were made by means of dredges (of several

different sizes) of the usual forms, a rake-dredge of novel

construction especially adapted to soft muddy bottoms, an

iron frame to which unravelled ropes (or ‘ tangles”) were

attached for use on rocky bottoms, a large trawl-net, surface

towing-nets for swimming creatures, &c.{ The points where

dredgings were made were carefully located on coast-survey

charts, and were sufficiently numerous to give a satisfactory

knowledge of the nature of the bottom and its inhabitants

throughout the region explored. The total number of hauls

of the dredges during the three months was about four

hundred. The surface-dredging also yielded many things of

great interest.

At this time I wish to call the attention of zoologists to one

of the most important of the results of these investigations,

leaving a full account of the large and valuable collections for

another occasion. The discovery referred to is, that while the

shores and shallow waters of the bays and sounds, as far as

Cape Cod, are occupied chiefly by southern forms, or the

Virginian fauna, the deeper channels and the central parts of

Long-Island Sound, as far as Stonington, Conn., are in-

* From Silliman’s American Journal, November 1871.

+ The dredgings in the first part of the season were made under the

direction of Mr. 8S. I. Smith, and later by Professor J. E. Todd, Pro-

fessor A. Hyatt, Dr. A. S. Packard, and the writer, all more or less aided

at various times by other naturalists, and especially by Dr. W. G. Farlow,

who collected the Alge.

¢ Some of these instruments will be described in a future number of

the American Journal. ,

‘on the Southern Coast of New England. 93

habited almost exclusively by northern forms, or an extension

of the Acadian fauna.

There is also a corresponding difference in the temperature

of the water, the change in some cases amounting 5° F., both

at the surface and bottom, within a distance of two miles, and

without much change in the depth; and consequently there

must be an offshoot of the arctic current setting into the

middle of the sound, although the shores feel the influence of

the Gulf-stream, as shown by the occurrence of southern

forms of pelagic animals in their waters.

The shores of Buzzard’s Bay and Vineyard Sound present

nearly all varieties of stations, and are therefore favourable

for collecting; they are occupied, except on some of the

outer islands, by an assemblage of animals characteristic of

the coasts further south, and known as the Virginian fauna.

A few northern forms occur, however, on the rocky shores,

which do not extend as far as New Haven. Among these

Purpura lapillus is most conspicuous. This shell is asso-

ciated there with Hurosalpinx cinerea, in about equal numbers ;

but at New Haven the latter occurs alone, while on the

northern coasts of New England the Purpura is found unac-

companied by the other, which is rarely found north of Cape

Cod. But in nearly all other respects the littoral fauna is

very similar to that of the vicinity of New Haven, or the

coasts further south, as far as Cape Hatteras, making allow-

ance only for differences in the stations, and especially for the

absence of rocks south of New York.

In Vineyard Sound and Buzzard’s Bay the water is every-

where shallow, usually from 3 to 8 fathoms deep, and rarely

exceeding 12 or 14 fathoms, even in mid-channel. In Vine-

yard Sound the bottom is generally sandy, and extensive reefs

of shifting sands are numerous and often nearly destitute of

life; but extensive regions of gravelly and shelly bottoms

occur, and these are often almost completely covered by

several species of compound ascidians growing in large

masses. One of these, which forms large hemispherical or

irregular masses, made up of an aggregation of long slender

colonies, united together at their bases and usually thickly

covered throughout with sand, is very abundant, often en-

tirely filling the dredge with masses up to six inches in

diameter: this is the Amourouctum pellucidum, Verrill.

Another one, nearly as abundant, forms smooth cartilaginous

masses in the form of flat lobes, crests, and plates, sometimes

two feet long and about an inch thick, the surface covered

with stellate colonies, while the colour of the masses is of a

delicate bluish or sea-green tint by reflected light, although

94 Prof. A. E. Verrill on the Distribution of Marine Animals

yellow by transmitted light: this is Amouwrouctum stellatum,

V., described with the last in a former number of this Journal.

A third species* of the same genus is also common, although

still undescribed: this forms smooth gelatinous masses,

varying from light orange to yellowish in colour, with beau-

tifully stellated colonies over its upper surface. With these

were several simple ascidians, chiefly Cynthia partitat, Stimp.,

and Molgula manhattensis, V., while creeping over them was

a beautiful green species of Perophorat, which is the first

representative of the social ascidians discovered on our coast.

This species also occurred in abundance on the piles of the

government wharf at Wood’s Hole, associated with the three

last named. In the interstices of A. pellucidum were nume-

rous annelids of several species; and growing upon or with

the ascidians were many species of hydroids, bryozoa, and

sponges. Among the sponges a massive sulphur-yellow

species (Spongia sulphurea, Desor) is very conspicuous. While

young this species perforates and destroys dead bivalve

shells, but later in lite grows up into hemispherical or irre-

gular masses. Upon the same bottoms were found the

common southern greenish starfish (Astertas arenicola), Am-

phipholis elegans, Gouldia mactracea, Eulima oleracea on

Thyone Briareus, Anachis avara, Columbella lunata, Cancer

erroratus, Libinia canaliculata, L. dubia, Eupagurus pollicaris,

E. longicarpus, and many other less common species. On

rocky and stony bottoms, and especially in the tide-way of

* Amouroucium constellatum, sp. nov. Masses thick, turbinate, often

incrusting ; surface usually convex, smooth; substance firm, gelatinous,

translucent, but softer than in A. stellatum. Systems stellate, circular,

oval or elliptical, often elongated, or irregular and complex. Zooids much

elongated, slender, the branchial tube short, with six rounded lobes.

Branchial sac elongated. Colour of the masses usually light orange-red,

varying to yellowish and pale flesh-colour ; the branchial orifices with

six radiating white lines. Zooids generally orange-yellow ; the orifices

and tubes with upper part of mantle bright orange or lemon-yellow ;

branchial sac usually flesh-colour or pale yellow, sometimes bright

orange ; stomach with bright orange-red glandular ribs; mantle with

minute opaque white specks.

t Cynthia stellifera, V., proves to be a depressed variety of this

species.

te LPerophora viridis, sp. nov. Individuals small, about 10 to 12 of an

inch high, connected by slender stolons, and thickly covering the surfaces

over which they creep. Test compressed, seen from the side scarcely

higher than broad, oval, elliptical, or subcircular, often one-sided or

distorted, with a short pedicle or subsessile at base. Branchial orifice

large, terminal; anal lateral or subterminal, both a little prominent, with

about 16 angular lobes, alternately larger and smaller. Test transparent ;

manne beautifully reticulated with bright yellowish green; intestine

yellow.

on the Southern Coast of New England. 95

the channel at Wood’s Hole, the southern purple sea-urchin

(Echinocidaris punctulata), the orange starfish (Cribrella

sanguinolenta), the green starfish, the coral (Astrangia Dane),

and many other interesting species occurred. All the species

referred to, excepting the widely diffused species of Cribrella

and Amphipholis, are either characteristic southern forms or

else species that are not yet known except from the region

explored. Several species were also obtained in Vineyard

Sound which had not previously been found so far northward.

Among these the flat sea-urchin with five perforations (Mel-

lita pentapora) is especially worthy of mention, as it has

hitherto been regarded as peculiar to the Carolinian fauna*.

The free-swimming forms taken at the surface in this region

were also numerous, and are likewise chiefly southern species;

or if new, they belong to southern types. Among the most in-

teresting were :—Salpa Cabotii, which occurred in vast quan-

tities about the 1st of September, and was found in abund-

ance off Gay Head, as well as in the sound; a splendid

species of Saphirina, reflecting brilliant blue and red colours

like a fire opal, which occurred mingled with the Salpe ; a

new free-swimming crab; Jdotewa robusta, Kr.; innumerable

young lobsters, crabs, and shrimps, in the zoea and megalops

stages of growth; numerous jelly-fishes, among which Mne-

miopsis Leidyt was perhaps the most abundant; but a species

of Cyanea and Dactylometra quinquecirra were common, and

both frequently gave shelter to several young “ butter-fishes”’

(Poronotus triacanthus) of all sizes, from those just hatched up

to two inches or more in length. In some cases twenty or

more were found together under one jelly-fish; they also

occurred, in the evening, under Zygodactyla granlandica

earlier in the season. The ‘‘ Portuguese man-of-war”’ (Phy-

salia Arethusa) was met with several times. Two Pteropods

not before recorded from the United-States coast were obtained,

—one of them (SiJiola, sp.) living, associated with Salpa ;

but of the other (Cavolina tridentata) the shells only were

dredged, but in a very fresh condition.

In the deeper outer channels, as between Gay Head and

No Man’s Land, and at nearly all points outside of the latter

where the water is more than ten fathoms in depth, the fauna

is very different from that of the sounds and bays, and closely

resembles that of Massachusetts Bay and the coast of Maine.

The difference in the temperature of the water is also well

marked. The surface temperature, during the latter part of

* This and Lytechinus variegatus were found by the writer, Mr. 8. I.

Smith, and Prof. J. E. Todd at Great Egg Harbour, N. J., last spring, but

they are very rare at that locality.

96 Prof. A. E. Verrill on the Distribution of Marine Animals

August, was 69° to 71° in Vineyard Sound. On Sept. 9th,

in the mouth of Vineyard Sound, west from Gay Head, the

surface temperature was 67° F., and the bottom, in 15}

fathoms, was 63°; but proceeding about two miles further

out, off No Man’s Land, the surface temperature was 62°, and

the bottom, in 18 fathoms, was 583°, showing a decrease of

5° within this short distance, both at the surface and bottom.

A few miles further out, at the same depth, the bottom tem-

perature was 57°, which was the lowest temperature obtained.

A short distance west of No Man’s Land, on a gravelly bottom

in 11 fathoms, where codfish are caught in winter, the tem-

perature was 63° at the surface and 59° at the bottom. Off

the mouth of Narragansett Bay, about sixteen miles south

from Newport, the depth over a limited area is 29 fathoms,

which was the deepest water found. At this locality the

surface temperature was 62° and the bottom 59° The

bottom in these deeper waters was generally composed of

soft mud, filled with innumerable tubes of worms and Amphi-

pod crustacea, among which a species of Ampelisca, which

makes a soft flabby tube, two or three inches long and

covered with mud, is extremely abundant. At the last named

locality numerous specimens of the rare and beautiful Hp7-

zoanthus americanus, V., were found coating the shells in-

habited by hermit crabs (Hupagurus bernhardus) and finally

absorbing the shells entirely. This remarkable Actinian has

been found previously only on two occasions,—first on a deep

bank off the coast of New Jersey, by Capt. Gedney, and since

in deep water off Massachusetts Bay. With this was also

found a rare Holothurian (Molpadia oolitica), previously known

only from specimens taken from fish-stomachs.

The various muddy bottoms in the deeper and colder areas

yielded nearly the same assemblages of animals, most of which

are either strictly northern types, many of them not before ob-

served so far south, or else species of wide range extending

much further north as well as south. Among those of special

interest are the following. Of RapIATA:—Ldwardsia farinacea

V., previously known only from the Bay of Fundy ; Thyoni-

dium, sp. Of Motiusca :—Molgula pilularis,V., and Glandula

mollis, he , both known before only from the Bay of Fundy ;

Cyprina islandica, Cardita borealis, C. novanglie, Yoldia

sapotilla, Y. limatula, Nucula proxima, N. delphinodonta,

Cardium pinnulatum, Astarte quadrans, A. castanea, A.

lutea (2), Perkins, Lyonsia hyalina, Anatina papyracea, Lu-

cina filosa, Callista convexa, Crenella glandula, Modiolaria

nigra, M. corrugata, Pecten tenuicostatus (young = P. fuscus

Lins.), Buccinum undulatum, Chrysodomus pygmeus (large

on the Southern Coast of New England. 97

and abundant), Cructbulum striatum, Margarita obscura,

Cylichna alba. Of ANNELIDS:—Clymene torquata, Leidy ;

Ophelia simplex, Leidy ?; Trophonia, sp.; Sternaspis fossor,

Aphrodite aculeata (large and common), Nephthys (large

species), Sipunculus bernhardus, and species of Nereis, Lum-

briconereis, Aricia, &e. Of CRUSTACEA :—species of Am-

pelisca (abundant), Unciola irrorata, and several other Am-

phipods, Crangon vulgaris, Pandalus annulicornis. On sandy

bottoms Hehinarachnius parma was very abundant, as it was,

also, everywhere in the sounds; for it is a widely diffused

species, occurring as far south as Great Ege Harbour; Molgula

arenata, St., also occurred, with a few other species of interest.

A large species of sandy Foraminifera, often a quarter of an

inch in diameter, was abundant. In the channel between Gay

Head and No Man’s Land the bottom is gravelly and stony ;

and here some very interesting species were found: among

the RapiATa were :—Alcyonium carneum, Ag., Edwardsia

(new species), Grammaria gracilis, St., and many other

hydroids; Cribrella sanguinolenta; Asterias vulgaris,V.; Ophi-

opholis aculeata, Gray; Euryechinus drobachiensis, V. Of

ASCIDIANS :—Amouroucium pallidum, V.; Molgula papillosa,

V.; Cynthia carnea, V.; C. hirsuta, Binney; C. partita, St.,—

all northern species except the last. Of shells, many of the

northern forms already named and some additional species ; of

CrustaceA—LHupagurus bernhardus, Cancer borealis (thrown

on shore and fragments dredged), C. trroratus, with numerous

Amphipods.

The brief lists of species given above are quite sufficient to

show the marked northern character of the fauna in the deeper

waters of this region. Several of the northern shells enume-

rated above have also been dredged by Mr. Sanderson Smith

in Gardiner’s Bay, L. I., and some of them have long been

known from Montauk Point. Mr, Linsley, in his catalogue

of the shells of Connecticut*, also records many of the same

northern species, with a few additional ones, from Stonington.

I have been informed by Mr. H. C. Trumbull, who collected

the shells attributed to Stonington, that all these northern

species were obtained by him from the stomachs of haddock

&c. which were taken within a few miles of Stonington.

This would indicate that the northern cold current has a

decided influence as far westward as that locality, beyond

which its influence has not yet been traced,

* Silliman’s American Journal, ser. 1, vol. xlviii., 1845.

Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. ix. a

MISCELLANEOUS.

On the Systematic Position of the King Crabs and Trilobites.

By M. E. van BenEpEn.

Wuitst recognizing in theory that a classification founded upon a

single character cannot be a natural classification, and that it is not

by a single character that truly natural groups are distinguished, a

great many naturalists, and even eminent men, have departed in

practice from this principle, which is unanimously accepted in theory.

Thus in the system of classification of Latreille and Milne-Edwards,

almost unanimously accepted by entomologists, the Arthropoda are

divided into two great groups, in accordance with the characters of

their respiratory apparatus, and the Crustacea are distinguished from

all the other Condylopoda by their branchie. Every Arthropod

with branchiz is a Crustacean; every Arthropod with tracheary

respiration is either an Insect, a Myriopod, or an Arachnidan.

By thus basing a classification upon the existence of a single cha-

racter, it becomes exceedingly easy and simple to decide the place

that such or such an animal should occupy in the classification. The

place of the Zimuli, for example, cannot be doubtful for a moment ;

the Xiphosura form, with Milne-Edwards and the great majority of

naturalists, a division of the class Crustacea, sometimes placed in the

group of the Branchiopoda by the side of the Phyllopoda and Trilo-

bites, sometimes approximated to the Isopoda ; whilst sometimes the

Pecilopoda have formed a separate division in the class Crustacea.

But now that it is generally admitted that classification should

represent the true affinities of creatures (that is to say, their genea-

logical connexions), it is necessary to takefinto account as much as

possible characters derived from the totality of their organization,

from the history of their paleontological development, and especially

from the history of their ontogenic or embryonic development,

which represents an abridgment of the history of their genealogical

development.

I am indebted to the kindness of my learned friend, Dr. Packard,

of Salem, Massachusetts, for having been able to study here in Bel-

gium the whole embryonic development of Limulus Polyphemus. Dr.

Packard had the extreme complaisance to send me several portions

of ova and embryos of Limulus, deposited and fecundated upon the

American coasts ; and I have been able to follow all the phases of the

development of these singular creatures, whose affinities have been

completely misunderstood hitherto. Strauss-Diirckheim alone, found-

ing his opinion upon important anatomical characters, opposed the

current of received ideas with regard to the position of the Limuli,

and he put forward the opinion that the Gnathopoda should form a

separate order of the class Arachnida.

The study of the embryonic development of these animals, and of

their anatomical characters, has led me to the following conclusions,

which I may now formulate :—

J. The Zimulti are not Crustacea; they have nothing in common

Miscellaneous. 99

. with the Phyllopoda; and their embryonic development presents the

greatest analogy with that of the Scorpions and other Arachnida,

from which they cannot be separated. In the course of their em-

bryonic development we cannot distinguish any of the characteristic

phases of the development of the Crustacea ; and it is impossible to

distinguish in the course of this embryonic development either a

Nauplan or a Cyclopean phase.

Il. The analogy between the Zimuli and the Trilobites, and the

affinity which connects together these two groups, cannot be doubted

for a moment by any one who has studied the embryonic develop-

ment of these animals. The laws of development are the same in

the Trilobites and the Xiphosura; and the analogy between the

young Trilobites and the young Zimuli is the greater in proportion

as we examine them at a less advanced period of their development.

On examining these young Limuli MM. Packard and Woodward were

struck with these analogies.

TI. The Trilobites, as wellas the Hurypterida and the Pecilopoda,

must be separated from the class Crustacea, and form, with the

Scorpionida and the other Arachnida, a distinct branch, the origin

of which has still to be ascertained.

Note.—We do not yet positively know the characters of the legs

of Trilobites ; nevertheless, according to an important discovery made

last year in the United States, and published in the ‘ Quarterly

Journal of the Geological Society of London,’ Mr. Billings thinks he

has demonstrated that the Trilobites had articulated legs like those

of the Zimulti. The question of the form and characters of these ap-

pendages, however, is a secondary question from the morphological

point of view. The form varies with the functions of the organs in

the same natural group. The Nebaliw, with their foliaceous feet,

are true Decapods; and the Cladocera are not Phyllopods, but Ento-

mostraca which, from the morphological pomt of view, must be

placed beside the Copepoda. Even if the Trilobites were completely

destitute of appendages, we could not conclude from this that they

do not belong to the same group as the Poecilopoda.— Comptes

Rendus de la Soc. Entom. Belg. October 14, 1871 (No. 67), p. 10.

Cells in Crystalline Form. By Hermann Karsten.

That the vegetable cell may appear in an actual crystalline form

was discovered by Karsten in 1847 in the milky juice of a Euphor-

biaceous plant (Jatropha curcas), and made known by him at one

of the meetings of the Society of Friends of Natural History in

Berlin. It was only in the year 1859 that the discoverer referred

to the subject in more detail in Poggendorff’s ‘Annalen ;’ and all

those who conceive the first origin of plants in primeeval time as a

process of crystallization, having for its basis an organic primitive

material, must have had particular satisfaction in the knowledge of

this fact. It is, in fact, sufficiently striking. For generations past

chemistry has accustomed us to the phenomenon of products of

organic activity, so-called organie compounds, slags the highly

100 Miscellaneous.

oxygenated acids and the alkaloids, being capable of separation from

their solutions in the crystalline form; but that the elementary

organs, the cells themselves, could pass over directly (and, indeed,

their firmer part, or membrane) into the crystalline form, and in this

way establish direct intermediate terms between organic and inor-

ganic forms, might justly surprise us, because, in the first place, we

did not suspect it, and because there is another side of philosophical

contemplation which regards the origin of the plant not as a pro-

cess of crystallization, but, on the contrary, as a process of cell-

formation. The cell-crystalloids occurring in organic nature seem

to repeat the forms of the inorganic crystallized bodies in the same

way as the leaf-forms of one group of plants repeat themselves in

another, whilst the two are perfectly different as regards the struc-

ture of the fruit, spores, &c, In both cases, both in organic and

in inorganic nature, these crystalline forms are certainly dependent

on their chemical composition. But that they are so renders the

simple fact one of great promise, because, to express it in a single

word, it follows therefrom that matter and form are two inseparable

quantities.

The organic crystalloids (7. e. hollow bodies, in contradistinction

to the solid inorganic crystals) are in most cases the membranes of

young cells still consisting of highly nitrogenous proteiniform com-

pounds ; and these not unfrequently repeat the sharp-edged angular

forms so closely that one seems to have real crystals before one.

As I learn directly from Karsten, they appear very beautifully as

rhombohedra in the well-known Para nut, and as octahedra in the

seeds of Ricinus and in the juice of Jatropha curcas. It may be

that the forms of these crystalloids are in part dependent on the

nature of the inorganic basic matters which form chemical com-

pounds with a definite albuminous matter. But cells which have

already given off the whole of the nitrogen from their membrane,

and, like cellulose, have passed off into more highly carbonized

compounds, also occur in the crystalline form.

When Karsten had once called attention to them, similar crystal-

loids were also found abundantly by other observers ; for the com-

binations mentioned in the last paragraph but one, especially by

Hartig, and these, were measured and discussed by Radlkofer and

Nigeli. Of the combinations of the preceding paragraph, exam-

ples were detected only by Karsten—namely, non-azotized, highly

carbonized cell-membranes. He found them, for example, in the

cells of the seed-lobes of our common yellow lupine (Lupinus

luteus); the erystalloids which make their appearance in this in

the form of tables were formerly regarded as proteine-crystals,

which, according to Karsten, they are not, as they do not acquire

the well-known changes of colour, either with iodine or with Mil-

lon’s mercurial salt. According to Karsten, these trapezoidal tables

are the nuclear cells of the tissue-cells of the seed-lobes. They

enlarge up to the time of germination, and begin to dissolve after

the cotyledons push forth from their envelope into the air. All the

cellules occurring with these erystalloids are coloured by the above-

Miscellaneous. 101

mentioned reagents ; their membranes behave like proteine com-

pounds. These highly albuminous cellules form a continuous layer

on the inner surface of the tissue-cell-membranes, whilst a erystal-

loid floats in the cell-fluid within this layer. New cells originate in

both kinds of content-cellules ; in the crystalloids only one or two,

which sometimes grow forth above the surface of their lamelliform

mother cell (like twin or triple crystals), while in each of the

numerous proteine-cellules numerous new cellules make their ap-

pearance, some of which grow into chlorophyl]-vesicles.

The free, highly albuminous cells which form yeast may be seen,

under certain conditions of nutrition, to acquire the tabular form,

as was pointed out by Karsten in his recent work, ‘Chemismus der

Pflanzenzelle’ (Vienna, 1869). These tables then resemble that

well-known cell-form which has been regarded as a plant, under

the name of Saretna, since Goodsir’s time, but which, according to

Karsten and my own observations, belongs to the yeast series.

Many alkaloids (for example, theobromine in the fruits of the

cacao-tree) likewise appear to be crystallized metamorphoses proceed-

ing from proteine-vesicles. Karsten is also inclined to ascribe the

same origin to the carotine in the root of the carrot (Daucus carota),

and to arrange it with the crystalloids of the lupine. He also

thinks that all the alkaloids and the nitrogenous glycosides (such as

amygdaline, myronic acid, &c.) are in like manner chemically me-

tamorphosed membranes of young cells (sap-vesicles) previously

consisting of proteine materials. The alkaloids he regards as simi-

lar bodies, which, generally combining with organic acids produced

at the same time from the membranes of the tissue-cells, may be

called acid salts,. which consequently dissolve in the cell-sap.—

Die Natur, 1871, p. 323.

Anatomico-zoological Remarks upon Oncidium celticum, Cuvier.

By M. L. Vatrrant.

The presence on the French coasts of the curious Gasteropod

mollusk designated, since the time of Cuvier, by the name of Onci-

- dium eelticum is a well-known fact: nevertheless it appears to have

been but rarely met with; for, since it was mentioned by M. Milne-

Edwards in 1828, it has not, I believe, been indicated in any cata-

logue. It is only in England that it has been described in a com-

plete manner. We may, however, be surprised that so interesting

an animal has not given rise to any thoroughgoing investigation,

and that the only attempts to make known to us its anatomical

organization, first by Cuvier (in 1804), and quite recently by Kefer-

stein (in 1868), were made upon individuals preserved in spirit.

The size of these species presented some facilities which do not exist

with that of our shores, the extreme dimensions of which are

scarcely more than 3 centimetres; but all anatomists know that a

great number of important details can only be properly studied in

the fresh animal. In order to try to fill up this gap I have under-

taken a series of investigations, of which I here desire to give the

principal results.

102 Miscellaneous.

It was in the month of October 1870 that, for the first time, I

chanced to meet with Oncidiwm celticum on the walls of the Brian-

tais, towards the embouchure of the Rance; I could not afterwards

find it during the winter months; and it was only in March 1871

that I saw a few individuals reappear. It is therefore probable

that, like many other pulmonate Gasteropods, this animal does not

come out during the cold season. After this period I at first found

some difficulty in procuring it, in consequence of my not having

studied with sufficient care the circumstances under which it is to be

met with. In fact this mollusk only inhabits a very restricted zone,

corresponding pretty exactly to the upper part of the second zone of

MM. Audouin and Milne-Edwards, characterized by the presence of

Fucodium nodosum; nor does it exist at all parts of this; and it

appears especially to seek the spots covered with that greyish mud

which is known by the name of tangue, and, I believe, where infil-

trations of fresh water may be met with; this last fact, which is

always difficult to ascertain, requires confirmation. Lastly, these

animals do not at all times issue from the fissures which they

inhabit ; it is when the level just mentioned has been uncovered

for about an hour that they begin to appear in numbers: for about

two hours we may see them crawling to and fro upon the mud;

afterwards they become scarce and disappear. In mild and bright

weather they are more numerous; nevertheless I have likewise

found them in the rain; they have therefore much less dread of

fresh water than a great number of other marine animals.

The nervous and digestive apparatus, although presenting inter-

esting peculiarities, have been described with so much care, at least

in fundamental points, that I do not think I need speak of them

here.

The arterial system is remarkable in most individuals by its

peculiar aspect ; the vessels of which it consists, and their ramifi-

cations, are of a silvery whiteness, resembling, in a certain degree,

the trachez of insects ; but here this effect is due to the accumulation

in the walls of refractive, fatty granulations. This colour is more or

less marked, and depends, perhaps, upon the season or the state of

the individual; this question I was unable to decide. The prin-

cipal trunks are three in number :—one anterior, neuromuscular ; a

second, middle one, gastro-hepatic; the last genital. The blood

returns to the heart, at least in great part, by venous vessels, situ-

ated in the dorso-lateral walls, vessels which open into two great

lateral sinuses (veins of Cuvier); and these sinuses themselves enter

the pulmonary vessels.

Respiration, as is shown by anatomy and by observation, is per-

formed in two ways—namely, by the so-called pulmonary cavity

and by the skin. In the first place the dorso-lateral veins, which I

have just mentioned, evidently collect hematosed blood from the

cutaneous surface; their arrangement sufficiently indicates this.

On another hand, if we place one of these animals in sea-water and

keep it there, contrary to what has been stated by some authors, it

lives there perfectly well, although it can respire only by the skin.

Moreover, by examining the way in which the animal behaves in

Miscellaneous. 103

different situations, we see that, under water, its cutaneous projec-

tions become more prominent and the pulmonary orifice closes ; in

the air, on the contrary, especially in freedom, and in dry weather

and high wind, the projections seem to disappear, the skin is almost

smooth, with small distant spines, whilst the pulmonary orifice is

widely opened beneath the raised margin of the mantle. In aquaria

the Oncidium seems to live indifferently in the air or in water; very

frequently one sees the anterior part immersed, whilst the caudal

extremity is out of the water and the pulmonary orifice open.

The foot presents a cavity which communicates with the exterior

by an orifice situated as usual, below and behind the mouth, near

two great muscular masses which the animal seems to employ in the

fashion of two supplementary tentacles, and which are perhaps the

analogues of the small tentacles of the quadritentaculate pulmonate

Gasteropods. By this cavity it is easy to inject the venous lacune ;

and, with very penetrating injections of carmine or oxalic Prussian

blue, we may even fill the heart and a great part of the arterial

system.

The genital apparatus, which is simpler, at least as regards the

male portion, than in the species studied by Cuvier and Keferstein,

is constructed upon the ordinary type of that of the moncecious

Gasteropods. The female apparatus includes a large hermaphrodite

gland with its coiled excretory canal, a vitellogene (albumen-gland

of authors), a matrix, which can be distinguished from the preceding

organ only in the fresh state, and which is continued into a canal

to which it will be best to reserve the name of the oviduct; at

the points where this must be designated the vagina there are

inserted on the one side the canal of the copulatory pouch, and on

the other a vaginal prostate formed of along tube swelled into a

clavate form. The female orifice is situated just in front of the

anus. In the male apparatus the deferent canal, properly so called,

runs directly to the side of the female orifice, and, as has been very

well observed, is continued into a channel situated on the right side

of the foot, and which extends to its anterior part, close to the

corresponding subbuccal muscular mass. Here this channel opens

at an orifice leading into a long tube folded upon itself, which must

be regarded as a seminal reservoir; this tube finally terminates in a

hollow muscular inflation, which is nothing but the invaginated

penis (sheath of the penis of authors); the orifice by which this

organ issues is situated in front of and close to the termination of the

deferent channel. Thus we see that the spermatic fluid, after having

traversed the deferent canal properly so called, must follow the

deferent channel in order to enter afresh into the interior of the

body, in the seminal receptacle. The copulation is reciprocal ; the two

individuals are placed side by side in opposite directions, adhering

by the foot and the left portion of the mantle, the right portion

being raised to expose the genital orifices. I have observed these

animals coupled at two very different seasons, namely March and

October.

To sum up, Oncidium celticum undoubtedly approaches the pulmo-

nate Gasteropoda, among which it is very properly placed; never-

104 Miscellaneous.

theless by its respiration, which is in great part cutaneous, and the

arrangement of its reproductive apparatus, it presents certain rela-

tions with the Opisthobranchs, to which it evidently forms a passage.

—Comptes Rendus, November 13, 1871, tome lxxiil. pp. 1172-

1174.

Drosera (Sun-dew) as a Fly-catcher.

A valued correspondent and accurate observer, Mrs. Treat of

Vineland, New Jersey, writes :—

‘‘ For several summers in succession I have taken Drosera ro-

tundifolia, D. longifolia, and D. filifola from their moist beds, and

placed them in sand and water in such a way that they made most

charming window-plants. What I take for D. longifolia has spa-

tulate-oblong reddish leaves, and long, erect, reddish petioles covered

with glands like those of the leaf. This species I find a much more

effective fly-trap than D. rotundifolia. On some of the plants in my

window this summer almost every leaf held a common house-fly

prisoner until it died ; and it did not take the leaf very long to fold

completely round its victim. My husband was terribly shocked,

and thought it the most cruel thing he ever saw in nature; but

with my prepossessions and habits, both as an entomologist and a

housekeeper, | was contentedly interested to see the work go on.”

If we rightly remember, in D. rotundifolia it is only the gland-

tipped bristles that bend inward and hold the insect fast, while

they probably suck the juice out of him. This folding of the

blade of the leaf itself around the fly is a new fact to us, and is so

especially interesting (being a step towards Dionwa) that we would

call particular attention to it, in the hope of further observations

and independent confirmation. We are told that the blade incurves

from apex to base in the manner of its vernation. What was long

ago known of the action of Drosera rotundifolia in fly-catching had

almost completely died out of the books and out of the memory of

the present generation until very lately ; and the most remarkable

things relating to it and to Dionea are not yet in print.—Prof. Asa

Gray in Silliman’s American Journal, Dec. 1871.

Note on a Fragment of a Teleosaurian Snout from Kimmeridge Bay,

Dorset. By J. W. Huxxe, Esq., F.R.S., F.GS.

In this paper the author described a fragment of the snout of a

Teleosaurian obtained by J. C. Mansel-Pleydell, Esq., F.G.S., from

Kimmeridge Bay, and which is believed to furnish the first indication

of the occurrence of Teleosaurians at Kimmeridge. The specimen con-

sists of about 17 inches of a long and slender snout, tapering slightly

towards the apex, where the premaxille expand suddenly and

widely. The nostril is terminal and directed obliquely forwards ;

the preemaxille ascend 2-5 inches above the nostril, and terminate

in an acute point ; and each preemaxilla contains five alveoli. The

lateral margins of the snout are slightly crenated by the alveoli of the

teeth, of which the three front ones are smaller than the rest : most

of the teeth have fallen out; but a few are broken off, leaving the

base in the soeckets.x—Proc. Geol. Soc. June 7, 1871.

THE ANNALS

AND

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[FOURTH SERIES. |

No. 50. FEBRUARY 1872.

XII.—Jnvestigations upon the Structure and Natural History

of the Vorticelle. By Dr. Ricwarp GREEE*.

[Plates XIL-XVI. ]

THE Vorticelle are among those Infusoria which were earliest

and have been most frequently examined. From Leeuwen-

hoek, who first observed them and with them the first Infu-

sorial forms, down to the most recent times, most naturalists

seem to have turned with particular preference to this elegant

group of animals. Leaving out of consideration that many

were probably induced, by the exceedingly attractive pheno-

mena of form and existence presented by the bell-animalcules,

to a closer examination of them, there is perhaps no Infusorial

family which can be observed with more ease and certainty.

In all waters, whether stagnant or flowing, fresh or salt, Vor-

ticellee occur, often appearing in great quantities by the exten-

sion of their colonies. Almost all are attached to stems, and

therefore are on the whole better adapted for examination

(although with occasional interruptions, as in the contractile-

stalked forms) than most other Infusoria, which pass restlessly

to and fro in the field of vision, and can often only be brought

to the desired state of quietness by a pressure which more or

less alters the normal conditions of form and life.

~ It is no wonder, then, that, with regard to these animalcules,

many interesting facts of extreme importance to the knowledge

of the lower animal world were early ascertained (such, for

example, as the process of division and the formation of

bud-like structures), and that, with the advancing diffusion

and improvement of the microscope, and the lively interest

that was directed towards the Infusorial world, the field of

observed phenomena has become a very extensive one.

* Translated by W.S. Dallas, F.L.S., from the ‘Archiv fur Natur-

geschichte,’ Jahrg. xxvi. p. 353.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. ix. 8

106 Dr. R. Greet on the Structure and

But notwithstanding all the labour that has been bestowed

both upon the bell-animalcules and upon the Infusoria in

general, notwithstanding numerous interesting individual ob-

servations, and especially notwithstanding the great abundance

of systematic materials, it appears that we are still far from

having even a moderately satisfactory insight into the orga-

nization and vital history of the Infusoria—nay, that in many

respects we have perhaps made only the first still uncertain

steps in the knowledge of this remarkably multifarious class

of animals, in whose varied company we have to seek many

forms more or less allied to or constituting the parent forms

of other groups of animals, especially the Vermes and perhaps

the Coelenterata, and which, by their universal distribution

and their constantly recurring forms (in other words, by their

truly cosmopolitan character), possess a special interest pre-

cisely in the above-indicated direction of their relationships to

other animals.

The material for the present observations was furnished, as

regards the freshwater forms, by the rich Infusorial fauna of

the Schlossweiher of Poppelsdorf and some other stagnant

waters in the environs of Bonn. Although I have submitted

many of the genera and species occurring here to careful in-

vestigation, in these communications some forms to which I

am indebted for the most abundant and important results are

brought prominently forward, especially a species of Epistylis,

which nearly approaches Ehrenberg’s Hpistylis flavicans. I

say “‘nearly approaches,” as I greatly doubt whether all the

forms here noticed by me under this name belong to a single

species, or, rather, whether we have not before us several dif-

ferent species or, at least, varieties, as, indeed, a glance at the

appended figures (Pls. XV. & XVI.) may show. Not only

do differences of size, colouring, and even, although in a less

degree, of habitus occur, but also in the possession of appa-

rently essential parts (that is to say, of organs), e.g. the pe-

culiar shining capsules, hereafter to be described, which are

furnished with a filament capable of being shot forth, and

which display a close agreement with the nettling-capsules of

the Coelenterata (Pl. XV. fig. 5,%). In the course of our

communications we shall again revert to the distinctness or

identity of these forms.

The marine species which I have had the opportunity of ex-

amining are all from the North Sea at Ostend, where the oc-

currence of abundant material was always certain, especially

in the oyster-parks there. These marine forms are represented

on Plates XII. & XIII. (with the exception of fig. 8 on

Pl. XIII.), in which the act of division and the gemmiform

Natural History of the Vorticelle. 107

conjugation are shown in detail, and the remarkable tuft of

Zoothamnium in Pl. XIV. figs. 6 & 7.

Systematic Limitation of the Family Vorticellina.

Ehrenberg first founded the family Vorticellina nearly in

accordance with our present conception of it, and with 8 ge-

nera and 38 species*. The systematic characters are so

happily seized, that the family has recently been accepted by

Stein essentially with the limitation given to it by Ehrenberg.

Ehrenberg characterized the Vorticellina “as (polygastric)

animalcules which possess an alimentary canal uniting the

stomachs, have the mouth and ‘efferent orifice separate but

placed together in the same pit, and therefore are without a

hinder part, which bear no carapace, and either move freely

individually, or are attached, and often, by imperfect self-

division, acquire a minute frutescent or arborescent form.”

The eight genera united in this family were :—Stentor, Tricho-

dina, Urocentrum, Vorticella, Carchesium, Epistylis, Opercu-

laria, and Zoothamnium. Stein+, and after him Claparéde

and Lachmann f, first of all, on account of the different orga-

nization in many respects, rightly separated from these the

genus of the Stentors§, now generally placed with the Bur-

sariee, as they are ciliated over the whole body, whilst the

true body of the Vorticelle is naked and only bears a so-called

adoral circlet of cilia; moreover the anus of the Stentors, as

Lachmann demonstrated, is different in position from that of

the Vorticelle &c. Then Claparéde and Lachmann further

separated the genus Urocentrum || (without sufficient founda-

tion or investigation, indeed) from the Ehrenbergian system,

forming with it a peculiar family, and united Ehrenberg’s

* A very full and admirable summary of the older literature, with in-

dications of the earlier conceptions as to the structure and systematic

position of the Vorticellina, is given by Ehrenberg in his great work,

‘Die Infusionsthierchen als vollkommene Organismen,’ pp. 260, 269, 275,

279, 286, &e. At p. 275 especially there is a very valuable critical

revision of the older system of Vorticelle and of the synonyms of the

individual species. We learn from it that the genus Vortzcella alone

displayed no fewer than 120 specific names, which were reduced by

Ehrenberg to 9 for actual, distinct and well-characterized species.

+ Die Infusionsthiere auf ihre Entwicklungsgeschichte untersucht,

. 94.

{ Etudes sur les Infusoires Xe. i. p. 77.

§ Recently, as is well known, the Stentorins, as, indeed, was previously

proposed by Lachmann (Miiller’s Archiv, 1856, p. 861 & p. 364, note 1),

have been raised by Stein (Der Organismus der Infusionsthiere, ii. p.170)

to the rank of a distinct family, with the genera Stentor and Freva, and

placed in the order of the Infusoria Heterotricha.

|| Etudes &c. i. pp. 78 & 134. fe:

108 Dr. R. Greef on the Structure and

genus Opercularia with Epistylis, so that of the eight original

genera of Ehrenberg’s Vorticellan family three were elimi-

nated, namely Stentor, Urocentrum, and Opercularia.

On the other hand, however, Claparéde and Lachmann,

following Stein’s example, included the Ophrydina (which

Ehrenberg had placed, as carapaced bell-animals, in a separate

family) in the Vorticellan family, side by side with the true

naked Vorticellina, taking into consideration, certainly with

justice, the in other respects similar habit and organization of

the carapaced and naked forms, and regarded the gelatinous

envelope of the Ophrydina as morphologically equivalent to

the gelatinous stem of the Vorticelle, which is secreted by

similar processes, and especially to the rigid stem of Hpzstylis.

From Ehrenberg’s Ophrydina, which included the genera

Ophrydium, Tintinnus, Vaginicola, and Cothurnia, before in-

corporating them with the Vorticellina, they separated Z%n-

tinnus, on account of the essential differences in its ciliation

and organization; so that, by this addition of three genera, the

original number of the members of the family was reesta-

blished. But, besides this, three new genera were added,

namely Lagenophrys in the place of Tintinnus, as a carapaced

Vorticella, and the two naked forms, Scyphidia and Gerda—

the first established by Stein *, the second by Dujardin but

first accurately characterized by Lachmannt, and the third

discovered by Lachmann and Claparédet.

With all these additions and deductions, therefore, the

Ehrenbergian family of the Vorticellina had grown to eleven

genera, with a very considerable number of species. As the

characters of this family, those previously established by

Ehrenberg, (with the exception of the polygastric nutritive

apparatus, which Ehrenberg had assumed for all Infusoria,

and therefore, of course, for the bell-animalcules), were essen-

tially retained by Claparéde and Lachmann, especially as re-

gards the position of the mouth and anus, whilst at the same

time they added the adoral ciliation, which was not indicated

by Ehrenberg as a special character, and which they repre-

sented, from Lachmann’s observations, as running round the

ciliary disk in a spiral line and sinking into the buccal

orifice.

In order to trace the fate of the Vorticellan family to its

present constitution, it only remains for us to mention briefly

the alterations which Stein, in his most recent work on Infu-

soria, has finally made in the system gradually elaborated by

* Die Infusionsthiere auf ihre Entwicklungse. untersucht, p. 85.

} Muller’s Archiv, 1856, p. 348, note 1.

{ Etudes &c. i. p. 117.

Natural LHistory of the Vorticelle. 109

himself and by Claparéde and Lachmann. The limits which

he and his successors had at first widened have been again

contracted by Stein himself nearly within the original bounds,

as he has again separated the Ophrydina trom the Vorticelle*,

and accepted their right, first recognized by Ehrenberg, to

form a carapaced family side by side with the naked bell-

animalcules. He has also dissolved the union of the genus

Opercularia with Epistylis made by Claparéde and Lachmann,

and raised the former, as was done by Ehrenberg, to the rank

ot an independent genus. On the other hand, he has sepa-

rated Urocentrum, like Claparéde and Lachmann, but on the

grounds of a more accurate investigation than they had made—

and also Zrichodina, which had hitherto remained combined

with the Vorticelle, but differs from them in many essential

points, especially by the possession of a peculiar adherent

apparatus at the hinder end of the body, by the constant ab-

sence of a posterior circlet of cilia and of a protrusible and

retractile rotatory organ, &c., so that at first Stein even

ascribes to the Zrichodine the rank of a distinct family on

account of these peculiaritiest, although subsequently he

arranges them as a genus of the newly formed family of the

Urceolarina. As new members, the genera Scyphidia and

Gerda, already introduced by Claparéde and Lachmann, are

accepted, and to these the genus Astylozoon, discovered by

Engelmannf, is added: it is characterized by the possession of

two springing-bristles, situated at the posterior end, in place

of a stem.

Thus it comes to pass that, after all these changes, the pre-

sent systematic constitution of our family (with the above-men-

tioned natural exception of the Stentors) is once more nearly

the same as when it was founded by Ehrenberg. The genera,

also, have again been brought back to their original number,

namely eight; and these, after the alterations above indicated,

are :—Vorticella, Carchestum, Epistylis, Zoothamnium, Oper-

cularia, Scyphidia, Gerda, and Astylozoon.

The characters of the family thus united, as they have been

developed or, rather, have gradually acquired a sharper pro-

minence in the way above described, may now be summed up

in the following points :—In the first rank we must place the

position of the mouth and anus in a common cavity in the

bottom of the first section of the nutritive tube, the so-called

vestibule, which was correctly recognized and indicated as a

primary character by Ehrenberg. Next to this comes the

* Der Organismus der Infusionsthiere, ii. p. 168,

+ Der Organismus der Inf. ii. p. 146,

t Zeitschr. fiir wiss. Zool. xi. p. 389, pl. 31. figs. 15, 16,

110 Dr. R. Greef on the Structure and

peculiar nature of the anterior rotatory organ, or the so-called

adoral ciliary zone, which, in the true Vorticelle, according to

Claparéde and Lachmann, always forms a left-handed spiral,

running round the ciliary disk and then sinking into the ves-

tibule, which commences between the peristome and the ciliary

disk. The ciliary disk, i. e. the whole rotatory organ, can

moreover be retracted into the interior of the body, and in

this case is closed up by the membranous peristome as by a

sphincter or a screen. When the ciliary disk is opened out-

wards, it is surrounded, as if by a collar, by the peristome, which

18 separated from it by a more or less deep furrow, and rolled

outwards. The faculty of suddenly springing back of the

whole body, which contracts at the same time, and of the

stems, where contractile stems are present, is connected as an

essential character with the retractile rotatory organ.

For the closer limitation of the Vorticellina, with regard to

the allied families, especially the Ophrydina, the gelatinous

envelope, which occurs in the latter and is wanting in the

Vorticelle, has been again adopted by Stein as the distinctive

character between the two families, it having been already, as

we have seen, employed by Ehrenberg for this purpose, but

suppressed by Claparéde and Lachmann. [or my own part

I can only regret this repeated separation, as, if we leave out

of consideration the stem of the Vorticellina and the envelope

of the Ophrydina, the two families agree so closely in their

whole habit, structure, and vital phenomena, even to the most

minute points, that, in the presence of this agreement, a seve-

rance of the Ophrydina from the immediate alliance of the

Vorticelle must be regarded as forced, and opposed to the

natural relationship of these two groups. Probably even the

most experienced and careful observer would scarcely be able

to recognize, as such, a fissional scion of an Ophrydine (e. g.

Cothurnia, see Pl. XII.) furnished with its posterior cirelet of

cilia, and just escaped from the envelope of its parent—that is

to say, to distinguish it from the fissional scion of a true Vor-

tecella. It is therefore merely the exterior finger-like envelope

that is destined to separate the two families. But this alone,

as we shall endeavour to show, can not suffice for the satis-

factory establishment of this separation. If we could put op-

posite to each other the forms furnished with an envelope and

adherent by short peduncles, and at the same time perfectly

freely movable and non-pedunculate forms, such as may be

represented by the fissional scions or by Gerda, the separation

under consideration would perhaps appear more justified.

But most Vorticelle are likewise attached to peduncles, which

on their part, again, are attached—with the exception of two

Natural History of the Vorticelle. 111

forms, namely :—the Astylozoon described by Engelmann,

which rejoices in constant spontaneous mobility, but at the

same time possesses two springing-sete (Schnellborsten) at the

hinder end of the body, perhaps as the homologue of the pe-

duncle ; and, further, the genera Scyphidia and Gerda, which

are, indeed, completely non-pedunculate, but are more or less

sessile. But if we examine the peduncle of the Vorticelle,

especially in comparison with the peduncle and envelope of

the Ophrydina, we cannot reject out of hand the intimate

correlation of these structures. The peduncle of the Vorticelle

consists of a hyaline homogeneous exterior envelope or sheath

and a darker, more or less granular axis. The latter is either

muscular substance*, and in this case, with the whole pedun-

cle, retractile (Vorticella, Carchesiwm, &c.), or the axis con-

tains no muscular elements, and then the peduncle is rigid

(Epistylis). But in both cases the exterior hyaline envelope

of the peduncle embraces the hinder basis of the body of the

animal, whilst the axis alone penetrates into this base, be-

coming amalgamated with it, and here either serves merely

for the attachment of the animal and of the retractor muscular

elements in it (pistylis), or, when the axis itself is of a mus-

cular nature, radiates out continuously in the body ( Vorticella,

Carchesium). Now in the Ophrydina in general both the

envelope and the body of the animal are likewise attached by

a peduncle, although this is usually very short; and yet this

may be regarded as morphologically equivalent to the peduncle

of the Vorticelle, and, mdeed, especially to that of Hpistylis.

The sheath which in the Vorticelle envelopes the axis of the

peduncle, and terminates at the hindmost base of the body of

the animal, is continued forward beyond this base in the

Ophrydina, rising into a wide beaker-shaped case, within

which the whole animal can retract itself. But even the axis

of the Vorticellan peduncle is not wanting in the Ophrydina,

but it is what, just as in the Vortrcelle, enters the base of the

body and effects the attachment. Thus the more accurate in-

vestigation of the constitution and secretion or development of

these structures may only render their identity still more clear.

From all this it seems to me more natural to accept the indi-

vidual genera of the Ophrydina as members of the Vorticellan

family than to separate them from the latter.

Stein has further placed the family of the Vorticellina

* We retain here the denomination “axis” for the sake of uniformity,

even for the contractile peduncles, although, as is well known, in Vorti-

cella and Carchesiwm the muscular cord has a spiral course round the axis

within the sheath, and only occupies a position in accordance with the

true axis in Zoothamnium.

112) Mr. T. V. Wollaston on Microxylobius Westwoodii.

under his order of Peritrichous Infusoria *, in which it forms

the true ordinal type, the ‘‘nucleus and central point” to which

the other groups approximate upwards and downwards.

We have treated the systematic history of the Vorticellan

family in more detail perhaps than the following observations

may render necessary; but the history of the classification of a

group of animals is always the true expression of the develop-

ment of the knowledge of it; and in the present case it is of

the greater interest, because it shows in how rare a fashion the

Vorticellina have shown themselves to be a coherent and

closed group, as, in spite of all efforts at further development,

the systematic combination has remained essentially the same,

although the characters in the meanwhile, as we have seen,

have attained a much greater sharpness. But, besides this,

we shall be able often to make use of the stand-point arrived

at in the above explanations in our further statements, in

order to attach our own observations, without being constantly

obliged to make long digressions.

[To be continued. |

XIII.—On the Microxylobius Westwoodi, Chevr., from

_St. Helena. By T. Vernon Wo ttaston, M.A., F.L.S.

Havine lately had an opportunity, through the kindness of

W.W. Saunders, Esq., of examining the type of the little

Curculionideous Microrylobius Westwoodit, trom St. Helena,

which was described in the first volume of the Entomological

Society’s Transactions, and which, after the lapse of thirty-six

years, still remains unique in his collection, I have thought

that it would be worth while to draw out an accurate diagnosis

of it, in order to call attention to the exact characters in which

it recedes from the other members of the genus (twelve in

number) which have hitherto been brought to light. And

this seems to be the more desirable, since the few words of

M. Chevrolat which take the place of a description are quite

insufficient for even its approximate identification. Judging

solely from the excellent figure of it which was supplied by

Prof. Westwood, I had imagined that it might perhaps prove

to be identical with the species which I enunciated, in 1869,

under the name of vestitus; but I now perceive that it is not

only totally distinct from that insect, but equally so (as may

be gathered from the subjoined remarks) from every other

Microxylobius which has come under my notice.

* Der Organismus der Infusionsthiere, ii. p. 168.

Mr. T. V. Wollaston on Microxylobius Westwoodii. 113

Microxylobius Westwoodit.

M. angusto-elongatus, ovato-cylindricus, obscure subnigro-sneus

(et etiam obsoletissime subvirescens), alutaceus, subopacus, calvus;

capite rostroque minute et leviter sed argute punctulatis, hoc bre-

viusculo sed lineari et supra subgibboso ; prothorace angusto, cy-

lindrico-subovato, punctulis minutissimis parce et leviter irrorato ;

elytris subcylindricis sed pone medium paulo latioribus, confuse

transversim rugatis (fere quasi subrimosis) sed haud sculpturatis

(i. e. vix striatis et vix punctatis), sutura antice subcarinatis ; an-

tennis pedibusque piceo-nigris, illis basi rufo-ferrugineis.

Long. corp. lin. 13.

Microxylobius Westwoodii, Chevr., loc. cit. 98 (1836).

, Woll., ibid. v. (n. s.) 381 (1861).

—— ——,, Id., Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 4. vol. iv. p. 403 (1869).

Obs. Species inter reliquas distinctissima; differt corpore angus-

tiore et multo magis cylindrico, ubique alutaceo, subopaco, calvo,

prothorace minutissime tantum parceque punctulato, elytris trans-

versim substriguloso-rugatis sed longitudinaliter vix sculpturatis,

sutura antice acutiusculo, subcariniformi.

Judging from the type before me, this little Mcroxylobius

is as small as even the MV. vestitus, being only a line and a

quarter in length. It is, however, relatively narrower and

much more cylindrical than that species (indeed more so than

any of the Microxylobii which have hitherto been detected) ;

and it is likewise darker in hue, and perfectly free from even

a trace of pubescence. Its rostrum is a little wider than that

of the M. vestitus, and its tibie are rather more curved, and

the punctation of its head and prothorax (the latter of which

is comparatively unexpanded behind the middle) is even

more delicate still; and it is further remarkable for its elytra

(which have their suture slightly raised, or somewhat keel-

shaped, in front) being transversely marked with remote,

obscure scratches, or irregular strigee, but almost devoid of

longitudinal sculpture; and its entire surface is coarsely

alutaceous, and therefore but very faintly shining.

Before closing this short paper, I may just state that Mr.

G. R. Crotch informs: me that he possesses two examples of

the Cydonia vicina, Muls. (a Coccinellid which is widely

spread over the African continent, and which we captured

abundantly in the Cape-Verde archipelago), from St. Helena,

received by him in company with the C. /unata, which is so

universal in the island. ‘This, therefore, will add one more

species to the St.-Helena catalogue, augmenting the entire

114 Dr. J. D. Macdonald on the Anatomy of

number to 96; and I would desire, consequently, to record it

as follows :—

Cydonia vicina.

Cheilomenes vicina, Dej., Cat. 459 ( 1837).

—— circumflera (Klug), Id., ibid, (1837).

Cydonia vicina, Muls., Sécurip. 440 (1851).

——, Woll., Col. Hesp. 155 (1867).

Hab. Sanctam Helenam, teste cl. G. R. Crotch.

I have likewise a note from Mr. Crotch to the effect that

the Spheridium dytiscotdes of Fabricius is still preserved in the

Banksian collection, and that a friend of his who has recently

examined it reports it to be totally distinct from the Dactylo-

sternum abdominale, being, in point of fact (as, indeed, I had

ventured to think probable), a true Cyclonotum, and one which

occurs also at the Cape of Good Hope.

XIV.—On the Anatomy of the Nervous System of Diphyes,

affording presumptive evidence of the existence of a similar

System in the other forms of Oceanic Hydrozoa. By JOuN

Denis Macponap, M.D.,F.R.S., Stafi-Surgeon of H.M.S.

‘ Lord Warden.’ *

WHILE cruising off the coast of Portugal, a few hauls of the

towing-net brought up many specimens of a species of Diphyes

which I have not determined, as the suitable books were not

at hand; this, however, may be readily done by referring to the

figure accompanying this paper. I very carefully examined

several of these animals (or, I am rather tempted to say,

animal forms) in relation to the received views of the struc-

ture and organization of the group to which they belong. In

some instances the two nectocalyces were nearly intact, while

in others they were separated, which is more usually the case.

This latter remark is also quite true of the parts of numerous

other oceanic Hydrozoa, which were quite problematical to

most students of zoology until Professor Huxley elucidated

their structure by independent research, which enabled him

also to render the results obtained by others more intelligible.

In the present species the proximal nectocalyx is about

twice as large as the distal one, sharp-pointed, three-sided,

and much laterally compressed at the free extremity, but

distinctly quadrilateral at the base, where two angular pro-

* Communicated by the Director-General of the Medical Department

of the Navy.

the Nervous System of Diphyes. 115

cesses, with curtain-like flaps between them, bound the polype-

cell, including the apex of the distal nectocalyx. This latter

is also four-sided and laterally compressed, bearing the pro-

pulsive chamber or nectosac above, and a deep longitudinal

groove for the chaplet of polypes beneath, while the free ex-

tremity terminates in a double-pointed projection. All the

angles and edges of both nectocalyces are faintly serrated,

with the points directed towards the base in each, so as to

offer little or no resistance to the water during natation. The

figure will give a sufficient idea of the general characters of

this species, without further description, except what is to be

said of the nervous system, the exposition of which is the

principal object of this paper.

At the base of the polype-cell, just within the attachment

of the ccenosarc, and above the duct of the somatocyst, there

appeared to me to be a little ganglionic mass; but of this I

cannot be quite certain until I investigate the matter a little

more closely. I am satisfied, however, that I have been able

to trace a nerve-trunk from that point along the inferior wall

of the polype-cell to the angle between it and the open end of

the nectosac, the upper wall of which is supplied with two

long and tapering nerves, bifureating from the primary trunk.

A second principal nerve was distinctly traceable into the

Ea tes

<e pea yyryqueeaet

Morera iv yynunnsaeveete a

ff 4} V1) t —

aH) 1)! ly Naren Tae NN ae

f AL UAL eae Da

\\—

ee ee ea

A, the proximal nectocalyx: a, polype-cell, lodging the ccenosare and

polypes; 0, somatocyst, communicating with the ccenosare cavity ;

ec, nectosac or propulsive chamber.

B, the distal nectocalyx : a, protective groove for the polypes; 0, pedicel

of the nectosac including the nerve ; ¢, the nectosac.

C, chaplet of ccenosare and polypes.

D, the nervous system: 1, nervous centre? ; 2, proximal nerve-trunk ;

3, distal nerve-trunk; 4, branches to proximal nectosac ; 5, branches

to distal nectosac.

116 Rev. T. Hincks on Prof. Heller’s Catalogue

apex of the distal nectocalyx; and having run along the

polype-groove as far.as the fundus of the nectosac, where it

was surrounded by a tubular process of endoderm, it also ter-

minated in a bifurcation, the resulting branches being distri-

buted to the upper wall of the sac, as in the former case.

Though the movements of Diphyes are very variable, the

normal position is that in which the chaplet of polypes trails

from the groove of the distal nectocalyx, the nectosac being

superior or on the neural side.

The nectosacs give propulsion to the whole organism, with

the pointed extremity of the proximal nectocalyx foremost ;

nevertheless I am disposed to think that the movement is

truly retrograde, as in the case of the cuttlefishes ; and if this

be true, all the terms of relation used in the description of

animals having a bilateral symmetry will be applicable to

Diphyes.

H.M.S. ‘Lord Warden.’

Gibraltar, Oct. 10, 1871.

XV.—Note on Prof. Heller’s Catalogue of the Hydroida of

the Adriatic®. By the Rev. Tuomas Hincxks, B.A.

WE are indebted to Prof. Heller for very valuable contri-

butions to our knowledge of the Invertebrate fauna of the

Adriatic. In 1867 he published at Vienna an admirable

Catalogue of the Polyzoa which occur in that sea, containing

descriptions and figures of a large number of new species. In

1868 he continued his work, and dealt with the Zoophytes

and Echinodermata of the same region, in the paper which is

the subject of the present communication. The zoology of

the Adriatic has been illustrated by a long line of able inves-

tigators, extending from the times of Donati and Olivi (1750-

1792) to the present day ; but Prof. Heller has shown us that

its riches were far from being exhausted. It is unnecessary

to say a word as to the value of such local catalogues and the

relation which they bear to the interesting problems connected

with geographical distribution. It is obvious, however, that,

inasmuch as they form the storehouses from which the theorist

draws his facts, it is of the first importance that they should be

characterized by rigorous accuracy in the discrimination and

identification of species. In that portion of his work which

relates to the Hydroida, Prof. Heller has needlessly increased

the chances of error, has rendered, indeed, a certain amount of

* “Tie Zoophyten und Echinodermen des Adriatischen Meeres, yon

Prof. Cam. Heller in Innsbruck,” 1868.

of the Hydroida of the Adriatic. bn

error inevitable, by his strange neglect of the later literature

of his subject. .He supplies us with a list of the authors,

ranging from Donati in 1750 to Grube in 1864, who have

concerned themselves specially with the fauna of the Adriatic;

but of English writers on the Hydrozoa none are cited of

later date than Johnston (1847); while there are but scanty

references to the Continental and other works published since

his time.

It is impossible that any treatment of the Hydroida can be

satisfactory which practically ignores the researches of Alder,

Allman, Busk, Strethill Wright, and others in this country,

who have cast so much new light on this department of zoo-

logy. In the hope of adding to the value of Prof. Heller’s

work, by supplying a few points that have escaped him, I

venture to submit his Catalogue of Hydroida to some critical

revision.

The list is a small one for a district so fertile in other forms

of animal life, embracing only thirty-seven species, of which

twenty-three are included under the five genera into which

Prof. Heller divides the Sertularia and Plumularia of John-

ston. ‘The most remarkable deficiency occurs in the Athecate

or Tubularian section, under which only four species are re-

corded. About eighty species have been described from the

British seas. It is highly improbable that this important

group is not largely represented in the Adriatic; and I hope

that Prof. Heller may have the opportunity of continuing his

investigations, and giving us a more complete account of this

interesting portion of his subject.

Of the four Athecate Hydroids included in the Catalogue,

one is recorded as the Coryne pusilla of Gaertner: this is an

obscure species, which it is hardly possible to identify with

certainty ; and there is nothing to indicate to what particular

form Prof. Heller applies the name. A considerable number

of species of Coryne and the allied genus Syncoryne are now

known, and to one of them Gaertner’s name has been assigned ;

but, in the absence of all reference in the synonymy to later

authors, it is impossible to decide which of these the Adriatic

form may be. - The brief account of it given by our author

does not help us; for the characters which he ascribes to it

are almost exclusively generic. At present, therefore, we can

only affirm, generally, that one species of Corynoid at least is

a native of the Adriatic.

The species included by Johnston in the old genus Sertu-

laria Prof. Heller ranges in two divisions, for one of which

he retains the latter name, and assigns to the other Lamou-

roux’s name Dynamena. This arrangement, which is based

118 Rey. T. Hincks on Prof. Heller’s Catalogue

on the mode in which the calycles are disposed, whether alter-

nately or in pairs, seems to me to be merely artificial, and not

in any measure to represent the natural relationships of the

forms in question. A well-marked group, of which S. poly-

zonias may be taken as the type, has been defined by Gray

under the name of Sertwlarella; another, equally natural,

characterized by the peculiar structure of the reproductive

capsule (which is well exemplified in S. rosacea), has been

constituted by Agassiz as Diphasia; a third, to which the

Linnean name may be appropriated, will include the remain-

ing forms, whether they have opposite or alternate calycles, a

point in which the most closely allied species differ. Those

which have the calycles in pairs may, for convenience’ sake,

be ranked as a subsection.

Sertularia Ellisii is amongst the species recorded in the

Catalogue. It should be noted that this is the well-known

and widely distributed S. polyzonias of authors, one of the

most cosmopolitan of the Hydroida. Heller adopts the opinion

of Milne-Edwards, that Ellis has figured two distinct species

under the name of polyzonias ; and also follows him in assign-

ing the name Lillis? to the commoner of the two forms. It is

unfortunate that the new name should have been given to

the well-known species, while the old and classical designa-

tion has been reserved for a form which rarely occurs and has

attracted little attention. In my ‘History of the British

Hydroid Zoophytes’ (vol. i. p. 235) I have cited S. Hllisti as

a synonym of Sertularella polyzonias ; but, after a more care-

ful examination of Ellis’s figures and description, I am dis-

posed to believe that Johnston was wrong in uniting them,

and that the erect variety, with ovate calycles and a plain

aperture to the gonotheca, is a well-marked species. At the

same time I have never found it myself, nor have I met with

specimens of it: but one of Ellis’s figures is unimpeachable

evidence; and variable as S. polyzonias is within certain

limits, it never, so far as I am aware, makes an approach to

the characters which he has so clearly represented in his

figure B. Couch records both the forms as occurring on the

Cornish coast, and regards them as specifically distinct

(Cornish Fauna, p.17). But,while accepting Milne-Edwards’s

species, | am strongly of opinion that the names should be

reapportioned—that the more common form, which was pro-

bably the one known to Linneus, should bear the older name

(polyzonias), and that the one which Ells was the first. to

figure should stand as S. Ellisit.

Dynamena (Diphasia) pinaster.—'The, specimens thus

named, it is evident (from the description of the capsule and

of the Hydroida of the Adriatic. 119

the reference to Johnston’s fig. 12, c,d, p. 72), should be as-

signed to Diphasia attenuata, mihi, a species which has oc-

curred at Port Adelaide as well as on the British coasts.

Heller seems to have met with the female gonotheca only,

which he rightly describes as much attenuated below, and

above covered with numerous spines.

Thuiaria lichenastrum.—This species is recorded by Olivi

as a native of the Adriatic; but Heller considers it probable,

from the description given of it, that the form intended should

be referred to the 7. articulata,* Pallas. The Sertularia

lichenastrum of Linneeus is closely allied to the latter; but

Pallas, who had seen specimens from Ceylon exactly answer-

ing to Linneeus’s description, considered the two forms di-

stinct. It seems probable that the Adriatic species is identical

with our British articulata.

The genus Plumularia Prof. Heller subdivides into three :

he retains Lamarck’s name for the P. pluma section, in which

the nematophores (“‘Nebenzellen”” of Heller) are developed only

in connexion with the calycles, and the latter are approximate,

and adopts Donati’s Anisocalyx for the group in which the

nematophores are generally distributed, the calycles compa-

ratively distant, and long and short internodes alternate on

the branches. For the section in which the shorter inter-

mediate internodes are wanting he proposes a new genus,

under the name of Heteropyxis. But the character relied upon

as a generic distinction in this latter case is quite insignificant.

Of the most intimately allied species (e. g. Plumularia echinu-

lata, Lamk., and P. similis, Hincks), some possess the inter-

mediate joint, and some want it. Of the two British species

of Antennularia, antennina has it, but it is not present in

ramosa. "The difference is of the most trivial kind, and should

have no place in a generic diagnosis, much less should it

stand as the chief criterion of a genus. Nor can I agree with

Prof. Heller when he adopts Donati’s Anisocalyx for the group

in which the nematophores are distributed over the stem and

branches. The nomenclature of the Italian naturalist (who

regarded the zoophytes as plants) has not obtained any currency

in the literature of the Hydroida; and the particular name in

question seems to have had no reference originally to this

section of the Plumulartide, but to have been applied to cer-

tain forms belonging to the other group, of which the Sertularia

pluma (Linneus) is the type. Under these circumstances it

seems to me better to retain the two well-known and widely

used names of Lamouroux and Lamarck, Aglaophenia and

Plumularia. Meneghini assigns the name Anisocalyx to a

genus which he has founded for the Sertularta secundaria

120 Rev. T. Hincks on Prof. Heller’s Catalogue

(Cavolini), a form which cannot be separated from Plumularia

(mihi) ; while Costa (‘ Fauna di Napoli’) seems to have ap-

plied it to the whole group. As it seems to me, it must either

be retained for the plwma-section or abandoned altogether ;

and in the interests of scientific order I should adopt the latter

course.

Under the genus Anisocalyx Heller records five species as

found in the Adriatic; to these may be added the two which

he has relegated to his new genus Heteropyxis, and also Plu-

mularia frutescens, which he has wrongly associated with the

P. pluma section. Of these eight species, four are regarded as

new; they are distinguished from one another and from pre-

viously known forms chiefly by minute differences in the cha-

racter of the internodes and the disposition of the nemato-

phores. A. difrons, Heller, comes very near P. setacea, Ellis,

the chief difference being that in the former two pinne spring

from each division of the stem, in the latter only one. A

single nematophore also is mentioned as occurring in A. bi-

frons above the calycle, whereas in the allied form there are

two. The gonotheca is said to be oval or pyriform. The

Anisocalyx (Plumularia) setaceus of the Catalogue does not

appear to be identical with the British species of this name:

it has only a single nematophore, which is described as “a

rudimentary cell in the form of a small projecting denticle ”

placed in the middle behind the calycle, whereas the true P.

setacea has two bithalamic nematophores above the calycle,

one below it, and one on the intermediate joint. The gono-

theca, too, is said to be “ elliptical and smooth,” which would

certainly not be a satisfactory description of the elegant, flask-

shaped capsule of P. setacea. If I am right in conjecturing

that the Adriatic is distinct from the British form, I would

propose for the former the name of P. Hellert.

Another of Heller’s new species is the A. pinnatifrons,

which, judging from the diagnosis, comes very near the last.

The A. diaphanus is more strongly marked, and is charac-

terized by an ample development of nematophores, both on

stem and branches. Of the two species of Heteropyxis re-

corded, one has the pinne opposite, the other alternate; in all

other points they seem to agree. As I have said before,

these forms have no claim to be separated from Plwmularia

(mihi).

One other species of Anisocalyx (Plumularia) is included

in the Catalogue, A. secundarius, which is identified with the

Sertularia secundaria of Cavolini. As I have stated im my

‘History of the British Hydroida,’ there can be little doubt

that this curious form is only a stemless variety of Plum.

Catharina (Johnston) or some kindred species.

of the Hydroida of the Adriatic. 121

It appears, then, that in the Adriatic there is a considerable

group of Plumularie distinguished from one another by com-

paratively slight differences, most of which have not hitherto

been noticed elsewhere.

Laomedea dichotoma.—Vhe description given of this species

is not sufficient for identification ; and in the absence of any

reference to the later writers, who have most carefully inves-

tigated the Campanulariide, it is impossible to decide what

form is intended.

Laomedea gelatinosa.—The brief diagnosis and the reference

in the synonymy to Johnston’s plate xxv. figs. 3,4, would

seem to show that the Adriatic species to which this name is

applied is the Campanularia flexuosa, Hincks. It is certainly

not the Laomedea (Obelia) gelatinosa of Pallas.

Campanularia volubilis. —'The Campanularia (Clytia)

Johnstoni of Alder is, no doubt, the species intended. The

description shows that it is not the C. volubilis of Linneus.

To sum up, of the 37 species of Hydroida recorded by

Prof. Heller as occurring in the Adriatic, two (Coryne

pusilla and Laomedea dichotoma) cannot be identified with

any certainty; of the remaining 35, 18 are also found in the

British seas. The list of species that are common to Great

Britain and the Adriatic, as now revised, is as follows :—

Eudendrium ramosum,

Tubularia indivisa.

larynx.

Halecium halecinum.

Sertularella polyzonias.

Sertularia abietina.

operculata.

Diphasia tamarisca.

attenuata.

Thuiaria articulata.

Antennularia antennina (?). [It

is not improbable that A. Ja-

mint was the species recorded

by Olivi under this name. |

Aglaophenia pluma (cristata,

Heller).

myriophyllum. I have this

species also from the Red Sea.

Plumularia frutescens.

Obelia geniculata.

Campanularia flexuosa.

Clytia Johnstoni.

Lafoéa dumosa.

Of the foregoing, Sertularella polyzonias and Sertularia

operculata are cosmopolitan species.

Of the remaining 17 species contained in Prof. Heller’s list

six are new, and so far have only been found in the Adriatic ;

and five of the six are referable to the genus Plumularia.

The rest are known Mediterranean and Adriatic forms.

T hope that Prof. Heller may continue his researches, and

give us a much fuller account of the Hydroid fauna of this

interesting district.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. ix. 9

122 Rev. W. A. Leighton on the Genus Ramalina.

XVI.—Notule Lichenologice. No. XXXYV.

By the Rev. W. A. Lreiguton, B.A., F.L.S., F.B.S. Ed.

Recognitio Monographica Ramalinarum. Seripsit

WiiiaM NYLANDER, Caen, 1870.

Dr. W. NY LANDER has published, in the ‘ Bulletin de la

Société Linnéenne de Normandie,’ ser. 2. t. iv., and also sepa-

rately, a very valuable monograph of one of the most difficult

genera of Lichens, Ramalina. In respect of difficulty and

uncertainty the genus Lamalina is amongst lichens analogous

to the genera Rubus and Hieracium amongst flowering plants.

The critical acumen and painstaking discrimination of Dr.

Nylander have now, however, placed in our power the clue to

this puzzling labyrinth. In effecting this, Dr. Nylander has

discovered that the differences of the external surface of the

receptacles of the apothecia, and also the form and size of the

spores and spermatia, which have been hitherto altogether

neglected or overlooked, do in reality afford useful essential

characters. ‘To these must be added the chemical reactions

resulting from the application of hydrate of potash to the

medulla, which in one species is tinged with yellow, or yellow

which soon changes into red, whilst in other species no reac-

tion is produced. ‘ Medullam eo adminiculo tum crocee vel

lateritio-rubricose vel sanguinee ting! (preecedente tlavescentia),

apud alias vero species nullam talem coloris mutationem ob-

servavi.” He cautions students that this reaction is instanta-

neous or nearly so, and that the discoloration resulting from slow

drying or a secondary and slow reaction is to be altogether dis-

regarded. ‘ Reactionem ejusmodi dico eam, que applicato

adminiculo chemico mox vel fere mox prodit, nec respicio

colorationem obscuram interdum desiccatione lente accedente

ortam vel secundariam et tardam.”’

With regard to chemical reactions generally, I may take

this opportunity of mentioning that different observers have,

according to their statements, not unfrequently obtained dif-

ferent reactions from those indicated by writers on this sub-

ject. This may probably be accounted for in several ways.

Either the experimenter has relied entirely on the supposed

accuracy of the labels attached to specimens in published

Exsiccati, without also ascertaining, by examination into

essential characters, whether the lichen be really that indicated

by the label or not; or the chemicals used were old or feeble,

or had become wanting in energy by exposure to the atmo-

sphere. Both of these would be sources of error, and hence

also different results. My own experience induces me to re-

gard as of essential importance that the chemicals be of the

Rey. W. A. Leighton on the Genus Ramalina. 123

very best quality, and that the solutions be freshly prepared

and of the requisite strength. Hydrate of potash is best

compounded of equal weights of caustic potash and water*. It

is also of importance that the solution used on one day should

not be left exposed to the air in a vessel until another day,

but thrown away, and the vessel cleanly wiped. Nor should

fresh quantities of the solution be added to any reserved from

a previous experiment; for the proper results will fail. The

late severe cold weather has convinced me that temperature

has something to do with successful reaction; for with all

properly compounded appliances, I have failed (in various

lichens previously experimented upon with satisfactory reac-

tions) in obtaining the second red reaction after the yellow

one, with hydrate of potash, until I warmed the moistened

portion of the lichen at the fire, when the red reaction ensued.

Excessive cold would seem therefore to render the second

reaction very tardy and insufticient.

I may also add to the reactions obtained by Dr. Nylander

in the genus Ramalina another which I have obtained on the

cortical layer of the thallus—which, on being moistened with

hydrate of potash, exhibits no reaction, but on the subsequent

application of hypochlorite of lime, shows a feeble yellow

reaction, intensified into a deeper yellow, or even orange, by a

second application of hydrate of potash (K—, C faint yellow,

K deeper yellow). But this reaction, being observable in

all the Ramaline, does not aid us with any distinguishing

character.

Sixty-five species of Ramalina are described, 33 of which

occur in Africa, 27 in North America, 27 in South America,

19 in Asia, 18 in Europe, 11 in Australia, 5 in Polynesia ;

5 are found in the arctic zone, 33 in the north temperate zone,

32 in the equinoctial zone, and 14 in the south temperate

zone.

The cortical layer is variously composed: in some species

it is horny and subamorphous, or with indistinct cellules; in

others and the generality its external portion is amorphous,

and its internal portion is formed of longitudinal tubulose

conglutinated filaments. The structure of the cortical layer may

be best observed by placing a thin section in hydrate of potash,

under the microscope. In the spermogonia the sterigmata are

* The experimenter must also be certain that he obtains from the

chemist hydrate of potash; for it has happened to myself that codde of

potassium was once given me by a respectable chemist, with the remark

that “ hydrate” was the old name, but ‘‘iodide” the modern name for the

same chemical. But with it I could not obtain the requisite reactions.

124 Rev. W.A. Leighton on the Genus Ramalina.

subsimple or pauciarticulate, and are accompanied by elon-

ated and anastomosing filaments, as represented in Tulasne’s

ém. Lich. t. 2. f. 13-15. The form of the spermatia is pe-

culiar, being straight cylindrical or oblongo-cylindrical, ap-

parently more solid at the obtuse apices than in the middle.

The species are thus arranged :—

A. Spermogonia in conceptacles entirely black.

a. Cortical layer very thin, fragile, here and there cribrose;

thallus cylindrical, soft, internally empty.

1. R. inanis, Mont. (Medulla K—.)

6. Thallus rigescent, internally filled with a woolly me-

dulla ; cortical layer without longitudinal filaments.

2. R. ceruchis (Ach.). 3. R. combeoides, Nyl. 4. R. ho-

malea, Ach. 5. R. testudinaria, Nyl. 6. &. flacces-

cens, Nyl. (Medulla in all K—.)

c. Thallus rigescent, fruticulose ; cortical layer formed of

longitudinal filaments.

7. R. melanothrix, Laur. (Medulla K —.)

B. Spermogonia half-black.

8. RB. carpathica, Krbr. (Medulla K —.)

C. Spermogonia in pale or colourless conceptacles.

1. Stirps £. gracilis. Thallus attenuate, fruticulose, sub-

terete or subanguloso-terete, or attenuato-compressed ;

cortical layer filamentose.

+ Medulla K yellow, then red.

9. R. rigida (Pers.). 10. H. anceps, Nyl. 11. &. ara-

bum (Ach.). 12. R. dasypoga, Tuck.

tt Medulla K—.

a, Spores straight, or nearly so.

13. R. gracilis (Pers.). 14. 2. angulosa, Laur. 15. R.

implectens, Nyl. 16. &. thrausta (Ach.). 17. &.

gracilenta, Ach. 18. RB. Montagneit, D.N. 19. &.

taitensis, Nyl.

b. Spores curved.

20. LR. camptospora, Nyl.

2. Stirps &. usneoidis. 'Thallus lineari-attenuate, elongate,

compressed, generally pendulous, striate or substriatu-

late. Medulla K-.

a, Spores straight.

21. R. australiensis, Nyl. 22. R. rectangularis, Nyl.

23. R. usneoides (Ach.) and its vars. usneotdella, Nyl.,

and capensis, Nyl.

Rev. W. A. Leighton on the Genus Ramalina. 125

b. Spores curved.

24. Rh. reticulata (Noehd.). = 25. R. bogotensis, Nyl.

26. Le. chilensis, Bert.

3. Stirps 2. fraxinee. 'Thallus compressed, more or less

longitudinally striato-nervose or subcostato-unequal.

a. Cortical layer filamentose.

t Medulla K yellow, then red.

27. £. subpollinaria, Nyl. 28. &. denticulata (Eschw.)

and its var. canalicularis, Nyl.

tT Medulla K —.

29. R. complanata (Sw.); *R. hypodectodes, Nyl. 30. R.

peruviana, Ach. 31. R. canaliculata, Tayl.; *R. li-

nearis (Sw.). 32. &. alludens, Nyl. 33. R. calicaris

(Hffm.) and its vars. swhampliata, Nyl., and subfasti-

grata, Nyl.; *R. Roeslert, Hochst. 34. R. farinacea(L.);

*H. protensa, Nyl.; *R. subcomplanata, Nyl. 35. BR.

FSraxinea (L.) and its vars. platyna, Nyl., and calicari-

formis, Nyl.; *R. fastigiata (Pers.); *R. confirmata,

Nyl.; *&. subcalicaris, Ny]. 36. R. subfraxinea, Nyl.,

and its var. subcanaliculata, Nyl.; *R. polycarpa,

Mnt. MS8.; *. 2. Menziesi7, Tuck.; * 2. ‘nterponens, Nyl.;

*R. levodea, Nyl. 37. R. cumanensis, Fée. 38. R. bis-

torta, Nyl. 39. R. sorediantha, Nyl. 40. R. yemenensis

(Ach.); *£. ovalis, Tayl. & Hook. 41. &. lanceolata,

Nyl. 42. &. sulcatula, Nyl. 48. 2. sepiacea (Pers.).

44. R. polymorpha, Ach., and its var. capitata, Ach.

45, R. pollinaria, Ach.

b, Thallus generally transversely or subreticulately unequal.

Cortical layer amorphous or nearly so.

+ Medulla K yellow, then ferruginous red.

46. R. vulcania (Mut). -

TT Medulla K -.

47. R. Bourgeana, Mut. 48. 2. evernioides, Nyl. 49. R.

maciformis, Delile. 50. &. crispatula, Despr. 51. R.

Webbii, Mnt.

4. Stirps 2. scopulorum. 'Thallus firm, solidly corticate,

subtereti-compressed, unequal on the surface ; external

portion of the cortex amorphous, internal portion fila-

mentose.

t Medulla K yellow, then ferruginous red.

52. R. scopulorum (Dicks.) and its vars. ‘ncrassata, Nyl.,

and nematodes, Nyl.; *R. decipiens, Mut.; *2. sub-

webbiana, Nyl.

126 = Rev. W. A. Leighton on the Genus Ramalina.

ty Medulla K-.

53. R. cuspidata (Ach.) and its vars. erassa (Del.) and

subvittata, Nyl. 54. R. vittata, Nyl. 55. ZR. tingi-

tana, Salam. 56. R. inequalis, Nyl.

5. Stirps 2. pusille. Thallus smooth or nearly so, fistulose,

here and there perforated. Medulla K— (except in

R. subpusilla, which has a yellow reaction).

A. Cortical layer amorphous.

57. R. pusilla, Le Prév.

B. Cortical layer filamentose.

a, Spores straight.

58. BR. tasmanica, Nyl. 59. R. inflata, Hook. fil. &

Tayl. 60. R. geniculata, Hook. & Tayl.; *2. sub-

pusilla, Nyl. 61. BR. minuscula (Nyl.) and its vars.

pollinariella, Nyl., and dendroidella, Nyl.; *R. inter-

media, Del. 62. Rk. pumila, Mnt.; *R. javanica, Nyl.

63. R. subgeniculata, Nyl. 64. R. Panizzei, D.N.

b. Spores curved.

65. R. abyssinica, Nyl.

[Those marked * are subspecies. |

From the above we find that our British species must be

rearranged thus :—

1. R. thrausta (Ach.). Pale straw-colour, j/iformi-terete

or subterete, here and there compressed, somewhat shining,

very slenderly divided and excessively branched, capillari-

attenuate and interwoven at the apices; cortical layer filamen-

tose; medulla K —; apothecia unknown.

On subalpine rocks, rare.

Syn. Alectoria thrausta, Ach. L. U. 596, Syn. 294. R.

thrausta, Nyl. Mon. Ramal. 18; Leight. Lich. Fl. G. B. 94.

Eas. Fries, L. 8. 267,

Geog. distrib. Europe.

England. Longmynd!, Shropshire.

Scotland. Coast of Kincardineshire; Morrone; Braemar ;

Craig Tulloch, Rev. J. MW. Crombie.

Channel Islands. The Warrens, Noirmont, Jersey!, Mr.

Larbalestier.

2. R. calicaris (Hffm.). Pale glaucous-grey, albescent, er

albido-flavescent, rigescent, erect, dichotomously branched ;

lacinie linear, compressed, elongated, attenuated at the apices,

longitudinaliy lacunoso-canaliculate ; cortical layer filamentose ;

medulla K—; apothecia terminal, subtended by the deflexed

Rey. W. A. Leighton on the Genus Ramalina. 127%

and elongated extremities of the lacinie; receptacle rugose be-

neath; spores 8, colourless, ellipsoid, straight, 1-septate ; sper-

mogonia in pale or colourless receptacles.

On trees.

Syn. Lobaria calicaris, Hffm. Fl. Germ. 139. R. fastigiata,

var. calicaris, Ach. L. U. 604, Syn. 297. L. calicaris, vay.

canaliculata, Fr. L. K.30. 2. calicaris, Nyl. Mon. Ramal. 33;

Leight. Lich. Fl. G. B. 92.

Hig Dill, 2:23. f 62,4, Bs Mors. 3. § 154. fai oganel,

men wom, 1797, t.. Ode 1,1.

Hes. M.& N. 452; Mudd, 44; Welw. Lusit. 42.

Geog. distrib. Europe, Asia, Africa, North and South

America,

England. Airyholme woods!, Ayton, Yorkshire, Mr. Mudd ;

Oswestry!, Shropshire, Rev. 7. Salwey; Shropshire generally!

Scotland. Ayrshire!, Mrs. Dobie; Johnstone Hill, Forfar !,

Dr. Gilchrist.

Wales. Llandrindod !, Radnorshire, Rev. T. Salwey.

Var. subampliata, Nyl. Lacinic of thallus broader and

more dilated, similarly to R. fraxinea, longitudinally nervoso-

rugose, lacunose and canaliculate; apothecia marginal and

terminal; receptacle rugose; spores straight.

On trees.

Syn. Nyl. Mon. Ramal. 34 (1870).

og, Ach. Act. Holm. 1797, t, 9. fal, 'G, Kk.

Es. Anzi, Lich. Ital. Sup. 63; Anzi, Langob. 419.

Geog. distrib. France, Portugal, Algeria, Hast Indies,

England, Yorkshire!, Mr. G. Dixon.

Var. subfastigiata, Ny]. Similar in general appearance to

R. fastigiata; apothecia terminal; receptacle rugose; spores

straight.

On rocks and trees.

Syn. Nyl. Mon. Ramal. 34 (1870).

tage Ach. Act Eolm. 179%, t: 9.2. 158.

Exs. Welw. Lusit. 44; Mandon, Mad. 24.

Geog. distrib. France, Portugal, Madeira, North America.

Ireland. Rocks near Coachtord, 11 miles west of Cork!,

Mr. Carroll; near Fermoy !, Mr. Chandler.

Wales. Liandrindod!, Rev. T. Salwey.

3. R. farinacea (L.). Whitish, pale straw-coloured or glau-

cescent, erect, subrigescent, dichotomously branched; lacinie

linear, elongated, undulato- attenuated at the apices, compressed,

plane and polished, sometimes sublacunose, canaliculate, with

white, oblong, more or less confluent soredia on the edges; cor-

128 Rey. W. A. Leighton on the Genus Ramalina.

tical layer filamentose; medulla K—; “apothecia testaceo-

pallida vel glaucescentia, receptaculo infra levi; sporee ellip-

soideo-oblongz vel fusiformi-ellipsoides, rectee”’ (Nyl. Mon.

35) ; spermogonia in pale or colourless receptacles.

On trees and palings.

I have never seen any specimens in fructification.

Syn. Lichen farinaceus, Linn. Fl. Suec. ed. 2, 1089. R.

farinacea, Ach. L. U. 606, Syn. 297; Nyl. Mon. Ramal. 34;

Leight. Lich. Fl. G. B. 93.

eg, ih. Bot, t. 889); “Ach. Act. Holm. 1797; 4. 19a, k.

Exs. M. & N. 356; Anzi, Etr.6; Anzi, Ital. Sup. 67;

Scher. 494; Mudd, 45.

Geog. distrib. Europe, Asia, Africa, North and South Ame-

rica, Polynesia, Australia.

England. Norfolk, Rev. H. Bryant; Clapham Park Wood,

Bedfordshire, Rev. C. Abbot; near Newton! and Kildale!,

Cleveland, Yorkshire!, Mr. Mudd; Oswestry!, Shropshire,

Rev. T. Salwey; Thirsk!, Yorkshire, Mr. Baker ; Shomere

woods!, Haughmond Hill!, Shropshire; Dinmore Wood !,

Herefordshire. .

Scotland. Balthayock woods!, Perth, Dr. Lindsay; Ayr-

shire!, Mrs. Dobie.

Ireland. Fermoy!, Mr. Chandler.

Wales. Glynn, near Capel Curig!

Very variable; many forms, minute in size, frequently

occur, but scarcely worth distinguishing.

A, R. fraxinea (L.). Pale straw or yellowish, or glaucescent,

pendulous, straggling, subrigescent ; lacinize compressed, more

or less broadly applanato-dilated, lacunose, longitudinally ru-

gose or nervose, elongated and attenuated at the apices ; cor-

tical layer filamentose ; medulla K—; apothecia large, mar-

ginal and superficial, brownish-yellow or glaucescent ; recep-

tacle rugose or plicato-rugose; spores 8, colourless, oblong,

curved, 1-septate ; spermogonia in pale colourless receptacles.

On trees, very common.

Syn. Lichen fraxineus, Linn. Fl. Suec. ed. 2,1091. R.

fraxinea, Ach. L. U. 602, Syn. 296; Nyl. Mon. Ramal. 36;

Leight. Lich. Fl. G. B. 94.

Forma typica tenieformis, Ach. Lacinie moderately di-

lated, very much elongated, attenuate at the base and apex,

longitudinally rugose or nervoso-plicate. ,

Syn. R. fraxinea, var. tenieformis, Ach. L. U. 603; Nyl.

Mon. Ramal. 37.

Fug. Wi. Bot. t. 1781; Westr. Maerch. t. 12.6;

Exs, Anzi, Ital. Sup. 60, and 59, 4, B, pb; Mass. Ital. 117;

Rey. W. A. Leighton on the Genus Ramalina. 129

Anzi, 116; M. & N. 158 (two lower specimens) ; Scher. 492

(left- hand specimen).

Geog. distrib. Europe, Asia, Africa, North and South Ame-

rica, Polynesia, Australia.

Wales. Llandrindod !, Rev. 7. Salwey; Edderton Wood},

Montgomeryshire.

Forma ampliata, Ach. Lacinie excessively and very broadly

applanato-dilated, lacunose, longitudinally coarsely rugose or

ner vose, and transversely ly subreticulato-rugose, apices obtuse and

es med.

R. fraxinea, var. ampliata, Ach. L. U. 603; Nyl.

ae Ramal. 37.

Fig. Hoffm. Pl. Lich. t.18; Dill. t. 22. fig. 59, c.

Exs. Anzi, Ital. Sup. 62, 59, Cc; Scher. "492 ‘(right-hand

specimen) ; M. &N. (upper specim.); Leight. 38; Mass. 119,

11S A: Mudd, 42; Bohl. 21.

Geog. distrib. Europe.

England. Charnwood Forest!, Leicestershire, Rev.A.Bloxam;

Thirsk !, Yorkshire, J/r. Baker ; ; Oswestry!, Shropshire, Rev.

LT, Salwey ; near Ayton!, Cleveland, Mr. Mudd ; near Shrews-

bury !, Pulley !, Shropshire ; Dinmore Wood }, Herefordshire.

Scotland. Invercauld!, Braemar, Dr: Lindsay.

5. R. fastigiata (Pers.). Pale-yellowish straw-colour, small,

densely ceespitose ; lacinie subcompressed, dilated and inflated

upwards, smooth ‘and somewhat lacunose and nervoso-r ugose ;

cortical layer filamentose ; medulla K— ; apothecia terminal,

peltato-sessile, swbfasti giate, subtended by the very short, de-

Jormed, divaricate extremities of the lacinie ; receptacle ’ pli-

cato-rugose ; spores 8, colourless, ellipsoideo- -oblong, straight,

curved and gibbous, ie -septate ; spermogonia in pale colourless

receptacles.

On trees, common.

Syn. Lichen fastigiatus, Pers. in Uster. N. Ann. Bot. i.

p- 256. LR. fastigiata, Ach. L. U. 603, Syn. 296 ; Nyl. Mon.

Ramal. 39; Leight. Lich. Fl. G. B. 94,

Fig. E. Bot. t. 890 (lower left-hand fig.) ; Dill. t. 23. f. 62,c¢;

Ach. in Act. Holm. 1797, t. 9. f..1, B, B; Westr. Faergh. t. 12.

f. E.

Exs. Bohl. 22; Leight. 39; Larbal. 60; Mudd, 43 ; Welw.

Lusit. 41; M. &N. 452 ; Anzi, Etr. 5; Anzi, Ital. Sup. 64.

Geog. distrib. Europe, Asia, ’ Africa, North America.

FEingland. Charnwood Forest!, Leicestershire, Rev.A.bloxam;

Oswestry !, Shropshire, Rev. T Salwey ; Ayton !, Cleveland,

Mr. Mudd; Pulley!, Haughmond Hill, near Shrewsbury !;

Dinmore!, "Herefordshire.

130 Rey. W. A. Leighton on the Genus Ramalina.

Scotland. Kinnoul Hill!, Perth; Yester House!, Hadding-

ton, Dr. Lindsay.

Ireland. Great Island!, Cork, Mr. Carroll.

Wales. Kdderton Wood!, Montgomeryshire.

Channel Islands. Jersey!, Serk!, &c., Mr. Larbalestier.

Of this lichen Dr. Nylander remarks (/. c.) :—‘‘ Vix est nisi

varietas f. fraxinee, thallo magis contracto et subfastigiato-

diviso vel laciniis subfastigiatis. Spore magis typice curvule

- quam in &. calicari, que certe arctissime affinis, et forsan he

ambze alizeque cohabitantes seepe hybridas proferant formas

intercedentes, quarum determinatio aliquando nonnihil in-

certa maneat; typus tamen sepius notis datis sat facile est

agnoscendus.”’

6. R. polymorpha, Ach. Pale straw-colour or glaucescent,

rigid, small, robust, densely cespitose, sublineari-laciniate ;

lacinie dilatato-compressed, coarsely longitudinally striato-

rugose and sublacunose, globuloso-granuloso-sorediate ; cortical

layer filamentose ; medulla K — ; apothecia marginal or sub-

terminal ; - receptacle rugoso-unequal or nearly s smooth : ; spores 8,

colourless, oblongo-ellipsoid or oblong, nearly straight or

straight, 1-septate ; spermogonia in pale colourless receptacles.

On maritime rocks.

Syn. L. polymorpha, Ach. L. U. 600, Syn. 295; Nyl. Mon.

Ramal. 50.

Hig. Ach. Act. Holm. 1797, t. 11. f. 3.

Eas. Fries, L. 8. 144.

Geog. distrib. Kurope, Africa.

Forma ligulata, Ach. Lacinie thick, rigid, cartilaginous,

either plane and nearly simple or broader and de a med, and

covered with sorediate pustules,

On maritime rocks.

Syn. L. polymorpha, var. ligulata, Ach. Syn. 295; Nyl.

Mon. Ramal. 51; Leight. Lich. Fl. G. B. 92.

Fig. Ach. Act. Holm. £797 4. PE. SAY BE ek.

Exs. Mudd, 47; Leighton, 73.

England. Roseberry Topping!, Howden Gill!, Cleveland,

Mr. Mudd: Whitsuncliffe !, near Thirsk , Yorkshire, Mr. Baker:

Shanklin church }, Isle of Wight, Rev. T, Salwey 2Y«

_I have never seen any fructification.

7. R. pollinaria,Ach. Pale straw-colour or whitish, or albido-

elaucescent, densely caespitose, membranaceo- laciniose ; ; lacinice

short, dilated and compressed, somewhat shining, sublacunose

or lacunoso- -corrugate, flaccid, covered with broad, white, fari-

noso-sorediate, confluent patches; cortical layer ’filamentose ;

Rey. W. A. Leighton on the Genus Ramalina. 131

medulla K — ;

; apothecia marginal and terminal; receptacle

unequal; spores 8, colourless, oblong, straight or gibbous,

1-septate ; spermogonia in pale colourless receptacles.

On trees, palings, rocks, &e.

Syn. £. pollinaria, Ach. Syn. 298; Nyl. Mon. Ramal. 52 ;

Leight. Lich. Fl. G. B. 95.

Geog. distrib. Europe, Africa.

Forma elatior, Ach. Lacinie suberect, elongate, plane, sub-

linear, attenuate and albo-pulverulento-sorediate at the apices.

aes wich: Net Holm A797, 1 fy AB, Ope

Exs. Scher. 393; Hepp, 564, 565; M. & N. 546.

England. Caer Caradoc!, Haughmond Hill!, Shropshire.

Forma humilis, Ach. Membranaceo-dilated, laciniose, with

broad, confluent, powdery white soredia,

Mo vwAch Act. Holm. W497,,¢, V4.2; D, Ee

Kes. Leight. 41; Mudd, 46.

England. Gopsall !, Leicestershire, Rev.A.Bloxam; Ingleby!,

Cleveland, Mr. Mudd; Haughmond Hill!, Shropshire.

8. R. scopulorum (Dicks.). Pale straw-colour, rigid, carti-

laginous, shining; lacinic elongate, linear, subtereti-compressed,

simple, or branched at the apex, attenuate ; cortical layer solid,

external portion amorphous, internal portion filamentose ; me-

dulla K yellow, then ferruginous red; apothecia marginal and

subterminal; receptacle nearly smooth; spores 8, colourless,

oblong, straight, 1-septate ; spermogonia in pale colourless

receptacles, sometimes nigricant.

On maritime rocks, rare.

Syn. Lichen scopulorum, Dicks. Crypt. Brit. 3.18. 2. sco-

pulorum, Ach. L. U. 604, Syn. 297; Nyl. Mon. Ramal. 58 ;

Leight. Lich. Fl..G. B. 91 (in part).

Fig. EK. Bot. 688; Nyl. Syn. t. 8. f. 29.

fxs. Larbal. 13; Bohl. 112.

Geog. distrib. Europe, Africa.

England. Lamorna Cove, Cornwall, Mr. Knapp ; Land’s

End, Messrs. Turner & Sowerby.

Scotland. Mr. Dickson (I. c.).

Channel Islands. Grosnez Common, Jersey!, Mr. Larba-

lestier.

9. R. cuspidata (Ach.). Pale straw-colour, rigid, cartilagi-

nous, shining; lacinice elongate, linear, compressed, more or

less longitudinally striato-nervose, lacunose, and sorediato-

tuberculate, simple or dichotomously branched ; cortical layer

solid, external portion amorphous, internal portion filamentose ;

medulla K—; apothecia marginal and subterminal ; receptacle

132 Mr. F. P. Pascoe on Additions to

smooth ; spores 8, colourless, oblong, straight, 1-septate ; sper-

mogonia in pale colourless receptacles.

On maritime rocks, frequent.

Dr. Nylander (/. c.) remarks :—“‘ Forsan non vere specie

differat a L. scopulorum, tamen presertim ob reactionem

kalicam deficientem, seorsim hic est exponenda.”’

Syn. 2. scopulorum, var. cuspidata, Ach. L. U.605, Syn. 297.

f. scopulorum, Leight. Lich. Fl. G. B. 91 (in part). 2. cus-

pidata, Nyl. Mon. Ramal. 60.

#ig. Ach. Act. Holm. 1797, t. 9. f. 2,8; Dill. t.17. f. 39) a.

Eas. Th. M. Fries, 1; Anzi, Ital. Sup. 69; Scher. 554;

Hepp, 837; Leight. 2; Rabh. 864.

Geog. distrib. Europe, Asia, Africa, North America.

England. Yorkshire!, Mr. Dixon.

Wales. South Stacks!, Holyhead.

XVII.—Additions to the Australian Curculionide. Part II.

By Francis P. Pascor, F.L.S. &c.

OTIORHYNCHIN2. Cydmea luctuosa.

Titinia marmorata. pusilla.

viridula.

LEPTOPODINZ. B

; 2 ELINA,

Polyphrades longipennis. arnt

Cherrus aureolus. Rhinotia elytrura.

Stenocorynus vittatus. venusta.

aridus. BaLaNInz.

DIABATHRARIIN®. Balaninus Mastersii.

Atelicus miniatus. DERELOMINE.

ATERPINZE, Ochropheebe, n. g.,

Aterpus griseatus. uniformis.

ee foveipennis. L2MOSACCINE.

aliginosa. ay

oats, Lzemosaccus dapsilis.

myrrhata. ida

longimanus.

HyLosiun2. —— narinus.

Demyrsus, n. g. cryptonyx.

meleoides. CRYPTORHYNCHINE.

ERIRHININE. Melanterius vinosus.

Cydmeea, n. g. —— cinnamomeus.

— bimaculata. servulus.

Titinia marmorata.

T. anguste ovata, nigra, albido-squamulosa et nigro-setosa, supra

fusco varia; capitis fronte rostroque in medio linea longitudi-

naliter impressa; antennis subtestaceis, squamulis filiformibus

adspersis ; clava vix pedunculata ; prothorace subeylindrico, utrin-

que leviter rotundato, fusco trivittato ; scutello rotundato; elytris

the Australian Curculionide. 133

lineatim striatis, interstitiis latis, postice magis convexis, singulis

in medio longitudinaliter fusco marmoratis vel maculatis ; pedibus

testaceo-ferrugineis, sat dense albido-squamosis. Long. 14 lin.

(rostr. incl.).

Hab. New South Wales.

The coloration, as well as the smaller size, will differentiate

this species from 7. ignara, Pasc. (Ent. Month. Mag. vi. p.101).

Titinia is best separated from [daspora by its rostrum having

no raised lines or coste bordering the scrobes on each side

and continued back nearly to the eyes, as in the latter. This

character, therefore, should be taken from the specific and

added to the generic formula.

Polyphrades longipennis.

P. elongato-obovatus, subnitide niger; rostro nonnihil breviusculo,

quinquecarinato ; antennis fuscis, sparse squamulosis, scapo bre-

viusculo, apice valde incrassato ; prothorace modice transverso,

utrinque ampliato, crebre subtiliter mamillato-granulato ; elytris

elongato-trigonatis, prothorace angustioribus, apice paulo divari-

catis, subtilissime parce squamulosis, lateribus modice rotundatis, -

sulcato-punctatis, interstitiis parum convexis ; corpore infra albo

squamuloso; pedibus sublevigatis. Long. 5 lin.

Hab. South Australia.

This species has the habit of Cherrus Mastersiz; but the

short scape, which is also remarkably thick at the apex, shows

that it belongs to Polyphrades. 'The females in this genus

are more regularly ovate than the males, and the prothorax

much narrower ; but even in males of the same species this

last character is subject to variation. The scales appear to be

unusually deciduous.

Ch errus au reolus.

C. oblongus, fuscus, squamulis minutis albidis sejunctim vestitus ;

capite rostroque antice dense aureo-grisescenti, lateribus albo

squamulosis ; antennis setigeris; funiculo articulo secundo quam

tertio vix longiore; prothorace manifeste transverso, supra mo-

dice convexo, transversim corrugato; elytris ovatis, prothorace

vix latioribus, dorso sulcato-punctatis, punctis oblongis, approxi-

matis, interstitiis sat latis, modice convexis, lateribus dense

fuscescenti-squamulosis ; corpore infra pedibusque dense aureo-

grisescenti squamulosis, his squamis majusculis interjectis; fe-

moribus fusco-variegatis. Long. 42 lin.

Hab. King George’s Sound.

At once differentiated from its allies by the corrugated pro-

thorax. The scales at the sides and underneath have, under

134 Mr. F. P. Pascoe on Additions to

a strong lens, a pale golden lustre, very bright in certain

lights.

Stenocorynus vittatus.

S. oblongo-ovatus, niger, omnino squamis griseis vel viridescentibus

dense tectus ; rostro modice elongato, in medio carinato, lateribus

oblique sulcato; antennis tenuioribus, funiculo articulo primo

haud incrassato secundo breviore, clava elongata, attenuata, basi

excepta, nigra, articulis quatuor ultimis funiculi longitudine

eequali; prothorace transverso, postice parallelo, 2 magis trans-

verso; elytris ovalibus, striato-punctatis, interstitio suturali,

quarto decimoque elevatis, nigrescentibus, septimo etiam elevato,

sed concolori; abdomine, segmento ultimo excepto, sparse granu-

lato. Long. 6 lin.

Hab. Night Island (N.E. coast).

Closely allied to S. crenulatus, Fab., but differs in outline,

antenne, and dark stripes on the elytra. The following is

also an allied species, having, ¢nter alia, a shorter and pro-

portionally broader form.

Stenocorynus aridus.

S. ovatus, omnino niger, sat dense griseo-squamosus ; rostro crassius-

culo, breviore,in medio carinato, sulcis lateralibus obsoletis; funiculo

articulo primo breyi, haud crasso, secundo paulo longiore, clava

ovali, haud elongata, basi excepta, nigra; prothorace valde trans-

verso, in medio linea longitudinali nigraimpresso ; elytris breviter

ovatis, striato-punctatis, interstitiis quarto, septimo decimoque

parum elevatis, apicibus paulo divaricatis; pedibus breviusculis.

Long. 4 lin.

Hab. Vizard Island.

Atelicus miniatus.

A. elongatus, ovali-cylindricus, omnino ruber, squamulis minutis

albidis sat sparse, lateribus corpore infra pedibusque magis dense

vestitus, supra punctis singulis squama majuscula instructis,

regulariter adspersus ; prothorace transverso, conico ; scutello

parvo; elytris seriatim punctatis, postice sensim declivibus ; api-

cibus parum emarginatis. Long. 1% lin.

Hab. Moreton Bay.

Differs in its more oval outline and uniform red-lead colour,

partially toned down by the minute whitish scales, from the

other members of the genus.

Aterpus griseatus.

A. breviter subovatus, niger, omnino dense grisescenti, supra sub-

fusco variegatus, squamosus; rostro breviusculo, basi interrupte

transversim sulcato, supra bilobo ; funiculo articulo secundo primo

the Australian Curculionide. . 135

breviore; prothorace parum oblongo, antice gibboso, utrinque

valde rotundato, subremote granulato, setulis albis adpressis parce

obsito, disco fusco ; scutello elevato, rotundato; elytris basi pro-

thorace fere duplo latioribus, latitudine sesquilongioribus, lateri-

bus leviter inflexis, seriatim punctatis, punctis modice approxi-

matis, singulis unisquamigeris, interstitiis elevatis, subremote

tenuiter granulatis, apice rotundatis, in medio sepissime late

albido fasciatis, apicem versus pallidioribus ; corpore infra pedi-

busque dense pallide squamosis, squamis elongatis intermixtis.

Long. 4—43 lin.

Hab. Queensland.

Aterpus cultratus, Fab., and A. horrens, Bois., may be taken

as representatives of two types of form in the genus; this

rather common species will furnish another.

Rhinaria fovetpennis.

&. oblonga, nigra, pallide fusco-squamosa, squamulis elongatis albis

parcius intermixta’; fronte inter oculos tri- vel subquinqueverru-

cosa (verruca infera sulcis duabus longitudinalibus impressa) ;

rostro nigro nitido, a basi arcuato; funiculo clavaque elongatis,

hac obovata, acuminata; prothorace latitudine parum longiore,

rugoso, remote punctato, granulis nitidis irregulariter adsperso ;

scutello elevato, albo-squamoso ; elytris basi prothorace fere duplo

latioribus, humeris prominulis, rotundatis, rude seriatim foveatis,

interstitiis alternis costulatis, uniseriatim conferte granulatis, in-

terstitlis intermediis sparse granulatis, apice rotundatis ; corpore

infra pedibusque dense squamosis, squamis elongatis albidis inter-

mixtis. Long. 6—73 lin.

Hab. New South Wales (Bombala).

Rhinaria caliginosa.

R. oblonga, nigra, pallide fusco-squamosa, setulis raris intermixta ;

fronte subquadriverrucosa; rostro ultra basin recto; funiculo

clavaque brevioribus; prothorace subremote granulato, et valide

punctato; scutello elevato, obovato; elytris basi prothorace fere

duplo latioribus, humeris paulo prominulis, rotundatis, seriatim

foveatis, interstitiis magis squaliter elevatis, subremote granu-

latis, apice rotundatis ; corpore infra pedibusque ut in precedente.

Long. 5-6 lin.

Hab, Bombala.

These two species may be placed near 2. granulosa, Fhs. ;

the first may be distinguished by its rough foveated elytra,

and the second by the interstices being all more or less equally

elevated. The following differs in colour and in the peculiar

character of the rostrum.

136 Mr. F. P. Pascoe on Additions to

Rhinaria myrrhata.

R. oblonga, nigra, supra squamulis fulvo-aurantiacis sat dense, pro-

thorace excepto, vestita; fronte ut in R. foverpenni ; rostro brevi,

supra dimidio apicali late longitudinaliter excavato, fundo excava-

tionis bisuleato ; antennis fulvo-squamulosis, clava nigra ; protho-

race sat confertim granulato, disco nigro, sparse squamuloso ; scu-

tello elevato, scutiformi; elytris prothorace fere duplo latioribus,

humeris prominulis, rotundatis, seriatim punctatis, interstitiis ele-

vatis, preesertim alternatis, his confertim, alteris remote seriatim

nitide granulatis, basi et paulo pone medium colore saturatiore

atro-maculato notatis; corpore infra pedibusque squamulis palli-

dioribus tectis. Long. 45-6 lin.

Hab. South Australia.

DEMYRSUS.

Rostrum tenuatum, arcuatum, prothorace longius; scrobes ante-

median, obliquee ; antennee breviuscule ; funiculo brevi, articulis

quatuor ultimis valde transversis ; ; clava magna, oblonga, tomen-

tosa. Oculi ovati, subtus approximati, grosse granulati. Pro-

thorax subtransversus, lateribus rotundatus, basi ‘bisinuatus; lobis

ocularibus distinctis. Scutellum parvum. Hlytra suboblonga,

prothorace latiora. Pedes minusculi; femora incrassata, infra

subdentata ; tdi intus flexuosee, apice unguiculatee ; tarst sub-

tenues, articulo tertio bilobo, quarto elongato ; waguiculi simplices.

Pectus excavatum, apice profunde emarginatum. Coa antice

modice sejunctee. Metasternum modice elongatum. Abdomen

segmentis 3-4 brevibus.

The insect described below has a strong resemblance to

Meleus Megerlex; but, notwithstanding the pectoral cavity,

which might suggest a relationship to one of the Apostasi-

merous groups, its general characters, particularly of the tibize

and the antenne, the latter resembling those of Aclees,Schon.,

point to the Hylobiine. The separation of the anterior coxe

is a character found also in Pissodes, Seleuca, &e.

Demyrsus meleoides.

D. ovatus, niger, setulis squamisque piliformibus, plerumque fusces-

centibus, subvariegatim vestitus; rostro apicem versus nitide

castaneo; funiculo clava vix longiore, articulo primo ceteris lon-

giore, sed breviusculo; prothorace apice quam basi multo angus-

tiore, creberrime punctato, in medio longitudinaliter carinulato ;

elytris striato-punctatis, interstitiis alternis costato-elevatis, con-

fuse fusco-irroratis, singulis pone medium, suturam approximata

macula rotundata ochracea notatis ; corpore infra nigro-castaneo,

punctis unisetulosis adsperso; pedibus sparse setulosis. Long.

5-54 lin.

Hab. New South Wales (Sydney).

the Australian Curculionide. 137

CYDM AA.

Rostrum subtenuatum, arcuatum, lateribus basi striolatum ; scrobes

antemedianz, oblique, ab oculis paulo desinentes ; scapus oculum

haud attingens; funiculus 7-articulatus, articulo primo crassiore;

clava distincta. Prothorav subconicus, basi lateribusque rotun-

datus, lobis ocularibus leviter productis. Elytra breviter obovata

vel subcordata, prothorace latiora. Pedes mediocres ; femora in-

crassata, mutica ; tibiw breves, antic arcuate, intus haud den-

tate, apice mucronate ; tarsi breves, art. tribus basalibus gra-

datim latioribus; wnguiculi simplices. Mesosternwm latum ; me-

tasternum breviusculum. Processus intercoxalis latum, subtrun-

catum. Abdomen breve, segmentis 3—4 brevibus; sutwra prima

recta. Corpus squamosum.

This is one of the many undescribed forms belonging to the

Erirhinine which is perhaps best approximated to Hrirhinus*

itself, but differs in habit, which is that of Tychius, and well

differentiated by the breadth of the mesosternum and the con-

sequent remoteness of the coxe of the intermediate legs.

The delicately raised longitudinal lines, and their correspond-

ing grooves on the basal half of the rostrum, are also a good

character.

Cydmea bimaculata.

C. breviter elliptica, nigra, squamis niveis sejunctim, subtus den-

sius, vestita; antennis, tibiis tarsisque fusco-ferrugineis ; rostro

nigro, prothorace breviore ; funiculo articulo secundo primo paulo

breviore, ceteris gradatim brevioribus; prothorace latitudine

haud longiore; scutello parvo, esquamoso; elytris subcordatis,

humeris paulo callosis, striato-punctatis, singulis in medio macula

conspicua rotundata subnigra notatis. Long. 12 lin.

Hab. South Australia (Gawler).

Very like our Hilescus bipunctatus, but broader.

Cydmea luctuosa.

C. breviter elliptica, atra, sat dense nigro-squamulosa, niveo-macu-

lata, scid. maculis duabus inter oculos, una utrinque basi pro-

thoracis, una humerali, una fascieeformi pone medium elytrorum,

sutura postice etiam nivyea; rostro tenuiore, nigro; antennis

fusco-piceis ; funiculo sparse niveo-piloso ; prothorace angustiore ;

scutello inconspicuo ; elytris subcordatis, humeris parum callosis,

indistincte striato-punctatis; corpore infra pedibusque sejunctim

niveo-squamulosis. Long. | lin.

Hab. South Australia (Gawler).

* The type of this genus is £. ethiops, Fab. (Schon. Disp. p. 229),

not EL. nereis (as given by C. G. Thomson, Skand. Col. i. p. 186). Dory-

tomus, Steph. (Ill. iv. p, 82) is differentiated by the absence of ocular

lobes, femora unidentate beneath, &c.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. 1x. 10

138 Mx. F. P. Pascoe on Additions to

Cydmea pusilla.

C. breviter elliptica, atra, plagiatim nigro- et niveo-squamosa ; ca-

pite rostroque nigris, inter oculos et basi rostri niveis; antennis

ferrugineis; prothorace subtransverso, basi lateribusque niveo ;

elytris subcordatis, striato-punctatis, ante medium posticeque

plus minusye nigris ; corpore infra pedibusque niveo-squamulosis.

Long. § lin.

Hab. South Australia (Gawler).

This species differs, inter alia, from the preceding in the

indeterminate patches of black and white, the latter being in

excess, and mingling at the edges more sparsely with the

former. The following is of a beautiful golden green; but I

can find nothing to warrant its separation generically.

Cydmea viridula.

C. ovata, nigra, squamulis aureo-viridibus omnino tecta; rostro

longitudine prothoracis, apicem versus gradatim paulo latiore,

basi excepta nigro; antennis flavo-ferrugineis; prothorace sub-

transverso, lobis ocularibus fere obsoletis; scutello inconspicuo ;

elytris prothorace sat valde latioribus, utrinque leviter rotundatis,

lineatim albo-setosulis, inter lineas squamulis in seriebus duabus

sejunctim ordinatis ; abdomine sutura prima in medio paulo ar-

cuata; tibiis tarsisque ferrugineis squamulis piliformibus ad-

spersis. Long. 1+ lin.

Hab. Western Australia (Fremantle).

Lhinotia elytrura.

#. elongata, atra, fronte inter oculos, prothorace vitta laterali pu-

bescente elytrisque, apicibus exceptis, aurantiacis ; rostro protho-

race sesquilongiore, parum arcuato, nitido; antennis subbasalibus,

articulo ultimo lanceolato; prothorace nitide fusco-nigro, vittis

exceptis, denudato, subrude punctato, supra pone medium trans-

versim impresso, basi longitudinaliter anguste canaliculato; scu-

tello parvo, rotundato, nigro; elytris costulatis, parce pubescenti-

bus, basi antrorsum valde productis, seriatim conferte punctulatis,

interstitiis in certa luce quasi granulatis, sutura postice ali-

quando nigra, apicibus acuminato-productis; abdomine in medio

nitido, lateribus segmentorum striga obliqua albo-pilosa notatis ;

femoribus anticis infra bispinosis. Long. 6 lin.

Hab. Queensland (Wide Bay).

This species has bispinose anterior femora, as in the genus

Isacantha, on which account it was separated by Hope from

Pachyura; both differ from Rhinotia by their elytra gradually

enlarging and rounded behind. ‘The following is closely

allied to R. hemoptera, Kirby, but, inter alia, has narrower

and less granulated prothoracic ridges.

the Australian Curculionide. 139

Rhinotia venusta.

R. lineari-elongata, atra, superciliis, prothorace, vittis duabus me-

dianis exceptis, elytrisque aurantiaco-pilosis; rostro prothorace

longiore ; antennis in medio rostri insertis, articulo ultimo oblongo-

(vix triangulari-)acuminato ; prothorace dense aurantiaco-piloso, in

medio lineis duabus elevatis granulatis munito, inter eas longitu-

dinaliter modice depresso; scutello transverso, elevato, nigro;

elytris prothorace haud latioribus, apicibus rotundatis, subseriatim

conferte punctatis, sutura postice aliquando nigricante ; corpore

infra nitide nigro, sternis albo-pilosis ; abdomine segmentis qua-

tuor ultimis utrinque macula albo-pilosa ornatis. Long. 6 lin.

Hab. Queensland (Rockhampton).

Balaninus Mastersii.

B.(@) ellipticus, niger, sat dense albo-squamosus, plagis denudatis

interruptis exceptis; rostro testaceo-piceo, tenuissimo, corpore

manifeste longiore, apicem versus arcuato ; antennis quinta parte

basin versus rostri insertis, funiculo articulis duobus basalibus,

primo longissimo, conjunctim scapo longioribus, tertio quarto bre-

viore, reliquis tertio equalibus, obconicis, clava ovali, quam articulo

precedente paulo longiore ; prothorace transverso, utrinque pone

apicem paulo ampliato-rotundato, disco nigro denudato, linea me-

diana lateribusque exceptis; scutello subquadrato; elytris oblongo-

trigonatis, striato-punctatis, singulis plaga ante medium, alteraque

versus apicem plus minusve denudatis; corpore infra pedibusque

dense albo-squamosis; femoribus posticis corpus superantibus,

longe pedunculatis. Long. 2} lin.

Hab. Queensland (Port Denison).

What I take to be the male has a much shorter rostrum,

the antenne inserted beyond its middle, the scape nearly as

long as the funicle, the third joint of the latter very short

comparatively, shorter legs, &c. This and B. amenus, Fab.,

are the only two species I have seen of this cosmopolitan

genus from Australia. Mr. Wallace obtained more than

twenty new species in the Malayan archipelago.

OCHROPHGBE.

Rostrum tenuatum, basin versus gradatim crassius, arcuatum ;

scrobes antemedianz, ad marginem inferum oculi currentes. An-

tenne graciles; scapo brevi, oculum attingente ; funiculo articulis

ultimis breviter obconicis ; clava ovata, distincta. Oculi mediocres,

rotundati, tenuiter granulati, ad basin rostri approximati. Pro-

thorax subconicus, basi rotundatus, lobis ocularibus nullis. Elytra

ovata, prothorace paulo latiora. Pygidium obtectum. Pedes me-

diocres ; femora fortiter incrassata, mutica: tibi@ intus flexuose,

apice mucronate ; tarsi breviusculi; wnguiculi simplices. Cove

10%

140 Mr. F. P. Pascoe on Additions to

antice rotundate, modice sejuncte. Processus intercoxalis trun-

catus. Abdomen segmentis 3-4 brevibus. Corpus squamulosum.

The sole exponent of this genus is a small insect resembling

Sibinia potentille, and not very different from Derelomus, but

not pubescent like the latter.

Ochrophebe uniformis.

O. elliptico-ovata, supra modice convexa, flavo-testacea, squamulis

albis, antennis rostroque exceptis, omnino sejunctim vestita ;

rostro prothorace cum capite manifeste longiore, nitido, basi

squamuloso; antennis quarta parte basin versus rostri insertis,

funiculo articulo primo paulo elongato, reliquis gradatim breviori-

bus; prothorace longitudine haud latiore, utrinque leviter rotun-

dato; scutello valde transverso ; elytris striato-punctatis, inter-

stitiis planatis ; unguiculis nigris. Long. 13 lin.

Hab. West Australia (Champion Bay).

Lemosaccus dapsilis.

L. latiusculus, ater, elytris figura magna X-formi lete aurantiaco-

pilosa ornatis ; rostro prothorace sesquilongiore, fere recto, omnino

subeequaliter crebre punctato; antennis subpiceis, funiculo art.

primo haud incrassato, secundo vix longiore; oculis supra sub-

approximatis ; prothorace confertim punctato, pone apicem linea

longitudinali abbreviata impresso ; scutello subtriangulari ; elytris

subparallelis, fortiter striato-punctatis, interstitiis planatis, exte-

rioribus posticisque granulatis ; corpore infra pedibusque nigris,

nitidis, punctis minutis, singulis squamula alba gerentibus, sub-

remote adspersis ; femoribus anticis muticis. Long. 34 lin.

Hab. South Australia ?

I obtained this fine species, which is the only example I

have seen, from the collection of Mr. Wilson, of Adelaide, and

am ignorant of its precise locality. Its size and rostrum will

readily distinguish it.

Leemosaccus longimanus.

L. oblongus, rufo-brunneus, capite nigro; rostro breviusculo, sat

crasso, basi carinulato, creberrime punctulato, apice antennisque

rufo-testaceis, funiculo articulo primo crassiore, secundo breviore,

clava elongata; oculis subapproximatis; prothorace brunneo,

disco nigro, confertissime punctulato, pilis sulphureis adsperso ;

scutello fere inviso; elytris prothorace yix latioribus, sulcato-

punctatis, interstitiis planatis, tenuiter granulatis, parce flavido-

pilosis, macula magna communi infra scutellum e pilis condensatis

effecta ; corpore infra sat dense pallide griseo-squamuloso ; pedi-

bus rufo-testaceis, anticis elongatis. Long. 13-2 lin.

Hab. Queensland (Wide Bay).

A well-marked species, somewhat like Z. notatus in colo-

the Australian Curculionide. 141

ration, but scarcely half as broad proportionally, and with fore

legs rather longer and more slender in comparison than in

other species.

Lemosaccus narinus.

L. breviusculus, niger, sparse albido-pilosus; rostro brevi, basi

compresso, in medio manifeste arcuato; antennis subpiceis, clava

nigra, funiculo articulo primo crasso, secundo longiore, clava

magna funiculo vix breviore; oculis ampliatis, supra modice ap-

proximatis ; prothorace creberrime punctulato, in medio longi-

tudinaliter sulcato, lobo scutellari elevato et nonnihil dense griseo-

piloso, basi profunde ample bifoveato; scutello .conspicuo, valde

transverso ; elytris brevibus, prothorace latioribus, suleato-punc-

tatis, interstitiis planatis, granulatis; corpore infra nigro, sat

dense albo-squamuloso; pedibus breviusculis, anticis manifeste

majoribus ; tibiis anticis valde compressis, fere rectis ; tarsis rufo-

piceis. Long. 1? lin.

Hab. South Australia (Port Lincoln).

This species may be placed after L. wstulus, but it is consi-

derably stouter, with the anterior tibie-strongly compressed,

and not curved, except at the base.

Lemosaccus cryptonyx.

L. suboblongus, niger, maculatim flavo-pilosus ; rostro breviusculo,

recto, subremote punctulato ; antennis testaceo-ferrugineis, funi-

culo articulo primo crassiusculo, clava nigricante ; oculis supra

subapproximatis ; prothorace confertim punctulato, sexmaculato,

maculis aliquando plus minusye contiguis; scutello triangulari ;

elytris prothorace paulo latioribus, parallelis, profunde striato-

punctatis, interstitiis convexis, tenuiter granulatis, macula basali,

fasciaque postica indistincte ornatis ; pedibus brevibus, testaceo-

ferrugineis, femoribus, apice excepto, nigricantibus ; tibiis brevis-

simis, compressis; tarsis articulo ultimo minuto. Long. 13-

12 lin.

Hab. King George’s Sound.

A small species, differentiated from all others known to me

by its minute claw-joint lying deep in the fissure of the two

lobes of the preceding one. The coloration varies according

to the amount of hairiness ; and this depends chiefly, perhaps,

as is frequently the case in other instances, on the freshness

of the individual.

Melanterius vinosus.

M. ovalis, squamosus ; capite piceo, fronte valde convexo, crebre

punctulato ; rostro tenui, elongato, ferrugineo, basi subconfertim

punctulato; antennis pallide ferrugineis ; clava breviter ovata,

acuminata; prothorace longitudine latitudini equali, utrinque

rotundato, nigro, reticulato-punctato, punctis oblongis, squami-

142 M. Marc Micheli on some Recent

geris; scutello distincto; elytris ovatis, rufo-piceis, maculatim

silaceo-squamosis, sulcato-punctatis, punctis elongatis, subremotis,

interstitiis leviter carinulatis, humeris haud prominulis, apice

rotundatis; corpore infra pedibusque piceis, vage squamigero-

punctatis. Long. 3 lin.

Hab. South Australia.

Melanterius cinnamomeus.

M., ovalis, rufo-ferrugineus, squamosus; rostro tenui, equaliter

punctulato; antennis testaceis; prothorace subtransverso, utrin-

que rotundato, crebre punctulato, punctis unisquamigeris ; scu-

tello scutiformi; elytris subtrigonatis, sulcato-punctatis, inter-

stitiis latis, subplanatis ; corpore infra pedibusque disperse niveo-

squamosis. Long. 24 lin.

Hab. Champion Bay.

These are two very distinct species, differing in sculpture

and coloration from the three hitherto described.

. Melanterius servulus.

M. niger, subnitidus; rostro ferrugineo, nitido; antennis rufo-

testaceis ; prothorace creberrime punctulato; elytris sulcatis,

punctis elongatis angustis impressis, interstitiis fortiter carinatis

_ ex fere impunctatis; corpore infra nitido, remote squamoso-

. punctato; pedibus ferrugineis, squamulis filiformibus argenteis

adspersis. Long. 13 lin.

Hab. King George’s Sound.

Allied to M. porcatus, Ey., but smaller, the prothorax very

closely punctured, the intervals forming a sort of reticulation,

and the elytra with long narrow punctures in their grooves.

XVIII.— On some Recent Researches in Vegetable Physiology.

By M. Marc Micuei*.

‘IN the present state of our knowledge we can scarcely expect

brilliant discoveries or works to make a great noise in the

world. This may be the case in the infancy of a science ; but

the task which we have to fulfil is essentially different. Our

predecessors have laid down the great principles; and in a

general way we may say that science rests upon firm and solid

bases which nothing can overturn. What remains for us is

deep and minute investigation ; we must not neglect any de-

tail, however. minute it may appear. It is only by following

this course, which is perhaps more arid and which, from afar,

* Translated by W. S. Dallas, F.L.S., from the ‘ Bibliothéque Univer-

selle, Archives des Sciences,’ tome xlii. pp. 105-184, October 1871.

Researches in Vegetable Physiology. 145

may appear more ungrateful, that the scientific men of the pre-

sent day will succeed in perfecting the work which has been

commenced, and introduce into the sketch which has been

handed down to us the finish of a perfect picture.

These general reflections, which I believe to be true for all

the sciences, apply particularly well to vegetable physiology.

The principal features of the life of plants are known to us;

and we can nearly follow the different phases of development

from the first vital movements of the germinating seed to the

moment when the products of vegetation are accumulating in

the fruit and thus preparing a new generation.

But if the general outlines are known, how many details

are still wanting! how many phenomena which escape us, at

all events in part! how many questions to be solved !

The number of those who devote themselves to this task is

great; and if we wish to give a sketch of the present state of

science, we are only embarrassed to choose in the midst of the

materials which present themselves on all hands. All nations

assist in the work, but none so much as the Germans. Since

the time of De Candolle vegetable physiology has shown a

tendency to naturalize itself in Germany; and although we

can cite among the naturalists belonging to other nations many

names which are advantageously known to us, it is nevertheless

to the Germans that we must give the honour of most of the

very modern discoveries, and of those which have most con-

tributed to give the science its present form and tendencies.

Whilst the works are numerous, their very form renders

them difficult to analyse; many may be said to be only ac-

counts of extremely minute experiments which it is impossible

to depict in broad lines. We must not expect to find in them

striking results of a kind to open up new horizons. Some

only confirm already-known facts ; others introduce slight mo-

difications of these without changing their general character.

At the base of physiological researches we shall always find

those which treat of the relation of the plant and of light, and

particularly of the interesting and varied part played by chlo-

rophyl in vegetable life.

Professor Sachs was the first to indicate the curious and un-

expected phenomenon of a diminution in the intensity of the

colour of chlorophyl under the direct influence of the sun’s

rays*. In other words, if a portion of the leaves is sheltered

by a screen of some kind, it soon contrasts by its darker colour

with the other parts, which are exposed to the sun.

* Physiologie végétale, trad. Frang. p. 16.

144 M. Marc Micheli on some Recent

The cause of this phenomenon has exercised the sagacity of

physiologists; and it has finally been recognized that this

change of colour was only apparent, and that it resulted from

certain movements performed by the granules of chlorophyl

in the interior of the cell. j

The first observation of this kind is due to M. Famintzin*,

author of numerous investigations upon light and vegetation.

He observed that in the leaves of certain mosses (Mnzum, sp.)

the granules of chlorophyl group themselves during the day

in the cells along the horizontal walls or those parallel to the

surface. During the night they execute a movement of re-

treat and place themselves along the walls perpendicular to

the surface. This phenomenon is exclusively due to the in-

fluence of light ; heat has nothing to do with it.

Of the different rays the most refrangible alone have the

faculty of drawing the chlorophyl towards the surface. The

most luminous rays produce the same effect as complete

darkness.

These results being once known, the same subject was taken

up and treated more profoundly by M. Borodin+. He studied a

great number of plants, both cryptogamous and phanerogamous.

Among the latter he especially paid attention to those whose

transparent tissues rendered observation easy (Callitriche, Stel-

laria, Ceratophyllum, and Lemna trisulca). He recognized

three different phases in the phenomenon. Like M. Famintzin,

he saw the chlorophyl place itself along the horizontal walls

under the influence of light, and retire in darkness: but he

likewise remarked that too ardent a sun exerts the same action

as darkness ; under the influence of its rays the granules of

chlorophyl quit the horizontal walls and move towards the

perpendicular ones. This action fully suffices to explain the

changes of colour indicated by M. Sachs. In fact in diffused

light the chlorophyl covers the horizontal walls (or those which

alone strike our eyes), and the leaf thus appears darker. In

the open sun or in obscurity these same walls, being almost

completely deprived of chlorophyl, of course give us the im-

pression of a lighter tint.

With regard to the effect of the different regions of the

spectrum, M. Borodin perfectly agrees with his predecessor.

Researches of the same kind have also been made by M.

Prilleuxt upon the leaves of a moss (Funaria hygrometrica).

* Pringsheim’s Jahrb. fiir wiss. Botanik, Bd. v. p. 49.

+ Mélanges Biologiques tirés du Bull. de l’Acad. Imp. de St. Pétersb,

tome vii. (1869) p. 50; and Bot. Zeit. 1869, No. 38.

{ Comptes Rendus, 1870, tome lxx.

Researches in Vegetable Physiology. 145

His results agree in all respects with those of the two natu-

ralists above mentioned. rt

Lastly, M. Roze* concludes some investigations of the same

kind by saying that these movements of the granules of chlo-

rophyl must be accompanied by a displacement of the whole

protoplasmic mass. The anatomical relations of the different

parts of the cell render this, so to speak, necessary and evident.

By taking up similar researches, Dr. B. Frank+ has disco-

vered an entirely new property of chlorophyl, a property the

importance of which cannot be well appreciated except by his

subsequent investigations. According to Dr. Frank, the

granules of chlorophyl unite to all the other characteristic

features of their already complicated organization a marked

tendency to move in the interior of the cell to the side which

is most illuminated, exactly as zoospores do when placed in a

plate neara window. ‘To ascertain this phenomenon we must

of course have recourse to plants with rather large cells, such

as are often presented by aquatic plants. ‘The first observa-

tions were made on leaves of Sagittaria sagittifolia, a plant of

which was grown near a window. The general distribution

of the granules of chlorophyl during the day and wight at

first followed strictly the laws laid down by MM. Famintzin

and Borodin ; but as the unilateral illumination was prolonged

the aspect of affairs changed, and the granules of chlorophyl

showed a more and more marked tendency to accumulate on

the most strongly illuminated side of the cell.

The same facts were reproduced in the cells of the prothal-

lium of various ferns and in the leaves of a moss, the Mniwm

rostratum, Schwegr. The position, direction, or orientation

of the cells has no influence upon the phenomenon, which is

equally well manifested in all cases, in diffused light as well

as in the sun’s rays. With regard to the different regions of

the spectrum the author was unable to make any marked di-

stinction. In a general way, diminution of the intensity of

the light renders the phenomenon less striking and sometimes

irregular; it is, however, always manifested, whatever may

be the colour of the luminous rays.

Dr. Frank thought he could associate this displacement of

the grains of chlorophyl with peculiar protoplasmic currents.

Perhaps this work will become the origin of interesting obser-

vations upon the relations of light to the intracellular currents,

phenomena which are still very imperfectly known.

As we are speaking of movements, we may indicate in

* Comptes Rendus, 1870, tome Ixx.

+ Botanische Zeitung, 1871, No. 14.

146 M. Marc Micheli on some Recent

passing the observations of M. Bert* on those of the so-called

sensitive organs in coloured light. These are the only re-

searches upon this subject with which we are at present

acquainted. According to this author, plants of Mimosa pu-

dica kept in the dark died at the end of twelve days, having

lost all sensibility after the seventh. Other individuals of the

same species were enclosed in lanterns of coloured glass, which

was, as far as possible, monochromatic; and the following is

a summary of the results obtained :—

In green light the plants died in sixteen days; sensibility

persisted for twelve days.

In violet light the plants lived three months without any

development, and then perished; sensibility persisted to the

end.

In blue light the plants continued to live without develop-

ment ; they constantly retained a certain degree of sensibility.

Lastly, in yellow and red light the plants not only live but

become slightly developed; they retain their sensibility.

If we now approach the important subject of the decompo-

sition of carbonic acid and the assimilation in the grains of

chlorophyl, we shall find that here also some advances have

been made, and we shall have to refer to works of greater

importance.

It is a fact that often presents itself in the history of the

sciences, that the first observers, perhaps carried away by the

charm of discovery and by the desire to render it as evident

as possible, give a somewhat too absolute value to the results

which they have obtained, and it is only at a later period and

by little and little that the facts appear in a perfectly correct

light. Thus it was formerly regarded as a perfectly positive

law that the most luminous rays of the spectrum alone acted

in the phenomenon of assimilation, a different part being as-

signed to the more refrangible rays. In other words, the action

of light upon chlorophyl seemed to be directly opposite to its

influence upon chloride of silver. Repeated and more pro-

found researches have already greatly modified this notion.

We shall now endeavour to give an exact idea of the state of

the question by rapidly gomg through the various works

which have come to our knowledge. We shall simply follow

the chronological order, leaving entirely on one side the ques-

tions of priority which, as a matter of course, have sprung up.

The first in point of date is M. Gregor Krausst, one of the

most accurate of observers, and author of several important

treatises. He resumed the investigations of M. Famintzin

* Comptes Rendus, 1870, tome Ixx.

+ Pringsheim’s Jahrb: vii. p. 511.

Researches in Vegetable Physiology. 147

upon the production of starch in coloured light, and expresses

himself in opposition to the assertion of that author, that no

trace of starch is produced under the influence of the blue

rays.

MM. Krauss has followed the experimental methods indicated

by M. Sachs, in seeking the smallest traces of starch in the

tissues, and employed, as a coloured medium, the large double

bells also invented by that eminent observer. ‘The interval

between the two bells is filled with a solution of bichromate

of potash for the least refrangible part of the spectrum, and

with a solution of ammoniacal oxide of copper for the more

refrangible rays.

Different aquatic and terrestrial plants vegetated succes-

sively in these apparatus (Spirogyra, Funaria hygrometrica,

Elodea canadensis, Lepidium, &c.). The result was con-.

stantly the same; in the three bells employed (with white,

yellow, and blue light) starch was formed. The only differ-

ence between them was one of proportion and promptitude.

Thus in white light and in the sun the first traces of starch

were visible in five minutes; in blue light, only an insolation

of several hours was capable of producig an appreciable

effect.

The temperature also exerted a certain influence, but only

in the proportion in which it acts upon vegetation in general.

When the heat is greater, vegetation is more active, and it is

therefore very natural that a greater quantity of starch should

be produced. But this effect is not due to a direct interven-

tion of the caloric element in the phenomenon ; for the produc-

tion of starch, although very slight, is still appreciable at a

temperature at which most of the other functions are sus-

pended.

A check experiment, made, by means of the balance, upon

cotyledons of Lepidium and Linum, showed, by a notable aug-

mentation of weight, that the starch was formed in them from

the elements, and that it was not a product of transformation.

M. Prilleux* has taken up the idea that the effect attri-

buted by his predecessors to the refrangible rays themselves

was rather due to the diminution of the luminous intensity.

In the experiments of M. Famintzin upon Spirogyra, he says,

the light which traverses the solution is so feeble that it is

incapable, by itself, of producing a marked effect. According

to this author, the assimilant faculty of the leaf is proportional

to the illuminating-power of the rays which it receives.

* Comptes Rendus, 1870, tome lxx. p. 521; Ann, des Sci. Nat. 5° sér.

tome x.

148 M. Mare Micheli on some Recent

He operated with a solution of ammoniacal sulphate of

copper, not too much concentrated, and exposed his apparatus

to the full light of the sun or to the focus of a powerful lens

illuminated by a strong petroleum lamp.

M. Baranetzky* has resumed this subject, finding that M.

Prilleux had operated upon very thin layers of liquid, which

allowed too many rays to pass, this naturally invalidating his

results. He employed ammoniacal oxide of copper and pro-

tochloride of iron, which, in layers of 25 millims. thickness,

divided the spectrum pretty accurately into two more and less

refrangible halves, but each endowed with nearly the same

illuminating-power. The results were exactly the same;

with an equality of luminous intensity, the number of bubbles

of oxygen evolved during the act of assimilation was the

same. ‘This applies also to the greening of etiolated chloro-

phyl, and to the destruction of the colouring principle in an

alcoholic solution of chlorophyl under the influence of the

luminous rays. Heliotropic curvatures alone evade this law,

and are manifested only under the influence of the blue or

neighbouring rays.

The following is the mode in which, in the present state of

our knowledge, M. Baranetzky proposes to describe the action

of light :—

a. The decomposition of carbonic acid or assimilation, the

formation of chlorophyl, and the destruction of the colouring

principle are phenomena solely dependent on the degree of

luminous intensity.

b. Heliotropic curvatures, the periodical movements of

organs, the currents of protoplasm, and the changes of place

of the grains of chlorophyl are executed only under the in-

fluence of the most refrangible rays.

On the decomposition of carbonic acid in the leaves, Dr.

Pfeffer has published a workt which is perhaps the most

complete that we possess on this subject. From the perfec-

tion of the methods employed, and the care with which the

experiments were conducted, this work will always continue

to be of very great value. The conclusions, although not so

clear and precise as those of MM. Prilleux and Baranetzky,

are nevertheless in the same direction, and tend to give the

preponderance to the illuminating-power in the direct action

of the luminous rays. He expresses them in the following

terms :—

“The rays of the spectrum perceptible to our eyes are the

* Botan. Zeitung, 1871, No. 13.

+ Arbeiten des Botanischen Instituts in Wurzburg, Cahier i., 1871.

Researches in Vegetable Physiology. 149

only ones which can become the cause of the decomposition

of carbonic acid. The rays endowed with the most consider-

able illuminating-power (the yellow rays) exert of themselves

an influence equal to that of all the others taken together.

The most refrangible rays possess only a much less marked

action. To each spectral colour there belongs a certain degree

of activity in the phenomenon of assimilation, a degree which

remains the same whether the rays act isolatedly upon plants,

or whether their action 1s combined.”’

To arrive at the greatest possible exactitude, M. Pfeffer

passed over the different methods which consist either in

counting the bubbles of gas or in measuring the quantities of

gas which have escaped from a plant vegetating under water.

He adopted the method of M. Boussingault, who made his

plants vegetate in a closed vessel, the atmosphere of which

contained known quantities of carbonic acid. As coloured

liquids he employed chromate of potash, ammoniacal oxide of

copper, aniline red, orselline, aniline violet, and chlorophyl,

and also, in order to observe the effect of the obscure heat-

rays, a very concentrated solution of iodine in sulphide of

carbon. We cannot, however, describe the apparatus and

experiments ; for these details we must refer the reader to the

memoir itself.

We may say, only, that from the commencement of his in-

vestigation M. Pfeffer foresaw that the effects of the two

halves of the spectrum separated by the chromate of potash

and the ammoniacal oxide of copper represented, when taken

together, a total nearly equal to the action of white light.

This was already a great step made towards the idea of the

predominant action of the luminous intensity. It is in con-

sequence of this observation that M. Pfeffer, by employing

sometimes monochromatic liquids, sometimes liquids which

only excluded one or two spectral colours, has succeeded in

nearly determining the assimilant power of each ray. If in

white light chlorophyl decomposes 100 parts of carbonic

acid, the isolated rays give the following numbers :—

Piedanig: OAS gine) bits 006!)) 4) 1i«. jd enact

Yellow MCS alle (iu.o le aaichie Yo ae

ASrCeOh Me gS. fel) Yadszes oy ate. Daun LO

Dine inden aaolet ie. csp eiites soryther veh uth

Lotalsane 100j;5

We may therefore truly say that the action of the com-

bined light represents the sum of the partial actions which the

isolated rays would exert. The knowledge of these numbers

150 M. Marc Micheli on some Recent

enables the author to construct the curve of assimilation.

This curve, which is nearly parallel to the curve of luminous

intensity, attains its culminating point between the Fraunhofer

lines D and E. On the other hand it has nothing to do

with the curve of calorific intensity, which follows a totally

different course.

Finally the author was led to confirm his results by data as

to the augmentation of weight acquired by plants under the

influence of the different regions of the spectrum. These data

are derived from unpublished experiments by Prof. Sachs; their

author has ascertained that even in blue light there is an in-

crease of weight, which is certainly very slight, but greater

than it appears at the first glance, since we must take into

account the loss of solid material due to respiration. In yellow

light the increase of weight represented 35 per cent. of what

it would have been in white light.

The study of the diffusion of gases in the interior of the

plant seems to be naturally connected with that of the con-

ditions under which assimilation is performed; but although

the results of such researches belong to pure physiology, the

course by which we arrive at them, and the experiments and

apparatus employed, all belong rather to the domain of phy-

sics. The most difficult problems of molecular physics are

implicated in the questions which have to be solved. There-

fore we shall confine ourselves to indicating, en passant, a very

important and complete work upon this subject from the pen

of M. N. J.C. Miiller*, still in course of publication in Prings-

heim’s ‘ Jahrbiicher fiir wissenschaftliche Botanik.’ We shall

only say that the author adopts the idea that, in the normal

state of a membrane, the solid nuclei (formed of cellulose sub-

stance and mineral incrustations) and the liquid layers which

surround them (molecular theory of Neegeli) always leave be-

tween them free spaces, actual pores.

Before quitting the subject of the exchanges of gas between

plants and the circumambient atmosphere, we may mention

two other observations, due to French naturalists.

M. van Tieghem f has observed the well-known phenomenon

of aquatic plants which, although incapable of producing any

current of bubbles of gas under the influence of diffused light,

set them free in abundance as-soon as they are struck by the

rays of the sun; but what he has remarked that is new, is that

this effect does not cease immediately with the insolation. <A

* “Untersuchungen iiber die Diffusion atmosphirischer Gase in der

Pflanze,” Pringsheim’s Jahrb. vols. vi. & vii.

+ Ann, des Sci. Nat. 5e sér. tome ix. p. 269.

Researches in Vegetable Physiology. 151

plant of Hlodea canadensis which had received the rays of the

sun for three hours, continued to produce currents of gaseous

bubbles in diffused light, and did not stop until nine hours

afterwards, when the night had already long come on. In

another experiment, an insolation of one hour produced gaseous

currents which were continued for three entire hours in com-

plete darkness. According to these observations, therefore,

the vegetable tissues are in a manner endowed with the pro-

perty of storing up the solar light. Such a phenomenon as

this may enter into the group of those which are designated

under the name of phosphorescence.

M. Barthélemy* has investigated the function of the cuticle

(that uniform layer which in general clothes the epidermis of

plants) in accordance with the principles of Graham with re-

gard to colloids. He has arrived at the conclusion that, in the

exchanges of gaseous molecules between the plant and the

atmosphere, the oxygen and carbonic acid pass especially

through the cuticle (upper surface of the leaves), whilst the

nitrogen makes a way for itself through the stomata (lower

surface).

To the phenomena which the action of the luminous rays

give rise to in the plant, those which originate in the absence of

these same rays are most naturally related. It is by this title

that a curious work by M. Kraussf on the causes of the de-

formation of etiolated plants figures here. These changes are

well known, and present themselves under two apparently very

different forms ; certain organs, and especially the limbs of the

leaves, when in the dark, undergo a complete arrest of deve-

lopment, and are far from acquiring their normal dimensions ;

others (for example, the internodes of the stems) become, on

the contrary, much more elongated than usual, and attain di-

mensions several times exceeding their normal size.

These apparently irreconcilable anomalies depend upon

entirely different properties of the tissues.

The etiolated leaves are arrested at the point at which,

under normal conditions, they would have begun to receive

the luminous rays—that is to say, at their issue from the scales

of the bud. Fyrom this moment a normal leaf is called upon

to suffice for itself; starch soon makes its appearance in the

cells whose position brings them first into relation with the

luminous rays—that is to say, in those of the teeth, nervures,

&c. It is upon this starch that all the subsequent growth of

the leaf depends ; that which is enclosed in the interior of the

* Amn. des Sci. Nat. 5e sér. tome ix. p. 287.

+ Pringsheim’s Jahrb. vii. p. 209.

152 M. Marc Micheli on some Recent

older tissues is of no use to it. In darkness no starch is pro-

dnced ; aud it is therefore not surprising that development is

arrested. This view is so accurate that certain cotyledons

destined to display a foliaceous structure stop growing in

darkness at the moment when they ought to issue from the

ground, although their cells are still full of the sugar or oil

which was accumulated in the seed.

The exaggerated length of the internodes is due to very dif-

ferent causes, and is related to the phenomena of tension

which always intervene in stems between the medulla, or ac-

tive part, on the one hand, and the ligneous and cortical cells,

or passive parts, on the other.

From an anatomical point of view the etiolated internodes

are distinguished by presenting all the characters of very young

internodes just issuing from the bud; the thickening of the

walls of the ligneous and cortical cells which characterizes

adult stems is here completely absent. ‘This thickening, in-

deed, is related, by bonds which are not yet very exactly un-

derstood, to the presence of leaves on the internode. In

darkness, the leaves not being developed, the cells retain the

primitive thinness of their membranes.

This being understood, the elongation of the etiolated stems

is easily explained, thanks to the intervention of two factors.

In normal stems the medulla has always a tendency to elon-

gate ; it is the peripheral layers that arrest it; in young stems

these are subjected to a tension strong enough to cause them

to shorten considerably when they are isolated. But in pro-

portion as their walls become thickened the resistance becomes

more effective, and we see this in the fact that their contraction

when they are separated from the rest becomes less and less. In

darkness their walls do not thicken, and nothing is opposed to

the elongation of the medullary cells. This is the first factor.

With regard to the pith itself, M. Krauss has already

shown, in a former work*, that it has the property of elongation

solely by the interposition of aqueous molecules between the

cellulose molecules. This interposition may take place in

the etiolated as in the normal plant; the pith is therefore the

only part of the plant which continues to grow actively in the

dark. This growth is precisely the second factor of the elon-

gation of the internodes; and by combining it with the absence

of resistance in the peripheral layers, we can understand that

considerable results may be produced.

By the side of the effects of light, the investigation of those

of temperature quite naturally finds its place.

* Botan. Zeit. 1867, Nos. 17, 18.

Researches in Vegetable Physiology. 153

With regard to the degree of cold which living plants are

able to support, M. Goeppert of Breslau* calls attention to the

fact that the lowest temperatures ascertained in the polar

regions (—40° to —52°6 I.) only relate to a very restricted

number of plants. Those whose stem is not sufficiently high

to pass the layer of snow are under very different conditions.

Sheltered under a screen which is a bad conductor of heat,

these plants are subjected to a temperature which hardly falls

below 28°4 F. But if the snow protects them from too sharp

a cold, and becomes the indispensable preserver of plants in

high latitudes and on the mountains, their development is

none the less arrested. The plants best known as flowering

in winter, Helleborus fectidus and niger and Bellis perennis,

cease growing as soon as the temperature is low; they merely

do not suffer from frost: a half-opened flower may be com-

pletely stiffened by the cold for several days; but as soon as

the thaw comes, it resumes its development.

In our latitudes, the heat of summer, by heating the soil,

may exert a certain influence upon winter vegetation. In the

arctic regions this is not the case: the soil, always frozen,

does not retain any heat; all must come from the sun; and

it is thus that we sometimes see plants (willows, rhododen-

drons) frozen in their lower parts, and bearing at the extremi-

ties of their branches leaves and expanded flowers.

It must not be supposed that a plant because it is frozen is

for this reason protected from the deleterious influence of a

sharper cold. Each species can bear a certain diminution of

temperature: some may, without injury, be completely frozen

and afterwards thawed; but for each there exists a certain

minimum which cannot be passed without producing fatal

consequences. However, M. Goeppert, who has devoted him-

self for many years to the study of the relations of temperature

and vegetation, gives us hopes of more ample details upon

this curious subject. 7

It has often been asked, at what moment do frozen cells

perish ? at their freezing or their thawing? It is difficult to

give an answer to this; and direct experiments are almost im-

possible. It is evident that all the cells which may freeze or

thaw several times without injury only perish when the thaw-

ing takes place under unfavourable circumstances; it is a

well-known matter of experience that if, after a cold night, the

temperature rises gradually and the sky remains cloudy, many

plants, even young delicate shoots, recover perfectly. If, on

the contrary, the sun causes too rapid a thaw, the evil acquires

* Botan. Zeit. 1871, Nos. 4 & 5.

Ann, & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.4. Vol. ix. |

154 On Recent Researches in Vegetable Physiology.

very different proportions. But a multitude of plants occur

under very different conditions, and perish as soon as their

cells have felt the attacks of frost. At what precise moment

do they die? M. Goeppert* cites in connexion with this an

observation (an isolated one, it is true, but still curious) which

seems to prove that it is the direct action of cold, the frost it-

self, that kills delicate plants. Two tropical Orchidex, Phajus

grandifolius and Calanthe veratrifolia, contain considerable

quantities of indigo in their flowers. ‘This substance, as every

one knows, is colourless in living plants, and only becomes

blue after their death, by a phenomenon of oxidation. The

flowers of these two plants are of a fine white colour; but it

is only necessary to rub them a little hard with the hand to

bring out in them the natural tint of indigo. Cold produces

exactly the same effect: as soon as the flowers are frozen, no

matter to what extent, their corollas immediately become deep

blue; and this colour persists after thawing. In this case, at

least, the cells have been killed by the direct action of cold.

One of the most characteristic features of the cells which

have suffered from frost is the modification of their endosmotic

properties: they lose their turgescence, and the liquid which

they contain escapes through their walls without the least

effort. M. Sachs has sought the explanation of these facts in

the modifications which the molecular structure of the mem-

brane suffers under the influence of thaw. If this comes on

suddenly, the shock destroys the existing molecular equi-

librium. This would be an effect similar to that which we

observe under analogous circumstances in white of egg or

starch-paste. After thawing, these two substances no longer

present any thing but a spongy mass without consistency,

allowing the liquid which they contained to escape under the

smallest pressure.

M. Prilleux+ has opposed this opinion, which presupposes,

according to him, the formation, in the invisible pores of the

membrane, of icicles, which, by their fusion, would overthrow

the molecular equilibrium. Now the properties of capillary

spaces, and the difficulty of causing water to freeze im them,

are by no means favourable to this theory. The properties of

the frozen cells being exactly the same as those of cells which

have passed through boiling water, M. Prilleux proposes to

seek the explanation of the phenomenon in the: alteration of

the protoplasm, and not of the membrane. It is, in fact, upon

the diosmotic properties of the primordial utricle that the se-

paration of the different liquids enclosed in the different cells

* Botan. Zeit. 1870, No. 24.

+ Bull. Soc. Botan. de France, 1869, xvi. p. 91.

On the Systematic Relations of Fishes. 155

depends. When life no longer exists, then the acids mix with the

bases, and the coloured substances spread through the tissues.

The simple fact of the death of the protoplasm would there-

fore suffice, according to M. Prilleux, to explain all the pro-

perties of the frozen cells.

As to the sheets of ice which are often seen during the

winter at the surface of stems or beneath the epidermis, these

originate, according to the same author *, from the water of

constitution of the membranes. Each molecule retains around

it, by the forces of attraction with which it is endowed, a

liquid layer of a certain thickness ; under the influence of cold,

the force of attraction diminishes, and a part of the liquid flows

away and becomes frozen at the surface.

| To be continued. |

XIX.— Observations on the Systematic Relations of the Fishes.

(Abstract). By Prof. Epwarp D. Copet.

I. PRELIMINARY.

THE system of fishes, as at present adopted in America, is

the result of the labours of many naturalists, but chiefly of

Cuvier, Agassiz, Miiller, and Gill.. Without going into the

history of the subject at present, it will be proper to point out

the principal modifications of Cuvier’s system introduced by

his three successors. The orders of Cuvier were :—the Chon-

dropterygii, Malacopterygii, Acanthopterygii, Plectognathi,

and Lophobranchii.

Professor A gassiz, under the name of Placoids, adopted the first

division ; the second he called the Cycloids, the third Ctenoids,

and then created a fourth order under the name of Ganoids,

which should embrace a portion of Cuvier’s Chondropterygu

(the Sturgeons), a portion of the Malacopterygii Abdominales

(the Bony Gars &c.) and the two last orders of Cuvier. Pro-

fessor Miiller, following with a still more complete anatomical

investigation, especially into the soft parts, discerned three

subclasses in Cuvier’s Chondrostomi, which he named the

Leptocardii (Lancelet), Dermopteri (Lamprey &c.), and the

Selachii (Sharks &c.). In the then recently discovered Lepr-

dosiren he saw a fourth subclass, Dipnoi.

Having instituted an investigation of Agassiz’s Ganoid

order, in an able memoir he purged it of the Plectognath and

* Bull. Soc. Botan. de France, 1869, xvi. p. 140.

+ From the Association Number of the ‘American Naturalist.’ Com-

municated by the Author.

LL*

156 Prof. E. D. Cope on the Systematic Relations of Fishes.

Lophobranchiate divisions, which are obviously not related to it.

These, with the Malacopterygians and Acanthopterygians, he

erected into a sixth subclass, the Teleostei. ‘This subclass,

containing the greater part of existing fishes, embraced six

orders, viz.:—Acanthopteri (Cuvier’s Acanthopterygians),

Anacanthini (new, for the cod family &c), Pharyngognathi

(new, for fishes with connate inferior pharyngeal bones),

Physostomi (Malacopterygians of Cuvier, nearly); Plecto-

enathi and Lophobranchii of Cuvier. The great number of

facts in the anatomy of fishes added by Miiller constitute him

the father of modern ichthyology.

Professor Gill, in 1861, adopted many of the divisions of

Miller, and rejected some; others were newly proposed. But

four subclasses were recognized :—the Dermopteri, which. in-

cludes also Miiller’s Leptocardii; the Hlasmobranchii, equi-

valent to Miiller’s Selachii; the Ganoidei, including here

Miiller’s Dipnoi; and the Teleostei. Six orders were attri-

buted to the last subclass, which were quite different from

those of Miiller.

Subsequent to this publication, important contributions to

the system have been made by Kner, Liitken, Gill, Huxley,

&e., which will be noticed at the proper time.

The writer, having been engaged in an examination of the

osteology of the bony fishes, and general anatomical studies

of the whole, has proposed to point out some further moditica-

tions of the received system, which he believes will render it

a closer reflection of nature. There are some portions of the

skeleton which have been to a great extent overlooked in

seeking for indications of likeness and difference of types; and

the estimation in which many known characters are held may

be much altered on the study of extended material. The

skeletons on which the present study is made are one thousand

in number—two hundred belonging to the Academy of Natural

Sciences of Philadelphia, and eight hundred to the writer,

being the collection made by Professor Joseph Hyrtl, the

distinguished anatomist of Vienna. ‘This collection has long

been known to anatomists in Kurope as the most beautifully

and reliably prepared in existence, and as valuable as any for

study, on account of the fulness of the representation of the

various types.

II. SPECIAL ON THE GANOIDS.

Recurring to Miiller’s system, the writer adopts, as charac-

terized beyond dispute, his subclasses or orders of Leptocardii,

Dermopteri, Selachii, and Dipnoi, and confines himself at

Prof. EK. D. Cope on the Systematic Relations of Fishes. 157

present to the recent Ganoidei and Teleostei. I have shared

in the doubts occasionally expressed by ichthyologists as to

the essential distinction of these latter divisions; and an ex-

amination into the osteology, with reference to this point,

confirms the doubts raised by a study of the soft parts. As is

well known, Miiller distinguished the Ganoidei by the mus-

cular bulbus arteriosus containing numerous valves, and the

connexion of the optic nerves by commissure rather than by

decussation. He added several other characters, knowing

them, however, to be shared by various other orders and sub-

classes ; and I have selected the only two which seemed to be

restricted to the division. Their restriction to it, however, is

only apparent ; and Kner points out that the peculiarity of the

optic commissure is shared by some Physostomi, and that the

difference between the number and character of the valves of

the bulbus in Lepidosteus and Amia is quite as great as that

existing between Amza and some of the Physostomi. After

an examination of the skeleton, it is obvious that in this part

of the organism also there is nothing to distinguish this division

from the Teleostei of Miiller. It is true that each of the ge-

nera referred to it possesses marked skeletal peculiarities ; but

they are either not common to all of them, or are shared by

some of the Physostomi. If, on the other hand, we compare

these genera with each other, differences of the greatest im-

portance are observable, which at once distinguish two divi-

sions—one represented by Polypterus, the other by Lepidosteus

and Amia.

In the first place, the basal radii of the pectoral fins of Po-

lypterus are observed to be excluded from articulation with

the scapular arch by the intervention of three elements, which

form a pedicle or veritable arm for the fin. In Lepzdosteus

and Ama the radii are sessile on the scapular arch, as in°*

ordinary fishes. ‘The ventral fins present a like difference ;

the basal radii are long and four in number in Polypterus. In

the other two genera they are absent, excepting one rudimental

ossicle on the inner basis of the fin (two in Lepidosteus), pre-

cisely as in the Physostomous families Mormyride, Catosto-

mid, &e. If we examine the branchial apparatus, we find an

undivided cerato-hyal, three branchio-hyal arches, and no inner

and but two outer bones of the superior branchio-hyals, present

in Polypterus. In Lepidosteus and Amia we have the double

cerato-hyal, four branchio-hyal arches, with four outer and four

superior elements, characters of the typical 'Teleostei. ‘The

maxillary bone of Polypterus, instead of being free dis-

tally, as in fishes generally, is united with an ectopterygoid

and with bones representing, in position at least, postorbital

158 Prof. E. D. Cope on the Systematic Relations of Fishes.

and malar. In the other genera the relations of the maxillary

are as in osseous fishes.

The Sturgeons (Acipenseride) agree with Amda &c. in all

of these points but one, differing only in having the superior

cerato-hyal and several of the superior branchio-hyals cartila-

ginous. ‘The one point of distinction is the extension of the

basal radial supports of the ventral fin all across its basis, as

in Polypterus. The pectoral fin is, on the other hand, much

as in Lepidosteus. Thus the Sturgeons combine in this one

respect the features of both divisions. Both the basal cerato-

hyals are cartilaginous in this family; the superior only is

cartilaginous in Polypterus, Lepidosteus, and Amia; while

both are ossified in the old Teleostei, except in the Hels. In

these the inferior is cartilaginous, while the superior is co-

ossified to the cerato-hyal. Thus in one unimportant character

Polypterus agrees with its former associates, but differs more

from others of them (the Sturgeons) than from the bony fishes.

Another character of both Lepidosteus and Ama betokens

a certain relationship to Polypterus, viz. the complexity of

the mandible, especially in the possession of a coronoid bone.

But here, again, Acipenser only possesses an osseous dentary,

while Gymnarchus and Gymnotus have the angular and arti-

cular bones distinct from the dentary, wanting the coronoid

and opercular. In most bony fishes the angular is not distinct.

It is thus evident that the subclass Ganoidei cannot be

maintained. It cannot be even regarded as an order, since I

will show that Lepidosteus, Acipenser, and Améa are all re-

presentatives of distinct orders. I hope also to make it evident

that Polypterus should be elevated to the rank of a subclass or

division of equal rank with the rest of the fishes and with the

Dipnoi already adopted.

The question may be discussed as to whether naturalists

are correct who regard the fishes as representing, variously,

from two to four classes. One of these (the Ganoidei) having

been already disposed of, it remains to consider the claims of

the remainder, viz. the Elasmobranchii (Sharks), Dipnoi, and

typical fishes.

If we examine the points in which the whole taken together

differ from the Batrachia and other classes above it,we find that

these are confined chiefly to the structure of the limbs and the

hyoid apparatus. The typical fishes present, however, other

important peculiarities, viz.:—1, the existence of two or three

distinct bones in the suspensor of the mandible, instead of

one; 2, the attachment to these of the opercular bones ; 3, the

absence of pelvic bones; 4, the suspension of the scapular

arch to the cranium; 5, the large development of the pterotic

Prof. E. D. Cope on the Systematic Relations of Fishes. 159

(Parker, mastotd of Cuvier and Owen) is characteristic of

bony fishes.

The types of variation in the first point, only distinguish

groups of subordinate rank. Thus the suspensor of the

mandible in the typical fishes consists of the hyomandibular

stapes, quadrate (metapterygoid or incus), symplectic, and

mesopterygoid (qguadrato-jugal, Miiller; quadrate, Huxley,

Elem. Comp. Anat.). In the Mormyride, Siluride, Poly-

pteridee, and others, the symplectic is absent; in the Eels of

several families both it and the metapterygoid are wanting,

reducing the suspensorium to a rod of two pieces. This con-

dition exists in many of the Rays; in others and in the Sharks

the inferior element is wanting (Miiller, Stannius). An

important modification is exhibited by Chimera, where the

hyomandibular, which alone exists, is continuous with the

cartilaginous cranium, not being separated by the usual arti-

culation.

As to the opercular bones, all are wanting in the Elasmo-

branchs (Sharks and Rays), while the typical fishes possess

four, viz. preeoperculum, operculum, suboperculum, and inter-

operculum. In many of these, however, the suboperculum is

wanting ; and in the Sturgeons and many Eels there is no

preoperculum. In Polyodon the interoperculum is also want-

ing. In Lepidosiren the operculum and interoperculum are

rudimental. In respect of this point also, the divisions indi-

cated are of subordinate value. As regards the development

of the pterotic bone, its history is not yet sufficiently made

out to enable us to understand its value. It does not exist in

those with cartilaginous cranium (KHlasmobranchiu). The

Elasmobranchs are well known to have the scapular arch

suspended freely behind the cranium, as in higher Vertebrates.

It is not always attached to the cranium, on the other hand,

among true fishes ; for in the Hels it is quite as in the Sharks,

and the spinous-finned Mastacembelus presents the same

features.

The characters presented by the pelvic bones and limbs seem

to be of higher import. Thus all the bony fishes and Sturgeons

lack all the pelvic elements. In the Sharks and Rays they

are also wanting; but two elements on each side appear in the

Holocephali (Chimera) according to Leydig and Gegenbaur.

In Lepidosiren a large median pelvic cartilage exists; but

which element it represents is unknown. ‘This is evidently a

character of high significance. As to the limbs, the pecu-

liarities of Polypterus have been pointed out above. They

mean nothing less than the development of the elements of the

arm and leg of the higher Vertebrata which intervene between

160. Prof. E. D. Cope on the Systematic Relations of Fishes.

the point of articulation and the distal segments in Polypterus

and the Sharks and Rays. In the former the distal segments

are articulated exclusively to the extremities of the proximal

pieces, which thus resemble, as well as represent, humerus and

femur, and render the limb pedunculated. The proximal pieces

are not continued distally, however, into the representatives of

the main axis, which, as demonstrated by the admirable stu-

dies of Gegenbaur, consist, after humerus, of radius, tarsals and

metatarsals, and thumb ; in the hind limb, of the line ‘of the

tibia and inner toe. This continuation is observed in the Elas-

mobranchii, where, however, the divergent segments extend

along the sides of the proximal pieces to near, in some Rajidee

quite to the articulation with the scapular arch. In the true

fishes, including some of the old Ganoids already considered,

the divergent rays always reach this articulation, while the

number of proximal or basal pieces is diminished. These

pieces have been called by Gegenbaur the metapterygium

(humerus), mesopterygium, and propterygium—the first being

axial, the second and third bemg divergent from it. In Poly-

pterus the propterygium and mesopterygium are largely deve-

loped; in Sharks and Rays the propterygium is sometimes

small, sometimes wanting, while in the true fishes the propte-

rygium and mesopterygium are both wanting, excepting in

Amia, Lepidosteus, and the Sturgeons, where a cartilaginous

mesopterygium exists, according to Gegenbaur. This author

finds it rudimental in young Salmonide and Siluride. Lastly,

in the true fishes the distal elements of the axis of the limb

are wanting, just as in Polypterus.

In Dipnoi, on the other hand, we have this axis complete or

rather with greatly multiplied distal segments, and with or

without lateral radu. In the Australian Ceratodus Giinther

finds numerous lateral series on both sides of those of the axial

row. Hence the limb of this order is considered by Owen the

simplest or primary type; and this proposition is abundantly

confirmed by the beautiful researches of Gegenbaur. The

foundation laid by this author for the history of the genesis of

limbs will ever be a landmark in the history of modern theories

of creation (see his memoir, “ Ueber das Skelet der Glied-

maassen der Wirbelthiere im Allgemeinen,” &c., Jenaische

Med. Zeitschr. vol. v. p. 397).

Important as are the characters that distinguish the several

groups indicated by the different types of structure of the limbs

and pelvis, they do not seem to me to warrant their recogni-

tion as classes equivalent to those of the six already pointed

out. Taking them together, there is a greater coherence also in

the structure of the brain and circulatory systems than would be

Prof. E. D. Cope on the Systematic Relations of Fishes. 161

the case with any other two of the classes adopted above. The

peculiarities of the limbs, important as they are, are nearly

related in the want of specialization of their parts, seen in the

Batrachia and other classes—the differences consisting rather

of number and position of similar parts. The pelvis of the

Dipnoi might be regarded as of primary importance but for

its existence in the Holocephali, whose limbs, again, are so near

those of the shark.

It remains, therefore, to adopt the Linnean and Cuvierian

class Pisces, and to grant as subclasses the groups of Holo-

cephali, Selachii, and Dipnoi. There remain as subclasses

the groups typified by Polypterus on the one hand and the true

fishes on the other. The first has been already distinguished

in its external characters by Professor Huxley, who again

brought light out of obscurity when he established his “ third

suborder of Ganoids, the Crossopterygidez.”’ This division is,

in my estimation, a natural one, and to be elevated to a rank

equivalent to that of each of the three above named, being the

only part of the original division of Ganoids of Miiller entitled

to it. Professor Huxley defined it as follows :—

“ Dorsal fins two, or, if single, multiplied or very long; the

pectoral and usually the vertical fins lobate ; no branchiostegal

rays, but two principal, with sometimes lateral and median ju-

gular plates situated between the rami of the mandible ; caudal

fin diphyocercal or heterocercal ; scales cycloid or rhomboid,

smooth or sculptured.”

Of the above characters, that which relates to the lobate fins

is the essential one, and is the expression of the external ap-

pearance produced by the structure of the bones of the limbs

already pointed out by Gegenbaur. The dorsal fins of some

families, it is true, possess a remarkable structure; but in Pha-

neropleuron (Huxley) and some others they appear to be nearly

like those of the Dipnoi. The absence of branchiostegal rays

is important, but is shared by the Sturgeons. The jugular

plates appear to exist in Polypterus alone among recent fishes,

though several, as Amia, Elops, Osteoglossum, &c., possess a

median one. Nevertheless its nature would not lead one to

anticipate its beg a constant feature in any group of high

rank ; at least such is our usual experience with dermal bones.

The structures of the skin and scales given by Huxley are

very subordinate.

The remaining division answers, then, to the Teleostei and

Ganoidei of Miller, minus Polypterus. ‘The name Teleostei

cannot be preserved for this division, owing to its entire want

of coincidence with that division of Miiller, as well as from the

fact that the cartilaginous Sturgeons must be included in it.

162 Prof. E. D. Cope on the Systematic Relations of Fishes.

I propose, therefore, to call it the Actinopteri. ‘The character

of the five subclasses will then be as follows :—

Class PIScEs.

The hyomandibular bone continuous with the cartilaginous

cranium, with a rudimental opercular bone. Two distinct

pelvic bones on each side. Derivative radii sessile on the sides

of the basal bones of the limbs, separated from the articulation.

Holocephali.

Hyomandibular bone articulated with the cranium ; no oper-

cular or pelvic bones. Derivative radii sessile on the sides of

the basal bones of the limbs, rarely entering articulation.

Selachiit.

Hyomandibular bone articulated, with rudimental opercular

bones; a median pelvic element. Limbs consisting of the

axial line only, commencing with the metapterygium, and with

multiplied segments. Dépnot.

Hyomandibular articulated, opercular bones well developed,

a single cerato-hyal ; no pelvic elements. Limbs having the

derivative radii of the primary series on the extremity of the

basal pieces, which are in the pectoral fin metapterygium, me-

sopterygium, and propterygium. Crossopterygia.

Opercular bones well developed on separate and complex

suspensorium ; a double ceratohyal, no pelvic elements. Pri-

mary radii of fore limb parallel with basilar elements, both en-

tering the articulation with scapular arch. Basilar elements

reduced to metapterygium and very rarely mesopterygium.

Primary radii of posterior limbs generally reduced to one ru-

diment. Actcnoptert.

III. On tHe ACTINOPTERI.

In determining the primary types of this subclass, we re-

turn to some characters already mentioned, in which they ap-

proximate to the Crossopterygia, and, adding others, follow

the various divergences to their specialized terminations.

Thus in Actpenser and allies the ventral fins possess a

complete series of basal radial bones, and the pectorals each a

large mesopterygium. In Ama and Lepidosteus the meso-

pterygium is small, and the basal radii of the ventrals are re-

duced to their lowest number. In none of them are the basi-

hyals fully developed. Most of the Hels retain a character

which we have only observed heretofore in the Selachii.

We pass by a number of the lower fishes before we find the

mandibular arch furnished with a symplectic. One of the

most important modifications, which is more or less coincident

Prot. E. D. Cope on the Systematic Relations of Fishes. 163

with a number of others, is that which formed the basis of

Bonaparte and Miiller’s order of Physostomi. The presence of

the ductus pneumaticus, which characterizes it, is always asso-

ciated with the abdominal position of the ventral fins and with

cycloid scales, and mostly with the presence of the precoracoid

arch, the entrance of the maxillary bone into the border of

the mouth, and the non-separation of the parietal bones by the

supraoccipital. Yet none of these characters are precisely

associated at the point of change in each; for there are phy-

sostomous fishes with separated parietals and ctenoid scales

(some Cyprinodontidee), and there are Physoclysti with abdo-

minal ventrals. Nevertheless three prominent types stand

out in the Actinopteri—the Sturgeons or Chondrostei, the

Physostomi, and the Physoclysti, which may be considered

tribes.

An entire series of basilar segments of the abdominal ven-

tral fins; no branchiostegal rays. Chondroste?. .

Basilar segments of ventrals rudimental, position of fins

abdominal, parietal bones usually united ; branchiostegal rays;

swimming-bladder connected with the stomach or cesophagus

by a ductus pneumaticus. Physostomd.

No ductus pneumaticus; parietal bones separated by the

supraoccipital ; ventral fins usually thoracic or jugular; no

basilar segments. Physoclystt.

CHONDROSTEI.

There are two orders in this division, as follows :—

A precoracoid arch; no symplectic bone; premaxillary

forming mouth-border ; no suboperculum, nor preoperculum ;

mesopterygium distinct; basihyals and superior ceratohyal

not ossified; interclavicles present; no interoperculum or

maxillary ; branchio-hyals cartilaginous. Selachostomd (the

Paddle-fish).

Similar to the last, but with interopercle, maxillary bones, _

and osseous branchio-hyal. Glaniostomi (the Sturgeons).

The first order embraces the single family of Spatularide,

the second that of Acipenseride. In both the chorda dorsalis

persists, the tail is heterocercal, and the osseous cranium is

little developed. The basal and radial elements of the limbs,

with the coracoids, are not ossified.

PHYSOSTOMI.

The following key will express the leading features of the

orders of this division :—

164 Prof. E. D. Cope on the Systematic Relations of Fishes.

I. A precoracoid arch.

A. A coronoid bone.

Maxillary in many pieces; vertebrae opisthoccelian. 3. Gin-

glymodi (the Bony Gar).

Maxillary not transversely divided ; vertebra. amphiccelian.

4, Halecomorphi (the Dogfish).

AA. No coronoid bone.

* No symplectic bone.

Pterotic simple; anterior vertebrae with ossicula auditus ;

supraoccipital and parietals coossified. 5. Nematognathi (the

Catfishes).

Pterotie annular, including a cavity closed by a special

bone; parietals distinct; vertebrae simple. 6. Scyphophort

(the Mormyrt).

*#*® Symplectic present.

Anterior vertebre coossified, and with ossicula auditus.

7. Plectospondyli (the Suckers &c.).

Anterior vertebre similar, distinct, without ossicula auditus.

8. Lsospondyli (Herring &c.).

Il. No precoracoid arch.

A. Scapular arch suspended to cranium.

* A symplectic.

Pterotic and anterior vertebre simple; parietal separated

by supraoccipital. 9. Haplomi (Pike &c.).

Anterior vertebre modified ; parietals united ; pectoral fins.

10. Glanencheli (Electric Kel).

** No symplectic.

Anterior vertebre simple ; a preoperculum and maxillary ;

no pectoral fins. 11. Ichthyocephali (Java Eels).

AA, Scapular arch free behind the cranium.

* A preoperculum.

A symplectic ; maxillary well developed ; no pectoral fins.

12. Holostomé (Symbranchi).

No symplectic; maxillary lost or connate; pectoral fins.

13. Enchelycephali (Kels proper).

_ #* Preeoperculum wanting or rudimental.

No symplectic, maxillary, or pectoral fins, no pterygoid.

14. Colocephali (Murenz).

Of the above orders the Haplomi (Pike &c.) approach

nearest the Physoclysti of the families Ophiocephalide and

Atherinide, and the Holostomi of the family Symbranchide

to the Physoclyst family of Mastacembelide. The affinities

between these families are in both cases so close as to render

the distinction of the primary divisions in question hardly

worth preserving.

The complete development of the support of the caudal fin

Prof. £7. D. Cope on the Systematic Relations-of Fishes. 165

is seen in many members of this tribe, while in others it re-

mains in its primitive condition. Among Physoclysti it is

nearly always complete, though in a few (Trichiuride &c.) it

remains larval. In the first development of the vertebral

column in fishes it forms a straight axis. The fin is repre-

sented by a fold of the integument which extends equally

round its extremity. In this membrane the rays are deve-

loped, and in many fishes they remain thus equally distributed.

In this case the caudal vertebree remain in a straight line to the

extremity, and we have a termination such as is seen in Lepido-

stren and the eels. This form of tail may be called the ¢socercal.

If, now, the radii, basal or distal, acquire a greater develop-

ment on the lower side of the column, those on the upper side

remaining rudimental, it will be necessary that such enlarged

portion should strike the water in the plane transverse to the

longitudinal axis of the body, in order that the weight of the

body be propelled with the least expenditure of force. This

will necessarily cause the distal vertebrae, or end of the chorda

dorsalis, to be turned upward, so that the inferior rays of the

fin shall be brought as‘near to the vertical line of the superior

as possible. ‘This is the type of tail known as the heterocercal,

as called by Agassiz.

We find among the Physoclysti that the lower rays of the

fin are more and more strengthened, and the hemal spines

which support them are more and more enlarged ; consequently

the end of the column is more curved upwards, as seen in

Amia. 'The superior rays and neural spines are also strength-

ened, and the inferior so extended upwards as to pass round

the extremity of the column and come into contact with them.

And now the vertebral centra are successively atrophied from

the extremity. Counting from the extremity to the bases of

the first supports of the outer rays of the caudal fin above and

below, we find that ten vertebra remain in the tail of Noto-

pterus. Inthe Hyodontide, Albulide, Klopide, Alepocepha-

lid, and Salmonide there are but two left, while one only

appears in the Osteoglosside, Aulopidee, Lutodiride, Butyri-

nidz, Coregonide, Clupeide, and Chirocentride. In most other

families, especially of Physoclysti, the last one has disappeared,

andthenumerous hemal arches are arranged like radii diverging

upwards and downwards from the last caudal vertebra. In the

highest groups, as Pharyngognathi &c., they become coossi-

fied, and the tail has completed specialization. This is the

type called homocercal or diphyocercal by later writers.

These types are thus plainly stages in the development of

this member, the first and second being simply arrests of de-

velopment of the last. Thus the young salmon commences

166 Prof. E. D. Cope on the Systematic Relations of Fishes.

with an eel-like vertebral column, or is ¢socercal; it presently,

by the upward curvature of the column and unequal develop-

ment of the caudal fin, becomes diphyocercal, but ceases to grow

before it has quite accomplished this stage. The Polypterus,

the Eels, Gymnarchus, and other fishes ossify the vertebrae in

the isocercal stage. The heterocercal type is seen in the Chon-

drostei, where the vertebra never ossify. In Lepidosteus and

Amia they ossify in this stage.

I further specify the characters of the orders of Physostomi

and the families they contain in the paper itself.

PHYSOCLYSTI.

The following is an analytic synopsis of the orders. They

all have the parietals entirely separated by the supraoccipital,

and lack the precoracoid; the symplectic is present, except in

Ostractum, where it is not ossified.

A. Scapular arch not suspended from the cranium.

Superior branchio-hyals and pharyngeals developed ; ‘infe-

riors and maxillary distinct. 15. Opisthomd.

AA. Scapular arch suspended from the cranium.

1. Ventral fins abdominal.

Branchial arches well developed, the bones present, except

fourth superior pharyngeal; third much enlarged; inferior

pharyngeals distinct. 16. Percesoces (Mullet &c.).

Third and fourth superior pharyngeals much enlarged, infe-

rior pharyngeals coossified. 17. Synentognathi (Soft Gar).

Superior branchio-hyals and pharyngeals reduced in num-

ber; inferiors separate ; interclavicles present. 18. Hemi-

branchit (Pipe-fishes).

Superior branchio-hyals and pharyngeals and basal branchio-

hyals wanting; gills tufted. 19. Lophobranchii (Sea-horse).:

2. Ventral fins thoracic or jugular.

First vertebra united to cranium by suture; epiotics united

behind supraoccipital ; basal pectoral radial bones elongate.

20. Pediculati (Goose-fish &c.).

Posterior cephalic region normal, anterior twisted so as to

bring both orbs on one side; inferior pharyngeals distinct.

21. Heterosomata (Flounders).

Cranium normal; the premaxillaries usually coossified with

the maxillaries behind, and the dentary with the articular ;

pharyngeal bones distinct. 22. Plectognathi (File-fishes).

Cranium normal; bones of the jaw distinct ; inferior pharyn-

geal bones distinct. 23. Percomorphi (Perch).

Cranium normal ; bones of the jaws distinct ; third superior

Prof. E. D. Cope on the Systematic Relations of Fishes. 167

pharyngeal much enlarged, articulating with cranium ; inferior

pharyngeals coossified. 24. Pharyngognathi (Burgall, Parrot-

fish).

These orders will be more fully defined, and the families

which are referable to them pointed out.

TV. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.

In tracing the affinities of the Physostomi, I have pointed

out the relation between the Chrondrostei and the Nemato-

gnathi, and between the Halecomorphi and the Isospondylh.

The first named of each of these pairs are the structural, and

probably genetic, predecessors of the second. The series com-

menced with the Catfishes may be continued into the Mormyri

and then to the families of the Plectospondyli, where the series

with altered vertebree and with ossicula auditus terminates.

The Characins, however, have considerable affinity to the

Isospondyli, especially in the type of their branchial bones.

From the latter group we pass to the Haplomi, and thence to

the Physoclyst groups. The eel-like groups form a special

line. The Glanencheli have cranial characters of the groups

with modified vertebrae, with fins of the more typical eels.

The latter show a steady approach in some points to the con-

ditions characterizing the Chondrostei. The loss of the maxil-

lary, of opercular bones, and of pharyngeal elements reminds’

one of these ; but in the loss of the premaxillary and great de-

velopment of the ethmoid, in the Colocephali, we have features

quite unique. The vertebral position of the scapular arch is

the only shark-character they possess; while, on the other

hand, the Holostomi are undoubtedly related to the MJasta-

cembelus, a real Physoclyst with spinous dorsal fin. These

relations are as yet entirely inexplicable.

The affinities among the Physoclysti are more clear. Omit-

ting the genus just mentioned, we find the four orders with

ventral fins to form a true series, with a Synentognath varia-

tion, terminating in the greatly degraded order of Lopho-

branchii. The Percesoces give us our nearest connexion with

the groups with abdominal ventral fins, and lead at once to

the Percomorphi. From this centre radiate many lines of

affinity. One leads from the Chetodontide, through the Acro-

neuride, to the Plectognathi, by the similarity in the ar-

rangement of the posttemporal and forms of the pharyngeal

apparatus. An important division of the Percomorphi has

the basis cranii simple and the branchials reduced above, viz.

the Scyphobranchii. The Cottide are the most generalized

family of this group, and lead, on the one hand, to the Triglide

of the Distegi, with which they are generally arranged, and,

168 Miscellaneous.

on the other, to the Blenniide. Some of the latter elongate

the basal pectoral bones considerably, and lead to the Batra-

chidz-on the one side, where the number of these bones is in-

creased, and on the other to the Pediculati, where the number

is diminished. To these groups the Anacanthini and Hetero-

somata are less allied.

The third upper pharyngeal bone has already presented an

increase of mass and use in the first orders of Physoclysti with

ventral fins. Among the Percomorphi the same increase

makes its appearance by little beginnings in some NScienide.

It is quite noteworthy in most of the Carangide, a group

whose separation from the Scombride by Giinther is supported

by this part of their organism. ‘Through forms not now spe-

cified, approach to the Pharyngognathi is made. Here the

pharyngeals are modified intoa mill-like structure, which is least

specialized in the Embiotocide, and most so in the Scaride.

MISCELLANEOUS.

Osteology of the Solitaire.

To the Editors of the Annals and Magazine of Natural History.

GrntLEMEN,—In a paper on the osteology of the Solitaire of Rodri-

guez, communicated by my brother, Mr. Edward Newton, and my-

self to the Royal Society, and published in the ‘ Philosophical Trans-

actions’ for 1869, there occurs the following passage relating to the

remains of that bird which had previously come to the notice of

naturalists :—

“Tn addition to these eighteen specimens, we are informed that in

1860 or 1861 a tibia, the shaft of a tarso-metatarsal, and some

fragments of the shaft of a femur, all of which belonged to the

Solitaire, were sent to Professor Owen by M. Bouton, of the Museum

at Mauritius; but the fate of these specimens is unknown to us.”

In a paper published a few days since in the ‘Transactions of the

Zoological Society’ (vol. vii. part 7. p.519, note) Professor Owen

quotes the aboye-cited passage, and then, after printing a letter

from the late Mr. James Morris, accompanying the specimens to

which the information we had received referred, states what they

really were, and continues as follows :—

«They were returned to the Museum at Port Louis, Mauritius.

The first and sole ‘evidence of Messrs. Newton’s interest in these

fragments reached me with their memoir. Any previous inquiry

would have, at once and most readily, received the reply given in

the present note.”

Professor Owen makes this statement in error. Some time before

our memoir was finished, and therefore before it reached him, my

Miscellaneous. 169

brother and I made personal and explicit inquiry of him as to the

fate of these bones, concerning which we were naturally anxious to

know whether we had been correctly informed. His “ reply” was

80 vague as to compel us to be content with the guarded expression

we used. It will be seen that the “reply” he has now given is

not more satisfactory. It shows, indeed, that two of the three

bones or fragments which we had been informed were sent by M.

Bouton had reached Prof. Owen, had been rightly recognized by the

former and “returned” by the latter; butit says nothing as to their

‘fate,’ which remains as “‘ unknown to us” now as it was then.

One thing is certain—that on search being made last August in the

Museum at Port Louis, they were not forthcoming.

Fully appreciating the terms of general approbation in which

Professor Owen has been pleased to mention our paper, the care-

lessness as to the fate of these particular specimens, whatever may

have been their number or condition, which he imputes to my

brother and myself is so great that I need not apologize for troubling

you with the assurance that it has no foundation in fact.

IT remain, Gentlemen,

Athenzeum Club, Pall Mall, Your obedient Servant,

January 10, 1872. Atrrep Newron.

Tapirus villosus.

The British Museum has received from Mr. Buckley a series of

specimens of different ages of Tapirus villosus from the Cordillera of

Keuador. The adult male is black, closely covered with rather short

hair ; the young is covered with abundance of longer hair; the young

is marked with broad grey streaks more or less confluent or united

into short grey lines. The nasal bone of the adult is elongate.—

J. E. Gray.

A Letter concerning Deep-Sea Dredgings, addressed to Prof. BENJAMIN

Prrrce, Superintendent, United States Coast Survey. By Lovts

AGASSIZ.

Cambridge, Mass., December 2, 1871.

My par Frienp,—On the point of starting for the Deep-Sea

Dredging-expedition, for which you have so fully provided, and

which I trust may prove to be one of the best rewards for your

devotion to the interests of the Coast Survey, I am desirous to leave

in your hands a document which may be very compromising for me,

but which I nevertheless am determined to write in the hope of

showing within what limits natural history has advanced toward

that point of maturity when science may anticipate the discovery of

facts.

If there is, as I believe to be the case, a plan according to which

the affinities among animals and the order of their succession in time

were determined from the beginning, and if that plan is reflected in

the mode of growth and in the geographical distribution of all

living beings, or, in other words, if this world of ours is the work

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. ix. 12

170 ‘Miscellaneous.

of intelligence and not merely the product of force and matter, the

human mind, as a part of the whole, should so chime with it, that,

from what is known, it may reach the unknown; and if this be so,

the amount of information thus far gathered should, within the

limits of errors which the imperfection of our knowledge renders

unavoidable, be sufficient to foretell what we are likely to find in

the deepest abysses of the sea, from which thus far nothing has been

secured.

I will not undertake to lay down the line of argument upon which

I base my statement, beyond what is suggested in the few words

preceding—namely, that there is a correlation between the gradation

of animals in the complication of their structure, their order of

succession in geological times, their mode of development from the

egg, and their geographical distribution upon the surface of the

globe. If that be so, and if the animal world designed from the

beginning has been the motive for the physical changes which our

globe has undergone, and if, as I also believe to be the case, these

changes have not been the cause of the diversity now observed among

organized beings, then we may expect from the greater depth of the

ocean representatives resembling those types of animals which were

prominent in earlier geological periods, or bear a closer resemblance

to younger stages of the higher members of the same types, or to the

lower forms which take their place now-a-days. And to leave no

doubt that I have a distinct perception of what I may anticipate,

I make the following specific statement.

It lies in the very nature of these animals that, among Vertebrates,

neither Mammalia nor Birds can exist in deep waters; and if any

Reptiles exist there, it could only be such as are related to the ex-

tinct types of the Jurassic periods, the Ichthyosauri, Plesiosauri, and

Pterodactyles ; but even of these there is very little probability that

any of their representatives are still alive. Among the Fishes, how-

ever, I expect to discover some marine representatives of the order

of Ganoids of both the principal types known from the secondary

zoological period, such as Lepidoids, Sauroids, Pyenodonts, Coela-

canths, Amioids; and Glyptolepis-like species may even be looked

for. Among Selachians some new representatives of Cestraciontes

or Hybodontes may be forthcoming, connecting the latter more

closely to Odontaspis. I also look forward to finding species allied

to Corax, or connecting this genus with Notidanus, perhaps also

Jurassic-like forms. Among Chimeroids we may expect some new

genera more closely related to the extinct types of that family than

those now living. Among ordinary fishes I take it for granted that

Beryx-genera may be added to our list, approaching perhaps Acanus,

or rather Sphenocephalus ; also types allied to Istieus, to Anenchelum,

and to Osmeroides, Hlops, and Argentina. Dercetis and Blochius may

also come up. Species of all classes of the animal kingdom which

have been very rarely met with by fishermen and naturalists are

likely to be found in the deepest waters, in which neither hooks nor

nets are generally lowered. Nothing is known concerning the

greatest depth at which fishes may live. Upon this point I hope to

obtain positive data.

Miscellaneous. 171

The Mollusks will, no doubt, afford a rich harvest of novelties,

among which some may be of the deepest zoological interest. It

stands to reason that a variety of Nautiloid Cephalopods may be

discovered when Nautilus proper and Spirula are so rarely found

alive; and among new forms there may be those combining characters

of Argonauta with features of Nautilus; some may even be coiled

up like Turrilites. Belemnitic Squids would appear natural. Among

Gasteropods we may look for high-spired Natica-like types, for re-

presentatives of Actewonella, Avellana, and the like—for small Volu-

toids of the tertiary and cretaceous types, for Rostellarias, even for

Nerinzas, and more particularly for forms intermediate between

Firula and Cyprea. Among Acephala I should expect a variety of

Myacea approaching those described in my monographs of that family

from the jurassic and cretaceous formations, such as Ceromya, Co-

rumya, Circomya, Goniomya, Myopsis, &e., with Panopwa and Pho-

ladomya, and others recalling perhaps also Cardinia, Gresslya, or

Cardiacea more closely related to Conocardiwm than the living

species, perhaps leading to Opis, or Trigonie of extinct types akin

to Myophoria, with Pachymya, Diceras, Grammisia, Inoceramus,

Pterinea, Monotis, and Posidonia. Rudistes should take the place

of oysters; and the harvest of Brachiopods should be large.

Among Crustacea it is natural to suppose that genera may be dis-

covered reminding us of Hryon or of Pemphyx, Gampsonyx, or some

Amphipods, and Isopods aping still more closely the Trilobites than

Serolis, or Limuloids approaching that extinct family. The classi-

fication, embryology, and order of succession of Echinoderms is now

so well known that it is perhaps still more easy to anticipate the

character of discoveries in this branch of the animal kingdom than

in any other. I expect, confidently, to find Spatangoids approach-

ing Holaster, Towaster, Ananchytes, Hemipneustes, or Metaporhinus,

and others akin to Dysaster, Echinolamps approaching Pygurus,

Nucleolites tending to Clypeus, Galerites like Pyrina or Globator,

&e. &e., and, again, Cidarids akin to C. glandifera and clavigera, with

Glypticus-like species, and Codiopsis, Calopleurus, Cyphosoma, and

Salenia.

Among Starfishes the types of Goniaster and Lwidia are likely to

prevail, with simple-rayed Euryaloid genera, and among Crinoids a

variety of genera reminding us of Pentremites, Marsupites, Penta-

crinus, Aprocrinus, and Hugeniacrinus.

The question of the affinities of Millepora will probably receive

additional evidence ; and genera connecting more closely the Rugosa

and Tabulata with one another and with the Acalephs may be ex-

pected in the shape of branching Heliopores and the like.

With the monograph of Pourtales upon the deep-sea corals before

me, it would be sheer pretence to say any thing concerning the

prospect of discovering new representatives of this or that type.

His tables point them out already.

But there is a subject of great interest likely to be elucidated by

our investigation—the contrast of the deep-sea faunz of the nor-

thern with those of the southern hemisphere. Judging from what

nie Miscellaneous.

Australia has already brought us, we may expect to find that the

animal world of the southern hemisphere has a more antique cha-

racter—in the same way as North America may be contrasted with

Europe, on the ground of the occurrence in the United States of

animals and plants now living here, the types of which are only

found fossil in Europe.

A few more words upon another subject. During the first three

decades of this century, the scientific world believed that the erratic

boulders which form so prominent a feature of the surface geology

of Europe had been transported by currents arising from the rupture

of the barriers of great lakes among the Alps, or started from the

north by earthquake-waves.

Shepherds first started the idea that within the valleys of Switer-

land these huge boulders had been carried forward by glaciers; and

Swiss geologists (Venetz and Charpentier, foremost among them) very

soon proved that this had been the case. This view, however, re-

mained confined to the vicinity of the Alps in its application, until

1 suggested that the phenomenon might have a cosmic importance,

which was proved when I discovered, in 1840, unmistakable traces

of glaciers in Scotland, England, and Ireland, in regions which could

have had no connexion whatever with the elevation of the Alps.

Since that time the glacial period has been considered by geologists

a fixed fact, whatever may have been the discrepancies among

them as to the extent of these continental masses of ice, their origin,

and their mode of action.

There is, however, one kind of evidence wanting to remove every

possible doubt that the greater extension of glaciers in former ages

was connected with cosmic changes in the physical condition of our

globe. All the phenomena related to the glacial period must be found

in the southern hemisphere with the same characteristic features

as in the north, with this essential difference, that every thing must

be reversed: that is, the trend of the glacial abrasion must be from ~

the south northward; the lee side of abraded rocks must be on the

north side of hills and mountain-ranges, and the boulders must have

been derived from rocky exposures lying to the south of their present

position. Whether this is so or not has not yet been ascertained by

direct observation. I expect to find it so throughout the temperate

and cold zones of the southern hemisphere, with the sole exception

of the present glaciers of Tierra del Fuego and Patagonia, which

may have transported boulders in every direction. Even in Europe,

geologists have not yet sufficiently discriminated between local

glaciers and the phenomena connected with their different degrees

of successive retreat on the one hand, and the facts indicating the

action of an expansive and continuous sheet of ice moving over the

whole continent from north to south. Unquestionably the abrasion

of the summits of the mountains of Great Britain, especially notice-

able upon Schiehallion, is owing to the action of the great Euro-

pean ice-sheet during the maximum extension of the glacial pheno-

mena in Europe, and has nothing to do with the local glaciers of the

British Isles.

Among the facts already known from the southern hemisphere are

Miscellaneous. 1%

the so-called rivers of stone of the Falkland Islands, which attracted

the attention of Darwin during his cruise with Captain Fitzroy, and

which have remained an enigma to this day. I believe it will not

be difficult to explain their origin in the light of the glacial theory ;

and I fancy now they may turn out to be nothing but ground mo-

raines, similar to the ‘‘ Horsebacks ” of Maine.

You may ask what the question of drift has to do with deep-sea

dredging? The connexion is closer than may at first appear. If

drift is not of glacial origin, but the product of marine currents, its

formation at once becomes a matter for the Coast Survey to investi-

gate; and I believe it will be found in the end that, so far from

being accumulated by the sea, the drift of the lowlands of Patagonia

has been worn away to its present extent by the continued en-

croachment of the ocean in the same manner as the northern

shores of South America and of Brazil have been... ...

Hoping some, at least, of my anticipations may prove true,

I remain, ever truly yours,

Lovis AGAsstz.

—Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College,

Cambridge, Mass., vol. iii. (Communicated by the Author.)

On the Fecundation of the Crayfish. By M.S. Cuanrran.

Hitherto we have been in uncertainty as to the question whether

in the crayfish the fecundation of the ova takes place in the interior

of the body of the female or on the outside of it. I think I have

determined that it is on the outside that this phenomenon takes

place ;* and the following are the conditions.

In my note read to the Academy on the 4th of July 1870*, I

stated that the male deposited his fecundating material, in the form

of spermatophora, upon the plates of the caudal fan and on the

plastron of the female, and that the period of the oviposition varied

from the second to the forty-fifth day after the copulation.

When the moment of oviposition arrives, the female raises herself

upon her feet, and then her abdominal appendages secrete for several

hours a very viscous greyish mucus; then she lies upon her back,

and bends her tail towards the opening of the oviducts, so as to

form a sort of chamber, already noticed by Lereboullet, in which,

during the following night, the ova are collected as they are expelled

from the genital organs. In different females this expulsion lasts

from one to two hours. The ova, which are always turned so as to

present their whitish spot or cicatricula above, as if to receive more

easily the influence of fecundation, are thus immersed in the greyish

mucus, which in a manner binds the false legs and the margins and

extremity of the tail to the thorax, and which assists in bounding

the pouch or chamber above mentioned, in which a certain quantity

of water is enclosed with the ova and the mucus. Immediately after

oviposition we may detect in this mucus and water the presence

of spermatozoids + precisely similar to those which are contained in

* See Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 4. vol. vi. p. 265.

+ Here they are mixed with pale yellowish drops and a certain num-

174 Miscellaneous.

the spermatophores attached to the plastron, and derived from them.

These spermatozoids are thus in direct contact with the ova, and

in the midst of the vehicle which facilitates their penetration. Fe-

cundation, then, is accomplished in this chamber—that is to say,

outside the genital organs of the female.

M. C. Robin, who has been kind enough to ascertain these facts

with me, has also seen that the spermatozoids which are found in

contact with the ova in the chamber which I have just described

are similar to those seen in the genital organs of the males and to

those in the spermatophores attached to the thorax. They are in

the form of flattened cells, with 5-7 rigid immovable cilia starting

from their contour, and with a barrel-shaped projection about their

middle. During the first two days following the oviposition, these

spermatozoids, which are very abundant around the ova and in the

mucus, become spherical and pale, and remain motionless ; in the

following days they wither, and also become smaller, darker, and

irregular. Lastly, when, after the fixation of the ova, the excess of

the mucus has completely disappeared in consequence of the pres-

sure exerted by the incessant contractions of the abdomen (which

takes place in a variable period of from eight to ten days after the

oviposition), those spermatophores which still remain attached to the

plastron consist of small, white, coriaceous filaments, either isolated

or mutually adherent; they no longer show any thing but a central

cavity, in which the microscope reveals only a few more or less

withered spermatozoids. The wall of these spermatophores retains

its thickness, and remains, as before, composed of a concrete, striated,

tenacious mucus.—Comptes Rendus, January 15, 1872, tome Ixxiy.

pp. 201, 202.

Baptisia perfoliata, the Arrangement and Morphology of its Leaves.

In a paper sent by Mr. Ravenel to Prof. Gray, and read by him

at the last meeting of the American Association for the Advance-

ment of Science, the character of the torsion of the stem by which

the foliage on summer shoots becomes unilateral is explained. It

had been hastily supposed by the present writer that the leaves

were five-ranked, and became one-ranked by a continuous torsion

of the stem. Mr. Ravenel points out that the phyllotaxis of the

plant in question is really of the two-ranked order, which inspec-

tion of the growing shoots makes abundantly clear, and that they

become one-ranked by the alternate twisting of the successive in-

ternodes right and-left; 7. ¢. one twists to the right, the next as

much to the left, the next in the opposite direction, and so on, thus

bringing the leaves into a vertical position all on one side of the

horizontal branch. It occurred to Mr. Ravenel that this vertical

position of the leaves was correlated with the remarkable alternate

torsion of the axis—namely, that the leaves on the reclining branches

were adjusting themselves so as to present their two faces as equally

ber of granulated rounded globules, isolated or united in little masses,

which do not exist in the cavity of the spermatophores, where the sper-

matozoids alone are to be found.

Miscellaneous. 175

as possible to the light, as is done by those of the compass plant in

a different way, and that it was therefore probable that the sto-

mata would be found to be as numerous on the upper face of the

leaf as on the lower. A microscopic examination proved the cor-

rectness of Mr. Ravenel’s conjecture; the stomata are about equally

numerous on the two faces. Whether the leaves take a vertical

position because the stomata occupy both surfaces, or whether the

stomata are so distributed because the leaves stand edgewise to the

zenith, is a question. The fact is, that the two are thus correlated,

and such correlation is ordinarily essential to the well-being of the

plant. It may be remarked, however, that the stomata do not

manifestly appear until the leaf is pretty well developed, also

that this distribution of the stomata is peculiar to the species in

question ; at least the leaves of B. australis and B. leucantha,

which retain their horizontal position, are provided with stomata

only on their lower face. The question next arises whether B.

perfoliata really differs in its normal phyllotaxis from its congeners.

We find that it does not, that in B. australis, leucantha, and alba,

and in B. perfoliata likewise (these being all the species at present

cultivated in the Cambridge Botanic Garden), the arrangement of

the leaves at the base of the main stem is of the tristichous order,

but that after the first or second cycle, especially on the branches,

this changes to the distichous order. The difference between B.

perfoliata and its congeners, therefore, is not in the normal ar-

rangement of the leaves, but in the fusion of the axis and the dis-

tribution of the stomata, adapting the foliage to its vertical position.

The form of the leaves in Baptisia perfoliata is remarkably pecu-

liar. Most of the species have trifoliate leaves and a pair of sti-

pules; this has to all appearance a simple and entire perfoliate leaf

and no stipules. It is, however, a natural supposition that the

apparently simple leaf consists either of a pair of stipules, or of

such stipules and a leaflet connate into a rounded disk. This sup-

position Mr. Ravenel has just now had the good fortune to verify,

by finding some abnormal shoots of B. perfoliata, one of which is in

our possession. Most of its leaves are cordate-clasping rather than

perfoliate, and with or without a retuse or emarginate apex, some

almost two-parted so as to represent pretty obviously a pair of sti-

pules, and one of like conformation but with an obvious terminal

leaflet in the sinus! Mr. Ravenel remarks that this is a manifest

step toward his own B. stipulacea; but it hardly invalidates that

species, although the inflorescence and legume of the two are quite

alike.—Prof. Asa Gray in Silliman’s American Journal, Dec. 1871.

On a new Micrometric Goniometer Eyepiece for the Microscope.

By J. P. Sournworrn.

After a few experiments by Dr. H. T. Porter and myself, we

have succeeded in making an eyepiece micrometer and goniometer

which equal in accuracy and surpass in simplicity and cheapness

any we have seen; and we have used those of some of the best

makers in this country. The objection to the eyepiece micrometers

in use is the want of boldness in the division-lines, which makes

176 Miscellaneous.

them fatiguing and hurtful to the eyes. To overcome this ob-

jection, we were led to experiments in making micrometers by the

aid of photography, which have resulted in success. The steps of

the process are these :—

1st. A scale of 100 heavy Indian-ink lines, about 4 of an inch

apart, are drawn on a dead white surface of Bristol board. The

lines marking every ten divisions are 6 inches long and extend

one inch each side of the scale; those marking every five divisions are

5 inches long, and extend half an inch beyond the scale; the re-

maining lines are 4 inches long.

2nd. By photographic process for copying engravings, a negative

is taken, on which the scale equals about 2 inches in length, and is

intensified by mercuric chloride and potassium cyanide.

8rd. With a copying-camera and lens for taking transparent

positives for the magic lantern, a transparent positive of this nega-

tive is taken on micrometer glass, reducing the scale to the length

of half an inch. In this the lines are 5}, of an inch apart. After

intensifying, washing, and drying, a cover of thin glass is cemented

on with Canadian balsam, and the slide cut to fit the slit in the

micrometer eyepiece. It can also be mounted with a spring and

micrometer screw, like Jackson’s micrometer. In our micrometer

the lines appear to stand out in relief, and are jet-black, while the

spaces between them are translucent enough to admit of the accu-

rate measurement of the details of minute alge and fungi to the

xstoo of an inch.

Regarding the goniometer :—

1st. A circle, about 18 inches in diameter, is drawn with Indian

ink, divided into degrees. The centre is indicated by a dot, and

one diameter is drawn. Every five and ten degrees are indicated

by longer lines than those indicating single degrees. Every ten

degrees of each quadrant is numbered, from 0 to 90.

2nd. A negative 2 inches in diameter is taken by the process

referred to above; and from this a transparent positive is taken on

a circle or micrometer glass cut to fit the tube of the microscope.

It is covered with a circle of thin glass cemented with balsam, and

mounted to fit the tube at the focal point of a positive eyepiece.

A cobweb is drawn across the diameter of the lower lens. When a

crystal is to be measured, the stage is moved till the apex of the

angle coincides with the centre of the goniometer, and the diameter

with one side. ‘The eyepiece is now turned till the cobweb cross-

ing the diameter at the centre coincides with the other side of the

angle. Now the number of degrees of the angle can be read at the

circumference. The advantage of this over the ordinary microscopic

goniometers is, that in ours the angles of the crystal and the de-

grees of the goniometer are on the same line of sight within the

tube of the microscope, while in the ordinary goniometer the de-

grees are marked outside the tube. The photographic processes by

which the above are made can be learned by consulting ‘any of the

standard works on photography, under the sections that treat of

copying engravings and taking transparent positives.—Silliman’s

American Journal, Dec. 1871.

THE ANNALS

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[FOURTH SERIES. ]

No. 51. MARCH 1872.

XX.—On the Horns, Viscera, and Muscles of the Giraffe ;

with a Record of the post mortem Examination of two Spect-

mens killed by a fire. By Dr. James Murig, F.L.S.,

E.G:S., &e,

[Plates VIL. & VIII.]

THoseE desiring information respecting the vast amount of

literature devoted to the genus Camelopardalis I would refer

to the ‘ Recherches Historiques, Zoologiques, Anatomiques

et Paléontologiques sur la Girafe”’*, by Profs. N. Joly and

A. Lavocat of Toulouse. They not only give a chrono-

logical list from the time of Moses downwards, but in addition

three plates, facsimiles from the ancient Egyptian monuments

and old engravings; then follows a very good anatomical

memotr.

The skeleton of this abnormal ruminant has been ably de-

scribed and figured by many leading zoologists,—Pander and

D’Alton, Riippell, Cuvier, St. Hilaire, Owen, De Blainville,

Gervais, &e. &e. The fullest accounts of the soft parts of its

anatomy are in the’ original monograph of Prof. Owen fF and

the “ Recherches” above spoken of; but upon certain parts of

its internal structure Drs. Cobbold t and Crisp § and others

have supplied interesting observations.

Withal it may be asseverated that a quarter of a century

ago, when comparative anatomy held less sway than at pre-

sent, and in spite of the then scarcity of this great creature,

its entire organization was much better worked out than that of

many very common animals. Till recently a few points have

been disputed, or at least opposing observations not harmo-

* Mém. de la Soc. des Sci. Nat. de Strashourg, 1846, tome iii.

+ Trans. Zool. Soc. vols. ii. & ili.

¢ Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 2. vol. xiii. (1854) &e. § Proc. Zool. Soe, 1864,

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. ix. je

178 Dr. J. Murie on the Horns, Viscera,

niously adjusted, to effect which is one of the intents of this

communication.

1. Early and late Stages of Growth of the Lateral and Median

Horns.

All writers have been unanimous in according to the giraffe

possession of two short elevations from the summit of the

head, which in general have gone by the name of horns,

though covered with hairy skin, like other parts of the body.

To the early naturalists their nature was conjectural; but ulti-

mately, when critically examined, their more or less soli4

bony structure became evident.

higale

Sketch of the posterior horn of the young (2 months) male giraffe, seen

from the outside and with the skin removed, of natural dimensions :

h, the osseous elongation or horn; sk, portion of the skull.

The question then arose whether they were most like the

antlers of deer or the core of the horns of antelopes, goats,

and oxen, &c. Towards the former, objection was raised

that they were persistent and not annually deciduous; to-

wards the latter, that they were not porous or canaliculate,

neither was their covering horny. Hence, separated from

either class, the problem arose, what was the relation of the

giraffe’s horns to the bones beneath. A few naturalists pro-

mulgated the idea that the pair of posterior prominences were

prolongations of the frontal bone; but more accurate observers

and Muscles of the Giraffe. 179

detected that this was not the case. Although in very aged

animals they are pretty firmly soldered to the cranium, still in

younger specimens their junction by a tough base is looser, so

that, on maceration, they drop off. This led to their being

acknowledged as bony epiphyses, not apophyses of the cranium;

and, moreover, their situation or implantation over the coronal

suture excluded them virtually from the cervine, bovine, and

and antilopine category. The best sectional views that I

know of, showing the constitution of these appendages and

their relation to the skull itself, are those of Owen* in an ani-

mal nine days old, and of Joly and Lavocatt in the adult.

A mesial longitudinal section of the same horn, its soft basal substance,

and portions of the frontal bone and brain: h, osseous substance of the

horn; v, vascular channels penetrating the same ; fc, fibro-cartilaginous

matrix ; sk, the bony tables and diploé of the skull; dm, dura mater ;

br, brain.

So far the opinion of the majority tallies with the fact of the

giraffe’s pair of rear horns being primarily epiphysial, ulti-

mately coalescing with the bone beneath, so that trace of

separate origin is with difficulty recognized. It rests with me

to place on record additional demonstrative evidence of the

early relation of these horns to the skull in an animal

two months old. The accompanying woodcuts (figs. 1 & 2)

are quite as suggestive and more explanatory than long de-

* Trans. Zool. Soc. vol. iii. p. 26, pl. 2. fig. 4.

+ Op. cit. pl. 9. figs. 1 & 2.

13°

180 Dr. J. Murie on the Horns, Viscera,

scription. The second clearly establishes intervention of fibro-

cartilaginous matrix between the skull and the partially porous

osseous substance of the horn. ‘The first brings out the rough

irregularly channelled exterior.

The existence of a third or median horn in the giraffe has

likewise been a subject of controversy among anatomists. By

some this peculiar middle frontal elevation has been regarded

as but an osseous eminence, and not representative of an ab-

normally placed additional horn. Other authorities have not

hesitated to class it as analogous to the rearmost pair, though

developed over the sagittal suture, and short and squat. My

colleague Dr. Cobbold * has been at some pains to collate the

statements of several excellent zoologists “and anatomists,

which sustain his independent observation—viz. that the

anterior median prominence of the giraffe’s skull, situate at

the junction of the nasals and prefrontals and over the sagittal

suture, is a separate independent structure, analogous there-

fore to the so-called hinder horns.

The proofs of its separate ossification and, therefore, epi-

physial nature, which I advance in support of those who

maintain such a view, rest chiefly on two specimens—one a

section of the skull of the young animal already referred to

(vide infra), the other a completely ossified cap removed from

the cranium of an adult. In the calf stage, complete absence

of bone or germ of ossific centre is indubitable, a thickening

of the periosteum alone denoting the future position of the

subsidiary piece in question. My sketch from the fresh speci-

men (fig. 3), whilst substantiating Dr. Cobbold’s observation

on the immature giraffe, more clearly displays the structural

condition of the parts than in his diagram (/.c. p. 15).

Fig. 3.

Longitudinal vertical section of the mid fronto-cranial bone and superin-

cumbent fibro-periosteal covering of the young ¢ giraffe, nat. size. It

illustrates the rudiment or basal matrix of the as yet undeveloped third

horn : fe, fibroid or semicartilaginous periosteal thickening upon which

the future so-called horn is established ; sk, portion of the skull just in

front of the brain.

* The Intellectual Observer, Aug. 1862, p. 12, with a plate and wood-

cut.

and Muscles of the Giraffe. 181

In my second example, from a female eleven and a half

years old, the so-called third horn was a distinct cap of bony

material fixed to the fronto-nasal elevation and lying directly

over the longitudinal suture. It was oval in figure, convex

above and concave below; and its anterior edge reached to

about 6 lines. behind the most forward portion of the nasal

elevation. The cap accurately fitted the skull-contour, being

adherent thereto by a dense cartilaginous-like periosteum,

0°15 inch at its thickest part. The representations A and B

in fig. 4 give the precise shape of the piece as seen in profile

and inferiorly.

Considerable force was required to remove it, so adherent

was the fibro*plastic material to the skull. In effecting this,

Separated third or median horn of the 9 giraffe, 11 years 7 months old, in

two aspects and of natural size. A, right lateral view; the dotted lines

indicate the skull-contour; B, its interior; C, sketch of portion of the

frontal bone wherefrom the third horn springs. The triradiate rough-

ened exostosis corresponds to the hollows within the cap, B.

182 Dr. J. Murie on the Horns, Viscera,

part of the periosteum on each side of the cranial suture was

torn off along with it, and the bone beneath partially ex-

posed. I did not notice any special vascular structures at the

points of union. From the skull, however, there projected

a triradiate rough exostosis, which was adapted to corre-

sponding hollows in the interior of the osseous cap or horn

(vide C and B, fig. 4). I have found the respective sizes of

the third horn in aged animals of the two sexes to be, in

inches and decimals :—

3 ?

HietremeJenpeth s: ssciig so. sels Dis ae sie 2°2.

gn breadth fuss: oe Dees eee cess

Greatest heiehts «oxi. eh jadwets Bria trate 4 0-6.

2. The Ligamentum nuche.

For several reasons this most remarkable body of contractile

tissue in the giraffe has been looked upon with an eye of

wonder as well as curiosity. Its immense length, volume,

and resiliency give it a conspicuous character, added to which

it is unique in the ultimate fibre being striated.

In 1846 my late valued friend Prof. Quekett announced the

discovery* of the above-mentioned microscopical structure,

carefully noting (as was his wont) that whilst the outer por-

tion of the ligament possessed the peculiarity in question, yet

fibres from the centre were deficient in transverse markings,

and, on the contrary, exhibited an occasional linear stripe, as

if tubular, It has since been asserted by other observers

(Dr. Cobbold t, I believe, for one) that the ligamentum nuche

of Camelopardalis is deficient in the attribute of transverse

strie. For my own part, I can say that, examined in the

fresh condition, the ligament does contain the varieties of

tissue demonstrated by Quekett. But I may also mention

another curious cireumstance—to wit, that having had an op-

portunity of testing the matter at issue by re-examination of

a portion of Quekett’s original ligament}, I was surprised to

find no indication of striated fibres whatsoever. Might one

infer therefrom that long preservation in spirit destroys the

said character of this yellow elastic tissue? and does the un-

* Trans. Microsc. Soc. of Lond. vol. iii. p. 45, pl. x. figs. 8, 4, striate, and

figs. 5, 6, non-striate condition.

t Paper quoted, in the ‘Annals’ for 1854, p. 488.

{ On the demise of the worthy Professor, a great many of his speci-

mens from which sections had been cut passed into the hands of Mr.

Norman, the microscopist, to whom I am indebted for the chance of

investigating the point, besides his testimony as to correctness.

and Muscles of the Giraffe. 183

equal distribution of striate and non-striate fibrille in the

ligament explain the (supposed rather than real) discrepancy

of competent observers ?

En passant I may refer to figs. 6 & 7, Pl. VIII. as illustrating

transverse sections of the giraffe’s ligamentum nuche, respec-

tively from the shoulder and neck. These are of natufal

dimensions, and from the fresh subject, the peculiarities of

the pieces being wide distinction in size and shape.

3. Observations respecting the Viscera.

The thoracic organs in the several specimens coming under

my scalpel quite agreed with the published descriptions of

such—this even to the disposition of the fleshy columns in the

ventricles of the heart*. In the juvenile male there was

no cardiac ossicle present, as Dr. Crispt has already stated

was the case in the young creature dissected by him. ‘This

fact helps to bear out the general rule applicable to rumi-

nants; viz. the bony structure developed at the base of the

heart is coincident with the age of the individual; in other

words, its full size is contemporaneous with the fully adult

condition.

The abdominal viscera, examined in each case with some

care, corroborated in the main what has been noted by pre-

vious observers. I shall mention such variation as seems

worthy of record.

There was no trace of a gall-bladder in any of the animals

examined by me. Indeed notification of only two instances

of such a viscus in the giraffe, met with by Gordon t and

Owen §, is to be found in the anatomical history of this ani-

mal—a weighty argument in support of Owen’s suggestion

that its absence is the rule or normal condition. As to the

liver, it weighed 3 Ibs. 24 ozs. in the male calf, and 11 lbs.

10 ozs. in the mother, in the former the dimensions being

11 inches by 83 inches, and in the latter 17 inches by 14 inches

in diameter, and 3 inches thick—thus corresponding closer to

Crisp’s than to Owen’s or Cobbold’s data.

With regard to the length of the alimentary canal, which

has been made the subject of dissentient remarks by Dr. Crisp||

versus Owen, Joly, and Lavocat, it may not be out of place

for me to register my observations, and, in comparing notes,

see wherein discrepancies lie.

* Owen, J. c. p. 229. + Proc. Zool. Soe. 1864, p. 269.

{ Buffon, Hist. Nat. Supp. t. vii. p. 348, § Loc. cit. p. 228.

|| Proc. Zool. Soc. 1864, p. 64.

184 Dr. J. Murie on the Horns, Viscera,

Table containing Proportional Measurements of three out of four

Animals examined by me.

3 of 2 9 11 years 3 21 years

months. 7 months. 3 months.

fis an. as een in.

Length of the cesophagus.... 5 0 6 2 8 4

= » four stomachs. . 2 3 5.9 GS

FF »» small intestines 82 3 130 6 132 8

” », large intestines 19 5 83 0 92 4

Totallength ofalimentarytract; 108 11 225 5 240 0

The length of the caecum, which has been included with the

large intestines in the above, was 19, 21, and 18 inches in

the three respectively.

As far as I can read the evidence, the animal dissected by

Joly and Lavocat, which had an alimentary tract equivalent

to 211 English feet, appears to offer a fair sample; or it may be

very slightly under the average of what obtains in the adult

but not aged giraffe. Owen’s admeasurements of a female

and male about three years old, and a male of four years old,

taken seriatim, yield 136 feet 4 inches, 133, and 124 feet.

Crisp gives 254 feet in a female of eighteen years, 209 feet in

a young male, and 107 feet 11 inches in a specimen two months

old, besides acquiescing in my measurements of the ? (vide

tab.), =225 feet 5 inches*. It is due moreover to Prof. Owen

to state that he does not include in his calculations the pro-

longation of the cesophagus and four stomachs.

Now, if we take into consideration the records of measure-

ments of the prime vie of both young and old animals given

by the several observers, including the present table, it follows

that the extent of the alimentary canal of the giraffe (as verily

that of other mammals) is in direct and relative proportion to

their age—a fact which in most respects would modify any

charge of error against either party.

To the published accounts of the generative organs in both

sexes I can only annotate as subjoined. Ovary 2°7 inches

long by 1 inch broad, and as much thick. A dark-coloured

corpus luteum, 0:5 meh in diameter, lay imbedded in the

pinkish stroma of the right ovarium ; its edge had just reached

the free surface of the latter. ‘The remains of a similar corpus

luteum, lately burst, existed in the left ovarium; and close

beside it there was a second, smaller one, 0°3 inch in diameter.

The vagina answered to Owen’s description ; but the distance

* See Crisp’s second contribution, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1866, p. 564.

and Muscles of the Giraffe. 185

from the urethra to the os tince was about 9, and the diameter

4-7 inches. Uterus 10 inches long. Each cornu was relatively

wide, and a foot long following the curve. From the slightly

enlarged and wavy appearance of the cotyledons, and the in-

creased vascularity of the right horn, I believe gestation had

occurred on that side. The sacculated condition of- the broad

ligament lodging the ovarium was well displayed.

4, Muscles, their adaptation to the long flexible neck and

slender limbs*.

Professor Owen’s summary of the more important features

of the myology, and MM. Joly and Lavocat’s list of head

and pharyngo-laryngeal muscles, with fair survey of those of

the body and legs, render it unnecessary for me to describe

the whole of the musculo-tendinous structures, which never-

theless I minutely dissected. In the English memoir, except-

ing the under surface of the tongue, no figures of the fleshy

parts are given. Whilst three myological plates accompany

the Strasbourg ‘‘ Recherches,” the views are of such a diver-

sified kind, regionally separate, that one fails to comprehend

the beautiful muscular symmetry bestowed upon this towering

ruminant. My object, therefore, is, by a rapid revision, to

indorse and supplement the labours of these authors, and by

a carefully executed profile drawing of the animal in life-like

attitude, with some-additional sketches, to depict such striking

myological peculiarities as heretofore have not been illustrated.

The function of the cephalo-humeral in the giraffe is eleva-

tion and protraction of the fore limb; or it may be that, when

the shoulder and leg are fixed, the strain can be applied to

the lower moiety of the neck, and thus drag it downwards.

As the French authors very neatly put it, ‘‘ Cette disposition

défavorable & V’action musculaire, est tout en faveur de la

rapidité et de l’étendue des mouvements, par suite de la lon-

gueur des bras de levier sollicités.” I can corroborate their

account of the attachments, viz. its being fixed to the processes

on the sides of the fifth and sixth vertebrae of the neck, whence

from beimg narrow it broadens into a great sheet covering the

* T take this opportunity of expressing my admiration of some myo-

logical and other casts, coloured and of the natural size, in the anatomical

galleries of the Jardin des Plantes, Paris. I may cite :—three layers of the

neck-muscles of the giraffe ; intestines, caecum, &c. of the same animal ;

a varied myological and visceral series of the hippopotamus (classic, as

being the original of Gratiolet’s splendid monograph) ; the same of the

chimpanzee, sheep, horse, kangaroo, jaguar, besides many other vascular

and glandular peculiarities of the elephant, llama, ostrich, &c.,—all testi-

mony to that vigorous zeal for anatomy so characteristic of the French

school.

156 Dr. J. Murie on the Horns, Viscera,

shoulder sidewards and in front, with an insertion into the

humerus and sternumwards. I may add, however, that supe-

riorly, where moderately tendinous, its short bifurcation em-

braces a portion of the intertransversales cervicis ; lower down,

at the root of the neck, it is thick, massive, and fleshy, again

inferiorly thinning into glistening aponeurosis stretching as a

wide semilune in the axillary region, and, along with the pec-

toralis major, being finally inserted into the anterior middle

line of the humeral shaft, nearly its whole length. In the

long-necked alpaca I have found this muscle well nigh iden-

tical, excepting less volume over the shoulder; but in sheep

and oxen it is duplex and proceeds to the skull.

My dissections confirm the Toulouse Professors’ assertion of

there being but a single trapezius, as in cattle and the Came-

lide. Owen describes a double portion, the first of which

undoubtedly applies to the cephalo-humeral—a view which of

late* he seems inclined to admit. In the giraffe the trapezius

barely passes into the neck, and is even still shorter in Auchenita

pacos. These two forms therefore differ from the generality

of heavy-necked Ruminantia and Perissodactyla, where it

stretches forwards very considerably.

Between our English anatomist and the two French savants

there is a further difference of opinion concerning the presence

of a rhomboideus. The latter deny its existence. My own

dissection of several specimens substantiates Owen’s state-

ment ; as he observes, it is remarkable for its shortness. In one

old fleshy male I made a memorandum of its being much

stronger than as figured in Pl. VII. In this case the spinal

origin reached from about the seventh cervical to the third

dorsal vertebra, or equivalent to 8 inches measured along the

ligamentum nuchee.

The elevation of the shoulders causes the fibres of the latis-

simus dorsi to be more obliquely set upwards than in ordinary

ruminants, the diagonal line of force corresponding. It forms

serrations with the four hindmost ribs, and goes to the humerus

along with the teres major. The only peculiarity worth men-

tioning in the sacro-lumbalis and longissimus dorsi is that the

latter massive muscle appears double, the upper half being

tendinous. The spinalis dorsi has unusual width, on account

of the length of the dorsal spines; the ligamentum nuche

partially overlaps it for six or seven of the dorsal vertebree.

As the semispinalis reaches the neck (s. colli), it becomes

much reduced in bulk, corresponding therefore to the nuchal

slenderness—its highest tendon, as in other mammals, being

* Anat. and Physiol. of Vertebrates, vol. iii. p. 42.

and Muscles of the Giraffe. 187

fastened to the axis, but here to the salient posterior end.

The interspinales, intertransversales, and rotatores are each

fleshy.

Prof. Owen has not failed to recognize, as conducing to the

elastic spring of the fore part of the trunk on its bony

columns, how it is slung, through the serratus magnus, to

the large terminal scapular cartilage, besides a third of the

bone itself. There are serrations to the eleven anterior costee ;

the two rearmost are the highest; and the first is attached to

the vertebral process of the head of the first rib.

Each of the writers mentioned calls attention to the powerful

development of the scaleni. Owen recognizes four, and Joly

and Lavocat three masses. I have found the undermentioned

disposition :—The s. anticus arises from the transverse pro-

cesses of the third and fourth cervical vertebrae, and with two

thick equal-sized bellies proceeds down the neck, and is in-

serted singly, but muscularly, into the first rib. What I con-

sider the s. medius has origin by a very strong tendon from

the transverse process of the last cervical vertebra. It divides

as it goes to the ribs into two strong muscular bellies. The

deepest and dorsal one is inserted into the first rib about its

middle; the other, longer belly reaches much lower down,

being fastened by a tendon upon both the first and second ribs.

The s. tertius (or s. posticus) is a wider, flatter muscle than the

preceding, and, springing from the sixth cervical, is inserted

into the articular end of the first rib by a broadish bifid inser-

tion. Superficial to this, and in a measure seeming almost a

portion of the serratus magnus, is a little round fusiform muscle

partly attached to the first rib. Above, it terminates in along

tendon, which goes to the transverse process of the sixth cer-

vical. I presume this offshoot of the s. tertius is the same

which Gurlt* terms cervicalis descendens in Ovis.

Under the name of “ transversal des ecétes (costo-sternal) ”’

a fair-sized muscle is mentioned which I also have found and

take to be what now goes by the denomination of supracostal. It

simulates continuance of the scalenus anticus, but commences

by tendon at the first rib, going on fleshy to the third, and by

aponeurosis to the sixth. Whilst the levator anguli scapulee

seems but a continuation of the serratus magnus, yet,as Owen

notes in the neck, it has a trifid division. The lowest portion,

springing from the seventh cervical, is fleshiest and most mas-

sive; the two other slips, with tendons of origin from the fifth

and sixth vertebree, conform to the upward thinning of the

neck.

The rest of the nuchal muscles of the giraffe are a perfect

* Anat. Abbild. der Haus-Saugethiere, pl. 33. fig. 5.

188 Dr. J. Murie on the Horns, Viscera,

model of adaptation to purpose; and, just as in the long thin

legs, tendons replace flesh where power has to be transmitted

with at the same time diminution of volume in the member.

In the neck, however, another function has to be sub-

served, viz. graceful flexion of this seven-jointed piece of the

spine. ‘T'o accommodate, then, all wants, and still retain the

ruminant type, the ordinary superficial muscular layer appears

to be absent, and the deeper ones cut into bands ending in

long tendons—a method of subdivision which combines con-

centration of force, tenuity of figure, and pliancy.

What Joly and Lavocat name splenius (/. c. p. 92) I regard

as trachelo-mastoid, their complexus as a biventer cervicis.

The splenius is wanting, and the complexus a very diminutive

muscle. The longus colli has normal attachments, but is ex-

traordinarily subdivided into what seem to be separate muscles

(vide Pl. VII. fig. 3 & Pl. VIII. fig. 4).

The singular felicity with which Prof. Owen describes and

comments on the very long ribbon-like muscles passing be-

tween the sternum, hyoid bone, and thyroid cartilage requires

no commentary. Neither do the short fleshy bundles of the

hyo-laryngeal apparatus, fauces, and tongue. Joly and La-

vocat give a full list of those of the eye, ear, and face, which

correspond in nearly every particular with those of other

ruminants, notably the slender-jawed deer and antelope tribe.

The majority of the muscles of the fore leg are explicitly

treated in the Strasbourg memoirs; my addenda, then, have

reference to moot points or imply variation. In one old male

I observed a somewhat duplex condition of the deltoid. Be-

sides the usual elongate diamond-shaped fleshy belly, a broad

expanse of tendon covered the infrascapular region, and, in-

feriorly fleshy, was inserted into the humeral neck behind the

first division.

The muscle denominated triceps has five divisions in the

giraffe, according to the Toulouse Professors—their first head,

“le long extenseur de l’avant-bras (long scapulo-olécranien)”

unquestionably answering to what is now ordmarily known

as the dorso-epitrochlear, being derivative of the latissimus

dorsi minus scapular origin.

Teres major and minor are mentioned as being united; but

I have found them tolerably distinct. ‘The former, of goodly

size, joins the latissimus dorsi four inches from the humerus,

the two passing underneath the fibres of the short coraco-

brachialis. The t. minor, well defined, has an insertion out-

side the humeral head into a pit above where the deltoid is

fixed, the second head of triceps passing underneath it. The

supra- and infraspinati are typical of the Ruminantia, each

and Muscles of the Giraffe. 189

full and fleshy-bodied; the first mentioned, besides its bifid

tendinous insertion along with the infraspinatus on the ex-

ternal humeral tuberosity, has a division almost worthy of

specific identification. In the sea-lion (Otarta)*, where even

greater differentiation obtains, | have named it, from position,

episubscapularis. In the giraffe (vide Pl. VIII. fig. 5, Eps) a

view looking down on the upper rim of the scapula shows

that the muscular fibres of the supraspinatus towards the

glenoideum divaricate, and the abnormal portion passes inside

the tendon of the biceps; overlying subscapularis and co-

raco-brachialis, it is inserted by tendon upon the internal

tuberosity of the humerus.

I concur with the French authors in their interpretation of

the pectorales, limited to p. major and p. minor.

The biceps, as the authors of the jomt memoir note, is in-

serted by tendinous-like fascia into the ulnar neck, but besides

sends an aponeurotic expanse, partially intermingled with the

supinator longus, to the proximal end of the cannon bone, equi-

valent to the fascia of the forearm in man. _ I likewise agree

in there being a double-bellied coraco-brachialis, the longer

fusiform portion reaching almost to the intercondyloid fossa,

the shorter flatter division proceeding only to the humeral

neck. The brachialis anticus has an ulnar insertion imme-

diately below the biceps.

IT need not enlarge on the remaining long extensors and

flexors of the fore limb, which MM. Joly and Lavocat have

already accurately described. i

As regards the abdominal parietes, these, cwteris paribus,

are relatively short; for the great depth and capacious enclo-

sure by the ribs limit considerably the loose abdominal area.

The form of the body of the giraffe is indeed remarkable in

this respect. Whilst a certain amount of superficial strong

elastic fascia obtains, lending support to the fleshy wall, this

falls far short of the development attained in the Pachy-

dermata.

In the male giraffe, as in the domestic bull, the ‘ musculus

preputialis ” has a considerable expanse of fleshy fibres.

The psoas magnus and p. parvus are separate and well

represented. Iliacus double, part springing from the iliac

fossa and part from the first sacral vertebra, the psoas magnus

tendon and lumbar plexus of nerves coming between.

The pelvo-caudal muscles are tolerably well represented

(Pl. VII. fig. 3). What appears to be the ilio-coccygeus (or

perhaps inner division of ischio-coccygeus) 1s a broadish

fleshy plane which springs from the inside of the pelvis close

* Trans. Zool. Soe. vol. vii. p. 557.

190 Dr. J. Murie on the Muscles of the Giraffe,

to the ischial spine and forwards to behind the acetabulum ;

crossing to the tail, it is attached laterally and below to the

first and second caudals. Superficial to it is the ischio-

coccygeus, about equal in volume. This, which Joly and

Lavocat * say is absent, I find comes by a tendinous origin

from the great ischiatic ligament, and, proceeding inwards

with considerable obliquity, is inserted into the transverse

processes of the three anterior caudal vertebrae. The infra-

and sacro-coccygeus, the levator caudee internus and externus

respectively cover the under and upper surfaces of the sacro-

coccygeal bones, each vertebra being supplied by tendon, as

is usual. ‘The intertransversarii diminish in the ratio of the

size of the bones.

The musculo-tendinous levers of the hind limb have not

been touched on by Owen; but this deficiency is amply com-

pensated by the foreign workers.

The tensor vagine femoris has a considerable mass of mus-

cular fibres above; but below these merge into a very strong

elastic fascia lata, covering the groin and thigh to the knee-joint.

In the pelvic region of apes the designation ‘ scansorius ”

has been applied to one of the muscles, as indicative of its

supposed influence in their climbing movements. It appears,

however, to be represented in the giraffe by an almost distinct

anterior portion of the pyriformis. It arises from the middle

of the anterior edge of the ilium, and is inserted outside the

great trochanter, lower than the gluteus minimus and g.

medius attachments.

Joly and Lavocat say, “ Le gréle antérieur [gracilis] des

monodactyles n’existe pas.’ I did not note its presence. As

they indicate rather than describe, a sartorius and pectineus

are both well represented, the latter being a short thickish

muscle. ‘The rectus femoris is very thick indeed, and single

in origin. The vastus externus exceeds it in volume, being

literally of immense proportion, whilst the v. internus is only

half the size of the latter. The crureus is both fleshy and

strong; but its most noteworthy point is that the outer portion

-rolls round the femur, and in this presents a strikimg resem-

blance to the brachialis anticus of the fore limb—a fact sug-

gesting their homology. I found two adductores; the French

anatomists give only one; for their “long adducteur de la

jambe”’ is veritably the sartorius. My ad. longus springs

fleshy from the brim of the pelvis, passes under Poupart’s

ligament, and is fixed to the middle third of the femoral shaft.

The ad. magnus, bulkier, comes from the ascending horizontal

rami pubis and proceeds the whole length of the linea aspera.

* Loe. cit. p. 95.

and Autopsy of two Giraffes killed by Fire. 191

A portion of the obturator internus appears to pass through

the obturator foramen, therefore resembling in a degree what

Mr. Mivart and I found in Hyrax*, wherein we named a

muscle which pierced the foramen obturator tertius.

The biceps femoris is double-headed and very fleshy ; its

anterior portion has coarse fibres, directed obliquely forwards

and downwards. ‘he semimembranosus is another very bulky

muscle, the semitendinosus less so. In an old male the

gastrocnemius had attained great fulness of proportion; both

heads were strongly muscular, particularly the inner one.

The Toulouse Professors remark that the plantaris is absent ;

but in the animal last spoken of I certainly met with it.

Arising by a short tendon from the outer side of the linea

aspera, its muscular belly terminates above the middle of the

tibia. The continuation of its lower tendon winds round the

inner side of the gastrocnemius, and, superficial to it at the

os calcis, spreads out and has an attachment on each side.

The inferior tendon of the tibialis anticus is relatively very

thick; and the extensor communis digitorum I observed to be

double-bellied, these lying in close apposition. MM. Joly

and Lavocat also mention two muscles; but, as they say, one

“est ’extenseur propre du doigt interne,” a muscle (the ex.

long. pollicis) which I met with independent of the duality

of belly above spoken of. They allude to but one peronzus :

Isatistied myself of there being two, the smaller being situated

most anteriorly. The disposition of the other flexors of the

leg and foot corresponded pretty well with the description

given by the authors of the ‘‘ Recherches.” Their remarks

upon the mechanism of action of the leg-muscles and tendons

are very appropriate.

5. Autopsy of two Animals killed through a fire.

A few years ago a fire accidentally broke out at night in the

girafte-house of the Zoological Gardens. Three animals were

occupants—an old male, and a female with her young about

two months old. It was in the stall of the latter that com-

bustion had set up, their bedding of straw and part of the

boards being consumed before attention was drawn to the

casualty. When entered, the atmosphere of the building was

stifling through smoke. The male giraffe was got out safely

to the adjoining yard; but the young one and her dam suc-

cumbed speedily amongst the smoky fumes and smouldering

embers of the scorching straw. As no record of the autopsy

has hitherto been published, it therefore forms a fit appendix

to the present anatomical communication.

* Proce. Zool. Soc. 1865, p. 348.

192 Dr. J. Murie on the Anatomy of the Giraffe.

The following appearances were noted on examination of

the dead bodies of the two animals sixteen hours after the

accident.

In the old female, during the short interval which had

elapsed after death, the abdomen had become immensely

swollen, in fact almost incredibly distended, by the evolution

of gaseous material. The tongue protruded considerably out

of the mouth, and was partially discoloured by fragments of

charred straw. The eyeballs appeared. as if starting out of

their sockets, and were intensely bloodshot. There was pro-

trusion and puffiness of the rectum and external organs of

generation; and these parts exhibited signs of incipient de-

‘composition, although the weather was agreeable and cool.

The hair on the right side of the body, that on which the

animal had fallen, was slightly simged. All four limbs were

in a similar condition; but the main part of the left side of

the body and the neck were scarcely superficially injured.

On making an incision into the abdomen, an enormous vo-

lume of horribly smelling foetid gas escaped: this came partly

from the general visceral cavity, and partly from the paunch,

which latter was perforated when the outer parietes were

transfixed.

All the digestive cavities contained more or less semidigested

food ; and the intestines were also abundantly filled with feecal

substances. The animal had consumed its evening meal just

previously to the fatal accident; and this circumstance, along

with the manner of death, sufficiently accounted for the rapid

decomposition of the tissues.

The liver and spleen were gorged with blood ; both were dark-

coloured and unusually soft. Decomposition of their tissues

had already commenced. Though firmer than the above, the

kidneys were far softer than natural, and intensely congested.

The right cavities of the heart and the great veins leading

thereto were all distended with black sanguineous clots.

Lungs filled with bloody fluid and much bad-smelling gas.

The submucous tissue of the bronchi and trachea were every-

where injected; but the latter organ, at its upper end and all

around the region of the glottis, was very much infiltrated

with discoloured bloody-tinged fluid.

The entire venous system was unnaturally injected; but on

the skin being taken off, a still more remarkable feature was

noticed, viz. the surface of the flesh streamed with blood

oozing everywhere from the lacerated venous oscula.

In the young male, whilst the body exteriorly had suffered

ereater damage from the burning straw, the death-throes had

evidently been of a less violent kind. The skin of the body

Dr. J. Murie on the Anatomy of the Giraffe. 193

was more singed throughout than that of the mother ; but the

legs and especially the hoofs were very severely injured ; of the

latter, the right hind one was quite loose, from the intense

heat. The tongue did not protrude ; but the eyes were blood-

shot and staring.

There was less swelling of the abdominal cavity than in the

older animal; and the viscera of the thorax and abdomen,

though gorged, contained but a moderate quantity of effused

blood. ‘The submucous tissue around the glottis and trachea

did not exhibit such an amount of infiltration. In the first

and fourth stomachs, milk, partly curdled, existed in plenty.

The sum of the morbid appearances bore testimony to the

fact that death in each case had resulted from asphyxia,

hastened doubtless by the shock and pain endured from the

burning straw beneath them.

6. Conclusions.

The gist of the present paper, then, when put in the form

of propositions, resolves itself somewhat as follows :—

1. Agreement with those who look upon the posterior

pair of bony pedicels on the summit of the giraffe-skull as

extraneous ossific centres adherent primarily in the manner of

epiphyses.

2. Concurrence in testimony of the naso-frontal eminence

being also epiphysial, developed after the same fashion, and

therefore identical in nature with the posterior bony eleva-

tions.

3. If the term horn holds good, then the giraffe is tricorned.

But zoologists are divided in their opinions respecting the

precise homology of the said appendages in relation to other

ruminants. De Blainville * regarded them as equivalent to the

deer’s pedicels ; and I infer from what Is. Geoffroy Saint-

Hilairet says, that he looked upon them as representatives of

the horn-cores in the Bovide. Dr. Gray’s definition{ draws

them towards the latter; yet he justly appreciates difference.

Withal, is it not possible that his fourfold separation of

““coleocera,”’ “‘ komecera,”’ ‘‘dermocera,” and “ epochocera,”’

distinguishing respectively the Bovide, Antilocaprid, Giraf-

fide, and Cervide, may be but textural shades of kind of but

one organic homologue? Pedicel, core, and osseous epiphysis

would then stand in unison, and antler and horn (bony, corneous,

or hairy) present identity. In all ruminants, then, whether less

or more developed, the osseous base necessarily would be

* Comptes Rendus de l'Institut, 1837. t+ Ibid. p. 55.

{ Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. 1866, vol. xviii. p. 326.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. ix. 14

194 Dr. J. Murie on the Anatomy of the Giraffe.

equally persistent, the superficial appendage or covering deci-

duous within narrow or wider limits. Do not the fossil Rumi-

nantia reveal forms of intermediance which fill many an hiatus

of our apparently trenchantly separate living fauna?

4. That the ligamentum nuche is composed of both trans-

versely striped and non-striate fibres, unequally distributed ;

and that there is a probability of the former losing their charac-

teristic differentiation when long preserved in spirit.

5. That the discrepancies of length in the alimentary canal

are explicable on the grounds of age and sex; and the pre-

sence of a gall-bladder is of such unfrequent occurrence. that

it may be classed as an anomaly.

6. The muscles of the limbs and body closely assimilate

to those of Ruminantia generally; but those of the neck

and front of the shoulder present modifications in harmony

with or adapting them to the exigencies of a long slender

neck, &e.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

PLATE VII,

Fig. 1. Upper surface of the skull, with the pericranium on it, of the old

female giraffe, seen somewhat in front, and showing the relative

osition of the three horns: 3, the anterior median one.

Fig. 2. Side view of pelvic bones and tail-muscles: /, ischiatic ligament ;

Ile, ilio-coccygeus ; Isc, ischio-coccygeus; Sc, sacro-coccygeus ;

Ice & 7, levator caudze externus and internus.

Fig. 3. Profile of the giraffe in the attitude of walking, designed to show

a dissection of the upper muscular layer throughout the body,

neck, and limbs, in the natural position. Lettering as fol-

lows :—Z, zygomaticus; Bu, buccinator; Ma, masseter; Lsp,

levator superioris proprius &c.; Cn, compressor nasi; Pl,

parotid gland; Co, complexus; Oz, obliquus internus; Zms,

trachelo-mastoid ; /n, ligamentum nuchze; Zas, levator anguli

scapule ; Stm, sterno-mastoid (or s.-maxillaris); Mh, mylo-

hyoid &c.; a+, carotid artery and vein; Jéc, intertransversalis

cervicis; tr, trachea ; dc, longus colli; Sh, sterno-hyoid ; Ch, ch*,

cephalo-humeral ; 72, trapezius; Rh, rhomboideus; Lad, latis-

simus dorsi; Dep, dorsi epitrochlearis ; 7”, J, 7, triceps; Is,

infraspinatus; D, deltoid; S/, supinator longus, and Ecr, exten-

sor carpi radialis ; Pma, pectoralis major ; Ba, brachialis anticus;

P. lo, palmaris longus; Fer, flexor carpi radialis; Few, flex. carpi

ulnaris ; F's & pd, flexor sublimis et profundus digitorum; Zed,

extensor communis digitorum ; 4dp, abductor pollicis ; Heu, ext.

carp. ulnaris ; Ho, external oblique; Tvf, tensor vagine femoris ;

Gmx, gluteus maximus; Bf, biceps femoris; Ve, vastus exter-

nus; Ga, gastrocnemius; So, soleus; Fld, flex. long. dig.; Pb,

peronzeus brevis; Pl, peronzeus longus; Eid, ext. long. dig.; Ta,

tibialis anticus; Sm, semimembranosus; Po, popliteus; Vi &

Ff, vastus internus and rectus femoris; Sa, sartorius; Admg,

adductor magnus.

Puate VIII.

Fig. 4. Reduced sketch of the deep muscles on the lower surface of the

Mr. J. Gould on two new Species of Humming-Birds. 195

neck, showing how they adapt themselves to the elongate cha-

racter of the vertebrae and slender nuchal region generally.

The numerals I. to VII. are placed opposite the cervical ver-

tebree. R.a.ma, rectus anticus major of right side; R. a. mi,

rectus anticus minor of left side; /c, longus colli; m, muscular

bellies interwoven with each other.

Fig. 5. Semidiagrammatic view of the scapular muscles seen from above

or on their narrow upper edge: B, biceps tendon where passing

over head of humerus; Zs, infraspinatus tendon; S.s, supra-

spinatus muscle; Zp. s, episubscapularis; S, superior border of

subscapularis,

Fig. 6. A transverse vertical section of the spinal elastic ligament and

muscles at the second dorsal vertebra.

Fig. 7. Similar slice of the ligament at the seventh cervical, both nat.

size, from old ¢: In, m*, ligamentum nuche ; m, muscle in sec-

tion; v, vascular channels.

XX1.—Descriptions of two new Species of Humming-Birds.

By Joun GouLp, F.R.S. &e.

Heliangelus micraster, Gould.

Bill black; on the forehead a band of glittering green;

crown of the head, all the upper surface of the body, and the

shoulders bronzy green; chest and flanks of the same hue,

but rather brighter; centre of the abdomen mottled brown

and green; on the throat an exceedingly lustrous spot of

orange-scarlet, exceeding in brilliancy the colouring of the

same part of any other member of this beautiful genus yet

discovered ; wings purplish brown; four central tail-feathers

bronzy green, the remainder black; thighs brown; under

tail-coverts white ; feet dark brown, nearly black.

Total length 32 inches; bill 3, wing 23, tail 2}, tarsi 3.

Habitat. St. Lucas, near Loxa, in Ecuador.

Remark. I have in my collection two specimens of this new

bird, one of which is much brighter and finer than the other.

They were collected in the locality above mentioned, by one

of Mr. Clarence Buckley’s hunters. In size this species is

much smaller than any other member of the genus, even than

Feliangelus mavors. My specimens differ also from all of

them in the absence of a white or buff band across the chest,

in which respect they assimilate to H. Parzudaki, but not

in the tieked tail and other respects. I think it probable

they are somewhat immature, and that, beautiful as they are,

fully adult examples will be still finer.

Chlorostilbon pumilus, Gould.

Bill black ; crown and the whole of the under surface glit-

tering bronzy green, with a wash of blue on the chest; back

and upper tail-coverts green, becoming somewhat brighter on

14*

196 Dr. R. Greef on the Structure and

the latter than on the former; wings purplish brown; feet

reddish brown.

Total length 2% inches; bill 3, wing 1, tail 1}, tarsi 53;.

Habitat. Citado and Pallatanga, in Ecuador.

Remark. Except in being of much smaller size, this little

species is very like the black- and stout-billed Chlorostilbon

melanorhyncha, which, in my ‘ Introduction to the Trochilidee,’

I have, as I now believe, erroneously placed as synonymous

with C. chrysogaster, a bird inhabiting countries further north

than Ecuador. The C. pumilus is also very nearly allied to

the OC. assimilis of Lawrence, but differs from that species in

being still smaller, and in having a shorter and less deeply

forked tail.

XXIU.— Investigations upon the Structure and Natural History

of the Vorticelle. By Dr. RicHARD GREEF.

[Continued from p. 112.]

External Habit of the Vorticelle.

In general terms the external form of .the individual Vorti-

cellan animals may be described as cup-, urn-, or bell-shaped,

to which latter, as the most suitable conception, the whole

group is indebted for the name of bell-animalcules (G'locken-

thierchen) conferred upon it by Ehrenberg, and for the cognate

denominations of tree-bells (Carchestum), column-bells (Hpz-

stylis), operculum-bells (Opercularia), double-bells (Zootham-

nium), &c. According to former notions this denomination

would be still more suitable, since, as is shown by nearly all

the older descriptions and figures, it was supposed that the

animals were hollowed like bells or cups, and furnished with

cilia only on their free margin. Subsequent observations,

however (first made by Ehrenberg), showed that the anterior

mouth of the bell was closed by a more or less circular disk

clothed with cilia, and that it was only behind this disk that a

canal led, through a lateral buccal orifice, into the body of the

bell, which was filled with contents, ¢. e. solid.

The anterior ciliated disk, or the rotatory organ, is exter-

nally surrounded by a broad, membranous seam, the so-called

peristome. When the rotatory organ expands, the peristome

becomes reverted, like a cushion, and is then surmounted by the

extruded ciliated disk, which is frequently upon a short neck,

and at the same time separated from it by afurrow (Pl. XIII.

figs. 2, 6, &c.). This separation, however, occurs more or

less distinctly in the different species; nay, it may be almost

entirely wanting, as for example in Hpistylis favicans, in which

the ciliated disk appears to pass directly and without any

Natural History of the Vorticelle. 197

distinctly perceptible furrow into the reverted seam of the

peristome (Pls. XV. & XVI).

The body of the Vorticellz usually exhibits towards the

middle a bellied protuberance, the anterior part being con-

stricted behind the peristome, whilst the posterior end tapers

rapidly into a wedge-shaped point. In this case the form is

short and stout; but in other species the body appears elon-

gated and without any perceptible swelling in the middle,

gradually narrowing backwards from the wide, open, reverted

margin of the peristome, like a tall cup or a champagne-glass.

Between these two extremes, however, leaving out of con-

sideration the changes of form produced in the same individual

by the different states of contraction, we find the most multi-

farious transitions, sometimes most nearly approaching the

bellied bell-shape, sometimes the elongated funnel-shape.

The characters of form here referred to, and the denomina-

tions of bells, funnels, cups, &c. adopted for them, of course

apply only so long as the animalcules have unfolded their

rotatory organ and peristome. When the ciliated disk is

retracted within the body, the peristome, which was previously

reverted outwards, lays itself like a cover over the former, con-

sequently covering the whole anterior part of the body. This

cover, then, in form and destination completely resembles a

muscular sphincter, which, moreover, acquires a radiated

appearance by means of the folds of the peristome and the

cilia lying beneath it (Pl. XII, fig. 1 &e., Pl. XIII. fig. 4,

Pl. XIV. fig. 6, Pl. XV. fig. 1 &c.). In these cases, of

course, the form of the body is not like that of a bell or funnel,

but clavate, pyriform, or even spherical.

Of the known Vorticelle, only two genera appear to possess

freedom of locomotion, namely Astylozoon and Gerda; the

latter, however, which seems to have been as yet very im-

perfectly investigated, is limited in this faculty, or rather in the

habit of constant free locomotion, as the members of this genus

are characterized by Claparéde and Lachmann as “ Vorticellines

sessiles,” although in them a true adherent organ is entirely

deficient. The other Vorticellee are all fixed, either seated upon

attached peduncles (Vorticella, Carchesium, Epistylis, Zoo-

thamnium), or non-pedunculate and attaching themselves as

parasites upon the soft surfaces of animals (Mollusca) by

means of an organ like a sucking-disk at the posterior ex-

tremity of the body. The pedunculate Vorticelle either sit

singly upon simple stalks* (which in this case are always

* We here follow, for the present, the systematic arrangement of Stein,

who, as already explained, has excluded from the Vorticelline the Ophry-

dine, among which we certainly meet with simple forms with rigid

peduncles (e. g. Cothurnia).

198 Dr. R. Greef on the Structure and

contractile), and are only transitorily united two upon one

stalk during division (Vorticella), or the stalk rises, by con-

tinual and generally dichotomous division, into an arborescent

form, upon the terminal ramifications of which the individuals

are united into a colony which is usually very numerous. ‘The

peduncles of these stock-forming Vorticelle are either con-

tractile (Carchestum, Zoothamnium) or rigid (Epistylis, Oper-

cularia). The mode of ramification of the stock is very mul-

tifarious, and is often characteristic of the different genera and

species; so that it might with advantage be made use of for

systematic discrimination. A remarkable difference of this

kind in the ramification of the peduncle is presented, for

example, in the accompanying figures, between Epistylis fla-

vicans (Pl. XV. fig. 1 &e.) and the Zoothamnium discovered

by me in the North Sea (Pl. XIV. fig. 6 &c.). Whilst in

Epistylis favicansa regular dichotomous ramification ascending

from the stem occurs, in the Zoothamniwm in question the

shortly pinnate branches are placed alternately upon a common

shaft. Between these two very different stock-formations

there are, however, a number of others, which, as already

remarked, are more or less characteristic of the general habit

of the species under consideration. ‘These, however, are almost

exclusively confined within the dichotomously expanded tuft-

or umbel-form ; the alternating branch-form has as yet been

observed only in stocks of marine Zoothamnia*.

With regard to this latter genus a remarkable peculiarity

must here be mentioned, which is also characteristic of its

external habit, namely the frequently very remarkable differ-

ence in size of the individuals of the stocks. Individuals may

attain five or six times the size of the others, or even still

more ; and these then, especially when they are closed, project

from the majority of smaller individuals hike lumps. Some-

times there are only one or a few of these lumps, but sometimes

a comparatively large number (Pl. XIV. fig. 5). They may,

however, be entirely deficient} ; but this, according to my

observations, must be regarded as exceptional in the marine

forms in question. We shall revert hereafter to this form of

* These alternating stocks were first observed by Ehrenberg ina species

discovered by him in the Red Sea, and named Zoothamnium niveum (Die

Infusionsth. &e. p. 289, pl. 29. fig. 8), then by Claparéde and Lachmann

in Zoothamnium alternans from the North Sea on the Norwegian coast

(Etudes sur les Infusoires, ser. 1, p. 105, pl. 2. figs. 1-4), and finally by

myself in the form which I frequently saw at Ostend and other places on

the North Sea (Pl. XIV. figs. 6 & 7), which is probably identical with

Z. alternans, but perhaps also with Z. niveum.

+ It is very remarkable that in Zoothamnium arbuscula, nothwithstanding

the numerous examples which he examined, Stein entirely missed the

lump-like animals, which Ehrenberg observed and figured in this species.

Natural History of the Vorticelle. 199

Zoothamnium, and especially to the possible relation of the

lump-like animals to reproduction.

We have already indicated that, with the exception of

Astylozoon and Gerda, all the Vorticelle present only attached

representatives. This attachment, and with it a limitation of

locomotion, is certainly their ordinary mode of life, which

governs the essential systematic character. But probably all

the Vorticelle, and certainly most of them, pass temporarily

into a free life-stage, by forming the so-called hinder circlet of

cilia, separating themselves from their peduncle, and swimming

about freely in the water for a time, until they again attach

themselves by secreting a peduncle, and at the same time very

quickly lose the posterior circlet of cilia, the essential attribute

of their freedom. This separation takes place either on the

occasion of their division, as is always the case in Vorticella,

as one of the divisional buds must quit the peduncle which is

only intended for one individual, or particular individuals of a

stock, usually when injured and disquieted in their ordinary

conditions of life, spontaneously quit the colony to seek their

fate elsewhere.

External Covering and Musculature.

All the Vorticelle possess an external, hyaline and homo-

geneous skin, which is pretty strong in many species, which

covers the whole body, passes posteriorly into the sheath of the

peduncle when the latter is present, and affords the axis of the

peduncle access to the base of the body, and anteriorly wraps

round the peristome, clothes the ciliated disk, and is continued

into and lines the nutritive canal. This skin may be brought

into view in the living animals by suitable magnifying-power,

but also, and generally still more distinctly, by means of various

reagents (acetic acid, solution of potash, &c.), to which it offers

considerable resistance. By the addition of colouring materials

or iodine, also, it becomes very distinct, as it remains untouched

by them and contrasts with the contents, which are rapidly and

intensely coloured, and it then appears as a colourless hyaline

border at the limits of the body.

Probably in all Vorticelle this skin exhibits a regular

transverse striation running round the whole body ; and this is

often so fine and close that it is detected only by a high power

and close examination ; sometimes, however, it shows stronger

outlines. ‘This striation has already been seen and described

by Ehrenberg, and after him by many others ; and with a little

experience it cannot be confused with other coarser folds, also

appearing in transverse rings, which are chiefly produced by

sudden contraction after previous compression ; for this constant,

regular, and fine striation of the skin may be seen when the

200 Dr. R. Greef on the Structure and

animal is most fully extended, even under artificial com-

pression, and, indeed, then often most distinctly. This differ-

ence and the fact that we have only to do here with the above-

mentioned normal fine striation are of some importance, and

at least merit being specially indicated here. Stein, in his

most recent work on the Infusoria*, gives an interpretation of

these strie of the skin, with which, from my present obser-

vations, I cannot agree. Thus, after admitting, in correction

of his previously opposite opinion, the presence of muscles in

the Infusoria, founded upon W. Kiihne’s investigations upon

the peduncular muscle of the VorticelleT, he thinks that, as a

complement to this, the cutaneous striz observed in many

Infusoria (especially the Stentors, Spirostomes, &c.) must be

interpreted as the body-muscles. It deserves to be indicated

here that this opinion was distinctly expressed by Ehrenberg,

who says (at p. 260 of his ‘ Infusionsthierchen’), in charac-

terizing the family of the Vorticelline, ‘ In some (Vorticella,

Carchesium, Opercularia) longitudinal and transverse muscles

are recognized’ ; and further (on p. 261), in the description

of the genus Stentor, “ The organs of motion are the innume-

rable cilia of the surface, together with the frontal circlet of

cilia as a more special capturing organ. Visible longitudinal

strie of muscular fibres lie at the base of the longitudinal rows,

but at the front circular strie.” Further, in the introduction

to the ‘‘ Explanations of the class Polygastrica,” he says :—

“ Muscles can, however, be seen. These, in Stentor, distinctly

form the base on which cilia stand, forming cloudy longitudinal

strie or spirals, &c.”” From all these statements it is clear

that Ehrenberg regarded as muscles the same structures that

Stein has recently done, We can less distinctly learn from

them Ehrenberg’s opinion as to the purpose of these muscles

—namely, whether they are merely regarded as body-muscles

which execute the contractions of the body, or as serving for

the movement of the cilia—which latter notion Stein justly

characterizes as erroneous with reference to our present know-

ledge of ciliary movement, whilst he at the same time points

out that in the Infusoria generally the striation of the body

and the ciliation stand in no causal connexion. The system

of striz of the Infusoria has also been interpreted by others in

Stein’s way and more or less completely described, as by O.

Schmidt {, who has already expressly claimed his share in it,

and also by Kolliker§ and others. Excellent observations

* Der Organismus der Infusionsthiere, Abth. ii. p. 23.

+ Archiv fiir Anat. &c. 1859, p. 824. See also the other important

memoirs on the irritability of the muscles &c, in the same volume, pp.

218, 314, & 748.

} Archiv fiir mikrosk. Anat. iil. p. 391.

§ Icones histiol. p. 14.

Natural History of the Vorticelle. 201

by Lieberkiihn* upon the same subject will be referred to

hereafter in the closer consideration of this striation and its

interpretation as muscles.

In the first place, however, we must turn once more to the

above-described transverse striation in the skin of the

Vorticelle.

In the further exposition of his views, Stein applies the

interpretation of the body-strize as muscles also to the cu-

taneous striz of the Vorticelle, under which he comprehends,

as his whole description shows, the above-mentioned more or

less regular, fine, transverse striation. He says it is an “‘ appa-

rent transverse annulation ; in reality it has a spiral arrange-

ment.” Moreover, if I have rightly understood the statements

relating to it, the outer skin is not the real bearer of these

strie, but they are covered by the former, the so-called

cuticula. This cuticula fulfils, with regard to the body or

muscular striz lying beneath it, the part of a sarcolemma, but

envelopes them only in part—that is to say, chiefly externally

and (in the longitudinal striz) to the right and left, whilst

within they are coherent with the internal sarcode of the

body.

As regards the present admission by Stein of a special mus-

cular system in the Infusoria, we can only welcome it as an

essential step in advance. It seems to me that, even without

the provisional morphological evidence, it must have been as-

sumed, & priort, that the sudden, jerking, and convulsive

movements such as we see in many Infusoria (for example, in

Spirostomum, Stentor, and the Vorticellz) could not be effected

by mere formless sarcode, but only by already differentiated

contractile structures—in other words, by muscular elements.

Where, in those organisms in which the movements are

effected only by the contractions of the formless protoplasm

(therefore in the Rhizopoda and creatures like the Rhizopoda),

do we find the sudden and convulsive movements of the

Infusoria? In all these forms, whether they are indepen-

dent or only represent states of development, the movements

always appear rather in the form of a slow, uniform, and

gradual flowing and creeping, the so-called amceboid move-

ments. Although, therefore, in general the assumption of

separate muscular elements in the Infusoria appears to be

perfectly justified, we cannot in the special case declare our

agreement with the interpretations which Stein now puts

forward for the body-muscles of the Stentors, Spirostomes, &c.,

as also for the Vorticelle.

* Arch. fiir Anat. &c. 1857, p. 403, note.

202 Dr. R. Greef on the Structure and

In the first place, notwithstanding many observations

directed to this point, [ have been unable to convince myself

that the fine external transverse striation of the body already

repeatedly mentioned really has a spiral course. Stein,

indeed, seems only to have examined a single species as to this

point, namely Vorticella microstoma, from which, perhaps not

without warrant, he deduces the same character for the other

Vorticellinze which are furnished with striz. In this V. micro-

stoma, however, he finds “ a distinct spiral arrangement ;” but

the ascent of the spiral is so small that the strize deviate

but little from the horizontal direction, and therefore produce

the impression of a simple transverse annulation. From this

admission, however, it seems to me to follow that the deci-

sion whether the striz in question have a spiral or an annular

arrangement cannot be made so easily as Stein’s statements

would lead one to suppose. J'or my own part, at any rate,

I have hitherto not only been unable to detect the spiral

arrangement of these striz, but have always obtained only the

impression of a regular transverse annulation, even in those

forms in which the striz have comparatively broad interspaces

between them. In this inquiry I have chiefly directed my

attention to the course of the strize on the conical base of the

Vorticellan body and to the anterior margin, especially when

the rotatory organ was retracted into the interior of the body

and the peristome covered it like a sphincter. At these two

points, probably, it would be most easy to decide the question

by seeking to detect the commencement or the end of the

spiral line. But even here illusions may easily be produced,

in consequence of the state of contraction or the position of the

body at the moment. At any rate, as Stein himself admits,

the ascent of the spiral, if 1t exists, is extremely small; so

that, especially when the striz are, besides, very fine, and fol-

low closely upon one another (as in Carchesium polypinum),

it can only be recognized with great difficulty by direct

observation.

In the second place, also, I have hitherto been unable

to convince myself that the transverse strize of the Vorticelle

now under consideration stand in direct relation to the mus-

cles, or rather, as Stein thinks, that these strie are the muscles

themselves; and this leads us, leaving the Vorticelle out of

consideration for the present, to a short examination of the very

important question in our knowledge of the Infusoria, which

has already been touched upon, of the body-muscles of these

animals in general. This is the less to be dispensed with

here, as Stein obtained his results with regard to the muscular

strie chiefly by observations on other Infusoria (Stentor,

Natural History of the Vorticelle. 203

Spirostomum, &c.), and seems only to have transferred them

from these to the Vorticelle.

With regard to this, he says*:—“ The strie (of Spzrostomum

ambiguum) consist of a homogeneous soft mass, rendered

cloudy by very densely packed, extremely fine granules, and

are connected with each other by means of a hyaline, firmer,

but much narrower intermediate substance, which is evidently

a part of the cuticula. Of course the striz are also clothed

externally by the cuticula; but it isnot here separately per-

ceptible, because it clings most intimately to the cloudy sub-

stance of the striz.” Further on, recommending the blue forms

of Stentor ceeruleus as particularly favourable for the investi-

gation of the body-strie, he says of it:——‘‘ The striz here,

in the broadest part of the body in large and not perfectly ex-

tended individuals, form broad ribbon-like cords, more or less

strongly convex externally, which make their appearance with

particular distinctness in the blue Stentors, because they are

of an intense blue or verdigris colour, whilst the narrower

clear interspaces remain almost colourless. In their composi-

tion the striz consist of a homogeneous, clear fundamental

substance, which cannot be distinguished from the rest of the

sarcode of the body ; but in this there are imbedded, close to-

gether, innumerable very fine granules, which strongly refract

light and in the blue Stentors have a blue colour. The more the

animals shorten themselves or widen in one spot, the broader

do the strize become ; on the contrary, if the body-part extends

much in length, the strize become converted into the finest

lines: the substance of the striz must therefore be a pasty

mass which flows up and down, or, if it be preferred, a viscid

fluid. Even in moderately contracted Stentors, and still more

in those which have contracted themselves into a spherical or

pyriform shape, the striae may be seen throughout their whole

length furnished with dark transverse lines lying close behind

one another, by which the striz acquire a striking resemblance

to transversely striated muscular fibres, &e.”

In what follows Stein then endeavours to demonstrate the

accordance of the muscular strize of the Infusoria thus consti-

tuted with the muscular fibres of the higher animals, especially

by identifying the fine granules imbedded in the body-strize

with the disdiaclasts of the transversely striated muscles, as

they, even by their “very regular accumulation in groups,

produce a remarkably distinct transverse striation.” Finally,

in order to establish the relationship completely, it is main-

tained, as already remarked, that the cuticula enveloping the

* Der Organismus der Infusionsth. Abth. ii. p. 28.

204 Dr. R. Greef on the Structure and

body-striz is analogous to the sarcolemma of the muscular

fibres.

From the above it will be seen that the question about the

muscles of the Infusoria is answered by Stein in great detail

and very definitely ; and if the answer were correct we should

have made an essential step forward in the knowledge of the

organization of the Infusoria. But my observations compel

me to advance doubts with respect to the main points in

Stein’s statements. If we examine Stentor coeruleus, which is

justly recommended by Stein for investigation with regard to

the question before us, we see without any trouble the well-

known regular longitudinal strie running from before back-

ward over the whole surface, and, indeed, alternately a very

narrow, pale, and perfectly homogeneous stria, resembling a

pale line or furrow drawn along the whole length, and a broad

ribbon-like stria, in which many fine granules of various sizes

are scattered, and which consequently, in contrast with the pale

striz, acquires a cloudy appearance. ‘The broad cloudy bands

thus appear to be enclosed and shut off from each other by the

pale threads. According to Stein’s view, above explained, the

former represent the true muscles, whilst the pale lines are

merely non-contractile connective substance, the cement

which unites the muscular strive with each other.

To me, however, all the characters seem to speak in favour

of the reverse condition—namely, that the narrow pale striz

are the true muscles, and the broad cloudy bands form the

connective substance. Lieberkiihn* has already expressed

this opinion with regard to the body-striz of the Stentors ; and

the observations cited by him in support of it are so con-

vincing that it cannot but appear surprising that Stein should

briefly, and without sufficient reasons against them, set them

aside for the benefit of his own theory. Lieberkiihn, after

mentioning the broad richly granular striz of the Stentors, al-

ready described by Ehrenberg, says :—‘‘ But there is yet an-

other system of striz which behave like muscles, inasmuch as

they are endowed with the property described by Edward

Weber as belonging to muscles—namely, that in a state of re-

pose they acquire a serpentine form, and extend themselves

straight during contraction. They are sharply contoured

fibres, free from granules, of about the breadth of the non-

granular interspaces, beneath which they run in the direction

of the long axis of the body ; they are attached in front below

the great circlet of cilia, and behind at the ‘sucking-disk ;’

some of them unite during their course. The changes occur-

* Archiy fiir Anat. &c. 1857, p. 403, note.

Natural History of the Vorticelle. 205

ing during contraction are most distinctly seen when a

colourless or slightly coloured Stentor lies exactly in such

a position that one looks upon the circular sucking-disk ;

we then see, in a state of repose, all the separate muscles

starting from its circumference in a serpentine form; but

at the moment when the animal jerks itself together and

therefore shortens itself, the serpentine form disappears

entirely, and the muscles become straight. The straight mus-

cles immediately begin to relax again, and to fall back into

the serpentine form, and the Stentor again elongates itself.”

Lieberkiihn, therefore, interprets the pale striz as sharply

contoured muscular fibres, whilst Stein regards them as mere

furrows formed by the cuticula, which have nothing to do with

muscles, and which, under certain states of contraction, only

apparently occur as “‘limpid fibres bounded by double contours,”

but in reality are portions of the cuticula folded in like a groove.

The decision of this point, however, seems to me not to be

very difficult by careful and unprejudiced examination. If we

once more examine our Stentor ceruleus we see that the two

systems of striz are certainly of completely different nature ;

the broad streaks consist of a softer mass, more or less darkened

by imbedded blue pigment-granules, and the narrow ones of a

firmer hyaline mass destitute of granules.

Now, as regards the substance of the broad streaks, in the

first place we see in them, with the exception of the numerous

irregularly scattered granules, no trace of special formative

elements, or special structural conditions, and especially

nowhere any formation of fibres or cells, either in the fresh

state or after artificial treatment. What is there to compel us

to regard these strie as comparatively highly differentiated

muscular substance,even comparable to the transversely striated

muscles of the higher animals? According to Stein, the

strongly refractive granules imbedded in the mass are to be

considered to represent the enigmatical disdiaclasts of the

transversely striated muscles. But with what justice, we must

ask, can we regard the granules which occur in almost every

thing that is called protoplasm, and indeed almost constitute a

characteristic constituent of it, as equivalent to the disdiaclasts

of the transversely striated muscular fibres? Where are the

sarcous elements constituted by the disdiaclasts? Where are

the true muscular fibres 2? How is the property of double refrac-

tion, which is characteristic of the disdiaclasts, demonstrated ?

And, lastly, where do we find a distinct longitudinal and trans-

verse striation ? Stein remarks that during strong contractions

dark transverse lines are produced, by which the strize acquire

a striking resemblance to the transversely striated muscular

206 Dr. R. Greef on the Structure and

fibres*. But is it not more natural to regard the dark trans-

verse linesas having been produced by the granules being pushed

together by pressure during the contractions, which are often

sudden and strong, towards the crests of the transverse ridges

or tubercles, and here grouped in more or less regular streaks ?

Moreover it is to be borne in mind that the transverse streaks

in question make their appearance, especially in the anterior

part of the body, in the neighbourhood of the peristome. Here,

however, actual circular lines run round the whole body, per-

haps representing special circular muscular fibres. We can

therefore find nothing to justify us in regarding the broad

stria in question as muscular substance. It seems much more

feasible to regard them as a part of the so-called cortical layer

of the Infusorian body, which envelopes the muscles and other

organs and fixes them in their places; to its signification in

the Infusorian organism we shall revert more in detail hereafter.

Moreover, for the granules made use of by Stein in his theory

we have a purpose, which has already been pointed out, and

seems to me to be satisfactory : they are the bearers of the blue

colouring-matter which renders the Stentor ceruleus immediately

recognizable, especially in the midst of the usually predominant

society of the green Stentor polymorphus. They are, there-

fore, as Stein himself states, pigment-granules situated beneath

the cuticula; and just as little as this property can be denied

to them does it seem to me that any other one has been demon-

strated for them.

Let us now turn to the second system of striz, which run,

in the form of clear narrow lines, alternately with the striz just

referred to, and, like these, along the whole length of the body,

and which, as has already been explained, are regarded by

Stein as the connective substance of his muscular streaks.

They certainly at first produce the impression of clear, groove-

like, cutaneous strie which are stretched out between the dark

streaks; but on more careful examination we find that beneath

each of these clear lines runs a powerful hyaline thread, which,

as we may ascertain most decidedly, can never be the expresssion

of the “ cuticula folded in like a groove.” This is characte-

ristically shown, in the first place, by the tortuosity of the thread

in a state of repose already described by Lieberkiihn, and

which is particularly beautifully seen in the hinder part of the

body. Against this Stein urges that the same thing occurs

* Stein has overlooked the fact that this transverse striation, to which

he gives so much prominence, has been already observed and illustrated

by Kolliker, with a figure (Icones histiol. p. 14, pl. 1. fig. 12), which leaves

no doubt that Kolliker had before him exactly the same phenomenon as

Stein.

Notunal History of the Vorticelle. 207

also in the broad streaks, which are just as undulated and

tortuous as the lines bounding them. This statement, however,

depends upon an erroneous observation ; for it is only the

narrow filaments that have a truly serpentine course, passing

right and left out of their lines and into the substance of the

neighbouring soft and broad streaks, sometimes narrowing

them to a very small space when the convexities of two con-

volutions approach each other, and sometimes widening them.

By this means the broad streaks acquire rather a repeatedly

sinuated, necklace-like appearance than a serpentine one. Is

such an extended and regular approximated tortuosity of

sharply contoured filaments such as we have before us in

Stentor at all conceivable, except with the existence of actual

filamentous structures? If the clear streaks were, as Stein

thinks, only a part of the cuticula, and if the filaments were

produced only by its folding, they could hardly follow so regu-

larly serpentine a course without the production of folds on

the other parts of the surface of the body, as the cuticula also

covers the broad streaks. How, moreover, could the sudden

disappearance of the loops of the filaments (that is to say, the

shortening of the filaments during a sudden contraction of the

body), already described by Lieberkiihn, be explained? If they

were in reality folds of the skin, must they not then exhibit

more numerous and larger loops? Besides we may even see

the clear narrow stripes of cuticula pass in a straight direction

over the subjacent undulated filament, so that there can no

longer be any doubt as to the presence and position of the latter.

A further argument against Stein’s view is to be found in

the reticulate ramification of these filaments, which is almost

always observable at the posterior extremity of the body, two

neighbouring filaments before attaining the posterior extremity

becoming united into a single one, whilst the broad body-strize

enclosed by them go no further, but terminate in a wedge-

shaped form in the angle of union. The filaments thus united

then often divide again in their further course, and again

amalgamate with other neighbouring filaments, and in this way

form an actual reticulate ramification. The extremities of

these filaments, whether reticulately united or running singly,

always attain the posterior extremity of the body (‘‘ sucking-

disk’) and attach themselves there. But the broad bands

neither form a network nor do they all reach the posterior

extremity of the body; they frequently terminate before it

without uniting with their neighbours, nay, often forming mere

wedge-shaped pieces between the clear striae. The broad

bands form merely the partially enveloping connective sub-

stance of the clear threads, and not vice versé as Stein thinks.

208 Dr. R. Greef on the Structure and

If a Stentor be carefully crushed under the glass cover, we

see, as the contents of the body flow out, the filaments under

discussion projecting here and there isolatedly from the edges,

and are able to trace them thence continuously into the remain-

ing body. At some points even the filaments are torn on this

occasion, and we may then observe how their viscid hyaline

substance contracts into thickened bacillar portions. By this

the muscular filaments of the Stentors approach very closely

to the axial filaments in the stems of the Vorticelle, with

which I should be most inclined to compare these structures

as regards their whole appearance, behaviour, and consistence.

By other artificial methods also, especially by the addition

of alcohol, we may ascertain the resistance and independence

of the filaments, and that they by no means form a part of the

cuticula.

It would, however, lead us too far from our present task if

we were to cite any more details in support of our view. We

believe that, from what has been stated, we may attain a con-

viction that it is not, as Stein believes, the broad, granular,

longitudinal strie, but the narrow, clear, longitudinal lines that

form the body-muscles of the Infusoria.

We now revert to our Vorticella, and must, in the first

place, again refer to the fine transverse striz already mentioned

(p. 199), to which, as may be remembered, Stein has ascribed

(1st) a spiral course, and (2nd) the properties of muscular fibres.

With regard to the first point we have already put forward our

doubts, and stated that we think these striee must be regarded

as not spiral but circular, and consequently as annulations

following closely one upon another. But in the second point

also we cannot agree with Stein. The fine external trans-

verse striz of the Vorticelle belong rather, in our opinion, to

the external skin, and can by no means be brought, as Stein

will have them, into connexion with the longitudinal or mus-

cular striz of the Stentors and Spirostomes. The muscles of

the Vorticellan body are rather situated beneath the transverse

strie, and have, for the most part, a very different course from

these, namely in the longitudinal direction of the body, just

as is the case also in the other Infusoria. Of this we may

best convince ourselves when we examine the hinder part of

the body of a Vorticellan under careful compression. The

longitudinal fibres, radiating forward from the conical base,

make their appearance here very distinctly (Pl. XV. fig. 5g,

& Pl. XVI. fig. 1). They become still more perceptible when

we are able to examine an animal separated from the peduncle

in such a position that the base of the body is turned directly

upwards towards the eye; the fibres are then seen radiating

Natural History of the Vorticelle. 209

on all sides from the circular point of attachment of the

peduncle. In this position of the animal, especially when,

without being compressed, it rests with its opened anterior

ciliated disk upon the glass plate and stretches its base upwards,

we may also obtain, in certain positions, the clear view of a

transverse section of the body (see Pl. XIV. fig. 8). At the

outside there appears a clear border (cuticula), which is di-

stinctly limited within ; then follows a circlet of dimly shining

corpuscles (the lumina of the muscular fibres), and further in,

again, a clear zone (cortical layer) ,which,as parenchyma, entirely

Jills the conical hinder part of the body, but becomes thinner

anteriorly, and encloses the true body-cavity. Within the last

clear layer of parenchyma we then see, in Vorticelle with

contractile peduncles,some dark corpuscles arranged in a circlet;

these may be regarded as the fibres of the peduncular muscles

radiating in the body.

If the body of a Vorticellan be gradually compressed until it

is completely flattened, granules, all of the same size and in

apparently regular arrangement, make their appearance be-

neath the cuticula. In general we seem to recognize a distinet

longitudinal direction, corresponding to the course of the mus-

cular fibres (Pl. XIV. figs. 1, 5); but it is very possible that

this is an illusion, as the longitudinal fibres of the muscles ap-

pear at the same time and in the same place. Sometimes, also,

especially during long-continued compression, it is difficult to

ascertain that they have any definite direction. Whether they

can be brought into connexion with the muscles, or whether

they belong to the lower surface of the cuticula, or, lastly, to the

cortical layer of the body, I cannot decide at present. These

are, no doubt, the same structures already mentioned by Ley-

dig *, and which appeared to him to have “ quite the habit of

nuclei.” J admit that on viewing these peculiar corpuscles,

their regular arrangement and their always definite size and

limitation, I was frequently inclined to adopt the opinion of

this distinguished naturalist, and to regard them as the nuclei

of the cortical layer or of the muscles. But for this it is ne-

cessary, in the first place, to accept the supposition that nuclei

and cells of such minuteness as the corpuscles in question

really exist, which, although we cannot reject it out of hand,

is yet by no means founded upon observation. Perhaps, how-

ever, further investigation, especially upon the development of

the Vorticellz, may furnish an answer to this question, which

is by no means unimportant towards our conception of the

structure and, through this, of the position of these ani-

malcules.

* Lehrbuch der Histologie des Mensch. und der Thiere, pp. 16 & 125.

Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. ix. 15

210 On the Structure and Natural History of the Vorticelle.

Besides’ the longitudinal fibres, we find in the ciliated disk

and in the peristome circular fibres; but in these parts, also, I

have been unable to make out whether they have a spiral

course corresponding with that of the ciliary spiral.

To the skin and the above-described muscles a protoplasmic

zone adheres within on all sides—the true cortical layer of the

Infusorian body, which encloses and lines the whole internal

space or body-cavity, upon the nature and signification of

which we shall shortly go into detail. If a Vorticellan be

slowly compressed under the glass cover, by ‘abstraction of

water we see, especially at the moment of its death, a distinct

vesicular and often almost regularly polygonal marking

(Epistylis flavicans) make its appearance beneath the skin.

This belongs to the above-mentioned cortical layer of the

body. Whether this vesicular arrangement of the protoplasm

exists during life, or only makes its appearance after death, I

have been unable to ascertain positively. In this cortical

layer, and held by it in their position, are seated the principal

organs of the body, namely the nucleus, the contractile

vesicle, and the principal section of the alimentary canal,

which we shall also consider more particularly hereafter.

Finally, I must here refer to the exceedingly peculiar

structures situated beneath the skin, of which a passing

mention has already been made, with the indication that they

ought possibly to be regarded as urticating organs. I have

hitherto found these organs only in Epistylis flavicans, and

even here not constantly; in connexion with which, however,

it must be remarked that very probably several species, or at

any rate varieties, have hitherto been included under the above

name. ‘The bodies in question are oval or pyriform, sharply

contoured, shining capsules, which almost always lie together

in pairs, and apparently in the cortical layer (Pl. XV. figs.

5k, 7, & 8). They are of great firmness, and present great

resistance to caustic potash and the like; but if they are

removed from the body and compressed, a tolerably long and

powerful thread springs forth from each of the capsules

(Pl. XV. figs. 7 & 8 6), and generally from the somewhat

pointed end, which, in the above comparison, represents the

stalk-end of the pear. The expelled thread usually forms

several convolutions and loops, is motionless, and shows

no special structural characters; by careful exammation

it may also be seen rolled up, apparently in a spiral, in

the interior of the still closed capsule (Pl. XV. fig. 7 a).

What is the interpretation of these structures? Are they

proper to the Vorticellan body and formed in it? or are they

foreign organisms which have penetrated into it? In the

On the Nomenclature of the Foraminifera. 211

latter case they would perhaps represent a parasitic fungus,

certainly deviating from all at present known; in the former

I do not know how to interpret them, except as urticating

organs, Which would exhibit an extremely remarkable agree-

ment with the urticating organs of the Coelenterata. Although

I am inclined to the latter view, I would leave the decision to

further investigations, which should be directed especially to

the genesis of these bodies. If it should prove that these

structures are really urticating organs belonging to the Vor-

ticellan body, this would be of the greatest importance to our

knowledge of the structure of the Infusorian body, as these

urticating capsules, considering their perfect agreement with

those of the Coelenterata, would undoubtedly be developed,

like the latter, from cells.

[To be continued. |

XXIUI.—On the Nomenclature of the Foraminifera. By W.

K. Parker, F.R.S., and Prof. T. Rupert Jongs, F.G.S.

(Continued from vol. viii. p. 266. ]

Part XV. The Species figured by Ehrenberg.

CONTENTS.

§ 1. Introduction.

§ 2. Foraminifera, recent and fossil, figured in the Berlin ‘ Abhand-

lungen’ for 1838, 1839, 1841, 1847.

§ 3. Foraminifera, mostly fossil, figured in the ‘ Mikrogeologie,’ 1854.

I. From Aigina. I. From Zante. LUI. From Aigina. IV. From Oran.

V. From Caltanicetta, Sicily. VI. From Gyzeh and Mokattam, Egypt.

VII. From Thebes, Egypt. VIII. From Antilibanon, a. IX. From

Antilibanon, 8B. X. From Hamam Feraun, Arabia. XI. From Cattolica,

Sicily. XII. From Meudon, France. XIII. From Gravesend, England.

XIV. From the Island of Moen. XV. From the Island of Riigen.

XVI. From Volsk, Russia. XVII. From the Upper Missouri, North

America. XVIIl. From the Upper Mississippi, North America.

XIX. Miscellaneous (recent). XX. Miscellaneous (fossil), from the

Mountain-limestone, Jurassic Limestone, &c. Appendix; Generic Names.

§ 1. Amonast the most enthusiastic observers and voluminous

writers on Foraminifera Dr. Ch. G. Ehrenberg stands _pre-

eminent. By the end of the year 1838 he had reduced to

order the multitudinous specimens of recent and fossil Micro-

phytes and Microzoa which he had either gathered, with Dr.

Hemprich, in the East or had received from numerous corre-

spondents. Among the results is the Tabular Classification*

of his Bryozoa (Polythalamia, Gymnocore, Thallopoda, and

Sceleropodia), which, mingling Foraminifera and Polyzoa,

* Table opposite p. 120, ‘ Abhandl,’ fiir 1838.

15*

o12 Messrs. Parker and Jones on

could not greatly assist zoological investigations. Several

beautiful figures are also given in the same volume of the

Berlin Academy Transactions for 1838, of some recent Fora-

minifera, highly magnified (plates 1, 2, 3; see further on) ;

and several samples of washed dust from various limestones

and other fossil deposits are also figured on plate 4, magnified

about 300 times linear. Some interesting conclusions were

arrived at, valuable and true in the main :—namely, that the

same kinds of Foraminifera (omitting all the other minute

organisms, with which we do not now occupy ourselves)

occur in both the fossil and recent state; but that at the same

time each set of strata has more or less decidedly its own

special group of Microzoa, and that Chalk in particular, and

probably most limestones and calcareous marls, are largely

composed of the shells of Foraminifera (Polythalamia, Khr.),

in some instances these minute organisms, with Coccoliths

(Morpholites, Ehr., in part), appearing to be the main consti-

tuents of White Chalk.

The following year Dr. Ehrenberg studied some living

Foraminifera of the North Sea at Cuxhaven; and he figured

two of them (Polystomella striatopunctata and Nonionina um-

bilicata) with great exactness, as well as some obscurer forms,

which he had found in both the living and the fossil state.

(See further on.) .

Amplifying with his own increased knowledge the already

published observations on this subject of the persistence

of low orders of life, Dr. Ehrenberg wrote the interesting

memoir which appears, with the plates just mentioned, in the

Berlin Acad. Transact. for 1839, and in Taylor’s ‘ Scientific

Memoirs,’ vol. 11. art. x11. Full illustrations of the numerous

Foraminifera referred to, and their comparison with previously

published species, were still wanting; and, as we shall have

occasion to remark, the geological status of some of their

sources was wrongly determined.

In 1843 several highly magnified figures of minute recent

Foraminifera from America were treated of and illustrated by

Ehrenberg in the Berlin Acad. Transact. for 1841, pp. 438 &c.

Unfortunately, however, being merely views of microscopic

objects seen by transmitted light, and therefore appearing

merely as sections, or bare skeletons as it were, of the minutest*

forms, little can really be learnt from them. (See further on,

* Tt is not, however, wholly on account of their minuteness that they

are nearly useless to the zoologist, but for want of structural detail.

Many minute Foraminifera are as good representatives of species and

marked varieties as large specimens; for with arrested growth charac-

teristic features are still preserved.

the Nomenclature of the Foraminifera. 215

for an attempt to correlate them with known species and

varieties.)

In the‘ Abhandl. Berlin. Akad.’ for 1847, pp. 442 &c., many

extremely minute Foraminifera, occurring in Wind-dust on

different occasions in several parts of Europe, form part of the

curious gatherings of invisible things that wind-storms make

and disperse in their whirlings over the surface of the earth—

sweeping the sea-shore, sand-bank, and dry river-bed, the

volcano, the desert, and the ploughed field, for organic and

inorganic particles, and winnowing its dusty harvest over dis-

tant and far different areas. These tiny Foraminiferal waifs

are still less teaching than those of 1841 as to genera and

species, though they are potent witnesses of the path and

doings of the wind-storm.

In 1854, however, the crowning of his favourite labour was

accomplished for the Foraminifera, in the publication of

Ehrenberg’s ‘ Mikrogeologie,’ with the recognition and aid of

the State. In this grand work, besides multitudes of fossil

Diatomacee, Polycystina, Spongoliths, &c., the long-looked-for

Foraminifera were depicted with the best artistic skill, with

loving care, and right royal liberality.

The late Mr. Thomas Weaver, F.R.S. &c., in the ‘ Annals

and Magazine of Natural History,’ vol. vii. (June 1841),

p- 296 &c., and (July) pp. 374 &c., and in the ‘ Philosoph.

ag.’ ser. 3. vol. xvill. pp. 375 & 443, contributed a full abs-

tract of two of Dr. Chr. G. Ehrenberg’s memoirs—(1) On

the Composition of Chalk Rocks and Chalk Marl by invisible

Organic Bodies*, and (2) on the numerous Living Species of

Animals found in the Chalk Formation t—together with an

Appendix touching the Researches of M. Alcide D’Orbigny

on the Foraminifera of the White Chalk of the Paris Basinf.

Dr. Ehrenberg’s memoir ‘On the muddy deposits at the

mouths and deltas of various rivers in Northern Europe, and

the Animalcules found in these deposits ”’ (from the ‘ Abhandl.

* “Ueber die Bildung der Kreidefelsen und des Kreidemergels durch

unsichtbare Organismen,” Abhandl. Berliner Akad. Wissensch. fiir 1838,

pp. 59-149, 4to, 1839. ae

+ “Ueber noch zahlreich jetzt-lebende Thierarten der Kreidebildung,”

Abhandl. Berl. Akad. Wiss. fiir 1840, 4to, 1841. This memoir is trans-

lated in full, and illustrated with the original plates, in ‘ Taylor’s Scientific

Memoirs,’ vol. iii. art. x11. pp. 319 &c. plates V.—vili. ;

{ Mémoires de la Soc. Géol. de France, vol. iv. 1* partie, 1840. A notice

of the Rey. W. Buckland’s paper in the ‘Edinb. New Phil. Journ,’ April

1841, on the discovery of fossil Foraminifera in the Mountain-limestone

of England, by MM. Tennant and Darker, in 1839, is also included in this

Appendix by Mr. Weaver.

214 Messrs. Parker and Jones on

k. preuss. Akad. Wissensch. Berlin’ for 1843) was noticed at

large in the ‘ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.’ vol. i. pp. 251 &c., as

illustrative of the influence of microscopic life on recent and

fossil stratified accumulations.

In these memoirs, and in shorter collateral notices in the

‘Monatsberichte’ of the Berlin Academy of Sciences*, Dr.

Ehrenberg treated of numerous Diatomacez (Polygastrica),

Polycystina, Foraminifera (Polythalamia), Spongoliths, and

other microscopic organisms, which he had found, either

recent, especially in the Red Sea, the Mediterranean, and the

North Sea, or fossil in numerous deposits of various ages,

such as the Mountain-limestone, Oolite, Chalk, Tertiary, and

Posttertiary strata. Some few of the recent and fossil species

were figured by him in the ‘ Abhandlungen’ for 1838 and for

1839 (see pp. 218 & 221); but it was not until 1854 that Ehren-

berg was enabled to fulfil his earnest and laudable desire to

give to the world faithful and manifold portraits of the well-

prepared and almost innumerable microscopic objects on which

his published opinions had been founded. The second part t

(middle third) of the magnificent folio volume entitled ‘ Mikro-

geologie,’ published under the patronage of Frederick-William

the Fourth of Prussia, consists of 41 platest, illustrating the

Microliths, Microphytes, and Microzoa to which his memoirs

refer. Explanations of the plates, with a full index, are given,

but no descriptive text; most of the specimens, however, are

alluded to in other portions of the book, and in the ‘ Monats-

berichte.’

On the Diatoms, Polycystines, Spongoliths, Geoliths, and

Phytoliths here illustrated we do not offer any remarks ; but

we have busied ourselves with the beautiful engravings of the

Foraminifera in the ‘ Mikrogeologie,’ that we might bring

* Namely, Monatsh, fiir 1838, p. 104, flint from Volhynia; pp. 192-

200, Microzoa mainly constituting Chalk; fiir 1840, pp. 18-23, Forami-

nifera of the North Sea; fur 1844, pp. 74-96, new genera and species of

Foraminifera ; pp. 206, 207, Microzoa from the South-polar Sea; pp. 245—

248, Spirobotrys egea; pp. 274, Microzoa from Kurdistan &e.; p. 414,

Microzoa of the Chalk; fur 1858, pp. 10-80, new genera and species from

the Aigean and Mediterranean ; pp. 118-128 and 295-311, siliceous casts

of Foraminifera.

+ The other parts of this grand work consist,—the first of catalogues,

special and collective, of the microscopic objects, animate and inanimate,

from 836 different freshwater deposits from all parts of the world, ex-

cepting North America ; the third part contains notices of North-American

microscopic life and microgeology, with special and collective catalogues

of the objects found in upwards of 300 filterings, river-muds, and other

deposits from the United States.

} Comprising four thousand figures, in great part coloured, and all

(except in pl. 40) magnified at least 300 times linear.

the Nomenclature of the Foraminifera. 215

them, with a corrected nomenclature, into correlation with the

great mass of species and varieties, fossil and recent, now to be

seen in numerous publications at home and abroad, and thus

aid in working out the life-history of some, at least, of these

remarkably persistent and widely diffused Protozoa.

It is difficult to follow Dr. Ehrenberg in his correlation of

the several deposits from which he obtained the figured Fora-

minifera, because his identifications of Foraminiteral species

and marked varieties are often incorrect, both among those of

his own gathering and of these with such as had been figured

or mentioned by D’Orbigny. And not merely are there diffi-

culties as to species, but his generic groups are often discordant

with the names they bear, and sometimes comprise two or more

different genera (see Appendix). Nevertheless, taking a broad

view of the results of his laborious, if not very discriminating,

work among the recent and fossil Foraminifera, we may well

congratulate him on having shown that several living species

are also to be found fossil in Tertiary and Cretaceous deposits,

though both his “ species” and his geological conclusions are

in many instances open to correction. ‘Thus, throughout his

interesting memoirs on the subject of the persistence of certain

protozoan species, he uses the words ‘‘ Chalk” and “ Chalk-

marl” for some Tertiary limestones and _siliceo-calcareous

earthy deposits; and, with respect to the zoological determi-

nations of the Microzoa, we refer to the following observations

on his figures and to the conclusions we arrive at concerning

them, as showing the great discordance noticeable between

his views and those of other rhizopodists. Yet through-

out the work there truly appear numerous such persistent

forms, belonging to the Cretaceous, Tertiary, and Recent

periods, as his experienced eye really detected and in many

instances his lists show, but which, for some occult reason, he

failed generally to characterize by description and nomencla-

ture, though often grouped naturally on his plates. As with

his classification of the Foraminifera among his “ Bryozoa”’

(1839)*, so with his ‘ Mikrogeologie’ (1854), he failed to seize

the clue to the right understanding and disentanglement of

these many-featured Rhizopods. Ehrenberg’s truthful plates,

however, in the magnificent work last mentioned, supply the

rhizopodist with a storehouse of beautifully prepared ay

mens, mostly seen by transmitted light, from various fossil

deposits; and from these, for by far the most part, good and

useful conclusions can be drawn, as from fresh specimens,

except that, being viewed only in one manner (transparent),

* Abhandl. Berl. Akad. fiir 1838; Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. vii.

pp. 802, 303. |

216 Messrs. Parker and Jones on

with but little perspective, and rarely with both faces of the

shell, the student still finds himself too frequently at fault.

The perfect engraving of shell-structure, tubes, pores, opacity,

granulosity, &c., of septa, septal orifices in many cases, and

other details, gives the majority of the figures great value ;

and, besides the evident truthfulness of form and structure,

the picturing of accidental air-bubbles and contents of cham-

bers (coloured sometimes) shows how exact and conscientious

has been the artistic labour bestowed on the work.

In reading aright the generic and specific relations of Dr.

Ehrenberg’s Foraminifera, drawn so carefully in the splendid

plates of the ‘ Mikrogeologie,’ we have to remember that they

are mounted in Canada balsam and seen by transmitted light;

and, indeed, it requires an experienced acquaintance, almost if

not quite as complete as that of Ehrenberg himself, with simi-

larly mounted Foraminifera, from all parts of the world, to be

enabled to detect and realize the zoological value of faint dif-

ferences of apparent convexity and of opacity, punctation,

porosity, and granulation, of relative thickness of shell-walls,

which sometimes look lke marginal keels,—of imperfect in-

dications of the position, direction, and form of septal aper-

tures, rarely shown except, as it were, in section,—and of

other characteristic details which go to make the recognizable

facies of a species or variety.

Few of the specimens figured are more than =; of a Paris

line in diameter—that is, invisible to the naked eye. They are

such as are readily washed away during the process of disin-

tegrating soils, muds, and friable shales, marls, and chalk by

means of water; whilst, on the contrary, such Foraminifera

as have been figured by other authors are mostly those that

remain after the muddy or chalky water has been poured off

in the preparation, and can be readily picked out with the aid

of a pocket-lens.

We cannot choose a better opportunity than the present to

introduce the cordial and’ truthful expression of an accom-

plished American naturalist’s well considered opinion of the

great, German microscopist’s labours and expositions. ‘'T'reat-

ing * of Ehrenberg’s description of microscopic organisms

from America, he says :—

“This important memow by the illustrious Ehrenberg is

characterized, like all the preceding works of this author, not

* Americ. Journ. Se. Arts, vol. xlvi. April 1844: Notice of a memoir

by C. G. Ehrenberg, “On the Extent and Influence of Microscopic Life

in North and South America,” pp. 297-313,

the Nomenclature of the Foraminifera. 217

only by marks of the most accurate research and indefatigable

industry, but by the still higher merit of far-reaching philo-

sophical views and a just appreciation of the important bear-

ings and applications of the facts which he has brought to

light.”

eWith this eulogium we fully coincide, and feel certain that

the better Ehrenberg’s work is understood, the more will his

beautiful and lasting illustrations, and his painstaking synop-

tical registers, advance the progress of biology in its relation

to both the present and the past. In removing some obscurity

from the highly valuable groups of Foraminifera of which he

has treated, we shall be of use to naturalists and geologists,

enabling them to put several extensive faune and local groups

into close critical relation with each other and with such as

have been observed by others. 'urther, we are sure that

Ehrenberg himself, thinking over the improved biological

systems of later naturalists, and open to conviction on good

arguments, would freshly recognize the force of his own words

respecting the importance of rhizopodal studies and their

slowly progressive nature *, and be pleased to find, also, his

own researches not only serving as a broad basis for the study

in general and as steps to higher knowledge, but still more

freely trodden in the upward ascent when made somewhat

clearer and firmer for the student.

In 1847 Prof. W. C. Williamson+, F.R.S., had already

taken in hand a survey of Dr. Ehrenberg’s microscopical

work in relation to the origin of limestones and some other

rocks. Not merely as a reading critic, but as an original

observer Prof. Williamson handled this subject in his masterly

and systematic memoir, in which, escaping from some of

Ehrenberg’s biological errors, but still hampered by others,

he first makes a review of his own-collected materials—

Desmids, Diatoms, Xanthids, Sponge-spicules, Foraminifera,

* Op. eit. p. 312. “From the rapid and great increase of the knowledge

of an independent deep-working life in the smallest space, it follows that this

field of research cannot be unworthy of the best efforts; and if it be not

always equaliy and quickly productive, or if it may be more agreeable

with easier speculation, and rather in poetic sport than seriously, to

penetrate into the Remote, yet the only scientific and remuneratin

method is by slow and sure steps, and under the check of careful, al

therefore laborious, research, to approach the goal which excites the

minds of all thinking men of all generations, and will interest all ge-

nerations yet to come.”

+ ‘Onsome of the Microscopical Objects found in the Mud of the Levant,

and other Deposits, with remarks on the Mode of Formation of Calcareous

and Infusorial Siliceous Rocks.’ 8vo, Manchester, 1847. (From vol. viii.

of the Manchester Literary and Philos. Society’s Memoirs. )

218 Messrs. Parker and Jones on

Polyeystines (under the term “siliceous Infusoria’’), shell-

ycy )

prisms, echinodermatal plates, &c. Secondly, he gives valua-

ble notes on their distribution in the Levant, on the British

coasts, in the West Indies, and elsewhere. Thirdly, their

occurrence in the fossil strata of Barbadoes, Sicily, Paris,

North and South America, and especially in the Chalk of

Kent (Mr. Harris’s collection), Yorkshire, Antrim, &c., the

limestone of Lebanon, the Speeton Clay, Oolites, Lias, and

the Mountain-limestone, with careful references to the labours

of others, especially Ehrenberg and D’Orbigny. Fourthly,

the origin of limestones, the manifold changes they have suf-

fered, and silicification are his special objects of study ; and,

though doubtless Foraminifera are found to be the chief

material of many limestones of very different ages, he warns

his readers to be cautious im-using these low and _ simple

animalcules as exact criteria either for climates, depths, and

regions, or for chronological succession. He critically applies

the researches and statements of both Ehrenberg and D’Or-

bigny in support of this well-founded caution. Since 1847

few have laboured more than Williamson himself in clearing

away the obscurities that beset the Foraminifera, enabling us

to understand their genera, species, and varieties, to trace

them through their species-life, and to compare them from

remote strata and distant seas—and this with improved know-

ledge and far better results than fell to the lot of earlier

observers.

We here refer the student to some careful drawings of

Foraminifera from the Pacific, seen by transmitted light, and

engraved in a former volume of the ‘ Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist.’

for comparison with those given by Ehrenberg. Among them

are several of the species met with in the ‘ Mikrogeologie.’

We have to correct the nomenclature used by the author.

J. D. Macdonald, ‘On Foraminifera from the Feejee Islands.”

(Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 2. vol. xx. pp. 193 &. 1857.)

Pl. 5. figs. 1,2. Doubtful. Figs. 3-5. Polycystina. From 1020

fathoms.

fig. 6. Uvigerina pygmea, D’Orb. Dimorphous variety. ) From

figs. 7-10. Lagena globosa et marginata (Montagu). > 440

Entosolenian. fath.

figs. 11-14. Globigerina bulloides, D’ Orb. )

fig. 15. Planulina? Ream

fig. 16. Cymbalopora Poeyi (D’Orb.). L 1020

fig. 17. Discorbina globularis? (D’Orb.). Young.

figs. 18, 19. Nonionina umbilicatula (Montagu). |

fig. 20. Discorbina globularis? (D’Orb.). J

the Nomenctature of the Foraminifera. 219

Pl. 6. fig. 21. Uvigerina pygmea, D’Orb. Aculeate variety.

fig. 22. Verneuilina pygmea (Lgger).

fig. 23. Virgulina Schreibersi, Czizek.

fig. 24. V. Schreibersi (irregular and dwarf). From

fig. 25. Discorbina Berthelotiana (D’Orb.). >1020

fig. 26. Textilaria pygmea, D’Orb., vel Bolivina punc- | fath.

tata, D’ Orb.

fig. 27. Bolivina punctata, D’Orb. With an aculeate

base.

fig. 28. Spiroloculina planulata (Zam.). From

fig. 29. Quinqueloculina seminulum (Linn.). Young. + 440

fig. 30. Triloculina oblonga (Montagu). fath.

figs. 31, 33. Calcarina Spengleri (G'mel.), var. raion

fig. 32. Described as a lenticular body, like a Num- i t

mulina. tena

Whatever the peduncles in figs. 31 & 33 may be, the ter-

minal processes, referred to by Mr. Macdonald as peduncles,

in figs. 2, 4, 6, 21, 23, & 30, are the usual more or less pro-

duced, tubular, stoloniferous apertures.

Several good sectional views of typical forms are given by

Dr. J. G. Egger, ‘Neues Jahrbuch fiir Mineralog. Geog.’

&e. 1857, among his figures of the Miocene Foraminifera of

Ortenberg; and these also may be advantageously used in

comparison with Ehrenberg’s figures.

§ 2. In the first place we propose to offer such conclusions

as we think we can safely arrive at with respect to the figures

of Foraminifera given in the ‘ Abhandlungen’ for 1838, 1839,

1841, and 1847.

I. Abhandl. Berl. Akad. Wiss. fiir 1838 (1839), pp. 54-

149, with table and 4 plates. (Ueber die Bildung der Kreide-

felsen und des Kreidemergels durch unsichtbare Organismen.)

Pl. 1. fig. 1, a, a, *** &c., B, a, b,c, d,e,&c. Rotalia Beccarii.

From the Adriatic. =. Beccarii, var. ammoniformis

(Lin. et Lam.).

fig. 2. A, e, a,b,c, B. Marginulina raphanus [Linn. sp.].

From Rimini, Adriatic.

Pl. 2. fig. 1, a, 6, c,d, x,y, &e. Peneroplis planatus. From the

Red Sea. =P. pertusus (Forskal).

fig. 2, a, b, a, x, &e. Coscinospira* Hemprichii. From

the Red Sea and Libyan portion of the Mediterranean.

The elongate subtype of Peneroplis.

Pl. 3. fig. 1, a, 6, ¢, d, &e. Orbiculina numismalis [Lamarck].

* This subgeneric name (= Spirolina, Lamarck) is misapplied to the

elongate Lituole in some of Dr. Ehrenberg’s memoirs.

220

From the Antilles.

& M.).

Messrs. Parker and Jones on

= Orb. adunca, and var. orbiculus (F.

fig. 2,a,b,c.d. Sorites orbiculus. From the Red Sea and

Mediterranean.

(Forskal).

fig. 3. Amphisorus Hemprichii.

Young stage of Orbitolites orbiculus

From the Red Sea?

Old condition of the same.

Pl. 4. fig. 1. “ Writing Chalk,” from Puszkary, Poland; op-

posite Grodno, on the Memel.

fig. 2. The same, from Jutland, Denmark.

The same, from Riigen Island, Pomerania.

The same, from Gravesend, on the Thames.

The same, from Meudon, near Paris.

“ Harder writing Chalk,” from Cattolica, Sicily.

. “Compact Chalk,” from Cahira, Mokattam Hills,

near Cairo.

fig. 8. The same, from the catacombs of Thebes, Upper

Egypt

fig. 9. ‘‘Compact grey limestone,” from Hamam Faraun

(Mountain), Sinai, Arabia.

fig. 10. ‘‘ Chalk-marl,” from Oran, Africa.

fig. 11. The same, from Caltanisetta, Sicily.

fig. 12. The same, from Greece.

These are samples of the limestones or marly earths*, finely

levigated, showing the Microzoa &c. of which they are seve-

rally composed, highly magnified, and few exceeding ;; of a

(Paris) line in diameter.

The following list comprises the Foraminifera figured in

plate 4, as named in the memoir :—

Globigerina bulloides (?), D’ Ord.

helicina (?), D’ Orb.

Planulina sicula.

—— turgidaf.

Robulina cretacea.

Rosalina foveolataf.

elobularis (?), D’ Orb.

— levigataf.

pertusa.

Rotalia globulosat.

— ocellata.

—— ornata.

Rotalia perforata.

—— scabra.

—— stigma.

Textularia aciculata (?), D’ Orb.

asperat.

brevis.

dilatatat.

—— globulosaf.

perforata.

spinosa.

striatat.

Turbinulina italica (?), D’ Orb.

Excepting those from Poland, all the above and many

* The first six and the eighth are “chalk” or “ chalk-marl,” or, rather,

cretaceous limestones; 10 & 11 are white siliceo-calcareous earths, com-

posed of Diatoms and Polycystines, with relatively few Foraminifera; and

12 is argillaceous.

+ These are the most abundant.

the Nomenclature of the Foraminifera. 221

others are better figured and determined in the ‘ Mikrogeo-

logie,’ 1854.

The species of Foraminifera known to Ehrenberg in 1839

a enumerated and characterized at pp. 130-135, Abhandl.

tir 1838.

II. Abhandl. Berl. Akad. fiir 1839 (1841), pp. 94 e¢ segq.,

with 4 plates. (Ueber noch zahlreich jetzt-lebende Thierarten

der Kreidebildung.)

Pl. 1. fig. 1, a-g. Geoponus stella-borealis*. = Polystomella

striatopunctata (FE. & M.).

Pl. 2. fig. 1, a-g. Nonionina germanica*. = Nonionina umbi-

licatula (Montagu).

fig. 2,a,6,c. Rotalia perforata. = Planorbulina.

fig. 3, a, b. globosa. = Planorbulina ?

fig.4,a,6. -— turgida. = Cristellaria rotulata (La-

marck).

fig. 5, a,b. Textilaria aciculata. = Bolivina dilatata (?),

Rss.

III. Abhandl. Berl. Akad. Wiss. fiir 1841 (1843). (Ver-

breitung und Einfluss des mikroskopischen Lebens in Siid-

und Nord-Amerika.)

P. 438, pl. 1. fig. 31. Rotalia peruviana. = Pulvinulina?

P. 441 (from Cuba), pl. 2. fig. 39. Triloculina antillarum. =

Miliola (Quinqueloculina ?).

fig. 40. Triloculina turgida. = Uniloculina?

fig. 41. Rotalia perforata. = Planorbulina? vel ?Discor-

bina globularis ? (D’Orb.).

fig. 42. Rotalia cochlea. | = Pulvinulina cultrata?

fig. 43. Rotalia egena. } (D’Orb.).

fig. 44. Textilaria semipunctata. = Bolivina?

P. 443 (from Vera Cruz), pl. 3. fig.41. ?Spirillina vivipara.

This is stated to be s¢/iceous ; but it is extremely like some

of the simply tubular, non-segmented Pulvinuline, and has

been taken as a subtype. In the ‘ Mikrogeologie,’ at p. 3

and elsewhere, in the lists of Microzoa, a calcareous Spiril-

lina vulgaris, Ehr., is mentioned; but whether this is a

relation of Pulvinulina, or a Cornuspira, or a Trocham-

minat, we have no means of judging.

* These two species are described in the Monatsbher. for 1840, p. 25.

+ The group of unchambered shells for which Sp. vivipara was taken

as a type by one of us in 1850 (in King’s “ Monograph of Permian Fos-

sils,” Paleontogr. Soc. pp. 18-20) has been divided into the three divi-

sions above indicated. The Permian discoidal fossil is really a Trocham-

mina; but, from its supposed relationship to the Bordeaux fossil (a real

222 Messrs. Parker and Jones on

fig. 42. Spiroloculina lagena, = Miliola.

fig. 43. ? Planularia pelagi. = Pulvinulina auricula?

(F. & M.)

fig. 44. Textilaria ocellata. = Bolivina dilatata, Rss.

fig. 45. Grammostomum tenue. = Virgulina Schreibersit,

Czjz.

fig. 46. Text. stichopora. = Textilaria sagittula ?, Defr.

fig. 47. ?Cristellaria vitrea. = Rotalia orbicularis, D’Orb.

(Vitreous variety of R. Beccarii.)

fig. 48. Planulina tenuis. = Planorbulina?

fig. 49. Allotheca megathyra. = Planorbulina farcta ;

young, with coarse pores.

fig. 50. Nonionina millepora. = Nonionina.

fig. 51. Ptygostomum oligoporum. =Planorbulina?

IV. Abhandl. Berl. Akad. fiir 1847 (1849). (Passatstaub

und Blutregen.)

P. 443. (Wind-dust, Italy.)

Pl. 1. fig. 95. Spiroloculma? Young Miliola?

fig. 96. Fragment.

fig. 97. Rotalia globulosa? Fragment. ?

fig. 98. R. senaria? Fragment. ?

P. 445. (Wind-dust, Calabria.)

Pl. 1. fig. 109. Miliola ? (Oolina ?) ?(Not Mhola.)

fig. 110. Fragment.

P. 446. (Wind-dust, Malta.)

PL. 2. fig. 77. Textilaria striata. Textilaria gibbosa (?),

D’Orb.

figs. 78, 79. T. globulosa. Fig. 78, 7, globulosa, Ehr.,

and fig. 79, 7. carinata, D’Orb.

fig. 80. Grammostomum. 7. agglutinans, D’Orb.

fig. 81. Gr. carinatum ? Bolivina costata (?), D’Orb.

fig. 82. Spirillina. Young Cornuspira? or Miliola.

fig. 83. Rotalia ? ?

fig. 84. R. globulosa. ?

fig. 85. R. senaria. ?

P. 456. (Wind-dust, Lyons.)

PL. 5. fig. 108. Nodosaria ? ?

fig. 111. Textilaria globulosa. _ 7. globulosa, Ehy.

figs. 112, 113. Rotalia globulosa ? ? .

fig. 114. Rotalia. z

Spirillina of the Pulvinulina family) mentioned at p. 19, much confusion

arose, which was not cleared quite away until the three kinds of discoidal

unchambered Foraminifera were recognized.. See Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 4.

vol. iv. pp. 386 &e.

the Nomenclature of the Foraminifera. 223

P. 457. (Wind-dust, Paster-Thal.)

Pl. 6 1. figs. 82, 83. Spiroloculina. Young Cornuspira? or

Miliola?

P. 460. (Wind-dust, Silesia and Austria.)

Pl. 6 11. fig. 59. Textilaria globulosa? 7. gibbosa, D’Orb.

fig. 80. 'Textilaria globulosa? 7. globulosa, Ehr.

§ 3. We now proceed to study the ‘ Mikrogeologie’ (1854),

beginning with the first plate that contains figures of Forami-

nifera.

I. Marl[?], or clay from Atgina, Greece. (* Plastischer

Thon” in the explanation of the plate; ‘“ Mergel-Fels. als

plastischer Thon. aus dfgina” onthe plate.) (Abhandlungen

der Berliner Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1838 ; Griechen-

land no. 5. Monatsberichte Berl. Ak. Wiss. 1838, p. 176;

1842; 1844, pp. 62, 73, &c. ; 1847, p. 43.)

This certainly appears to be a Tertiary* clay containing

Diatoms, spicules, and Polycystines in abundance, and with

so little calcareous matter (Moraminifera) that it can be used

for terra cotta. Its position is thus described by Herr Fiedler

in Dr. Ehrenberg’s memoir :—*“‘ Ueber einen plastischen Krei-

demergel von A‘gina aus mikroskopischen Organismen und

iiber die méglichkeit, durch mikroskopische Untersuchung des

Materials den Ursprung gewisser alter iichtgriechischer Kunst-

denkmiler aus gebrannter Erde (Terracotten) mit bisher un-

bekannter Sicherheit zu bestimmen.” (Monatsber. 1842,

pp- 263-268.)

_ “Jn Adgina there is much chalk-marl [?], particularly in

the valley north of the town. A little peaked hill in the

middle of the valley, on which stands a small chapel to St.

Demetrios, is overlain by pale-red trachyte two fathoms

thick ; under this, down to the base, the hill consists of yel-

lowish-white and greyish chalk-marl[?]. The upper, yellowish

marl contains Venus shells; the lower, pale-pellow marl, with

greenish streaks, has Pecten shells and rusty specks, and there

only is soft to the nail. This lower portion in particular forms

(bildet) a plastic clay which is worked” (p. 263).

Clays rich in Diatoms have been used for brick-making

and ceramic purposes in England, Europe, Asia, and North

America.

Plate xix. figs. 1-80 comprehend Diatomacez, Polycystina,

Spongoliths, &e. Fig. 81, Nodosaria monile (1844, p. 93),

is NV. filiformis, D’Orb. Fig. 82, Grammostomum depressum

* It is referred to as of Tertiary age by Ehrenberg, ‘ Abhandlungen,’

1856, p. 127.

224 Messrs. Parker and Jones on

(1844, p. 93), is a short stout Textilaria gibbosa, showing a

tendency towards 7. subangulata, DO. Fig. 83, Gr. laterale

(1844, p. 92), is a neat, small, and rather broad Bolivina

punctata. Fig. 84, Gr. polystigma (1844, p. 92), is a very fine

large typical Bolivina punctata. Fig. 85, Polymorphina (?)

aculeata (1844, p. 94), is Bulimina aculeata, D’Orb. Fig. 86,

Strophoconus grecus (1844, p. 96; Textilaria aciculata?,

1838”), seems to be either Virgulina Schretbersti, or, from

its shell-structure, perhaps Virgulina Hemprichit (Ehr.), see

‘Geol. Mag.’ no. 89, p. 509. Fig. 87, Rotalia Pandore

(1844, p. 95), is probably a small Planorbulina. Fig. 88, R.

umbilicus (1844, p.95), is also doubtful; it looks like some

variety of Planorbulina. Fig. 89, R. globulosa, « (1838), is a

young Globigerina. Fig. 90, R. senaria (1842), also is pro-

bably a young Gilobigerina. Fig. 91, R. lepida (1844, p. 95),

seems to be a small Planulina ariminensis (?). Fig. 92, Glo-

bigerina depressa (1844, p. 92), 1s a good G. bulloides. Fig.

93, Planulina elegans (1844, p. 93),is a neat, delicate, sub-

lobate Planorbulina of the Haidingervi subtype. Fig. 94, Pla-

nulina globularis (1844, p. 94), and 95, P/. porosa (1844, p. 94),

are two small, but neatly grown, specimens of a variety of

Planorbulina farcta, near var. Haidingerti, but limbate on the

margins and septa. It is the larger stage of Pl. globulosa

(Ehr.). Fig. 96, Planulina vitrea (1844, p. 94), a young deli-

cate individual of Planorbulina Haidingervi. Fig. 97. Spiro-

loculina elongata (1844, p. 96), a rather narrow form of Sp.

planulata, Lamk.

The facies is that of a fauna from between 50 and 90 fathoms

depth. Too many forms are present for an abyssal fauna.

Species and noticeable Varieties from Atgina (No. 1), figured

by Ehrenberg.

. Nodosaria filiformis, D’ Ord.

Bulimina aculeata, D’ Orb.

Bolivina punctata, D’ Ord.

Virgulina Schreibersii (?), Czjzek.

. Textilaria gibbosa, D’ Orb.

Globigerina bulloides, D’ Ord.

. Planorbulina Haidingerii (D’ Ord.).

globulosa* (Lhr.).

. Planulina ariminensis (?), D’ Ord.

10. Spiroloculina planulata (Lamarck).

* This must not be regarded as a species of real worth ; for the young

of Planorbulina Haidingerii, Pl. vulgaris, Pl. lobatula, and Pl. ariminensis

are almost indeterminable one from another and from young Nonionine,

especially when seen by transmitted light. Further, Khrenberg’s “ Ro-

talia globulosa” not only comprises the above, but small Globigerine also.

CO CONIS> OUD Co DO

the Nomenclature of the Foraminifera. 225

IL. Laminated Marl[?), or marl-like Diatom-earth (“ Platten-

Mergel, Placca di Furni, Plocafurno’’) from Zante, Greece.

Composed largely of Diatoms and Polycystines. (Monatsber.

Berl. Akad. Wiss. 1837, p. 61: 1839. Abhandlung. Berl.

Akad. 1838, Tabelle.)

Plate xx. 1. figs. 1-53. Diatomacee, Polycystina, Spongo-

lithi, &e.

Figs. 54, Rotalia globulosa, 8? (1838), and 55, R. senaria,

are probably young Planorbuline (Pl. globulosa?). Fig. 56,

Planulina annulosa, looks like a small Pl. ariminensis, but it

may be a Nonionina (?).

Species and noticeable Varieties from Zante figured by

Ehrenberg.

1. Planorbulina farcta (. d& JL), var. globulosa (Ehr.).

2. Planulina vel Nonionina ?

Ill. Non-plastic marl from Algina, Greece. (Monatsh.

Berl. Akad. 1838, p. 176. Abhandl. Akad. 1838, Tabelle,

Griechenland no. 4.)

The specimen yielding the Microzoa here figured was a

slightly plastic calcareous clay (marl) of Tertiary age, from

the bed lying immediately on the plastic clay in the same hill

in Aigina. In it Foraminifera predominate, and Diatoms

and spicules are relatively few; and it differs so much in its

organic contents that Ehrenberg thought it must be Tertiary,

whilst he assigned the lower bed to the Cretaceous series, like

those siliceo-caleareous deposits from Sicily and Oran * de-

scribed by him (erroneously) as ‘‘ Chalkmarls.”’

Pl. xx. 1. fig. 1, Nodosaria monile, = N. filiformis, D’Orb.

Figs. 2, Strophoconus auricula, 3, St. ovum, and 4, St.

gibbus, are small specimens of Virgulina Schretbersti; and

5, St. gemma, is another, but varietal, approaching Bulimina

elegantissima in its mode of growth. Fig. 6, Sptroloculina

tenera; a small Adelosina, or first stage of nearly any Miliola.

Fig. 7, Grammostomum elegans, is a delicate, rather broad, and

partially punctate Bolivina punctata. Fig. 8, Proroporus

argus, 1s a fine, strong, thick-shelled, short-chambered, and

coarsely perforate variety of B. punctata. Fig. 9, Gir. sulcatum,

is B. costata, or rather a delicate subvariety, neatly marked

with slight furrows. Fig. 10, Gr. aciculatum ( Textilaria aci-

* The Microzoa of the lower plastic clay bed are compared with those

of Caltanisetta and Oran, in a synoptical table, under revised names, in

the ‘Monatsbericht,’ 1844, the Foraminifera at p. 44.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. ix. 16

226 Messrs. Parker and Jones on

culata, 1838’), is asmall Bolivina dilatata, Reuss (Denkschr.

k, Akad. Wiss. Wien, 1850, pl. 48. f. 15); for a larger speci-

men see Mikrogeol. pl. 29. f. 23 (from Moen). Fig. 11, Ro-

talia Pandore (?), a small Planorbulina (?). Figs. 12, a,b, and

14a, R. globulosa, 146, R. senaria, are probably minute

Planorbuline (Pl. globulosa). Fig. 13, a,b, R. umbilicus, are

larger, but still small, Planorbuline. Fig. 15, Globigerina(?),

is a well-grown Gl. bulloides. Fig. 16, Planulina proroteras,

=young GI. bulloides. Fig. 17, Pl. fumigata, is the same as

fig. 93 in pl. xix., but shows the opposite face,—a delicate Pl.

Haidingerti, with subglobose inflated chambers. Fig. 18, Pl.

denticulata, and fig. 19, Pl. porosa, is an interesting variety of

Planorbulina farcta, such as is not rare in some seas, having

a rough or aculeate shell, with thickened or limbate margin.

These are variable characters in this very common species.

Figs. 20, Pl. adspersa, 21 a, Pl. turgida, and 21 6, Pl. annu-

losa, are various small Planorbuline (fig. 21 a may be Planu-

lina ariminensis). Fig. 22, Pl. sparsipora, is Rotalia orbicu-

laris, seen with its flat face upwards: it has a clear colourless

shell, with very fine pores. The few holes shown in the figure

are perhaps borings. Fig. 23, Pl. stellaris, is a young, close-

built Planorbulina Haidingervi, with some more limbation

than usual, Fig. 24, Robulina cristellina, looks like a delicate

Cristellaria rotulata. Fig. 25, Cristellaria incrassata, is a

strongly limbate C. cultrata.

Belonging to a fauna inhabiting from about 50 to 90 fa-

thoms depth.

Species and noticeable Varieties from Afgina (No. 2)

Jigured by Ehrenberg.

. Nodosaria filiformis, D’ Orb.

. Cristellaria rotulata (Zamk.).

cultrata (t/t).

Bolivina punctata, D’ Ord.

areus (Hhr.).

suleata (Lhr.).

dilatata, Fss.

. Virgulina Schreibersii, Czjzek.

gemma (Lhr.).

10. Globigerina bulloides, D’ Ord.

11. Planorbulina Haidingeru (D’ Ord.),

denticulata (Hhr.).

globulosa (Zhr.).

14. Planulina ariminensis (?), D’ Ord,

15. Rotalia orbicularis, D’ Ord.

16. Miliola (young). ~

OANA OR bo

the Nomenclature of the Foraminifera. 227

IV. The deposit that yielded the Diatomacee (‘‘ Poly-

gastrica,” Ehr.) and Foraminifera figured in plate xxi. was

a white finely laminated calcareous and diatomaceous deposit

containing numerous well-preserved impressions of fishes.

This so-called “marl,” also termed “ Infusoria -conglo-

merate,” “ Tripoli-marl,” and “ Tripoli” by Ehrenberg, was

found by M. Rozet, as two layers, with some calcareous

and sandy beds, containing Ostree and Gryphew, between

them; and all of them occur among white chalk-like lime-

stones and yellowish marls, with Ostree &c., in the plain

east of Oran and extending to the Atlas. M. Rozet re-

garded these deposits as of Tertiary age; but Dr. Ehrenberg

referred them to the Cretaceous series, on account of his

determination of the same kinds of “ Polygastrica”’ and

“ Polythalamia”’ in them as in other beds regarded by him as

Cretaceous. He considers this Oran Tripoli to be equivalent

to a similar white diatomaceous and calcareous earthy bed,

with fish-remains, that is found in Sicily (see further on).

This latter deposit is characterized by Clupea tenwissima,

and, like that of Oran, has been classified among the Tertiary

formations; nor does there appear any valid reason, based

on its Microzoa, to group it otherwise.

Shaly Tripoli-bed, from Oran, Africa. Abounding with

Diatoms and Polycystines. (Abhandl. Berl. Akad. Wiss.

1838, table no. 4, and fig. x. Monatsber. 1840 ; 1844, pp. 62,

73, &c. Ann. Nat. Hist. vol. vii. p. 312.)

Plate xxi. figs. 1-81 comprise Diatomacee, Polycystina,

Spongoliths, &e.

Fig. 82, Grammostomum cribrum (1844, pp. 67, 93),= Bo-

livina dilatata. Fig. 83, Proroporus lingua (1844, pp. 67, 95),

= Bol. punctata, with slight indications of ribbing, and therem

approaching to costata. Vig. 84, Gr. plica (1844, pp. 67, 93),

and fig. 85, Gr. aciculatum (1844), are Bol. punctata. Fig. 86,

Gr. divergens (1844, pp. 67, 93),=B. dilatata. Fig. 87, Tex-

tilaria globulosa (1844), is a small 7. gibbosa. Fig. 88, Stro-

phoconus africanus (1844, pp. 68,96), is a young Virgulina

Hemprichii. Fig. 89, Planulina perforata (1844), fig. 90 a, b,

Rotalia globulosa (1838, 1844), and fig. 91, P/. ocellata (1844,

p- 67), are young individuals of Globigerina bulloides. Fig.92,

Prorospira princeps (1844, pp. 67,95, =Planulina turgida,

1844, young”’), = Planorbulina ammonoides. Fig. 93, Pr.

comes (1844, pp. 67, 95), is a variety near Pl. ammonoides.

Fig. 94, Planulina squamula (1844, pp. 67, 94), is a small

limbate Planorbulina. Fig.95, Pl. spatiosa, is a large, broads

228 Messrs. Parker and Jones on

topped, gently sculptured, glassy, flat Pulvinulina, so much

coated with clear secondary shell-deposit as to have the fine

pores masked. It is near var. pulchella of Pulv. repanda.

Khrenberg has figured it also from the Chalk of Moén (pl.29.

frg. 15), and a very close ally from that of Riigen (pl.30. fig. 28).

Fig. 96, Globigerina foveolata (1844, p. 67), is GU. bulloides.

Fig. 97, a,b. Nodosaria? These are single and double rough-

coated hollow globules, possibly chambers of Globigerina (2),

but not of Nodosaria.

Inhabiting a depth of from 40 to 50 fathoms.

Species and noticeable Varieties from Oran, figured by

Ehrenberg.

Bolivina punctata, D’ Ord.

dilatata, Zss.

Virgulina Hemprichi (Zhr.).

Textilaria gibbosa, D’ Orb.

Globigerina bulloides, D’ Orb.

Planorbulina ammonoides (/ss.).

Pulvinulina spatiosa (Lhr.).

Pee eee

V. The deposit yielding the Microzoa figured in pl. xxii. is

described as a white, chalk-like, thinly laminated ‘ marl,”

analogous to tripoli, from Caltanisetta, in Sicily. It was ob-

tained by the late Mr, Hoffmann ; and in his MSS. it was

termed ‘‘ white chalkmarl,” and referred to the Cretaceous

rocks dipping at a high angle below unconformable ‘Tertiary

deposits. Ehrenberg, however, identifies these laminated

marly beds, containing numerous ‘fishes, found between Calta-

nisetta and Castrogiova wnni, near the middle of Sicily, with

the diatomaceous earth from near Oran, above treated of.

Between the two Sicilian localities mentioned above, Creta-

ceous rocks certainly are exposed; but others of Tertiary age

also abound, including, we believe, the diatomaceous calca-

reous earth, with Clupea tenuissima, already referred to ; and

if this white earthy siliceo-calcareous deposit (which is not a

““marl”’ in the correct sense), abounding with Coscinodisci and

Globigerina*, be the same as that to which Ehrenberg alludes,

there 1s no doubt of its Tertiary age.

White Chalky Marl [?] of Caltanisetta, Steily. (Abhand.

Berl. Akad. Wiss. 1838, pl. 4. fig. xi. Monatsb. 1840, 1844.

Ann. Nat. Hist. vii. p. 813.)

Pl. xxu. figs. 1-73. Diatomacee, Polycystina, Spongo-

liths, &e.

* We have some of this rock, from Sicily, in our own collection.

the Nomenclature of the Foraminifera. 229

Fig. 74, Globigerina foveolata (1844, p. 67), a large and

characteristic G7. bulloides. ‘Fig. 75, Planulina pertusa (1844,

p- 67), fig. 77, Pl. stigma (1844, p.67), and fig. 78, Rotalia

globulosa (1838; 1844, p.67), are young Globigerine. Tig.

76, Colpopleura ocellata (1844, pp. 67, 92; Rotalia ocellata,

1838’) is a variety of Planorbulina farcta, very near to Hai-

dingerti, with very large irregular holes. Fig. 79, Rotalia

scabra (1844, p. 67), a very coarse-shelled variety of P/. farcta,

of the ammonoides group. Fig. 80, Textilaria perforata

(1844, p. 68), obscure ; possibly an unusually perforate young

Textilaria with globose chambers, but probably an irregularly

grown Globigerina. Fig. 81, Strophoconus ovum (1844, p. 96),

is a young Virgulina Schreibersii.

These represent a fauna that lived at not less than 100

fathoms.

Species and noticeable Varieties from Caltanisetta, figured by

Ehrenberg.

. Virgulina Schreibersii, Czjzek.

Textilaria ?

Globigerina bulloides, D’ Ord.

. Planorbulina Haidingerii (D’ Oré.).

ammonoides ? (/?ss.).

OUR 22 NO

VI. The Nummulitic Limestone of Egypt has been regarded

as of Tertiary age by geologists since the determination of its

Kocene characteristics by the late lamented Sir Roderick

Murchison, in his memoir on the Alps and Carpathians, &e.

Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 1849, vol. v. p. 303. It had pre-

viously been looked on as of Cretaceous age; and Ehrenberg,

in the ‘ Mikrogeologie,’ speaks of it as belonging to that pe-

riod, on the ground of his finding Cretaceous Foraminifera in

it. His figures do not bear evidence of this in a special man-

ner; indeed the Nummuline are preeminently ‘“ Tertiary,”

none being known in the Chalk of Europe, and only a few

specimens of Operculina*, their nearest ally. A doubtful -

Nummulina, N. cretacea, Fraast, has been recorded as be-

longing to the Hippurite (Cretaceous) Limestone of Palestine,

near Jerusalem; and with this feeble link (strengthened

by other considerations) it may be said that there may be

some Nummulite-bearing rocks transitional from the Chalk

series to the Eocene. Those of Egypt, however, are markedly

Kocene.

* Operculina Fleuriausi (Rss.); Op. eretacea, Rss.; Op. elypeolus

(Rss.) ; Op.? angularis, Cornuel; Op. turgida (Ehr.).

+ ‘Aus dem Orient,’ 1867, pl. 1. fig. 8.

230 M. Marc Micheli on some Recent

The specimens of limestone analyzed by Dr. Ehrenberg

were brought from Gyzeh, on the left bank of the Nile, and

from Mokattam, near Cairo, on the right bank. It was com-

pact, the small Foraminifera serving as cementing-matter

among the Nummulites of which the rock is mainly composed.

The figured Foraminifera of plate xxiii. bear evidence, in

the truthful engraving of their somewhat rough, partly ob-

scured, and occasionally broken condition, to their having

been closely cemented and much mineralized by carbonate of

lime in their fossil matrix.

[To be continued. |

XXIV.—On some Recent Researches in Vegetable Physiology.

By M. Marc MicuHett.

[Continued from p. 155, and concluded. |

EY.

THE study of the phenomena of which the interior of cells

is exclusively the theatre, of the transformations which are

manifested there, and of the substances which they contain

has also produced some works which deserve notice, and in

the first place the researches of M. Schroeder* upon the

“spring period of the maple.” ‘The author has paid at-

tention to all the successive phases presented by the develop-

ment of the vegetation, from the ascent of the sap to the

moment when the expanded leaves begin to decompose car-

bonic acid. ‘This is one of those complete and conscientious

works which, even when they do not contain any very novel

results, are nevertheless very useful to read and consult; but

it is difficult to give a clear notion of them in a few words.

A glance at the course followed by M. Schroeder will show

the great number of facts which group themselves within a

framework such as he has adopted,

The first part is entirely devoted to the study of the sap,

its ascent, and its composition. The maple, under the lati-

tude of Breslau, “ weeps” for about a month; the sap rises

gradually to a certain level, whence it descends again by de-

grees, in proportion as the development advances. Holes

pierced in the trunk at different heights enabled this sap

to be collected daily ; and very numerous analyses keep us

informed of the smallest variations in its composition. It

always contains sugar, a transitory product of the transforma-

tion of the starch accumulated in the tissues during the pre-

* “ Friihjahrsperiode des Ahorns,” Pringsheim’s Jahrb. vii. p. 261.

Researches in Vegetable Physiology. 231

ceding summer, and destined to become retransformed when it

reaches the buds. ‘The proportion, faithfully represented by

a great number of curves, is but slight at the first awakening

of vegetation ; it increases gradually up to a certain maximum,

in proportion as the vital phenomena acquire more intensity ;

and, finally, it diminishes when the young organs, approach-

ing the term of their development, are on the verge of suf-

ficing for themselves. These facts are therefore perfectly in

accordance with such a theory of growth as has been esta-

blished by the researches of modern observers.

The albumen and the mineral salts are successively studied

from the same point of view; and their dissemination in the

sap at different heights at the same moment, and at different

periods, is exactly governed by the different phases of deve-

lopment.

The second part is devoted to the microscopic examination

of the bud. ‘The different substances which are called upon

to assist in the development of the young leaf are traced by

means of reagents from cell to cell. Two, especially, give

origin to detailed observations, namely starch and tannin.

The dissemination of the former in the different tissues, its

transportation through the starchy layers of the fibro-vascular

bundles, its disappearance towards the point of vegetation, at

the surface of which it speedily reappears as cellulose—all

these different phases are taken up step by step; and here,

again, we find a confirmation of all that theory led us to

foresee.

As to tannin, it is developed in all the cells of the bud;

and when once it has made its appearance, it persists there

without appreciable change. Its function has greatly embar-

rassed M. Schroeder, as he was unable to recognize in it any

of the characters of an excrementitial product, properly so

called. The fact that it is constantly to be found in the

youngest tissues (in which life is most intense) seems to indicate

that it is a sort of final product, charged with a still unknown

office in the life of the cell. If the true chemical nature of

this substance were better known, the solution of the problem

would perhaps become easier.

Certain authors have thought that the course of vegetation

in the Agarics induced a marked exhalation of gaseous ammonia

at their surface. M. Sachs mentions the fact in his ‘ Treatise

on Physiology,’ but without absolutely affirming it. M. Bor-

scow * has undertaken a series of experiments, upon which he

* Mélanges Biologiques tirés du Bull. de l’Acad. Imp. des Sci. de St.-

Pétersb. tome vii. p. 121.

232 M. Mare Micheli on some Recent

relies to affirm positively the existence of this phenomenon.

According to him, the production of gaseous ammonia is a ge-

neral fact in the family of the Agarics; the quantity of gas

exhaled is in proportion to the vital activity of the plant, but

has nothing to do with its weight. It is equally without any

relation to the production of carbonic acid as a result of

respiration.

But quite recently MM. Wolff and Zimmermann* have ob-

jected to these conclusions. In all their experiments they were

only once able to recognize some traces of ammonia, and the

Agaric was not under conditions so normal as the others.

These two authors, therefore, believe that in the Agarics, as in

other plants, ammonia is a product of the decomposition of

the tissues, but a product which begins to make its appear-

ance immediately the vital functions of the organism are

slackened,

Tnuline, a substance of the starch-group, which is met with

in a considerable number of plants, has been made by M.

Prantl + the subject of a memoir crowned by the University of

Munich.

The results obtained by the author of this memoir are in all

essential features in accordance with what MM. Nigeli and

Sachs have said of inuline. M. Prantl describes this substance

as a hydrate of carbon, which differs from starch, cellulose, and

lichenine in never taking on an organic form. Its fixity suffi-

ciently differentiates it from dextrine. It seems to approach

most nearly to cane-sugar.

Tnuline is constantly found in plants in the form of a solu-

tion of 1 part of inuline to 7 of water. As in artificial solu-

tions 0°01 gramme of inuline saturates 100 cub. centims. of

water, we may suppose that when dissolving in the plant it

undergoes transformation. It never appears except in subter-

ranean organs.

This substance is pretty frequently produced in plants

of different families, but especially in the Composite. The

dahlia and certain Helvanthi contain considerable quantities

of it.

From a physiological point of view, inuline plays exactly

the part of one of those nutritive principles which are put in

reserve, such as starch, sugar, oils, &c. As we have just said,

it exists exclusively m subterranean organs, tubers or rhi-

zomes. At the moment of growth it is transformed into cane-

sugar towards the collar of the root, then mounts into the

* Bot. Zeitung, 1871, Nos. 18 and 19.

} Das Inulin, Munich, 1870 ; and Bot. Zeitung, 1870, No. 39.

Researches in Vegetable Physiology. 233

stem in the form of starch, and thus passes towards the buds.

Subsequently the starch produced in the leaves descends along

the stem in the form of starch itself or of sugar; and it is only

on its arrival in the root that it takes on the form of inuline.

HUT.

We cannot conclude this revision of the principal recent

physiological publications without casting a glance upon a

group of very interesting works, although these do not yet allow

us to rise to general conclusions. We would speak of fecunda-

tion in phanerogamous plants, and the part which insects per-

form in it. The idea itself is not new; and even a century

ago Sprengel* cited numerous cases of flowers fecundated by

the mediation of insects. But it is only in our time that it has

been attempted to generalize these facts ; and Mr. Darwin was

the first to put forward the notion that the fecundation of a

flower by itself is contrary to the laws of nature, and that the

reproduction of a species is not well assured except by cross-

ings between different individuals.

A theory like this cannot of course be proved except by di-

rect investigation of facts; and the facts, when we have to do

with fecundation, are most minute, and demand peculiarly in-

genious and patient observations. Several naturalists have

advanced to the breach ; and we possess a fine collection of

special memoirs, the conclusions from which already form a

solid basis for theoretical ideas. However, if the observers

have had to manifest great patience, the recompense waited for

them at the end. Nothing is more curious than the details of

organization by which spontaneous fecundation, apparently so

easy, is rendered useless or even impossible. The researches

of Mr. Darwin’ himself upon the fecundation of the Orchids,

upon the dimorphism of the primrose, and upon the trimorphism

ot Lythrum salicaria are well known. He has found imitators

in MM. Hildebrandt and Delpino. Both these authors have

published numerous memoirs, sometimes studying thoroughly

all the details of fecundation in a certain plant or family, some-

times tracing throughout the vegetable kingdom a certain type

of fecundation, and pointing it out wherever it is manifested.

M. Hildebrandt ¢, moreover, some time since, brought toge-

ther all the data we possess upon the subject, and endeavoured

to group them methodically. The perfectly uniform conclusion

of all these works is, that in the great majority (if not in the

totality) of plants direct and spontaneous fecundation is im-

* Das entdeckte Geheimniss der Natur im Bau und Befruchtung der

Blumen. Berlin, 1793.

+ Die Geschlechter-Vertheilung bei den Pflanzen, Leipzig, 1867,

234 M. Marc Micheli on some Recent

possible, and that the intervention of insects is always ne-

cessary.

In a multitude of cases the expansion of the stigma does not

take place at the same time as the opening of the stamens ; the

flowers are what are called ‘ dichogamous,” and may be pro-

tandric or protogynic.

The former are most frequent. Entire and most important

families enter this category, such as the Labiate, the Scrophu-

lariacex, the Composite, and the Campanulacer. Here the

office of insects is very evidently necessary; and it is facilitated

by the most varied details of organization. For example, in

the whole of the immense group Composite * the five stamens

have the anthers soldered into a cylinder, which envelopes the

pistil ; they open and allow the pollen to escape before the

style has become elongated. The style bears, below the

stigma, a certain number of rigid hairs, which retain the pollen-

grains, and carry them forward with them in their ascending

movement at the moment of the elongation of the style. The

pollen thus carried up out of the cylinder of the anthers is col-

lected by insects and transported to flowers the stigma of which

is already expanded.

In the Campanulaceee+, Lobeliacese, &c. the system is the

same, only the appendages destined to retain the pollen on the

style present a very variable form.

In the whole of the group of Scrophulariaceous Labiate } the

axis of the flower is horizontal, and the stamens are approxi-

mated beneath the upper lip of the corolla. The insects, in

passing, separate and jostle them, cause the pollen to fall from

them, and then transport it to a more advanced flower. In

certain genera the stamens alone stand in the way of the insect,

which always seeks the bottom of the flower, where the nectaries

are. Later on they curve outwards, the style in its turn becomes

elongated, and advances to take their place, and its recurved

extremity caresses the body of the insect loaded with pollen.

In certain plants in which the expansion of the reproductive

organs is simultaneous, the part performed by insects is no less

maintained. In their absence spontaneous fecundation, which

nevertheless appears to be inevitable, does not take place, or

produces very little effect. Such, for example, are numerous

Leguminose§, in which the stamens and the pistil are enclosed

in the keel, in very close proximity. Insects, going to collect

* “ Ueber die Geschlechtsverhaltnisse bei den Compositen,” Acta Leop.

Carol. vol. xxv. 1869, and Bot. Zeitung, 1870, No. 30.

+ “Ulteriori osservazioni sulla dicogamia nel regno vegetale,” Atti

della Soc. Ital. di Sci. Nat. vols. xi. & xii.; and Bot. Zita, 18 ra Nos.

37-42. { Ibid.

Researches in Vegetable Physiology. 235

the nectar, touch the back of the keel; the latter throws itself

briskly backward ; the insect receives a few grains of pollen,

and transports them to the neighbouring flower. Without

this intervention, often not a single seed is produced.

The family Fumariacez, lately studied by M. Hildebrandt*;

presents us with a perfectly analogous example. The stamens

and the pistil are narrowly enclosed between the two petals,

and appear to be removed from all exterior action. But the

base of the petals, which is produced into a spur, offers an

abundant provision of nectar. To reach it the insect must

pass between the two petals, the upper part of which, borne

upon a sort of hinge, separates easily. It thus loads itself

with pollen.

Lastly, some flowers are polymorphic. By this name we

designate the species in which the stigma and the stamens,

which are placed at different heights in the corolla, do not

always occupy the same relative positions. In some individuals

the stigma, borne upon a long pistil, passes the corolla more

or less, whilst the stamens remain very short; in others the

stamens advance and the pistil remains short.

Mr. Darwin + was the first to study this peculiarity in

Primula and Lythrum. M. Hildebrandt has since observed a

great number of polymorphic flowers. Better than any others

they show the necessity of crossings. In fact a pistil is fer-

tilized only by the stamens which are developed at the same

height with itself relatively to the corolla, and consequently of

necessity in another flower. Numbers in connexion with this

subject are more eloquent than any thing else. In experiment-

ing upon a trimorphic Oxalis, M. Hildebrandt ¢ obtained the

following results :—

28 flowers with long styles, fecundated with pollen from

flowers with long stamens, produced 28 capsules, each contain-

ing on an average 11°9 fertile seeds.

23 flowers with long styles, fecundated with pollen from

median stamens, produced 2 capsules, which, together, only

furnished a single seed.

14 flowers with long styles, fecundated with pollen from

short stamens, produced no capsule at all.

38 flowers with median styles, fecundated with pollen from

median stamens, produced 38 capsules, containing on an ave-

rage 11°3 seeds.

* “Bestiiubungsvorrichtungen bei den Fumariaceen,’ Pringsheim’s

Jahrb. vii. p. 423.

+ “Dimorphism in Primula,” Linn. Soc. Journ. vi. 1862. “ Hétéro-

morphisme et ses conséquences,’ Ann. Sci. Nat. 1863, tome xix.

{ Bot. Zeitung, 1871, Nos. 26 and 27.

236 Prof. Ehlers on the Development of Syngamus trachealis.

The other numbers correspond exactly with the preceding ;

but these suffice to enable us to appreciate what takes place.

It is likewise useless to prolong further the extracts from

these works. What we have said is sufficient to show their

‘general character, and the importance of the results already

obtained.

We here terminate this rapid and necessarily imperfect re-

vision. But the quantity of materials is considerable, the

subjects treated are very varied, and it is very difficult to

bring the whole within the limits of a single essay. We hope

on another occasion to be able to complete what is deficient here.

XXV.—On the Development of Syngamus trachealis.

By Prof. EHLERs*.

I am indebted to the kindness of Baron von Freyburg, of

Regensburg, for the opportunity of tracing experimentally the

course of development of this worm, which is parasitic in the

trachee of birds, and, when it occurs in quantity in aviaries,

pheasantries, and poultry-yards, produces considerable losses by

the destruction especially of young and weakly animals. The

parasite was introduced with some exotic birds into the aviary

of the Baron von Freyberg during the illness of its owner, and

has since occurred there more or less abundantly. The birds

attacked by the worm betray this generally at first by a pecu-

liar cough, during which they frequently throw the head to

and fro, and not unfrequently at the same time expel small

masses, which they generally pick up and swallow imme-

diately. Large birds bear the parasitism of the worm, if it

does not occur in too large numbers, for a long time; small

birds, on the contrary, often die suddenly—it would appear,

especially by the pair of worms (which, as has long been

known, reside in the trachea usually ¢x copuld) placing them-

selves in such a position that the passage of the air-tubes is

stopped, and the birds are suffocated.

In a Cardinalis virginianus which M. von Freyberg gave

me for examination, and which, according to him, had long

been infested by Syngamus, 1 could see the animals in the

entrance to the upper larynx, and take them out with a fine

forceps. In freshly infected tits, the mucous membrane of

the throat was more strongly reddened than usual, and exhi-

bited some very fully charged superficial veins. But the most

* From the ‘Sitzungsberichte der phys.-med. Societat zu Erlangen,’

Dec. 5, 1871. Translated by W. 8. Dallas, F.L.S., from a separate copy

communicated by the Author. :

Prof. Ehlers on the Development of Syngamus trachealis. 237

certain character to .prove the presence of Syngamus in a

coughing bird (as the phenomena of coughing may be pro-

duced by very different maladies) is the examination of the

dung of the bird, because as soon as the disease has continued

a little longer, so that the parasites have become sexually

mature in the trachea, the ova may be easily found in the

dung. I made this observation on the above-mentioned car-

dinal grosbeak, and found it confirmed when I saw at M. von

Freyberg’s, in Regensburg, a LHuplectes melanogaster (Sw.)

which coughed a little in the evening and morning, and in

whose dung the readily recognizable ova of Syngamus imme-

diately occurred.

I made use of the material at my disposal, in the first place,

to trace the development and migration of Syngamus. A priort

it was not probable that a bird would acquire the parasite

when it ate the ova of a Syngamus, since the ova occurred in

the dung of birds, and evidently pass through the intestines

uninjured when the bird swallows the mucous masses or frag-

ments of the worm containing ova which have been expelled

from the trachea. An experiment made in this direction re-

mained so far without result that a canary which I allowed

to swallow a female Syngamus filled with mature ova did not

acquire the parasite.

It seemed more probable that the ova, when expelled from

the trachea or evacuated with the faeces, would be developed

at first outside the bird. Leuckart’s statement * that the

species of the genus Strongylus which are parasitic in the

lungs have an intermediate form, which lives in an interme-

diate host, belonging generally to the Insecta, together with

the statement of M. von Freyberg, that he had observed the

disease among his birds especially after they had been fed

with insects, induced me to give cockroaches and mealworms

the opportunity of eating the ova of Syngamus, and allowing

the latter to become developed in them. With insects thus

infected I thought to introduce the worm into the birds, but

without result. I was, however, soon put upon the track of a

simpler mode of development.

The ova of Syngamus are developed, with sufficient mois-

ture and warmth, inthe open. The mature ovum of Syngamus

is evacuated by the female in various degrees of segmentation;

it occurs under these conditions in the mucus of the air-

passages in diseased birds, and somewhat further developed,

but always so that the vitellus consists of a number of globules

of segmentation, in their feces. It has a cylindrical or slightly

ellipsoidal form, with a length of 0°11 millim. and a breadth

* Die menschlichen Parasiten, Bd. ii. 1868, p. 402.

238 Prof. Ehlers on the Development of Syngamus trachealis.

of 0°036 millim. A distinctly double-contoured shell forms the

external envelope: it exhibits at each pole a circular gap ; but

even here the entrance to the interior of the ovum is closed by a

very fine membrane, which adheres closely to the inner surface

of the shell throughout. In the centre of the ovum the dark,

segmented vitellus lies in a clear, apparently fluid, substance ;

in this stage it is 0°084 millim. in length. Such ova I put

into earth which was kept moist, or into dung, or into water

with or without an intermixture of mucus from the trachea of

the birds, or other portions of animal tissue. Here the ova were

developed, whether the materials did or did not fall into a state

of strong decomposition. ‘The only variation was in the dura-

tion of the development, evidently chiefly in dependance on

the temperature ; for ova which I had set aside for develop-

ment in an unwarmed room on the 20th September, presented

no change for a long time at first, and it was only on the 27th

October, when the room was permanently heated, that young

worms, rolled into several convolutions, were developed in

them. In another case, when the room was kept at a uniform

temperature, the ova were developed in the same way in eight

days. From a number of ova, although always comparatively

few, the young worms escaped at one of the poles of the ovum,

where the circular gap existed in the firm egg-shell. The

free young worms were filiform, with a blunt head and a

pointed tail; the anterior third of the body was translucent ;

but further on there was a finely granular mass. They were

always enveloped by a sheath-like, clear, and extremely fine

membrane, which could also be recognized on the young still

remaining in the ovum. During this hatching many of the

animals died, from not being able completely to quit the egg-

shell. Those which acquired their freedom usually moved but

sluggishly; and I have been unable as yet to trace their further

development. This is evidently only an exceptional case, but

still worthy of notice. The majority of the ova remain in a

condition in which the young worms developed in them, which

now occupy the whole space within the egg-shell, lie quietly

or make but few movements. This is not the place to enter

upon the details of the development; and it will suffice to state

that the development in general takes place as in other para-

sitic Nematodes.

I made feeding-experiments with ova developed in the

above manner. A cole tit (Parus major), which I had long

observed in a cage in order to convince myself of its good

health, received, on the morning of the 3rd November, in a

drop of water, a great number of the ova in which the em-

bryos were developed. On the evening of the 20th November

Prof. Ehlers on the Development of Syngamus trachealis. 239

I first heard this tit coughing; but it had struck me a few

days previously that the bird was quieter than usual, although

in other respects it showed no symptoms to indicate disease.

On the next morning I examined the freshly evacuated feces of

the bird, and found in them ova of Syngamus in the usual state

of development. I killed the tit, and found in its trachea two

pairs of Syngami in copulad—a large pair, of which the female

was swelled with mature ova, and a smaller pair, the female of

which bore only a few mature ova. From the administration

of the embryoniferous ova to the time when the disease mani-

fested itself and the Syngami were sexually mature, 17 days

had elapsed.

A canary to which I had administered embryoniferous ova

in the same way, coughed within seven days, and presented

remarkable difficulty of breathing ; but its feeces contained no

developed ova. On the twelfth day after feeding I killed it,

and found in the trachea twelve pairs of small Syngami in

copulé, but without matured ova. Here the worms produced

the diseased phenomena in the trachea of the bird before they

had attained full sexual maturity; and this explains the

absence of the ova in the feces.

My investigations are not yet completed. I have still to

ascertain the mode of immigration into the trachea, as I am

by no means certain whether during the pouring in of the

ova they remain adherent at the entrance of the larynx and

the whole development takes place in the trachea or the lungs

and airsacs, or whether the ova are swallowed (which in my

experiments was certainly the case with the majority of them)

and the young then quit the egg-shell in the intestine of the

bird, bore through the wall of the stomach or intestine, and,

entering into the airsacs, thus obtain access to the trachea.

From what I have as yet observed in connexion with this, the

former would appear to be the way in which the immigration

takes place.

Upon this, and upon the structure of the full-grown and of

the developing animal, I shall report elsewhere in detail, with

reference to the existing literature of the subject. My object

in this communication was to state that the ova of Syngamus

in the open and under various conditions, when deposited in

moist localities either with the faeces or the ejections from the

trachea of the bird, become so far developed that the parasites

escape from them as soon as they are taken up by a bird. By

this means a course is to a certain extent indicated in which,

by preventive measures, we may protect poultry-yards or

aviaries from the immoderate and destructive diffusion of these

parasites. Careful observation of coughing birds, in which

240 Bibliographical Notices.

the examination of the feces for ova will give the most cer-

tain information as to the presence of these parasites, and

measures to make sure that in districts frequently affected

by this worm-disease no Syngami are introduced at the pur-

chase of new birds, are of the greatest prophylactic value. If

the disease make its appearance in great extent, various

ways must be adopted, according to the localities, in order to

prevent the food-vessels from being contaminated by the

feeces or other ejecta, and the soil in damp spots from forming

breeding-places from which fresh infections of the birds may

continually take place. The custom of many bird-fanciers, of

throwing the carcasses of birds among their meal-worms, “ in

order to make the worms fat,” is very well fitted, in the case

of the carcasses containing Syngamus, to disseminate the ova,

which would be readily developed in the moist and warm

mass with the meal-worms, and to transfer them, with the

latter, into birds.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.

Figures of Characteristic British Fossils, with Descriptive Remarks.

By W. H. Batty, F.LS., F.G.8., &. Part III. Plates 21-30.

Upper Silurian and Devonian. 8vo. London: Van Voorst, 1871.

Tue three parts of this work that have now been published contain

30 lithographic plates, illustrating 504 fossils and their parts, together

with explanations and descriptive remarks, which are further Ulus-

trated by several woodcuts. With the author’s guidance we have

learned the meaning of the ancient relics of primeval creatures, which

he has arranged for us out of quarry and cabinet, and can value

them truly as medals of creation and trustworthy indications of past

times and conditions, as the numismatist uses his coins and tokens.

Mr. Baily explains the nature of the different types of the great groups

of the animal and vegetable kingdoms as they come successively, in

relative abundance, in the several formations, and supplies plentiful

references to the describers of fossil species, and takes trouble to

indicate the distribution of the several typical fossils that his correct

judgment leads him to lay before his reader.

We are promised that “Part IV. will complete the Paleozoic

division of strata, and conclude vol. i.;” and another such set for

“the Secondary ’’ and another for the “ Tertiary” strata and fossils

will make up the useful and trustworthy work, of which we have

had so good a beginning. Though the lithographs are rather woolly,

there is no doubt of their accuracy; for the accomplished author

cares for them himself. A few errata of greater or less importance

will have to be noticed :—Gothlandicus for Gotlandicus, Celenterata

for Coelenterata, Cymbeeformis for Cymbeeformis, Loaonoma for Loawo-

nema, Astrea for Astrea; and at p. xlvi, line 23, has for have.

Miscellaneous. 241

In this Part 3rd of Mr. Baily’s book of fossils we have :—Mollusks

and Crustaceans from the Wenlock rocks; a Coral, Echinoderms,

Mollusks, Crustaceans, and Fish-remains from the Ludlow strata;

Plants, Corals, Crinoids, and Brachiopods from the Devonian forma-

tions. We recognize the results of much research among modern

works; but occasionally the author has omitted a point, such as

Ray Lankester’s correction of the generic alliance of Scaphaspis

(olim Pteraspis) truncatus, and Harley’s determination of the figured

Plectrodus-remains not being jaw and teeth, but prickly processes

of cephalic shields. Doubtless such corrections, reminding us of

the very extensive field a paleontologist has to work over, will be

noticed for the student in the sequel of the paleeozoic chapters.

Both to student and advanced geologist, and to every one wishing

to know what fossils are, to what they belong, and what they teach,

we cordially recommend this lucid and well-arranged work. It is

written and illustrated by a painstaking and practical geologist,

highly esteemed as an authority among paleontologists ; and he is

entitled to great credit for its fulness of information and for the

conscientious and judicious treatment of the manifold matters which

he has to bring within its limit.

A Manual of Zoology for the use of Students, with a General

Introduction on the Principles of Zoology. By Henry ALLEYNE

Nicnorson, M.D. &c. Second Edition, revised and considerably

enlarged. Small 8vo. Blackwood: Edinburgh and London, 1871.

It is little more than a year since we called attention to the

completion of Dr. Nicholson’s ‘Manual of Zoology ;’ and we are

glad to find that the favourable opinion which we then expressed

of it is confirmed by the circumstance that already a second edition

has been called for. Having noticed the work so recently, we need

add little to what we have already said about it; it is still essentially

the same book ; but some slight errors have been corrected, and con-

siderable additions have been made to some parts of it, especially in

the account of the Vertebrata. It is gratifying to our feelings, as

critics, that several of the errors and omissions pointed out in our

former notice have been corrected or supplied; we can only hope

that Dr. Nicholson may speedily have an opportunity of considering

whether he will not, in a new edition, adopt one or two more of

our suggestions.

MISCELLANEOUS.

Ostcology of the Solitaire.

To the Editors of the Annals and Magazine of Natural History.

GentiemEN,—Prof. Newton writes that he and his brother “ made

personal and explicit inquiry” of me “respecting the fate” of cer-

tain bones of the Solitaire.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.4. Vol. ix. 17

242 | Miscellaneous.

Had this been so, I could not have forgotten the circumstance.

The Messrs. Newton called on me at the British Museum, in 1868,

for the purpose of examining the bones of the Dodo; and the time at

my command was spent in showing them those remains in one of

the basement storerooms.

If this has escaped Prof. Newton’s recollection, any incidental

mention of the Solitaire’s bones on that occasion, the only one in

which I was favoured by their visit, may well have escaped mine.

The *impression that ne such inquiry had been made by the

Messrs. Newton was fixed by their making no mention of such in-

quiry in their paper in the Philos. Trans. of 1868, from which I

first learnt their interest in the subject, and satisfied it to the best

of my knowledge; in giving which information (Zool. Trans. 1871,

p- 519) no imputation of carelessness was made or intended.

Ricwarp Owen.

Argas reflexus s. Rhynchoprion columbe.

Though I know not that this Arachnid has yet appeared in the

British fauna, it occurs rather plentifully at Canterbury, where

some of the vergers consider the creature “an insect peculiar to

Canterbury Cathedral.” Professor Westwood, having seen a speci-

men that my son took lately to Oxford, determined it as above ;

and perhaps that eminent entomologist may favour us with a com-

plete account of this species from specimens that I hope to send

him for this purpose. Meanwhile a notice of it will be sent by my

son for the information of the East-Kent Natural-History Society,

at Canterbury, where these curious creatures are locally interesting.

Two of them that we kept in a tin box for upwards of five months,

quite without any sort of food, were lively all the time, and would,

when touched, “play ’possum,” shamming death, like veritable

spiders.—GroreE GULLIVER.

Habits of Tropic Birds. By the Eart or PEMBROKE.

“For our own part, not believing in our queen Moé as implicitly

as we ought to have done, we began shooting the tropic birds as they

flew over us; but we soon gave it up, for two reasons :—first, that

we found that if we got a rocketer, the chances were ten to one

that we cut the scarlet feathers out of his tail; and, secondly, because

we discovered that, by diligent peering under the bushes, we might

pick up as many live uninjured specimens as we liked. I never saw

birds tamer or stupider, which tameness or stupidity may be ac-

counted for by the extreme smallness of their brain, which is really

not larger than that of a sparrow. They sat and croaked, and

pecked, and bit, but never attempted to fly away. All you had to

do was to take them up, pull the long red feather out of their sterns,

and set them adrift again. Queen Moé was right. On Tubai you

may pick up tropic birds as easily as a child picks up storm-worn

shells on the sea-shore.

Miscellaneous. 243

“It was really no small comfort to be able to get specimens of

this beautiful bird without betraying their confidence by shooting

them from the schooner. Small-brained as they are, they are gifted

with an extraordinary amount of inquisitiveness, particularly in the

early morning. As we bowl along before the flashing trade-wind,

we hear a few harsh screams, and up come a pair of ‘ bosens’ with

their bright scarlet tail-feathers glowing in the morning sun. They

make two or three sweeps around us, evidently comparing notes,

and then away into the deep blue, on their own private affairs.

They fish generally like the tern, to whom I suspect they are

cousins german; but they have a way sometimes of hovering per-

pendicularly, with the bill pressed against the breast, that I have

never observed but in one other bird, the black-and-white kingfisher

of the Nile. When the ‘bosen’ has sighted his prey in this posi-

tion, he turns over in the deftest manner, and goes down straight as

a gannet, up to his neck, no further, and remounts for a fresh hover,

I have never had the good fortune to see the white-tailed phaeton

fishing, often as I have looked for him; indeed I have rarely met

him out at sea at all. The finest I have seen were hanging about

the high cliffs of the Society Islands ; and I do not exaggerate when

I state that I have seen more than one with a glorious waving

white tail-feather, two good feet long, though the bird itself was

not much larger than a black-headed gull. What they do with their

tails when they feed passed my comprehension.

«‘ Not only did we find full-grown tropic birds, but we found their

eggs and young,—the former about the size of a hen’s egg, prettily

splashed with reddish brown, laid on the bare sand, under a bush ;

the latter really handsome creatures, about the size of a herring-

gull, beautifully marked with black and white (like a falcon). The

bill at this stage of their existence is black, not red. When you

find your young friend under a bush, he is ensconced in a small

basin of coral-dust, without any nest at all, and his surroundings

show him to be a cleanly thing. When you come upon him sud-

denly, he squalls and croaks and wabbles about, and is as discon-

certed as a warm city man when you try to drive a new idea into

him unconnected with money. But he sticks stoutly to his dusty

cradle, and never attempts to escape, saying plainly enough, ‘ My

mother told me to stop here till she brought me my supper; and here

I am going to stay.’ ’”’—South-Sea Bubbles, p. 148.

Fish-nest in the Seaweed of the Sargasso-Sea. Extracts from a letter

from Prof. Agassiz to Prof. Prrrce, Superintendent, United States

Coast Survey, dated ‘ Hassler’ Expedition, St. Thomas, December

15, 1871.

* * * * The most interesting discovery of the voyage thus far, is

the finding of a nest built by a fish, floating on the broad ocean with

its live freight. On the 13th of the month, Mr. Mansfield, one of

the officers of the ‘ Hassler,’ brought me a ball of gulf-weed which he

had just picked up, and which excited my curiosity to ane utmost,

244 Miscellaneous.

It was a round mass of sargassum, about the size of -two fists, rolled

up together. The whole consisted, to all appearance, of nothing but

gulf-weed, the branches and leaves of which were, however, evidently

knit together, and not merely balled into a roundish mass ; for though

some of the leaves and branches hung loose from the rest, it became

at once visible that the bulk of the ball was held together by threads

trending in every direction among the seaweed, as if a couple of

handfuls of branches of sargassum had been rolled up together with

elastic threads trending in every direction. Put back into a large

bowl of water, it became apparent that this mass of seaweed was a

nest, the central part of which was more closely bound up together in

the form of a ball, with several loose branches extending in various

directions, by which the whole was kept floating.

A more careful examination very soon revealed the fact that the

elastic threads which held the gulf-weed together were beaded at in-

tervals, sometimes two or three beads being close together, or a bunch

of them hanging from the same cluster of threads, or they were,

more rarely, scattered at a greater distance one from the other.

Nowhere was there much regularity observable in the distribution of

the beads; and they were found scattered throughout the whole ball

of seaweeds pretty uniformly. The beads themselves were about the

size of an ordinary pin’s head. We had, no doubt, a nest before

us of the most curious kind—full of eggs too—the eggs scattered

throughout the mass of the nest, and not placed together in a cavity

of the whole structure. What animal could have built this singular

nest ? was the next question. It did not take much time to ascertain

the class of the animal kingdom to which it belongs. A common

pocket-lens at once revealed two large eyes upon the side of the head,

and a tail bent over the back of the body, as the embryo uniformly

appears in ordinary fishes shortly before the period of hatching. The

many empty egg-cases observed in the nest gave promise of an early

opportunity of seeing some embryos freeing themselves from their

envelope. Meanwhile a number of these eggs with live embryos were

cut out of the nest and placed in separate glass jars to multiply the

chances of preserving them, while the nest as a whole was secured in

alcohol, as a memorial of our unexpected discovery. The next day

I found two embryos in one of my glass jars ; they occasionally moved

in jerks, and then rested for a long while motionless upon the bottom

of thejar. On the third day I had overa dozen of these young fishes

in my rack, the oldest of which began to be more active, and promised

to afford further opportunities for study.

* * * * But what kind of fish was this? About the time of hatch-

ing, the fins of this class of animals differ too much from those of the

adult, and the general form exhibits too few peculiarities, to afford

any clue to this problem. I could only suppose that it would probably

prove to be one of the pelagic species of the Atlantic, and of these the

most common are Hwocetus, Naucrates, Scopelus, Chironectes, Syn-

gnathus, Monacanthus, Tetraodon, and Diodon. Was there a way to

come nearer to a correct solution of my doubts?

As I had in former years made a somewhat extensive study of the

Miscellaneous. 245

pigment-cells of the skin in a variety of young fishes, I now resorted

to this method to identify my embryos. Happily we had on board

several pelagic fishes alive, which could afford means of comparison ;

but unfortunately the steamer was shaking too much and rolling too

heavily for microscopic observation of even moderately high powers.

Nothiug, however, should be left untried ; and the very first compari-

son I made secured the desired result. The pigment-cells of a young

Chironectes pictus proved identical with those of our little embryos.

It thus stands as a well authenticated fact that the common pela-

gic Chironectes of the Atlantic (named Chironectes pictus by Cuvier)

builds a nest for its eggs, in which the progeny is wrapped up with

the materials of which the nest itself is composed ; and as these ma-

terials are living gulf-weed, the fish-cradle, rocking upon the deep

ocean, is carried along as an undying arbour, affording at the same

time protection and afterward food for its living freight.

This marvellous story acquires additional interest if we now take

into consideration what are the characteristic peculiarities of the Chi-

ronectes. Asits name indicates, it has fins like hands; that is to say,

the pectoral fins are supported by a kind of prolonged wrist-like ap-

pendages, and the rays of the ventrals are not unlike rude fingers.

With these limbs these fishes have long been known to attach them-

selves to seaweed, and rather to walk than to swim in their natural

element. But now that we have become acquainted with their mode

of reproduction, it may fairly be asked if the most important use to

which their peculiarly constructed fins are put is not probably in

building their nest.—Silliman’s American Journal, Feb. 1872.

Morphology of Carpellary Scales in Larix. By Tuomwas MerHan.

The facts which I have from time to time contributed, verbally

or in papers, to the Academy, in regard to longitudinal series of

axillary buds and adnate and free leaves in Coniferous plants,

will, I believe, explain something of the structure of the flowers

of Coniferze, which, if not quite distinct from any view before taken,

will at least have reached the conclusion by an original line of

argument.

I have shown that in the cases where there are longitudinal series

of buds, one of the buds, and generally the upper supraaxillary

one, is the largest. So far as this longitudinal series of buds is

concerned, I find by extensive observation that there are very

few of our American trees or shrubs which do not produce them

under some circumstances, although they are more generally ap-

parent in some than in others. In many cases they do not break

quite through the cortical layer, but continue to grow from year

to year, just as the wood grows, always remaining just under the

outer bark. It is from these concealed but living buds that the

flowers of the Cercis, or the spines of Gleditschia, will often appear

from trunks many years old. In Magnolia and Liriodendron these

concealed buds are easily detected by a thin shave of the outer bark

with a sharp knife. In very vigorous shoots of the latter, a series

of two (one supraaxillary) is not rarely found prominently above

246 Miscellaneous.

the bark. In many cases one of these buds, usually the lower and

really axillary one, never pushes into growth. In Gymmocladus

neither upper nor lower would probably ever push, only for the

fact that it matures no terminal bud, and thus the laterals have to

renew the next season’s growth. But for this, Gymmnocladus would

go up like a palm, or, more familiarly, as Aralia spinosa does, with-

out a single branch. Failing in the terminal, but two laterals

push, giving the branches their dichotomous character. The two

which push are always the upper ones in the series of 2, 3, or 4

which appear in this species.

The purpose of this duplication of axillary buds will interest all

who study this part of botany. I find that they are not for the

duplication of parts, but are separately organized from one another.

Thus in Crategus and Gileditschia the upper bud produces a spine,

the lower is organized to grow as an axillary shoot the next season.

But the best illustration of the distinctive organization is in those

cases where both upper and lower buds sometimes push the same

season, as in Itea, Lonicera, Caprifolium, or Halesia. Here we

find that one is organized for floral organs, and the other for axil-

lary prolongation. ‘The upper bud always has the same function,

and the lower its own, in the same species.

A flower being a modified branch, in which the bract is the leaf

and the peduncle the axillary bud, it follows that the laws. of

axillary stem-production will be more or less reproduced in the in-

florescence.

Referring, now, to my paper on adnation in Conifer, we

found that the true leaves of many genera in this order were ad-

nate to the stem, forming what some botanists have termed pulvint,

or cushions, under the fascicles of some species of Pinus, and that

what are commonly called leaves, the ‘“ needles,” are really phyl-

loidal shoots. An examination of Abies ewcelsa will show that the

upper portion of the needle has a different origin from the lower

adnate portion, or pulvinus, and that in all probability it is a mo-

dification of the phenomenon referred to in Gymnocladus and other

plants, of a longitudinal string of buds, in which the upper is of a

different organization from the lower one. . In Lariw it was shown

that in the verticils, or perhaps more properly spurs or clusters, the

true leaves were free, while in the elongated axis they became for

most of their length adnate with the stem, forming the spathulate

scales we find peel off the two-year-old wood.

At the flowering-time of the larch, the male and female flowers

proceed from the termination of the spurs—not merely “of the

preceding year,” according to Gray’s ‘Manual,’ but in some cases

of many preceding years, ‘‘ the sterile from leafless buds, the fertile

mostly with leaves below” (Gray’s ‘ Manual,’ 5th ed. p. 472).

Why have the female flowers leaves under them, and the male

none? Comparing the male and female catkins, we see why. The

scales of the male are formed out of the leaves which become

fully formed in the female one. The pair of anther-cells are thus

simply on the back of a transformed leaf, just as we find the spore-

cases of ferns borne in the same way. The weaker organization

Miscellaneous. 247

which I have shown in my paper and communications on sex, per-

mits no further deyelopment here. But in the case of the female

flower the leaf maintains a separate organization all through the

catkin or cone; and, as shown in my paper on the stipules of

Magnolia, the midrib of the leaf shortens, and, assuming a stipu-

lar character, increases in width, until we have the purple bracteze

so well known in Larix. As soon as these bractez have been ar-

rested in their development, the carpellary scales, which answer

to the phylloidal fascicles of Pinus, commence their growth in most

species of larch, finally equalling the bracts in length.

Whether or not the ovules which appear in the axis of the car-

pellary scales again result from a third longitudinal bud, I have no

evidence ; what I have proposed to myself in this paper is simply

to show that the scales in the male catkin of Larix are modified

true leaves ; while in the female they arise from buds of another or-

ganization, being the metamorphosed secondary leaves, or phylloidal

shoots, as I term them, of other Coniferous genera.—Proc. Acad. Nat.

Sciences of Philadelphia, 1871, pp. 106-108.

Supplementary Note on the Genus Lichenocrinus. By F. B. Murx.

Since writing the remarks published in the October number of

the American Journal*, I have received from Mr. Dyer a very com-

plete suite of specimens belonging to the two known species of this

curious type. One of these specimens seems almost to demonstrate

that the long, slender, column-like appendage mentioned in the

descriptions cannot correspond to the ventral tube or so-called pro-

boscis of crinoids. This specimen is a small individual of Z. Dyeri,

only measuring 0-22 inch in diameter across the disk ; yet its column-

like appendage measures near 2°80 inches in length, and tapers very

gradually and regularly from a diameter of 0-03 inch near the disk,

to that of scarcely 0:01 inch near the free end, where it actually ap-

pears to taper to a mucronate point. Of course the canal, within so

attenuated an appendage, must be extremely minute, and could

scarcely have performed the same functions as that of the ventral

tube of a crinoid, even if open at the free end, which is at least ex-

ceedingly improbable.

The extreme tenuity of the free end of this appendage (which

I had already mentioned as an objection to viewing it as a ventral

tube) appears to be almost, if not quite, as strong an objection to

the suggestion that possibly the disk might have been a root, with

the real body attached at the other extremity of the long appendage ;

since it is scarcely possible that a body could have been supported

at the free end of such an extremely slender, hair-like organ as that

of the specimen under consideration.

This and some of the other specimens also show that, at least in

the species Dyeri, this long appendage, although apparently equally

divided longitudinally by five sutures along its entire length, does

not always have the pieces of which it is composed distinctly alter-

nating and interlocking along these sutures, excepting near the disk.

* See the ‘Annals’ for November, 1871, p. 341.

248 : Miscellaneous.

On the contrary, these pieces sometimes become gradually less and

less alternately arranged, until they appear to the eye, as examined

by the aid of a glass, to abut against each other, so as to form re-

gular joints, like those of a minute column composed of little rings or

disks. In the specimen under consideration there appears, at a first

glance, to be two of these long appendages issuing from one disk or

body ; but a closer inspection shows that there are two of the disks

growing or crushed one against or partly upon the other.

The inquiry has been suggested whether these may not have

been free crinoids, with the power of attaching and detaching them-

selves at will, by the flat side opposite the long appendage? Among

the objections, however, that present themselves to this view, may

be mentioned the fact, that the most careful examinations under the

very best magnifiers, of both the inner and outer surfaces of this

flat side, by which the disk is usually found attached, fail to detect

even the most minute openings; and as there are no traces of arms

or pinnule, it is difficult to understand by what means the animal

could thus have attached and detached itself, or have sought, and

adjusted itself to, a suitable station, when once detached. In ad-

dition to this, they are sometimes found growing upon uneven sur-

faces, and closely conforming to the inequalities of the same, even to

lines and furrows on the surface of a shell ; while the rigid radiating

laminee of the interior would seem to preclude the possibility of such

an adjustment by flexibility *.

It is perhaps scarcely necessary to add that the irregular ar-

rangement of the plates composing the disk of this type, without any

tendency to arrange themselves into radial and interradial series,

together with its general habit of growth, show that it belongs to

the Cystoidea, and not to the typical group of Crinoidea. Its want

of arms and pinnule also approximates it to the Cystotdea, in which

the arms are generally in a more or less rudimentary condition, or

the former, in some cases, even entirely wanting. In its apparent

entire absence of both arms and pinnule, and especially in its want

of visible openings and the possession of a system of internal radia-

ting lamine, it is entirely peculiar, and unlike any other known

type, either of the typical Crinoidea or Cystoidea. How the re-

spiratory, reproductive, and-nutritive functions of such a being as it

appears to be could have been performed, remains a mystery ; and

hence it is evident that something yet remains to be learned in regard

to its structure.

Of course, such a form cannot be properly ranged in any of the

recognized families of the typical Crinoidea or of the Cystotdea, but

should be regarded as the type of a new family of the latter, under

the name Lichenocrinide.—Silliman’s American Journal, Jan. 1872.

* One specimen, now before me, from Mr. Dyer’s collection, is seen

lying in the matrix in such a manner as to expose the detached under

side of the disk, while one of its edges is curved and folded upon itself.

As none of the plates, however, are broken or displaced, nor any of the

sutures between them gaping along the folded edge, I cannot believe this

folding due to flexibility, but that some peculiarity of its station caused

this individual to grow in this way.

“THE ANNALS

AND

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[FOURTH SERIES. ]

No. 52. APRIL 1872.

XXVI.—Descriptive Notes on a nearly entire Specimen of

Pleurodus Rankinii, on two new Species of Platysomus and

a new Amphicentrum, with Remarks on a few other Fish-

remains found in the Coal-measures at Newsham. By

ABaNny Hancock, F.L.S., and THomAs ATTHEY.

[Plates XVII. & XVIII. ]

Pleurodus Rankinit, sp. ined., Agassiz.

Several years have elapsed since we first obtained speci-

mens of the peculiar little tooth named by Agassiz Plewrodus

Rankinii: a few only occurred; they were found at Cram-

lington. Since then several specimens of it have been pro-

cured at Newsham and Kenton, but never in any great abun-

dance.

The tooth is, we believe, all that has been known, up to the

present time, of this reputed Selachian. In the spring of last

year (1870), however, we had the good fortune to meet with

the remains of an almost entire specimen of this fish at News-

ham, exhibiting a crushed head containing the teeth, most of

the body, with thoracic expansions, a dorsal spine, and the

shagreen covering or skin (Pl. XVII. fig. 1). In addition to

this interesting specimen, a detached head with the teeth, and

a separate spine, have also occurred in the same locality.

These discoveries are highly important, inasmuch as they

seem to demonstrate not only that this species is a Selachian,

but that it is a Cestraciont, not far removed from the curious

Permian form Wodnika, Minster. This relationship is not

only seen in the general characters of the teeth, but also in the

similarity of the shagreen and in the’form and grooving of

the dorsal spine.

The specimen lies apparently on its belly, and measures a

little more than three inches from the front of the head to the

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. ix. 18

250 Messrs. Hancock and Atthey on a nearly entire

posterior tapering extremity of the body, which has lost the

tail, and is a little less than two inches wide across the tho-

racic expansions, which are just behind the head. The con-

tour is much obscured by the scattering of the tubercles com-

posing the shagreen; and the slab has been broken away so

as to remove a part of the left side of the specimen. A por-

tion of the counter slab, however, has been saved; and on this

the left thoracic expansion is sufficiently revealed. The head

(Pl. XVII. fig.1,) lies immediately in front of and in connexion

with the body, but it is so much distorted that the form

cannot be determined: it is about five eighths of an inch long.

No bones are distinguishable; but the substance is here a little

thickened, indicative of the cartilaginous remains of the cra-

nium ; nor is there anywhere in the body the least appearance

of bones, the skeleton undoubtedly having been cartilaginous

throughout. The teeth (5) lie within the area of the head, in

a disturbed condition, some with the crown uppermost, others

with it downwards. They do not seem to have been numerous,

but are so obscured that the exact number cannot be ascertained.

In the detached head, however, ten or a dozen can be counted;

but there is no certainty that the number may not have been

greater ; indeed it is probable that some have been removed

with the counter slab.

The body suddenly widens immediately behind the head,

the width being considerably increased by the thoracic expan-

sions (c, ¢), which extend about halfway down and appear to

have had their margins pointed; thence it tapers backwards,

and soon dies out, there being no definite indication of the

form of this portion; and, as has been already stated, there

is no trace of the tail. The spine (d) is situated a little

behind the thoracic expansions; consequently it is nearer the

posterior than the anterior extremity. It projects from the

dorsal margin, and is inclined backwards, apparently in its

natural position, marking the situation of the dorsal fin; but

no traces of this remain. About two thirds of the spine is in a

good state of preservation, the other third being well and

sharply defined in cast; it is straight and stout in proportion

to its length, and tapers somewhat abruptly to a sharp point ;

it is compressed laterally, with the anterior margin thicker

than the posterior; the surface is coarsely and irregularly

grooved and ridged longitudinally ; it measures five eighths

of an inch in length, and is at the thickest part one eighth of

an inch wide.

Shagreen covers the whole of the specimen, defining its

extent and form, though, as already noticed, with no great

precision, as the margins are much blurred by the displace-

Specimen of Pleurodus Rankinii. 251

ment of the shagreen-tubercles; but, notwithstanding this

disturbance, towards the margins in many places considerable

patches of them le in their natural order, particularly on the

right thoracic expansion, on a large portion of which the

shagreen is entire. The tubercles are very minute, requiring

a powerful lens to exhibit them, and the lower powers of the

microscope to display their characters. They are many-sided,

irregularly formed bodies, closely fitting together like mosaic

work; the surface is a little raised and beset with irregular

ruge. This is the appearance presented where the shagreen

is undisturbed; but it is doubtful whether it may not be the

under surface that is presented to view. In places where the

tubercles are scattered numerous shining bodies are observed ;

these are about the same size as the tubercles, and, like them,

are irregular in form, but are more gibbose, and have a ridge

or two on the surface, which are produced into points at one

of the sides. From analogy we might suppose that these

bodies exhibit the upper surface of the shagreen-tubercles ;

but further observations are required to determine this point.

The teeth are boss-like in form, somewhat elongated and

ridged or carinated along the longer axis; the sides are con-

siderably expanded in the centre, the expansions dying out

towards the ends of the tooth; usually the expansion is more

produced on one side than on the other, and the ridge inclined to

the opposite side. The expansions are frequently transversely

ridged or plaited, and sometimes tuberculated. The central

ridge or carina of the crown is arched in the long axis of the

tooth, following the curvature of the surface, and is frequently

reduced, as if by wear. The whole surface of the tooth, as

well as the lateral expansions, is covered with a thick brownish-

white enamel, and is coarsely punctate, the punctations being

most conspicuous when the enamel is worn off. The tooth

measures two tenths of an inch in length : a variety, however,

four or five of which have occurred at Kenton, is twice that

size ; but it is more oblique than the small form, has no coronal

carina, and is broad and rounded on the upper surface ; in all

other respects it agrees with the small and usual form. It is

quite possible that these large teeth may belong to another

species.

From the above description it will be perceived that Pleu-

vodus is a not very distant ally, as we have already stated, of

Wodnika, of the Magnesian Limestone, the relationship

being seen in the characters of the spine and shagreen, and

particularly in the form of the teeth: in both genera they

have the same boss-like, carinated crown, with expanded la-

teral margins, more or less ridged or crenate; in both, too,

18*

252 Messrs. Hancock and Atthey on two

they are coarsely punctate, and covered with a stout, highly

polished enamel.

We are thus assured that Plewrodus is a Cestraciont; and

such being the case, its small size is very remarkable. But it

must be mentioned that if the large teeth are mere varieties of

the small and usual form, then our specimen may not by any

means be fully grown; however, after making every allow-

ance for increase in size on this account, still the species

would be a very small Cestraciont, most of which are of con-

siderable dimensions. Wodnika, which is a small species,

judging from Miinster’s figure*, cannot have been less than a

foot long. It is nevertheless quite possible that our specimen

is, notwithstanding, a fully developed individual. ‘This is ren-

dered probable by the fact that the teeth in connexion with it

are of the usual size of those found detached at Newsham; and

of such we possess thirty or forty: some of these are smaller

than those connected with the specimen; scarcely any are

larger; or if so, there is a mere shade of difference in this

respect. In the separate head before alluded to, the teeth are

likewise of the usual size; and the second or detached spine

already mentioned is not quite so large as that in connexion

with the fish.

Platysomus rotundus, n. sp.

A very distinct and beautiful species of Platysomus has

occurred at Newsham; three almost perfect specimens of it

have been met with, and four or five considerable portions, all

of which exactly agree in character, though they vary a little

in size. The largest and most perfect specimen is three inches

long, measured from the clavicle to the end of the tail-fin,

and is two inches and three quarters deep at the widest part.

It is in a fine state of preservation; the contour is perfect,

with the exception of that of the head, which is moderately

developed in proportion to the body ; the cranial bones, how-

ever, are dislocated and thrust a little forward ; but apparently

the head would not project much were they restored to their

natural positions. ‘The dorsal margin, from the occipital crest

to the root of the tail, is regularly and deeply convex; so is

the ventral margin in its whole extent from the clavicle down-

wards; the body of the fish, including the head, is therefore

almost circular. The pectoral fins appear to have been well

developed, but they are badly displayed; the ventrals are also

very indistinct, though sufficient of one of them is seen for

verification}: the dorsal and anal are well preserved; they

* Beitrage, Heft vi. p. 48, Taf. 1. fig. 1 a to d.

+ As the existence of ventrals in Platysomus has been doubted, we take

new Species of Platysomus. 253

are placed opposite to each other, terminating in front of the

caudal peduncle, and anteriorly near the centre of the body ;

the anterior portion of each is considerably prolonged, and the

articulations of the rays are much longer than wide. The

caudal fin is well developed, with the lobes, which are nearly

of equal length, only slightly recurved at the extremities.

The scales (Pl. XVII. fig. 2) are rhomboidal, long, narrow,

and exceedingly delicate, the thickening of the anterior margin

being very inconspicuous at the surface, so that the usual

ribbed appearance is scarcely observed: the upper surface is

finely and regularly striated longitudinally, the striz being

raised a little, undulated, and almost parallel to the margins of

the scale; they occasionally bifurcate, and, though minute,

are relatively strong and few in number, there being not more

than eight or ten on each scale. The length of the scale, in-

cluding the peg, is five sixteenths of an inch; the peg is long

and pointed. ‘The occipital crest, all the bones of the head,

gill-covers, clavicle, and mandibles are striated in the same

manner as the scales. ‘The mandibular teeth are minute,

conical, and pointed; those of the maxillaries are of the same

character, but more minute; on the premaxillaries they seem

a little larger.

This is a very distinct species, and is at once distinguished

from P. striatus by its small size and the much greater deli-

cacy of its parts: the scales of striatus are wide, thick, and

coarse in comparison with those of P. rotwndus, in which they

are thinner and much narrower than in any other species with

which we are acquainted ; and, moreover, the strie in P. sér7-

atus are much more numerous and more oblique. The same

features equally distinguish our new species from P. gibbosus,

which is apparently a close ally of P. striatus. On account

of its small size, it might possibly be confounded with P. par-

vulus: but the scales of the latter are twice the width of those

of the former, and the striz are much more numerous; the

head-bones, too, are tuberculated, while in P. rotundus they

are, as we have already pointed out, striated; the teeth of P.

parvulus are likewise considerably larger.

Of the inedited species P. declivis, Agassiz, we know very

little, but understand that the scale is similar to that of P.

striatus ; the name, too, so far as it is descriptive, is certainly

not specially applicable to P. rotundus. ;

this opportunity of stating that a specimen of P. parvulus in our possession

displays distinctly the pectoral, ventral, and anal fins, the form of one

of the ventrals being well defined: it is small and narrow.

254 Messrs. Hancock and Atthey on a new Species

Platysomus Forsteri, n. sp.

We have in our possession considerable portions of three

specimens of another species of Platysomus that appears to be

undescribed; they were all obtained at Newsham. Unfor-

tunately, the general contour cannot be traced in any of them;

the fins are not present ; and though many of the cranial bones

are well preserved, they are all scattered. We shall therefore

have to rely mainly on the scales for specific characters. The

scales (Pl. XVII. fig. 3) however, are, sufficiently marked to

distinguish the species from all its congeners, and are in good

condition. ‘They are large, measuring nine tenths of an inch

in length, including the peg, and two tenths of an inch wide ;

they are consequently long and comparatively narrow; the

form is rhomboidal; the peg is long, and tapers gradually to

a fine point; the smooth anterior margin of the scale is rather

wide, the rest of the surface being covered with close-set, raised,

longitudinal strize, which are somewhat undulated and slightly

diagonal, passing upwards a little inclined towards the front

or smooth border, and becoming finer as they approach it:

they very rarely bifurcate ; and new striz are abruptly intro-

duced, and do not originate in other strie.

The head-bones, occipital crest, gill-covers, clavicle, and

mandibles are all striated like the scales. The mandibular

teeth are large, conical, stout, and obtusely pointed; those of

the maxille are small, conical, and tubercle-like, with wide

bases and recurved pointed apices, and are disposed without

order along the alveolar border.

This fine species cannot measure less than P. striatus, and

at first sight, so far as the scales are concerned, might be con-

founded with it; but on attentive examination, they are seen

to be very different. They are much longer and narrower ;

and while these are rhomboidal, those of P. striatus can

scarcely be so designated, being more nearly oblong. The

strie are coarser and much less oblique in P. Forsterd; the

peg is longer, more slender, and with a sharper point. Indeed,

from the form and character of the scales, 1t would seem that

this species is more nearly allied to P. rotundus than to P.

striatus. LP. gibbosus is distinguished by having some of the

cranial bones granulated, which is not the case with our new

species; and, besides, the scales of the former resemble those

ot P. striatus, according to the figures in Agassiz’s ‘ Poissons

Fossiles,’ vol. ii. tab. 15. P. declivis would appear also to

have the scales of similar proportions.

This species is named after G. B. Forster, Esq., of Back-

worth, who has kindly granted every facility for the examina-

of Platysomus and a new Amphicentrum. 255

tion of the shale at Newsham, without which valuable privi-

lege much of our knowledge of the paleontology of the Low

Main could not have been attained.

Amphicentrum striatum, n. sp.

A new species of this rare and interesting genus has been

found at Newsham; seven or eight specimens have been ob-

tained. It differs by well-marked characters from the A. granu-

latum, Wuxley, the only other known member of the genus, and

it is much smaller. The contour of the new species is rhombic,

the trunk being a little wider than long, measured from angle

to angle; the dorsal and ventral angles are not much produced.

The head is small and conical, with the muzzle forming the

anterior angle; the upper and lower margins are continuous

with the dorsal and ventral lines of the trunk. The cranial

bones are too much disturbed to admit of particular descrip-

tion; they are, however, covered with a lustrous enamel, and

are ornamented with strong strie and tubercles, which irregu-

larly run into each other. The fins are almost entirely want-

ing in our specimens; only one of them shows a little of the

dorsal, which appears to be very delicate; and another a por-

tion of the caudal.

The scales are well preserved in three or four specimens.

They are oblong, perhaps somewhat rhomboidal, and are much

longer than wide; the peg is long; they become smaller to- |

wards the dorsal and ventral margins of the trunk, where they

are strongly tuberculated: the large central scales, of which

there are three series in depth, have their extremities also a

little tuberculated ; but their middle and greater portions are

covered with strong, somewhat irregular, raised, longitudinal

strie ; so that the trunk of the fish has tuberculated dorsal

and ventral belts, with the central portion striated.

The V-like arrangement of the dental tubercles, so far as

we have been able to examine it, is the same as in A. granu-

latum; and the mandibular dental plates, which are frequently

found detached, do not seem to differ in any important respect

from those of that species, size being the chief distinguishing

feature. The length of the body, including the head, is two

inches, and its depth from the dorsal to the ventral angle an

inch and three quarters.

This is a very beautiful species, and is at once distinguished

from its congener by its small size and, particularly, by the

strie on the middle portion of the body, which ornamentation

contrasts well with the strong marginal tubercles, the whole

being coated with brilliant enamel.

256 Messrs. Hancock and Atthey on

Celacanthus lepturus, Agassiz.

We have long had in our possession certain mandibuliform

bones from the Newsham shale, evidently piscine, though we

could not make out to what species or even to what genus

they belonged; and it was not till some short time ago,

when we fortunately obtained a crushed head of Celacanthus,

that the enigma was solved. This specimen exhibits our

supposed mandible in connexion with the rather strangely

formed bone figured and described in the ‘Memoirs of the

Geological Survey,’ Decade 12, by Professor Huxley, as the

mandible, and so placed in relationship to it that it became at

once evident that the mandible of Huxley is merely the arti-

cular piece, and our supposed mandible the dentary bone.

The articular piece is well represented in the memoir re-

ferred to. We have three or four isolated specimens of it in

a good state of preservation; also one or two others in con-

nexion with the bones of the head and united to the dentary

bone. The articular piece (Pl. XVII. fig. 4,@) is long and

narrow, with a large arched lobe rising from the upper margin

and situated a little nearer to the proximal than the distal ex-

tremity ; the proximal extremity is obtusely pointed, and the

upper border is occupied by a narrow longitudinal channel

(the glenoid surface, b), which widens a little backwards and is

twisted or inclined to the external surface; the borders of the

-distal extremity are nearly parallel, and in front it thins out

and is diagonally truncated forwards and upwards. Our

largest specimen is about two and a half inches long, and at

the widest part measures five eighths of an inch across.

The dentary bone (fig.4c¢) is as peculiar in form as the

articular piece: it is narrow and semicylindrical in front, the

outer surface being convex, the inner channelled or concave ;

the posterior portion, more than half the entire length, widens

backwards, and has the upper and lower borders somewhat

thickened; the proximal extremity thins out, is truncated

diagonally downwards and backwards, and has the lower

border, which is the longer, produced into a point. The whole

bone is strongly arched, the lower margin being regularly

convex; the symphysial surface is not distinguishable, and

was probably formed chiefly by the cartilage that undoubtedly

_ occupied the groove or channel of the inner surface.

The teeth (d) are placed on the upper border of the ex-

panded portion, and extend in a close series of from six to

eight from the posterior extremity almost to the junction of

the border with the anterior semicylindrical portion of the

bone: the dentary area is thus very limited. The teeth are

Ceelacanthus lepturus and Ctenodus. 257

small, short, stout, conical, and obtusely pointed, and seem to

be firmly anchylosed to the bone.

The dentary bone has apparently been united to the arti-

cular piece by a squamose suture; but, howsoever this may

have been, it is evident that the attachment was only slight,

as the two bones are frequently found detached.

The maxillary teeth are well developed; they are larger

than those of the mandible, are stoutish at the base, decidedly

recurved and sharply pointed ; but we are unable to determine

their number and arrangement, on account of the disturbed

condition of our specimens. ‘There are teeth on both the

maxille and premaxille. In addition to these dental organs,

the vomer is armed with close-set, minute, rounded tubercles

or teeth. This is undoubtedly the same spatulate dentigerous

bone figured and described in the 12th Decade of the Geological

Survey by Professor Huxley as the parasphenoid or vomer in

Macropoma: in form and position it is very similar.

Ctenodus, Agassiz.

The body-scales of Ctenodus are entirely unknown, with

the exception of those of C. elegans and C. obliquus, which we

described some time ago*—the former in a good state of pre-

servation, the latter in a less perfect condition. We have,

however, obtained from time to time numerous fragments of

large scales, so frequently associated with the remains of the

larger Ctenodontes that we can have little doubt they belong to

them. Among these fragments are four or five which exhibit

the greater portion of the contour of the scale, and one which

has it almost entire. These are all parallelogramic in form,

* Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 4. vol. i. p. 77.

+ As this paper was passing through the press, we obtained complete

proof of the truth of this opinion in a fine specimen of the greater portion

of a cranium and part of the trunk of a large Ctenodus with the opercular

plates attached: a considerable number of the ribs are exhibited in con-

nexion with the head, disposed in natural order; and numerous neura-

pophyses and apparently interneural spines are scattered along the dorsal

ridge. Eyerywhere mixed up with this interesting specimen these pecu-

liar scales are found, much broken, indeed, but occupying both sides of

the body portion of the fish, in such a manner as to leave no doubt on the

subject. The scales are very similar to those described in the text, dif-

fering only specifically, the margin being wider; the smooth central area

has the same peculiar minute surface-structure, and the upper surface is

minutely granulated in the same manuer. Moreover this specimen shows

the hatchet-shaped bones, or clavicles, described by us on a former occa-

sion, in connexion with the cranium, almost in their natural positions ;

so that here we have not only proof respecting these scales, but the true

nature of the hatchet-shaped bones is aed established. .

258 Messrs. Hancock and Atthey on Ctenodus.

are thin and delicate, and apparently represent three species,

though the distinguishing characters are slight.

The first (Pl. XVIII. fig. 1), the largest and most perfect

specimen, measures two and a half inches long, and upwards

of two inches wide. ‘The sides are parallel; the anterior ex-

tremity (a) is a little arched outwards, and the posterior or

exposed extremity (6) is rounded; the angles are rounded off ;

the central area (e), under an ordinary _ hand-lens, appears

quite smooth, and is bordered by a rather narrow margin (c),

having several concentric undulations or lines of growth, and

marked with minute radiating striae; no orowth- lines are

visible within the marginal border. On examination with the

inch object-glass, the central area is found to be finely reticu-

lated with slightly elevated bony fibres, the meshes being sunk,

so that the surface is minutely and regularly punctate. This

is undoubtedly the underside of the scale; the upper surface

is revealed on fragments, and, at a rupture (7) near the centre

of the rounded exposed extremity, is minutely granular. Of

course, in the latter case, it is only the cast of the upper sur-

face that is seen; and at this poimt it is evident that the

granules are enlarged and become arranged so as to form im-

perfect and very irregular vermicular grooves,

The second species (fig. 2) is less perfect than that just

described; the greater portion, however, of the scale is pre-

served ; but the border of one side is gone, as well as the pos-

terior mar gin and part of the anterior. The sides are slightly

convex, and so is the anterior extremity, the angles being

rounded ; the border (c) is wide, and distinguished by several

concentric lines of growth and fine minute radiating striz, as

in the first species. The central area (d) is likewise similar ;

but the minute surface-structure is finer, and the bony net-

work has the meshes drawn out in the long axis of the scale;

the punctures, too, are not so large and distinct. ‘This frag-

ment (for fragment it is) measures two inches long, and one

inch and one eighth wide.

The third species, which has lost the greater portion of the

rounded posterior extremity, and is in other respects imperfect,

is upwards of an inch and three fourths long; it seems to

have been more nearly square than either of the other two

forms, and is characterized by a very narrow border, which

shows only one or two concentric lines of growth and minute

radiating strie. The bony network of the central area is fine

and indistinct, with a longitudinal arrangement of the meshes,

as in the second species; the punctures are numerous, rather

large, and longitudinally oval.

The last description is apparently of a mere cast of the

Messrs. Hancock and Atthey on Ctenodus. 259

under surface ; but a small portion of the scale, exhibiting the

upper surface, is adherent, and proves that it is minutely

striated in an irregular broken manner, the strie for the most

part having a longitudinal disposition.

The peculiar rectangular form distinguishes these from all

the cycloid scales with which we are acquainted ; and they are

much thinner than any other of the large scales of the Coal-

measure fishes. The only scale that can be compared to

them in this respect is that usually attributed to Rhzzodus—

the scale which we described some time ago as belonging to

Archichthys*. But this scale is pretty regularly rounded, is

more coarsely granulated on the surface, and usually exhibits

concentric lines of growth over the whole surface ; it is also

generally found split open, exposing to view the internal

structure, when the concentric lines of growth and minute

radiating strize are sharply defined over the entire surface.

The scale of Ctenodus is never seen with the internal structure

thus exposed ; at least we have never seen the concentric lines

of growth and radiating strie pass beyond the border, the

under surface being usually exposed to view. This is well

shown in our second species, the specimen being preserved on

one slab in relief, the cast of the underside in intaglio on the

other. This specimen, too, enables us to judge of the thick-

ness of the scale, as it is evident the entire substance of it is

present, and that it is not torn open by the splitting of the

shale.

The rectangular outline of these scales we have just pointed

out as peculiar; and in this respect these large scales agree

with those we previously described of C. elegans and C. obli-

quus, the former being the smallest known species of the

genus. And here we must not overlook the similarity both

im form and size of these large Ctenodus-scales to those

of the so-called Ceratodus Forstert, as figured and described

by Dr. A. Giinther in his valuable memoir on this remarkable

Australian fish, recently published in the * Philosophical Trans-

actions.’ This resemblance is very striking in our second

species, in which the sides are nearly parallel, being a little

arched outwards, much in the same way as they are in the

recent species. In both forms the scales are of an extraordi-

nary size: those of Ceratodus Forstert are two inches and three

eighths long, and one inch and six eighths broad; the largest

Cienodus-scale measures two inches and a half in ‘length, and

an inch and a half in breadth ; and that of C. elegans, which

is quite a small species, is remarkably large for the size of the

fish.

* Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 4. vol. v. p. 266.

260 Messrs. Hancock and Atthey on

We have shown on a previous occasion that the dental plates

of Ctenodus imbricatus are so similar to those of the Australian

fish that without other aid they could not be generically sepa-

rated; and we now see that in the peculiar form and great

size of the scales the similarity is equally striking.

Gyracanthus tuberculatus, Agassiz, and Cladodus mira-

bilis, Agassiz.

We believe we were the first to point out that certain mi-

nute bodies found associated with the remains of these two

species are dermal tubercles *. When we wrote our remarks

on the subject we described two forms of these peculiar bodies—

one considerably larger than the other, and having from four

to seven cusps with carine on their convex surfaces, the

smaller form having only two or three smooth points. And

we thought both varieties belonged to Gyracanthus, having

found the large scattered amidst the small form (which latter

was by far the more numerous), and both associated with the

spines of that fish and with the teeth of Cladodus. We have

long been satisfied, however, that this was a mistake, and

that, while the small form is the dermal tubercle of Gyracan-

thus, the large variety is that of Cladodus. This is satisfac-

torily proved by numerous specimens in our possession, in

which the small variety unmixed with the other is associated

in large patches with the spines and other remains of Gyra-

canthus ; while the large form has occurred on several occa-

sions, unaccompanied by the small variety, on the same slab

with the teeth of Cladodus and the spines of Ctenacanthus

hybodoides. This has so frequently happened now, that it is

impossible any longer to question the fact that the two forms

belong respectively to these two large Selachians. And we

are also satisfied that the so-called tooth Mitrodus quadri-

cornis of Owen is the larger form of these dermal tubercles,

as we originally asserted, and consequently belongs to Cladodus

or Ctenacanthus, and not to Gyracanthus, as we at first

thought.

We have much pleasure in observing that the dermal na-

ture of these minute spinous bodies has recently been con-

firmed by the researches of Mr. James Thomson, of Glasgow,

who has found the large form associated with the teeth of

Cladodus mirabilis and the spines of Ctenacanthus hybodoidest.

* See paper entitled “Notes on the Remains of some Reptiles and

Fishes from the Shales of the Northumberland Coal-field,” Ann. Nat.

Hist. ser. 4. vol. 1. p. 370.

+ See paper entitled ““On a Specimen of Acanthodes Ward from the

Gyracanthus tuberculatus and Cladodus mirabilis. 261

This gentleman, however, seems to confound Déplodus with

these dermal tubercles, and to consider the remains of the

semicartilaginous skeleton to be shagreen. It is to Professor

Williamson that we owe the discovery of the true nature of

this peculiar substance, who clearly proves it to be the remains

of what he terms the chondriform bone or semicartilaginous

skeleton*.

In a former communicationt we described a large triangular

bone associated with the spines of Gyracanthus as one of the

carpals. We have now to notice a second carpal, several of

which have occurred on the same slabs with the spines and

triangular bones. In one instance the two spines are asso-

ciated with one triangular bone and two of our second carpal.

This second form is probably the inner carpal: it is a broad,

flat bone, irregularly bilobed, or somewhat reniform, with one

of the lobes produced and the external margin straightened ;

the convex border is alittle flattened, angulated, and thickened;

thence the bony fibres radiate to the opposite or lobed mar-

gin, which gradually thins out. It measures in the trans-

verse or longest diameter eight inches and a quarter, and in

length, from the thickened to the thin margin, two inches and

a half. ‘The former we take to be the proximal margin ; con-

sequently the thin opposite edge will give support to the fin.

The texture of this bone is quite similar to that of the large

triangular carpal; namely, it is of a semicartilaginous appear-

ance, with coarse radiating fibres extending from margin to

margin.

Helodus simplex, Agassiz.

We take this opportunity to announce the occurrence of

this strange form of tooth at Prestwick, Northumberland.

Only a single specimen has been found; and we believe this

to be the first that has been obtained in the district.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

Prats XVII.

Fig. 1. View of Pleurodus Rankinii, natural size: a, head; 6, teeth;

ec, thoracic expansions; d, dorsal spine; e, counter slab, on

which the left thoracic expansion is preserved, and which is

represented as if seen through.

Lanarkshire Coal-field, and on Ctenacanthus hybodoides,” Trans. Geol.

Soc. Glasgow, vol. iv. pt. 1. pp. 57-59.

* “Tnvestigations into the Structure and Development of the Scales

and Bones of Fishes,” by W. C. Williamson, Philosophical Transactions,

1851, pt. 1, pp. 669-679.

+ Ann, Nat. Hist. ser, 4, vol. i. p. 369.

262 Mr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys on the Mollusca of St. Helena.

Fig. 2. Outline of a scale of Platysomus rotundus, considerably enlarged.

Fig. 3. Outline of a scale of Platysomus Forster’, enlarged.

Fig. 4, Outline of a mandibular ramus of Celacanthus lepturus, slightly

enlarged: a, articular piece; 6, glenoid surface; ec, dentary

bone; d, teeth. The articular piece and dentary bone are laid

together in their natural positions, but not united; so that the

form and extent of each can be distinctly traced.

Puate XVIII.

Fig. 1. Scale, natural size, of Ctenodus (first species): a, anterior margin ;

b, posterior or exposed ditto; c, marginal border; d, rupture

exposing cast of upper surface ; e, central area.

Fig. 2. Scale, natural size, of Ctenodus (second species): a, anterior

margin ; b, posterior extremity; c, marginal border; d, central

area: the dotted line indicates the form and extent of the scale.

XXVII.— The Mollusca of St. Helena.

By J. Gwyn JEFrreys, F.R.S.

With the assistance of my friend Mr. M‘Andrew, I have ex-

amined a collection of shells made by Mr. J. C. Melliss at

St. Helena; and I subjoin a list of them. Most of the marine

shells were picked up on the beach, and are consequently in

bad condition. The only specimen procured from deepish

water (about fifty fathoms) 1s Ostrea crista-galli; and this is

covered with two kinds of stony coral, which Prof. Duncan

refers to Sclerohelia hirtella and a species of Balanophyllia.

The land-shells of St. Helena have been already noticed by

the late Mr. G. B. Sowerby in the Appendix to Mr. Darwin’s

work on Volcanic Islands, as well as by Mr. Blofeld and the

late Prof. E. Forbes in the Quarterly Journal of the Geolo-

gical Society of London for August 1852. In the opinion of

the last-named author, “a closer geographical relationship

between the African and American continents than now main-

tains is dimly indicated ” by the marine mollusks of St. Helena;

and “‘the information we have obtained respecting the extinct

and existing terrestrial mollusks of this isolated fragment of

land would seem to point in the same direction, and assuredly

to indicate a closer geographical alliance between St. Helena

and the west [?east] coasts of South America than now holds.”

And in the Report of the British Association for 1851 will be

found an abstract of a paper by the same distinguished natu-

ralist, entitled, ‘On some Indications of the Molluscous Fauna

of the Azores and St. Helena.” It is here stated that “the

marine mollusks [of St. Helena] would seem to point to the

submergence of a tract of land probably linking Africa and

Mr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys on the Mollusca of St. Helena. 263

South America before the elevation of St. Helena. Along the

sea-coast of such a tract of land the creatures common to the

West Indies and Senegal might have been diffused.” I am

not quite satisfied with this hypothesis, and I believe that

more information is needed to support it. Some of the land-

shells of St. Helena are European, and may have been intro-

duced by the agency of man; others are peculiar to the island.

A few of the marine shells are Mediterranean, while the greater

number are well-known inhabitants of the Indian Ocean and

the West Indies : all these may have originated anywhere. But

it must be borne in mind that St. Helena is separated from

Africa and South America in every direction by very deep

water, which is nowhere less than 2000 fathoms or 12000 feet.

It therefore seems scarcely probable that such an abyssal and

extensive tract of the sea-bed could have been dry land or

“sea-coast,” in a geologically recent period, so as thus toaccount

for the diffusion of littoral species such as Mytilus edulis,

M. crenatus, and Littorina striata. I should be rather inclined

to attribute the present distribution of the marine fauna of

St. Helena (not to a supposed continuity of land between

Africa and South America in that or any other direction, but)

to the action and influence of the great Agulhas Current,

which issues from the Indian Ocean and flows round the Cape

of Good Hope northwards towards St. Helena, and thence

past Ascension to the West Indies. The partial correspon-

dence between the Mollusca of the Indian Ocean and of the

Mediterranean may have been owing to the Guinea Current,

as well as to a passage which formerly existed across Africa

in the line of the Sahara—a very wide tract, which certainly

was submerged during the quaternary period. I must admit,

however, that our information as to the marine Mollusca of

the South-Atlantic region, including St. Helena, is very scanty

and unsatisfactory. The only dredging that has ever, to my

knowledge, been attempted off St. Helena was made by Dr.

Wallich in 1857, on his return home from India; and this

was at a depth of from 20 to 30 fathoms. It produced a few

small shells, which Dr. Wallich kindly gave me. Many of

these appear to be undescribed species. The promised cir-

cumnavigation expedition, under the auspices of the Royal

Society, will doubtless enable us to learn something of the

South-Atlantic fauna.

Mr. Edgar Smith will describe such of the species in the

subjoined list and of those dredged by Dr. Wallich as are new

to science. Mr. Melliss has presented to the British Museum

all the specimens, with the exception of a few duplicates,

264 Mr.J.Gwyn Jeffreys on the Mollusca of St. Helena.

which are in the excellent and accessible collection of Mr.

M‘Andrew.

Class CONCHIFERA.

Order LAMELLIBRANCHIATA.

Family OstrREDz.

Ostrea crista-galli, Linné.

Family AvICcULIDE.

Pinna pernula, Chemnitz.

Avicula hirundo, LZ.

Family Myrinipz.

Mytilus edulis, Z.

crenatus, Lamarck.

Lithodomus lithophagus, L.

Family Arc.

Arca domingensis, Lam.

Family Lucinip®.

Lucina, x. sp.

Family CHAMID.

Chama gryphoides, L.

Class GASTROPODA.

Order PECTINIBRANCHIATA.

Family PATELLIDE.

Patella plumbea, Lam.

Tectura virginea, Miller.

Hipponyx mitrula, Lam.

—— radiatus, Quoy § Gaimard.

Family FissuRELLIDZ.

Fissurella arcuata, G. B. Sowerby.

Family Lirrorrnipz&.

Littorina striata, King.

Family ScaLaRiip®.

Scalaria modesta, C. B. Adams.

Family PyRAMIDELLIDE.

Odostomia circinata, H. Adams.

Family [ANTHINID&.

Tanthina fragilis, Bruguieére.

Family EvuLimip&.

Eulima, 2. sp.

Family Naticipz.

Natica nitida, Donovan.

Order SIPHONOBRANCHIATA.

Family Buccinipz.

Purpura Rudolphi, Lam.

Family Municip.

Triton variegatus, Lam.

olearium, L.

Ranella czelata, Broderip.

Murex, 2. sp.

Family Nassip@.

Cassidea testiculus, Z.

Nassa incrassata, Strom, var.

Columbella cribraria, Lam.

(H. §& A. Adams).

Cominella lugubris, C. B. Adams.

Family CypRzIDz.

Marginella, . sp.

Cypreea lurida, L.

spurca, Lam.

turdus, LZ.

— moneta, L.

Family Conn.

Conus testudinarius, Martint.

irregularis, G. B. Sow.

Order PULMONOBRANCHIATA.

Family Limacip2.

Limax gagates, Draparnaud.

» 2. Sp.

——,, 0. sp.

Family Hericw2.

Succinea picta, Pfeiffer.

solidula, Pf.

Helene, Forbes.

Bensoniana, Ford.

Zonites cellarius, Miill.

—— alliarius, Miller.

Helix aspersa, Mill.

polyodon, G. B. Sow., =H.

Alexandri, Korb.

Bulimus auris-vulpina, Chemn.

(semifossil).

fossilis, G. B. Sow. (semi-

fossil).

Eee umbilicata, Drap.

Achatina subplicata, G. B. Sow.

(semifossil),

On the Origin of the Vertebrate Skeleton. 265

XXVIII.—The Origin of the Vertebrate Skeleton*,

By Harry G. SEELEY, St. John’s College, Cambridge.

§ 1. The Problem of Osteology.

The facts of comparative osteology are the growth of similar

constituent bones of skeletons to different extent and in dif-

ferent directions in the several groups of vertebrate animals.

Hence to the paleontologist the discovery of new types of life

in the strata usually means a new and limited growth of a few

elements of, the skeleton in definite directions. These pecu-

liarities of growth give the skeletons which they characterize

a plan of structure which differs from that of other animals ;

and therefore that plan becomes comparable with the plans of

growth which distinguish the several known groups. The

multitudinous array of species 1s so reduced to a few factors ;

and these limiting facts enable the student to investigate and

discover the relation of one animal to the remainder, and of

all animals to each other, in a manner not dissimilar and

with similar success to the way by which meridians of longi-

tude and parallels of latitude localize geographical districts.

The biological problem admits of infinite complication, from

the skeleton being composed of many different bones, each of

which has its definite form, which may vary a little in every

species of the group. And though a few general plans may

accurately be spoken of as limiting and comprising this vast

difference of detail, yet there is no plan except that which is

manifested in each and all of the individuals forming the species

which the group includes. And if it be necessary, as it is, to

see how closely one plan of structure approximates to other

plans, or how it differs from them, such a result can only be

attained by comparing and contrasting individuals which

manifest the kind of growth which is named the plan of the

group.

Here comparative osteology offers for investigation the

subject of growth of bone. And if a sufficient elucidation of

that question can be given, less difficulty will be experienced

in understanding the nature of the special growths in specified

directions which give a common plan to each of the several

zoological groups of Vertebrata named orders.

The skeleton, however, is but a degraded portion of the

organism ; and, in the kinds of animals which inhabit the world

now, the functions of the several bones are often known, as

well as the nature and modifications of the soft structures,

nerves, vessels, viscera, muscles, which are correlated with

* Being an introductory chapter from the Author's MS. ‘ Osteology of

the Reptilia.’

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. ix. 19

266 Mr. H. G. Seeley on the Origin

the different types of skeletons. This has in old times made

the comparative anatomy of these living animals more a study

of the soft vital tissues than of the hard osseous structures,

with which alone the fossil types of life can be compared. It

has also had a tendency to make the skeleton seem important

chiefly as an index to the nervous or respiratory or other

organization of the animal to which it pertains. The skeleton,

however, has a distinct morphological importance of its own

in classification, probably as significant of near affinity as any

part of the organism. And in the endeavour to determine the

relations of affinity to each other of the fossil groups, and

their zoological position, it will be necessary to adhere to this

simple morphological test, as well as to apply it to the living

ordinal groups, which will hereafter be examined.

The skeleton nevertheless often, in some of its elements,

manifests convincing evidence of the condition of some of the

soft parts, being subservient to them; and this gives an

empirical evidence of affinity which the traditional practice of

anatomists would warrant us in valuing highly. Still that

estimate of the soft parts of an animal which makes the salient

features of all animal classifications will admit of question, and

may even seem artificial, when animals are considered in

all their affinities. At present, classifications, so far as they

are consistent and logical, only express what may be named

the lateral affinities of groups of animals—that is, their resem-

blance to others which are upon the same horizon of organi-

zation. But some animal orders also have affinities with

other animal orders which are both above and below them in

complexity of structures. And if any form of creation by

physical and chemical law is admitted into the domain of

science, then the affinities which are indicative of evolution

must obviously afford a more philosophical ground for classi-

fication than those affinities which merely show the parallelism,

in their successive stages, of groups of organisms which are

parted from each other by inevitable gaps, chasms comparable

to those which (as a small illustration) divide from each other

the phalanges of the successive digits.

So that we may regard the final problem of comparative

osteology as the production, under laws, of a calculus of afti-

nities of animals, in which their relations to each other will

be manifest in a classification which transcribes nature her-

self.

In the following pages a sketch is made of the way in

which such a philosophy may be led up to by a consideration

of the bones and the fundamental conditions which determine

their relations to each other.

of the Vertebrate Skeleton. 267

§ 2. The Mechanism of Growth.

Sir James Paget happily interprets the coexistence of growth

of different tissues in the same organism by adopting a doc-

trine advanced by C. F. Wolff and Treviranus, that each single

part of the body, such as fat, muscle, bone, &c., in respect of

its nutrition, stands to the whole body in the relation of an

excreted substance. Modern chemistry may be considered to

have demonstrated that this organized excrement which con-

stitutes the animal, continually excretes itself in other struc-

tures, which are capable otf passing naturally out of the body.

Even while remaining as constituent in the body, the tissues

change from a more live to a less live kind; so that muscle is

degraded into urea and fat before the fat is got rid of in car-

bonic acid and water; and cartilage must first be degraded

into bone, the most feebly organic of structures, before it is

removed from the body by the natural processes of secretion.

Here, then, the question arises, By the operation of what

law are the assimilated parts of our food converted into the

tissues which manifest this complemental interrelation of

organs? for it would seem probable that there is but one

general law governing them all, since, when a bone elongates,

almost invariably the muscles, nerves, and vessels which are

related to it undergo a corresponding growth.

And the reply to this question will recognize that growth

consists of two seemingly different processes :—first, simple

increase of substance; and, secondly, differentiation of sub-

stance. The increase of bulk is well studied in the individual,

while the differentiation of parts can only be observed in the

aggregate of individuals which constitute a tribe or order.

The tribe-growth has two totally different aspects—in embryo-

logy on the one hand, and in morphology on the other ; while

the chief means for experimental investigation are offered by

the mechanical and pathological aspects of growth.

With the comparative anatomist, nerves, muscles, bones,

and the other tissues are ultimate facts, as much so as are the

different mineral species to the mineralogist; and their es-

sential difference from each other is in chemical composition.

They are only to be spoken of, as to origin, as organic colloids

separated from each other by continuous organic dialysis.

What is named nutrition is no more than dialysis of the nu-

triment which has been elaborated into blood—a process which

is made possible by the disintegrating function of the capillaries

of the veins and the repairing function of the arteries. And

it comes about by the covering membrane of nerves dialyzing

nerve-substance, by the covering of muscular fibres dialyzing

19*

268 My. H. G. Seeley on the Origin

muscle-substance, and by the covering of the bones dialyzing

osseous substance. Therefore fundamentally the constitution of

the body into its anatomical machinery is a matter of chemistry.

And on the condition of the blood which supplies the material

to be dialyzed, and upon the condition of the dialyzing mem-

branes, depend changes which take place in the chemical com-

position of organic substances. ‘Thus, under certain conditions,

the dialyzing function gets disordered ; and then, instead of the

body being maintained in healthy equilibrium, pseudomorphs

of muscles and bones are produced in other substances, com-

monly in fat.

Under some circumstances the removal of substances from

the body is less rapid than their accumulation; and this pro-

duces normal healthy increased growth, which, whether it

affect a special muscle or bone or the entire organism, is

spoken of as hypertrophy. Under other circumstances the

supply of material is less rapid than its removal, and results

in a diminution of growth, which is spoken of as atrophy.

Now, as the organic degeneration becomes faster or slower,

both relatively and actually, than the reconstruction, and vice

versa, so must all the parts of the body undergo changes in

their forms and sizes, which will constitute animals with an

infinite variety of shape and stature. But the result of a de-

fective quantity of nutriment is in some cases a smaller tissue,

while in other cases the tissue elaborated is of defective qua-

lity ; and there is as yet no known reason why one of these

conditions should prevail rather than the other. If the tissue

accumulated is of defective quality, it is probably fat, and in

some cases may be bone. On the other hand, the result of

superabundant nutriment is in some cases increase and im-

provement in the quality of the several fibres or particles, and

in other cases a multiplication of them; that is, in hyper-

trophy some parts simply grow large, while in other cases new

parts are differentiated. And if hypertrophy and atrophy

operate together in the same individual, the result may be that

in one organ a new part will be produced, while in another

organ an old part will be removed. Thus these natural pro-

cesses vary not only the shape and aspect of animals, but their

structures also.

Hence it follows that the law of nutrition which produces

in different individuals of a human family visible difference of

form and function, is the same in kind, and only differs in

degree from the differentiation which constitutes separate spe-

cies and genera. In other words, if the hypertrophies and

atrophies of individuals could determinate towards special

parts, they would inevitably accumulate in the pliable young

of the Vertebrate Skeleton. 269

body when passed onward in successive generations; and there

is no inevitable limit to this accumulation or loss of structure,

except the maintenance of harmony in the organic functions.

Here, then, the question presents itself, What are the condi-

tions which produce these modifications of the dialyzing action

which are manifested in hypertrophy and atrophy? ‘This I

now will endeavour to answer. The question may be taken

in the abstract. Assuming the amount of nutrient material to

remain constant, the change of growth must obviously be due

to some change of the conditions which affect the part. Now the

only conditions which, while affecting the whole body, may be

variable in the different parts, are the forces manifested by the

organs in the discharge of their several functions. These act

either from within or without; and therefore, as will be gene-

rally admitted, every mechanical force acting on the elements

of the body is in its effect either of the nature of an impact or

of an explosion; and these, with all other forces acting upon

and within the animal, can only produce alternations of pres-

sure and tension and rest*. These, therefore, are the stimu-

lants to growth. But growth, being a condition in which the

particles expand and increase externally, can only take place

when the pressure is removed. And since increase of size can

only be resisted by continuous pressure, that, therefore, is the

mechanical condition of atrophy. In other words, these me-

chanical changes are the phenomena which we speak of col-

lectively as exercise. Now the reason why these mechanical

actions should produce growth is not far to seek. ‘They alter

the conditions of nutrition. Pressure upon a muscle squeezes

the blood which was in the veins out of that muscle more

rapidly than it usually circulates ; and the removal of pressure

causes the blood to rush into the part with more force than

usual. That is, the establishment in a part of the body of

alternate pressure or tension and rest, sets up there a local

pump-action which, in effect upon the circulation, is like an

additional heart added to that part. It brings more blood’ to

the part, and circulates more food through it; the dialyzing

action is carried on faster ; and the fibres or cells become plump

with abundant food, and new matter is thus fixed in the

tissue, and the part has grown.

Therefore since growth, so far as it characterizes the

individual and is kinetic, is produced by these mechanical

actions, we have to look upon nature and see in what ways

the parts of an organism act mechanically upon each other.

And should the evidence be conclusive that such actions ac-

* Annals of Nat. Hist. Nov. 1866, No. 107, vol. xviii. p. 547.

270 Mr. H. G. Seeley on the Origin

tually take place as we have theoretically found should take

place, and if they produce the results which theory assigns to

them, then the conviction which such phenomena will enforce

we may fortify by examples of abnormal growths, due to

mechanical causation, afforded by pathology, and test its truth

by application to morphology.

In the first place, every organism on the earth’s surface has

upon it the pressure of the earth’s atmosphere—a pressure

which, in the case of a man’s body, is usually computed at

about 70 to 100 tons; and therefore growth can only take

place when a force is manifested which is sufficient to lift the

atmosphere and hold it up. The skin experiences this pres-

sure, and in consequence, probably, has its superficial epithe-

lial cells flattened to scales. The life is crushed out of them

by a pressure which is never appreciably relaxed, and they die

under it, and are removed. Such is an example of atrophy.

But when the skin is exposed to special extra intermittent

pressure, it grows. ‘This relation of growth to pressure was

known to John Hunter, and is clearly expounded by him.

Generalizing from a consideration of corns, he remarks, in a

passage quoted by Sir James Paget :—“ The cuticle admits

of being thickened from pressure in all parts of the body :

hence we find that on the soles of the feet of those who walk

much the cuticle becomes very thick; also on the hands of

labouring men. We find this wherever there is pressure, as

on the elbow, upper part of the little toe, ball of the great

toe, &c.”

With regard to the internal organs, it would lead me too

far away from the object of this writing upon bones to discuss

the interrelations of them all. I therefore omit whatever can

be dispensed with, and limit myself to what is taught by a

few great sets of organs, such as the bones, muscles, nerves,

lungs, blood, which show tension and pressure in their functions.

The bones, by supporting each other, act on each other

mechanically ; for the motion of the body is a succession of

falls, which permit alternations of pressure and rest upon the

limb-bones. Thus, if we take the humerus, for instance, it

will be found most extended in the direction between the

radius and the scapula, in which it has, when in mechanical

use, to support and lift the weight of the carcass. If the ends

are examined, where rotation or movement is permitted, it will

be seen that pressure is experienced over a wider area than is

possible in the section of the shaft, which only serves as a

prop. Hence, and partly from the attachment and pressure of

other organs, the articular ends of bones are enlarged ; but it

is probable that something of the enlarged size of the ends of

of the Vertebrate Skeleton. 271

bones is also due to the vertical pressure causing lateral

overgrowth at the joints to be growth in the direction of

least resistance, as pointed out by Prof. Humphry.

The bones normally present are dialyzed by the degeneration

of the surrounding connective tissue called periosteum, or from

the terminal articular or interosseous cartilage. To this peri-

osteum, or to the bone, muscles are for the most part attached,

and usually so attached that there is at least one joint between

the bones along which they extend. Now the property of a

muscle is, that the fibres which constitute it contract and ex-

tend. Therefore the very circumstance of their attachment

on the bones where there is a condition of yielding implies

that when they contract the muscles experience tension; and

if the bone does not yield, it experiences pressure or tension

from the pull of the muscles. Consequently the attached

muscles can undergo no movement without bringing their

modifying mechanical influence to bear upon the bones, which

is done partly by enabling them to act upon each other, and

partly by the intermittent pressure which the periosteum thus

is caused to exercise. The same action causes the bones or

skin to press against the muscles, and one muscle to press

against another. Thus in their exercise the muscles themselves

experience this same mechanical condition, which, resulting in

a pump-like action, sustains growth.

Of the nerves, only the cerebro-spinal system is sufficiently

largely developed to exhibit any visible results of pressure.

And here the growth of the brain extends the bones of the

brain-case to cover the nervous substance ; and when the brain

contracts as in old age, the tension of the dura mater upon the

bones causes them to thicken, and adapt their inner surface to its

reduced size. Similarly the growth of the spinal cord forms the

perforation between the neural arch of the vertebra and its cen-

trum ; and the perforation enlarges by growth of the vertebral

elements with the increase in size of the spinal cord.

The lungs, too, by inspiration and expiration, exert a con-

tinuous intermittent pressure upon the ribs; and it may be ob-

served that the ribs are stretched and lifted up at each inspi-

ration. For a considerable period of lite this is done with

increasing vigour ; and during that time the articular cartilages

grow. But just as hair, when it has passed through its cycle

of growth, grows no more, and dies, and as the particles of

the muscles and nerves and other organs which have by exer-

cise undergone the molecular change which has rendered them

effete die, and go through new conditions, so a time comes in

the life of cartilage when, in normal health, it can no longer

form new cartilage-cells ; and then there is no further growth

272 Mr. H. G. Seeley on the Origin

of the bone, and the articular cartilage itself gradually be-

comes thinner. ‘The action of the lungs moves the muscles

which are attached to the ribs, and in some cases in this way

greatly modifies the form of the bones.

Another example of a mechanical influence is seen in the

blood. The weight of blood in the body is not great; but it

is the amount of nutriment sufficient to maintain healthy dia-

lysis in all the tissues. The whole of the blood makes its way

into the lungs, where it apparently loses bulk and gains tem-

perature. Under the heated condition it is driven through the

body in the arterial vessels by the left ventricle, and therefore

exercises an intermittent (pulsating) pressure not only upon

the arteries themselves, but, in a quieter way, upon the tissues

adjacent to them. That this muscular power has a mechanical

effect upon growth is shown in the heart itself, by growth being

continuous throughout life. The return of the blood to the

heart is facilitated by its decreased temperature lessening its

bulk, by the material left in the tissues, as well as by the

pump-action which passes it into the lungs and enables the

lymphatics to pour in new material. Evidence of its mecha-

nical power in producing growth is well seen in the thickening

of arterial walls in the condition named aneurism.

These are some of the chief mechanical engines of the body

which are capable of influencing the skeleton. That they

actually produce by their mechanical action the phenomena of

growth which theoretically they are sufficient to produce is

not capable of elaborate proof in the healthy individual, be-

cause, from the deep-seated position of the changes, they can-

not usually be observed. Yet, in the case of athletes and

gymnasts, it is observed that, with exercise, the whole body

becomes heavier, and the circumference of the chest perma-

nently greater; and often special muscles are seen in a short

time to augment visibly. This may be observed in the legs

of women who dance and the thighs of men who ride. But to

see the effect upon the bones, it is necessary to contrast the

skeleton of the wild animal, where the muscles are used with

great power, with the skeleton of the tame animal, where the

muscles have more limited action; and.then it will be seen

that powerful crests and processes on the bones are developed

in direct proportion to muscular activity. Moreover Professor

Humphry finds that bones are densest in those parts which

are subject to the greatest mechanical stress, and hardest in

those persons who are strongest and most active—and that

the bones are most curved in those persons whose muscular

strength is greatest, while weak persons, on the contrary,

have comparatively straight bones. But, important as this

of the Vertebrate Skeleton. 273

kind of evidence is, it gives but a poor idea of the potency of

this power to produce growth when circumstances are specially

favourable.

In the case of muscles, the most wonderful example is

afforded by the increase of the uterus in the exercise of its

function, and its rapid degeneration when that function is

completed.

In the case of bones, an example no less wonderful as an

increase, but not so obviously due to a local function as to

an hereditary condition of the body, is afforded by the antlers

of the male deer; and no more striking example could be

afforded of the dependence of growth upon nutrition, which

ander other circumstances these mechanical actions increase,

than is seen in Hunter’s experiment, the transplantation of

the spur of the cock to its comb, where the spur grows vigo-

rously, and in one case has attained, in a spiral form, a length

of 6 inches.

These and such like considerations have not escaped the

attention of some of the greatest physiologists and best ob-

servers of the body in health and disease, and have led them

to advance, on inductive evidence, views of growth identical

with those which are here urged deductively. Thus Sir James

Paget finds that growth is due to intermittent pressure, which

approximates the state of the tissue towards that of inflam-

mation, but does not actually in healthy growth reach the

inflammatory state.

In the last instances adduced, examples have been given of

the result of altered nutrition upon growth, where that altera-

tion was not due to mechanical action. Now we may notice

some individual cases in which the dialyzing action called

nutrition becomes altered abnormally, and parts change their

characters so as to present in the individuals of a species pro-

cesses similar to those which are normal in comparative ana-

tomy. In some of its aspects pathology might be called an

inverted paleontology.

Thus Sir J. Paget concludes that “‘when any of the long

bones of a person who has not yet attained full stature is the

seat of disease attended with unnatural flow of blood in or

near it, it may become longer than the other or more healthy

bone.” And in one case where one segment of a leg was de-

fective in growth, another segment lengthened to supply the

deficiency. But the examples of hypertrophy of bones from

disease are not numerous; and in rickets only an inflamma-

tory thickening of the bones takes place. Still the cases are

many in which increased osseous growth takes place in con-

‘sequence of the inflammatory condition induced by fractures.

274 Mr. H. G. Seeley on the Origin

Mr. Hawkins refers to some curious cases in which muscle

becomes changed into bone by a simple inflammatory action.

Thus a surgeon in the Prussian army found that in 18 out of

600 recruits there was a swelling of the deltoid and pectoral

muscles in front of the shoulder, due to the pressure and irri-

tation induced by first carrying the musket, and that in these

cases pieces of bone were deposited, from 2% to 7 inches long,

which were removed by operation. He mentions the case of

a boy in whom the least blow would cause an exostosis or

ossification of a muscle or ligament; and, finally, details a

case where his patient, after getting wet, became liable to

painful swellings which eventually became the seats of ossifi-

cation. One such bone, between the rhomboid and trapezius,

and extending from the scapula to about the sixth vertebra,

was removed: it had the microscopic and chemical charac-

teristics of true bone, consisted to a small extent of cartilage,

had the usual dense outer shell, which was covered with peri-

osteum, into which the muscular fibres were inserted, as in

natural bone. And Sir J. Paget refers to a specimen in the

College of Surgeons in which nearly all the muscles of the

back were ossified. He supposes that the osseous deposit

originally took place in the connective tissue, and by its growth

through pressure produced atrophy and destruction of the

proper muscular substance. Ossification of the ligaments. is

very common among all animals; and Mr. Hawkins refers to

numerous ossific deposits in the cellular tissue behind the

pleura, and to a case in which the lungs have great masses of

bone in them, occupying at least a third of their bulk. And

a case was recorded by Dr. Allbut in which the lung was full

of well-developed bones.

The other normal tissue which is commonly produced in

the body by disease is fat. This, to a considerable extent, may

replace all the muscles and all the bones. In one case, all

that remained of the upper part of a femur, after boiling, is

described as scarce any thing besides a great quantity of white

crystalline fatty matter. Occasionally the bones lose their

osseous matter without any fatty substitution.

These pathological illustrations of variety in growth have

their chief interest in the proved hereditary character of dis-

ease (often symmetrical). In the case of fatty degeneration,

from that condition supervening as a consequence of inac-

tivity, it is suggestive, as showing the way in which struc-

tures which are no longer or less used may be got out of the

body, perhaps not in one but in successive generations. Even

the heart reduces its size in accord with the amount of blood

which it has to circulate. The bones in the individual, ac-

of the Vertebrate Skeleton. 275

cording to Prof. Humphry, most effectively reduce their length

by such disease as obliterates the epiphysial lines, while their

thickness decreases by cessation of muscular action.

Growth also has a local morphological aspect. Thus Eden-

tates, Cetaceans, Chelonians have the bones of the skeleton

solid; most mammals and most living reptiles have medullary

cavities in their long bones, while in most birds these cavities

become chambers into which prolongations of the membrane

covering the lung extend. It is necessary to remark that

Edentates and Chelonians are comparatively inactive animals,

and that Cetaceans move in a comparatively unresisting me-

dium, so that, however active, their muscular labour is light ;

and that birds, as a rule, are far more active than mammals.

Now in mechanics there is a law (clearly stated as a mecha-

nical law by Mr. Herbert Spencer), the law of the neutral

axis, by which, if a substance is exposed alternately to pres-

sure in opposite directions, there will be at the outsides alter-

nate pressure and tension, and in an internal part (of varying

extent according to the substance strained) the neutral axis

which experiences compressions only.

Now we have seen that the alternation of pressure and ten-

sion is the condition of growth, and compression the condition

of atrophy. Hence it may be inferred that the solidity of

bones will be in the inverse proportion to the activity of the

muscles which are attached to them; or, speaking generally,

the hollowness of bones is in direct proportion to the activity

of the animal, the compressions at the neutral axis necessarily

resulting in atrophy of the bone there. Among flexible trees,

the law of the neutral axis is seen in the formation of pith.

Another special condition of bones, is that in some animals

they become composite—that is, develope special and terminal

parts or plates called epiphyses, which sometimes subsist

throughout life, and are sometimes obliterated as the energy

of growth declines. Thus, in the internal skeleton of living

Chelonians and Crocodiles I have not noticed any appearance

of separate terminal ends; while if certain bones of crocodiles

are compared with others of some marsupial mammals, there

will be seen, with a close resemblance of form, separate bone-

elements in the mammal, which make the articular ends.

Such separate elements may be seen in amphibians, lizards,

many mammals, and, rarely, perhaps,.in some birds. Why

this difference? Of course we naturally infer that the kind of

pressure and tension which ossified the bone originally sets

up in the articular cartilage (or elsewhere) the same kind of

action within its substance by the mechanical power of loco-

motion. Dy. Humphry states that epiphyses appear at the

276 Mr. H. G. Seeley on the Origin

sternal ends of the clavicles; but they are not there in child-

hood while growth is going on in a normal way, but are only

developed when the chest is undergoing its greatest lateral

expansion, in the years from 17 to 20, when they become

anchylosed to the shaft of the bone. And in many heavy-

bodied active animals, like the buffalo, rhinoceros, &c., the rib

terminates at its head in an epiphysis, which articulates with

another epiphysis on the neural arch; while in light-bodied

animals no such epiphyses are met with. And wherever epi-

physes are found, whether as terminal of bones or as places

for the attachment of powerful muscles, it is only where pres-

sure and tension are manifested under conditions of great

activity of the part. This new bony growth takes place to-

wards the articular termination of the cartilage, where the

subinflammatory condition is induced by local activity—and

so, while giving a means for the articular ends of bones to

become better adapted to each other, protects the epiphysial

cartilage and furnishes it with an additional surface on which

bony growth may take place. From which considerations it

would appear that one ossification may develope another upon

itself whenever the forces manifested at its ends (or elsewhere)

are more than sufficient to continue simple growth by increase

on the normal surface. Small ossifications are often met with

about the joints in many parts of the body, which have origi-

nated in this way. ‘The fact of epiphyses being only charac-

teristic of certain species of animals in each class shows us

that they have no necessary connexion with the animal grade

of organization ; the fact of their appearing under conditions

of unusual activity shows that their origin is the same as that

of all other bones, but that they are of subordinate importance

in the skeleton, since they become united to the normal ske-

letal elements, and do not necessarily modify the form of their

terminal ends.

I now notice the general morphology of bones and its rela-

tion to mechanical causation.

Mr. Charles Darwin finds that the domestic races of pigeons,

fowls, and ducks, which fly little, have the chief bones to which

are attached the muscles which are exercised in that function

smaller and lighter than in the parent races. Similarly it is

observed that, in the improved races of pigs, shortened legs

and snout, and altered form of the occipital condyle, may be

attributed to the parts not having been fully exercised; for

the highly cultivated races do not travel in search of food

nor root up the ground with their ringed muzzles. Also

domestic rabbits have the body and whole skeleton larger

and heavier than the wild animal, and the leg-bones are

of the Vertebrate Skeleton. 27

heavier in proportion; but neither the leg-bones nor scapule

have increased in length proportionally with the increased

dimensions of the remainder of the skeleton. All of which is

in accord with the law of pressure and tension, the increase of

bulk of the tame animal depending merely on luxuriant diet.

The leg-bones, less exercised, experience less central com-

pression, and are consequently relatively heavier; and simi-

larly, from less exercise of the parts usually most exercised,

they become relatively shorter. And with respect to cattle,

Prof. Tanner finds that in improved breeds the lungs and

liver are considerably reduced in size when compared with

those organs in animals having perfect hberty—thus changing

the form of their bones by respiration and nutriment.

But the kind of evidence which more particularly concerns

the subject now is the converse of this. Thus ungulate ani-

mals which are light of body (deer, horses, &c.) have the limbs

longer than have most unguiculate animals; and as a rule,

those hoofed animals are more active, and strike the ground

with greater force, so that the bones can act on each other

more powerfully. And in man, where the position of the body

is erect, and the habit not active, so that the weights of the

upper parts of the body act on each other with no violent

pressure, and that alternating with rest in sleep, the vertebra

will be seen to steadily enlarge, from the neck down to the

sacrum. But in quadruped animals with a large head carried

erect in running and pendent in seeking food, like the deer,

the cervical vertebree will be seen to be longer and larger than

the dorsal vertebree; and here it is to be remarked that the

neck-bones have to support the weight of the head, and that

their processes experience the pressure and tension caused by

its movements, while the back-bones only have to share be-

tween them the general weight and tension of the carcass.

In animals which walk erect, and chiefly use the hind limbs,

the hind limbs are longer than the fore limbs, as in man and

the ostrich, and in jumping animals, such as kangaroos, jer-

boas, frogs, &c. On the other hand, animals which use their

fore limbs more than the hind limbs, have them longer than

the hind limbs: familiar examples of this condition are seen

in the tribe of bats and in most birds, such as the albatross or

the swan. Here the pressure and tension experienced by the

bones in flight is very great in comparison with the influences

which could stimulate growth in the hind limbs; and the

growth is greater.

Special modification of structures in relation to modified

function may be seen in the humerus of the burrowing mole :

this bone experiences enormous lateral tension, and accordingly

278 Mr. H. G. Seeley on the Origin

attains enormous width from side to side. The animal’s me-

thod of burrowing causes a great use of the pectoral muscles ;

and the use of these muscles coincides with the condition of

their attachment for the development of a sternum similar in

form to that of a bird; and true coracoid bones are attached to

it, as in birds. In quadruped animals which carry the head

and neck erect, like the giraffe, where the vertebrae experience

the weight of the head and part of the neck above each in

pressure, made intermittent by activity, the vertebre are

found to attain enormous length; but the upper bones are the

longer ones: whence it may be inferred that a moderate inter-

mittent pressure is more favourable to growth than a considera-

ble pressure, the greater pressure producing what is relatively

atrophy ; and in the elephant, where the pressure of the head

upon the vertebre is great, and not greatly varied, the force of

growth is unable to overcome the weight, and the vertebree are

short from back to front, though they grow at their circum-

ference. The same shortening of the neck-vertebre, connected

with the continuous pressure of a large head, is admirably seen

in the Cetacea, where in progression the neck-vertebre have to

support the non-intermittent pressure of the immense head.

Whatever and wherever the pressure and tension are mani-

fested, it is always with this result in increase or decrease of

- growth, which vary as the pressure is intermittent or constant.

Examples of it could only cease when the enumeration of

organisms was terminated.

But the inference from these facts is not merely that the

same law holds true for growth in the different parts of the

skeleton and in the whole skeleton as governs the growth of

a single bone and of its parts, but that the whole distinctive

plan of the part which is inherited from individual to indivi-

dual is as completely in harmony with this law of growth as

though it had been produced not by inheritance at all, but

wholly by mechanical causation, in the individual animal in

which it is visible; that is, growth in the individual and

growth in the plan of the individual are commonly in the

same directions, and such as would have been produced by

the continuous action of the same cause, namely intermittent

pressure and tension. But it is seen that only an infinitesimal

element of the plan of the animal ¢s produced by the indivi-

dual; hence, since the plan-growth exists in all the individuals

of a group, it is justly inferred that the plan has accumulated

in the sum of the individuals by being passed on from gene-

ration to generation; for in that way, and in that way only,

could the mechanical law act which has been seen to have

acted in the daily life of animals, so as to produce the forms

of the Vertebrate Skeleton. 279

of special parts in accord with the conditions of mechanical

causation which we found to characterize regions of the body.

Finally, it will conduce to clearness to show the kind of

way in which structures are inherited, so as to get the results

of persistent modifying causation accumulated. The indivi-

duals of that common bond called a species, though nearly

resembling each other, as is well known, have differences so

marked that it is rare for the eye to be unable to distinguish

them ; so that the variation of a species is enormous: and if

this variation, instead of being in a multitude of different

directions, be in any manner caused to be chiefly of the same

kind, obviously the mere summing of the variation will

produce most extensive differences. Here it is necessary to

remark that in every family there may be seen two kinds of

variation among the children,—first, that which depends upon

the individual peculiarities of nutrition, and which gives a

different aspect to brothers and sisters, and then that kind of

inheritance by which the child reproduces the mental and

physical form and distinctive peculiarities of the parents. And

when the variation in nutrition coincides with the distinctive

peculiarities in inheritance, these latter will be specially in-

tensified. And it is found by experiment that the accumula-

tion of characters by inheritance has an influence in foetal

development by which parts may be multiplied. It is proba-

ble that the epiphyses of bones thus take their origin; and it

is certain that merease in the number of vertebre is thus in-

stituted. Upon this point Mr. Charles Darwin’s observations

upon pigeons are specially instructive. Pigeon-fanciers have

gone on selecting pouters for the length of their bodies ; and it

is found that their vertebree are generally increased in number,

and their ribs in breadth. The tumblers have been selected

for their small bodies ; and their ribs are generally lessened in

number. antails have been selected for their large, widely

expanded tails with numerous tail-feathers; and the caudal

vertebrae are increased in size and number. From which it

seems to me evident that the special exercise of a function in

life sometimes produces an increase of structure in reproduc-

tion, beyond that which was possible to the parent from the

plan of its structures.

The variation from nutrition in reproduction sometimes

goes so far that a tissue is dialyzed with its characters so far

intensified as to be both unlike the parent and all others of its

species. ‘Two cases quoted by Mr. Darwin illustrate this.

First, there is Lambert, the porcupine-man, whose skin was

covered with warty projections which periodically moulted,

and whose six children and two grandchildren were similarly

280 Messrs. Parker and Jones on

affected ; and there is the Burmese family observed by succes-

sive ambassadors at the court of Ava, where father, daughter,

and grandson had the body, with the exception of the feet

and hands, covered with long, straight, silky hair. And from

these and many similar cases it would seem a natural inference

that, just as the bones and dermal covering vary with altered

nutrition, so also do all other parts of the organism, which are

less easily observed.

In conclusion, it has been seen that growth depends upon

a kind of organic dialysis, called nutrition, which is sustained

throughout the body by the mechanical actions of the parts of

the organism which produce pressure and tension, while the

direction in which this action is manifest is due to the com-

mon plan on which the individual is built. And the amount

of the change is due to the change of structure produced in

the individual by changed function inherited in the offspring,

and partly by the realization in the offspring of such structures

as the parent’s functions tended to produce, but which its

common plan rendered impossible for itself to develope. And

with this condition of variation, the general inference from

the phenomena of growth is, that the form of the whole

skeleton, as of every bone, is due to the mechanical strains to

which it is subjected, since these govern its nutrition.

[To be continued. ]

XXIX.—On the Nomenclature of the Foraminifera. By W.

K. Parker, F.R.S., and Prof. T. Rupert Jones, F.G.S.

[Continued from p. 230. ]

Nummulitic Limestone of Gyzeh and Mokattam*. (Abhandl.

Berl. Akad. Wiss. 1838, p. 93, tables xiv. xvI. pl. 4. fig. vii.)

Pl. xxii. fig. 1, Wiliola spheroidea (“compare Cenchridium

oliva, 1843”), and fig. 2, WZ. ovum, are both Lagena globosa ;

but the second specimen is longer in proportion (oval-oblong).

Fig. 3, Textilaria globulosa (1838), a, fig. 4, B. obtusa, fig. 5,

y. amplior, fig. 6, 6. dilatata, are Text. globulosa, Ehr. Fig. 7,

T. linearis (“ T. striata, 1838, is known only in fragments”),

fig. 8, Grammostomum polytheca (?), figs. 9 & 10, Gr. egyp-

tiacum, figs. 11 & 12, Gr. angulatum, fig. 13, Gr. falx, fig. 14,

Gr. siculum (2), fig. 15, Gr. increscens, fig. 16, a,b, Gr. poly-

* See Mr. Bauerman’s section of the Mokattam Cliff, Quart. Journ.

Geol. Soc. London, vol. xxv. p. 40, where references are made to the

works of Figari Bey and Oscar Fraas. See also Russegger’s ‘ Reisen in

Europa, Asien, und Afrika,’ &c. 5 vols. and Atlas, 1841-42.

the Nomenclature of the Foraminifera. 281

stigma, and fig. 17, Gr. rhomboidale, are various Textilaric ;

figs. 8-14 and 17 are of the gibbosa-group, with tendencies

towards the agglutinans type; figs. 15 & 16 belong to the

sagittula type. Fig. 18, Gr. phyllodes, seems to be Bolivina

punctata (?). Fig. 19, Gr. thebaicum (?), with its delicate

misty shell, is probably Virgulina Hemprichii, which will be

further noticed in describing the next plate. Fig. 20, Gr. ai-

tenuatum (?) may be a small Textilaria ; indeed it corresponds

with the first few chambers of fig. 17. Figs. 21, Gr. phyl-

lodes (?), 22 & 23, Gr. attenuatum (‘ Text. aciculata, 1838,

proves to be fragments of several small species of Grammo-

stomum’’), and 24, Strophoconus? (Gram.?) teretiusculus, are

rather broad individuals of Bolivina punctata, or may be

grouped as B. dilatata. Fig. 25, Proroporus? (Gram. ?) pachy-

derma, passes well as a coarse-shelled Text. agglutinans.

Figs. 26 & 27 (?), Polymorphina gyzensis (“ compare Grammo-

botrys and Spheroidina”’), evidently a puzzling form to the

author, is especially so as a figure. It has relatively large

swollen segments, like a full-plaited “ chignon,” and has the

aspect of a Polymorphina in some respects; but it shows no

aperture, and is probably a Textilaria.

Figs. 28, Rotalia aspera, and 29, Planulina globigerina (?),

are Planorbulina tuberosa, varr., near Pl. Haidingerit. The

next three are probably Globigerine—namely, figs. 30, Rotalia

tncrescens, 31, Planulina Isidis, and 32, Allotheca rotalia

(“Rotalia globulosa, 1838”). Figs. 33 & 34, Globigerina crete

(“Rosalina foveolata, 1838”), is the typical Glob. bulloides,

D’Orb. Fig. 35, Planulina Pharaonum, is a variety of Pul-

vinulina Menardii, near pulchella. Fig. 36, Plan. incurva,

answers to Plan. ariminensis. Fig. 37, Nonionina Hemprichit,

is very near N. scapha. Fig. 38, Planulina pyramidum

(“ 1838; small specimen’’), is without doubt an Operculina

complanata. Fig. 39, Plan.? eurytheca is a young Planorbu-

lina, probably of the ammonoides group. Fig. 40, Rotalia

incrassata (‘‘Planulina turgida, 1838”) may be catalogued

as a small Cristellaria cultrata. Fig. 41, Planulina heptas,

is a young Planorbulina farcta, sublimbate perhaps, but

scarcely to be referred, for want of specialization, to any par-

ticular variety, though probably tending towards P/. ammo-

noides. Vigs. 42 & 43, Planulina lenticulina? (“ compare

Rotalia lenticulina”’). Here we have gradations of form from

the loosely set, lobate, round-chambered (42) Pl. globulosa

(Ehr.), through a more compactly grown shell (43), to figs. 41

& 39, above noticed.

Figs. 44, Planulina? eurytheca, and 45, Pl. hexas, belong to

Cristellaria cultrata; the latter figure shows a very slight

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.4. Vol. ix. 20

282 Messrs. Parker and Jones on

keel. Fig. 46, Nonionina Hemprichti (?), is _a true Rotalia,

very near f. Beccarti, var. ammoniformis. Fig. 47, Planu-

lina? umbilicata, appears to be Crist. cultrata ; ‘also fies, 48,

P1.? ampla, 49, Pl.? tnvoluta, and 50, Pl.? ampliata. Fig. 51,

Rotalia awricula, is also a Cristellaria, somewhat produced, 2s

is common in connexion with the rapid increase of the seg-

ments in size. Fig. 52, Quinqueloculina? caudata, is indeter-

minable.

A. The weathered surface of a piece of Egyptian Num-

mulitic Limestone. B. Weathered piece of limestone largel

composed of ‘ Planulina pyramidum” (see fig. 38). C. The

dust of the Nummulitic Limestone, magnified 300 diameters,

part seen by, transmitted, part by, reflected light: no Chalk

Morpholites”” (Coccoliths). D. Similar dust, but without the

finest particles. E. The Nummulites, of natural size: 1 OGls

N. placentula; 2, a,b,c, N. gyzensis ; om abs GAN: seminulum,

which, together with N. cellulosus and “ Planulina pyrami-

dum,” are : easily seen by the naked eye.

1. Nummulina placentula, Ehr., is the Nautilus major of

Forskal (see Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. vol. vii. p. 235), which

name was evidently meant for the largest of the common

Nummulites of Gyzeh (sometimes 14 inch across). Some of

these are sufficiently large and thin for the typical N. compla-

nata, Lamarck (op. cit. pp. 232 & 234); but Khrenberg’s figure

(1, a, 6) does not exceed in size some illustrating NV. gyzehensis

in D’Archiac & Haime’s ‘ Foss. Ind.’ p. 94, pl. 2. figs. 6-8.

N. placentula (N. major) and N. gyzehensis, therefore, are the

same, differing only in size.

2. N. gyzehensis (Forskal). These smaller specimens, indi-

cated by Forskal and figured by Ehrenberg, are probably

such as have a large primordial chamber* and relatively great

thickness, referred to op. cit. p. 233. N. curvisptra, Meneghini,

as figured by D’Archiac & Haime, ‘ Foss. Ind.’ pl. 6. fig. 15,

is not only one of these subvarieties, but possibly the one

alluded to by Forskal and Ehrenberg.

3. N. seminulum, Khr., had not been figured by Ehrenberg

when D’Archiac & Hatme published their important and

exhaustive work on Nummulites. There can be little doubt

that it is the same as their well figured and described N.

Guettardi (‘ Foss. Ind.’ 1853, p. 180 pl. 7, figs.18,19).

4, “ N. cellulosus”’ may possibly be another name for the

small forms of NV. gyzehensis.

The Foraminifera shown on plate xx1I. (as those also on

* This kind of growth characterizes Ehrenberg’s proposed genus Mo-

netulites, Abhandl, 1856, p. 145, note.

the Nomenclature of the Foraminifera. 283

plates XXIV., XXV., XXVI.) indicate a sea-depth of from 30 to

40 fathoms. In broad terms, they may be said to be not of

shallow water nor of very great depths, neither littoral nor

abyssal, but decidedly within 20 and 90 fathoms.

Species and notable Varieties of Foraminifera from the Num-

mulitic Limestone of Gyzeh and Mokattam, Egypt, figured

by Ehrenberg.

1. Lagena globosa (Montagu).

2. Cristellaria cultrata (Monif.).

3. Bolivina punctata, D’ Orb.

4. dilatata, Reuss.

5. Virgulina Hemprichii (Zhr.).

6. Textilaria agglutinans, D’ Orb.

sagittula, Defrance.

gibbosa, D’ Orb.

globulosa, Hhr.

. Globigerina bulloides, D’ Ord.

11. Planorbulina farcta (Ff. & J), varr.

12. globulosa (Zhr.).

13. ammonoides (fss.).

14, ariminensis (D’ Orb.).

15. Pulvinulina Pharaonum (£hr.).

16. Rotalia ammoniformis (Zam.).

17. Nonionina scapha (. dé M.).

18. Operculina complanata (Defrance).

19. Nummulina gyzehensis (orskal).

curvispira, Meneq.

21. —— Guettardi, D’ Arch. & Haime.

VIL. Limestone from the Tombs at Thebes, Egypt. (Abhandl.

1838, p. 94, table xiv., pl. 4. no. vui.; Annals Nat. Hist.

vol. vi. July 1841, p. 374 &e.)

This very interesting Foraminiferal Limestone, “ halibio-

lith”” (Ehrenberg), or marine organic rock, is, both by rela-

tive position* and contents, older than the Nummulitic Lime-

stone. The presence of Globigerina cretacea, D’Orb., goes

far to prove this halibiolithic formation to be of Secondary

age.

“The limestones of Benisouef, Siout, and Thebes, on the

western banks of the Nile, are represented in this analysis.

Plate xxiv. figs. 1, 2, Cenchridium dactylus (“ compare

Monatsber. 1845, p. 358”). This is a long-ovate and sub-

* See Newbold’s description and section, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe.

vol. iy. p. 328; also Russegger’s ‘ Reisen’ and Atlas, 1841-42.

20*

284 Messrs. Parker and Jones on

cylindrical Entosolenian Lagena, probably L. emaciata, Reuss.

Figs. 3 & 4, C. oliva, the Entosolenian Lagena globosa (Mon-

tagu). Fig. 5, Miliola striata, is the Lagena costata of Wil-

liamson. Fig. 6, Nodosaria monile, = N. pyrula, D’Orb.

Fig. 7, NV. tumescens, =N. ovicula, D’Orb. Fig. 8, Vaginulina

crete, =V. levigata, Roemer (three early chambers). Fig. 9,

V. bullosa, = V. leguminiformis (Batsch), three early chambers.

Really, however, figs. 8& 9 are the young of one species,

with slightly different proportions. Fig. 10, V. subulata, =

V. levigata, Roemer; tour early chambers of a larger and

stronger shell than fig. 8.

Figs. 11, Textilaria subtilis, 12, T. globulosa, y. amplior,

13, 14, 7. globulosa (1838), 15, 7. inflata, are small indivi-

duals, perhaps subvarietal, of 7. gibbosa, D’Orb. Figs. 16

& 17, T. linearis, =Bolivina punctata. Fig. 18, Grammo-

stomum polystigma, = Text. sagittula. Fig.19, Gram. eribro-

sum, =Boliv. punctata. Figs. 20 & 21, Gram. thebaicum, =

Boliv. dilatata. Figs. 22 & 23, Gram. connivens, are the

young of the same.

Figs. 24 & 25, Gram. lingua, are Virgulina squamosa; 24

is typical, 25 is subvarietal. Fig. 26, Strophoconus? (Gram-

mostomum ?) teretiusculus, and 27, Str.? (Gram.?) polytrema,

are Virgulina Schreibersit, the latter quite typical.

Figs. 28, Stroph.? (Gram. ?) leptoderma, 29, Stroph. ovum,

30, Stroph.? (Gram.?) leptoderma, 31, Stroph. spicula, 32,

Stroph.? Hemprichii, and 33, Textilaria? (Grammobotrys ?)

thebaica, are all of one species, Virgulina Hemprichit (Khr.),

of variable shape, but with persistently subarenaceous shell.

See ‘Geol. Mag.’ vol. vi. pp. 508 & 509. This species is

well illustrated by many figures in other plates, which we

shall have to notice in treating of the ‘ Mikrogeologie ;’ and

we are well acquainted with it in the recent state from the

Indian seas. Fig. 32 exhibits a typical complanate individual

of advanced growth.

Fig. 34, Polymorphina prisca, =P. compressa, D’Orb.

This is the only Polymorphina on this plate, although we at

first accepted some other figures as such (in the “‘ Monograph

on Polymorphina,” Trans. Linn. Soc. vol. xxvii.). Figs. 35 to

41 are young Globigerine. We know of but one real species

of Globigerina (GI. bulloides) in both recent and fossil state,

though about twenty-five reputed species have been described

and figured, and others recorded. Of the varieties, G/. creta-

cea, D’Orb., is one of the best marked, and it occurs on this

plate (fig. 49). Some of the young forms here mentioned

decidedly belong to it; but figs. 85 & 36 in particular may be

true G1. bulloides. The names given are:—figs. 35, 36, Ro-

the Nomenclature of the Foraminifera. 285

talia rudis (“ R. laxa, juv.?”); 37, 88, R. globulosa (1838) ;

39, R. leptospira; 40, R. senaria; 41, R.? pertusa (“ Rosalina

pertusa, 1838, in part”’).

Fig. 42, Rotalia pachyphysa, is a young lobulate Planorbu-

lina farcta, near Pl. (Truncatulina) lobatula. Figs. 43, Rot.

quaterna, B. floscularis (“ compare Planulina flos”’), & 44, a,b,

Planulina porosa (“ Rosalina levigata, 1838, in part”), are

small Planorbuline Haitdingerti (D’Orb.). Figs. 45, Plan.

centoculus, and 46, Pl. megapora, are characteristically the

young of Planorbulina vulgaris. Fig. 47, Planulina flos

(“compare otalia quaterna, B. floscularis”’), is a young deli-

cate Planorbulina Haidingerti. Fig. 48, Planulina depressa,

is a young Planorbulina, with granular or rough surface, near

Haidingerti, possibly Pl. Ungeriana. Fig. 49, Globigerina

Joveolata (“ Rosalina foveolata, 1838”), is the typical G. cre-

tacea, D’Orb. (see above). Fig. 50, Planulina prorotetras, is

a roundish Planorbulina tuberosa (F. & M.), or may be said to

be the spiral centre of a Planorbulina of the vulgaris subtype,

which would afterwards grow less regularly and become out-

spread with somewhat concentric chambers. The notch of the

aperture on the right-hand side of the figure is characteristic.

Figs. 51, Planulina millepora, and 52, Pl. pardalis, are Pla-

norbulina (Anomalina) ammonoides (Reuss). Fig. 53, Proro-

spira princeps, is Planulina ariminensis, D’Orb. Figs. 54,

Planulina ampliata, and 55, Pl. ammonis, are Planorbulina

ammonotdes. Figs. 56 & 57, Pl. integra (56, with entire

margin ; 57, sublobate), are small Planorbuline. Figs. 58,a,),

Pl. heteropora, are Planorb. ammonoides. Figs. 59, Pl. ? wmbi-

licata (“ Pl. millepora, jav.?’’), probably the young of fig. 62,

60, Pl. ampliata (?), 61, Pl. integra, 62, Rotalia Hemprichit

(rough shell, with rapid increase of the whorls), are all Planor-

buline, near Pl. ammonoides; or these, with the foregoing,

may be described as spiral beginnings of such Planorbuline

varieties as grow in outspread forms in the shallow water,

and, when attached, become mostly thick-walled.

Fig. 63, Planularia thebaica, is probably a small Cristellaria

(Saracenaria) italica. Fig. 64, Spiroloculina dilatata. From

the aspect of the shell, it seems to have become smoothly and

finely arenaceous—an interesting feature. Fig. 65, Quinque-

loculina? nodulus. A Quinqueloculina, probably Q.seminulum ;

but it seems to be the central portion only.

Figs. 66 & 67 are stellate spicules (?).

A. Fine dust, mainly composed of Coccoliths (eyatholiths) &e.

B. Group of the Foraminifera without the finer particles.

These belong to a depth of about 30 or 40 fathoms.

286 Messrs. Parker and J ones on

Species and notable Varieties from the Limestone of the Cata-

combs at Thebes, Upper Egypt, figured by Ehrenberg.

. Lagena emaciata, Reuss.

globosa (Montagu).

costata (Williamson).

. Nodosaria pyrula, D’ Orb.

ovicula, D’ Orb.

. Vaginulina levigata, Ramer.

leguminiformis (Batsch).

. Cristellaria italica (Defrance).

. Polymorphina compressa, D’ Orb.

10. Bolivina punctata, D’ Orb.

dilatata, Reuss.

12. Virgulina squamosa, D’ Orb.

Schreibersii, Czjzek.

Hemprichii (Lhrenb.).

15. Textilaria sagittula, Defrance.

gibbosa, D’ Orb.

globulosa, Hhr.

18. Globigerina bulloides, D’ Ord.

cretacea, D’ Orb.

20. Planorbulina farcta (F. & M.).

DONATI WD

21 vulgaris, D’ Orb.

22. —— Haidingeri, D’ Orb.

23. —— ammonoides (fss.).

24. - ariminensis (D’ Ord.).

25. Spiroloculina.

26. Quinqueloculina.

VIII. & IX. White, hard, thick Limestone from the Anti-

libanon, Syria. (Monatsbericht, 1842, p. 127.)

This halibiolithic formation also seems to be of Cretaceous

age, as stated by Ehrenberg. M. P. E. Botta published some

geological observations on the Libanus and Antilibanus im

1833 (4to, Paris); but Russegger’s ‘ Reisen in Europa, Asien,

und Afrika, &c.’ with Atlas, 1841-42, is the only work we have

been able to refer to for a section of the Antilibanus. Russegger

explains the structure of that range to consist of :—(1) near

Baalbec, Upper Chalk, covered here and there with Tertiary

beds; (2) flanking hills, reaching to a considerable height, of

Lower Chalk and Greensand, rising up from the west, and

resting on the (3) hard anticlinal Jurassic rocks of the lofty

central range. On the eastern side, the same succession of

strata, in reverse, dip away one after the other among the low

flanking hills, and the Upper Chalk disappears under the

the Nomenclature of the Foraminifera. 287

Tertiary beds and alluvium of Damascus. We presume that

Dr. Ehrenberg’s specimen came from one of the upper white

limestones.

(VIIL.) Pl. xxv.1. a. fig. 1. Mliola elongata, a Lagena very

similar to LZ. distoma, P. & J., but more patulous at the extre-

mities. Figs. 2 & 3, Nodosaria procera, 4, N. levis, 5, N. su-

bulata, and, 6, N. turgescens, are varieties of N. ovicula, D’Orb.,

passing into a more compact form; 3 & 6 =N. ovicula; 2, 4,

& 5 have more closely set chambers, resembling NV. filiformis,

D’Orb.; 5, in particular, is a thick, coarse, rough shell.

Fig. 7, Frondicularia nodosaria, is an attenuate simple Nodo-

saria of the radicula type (such as N. subnodosa, Reuss, 1851,

from Lemberg), with overlapping chambers*, which, seen in

section, have somewhat of a chevron-like aspect. igs. 8,

Textilaria globulosa, a, 9, T. globulosa, y. amplior, 10, T. in-

flata, and 11, T. globulosa, y. amplior, are T. globulosa, Khr.,

the small arrested form belonging to 7. gibbosa, D’Orb.

Figs.12, Grammostomum subacutum, and 13, eat. globulosa(?)

are larger 7. gibbosw, with a tendency towards 7. aggluti-

nans. Fig. 14, Gram. spatiosum, is a good Bolivina punctata.

Fig. 15, Gr. laxum (?), with its rather cloudy shell, is proba-

bly Virgulina Hemprichii (Khr.). Figs. 16, Gr. polytheca?

(‘compare G. laterale”’), showing side views of its loop-like

apertures, 17,18, Gr. caloglossa, and 19, 20, Gr. polytheca (?),

all belong to Bolivina punctata; fig. 20 has a rather broad

shell, therein approaching B. dilatata; fig. 21, Gr. costulatum,

is a Bolivina, near B. costata, gently sulcate, with pores in the

furrows.

Fig. 22, Gram. micromega, is a piece of a large Textilaria

of the sagittula group, and fig. 23, G'r.? (Strophoconus ?) lepto-

derma, seems to be its young form. Fig. 24, Gram. eurytheca,

is Text. sagittula. Figs. 25 & 26, Bigenerina libanotica, is

Polymorphina compressa. Figs. 27 & 28, Rotalia haliotis, is

a thin-walled, thickly perforated Planorbulina farcta, with

rapidly increasing whorls and the last chamber much pro-

duced. Such are common in the Mediterranean.

Figs. 29, Planulina stigma, 30, Globigerina libani (“ com-

pare Gl. stellata”), and 31, Pl. pachyderma, show three suc-

cessive sizes of the typical Glob. cretacea, D’Orb. Fig. 32,

Planulina argus, is Planorbulina farcta. Figs. 33, Planulina

monticulosa, and 34, Rotalia laxa, belong to a rough variety

of Planorb. farcta, granular and coarsely perforate. Figs. 35,

Rotalia protolepta, 36, Planulina saxipara, 37, Pl. leiopentas,

* Such is the main character of Ehrenberg’s genus Encorycium, Mo-

natsber. for 1858, pp. 11 & 19.

288 Messrs. Parker and Jones on

and, 38, Pl. eusticta, are common, young, sublobate and lim=-

bate Planorbuline globulose (EKhr.). Fig. 89, Planulina sy-

riaca, 18 a Planorbulina like Pl. Haidingert.

Fig. 40, Planulina umbilicata, is a small ill-grown Cristel-

laria cultrata. Fig.41, Plan. membranacea, 1s Pulvinulina

Karstent. Figs. 42, Ptygostomum senarium, and 43, Pt. quina-

rium, are young specimens of Planorbulina vulgaris, coarsely

porous, lobate, limbate, and with patulous apertures. Such as

these soon take on an irregularly concentric growth, with bi-

or multi-osculate chambers. Figs.44, Planulina leptostiqma,e,

45, Rotalia ammonis, 46, Pl. cornu, 47, Pl. leptostigma, B,

and, 48, Rotalia depressa, are young forms of Planorbulina

(Planulina) ariminensis.

A. Grains of the limestone (magn. 300 linear), consisting

chiefly of Foraminifera, with some Coccoliths (?) and stellate

spicules (?). Magnified 300 diam.

This Foraminiferal fauna lived at about 30 or 40 fathoms

depth.

(IX.) Pl. xxv. 11. B. Figs. 1, 2, Nodosaria libanotica, =N.

ovicula, with thick-shelled and elongate chambers, near N.

Marie, D’Orb., and N. (D.) Lornetana, D’Orb.

Fig. 3, Grammostomum polystigma, is Textilaria sagittula.

Fig. 4, Gr. convergens, is T. agglutinans. Fig. 5, Rotalia ibex,

is Planorbulina ariminensis. Fig. 6, R. senaria, is a small

limbate Planorbulina. Fig.7, R. laxa, the same as fig. 4, the

young of Planorb, vulgaris. Fig. 8, Nonionina Astrea, is too

porous and has its chambers relatively too large for Nonionina:

it seems to stand between figs. 28 & 32, more delicate and

neater than either in its shell and pores; the setting-on of the

chambers is Nonionine or Operculine, and too symmetrical in

appearance even for Anomalina among the Planorbulines.

We must leave it doubtful. Fig. 9, Rotalia quaterna, fp.

floscularis (“compare Planulina flos”’), is a young Planorb.

farcta. Fig. 10, Planulina septenaria, is a young Pl. vulgaris

with rather faleate chambers. Fig. 11, Pl. ampliata, is Pla-

norb. ammonoides. Figs. 12-15 are stellate spicules ; figs. 16,

17, enlarged Cyatholiths and fragments.

B. Grains of the limestone, consisting of Foraminifera,

Coceoliths, &e. Magnified 300 times linear.

Belonging to about 30 or 40 fathoms depth.

Species and notable Varieties of Foraminifera from the White

Limestone of the Antilibanon, figured by Ehrenberg.

. Lagena elongata (Hhr.). VIII.

. Nodosaria ovicula, D’Orb. VIII., IX.

; filiformis, D’Orb. VIII.

Cobo

the Nomenclature of the Foraminifera. 289

4. Nodosaria subnodosa, Rss. VIII.

5. Cristellaria cultrata (Montf). VIII.

6. Polymorphina compressa, D’Orb. VIII.

7. Bolivina punctata, D’ Orb. VIII.

; costulata (Hhr.). VIII.

. Virgulina Hemprichi (Zhr.).? VIII.

. Textilaria agglutinans, D’Orb. VIII.

sagittula, Defr. VIIL., IX.

12. —— gibbosa, D’Orb. VIII.

globulosa, Lhr. VIII.

14. Globigerina cretacea, D’Orb. VIII.

15. Planorbulina farcta (Ff. & MZ). VIII.

16. vulgaris, D’Orb. VIII, IX.

17. —— globulosa (Hhr.). VIII...

18. —— Haidingeri (D’Ord.). VIII.

19 ammonoides (fss.). IX.

20. ariminensis (D’Orb.). VIIT., IX.

21. Pulvinulina Karsteni (Ass.). VIII.

X. Grey Limestone of the Arabian Coast near Haman Faraun,

near Sinat. (Monatsber. 1838, p. 89, table xv. pl. 4. fig. 9.)

Mr. Bauerman supplies some notes on the geology of the

coast near this promontory (which he terms “ Hammam

Faraoun”’) in the Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. London, vol. xxv.

p- 23, pl. 1. fig. 2. See also Russegger’s ‘ Reisen,’ &e.

Pl. xxv. u1.c. Fig. 1. Textilaria brevis (“ Textularta

brevis, 1838’), the same as fig. A, 9; the young of T. gibbosa.

C. Grains of the limestone (magnified 300 diams.), con-

sisting of Foraminifera and Coccoliths (cyatholiths and disco-

liths), and comprismg Tecxtilaria striata, Khr.; “ T. brevis

and 7. dilatata (1838),” =T. globulosa; and “ Rotalia globu-

losa (1838)” = Planorbulina globulosa.

These also seem to belong to a fauna inhabiting 30 or 40

fathoms depth.

XI. White thick Limestone of Cattolica, Sicily. (Monatsber.

Berl. Akad. Wiss. 1838, pp. 176,192. Abhandlungen, 1838,

table vu. pl. 4. fig. vi.)

This halibiolith is regarded as of Cretaceous date by Khren-

berg. Some of its Foraminifera (as Virgulina paradoxa)

support the view. It was formed in deeper waters than the

foregoing, at about 90 fathoms.

Pl. xxvu. fig. 1, Oolina sicula, is Lagena sulcata. Fig. 2,

Miliola levis, may be arranged with Lagena elongata (Ehr.).

290 Messrs. Parker and Jones on

Fig. 3, Miliola? (Vaginulina?) pusilla, is imdeterminable.

Fig. 4, Nodosaria? sicula, = two early chambers of a Nodo-

sarta or, rather, of Glandulina levigata. Fig. 5, Dentalina

spherophora, is Nodosaria gracilis, D’Orb., after Soldani.

Vig. 6, Nodosaria leptosphera, is N. ovicula, like figs. 1 & 2,

in pl. xxv. u.B. Fig.7, Vaginulina Hoffmanni, is one of the

simplest forms of V. levigata, Roem. Fig. 8, Vag.? tenuis, is

indeterminable. Figs. 9 & 10, Textilaria globulosa, B. obtusa

(“ 7. glob. 1838”), = T. gibbosa. Figs. 11 &12, Grammo-

stomum ? (Strophoconus ?) leptoderma, is Virgulina Schreibersit.

Fig. 13, Gram. apiculatum, is Vulvulina pennatula (Batsch),

narrow variety, with aculeate ends to the chambers. Figs. 14

& 15, Gr. phyllodes,. = Bolivina punctata. Fig. 16, Gr. sicu-

lum (“ Text. aciculata, 1838, in part”’), is a rather broad Bol.

punctata. Fig. 17, Gr. polystiqma, is Text. sagittula.

Fig. 18, Proroporus siculus, is probably Polymorphina

Thouint., Figs. 19, Gram. turio, 20, Strophoconus spicula,

21, Str. ovum, 22, Str. (Gram. ?) stiliger, 23, Str.? (Gram. ?)

acanthopus, and 24, Str. efflorescens, are Virgulina Hemprichit,

mostly very young; and some are apiculate at the base.

Fig. 25, Stroph. teretiusculus (?), is a Virgulina Schreibersia,

becoming biserial. Figs. 26, Vaginulina? paradowa, and

27, V. obscura, are cylindrical arcuate Virguline Hemprichii,

such as are found in Jurassic clays, Gault, and Chalk.

Fig. 28, Polymorphina uvula, =P. problema. Figs. 29, Bi-

loculina? incisa, 30, B.? tenuis, and 31, B.? integra, are young

(Adelosine) Quinqueloculine. Fig. 32, Planulina argulus, is

a Planorbulina globulosa with large pores. Figs. 33, Rotalia

protolepta, 34, R. protacmea, 35, R. globulosa, and, 36, R.

quaterna? (all R. globulosa, 1838”), are young individuals

and arrested forms of Planorbulina farcta.

Fig. 37, Planulina letopentas (?), yellow in colour, looks

like Pulvinulina Menardiz; but its pores are too large ; it may

be a Planorbulina near Pl. Haidingerit. Vig. 38, Rotalia

leptospira, yellow in tint, has the appearance of Pulvinulina

canartensis (D’Orb.), but is doubtful; it also may be a Planor-

bulina. Figs. 39 & 40, Planulina porosa (“ Rosalina levigata,

1838, in part”) is Planorbulina Haidingerti, subvar.; and

41, a,6, Pl. ocellata (“ Rosalina ocellata, 1838”) is almost

the same.

Figs. 42, Planulina incurvata, and 43, Pl. membranacea,

are a young and an older specimen of Pulvinulina Menardit

(D’Orb.). Figs. 44, Globigerina? crete (“ Rosalina foveolata,

1838”), and 45, Gil. stellata (“compare Gl. libani”’), are

Globigerina bullocdes, characteristic. Figs. 46, Planulina

angusta, and 47, Pl. micromphala, = Planorbulina ammonordes,

the Nomenclature of the Foraminifera. 291

of slightly varying outlines (see pl. xxiii. &e.). Figs. 48 &

49, Pl. sicula, 1838, seem to comprise a fotalia? (48) and a

Planorbulina? (49). Figs. 50, Pl. micromphala (?), and 51,

Pl. marmorata, are Cristellaria rotulata. Fig. 52, Pl. spira,

is probably a Planorbulina. Fig. 53, Cristellaria? Hoffmanni,

is a beautiful Crest. cultrata, with flattened form, thick septa,

and very broad keel.

Fig. 54 are stellate spicules (?). A. Some of the powdered

limestone, magnified 300 diams., shows, besides Foraminifera,

many Cyatholiths &c. B. Foraminitera without the finer

particles.

This group also belongs to a sea of moderate depth, about

50 to 90 fathoms.

Species and notable Varieties of Foraminifera from the White

Limestone of Cattolica, Sicily, figured by Ehrenberg.

. Lagena sulcata (W. & J.).

elongata (hr.).

. Glandulina levigata, D’ Ord.

. Nodosaria gracilis, D’ Orb.

ovicula, D’ Orb.

. Vaginulina levigata, Rem.

. Cristellaria rotulata (Zam.).

cultrata (Montf.).

. Polymorphina Thouini, D’ Ord.

problema, D’ Ord.

11. Bolivina punctata, D’ Ord. —

12. Virgulina Schreibersii, Czjz.

Hemprichu (Hhr.).

stiligera (Hhr.).

paradoxa (Hhr.).

16. Textilaria sagittula, Defr.

gibbosa, D’ Orb.

18. Vulvulina apiculata (Zhr.).

19. Globigerina bulloides, D’ Ord.

20. Planorbulina farcta (/. & JL).

COON DO Oo DO

14. ——

21 globulosa (Zhr.).

22. ammonoides (/ss.).

23. Haidingerii (D’ Ord.).

24, Pulvinulina Menardii (D’ Or?.).

25. Quinqueloculina (young).

XII. Foraminifera from the Chalk of Meudon, France.

(Monatsberichte k. Berliner Akad. Wiss. 1838, p. 192; Ab-

handlungen, 1838, table vi. pl. 4. fig. v.)

The next two plates in the ‘ Mikrogeologie’ are of great

292 Messrs. Parker and Jones on

interest to geologists at home; for they contain a faithful

portraiture of the very minute Foraminifera of the Chalk of

Gravesend in Kent, and of Meudon, near Paris. They were

therefore taken in hand by us not long since, as the means of

correcting and augmenting the catalogue of fossil Foraminifera

from the Chalk; and the results appeared in the ‘ Geological

Magazine,’ vol. viii. pp. 506 & 563 et seq. We have little to

add to our remarks there offered, and here reproduced, except

that, for the sake of convenience, as usual in the case of

Rhizopods, we are willing to enter under catalogue-names a

few more of the subvarieties, and to make some slight revision

in the lists representing the two plates.

In No. 89 of the ‘ Geological Magazine,’ p. 511, we merely

indicated the genera and species of Foraminifera found by

Dr. Ehrenberg in the White Chalk of Meudon, near Paris,

and figured in his ‘ Mikrogeologie, 1854. In our list twenty

species were enumerated (with the nomenclature now in use)

as the result of our study of the fifty-six forms figured and

separately named in his plate of Meudon Foraminifera*. To

render our work more useful to rhizopodists and bibliogra-

phists, we proceeded, in No. 90 of the same Magazine, to

take the figures in succession, noting that, as we had before

stated, the grouping on the plate has a more natural associa-

tion of allied forms than that shown by the numerical order.

Pl. xxvit. fig. 1, Miliola ovum, =Lagena globosa. Fig. 2,

Nodosaria turgescens, is one and a half of the last chambers of

a compact variety of the simple N. ovicula. Figs. 3, Texti-

laria striata (1838), 4, 7. sulcata, and 5, T. dilatata (“ T.

brevis ?, 1538”), belong to Ehrenberg’s 7. striata, a subspecies

or notable variety, worthy of a binomial term. Fig. 6, Tet.

globulosa (1838), is the small or young form of 7. gibbosa,

D’Orb., and for convenience is often referred to by the name

given by Ehrenberg. Fig. 7 a-d, 7. linearis, = Bolivina

punctata. Fig. 8, Text. aculeata (“ T. aspera, 1838, in part”),

is a thick-walled form of Textilaria gibbosa, produced and

aculeate on the edges at the outer angle or base of each cham-

ber, and would be conveniently distinguished by the name

here given; but D’Orbigny had previously called it subangu-

lata. Figs. 9,a,b, Grammostomum pachyderma (“ Text. acicu-

lata, 1838, = several thin species of Grammostomum”’), and

10, Gr. angulatum, are specimens of a coarse-shelled Bolivina

punctata. Fig. 11, Gr. polystigma, = Teat. sagittula. Fig. 12,

Gr. thebaicum, seems to be an oblong Textilaria agglutinans,

with a growth like that of J. sagittula; but Gr. thebaicum,

* The description of this plate is reprinted, with revision, from the

‘Geological Magazine,’ vol. vill. pp. 563, 564.

the Nomenclature of the Foraminifera. 293

Le xxiv. figs. 20, 21, certainly appears to be Bolivina dilatata.

ig. 13, Gr. platystigma, 1s Bol. dilatata. Fig. 14, Poty-

morphina asparagus, 18 Virgulina squamosa ; so also is fig. 15,

Grammostomum lingua. Fig. 16, Gr. macclentum, is a very

neatly Textilariiform V. sguamosa (V. tegulata, Reuss). Fig.

17, Strophoconus efflorescens, is a rather twisted V. squamosa.

Fig. 18, Grammostomum (Polymorphina?) myoglossum, is a

fragment of apparently a V. sguamosa of regular growth. f

Figs. 19, Loxostomum subrostratum, and 20, Low. rostratum,

are varieties of Text. agglutinans, becoming Bigenerine (pass-

ing into Bigenerina) by the aperture getting more and more

terminal in successive chambers (fig. 20 shows the more ad-

vanced stage of the transition). Figs. 21 & 22, Lox. aculeatum,

is a pouting Bigenerine Textilaria, tending towards Sagrina

rugosa, D’Orb. (Heterostomella, Reuss). ‘The aperture is entire

(not ragged or prickly, as in the figures of some Polymorphine

in other plates), and lipped, as in Uvigerina. The edges of

the shell are aculeate by the production of the base of each

chamber.

Fig. 23, Strophoconus polymorphus, = Virgulina Schretbersti.

Fig. 24, Str. spicula, =V. squamosa; so also fig. 25, Gram-

mostomum gracile. Figs. 26 & 28, Strophoconus polymorphus,

and 27, Str. (Grammost.?) ovum?, are Virg. Schreibersti.

Fig. 29, Proroporus crete, =Polymorphina Thouint. Figs. 30

& 31, Grammobotrys? parisiensis, = Spheroidina bulloides ;

and probably also 32, Pleurites crete. Figs. 33 & 34, Sphe-

roidina parisiensts, = (33, probably and 34, certainly) Sph.

bulloides. Fig. 35, Guttulina aculeata, and 36, Gut. turrita,

are Verneuilina pygmea (Kigger); but fig. 35 has the outer

margins of its chambers more or less aculeate, therein ap-

proaching V. spinulosa, Reuss. Fig. 37, Nonionina? ocellata,

is Cristellaria cultrata.

Figs. 38-45 and 47 are various individuals of the neat little

variety of Planorbulina farcta known as Pl. ammonoides

(Reuss), very common in the Chalk : thus figs. 38, a, b, 389, &

40, Planulina micromphala, =“ Pl. turgida, 1838, in part;”

fig. 41, Pl. angusta; 42,a,6, Pl. annulosa; 43, Pl. leptostigma;

44 & 45, Pl.ampla; 47, Pl.ampliata. Vig. 46, Pl. ewomphala,

is a slightly keeled Cristellaria cultrata. Fig. 48, Pl. umbili-

cata, is Pulvinulina truncatulinoides (D’Orb.), seen from the

upper (flat) surface. Figs. 49 & 250, Pl. heteromphala, seem

to be small varieties of Planorbulina. farcta, approaching Pl.

(Truncatulina) lobatula; such are not rare in the Chalk. It

is difficult to correlate the many small Planorbuline and Trun-

catuline, from the Chalk, figured by D’Orbigny, Reuss, and

Ehrenberg.

294 Messrs. Parker and Jones on

Fig. 49 is perhaps comparable with D’Orbigny’s Rotalina

umbilicata from the Chalk, which we refer to Rotalia proper.

Fig. 51, Rotalina umbilicata, is a side view of Pulv. truncatu-

linoides (D’Orb.), not quite so angular in its profile as the

recent specimen figured in ‘ Hist. Nat. des Iles Canaries &c.,

Foraminiféres,’ pl. 2. figs. 25-27. ‘This species is figured also

by: Soldani, ‘'Testaceographia,’ vol. i. p. 58, pl. 46. fig. nn. It

is a variety of Pulv. Menardi?, and closely related to Pulv.

Micheliniana and Pulv. crassa, both found in the Chalk. (See

Phil. Trans. vol. clv. p. 393.) Fig. 52, Planulina picta, =

Pulv. Micheliniana (1)’Orb.). Figs. 53-58 are young, and

59 an adult, Globigerina cretacea, D’Orb., a rather discoidal

form of GI. bulloides, D’Orb. (53, Rotalia quaterna; 54, R.

rosa; 55, R. pachyomphala; 56, L. globosa-ampliata; 57 &

58, BR. aspera; 59, Globigerina crete, referred with doubt to

Gl. bulloides in 1838.) The young flattish Globigerine

closely resemble young Planorbuline. Figs. 60-64 are young

and arrested specimens of Planorbulina farcta. (60, Ro-

talia globulosa-tenuior, = “ R. glob., 1838;” 61, R. senaria ;

62, LR. densa; 63, R. glomerata, =“ R. senaria?” 64, R.

crete, rough-shelled.)

Spongoliths and Coccoliths occur among the other figures

on this plate.

The depth of sea indicated by these Foraminifera is from

100 to 150 fathoms.

We must not lose sight of the large number of good-sized

Foraminifera from the Chalk of France and England described

and figured by Alcide D’Orbigny in the ‘ Mémoires Soc. Géol.

France,’ 1840, vol. iv. pt. 1. These were enumerated by Mr.

Weaver in ‘Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist.’ vol. vi. pp. 395, 396,

with transcripts of D’Orbigny’s notes on their distribution at

Meudon, Sens, St. Germain, and elsewhere in France, and in

England as far as he knew at the time.

Of the fifty-four named Foraminifera of D’Orbigny’s list we

should be inclined to group many as varieties, instead of spe-

cies; but that does not concern us at present. Some of the

generic names, however, should be corrected according to

later knowledge. Thus No. 54, Sagrina rugosa, should be

Heterostomella rugosa; for D’Orbigny had already named a

peculiar Uvigerine form “ Sagrina” (S. pulchella), and for

this Textilarian form, departing from its true type, no name

but Reuss’s Heterostomella has been satisfactorily given. See

Geol. Mag. vol. viii. p. 508. Nos. 53-51, Prof. Reuss prefers

to separate the sandy Tewxtilariw, such as these, under the

name Plecanium. No. 48, Pyrulina, is merged in Polymor-

the Nomenclature of the Foraminifera. 295

phina. No. 47, Uvigerina tricarinata, is one of the Textila-

rian Foraminifera that has not only departed from the common

type, and become three-sided (Verneutlina), but has taken on

a pouting form of aperture (in this resembling Uvigerina) :

thus it lays claim to a distinct subgeneric name, and has been

called Tritaria by Reuss. Nos. 46-42, Bulimine: these,

being rough and somewhat sandy, are grouped under Ataxo-

phragmium by Reuss. Nos. 39, 38, 37, 34, 33, 32, 31, & 30,

grouped as Zruncatulina, Rosalina, and Rotalina, are more or

less characteristic forms of the subfamily Rotaline (Carpenter),

and may be thus grouped :—

Planorbulina Voltziana (30, Rotalina), belonging to the same

group as Pl. kalembergensis (D’Orb.).

Lorneiana (38, Rosalina), belonging to the same group

as Pl. ammonoides (Rss.), and Pl. badenensis (D’Orb.).

Clementiana (39, Rosalina), an ornate variety of Pl.

tuberosa (F. & M.).

(subgen. Truncatulina) Beaumontiana (37, Truncatu-

lina), merely a thick convex 7’. lobatula (W. & J.).

Pulvinulina Micheliniana (31, Rotalina). \ See above,

crassa (33, Rotalina). p- 294.

Cordieriana (34, Rotalina). Feebler than P. Miche-

liniana.

Rotalia umbilicata (82, Rotalina). Of the same group as

Rh. Soldanvi and Rf. orbicularis ; and not only existing in

the Adriatic, as stated by D’Orbigny, but found fossil in

the Tertiary beds of Italy.

We can now-a-days indicate many more living analogues,

and, indeed, identical representatives, of the Chalk Foramini-

fera than M. D’Orbigny recognized in 1840; and we believe

he was wrong in supposing that Hrondicularie like those of

the Chalk live in the Adriatic*. Doubtless, however, he was

quite correct in saying that the sea in which the Chalk was

formed continued from western Europe into the English area,

was of a warm climate, free from shore-currents, and contained

species of Foraminifera that have lived on to the present day.

We may well add :—that it was of very great extent and of

considerable depth, though not so deep as our Atlantic; that

some uninterrupted water-areas have continued its oceanic

existence, under various and great modifications, to the pre-

sent day; that the Foraminiferal species which have per-

sisted in its depths throughout the enormous time required for

such changes of land and sea, were not uniformly represented

* He seems to have met with some derived fossil forms in the sea-sand.

296 Messrs. Parker and Jones on

by the same varveties that existed when the Chalk was formed ;

and that the Atlantic ooze, in which other Mollusks, Echino-

derms, Crustacea, and Vertebrata than those of the Chalk

occur, cannot be regarded as ‘‘ Chalk” in a strictly geological

or paleontological sense. In a lithological (or halibiolitho-

gical) sense—that is, with reference to their general origin

from calcareous organisms, and regarded as having been all

similarly formed in successive, never quite disconnected, but

partially continuous oceans—nearly all limestones would come

under the geological name of the oldest of the known series ;

but, although supported by the known occurrence of persis-

tent Foraminiferal types through period after period, such a

classification would be vague and useless.

On this interesting geological subject see also Mr. Prest-

wich’s Anniversary Address to the Geological Society of

London, Feb. 17, 1871 (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. No. 106).

The number of species and notable varieties of Foraminifera

common to the Chalk and the North-Atlantic ooze, as shown

by our table in that Address, is now known to be greater,

since our correlation of the Chalk specimens figured in the

‘Mikrogeologie’ with other published forms. Both in this

instance and in the description of the North-Atlantic Forami-

nifera (Phil. Trans. 1865) we had to refrain from reference to

Dr. Ehrenberg’s ‘ Mikrogeologie’ and previous memoirs, not

having had the opportunity of working over this great store

of information, and at the same time having recognized how

little the apparent conclusions of the veteran naturalist co-

incided with those arrived at by others. Now that our biblio-

graphic studies bring us, in chronological order, to the earliest

of Dr. Ehrenberg’s memoirs, we have willingly entered on

the somewhat arduous and responsible labour of comparing

and identifying as far as possible all the Foraminifera he has

so abundantly provided in his successive publications.

Species and notable Varieties from the Chalk of Meudon,

Jigured by Ehrenberg.

Lagena globosa (Montagu).

Nodosaria ovicula, D’ Ord.

Cristellaria cultrata (Montfort).

Polymorphina Thouini, D’ Ord.

Bolivina punctata, D’ Orb.

Virgulina squamosa, D’ Orb.

—— tegulata, Reuss.

asparagus (Hhr.).

Schreibersii, Czjzek.

Textilaria agglutinans, D’ Ord.

eas ee er CLE MMs aE Se

jot

the Nomenclature of the Foraminifera. , 297

11. Textilaria sagittula, Defrance.

12. gibbosa, D’ Orb.

13. subangulata, D’ Orb.

14. globulosa, Lhr.

15. Heterostomella aculeata (Ehr.).

16. Verneuilina pygmea (Lgger).

17. Spheroidina bulloides, D’ Ord.

18. Globigerina cretacea, D’ Orb.

19. Planorbulina ammonoides (Leuss).

20. globulosa (Zhr.).

21. Pulvinulina truncatulinoides (D’ Or?.).

22. Micheliniana (D’ Orb.).

XI. Foraminifera from the Chalk of Gravesend, in Kent,

England. (Monatsberichte Berl. Akad. Wiss. 1838, pp. 1938,

194. Abhandlungen, 1838, pp. 92, 133-135, table iv. pl. 4.

fig. 4.)

In PI. xxvut. of the ‘ Mikrogeologie’ are figured numerous

Foraminifera, mostly very small, discovered by Dr. Ehrenberg

in English Chalk, soft and white, from Gravesend, near

London*; they are magnified 300 times in linear dimensions.

These are referred to in the ‘ Monatsberichte’ of the Berlin

Academy for 1838 (where some of them are stated to have

been found in the Chalk of Brighton also), and in the ‘A bhand-

lungen’ for 1838. An able abstract of this and another me-

moir in the ‘Abhandlungen’ was made by the late T’. Weaver,

F.R.S., F.G.S., in 1841, and published in the ‘ Phil. Mag.’

ser. 3. vol. xviil. pp. 375 & 443 &c., and in the ‘ Annals and

Mag. Nat. Hist.’ vol. vii. pp. 296, 374, &c. In Taylor’s

‘Scientific Memoirs,’ vol. iii., is a full translation, with the

original plates, of Ehrenberg’s memoir “on the numerous

Animals of the Chalk Formation which are still found living,”

from the Berlin Acad. Transact. for 1840.

The results of our careful examination of Ehrenberg’s

figures are as follows :—

Fig. 1, Miliola levis, is probably a single joint or a detached

chamber of a Nodosaria. Ehrenberg’s “‘ Miliola”’ is for the

most part the same as Lagena and Orbulina of other authors.

Fig. 2, Nodosaria anglica, is N. ovicula, D’Orb., with a rather

excentric aperture. Fig. 3, N. monile, is a variety of N. ovi-

cula, D’Orb., with rather short chambers. Fig. 4, Vaginulina

nodulosa, is a variety of Reemer’s V. levigata, with a peculiar

* The description of this plate is here revised and reprinted from the

‘Geological Magazine,’ vol. viii. no. 11, November 1871.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. 1x. 21

298 . Messrs. Parker and Jones on

(concretionary ?) shell-structure. Fig. 5, Vaginulina crete

(brachyarthra), seems to be (if really flat, as is probable) V.

longa (Cornuel). Fig. 6. Textilaria striata, Khr. 1838 ; more

fully illustrated in pl. xxxil. 1. figs. 4a, 46, 7, and 1. 6, 18,

from the Missouri and Mississippi Chalk. Fig.7. A broad

individual of T. striata. Fig. 8, Text. ampliata (“ T. aspera,

1838”), is a young 7. gibbosa, D’Orb., with roughish shell.

Figs. 9 &10, Text. globulosa* (1838), arrested T. gibbose.

Figs. 11, 7. leptotheca, and 12, T. globulosa ampliata, are in-

dividuals of 7. gibbosa. Fig. 13, Loxostomum curvatum, is

an arcuate 7. agglutinans, the later chambers of which have

the aperture higher and higher up, thus passing, in its quasi-

generic character, from Textilaria proper into Vulvulina.

Indeed it may be the young of Ehrenberg’s Low. anglicum

(fig. 19 of the same plate), which is a rather narrow and neat

Vulvulina pennatula (Batsch). Fig. 14, Grammostomum sca-

brum, seems to be only a small coarse-shelled 7. agglutinans,

D’Orb. Figs. 15 & 16, Gr. polytrema, is Virgulina Schrei-

berstt, Czjzek. Fig. 17, Gr. aculeatum, is a variety of Ver-

neuilina triquetra (Miinster), with aculeate edges, like V. spi-

nulosa, Rss., Denks. Akad. Wien, 1850, vol. i. pl. 47. fig. 12:

it is seen from one of its three flat sides. Fig. 18, Teaxtilaria

aculeata is a small rough 7. agglutinans, with flattish cham-

bers, such as D’Orbigny has named 7. subangulata. Fig. 19.

See above. Fig. 20, Proroporus crete, is Polymorphina

Thouint, D’Orb. (see the “ Monograph on Polymorphina” +

by Brady, Parker, and Jones, Linn. Soc. Trans. 1870, vol.

XXvil. p. 232). Figs. 21, Bigenerina crete, and 22, B. acan-

thopora, are also P. Thouini (loc. cit.). Fig. 23, B. apiculata,

is P. compressa, “‘ Mon, Polym.” p. 227. Fig. 24, Loxostoma

vorax, is also Polym. compressa, and should be added to the

synonyms in the “‘ Monograph Polym.” p. 227.

Figs. 25, Loxostomum tumens, and 26, Lox. aculeatum, are

slightly differing individuals of Heterostomella aculeata (Khr.).

This may be described as a prickly loose-grown Textilaria,

which, having ceased to grow in the typical manner (with a

double row of alternating chambers), has continued with a

single row (as a Begenerina); and these have not only got ter-

minal instead of lateral apertures, but have become lipped as

in Sagrina rugosa, D’Orb. (1840). D’Orbigny, however,

had applied the name “ Sagrina” to a Uvigerine Foraminifer

* Well figured in Eley’s ‘Geology in the Garden,’ 1859, pl. 2. fig. 9,

pl. 9. fig. 9¢ and in figs. 89 & 39c, of pl. 7; p. 194 &e. cel Mag.

vol. ix. p. 124.

+ Some of Ehrenberg’s figures quoted in this Monograph as Poly-

morphine, we find, on fuller consideration, to be Virguline &c.

the Nomenclature of the Foraminifera. 299

(S. pulchella) in 1839. In 1866 Reuss published the name

Heterostomella as distinctive of the Textilarian Sagraina

(Sitzungsb. Akad. Wien, vol. lii.). Hhrenberg’s “ Loxosto-

mum,” though older (1854), is so misapplied by him (to Poly-

morphina, Vulvulina, and a transitional form between the

latter and Textilaria proper) that naturalists may well hesitate

to use it. Heterostomella aculeata is figured also in pl. xxvii.

figs. 21, 22.

Fig. 27, Polymorphina turio, is a narrow and typical speci-

men of Virgulina Schreibersii, Czjzek, which is subgenerically

related to Bulimina. Figs. 28 & 29, Pleurites? calciparus,

30, Spheroidina cretacea, and 32, Grammobotrys anglica, are

broad and flattish individuals of Virgulina Hemprichii (Khr.).

This species is well figured (under many different names) in

the ‘ Mikrogeologie.’ It is very variable in form, but constant

in the cloudy, or seemingly muddy, opacity of its shell—a

structure beautifully engraved in pl. xxix. fig. 38, and else-

where. This species is very common in the Indian seas, with

its misty, dull shell, of variable growth, sometimes regularly

Virguline, with alternate chambers, sometimes passing into

Bulimina proper, sometimes short and nearly round, like Cas-

sidulina and in other subvarietal shapes. It is the only Vir-

guliina that takes on a sandy condition, becoming subarena-

ceous, and thereby very delicately rugose. Hhrenberg appears

to have first noticed it in the Tertiary Limestone from Thebes,

Egypt. In pl. xxiv., illustrating the Foraminifera from that

rich rock, he gives the name Strophoconus Hemprichii to a

fine complanate specimen (fig. 32); some smaller individuals

(figs. 29, 30, 31) he puts under the same genus, and another

as “ Textilaria? or Grammobotrys.” His ‘ Strophocont”’ are

all either Virguline or Bulimine ; therefore the name is not

required. Other instances of Virgulina Hemprichii (fossil)

occur at pl. xix. fig. 86 (?), Aigina; xxi. fig. 88, Oran; xxii.

fig. 19, Mokattam; xxv. fig. 15 (?), Antilibanon; xxvi. figs.

19-24, 26, 27, Cattolica; xxix. figs. 32-36, Moén Chalk ;

xxx. figs. 18, 19, 21, Riigen Chalk; xxxu. II. figs, 18, 20,

Mississippi Chalk; xxxiii. x1. fig. 27 (?), San Francisco.

Of these some are remarkable ; for instance, the Vaginulina?

paradoxa and V. obscura (pl. xxvi. figs. 26, 27) are nearly cy-

lindrical and subarcuate, such as occur in the Jurassic Clays,

in the Gault, and in the Chalk *; they are old “ Secondary ”’

Virguline. <A variety (pl. xxx. fig. 18), termed ‘ Polymor-

phina nucleus,” shows a passage into Cassidulina. An out-

* Such a Virgulina from the English Chalk is figured in Eley’s ‘ Geo-

logy in the Garden,’ 1859, pl. 2. fig. 12, and pl. 8. fig. 12 ¢; ola Ke.

217

300 Messrs. Parker and Jones on

spread, rhomboidal, and suboblong Textilariiform variety is

seen in pl. xxxii. 1. figs. 18 & 20, termed “ Grammostomum

tessera’” and ‘ Pleurites ? americanus.”

Pl xxvu. figs. 31, Heterostomum cyclostomum, and 33,

Grammostomum platytheca, are young, broad, coarse-sheiled

Textilarie gibbose. Fig. 32. See above. Figs. 34-424,

variously named “ Rotaliw” (including Rotalia globulosa, 1838,

figs. 40, 41), are so many individuals of G'lobigerina cretacea,

D’Orb., an outspread flattish variety of G7. bullozdes, D’Orb.,

smooth in the youngest (41, 42), coarser and prickly in older

specimens.

Fig. 43, Planulina omphalolepta (Pl. turgida, 1838), is a

small and somewhat complanate Cristellaria rotulata (Lamk.)

or feebly keeled Or. cultrata (Montf.). Fig. 44, Pl. annulosa,

is a still smaller specimen. Fig. 45, a, 6, Pl. odontophena,

is Crist. cultrata (Montf.). Fig. 45a has tear-like and ridgy

exogenous growths of shell-matter near the umbilicus, but no

umbo. Fig. 46, Pl. hewas (Rosalina globularis?, 1838), is Cr.

cultrata with a small keel. Fig. 47, Rotalia pretexta, is a

produced suboval individual of Crist. cultrata. Fig. 48, Pla-

nulina adspersa, is probably a small Cr. cultrata or rotulata :

in fact figs. 43-48 show various stages and conditions of

growth of the common Cristellaria of the Chalk in its umbili-

cate condition, and with more or less of a keel or crest.

Fig. 49, Pl. umbilicata, also 54, Cristellaria megalomphala,

and 55, Cr. anglica, are limbate specimens of Cr. cultrata—

that is, having the shell thickened over the septal lines.

Figs. 50, Rotalia lenticulina, 51, R. londinensis, and 52, R.

lepida, are small individuals of Planorbulina ammonoides.

Fig. 53, RB. picta? This is Pulvinulina Micheliniana

(D’Orb.), seen from its flat (upper) spiral face. The same

species is represented in pl. xxvil. fig. 52, by a rather larger

specimen (“Planulina picta”) from the Chalk of Meudon,

viewed through the vertical thickness of the shell from its

high umbilical (lower) face. This belongs to a large family

of Rotaline Foraminifera, which group themselves around

Pulvinulina repanda (Fichtel & Moll). It belongs more es-

pecially to the subgroup of which P. Menardii is the type.

This attains its best growth at about 100 fathoms in the

existing seas, but lives well at abyssal depths, even at more

than two miles depth; whilst, on the contrary, in shallow

water it degenerates into bizarre varieties. D’Orbigny’s Ro-

talia crassa, figured on the same plate (Mém. Soc. Géol. Fr.

iv. pl. 3. £. 7,8), is also a variety of Pulvinulina Menardiv.

These are found in existing seas under the conditions men-

tioned above, and are abundant in the Gault, Chalk-marl, and

Chalk.

the Nomenclature of the Foraminifera. 301

The other objects from the Chalk shown in this interesting

plate are some siliceous and calcareous Sponge-spicula, some

Morpholites, or Coecoliths (a Cyatholith without its centrum),

and two Diatoms, Pragtlaria rhabdosoma, 1838, and Fr. pin-

nata, 1844 (Fr. striolata, 1838).

The sea-depth for these Foraminifera was from 100 to 150

fathoms.

Species and noteworthy Varieties from the Chalk of Gravesend,

Jigured by Ehrenberg.

According to our views, as explained above and in our

papers “on the Nomenclature of the Foraminifera’ in the

* Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ and in other memoirs, we regard Dr. Khren-

berg’s figures of the Foraminifera from the Chalk of Gravesend

as referable to :—

1. Nodosaria ovicula, D’ Orb.

2. Vaginulina levigata, Reamer.

3. longa (Cornuel).

4, Cristellaria cultrata (Montfort).

5. Polymorphina Thouini, D’ Ord.

6. Virgulina Schreibersu, Czjzek.

it: Hemprichii (/hr.).

8. Textilaria agglutinans, D’ Orb.

9 gibbosa, D’ Orb.

10 subangulata, D’ Orb.

12 striata, Hhr.

12. globulosa, Hhr.

. Heterostomella tumens (Zhr.).

aculeata (Hhr.).

. Verneuilina spinulosa, Reuss.

. Vulvulina* pennatula (Batsch).

. Globigerina cretacea, D’ Orb.

. Planorbulina ammonoides (fss.).

. Pulvinulina Micheliniana (D’ Or@.).

We must not lose sight of the fact that the specimens figured

in the ‘ Mikrogeologie’ are for the most part very minute,

such as lie among the finer débris of washed Chalk ; whilst

those treated of by D’Orbigny, Reuss, Williamson, Eley, and

* This is a. Grammostomum with Ehrenberg. Supposing that ‘ Gram-

mostomum”’? was intended for the compressed Textilarian forms with

terminal slit-like apertures, we formerly adopted it in preference to the

name given by D’Orbigny. But, as it is indiscriminately applied by its

author to Polymorphina, Bolivina, Virgulina, and Textilaria, as well as to

the subgenus above indicated, there are strong reasons against its use in

our nomenclature.

302 On the Nomenclature of the Foraminifera.

others have been larger individuals picked out by means of

hand-lenses from the coarser dust of the disintegrated material.

The great difference of size, however, among individual Fora-

minifera carries but little weight in the determination of spe-

cies ; for the conditions, not only of growth, but of feeding-

ground, depth of water, and climate affect them so greatly,

that a form which may be gigantic in one habitat will be

arrested or dwarfed in another, retaining all the essential cha-

racteristics of shape and structure which are required for its

specific identification.

With respect to the Foraminifera Rotalina (Carpenter) of

the English and European Chalk, we may notice that among

Ehrenberg’s figures we recognize :—

Planorbulina farcta (7. & M.).

Haidingeri (D’ Ord.).

ammonoides (/ss.).

—— ariminensis (D’ Ord).

globulosa (Hhr.).

Pulvinulina spatiosa (Zhr.).

—— truncatulinoides (D’ Ord.).

— Micheliniana (D’ Or¢.).

caracolla (em.).

D’Orbigny found in English Chalk all the Rotalines he got

from the French Chalk (see above, p. 295). In our own col-

lection we have from—

1. The Upper Chalk of Thorpe, near Norwich :—

Planorbulina ammonoides (ss.).

Ungeriana (D’ Orb.).

—— Haidingerii (D’ Orb.).

(Truncatulina) lobatula (W. & J.).

Rotalia umbilicata, D’ Ord.

2. The Chalk of Gravesend :—

Planorbulina ammonoides (Lss.).

Ungeriana (D’ Orb.).

—— (Planulina) arimiensis (D

(Truncatulina) lobatula (W. d JJ.

Pulvinulina Micheliniana (D’ Oré.).

Rotalia umbilicata, D’ Ord.

Orb.).

Of most of these there are also local subvarieties, corre-

sponding more or less closely not only with those named by

D’Orbigny, but also with many of the numerous Rotaline

Dr. J. E. Gray on a Four-bearded Water-Terrapin. 303

varieties and subvarieties figured and described by Reuss and

others.

On close examination of specimens and collation of lists, we

find that, as with Globigerine, so with Rotaline, it is by the

increase of varieties the distinction is chiefly made between

the Foraminiferal faune of the past and of the present seas.

[To be continued. |

XXX.—On a Four-bearded Water-Terrapin from North

Australia. By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &e.

THE British Museum has received a very young freshwater

Terrapin belonging to the family Hydraspide, from Cape

York, North Australia. It agrees with the genus H/seya in

having no nuchal shield, and im having the back of the neck

furnished with regular longitudinal rows of small conical

spines. The skin over the temporal muscles is divided into

irregular convex tubercles ; the crown of the head is covered

with a continuous soft skin, which becomes hard when

dried.

This specimen differs from all the known species of Elseya

in having four beards—that is to say, two short cylindrical

beards on each side of the hinder edge of the lower beak.

The two front are in the place where beards are usually found

in the genus, the two hinder at some distance behind them.

The head and back of the neck are dark olive; the beaks

are greyish white, with a broad white streak from the angle

of the mouth extending behind towards the shoulders. This

streak is separated from the white throat by a black streak on

its lower side, which is extended in front, and forms a narrow

margin to the back edge of the lower beak. The back of the

shell is dark olive, the areole occupying nearly the whole of

the plates; the front marginal shields with numerous minute

spines; nuchal shield none. The underside of the marginal

shields and the sternum white, with a very narrow edge to the

marginal plates; a dark oval spot on each side of the suture

between the second and third and hinder plates.

This may be the type of a new genus characterized by the

four beards ; but I think it is most likely an accidental variety

of Elseya latisternum. We must wait until we obtain more

specimens to determine this point, more especially as the top

of the head wants the hard surface of the older specimen of

that genus.

304 Mr. R. Kyle on a probably new Species of Actinia.

XXXI.—On a probably new Species of Actinia.

To the Editors of the Annals and Magazine of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN,

I am anxious to call the attention of collectors of sea-

anemones and keepers of aquariums to a very handsome

variety of Yealia which occurs in considerable quantities in

deep water along this coast, with but few variations in ap-

pearance. It seems to be either a new species or at least a

good local variety. It is not noticed in Mr. Gosse’s work on

British Sea-Anemones, and is the only deep-sea Actinia which

I have seen in these waters. I got it from the hooks of the

fishermen’s deep-sea cod-lines, sometimes two or three at a

time on one stone. My observations have been made this

winter on a large number of specimens, some of which have

been kept in my tanks for two or three months. I should be

happy to forward specimens for inspection if requested to do

so. Mr. Gosse, to whom I sent a description, suggests, “ It

is pretty certain to be either a new species or at least a well-

marked local variety worth describing.’’ So I send the fol-

lowing description to you, and am

Your obedient Servant,

Portrush, co. Antrim, Ireland. Rosert KYLE.

March 7, 1872.

Form.

Base adherent to old shells or stones, not exceeding column;

disk and tentacles similar in shape to those of Tealva cras-

sicornis ; but the column is destitute of warts, except on

the upper portion, on which they are very few and small,

and is smooth and soft.

Colour.

Column brilliant scarlet and yellow, similar to “‘ Stomphia

Churchie”’ (Gosse, pl. vill. fig. 5).

Disk very pale reddish brown or buff; radial bands few (or

wanting), inconspicuous, white.

Tentacles pellucid, pale pink, with opaque white bands.

Varieties.

a. Above condition.

8. Column crimson and drab.

Tentacles crimson-red, with buffish bands; ‘radial bands

very conspicuous, crimson. (A very showy variety.)

y. Column and tentacles plain red-orange or scarlet; radial

bands white, or wanting.

Viscount Walden on a supposed new Species of Cuckoo. 305

5. Column yellowish white ; tentacles and disk pellucid white,

with a very pale blush of rose when not fully expanded ;

radial bands opaque white, very few. (A single speci-

men.)

Size:

When fully expanded, from 2 to 5 inches across.

The whole appearance strongly resembles a Tealia; but

its almost total want of warts distinguishes it from 7" digitata,

another deep-sea species (which I have not seen). It may,

perhaps, be a link between Tealia and Stomphia var. pyri-

glotta (Gosse, p. 223).

XXXII.— Description of a supposed new Species of Cuckoo

from Celebes. By Arruur, Viscount WALDEN, P.Z.S.

HMierococcyx crassirostris, 1. sp.

A collection of birds recently made in North Celebes by

Dr. Meyer contains two examples of a Cuculine form which

appears to be undescribed. ‘They severally represent a di-

stinct and very marked phase of plumage. Yet neither can be

affirmed to have attained its full livery. One example is in

the “hepatic” stage, the other may be wearing the adult

garb. “

: Example No.1, hepatic plumage, has the nape, back, upper

tail-coverts, upper surface of the wings, and the quills bright

chestnut. The nuchal feathers, which are white at their base,

are broadly fringed with black, giving a barred appearance to

the nape. The interscapulars are obscurely edged with brown.

The shoulder-coverts have black subterminal marks, or are

else faintly clouded with black markings. The quills are

almost of a uniform chestnut above and below ; subterminally

they are more or less clouded with brown. The inner webs at

their insertions are pure white, which descends for about one-

third of their length. ‘There are no bands or bars on either

surface of the quills. The under shoulder- and tail-coverts are

pure cream-colour, devoid of any markings. The middle pair

of rectrices are broadly banded with black. The intervals be-

tween the black bands, and which are much narrower than the

black bands, are bright chestnut on the outer edges, but pure

white near the shaft. The two portions of each band divided

by the intervening shaft are unsymmetrical. The remaining

pairs are also broadly banded with black, but the intervals are

less chestnut, becoming nearly all white in the fifth pair. In this

outer pair the bands are nearly symmetrical. All the rectrices

306 Dr. J. Murie on the Skin &c. of the Rhytina.

are broadly tipped with pure white. The shafts assume the

colour of the webs they support. The under surface of the body

is rich creamy white, a few of the feathers with a broad, bold,

black, transverse band. On the breast a black band or collar,

formed by each feather being crossed by a subterminal black

bar. Head black mixed with ferruginous, the base of the

feathers being pure white. Cheeks and sides of the head and

neck covered with creamy-white feathers tipped with black.

Bill horn-brown. Legs, feet, and nails yellow.

Example No. 2 has the under surface pure white, each

feather with a broad black band or spot, which is again edged

with white. Under tail- and shoulder-coverts and inner webs

of the quills for half their basal length pure white. Head and

cheeks ash-grey. Nuchal feathers white at base, with greyish-

brown terminations. Back, wings, and upper tail-coverts

ferruginous brown, the ferruginous tint predominating. Upper

surface of the quills brown, with ferruginous borders.. Under

surface paler brown, tinged with light ferruginous. Middle

pair of rectrices ferruginous brown, with one broad subterminal

black band. Faint traces of pure white on each side of the

shaft at intervals. The outer rectrices are broadly banded

with black and white. In some the white is irregularly

clouded with ferruginous brown. All are narrowly tipped

with white. Bill horn-brown; lower mandible at base

greenish yellow. Legs, feet, and nails yellow.

Longitudo

Rostr. a nar. Alee. Caudee. Tarsi.

No. 1. “OT T15 8 1

No. 2. 87 8 8 I

In both examples the third and fourth quills are equal and

longest; the second is equal to the fifth. The outer pair of

rectrices are much shorter than the others. The bill is ex-

ceedingly high and stout. The total absence of markings on

the quills and under shoulder-coverts, and the extremely stout

bill, distinguish this cuckoo from all known forms. Although

a much smaller bid than H. sparverioides (Gould), its bill is

fully twice as deep.

XXX UT.— On the Skin ke. of theRhytina, suggested by a recent

Paper of Dr. A. Brandt’s. By James Muri, F.L.S. &e.

[Plate XIX. ]

SAVE one, the admirable Steller*, no naturalist has left a

* “De Bestiis marinis,’ Nov. Comm, Acad. Imp. Petropol. t. ii,

1749-51.

Dr. J. Murie on the Skin kc. of the Rhytina. 307

written record describing in the flesh that extraordinary animal

the Morskaia Korowa, or northern sea-cow, which existed in

abundance about a hundred years ago in the neighbourhood

of Behring Straits. Few, indeed, are the travellers or hunters

who have mentioned, even in a few words, facts concerning

this animal when alive. Spite of this paucity of attestation to a

sight of the creature, Steller’s most excellent description of its

appearance, habits, and anatomy has supphed such succinct

evidence of the tout ensemble and internal structure as to have

long satisfied the needs of zoologists. Still it is to be re-

eretted that he only left a couple of sketches of the remark-

able horny palatine plates, the jaws being edentulous, of this

now extinct Sirenian form.

Thus rested the knowledge of Rhytina among zoologists

and comparative anatomists until the subject was taken up by

the eminent savants of St. Petersburg. Between 1836 and

1869 a series of papers and memoirs were issued from the

hands of Professors K. E. von Baer* and Johan Friedrich

Brandt}, which enriched our knowledge of the animal to a

wonderful extent. The former elucidated much concerning

its geographical distribution. The latter, fortunate in the

receipt of a skull, and ultimately a skeleton, worked out well-

nigh the complete osteology in a manner deserving the highest

encomiums as a perfect model of descriptive skeletal detail

and just careful comparison. Not content with only a survey

of the bones, Prof. Brandt has summarized the entire structure

of Ehytina, weighed this step by step with the other members

of the Sirenia, with Cetacea, and with the Pachydermata,

recent and fossil. Finally, he has added to its literary his-

tory, to its geographical range, and treated of the hypothesis

of transformation amongst the Sirenian family.

Professor Alexander v. Nordmann}, of Helsingfors, more-

over, has contributed a fair monograph on the bone-structures

of a specimen which came under his observation.

* “Untersuchungen tiber die ehemalige Verbreitung und die giinzliche

Vertilgung der von Steller beobachteten nordischen Seekuh (Lytina,

Ill.),” Bull. St. Pétersb. 1838, t. iii., and Mém. Acad. St. Pétersb. sér. 6,

tom, iii. 1840.

+ Of this gentleman’s numerous papers in the Bulletins and Memoirs

of the Imperial Academy, it is sufficient for me to quote two as com-

prising in their extensive range a perfect mine of wealth on the subject,

and fourteen plates with illustrations of a superb kind :—* Symbol

Sirenologicse, quibus precipue Rhytine historia naturalis illustratur,”

Mém. d’Acad. Imp. d. Sci. d. St. Pétersb. 6 sér. tom. vy. 1849; and ‘ Sym-

bole Sirenologice, fasciculus ii. et iii,” cbed. 1861-68-69, sér. 7,

tom. xii.

{ “ Beitriige zur Kenntniss des Knochen-Baues der Rhytina Stellert,”

1861, aus Acta Soc. Scien. Fennicv, tom. vii. mit 5 lith. Taf.

308 Dr. J. Murie on the Skin dc. of the Rhytina.

There is an organic structure which may be separately

mentioned, as misconception at one time existed regarding its

function and homology; [ allude to the jaw-plates. The pa-

latine or premaxillary mass, and mandibular plate, from their

density and situation, Steller appears to have considered a

kind of striated bony tooth-representative (/.c. p. 802, “Sed

duobus ossibus validis, candidis, seu dentium integris massis.”

“Oris striati ossis’’). Others have been inclined to look

upon these manducatory laminz as the homologues of the

baleen-plates of Cetacea.

It is to J. F. Brandt that we are indebted for a correct

notion of their intimate structure and a distinct conception of

their true homology. A fragment of a cranium in the Zoolo-

gical Museum of St. Petersburg, with part of the said plates

an situ, enabled that anatomist to institute a thorough micro-

scopic investigation of their minute texture &c. In his

‘Symbole Sirenologice,’ laid before the Imperial Academy,

January 1845, published 1849, he has demonstrated the cel-

lulo-epithelial and partly tubulo-papillar nature of the plates,

and justly correlated them with the horny tuberculate plates

in the mouths of the Dugong and Manatee.

With Prof. Brandt’s views I heartily concur ; but I moreover

regard the upper of these plates as the precise equivalent of

the anterior palatine pad of ruminants &c. I even go further*

in tracing the homologue of the baleen-plates of Cetacea in

the Sirenian mouth in those bundles of hairs and bristles

which spring from the buccal aspect and angle of the mouth

of Manatus, the intervening papille of the mucous membrane

corresponding to the ‘soft intermediate substance” betwixt

the baleen at its root—the combination of these structures,

their elementary composition, relation to each other, situation,

&e. agreeing in most particulars with the whalebone and its

basal matrix.

In his capital description of the soft parts of the Long-

niddry whale, Prof. Turnert discusses the homology of

whalebone, and suggests its agreement with the transverse

folds of mucous membrane and fore pad in the palate of Ru-

minantia, more particularly citing the giraffe. So far as

regional proximity and textural constituents are concerned,

doubtless there is much to be said in favour of such a notion.

But in both toothed and toothless whales there is a rugose

thickening of the soft palate anteriorly, identical in position

* See my forthcoming memoir, now in the press, “On the Form and

Structure of the Manatee,” Trans. Zool. Soc., read November 1870.

+ “An Account of the Great Finner Whale (Balenoptera Sibbaldir)

stranded at Longniddry,” Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb. 1870, vol. xxvi. p. 221.

Dr. J. Murie on the Skin cc. of the Rhytina. 309

and texturally with the ruminant pad; hence the homologue

of the whalebone must be looked for laterally, 7. e. in the situa-

tion heretofore mentioned.

Two ideal representations* of the Rhyt/na have hitherto

been attempted, and these based on Steller’s description. In

my judgment neither are satisfactory as regards either shape

or composition of the external surtace of the hide. <A few

years ago I dissected the carcass of a Manatee, whereof I

took a number of photographs of the exterior. Several of my

representations were of the natural size ; and, what with a study

of these, preparations in spirit of parts of the Dugong, and a

familiar acquaintance with the cetacean skin fresh and other-

wise, I became convinced that Steller’s description of that of

Rhytina indicated its coriaceous tegument as but a magnified

example of that of Manatus. My further researches among

the Sirenia led me to an examination of the remains of the

fossil Halitherium in several of the continental as well as our

own museums. In brief, | had drawn on stone a represent-

ment both of Halithertum and Rhytina, founded on my know-

ledge, on the external appearance of their allies, their own

skeletal framework, and Steller’s passages respecting the derm

of Rhytina. ‘Though some time in my possession, it is only

lately I showed the plate to a few friends ere finishing my

nearly complete MS. Among others cognizant of my illus-

tration, I mention Dr. J. E. Gray, Mr. Busk, aud Mr. Dallas.

But a day after (2nd March), conversing on the subject with

the latter gentleman, he intimated to me, “‘ By-the-by, Murie,

our library (Geol. Soc.) has just received some memoirs of the

Academy of St. Petersburg, and among them one on the skin

of Rhytina, which you ought to see, as it may interest you.”

As may be supposed, I lost no time in referring to the

paperf. To my surprise I found a splendid plate, illus-

trating a real bond fide piece of Rhytina-skin—one of the

figures, a photograph from the original, almost exactly re-

sembling what I had already conceived and depicted. Thus

an hiatus of very considerable importance towards a knowledge

of this outré-Sirenian has been attained through Dr. Alexander

Brandt’s paper. As the Russian author, moreover, has en-

lightened us with a fresh description and figures of the para-

site (first discovered by Steller) which lodged on the skin of the

Rhytina, I purpose giving an epitome of, with remarks on, his

* J. F. Brandt, monographs quoted, Taf. v. (1849), and woodcut p. 282

(1861-68).

+ “Ueber die Haut der nordischen Seekuh (Zthytina borealis, Il.),”

von Dr, Alexander Brandt. Mém. l’Acad. Imp. d. Sci. de St. Pétersb.

7¢ sér. tom. xvii. No. 7 (1871).

310 Dr. J. Murie on the Skin dc. of the Rhytina.

valuable contribution to science. It deftly supplements the

rich labours of J. F. Brandt and Von Baer on this interesting

extinct form, of which not a fragment has yet found its way

to this country.

After allusion to the fact of no specimen of the skin of

Rhytina being known to have been preserved by Steller, or

prought home by the early northern adventurers, Dr. Alex-

ander Brandt proceeds to record a strange discovery of his.

He states that in January 1871, on rummaging amongst the

cabinets of corals of the Zoological Museum of the Academy,

he came across a curious specimen, which, at off-hand glance,

struck him as being a blackened portion of the bark of a Cycas.

It, however, turned out to be no tree fern or plant at all, but

absolutely a piece of the long-wished-for Rhytina-skin. This

was proved by a label in the handwriting of the defunct tra-

veller Middendorff, with the words “ Ochotskysches Meer”

(the corals in the case being from the Sandwich Islands), and

verified by the microscopical structure of the specimen.

Dr. Brandt then quotes Steller’s description of the skin of

Rhytina at full length, prefixing some critical remarks of his

own.

He proceeds to give an account of the size, outward appear-

ance, &c. of the specimen he himself had been fortunate in

finding. It measures 55 centims. long (about 214 inches),

and 40 centims. broad (154 inches). The shape of the piece

will be best understood by reference to the present fig. 1,

Pl. XIX., an exact copy of Brandt’s reduced photograph. Its

rough, gnarled character and irregularly knobby and chan-

-nelled surface in most ways agree with Steller’s account.

There is this difference, as far as my comprehension of the

case goes, that whilst Steller has in his mind’s eye the fresh

texture Dr. Brandt appeals to the same dried. But with such

a coriaceous dermal substance, as I can vouch for in the

Manatee, the rendering of the latter to nature is not far from

the truth as compared with the skin when on the animal’s

back. As if supporting the above statement, I may note that

Brandt says his piece is blackish brown; Steller alludes to the

colour as black; the same change of aspect I have myself

witnessed in the dried and moist skin of the recent Manatee.

In this place I may refer the reader to the illustration, fig. 2,

Pl. XIX., which figure represents my ideal of the appearance

of the Rhytina’s skin, given in my delineation of the animal,

reduced to very considerably under the natural size. If this be

_ compared with fig. 1 of the same plate (after Brandt), it will

be acknowledged I have made (as the phrase runs) “a long

shot.”

Dr. J. Murie on the Skin ke. of the Rhytina. 311

Unfortunately Dr. A. Brandt’s figures of the skin’s struc-

ture in its natural dimensions are too large for me to repro-

duce here; I can only afford room, therefore, for a little bit,

and that where the elevations and furrows are smallest, vide

fig. 3. He shows in other views enlargement of the papillary

and scaly prominences, and widening and greater continuity

of the furrows.

Short finer hairs and coarser bristles are sparsely dispersed

among the crevices; but, as I gather from the text, they, re-

latively to the size of the animal, are neither so long nor so

abundant as in the Manatee.

The inner surface of the piece of skin in the St.-Petersburg

Museum, whilst almost smooth compared with its exterior

surface, yet shows slight inequality by circular, flat, dome-

shaped areas. ‘These are more regular in size and shape, but

withal appear to correspond somewhat to the external papil-

lary elevations.

Steller’s original description of the intimate composition of

the skin, namely its marked tubular character, led in part to

the idea of its being a cuticular substance sui generis. It was

suggested that its peculiar composition, an outer scabrous

coat and cylindrical layer beneath, might be an adaptation

designed to protect the animal from ice-floes &c. and retain

internal heat in an inhospitable climate, so different from the

tropical regions inhabited by Manatus.

Prof. J. F. Brandt, however, previously to the finding of the

piece of skin in question, wisely, I think, correlates the dermal

covering of Rhytina to that of the Manatee.

Dr. Alex. Brandt’s recent thorough microscopical examina-

tion of the Rhytina’s skin renders clear all difficulties as to its

constituents. He demonstrates by well-drawn figures the

nature of the so-called tubules &c. A vertical section, viz. a

small piece dragged off by the nail from the specimen softened

in water (fig. 4 in our Plate), shows three layers, whereof the

middle, thickest and darkest one is composed of upright, closely

set, linear columns, the supposed tubules. Under a higher

magnifying-power the cuticular papille are found to be com-

posed of a series of epithelial cells. These, from being more

densely packed in some parts than in others, give the cylindrical

character to the derm, which is more or less of horny consistence.

In other figures of horizontal slices from the surface downwards,

irregular-shaped vacuola with pigmental margins are displayed ;

these Brandt compares to the Haversian system of fish-bone,

to which, indeed, they have much likeness. Deeper they

narrow, are rounder and more apart. Their composition is

also epithelial, close- or wide-meshed. No trace of glands was

met with.

312 Dr. J. Murie on the Skin &e. of the Rhytina.

It results that the skin of Rhytina conforms in the main

to that of the Manatee (many sections of the latter having

been examined by myself), yet with a sufficient distinctness

of its own. As Brandt seems to infer from its corneous den-

sity, it is a kind of compromise between ordinary dermal

texture and horn material.

Another important addition to previous memoirs, as given

by Dr. A. Brandt, is the fresh description, and, for the first

time, illustrations of the parasite which infested the skin of the

Rthytina. After treating of Steller’s and J. F. Brandt's notices,

without agreeing with the latter in the adoption of the genus

Sirenocyamus, Dr. A. Brandt regards this parasitic crustacean

as most nearly allied to the Cyamus ovalis of Roussel de Vau-

zeme*, He further describes the characters &c. of the two

sexes (vide figs. 5, 6, 7, Pl. XIX., after his designs).

According to our author, the differential diagnosis between

Cyamus ovalis and Cyamus Rhytine is as follows :— C.

Rhytine distinguitur a C. oval, cui valde affinis, primo articulo

corporis antice minus emarginato; manu pedis primi paris

latiori; dente anteriori secundi paris longioni, digitiformi; ap-

pendicibus branchialibus laminis corneis nigro-fuscis icras-

satis munitis.’

Remarks concerning Dr. Liitken’st genus Platycyamus, the

young stages of Oyamus, and derivations of these and kindred

forms conclude his section on the parasite.

Before summing up, some statements of Herr Pekarsky and

others are given relating to the experiences of the old northern

hunters. In their expeditions the flesh of the Rhytina was

freely eaten, the fat regarded as equal to butter, and also used

for lamps; and out of the skin capital boots were manufactured.

Dr. Alex. Brandt concludes by three propositions :—

1. Contrary to the common wide-spread acceptation, the

Rhytina, originally similar to the rest of the Sirenia and

Cetacea, possessed a smooth superficial layer of skin.

2. The ridges and furrows of the RAytina-skin are mainly

due to the ravages of the Cyamus ovalis, Rouss.

3. In its histological structure, the skin of Rhytina does

not essentially differ from that of Cetacea and Sirenia; it is

constructed, like the head-plate, of elongate filamentary cuti-

cular papille, which, by Steller naming them canals, gave

rise to misconception.

From the first two of these deductions I would venture to

dissent. In all the Cetaceans which have come under my

* Ann. d. Sci. Nat. 2° sér. tom. i. 1834, p. 259, pl. 8; and Spence Bate,

Cat. Amphipod Crust. B. M., Lond. 1862, p. 367, pl. 58.

+ Conspectus Cyamidarum borealium.

Dr. J. Murie on the Skin dc. of the Rhytina. 313

own scalpel, Phocena, Lagenorhynchus, Physalus, Grampus,

and G'lobiocephalus, the skin is tense, smooth, and free from

tubercular rugosities, the peculiar longitudinal belly-ridges

and furrows and folds of the axille being the only marked

elevations and depressions. In the Sirenian Manatus, on the

other hand, the skin, throughout the entire body, is charac-

terized by innumerable transverse, large and lesser wavy

grooves and ridges. Moreover, as in some pachyderms, the

elephant for example, there are circular and irregular-shaped

elevations of derm, giving a rough warty appearance to the

skin. These elevated areas in the Manatee are distributed

here and there, but are particularly pronounced about the

head, shoulders, and outer surface of the fore limb. That

they existed with something of the same distribution and

pattern in the Rhytina I infer from Steller’s exact description ;

only in that animal they of course would be proportionally of

greater magnitude. That the parasites would cause a certain

amount of irritation I am prepared to admit, but cannot at all

believe that to their ravages alone the dermal excoriations

of the corneous /éhytina-skin are due.

My own views regarding the relations of Rhytina towards

other Sirenia, the Cetacea, and Pachydermata I treat of in my

forthcoming memoirs on Manatus and Halitherium.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XIX.

Fig. 1. Copy of Dr. Alexander Brandt’s figure of the piece of Rhytina’s

skin found by him in the St.-Petersburg Museum. The illus-

tration has been taken from a photograph of the original speci-

men, reduced to one fifth of its natural dimensions. It represents

the outer surface.

Fig. 2. This shows a portion of the skinof Rhytina as I have delineated

it in my representment of the animal. Faithfully following

Steller’s description, and applying my knowledge of the skin of

Manatus and Halicore, 1 have produced, without a knowledge

of Brandt’s paper, an epiderm almost identical with his photo-

graph. That here shown is from the region of the back, above

and behind the fore limb.

Fig. 3. A view in part of the upper third of fig. 1, but of natural size. It

exhibits the peculiar protuberances and clefts, which are even of

greater magnitude at the lower end of the specimen, where, as

Brandt has delineated (Joc. cit. figs. 4 & 5), the elevations elon-

gate and run into one another, whilst the furrows of more regular

continuity have here and there hairs springing from them.

Fig. 4. A vertical section of the skin, of natural magnitude, and display-

ing its columnar-like character. After A. Brandt, who states

it is a piece torn by the finger-nail from the skin after being

para softened.

Fig. 5. Under surface of the female Cyamus Rhytine (Brandt), nat. size.

Fig. 6. Upper surface of the male of the same species, nat. size.

Fig. 7. A magnified view of the male parasite from the Rhytina, as deli-

neated by Brandt; abdominal aspect.

Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. ix. 22.

314 Dr. G. Bennett’s Search for Fossils in Queensland.

XXXIV.—A Trip to Queensland in search of Fossils.

By Dr. GrorcE BENNETT, F.L.S.

To the Editors of the Annals and Magazine of Natural History.

[GENTLEMEN,

I have been favoured by my friend Dr. George Bennett,

F.L.S., of Sydney, New South Wales, to whom I was in-

debted for the specimen described in my ‘ Memoir on the

Pearly Nautilus,’ and for valuable materials while investi-

gating the generative economy of the Marsupialia and Mono-

tremata, with the following account of his excursions in quest

of materials for the work on which I am now engaged, de-

scriptive of the fossil mammals of Australia.

The notes of the localities and conditions under which these

fossils are found may be, perhaps, not uninteresting to the

readers of the ‘ Annals.’

RIcHARD OWEN. |

“¢ My pEAR Owen,

“Tt will no doubt cause you some surprise when you receive this

communication informing you of my having visited Queensland, the

principal object of my visit being with the view of examining the

fossil deposits, collecting what I could during my short sojourn, and

making arrangements with friends to aid me, by pointing out to them

the localities on the creeks &c. most likely to be attended with success.

That I was correct in considering those places I selected suitable

was shown by the successful results attendant on my explorations,

to the no little surprise of my companions. I left Sydney for

Brisbane on the evening of the 3rd of November, and arrived at

Brisbane on the morning of the 6th. The following day I was in-

troduced to the Hon. J. P. Bell and other members of the Govern-

ment; and Mr. Walsh, the Minister for Works, finding my visit was

for scientific purposes, gave me a free pass over all the railways of

the colony. Mr. A. B. Buchanan, M.L.A., also gave me a letter to

Mr. Beattie, the superintendent of his station at Chinchilla, where

he expected I should find some fossil deposits. The principal places

I visited for fossils, and where I found, as others some years pre-

viously had also discovered, the richest deposits, were the Gowrie

Creek, on the Gowrie station, the property of George King, Esq.,

M.L.A., of Sydney, and King’s Creek, Clifton station, the property

of W. B. Tooth, Esq. At the former place I received the kindest

assistance from the proprietor’s sons, Mr. George Beresford King and

Mr. Henry King; at the latter a welcome and every aid from Mr. W.

B. Tooth himself. The consequence was, in the very brief time allowed

me to explore the creeks, the weather being fortunately very

favourable, I made a collection which I hope you will find of some

utility ; moreover promises have been made to me by those gentle-

men and many others to send me from time to time such specimens

Dr. G. Bennett’s Search for Fossils in Queensland. 315

as they may be able to collect; and this has already been done by

Mr. G. B. King, first by a fossil crocodile’s tooth having been left for

me at Gowrie Junction station, on my return from Warwick, and

afterwards by the discovery of some fossil jaws with teeth in situ,

and an important tradition respecting these extinct animals obtained

from one of the aborigines: this was embodied in a letter addressed

to me at Ipswich, previously to my departure from Brisbane. The

letter is dated ‘Gowrie, December 1, 1871,’ and is as follows :—

‘ Since you left we have discovered a few very valuable fossils ; one,

apparently belonging to the Diprotodon?, is almost a complete jaw,

with all the molar teeth and the two front teeth similar to those in

the lower jaw of the kangaroo as far as position is concerned, but

being more round and without the sharp cutting-edges. Another is

part of the left side of the lower jaw, seemingly part of the jaw-

bone above described, and this has two perfect (molar?) teeth and

one broken tooth;-the others are vertebre and smaller bones. I

have had a long conversation with ‘‘Charlie Pierce,” an aboriginal,

relative to these fossils; and he avers that they are those of an

animal long since extinct, known to the natives by the name of

“Gyedarra.” ‘Tradition among them has handed down the appear-

ance and habits of this animal for generations; but Charlie says he

never paid much attention to the descriptions that have been given

to him, but imagines the animal was as large as a heavy draught-

horse, walked on four legs, the same as any other four-footed beast,

eating grass, never went any distance back from the creeks to feed,

and spent most of its time in the water, chiefly in enormous holes

excavated in the banks. I told him he must mean some other ani-

mal; but he spoke most positively, and asserted that the bones we

have been finding are those of the animal of which he was speaking,

and that at one time the bones were very numerous about the

Gowrie water-holes, where his forefathers had seen the animals

themselves sporting about. I again asked him if they did not live

on the leaves of trees; and his reply was that they were never seen

to feed on them, but always on grass, the same as a horse or bullock.

I will see if more specimens can be procured, and send them after

you to Sydney.’

“On the 9th of November I left Brisbane for Ipswich by coach,

and from Ipswich to Dalby by the railroad, where I arrived at 7 p.m.

On the following morning I left Dalby for Jimbour, the station of

the Hon. J. P. Bell, who had kindly invited me. There are no fos-

sils to be obtained at this and other stations in the vicinity, except

when wells are dug. A small jaw with well-preserved teeth was

given to me by Mrs. Bell (probably of a kangaroo), which had been

found on Jimbour Plains, 140 feet beneath the surface, when dig-

ging a well; a large bone had also been found with it, but was lost.

A tusk given by Mrs. Bell to Mr. Anthony Trollope, when visiting

this place a short time since, was also found on this station when

forming another well. At another station near Jimbour, Mr. G.

Morris Simpson, of ‘Bon Accord,’ near Dalby, ae me with

316 Dr. G. Bennett’s Search for Fossils in Queensland.

some fossil teeth and bones procured there, and with a memorandum

accompanying them, dated Nov. 21, 1871, as follows :—< The ac-

companying bones were dug out of a well which I have had made

in the centre of the large plain which extends from Jondaryan on

the Oakey Creek, on the north, to Yandilla, on the Condamine, on

the south. They were got at a depth of about fifty feet from the

surface, imbedded in a sort of sandy drift. It would seem to me as

if the head of the animal had come in the line of shaft, the rest of

the bones being probably on one side.’ I have all these bones kept

together for your examination, with Mr. Simpson’s memorandum

respecting them ; they are fine tusks, but broken, and one perfect

molar tooth, fragments of the skull, and other parts. On passing a

station of Mr. Simpson’s, on the 16th of November, on my return

from Jimbour to Dalby, I met him superintending the sinking of a

well: no water had been found at a depth of 131 feet, but a quan-

tity of small fragments of fossil bones, of no utility, and some teeth;

the latter were small; he gave them to me, and they are sent to

ou.

“On the 14th of November, my son, Mr. G. F. Bennett, and my-

self left Jimbour for the Chinchilla station, the property of A. B.

Buchanan, M.L.A., and arrived there on the 16th. Mr. Bucha-

nan’s superintendent was absent; but one of the men pointed out

to us a rock which Mr. Buchanan supposed contained a fossil head :

this was not apparent; but several other rocks of a similar forma-

tion cropped out of the ground about 200 yards from the Condamine

river, and near a deep gully which, during heavy rains, carried off

the water from the higher range of hills into the river. The parti-

cular rock alluded to, said to contain fossils, was of small size, being

only eight feet long by six feet in breadth; and the only fossils

visible were fragments imbedded in a hard grit or breccia. The

surface of the rock was with some force removed in flakes by the

use of the pick, and with them some fragments of fossils; but the

mass of the rock was so very firm as to resist all our efforts, and to

completely blunt the edge of the pick. At this part, sloping down

towards the gully, a quantity of fragments of fossil bones were

found scattered over the surface, among which was a fossil kangaroo’s

incisor tooth: all these are sent to you in the collection made at

Chinchilla, together with some tusks, teeth, &c., collected by Mr. T.

J. Beattie. We left Chinchilla on the morning of the 15th of No-

vember, and arrived at Warrawarra, the station of Mr. Henry Thorne,

who informed me that he had a long time since some fossil bones,

which he supposed were still about the house; but when he went

in search of them, he found the children had thrown them away, he

could not find out where; and thus, no doubt, many important fos-

sils are lost to science. He, however, very kindly (more so as they

were busy shearing at the time), took some men and drove with us

to the banks of the river Condamine, on the station, where he

thought some fossils might be found, when in a short time we pro-

cured those in the collection sent from the Warrawarra station. We

Dr. G. Bennett’s Search for Fossils in Queensland. 317

returned to Jimbour in the evening, a distance of fifty miles. On

the 17th of November I arrived at Gowrie station, where, in the

creek running through the station, so many important fossil bones

had previously been obtained, I was at first at a loss how to com-

mence my explorations; having no one with any previous knowledge

of the places to direct me, I was thus left to my own resources,

So I drove to the creek, but beheld at first only high banks, either

with plain surfaces of red loam or rich black alluvial deposits, with

a few plants scattered about, in some parts grooved with water-

channels more or less deep, but nothing to indicate deposits, fossil

or otherwise ; or I came upon other portions of the banks dense

with vegetation, where even the narrow running stream was in many

places almost choked with the dense masses of reeds and rushes: all

combined formed a scene most uninviting to an explorer of fossil

remains. I soon left this useless part of the creek, and, driving a

few miles further down, stopped, and then descending, walked along

the banks for a short distance, and at last came upon a bank which

excited my attention: it consisted of alluvial soil, with concretions

of marl, strata of water-worn pebbles, and remains of perfect and

broken univalve and bivalve shells. This locality I regarded as

favourable for commencing my search for fossils ; and I was right in

my conjecture; for I was gratified, and still further induced to per-

severe, by finding several fragments of fossil bones imbedded in this

bank. I then observed two teeth projecting from the soil, with the

well-known dull-blue colour, from vivianite, and, by careful digging

around it, obtained the portion of the jaw marked, in the collection

sent to you, ‘Gowrie, A’—the first acquisition of any importance.

On excavating some distance around this specimen, not a vestige of

any other portions of the jaw or any other kind of fossils could be

discovered; but, extending my search in the same line to the bed

of the creek, and close to where the water was flowing, I found a

large lower portion of a femur deeply imbedded in the soil (marked

Gowrie, B); and this explains how so many of the fossil bones are

found in the bed of the creek, having been washed down from the

banks during perhaps years of heavy rains and floods; and then,

during the intense heat of summer, the creek became dry; for, as

the man (an old shepherd) who drove me said, he was present when

Mr. Isaac found and dug out the large head and other remains from

the creek; but then, he stated, ‘there was no running stream then,

but only dried-up water-holes.’ It was observing this peculiar

formation of water-worn pebbles and shells on the banks that led

me to suppose that the fossil remains were to be found in those

localities where this stratum was found; and wherever I observed

similar appearances on the banks of creeks, I explored them, at-

tended with more or less success, and at last obtained a key to more

successful explorations, which I afterwards followed up during my

visits to Gowrie, and also when at King’s Creck. Clifton, not for-

getting, also, to examine the bed of the creek near those positions

when the dry season would permit. By pointing out these localities

318 Dr. G. Bennett’s Search for Fossils in Queensland.

to others, they have been equally successful, as the acquisition of ©

valuable specimens can testify ; and my friends both at Gowrie and

Clifton have promised to follow up the researches from time to time,

and forward the specimens obtained to me. The univalve and bi-

valve shells, before alluded to as found both entire and in fragments

in the strata, are still living in the creeks ; and I have sent one of a

species of Unio, or river-mussel, obtained in King’s Creek, where

both living and dead shells could be obtained in any quantity. The

Darling Downs are plains of great extent, more or less undulating,

with a background of hills of various picturesque forms, and ranges

of mountains, some open forest, others densely wooded and in many

parts edged with open forest, and diversified with dense scrubs of

various species of Hucalypti, Casuarine, Acane, ke. &e. The

plains are rich in grass, growing in a fertile black soil, which ex-

tends to a great depth (to judge from some of the banks of the creek,

from 30 to 40 feet, and from the digging of wells, from 121 to 157

feet), imbedded in which are often found concretions of carbonate of

lime, many of which were shown to me. Dispersed through the

grass are a number of beautiful flowering shrubs and plants, which

enhance the beauty of the plains, especially after rains. Marl was

also obtained both on the banks of the creek and in digging wells ;

and as marl consists of clay containing a small admixture of lime,

binding it together into a loose crumbling kind of stone, it assumed

various forms when dug out or seen on the banks; and it was often

mistaken for fossil bones. I am inclined to consider that the plains

of Darling Downs were originally lakes, similar to a lake now ex-

isting on the boundaries of the Halliford and St.-Ruth stations,

called the ‘ Broadwater,’ which is said to be about four miles in

circumference and two miles across; but it is not of a great depth.

When I saw it, the surface of the water was covered with a number

of wild ducks swimming about, and at some distance I could per-

ceive several black swans. This lake is surrounded by large trees

of Eucalypti &c.; and in the water close to the flat shore dense

masses of the white and also of the blue water-lilies (Melumbium)

were growing. It is probable that in the course of time this piece

of water will also be filled up, and become similar to the downs.

“When sinking wells, after finding a great depth of rich black

soil, the clay and sandy drift is arrived at, and then again an

alluvial deposit (so it has been mentioned to me) to the depth of

nearly 200 feet. When fossils are found in the bed of the creek or

in the banks, they have no doubt been disturbed by the heavy rains

which occur in this tropical climate, and have gradually drifted with

the percolating water, together with pebbles,. fragments of stones,

shells, &c., through the soft soil towards where the waters naturally

flow—that is, towards the creeks, where they have been found, and

in most instances in a very friable condition; whereas when pro-

cured by digging wells, they are found in a perfectly dry condition,

or nearly so. Thus, from what I have seen of the soft nature and

scattered state of the bones when found, I do not consider it at all

Dr. G. Bennett’s Search for Fossils in Queensland. 319

likely that a complete skeleton will be found at one place, not even

of the comparatively smaller extinct species of mammals, unless by

some extraordinary chance an excavation should be made on a

sandy drift, which is not very probable. My reason for stating this

is, that, when a large bone or portion of a head is discovered, on

examining about the immediate locality it is seldom or never that

any further remains are found, though perhaps, a few yards distant

some remains of a perfectly distinct animal are detected; but se-

veral miles distant, or in another creek, such as Oakley, Gowrie,

or King’s Creek, more portions of a similar kind of animal would be

discovered, as if they had drifted miles away, and the decayed por-

tions of the animals, before becoming fossilized, had passed through

the soft alluvial soil in various directions, aided by the action of

water. This may account also for the bones of various species of

the extinct animals being found about the same locality. Judging

from the fossil remains, the mammals now extinct must have existed

in great numbers; for the quantity of small fragments of bones that

could be collected is enormous, and there is not so much difficulty

in procuring specimens in situations I have before mentioned as in

obtaining them in a perfect or partially perfect state. It often occurs,

when collecting fossils, that one observes a bone projecting from the

soil, and, on digging around it, the slightest concussion, although

apparently remote, will cause it to crumble into minute fragments.

When excavated from the soil in a soft state, it is advisable to leave

them untouched and exposed to the air, when they soon become hard

and capable of remoyal. The height of the banks where the fossils

were found varied from one to six or seven feet.

“On the 20th of November I left Gowrie for Dalby and Halli-

ford station, having made during my short visit a very interesting

collection of fossils, which are forwarded to you; and on the 23rd 1

returned to Gowrie, where a few fossils, collected during my ab-

sence, awaited my arrival, and were added to my collection. In the

evening I left for Clifton station, by railroad, where I arrived at

7 p.m. On the following morning, in company with Mr.W. B. Tooth

and his son, we explored ‘ King’s Creek.’ At this place, as at

Gowrie, I pointed out the most probable places in which fossil re-

mains might be found. King’s Creek in many places is a noble

stream of water; and it was only in the more shallow parts that we

could pursue our researches with success. After a drive of some

miles we observed an isolated conglomerate pebbly rock of some

size, with the creek running close to it; we alighted and examined

it. This boulder appeared as if it had been detached many years

before from the adjoining bank; and under a shelving portion of it

‘fairy martens’ (Collocalia Ariel of Gould) had constructed their

curious and elaborate bottle-shaped nests, in which white eggs and

young just hatched were observed. This species always builds in-

land, and congregates about the squatters’ verandas and near the

water. This conglomerate rock (of which I have given a rude

sketch) appeared to be likely to have fossils; and after some search,

320 Dr. G. Bennett’s Search for Fossils in Queensland.

resulting only in a few fragments, the perfect tooth (Clifton, A) was

found at the base. This rock consists of marly concretions, in which

A conglomerate Boulder on the bank of King’s Creek.

large and small pebbles or fragments of stone were imbedded, more

or less rounded by the action of water. No more fossils were ob-

tained from this rock after a further search. We afterwards explored

other portions of the banks of King’s Creek ; but as this creek ex-

tends by its winding course over a large tract of country, much was

left for future investigations. From my previous experience, I only

explored those sites where I observed a similar stratum and appear-

ance of the banks as obtained at Gowrie; and the result in a short

time far exceeded my expectations. One circumstance I remarked

at this place was, that, at the particular sites alluded to before, more

fossils were found imbedded in the soft soil near the running stream

of water in the creek than at Gowrie, having most probably been

long since washed down by the heavy rains and floods from the

banks, and left undisturbed. The collection obtained from this

creek is sent to you; and having pointed out to Mr. W. B. Tooth

the places where fossils might most likely be obtained, he has pro-

mised to send me any he may be able to procure. Thus in my brief

visit to Queensland I so far attained the object I had in view when

I left Sydney, not only to observe and judge for myself respecting

the localities where the fossil remains you have described had been

found (which [ did not see, as no one at the station could identify

the sites), but observe for myself in what particular situations ad-

ditional fossils could most readily be found. This I did discover,

and pointed out to others the areas most likely to yield them without

unnecessary fatigue and loss of time. In this I consider I have in

a great measure succeeded.

“T took with me to Queensland your memoir on Diprotodon, the

ee eee

Miscellaneous. Sei

engravings of which excited the admiration of all who saw them.

Many readily recognized several of the bones delineated, and ex-

pressed their surprise at the great accuracy with which they were

represented, even, as many remarked, to the ‘marks of age upon the

bones.’ The ‘old bones’ (by many considered useless, and thrown

away, or which, as some informed me, were broken to discover if

they were really bones or stones assuming their forms) they never

imagined could be so treated by paleontologists, who they were not

aware possessed the power, until they saw these works, of depicting

the ancient race of Australian animals, re-forming them into living

structures, imparting to these long extinct animals the motion of

animated life, and, as fossils bear the marks of their relative anti-

quity, are enabled to fix the date of the rock in which they are found.

“T remain, my dear Owen,

“Sydney, New South Wales. ** Your sincere Friend,

“ Dec. 22, 1871.” ‘‘GrorGe Bennert, M.D.”

MISCELLANEOUS.

Osteology of the Solttaire.

To the Editors of the Annals and Magazine of Natural Mistory.

GrnTLEMEN,—Prof. Owen remarks on a statement in my former

letter. concerning an inquiry made of him :—* Had this been so, I

could not have forgotten the circumstance.” Now “ this” was “so;”

and I can therefore only regret his memory has so sadly failed him.

Whatever “incidental mention of the Solitaire’s bones” might

have been made “in one of the basement storerooms” of the British

Museum, the particular inquiry in question was expressly put to

him in his own room upstairs.

My brother, writing from Mauritius in December 1860, informed

me that these bones had been sent to Prof. Owen; and when it

became necessary for us to enumerate all the known remains of -the

Solitaire, we of course endeavoured to obtain particulars of them

from him. To obtain these was one of the chief objects of our call-

ing upon him at the time he mentions. He had previously by letter

kindly made arrangements whereby we could examine the bones of

the Dodo in the “storeroom,” for which arrangements we thanked

him.

Prof. Owen repeats the assertion that “he first learnt” our “ in-

terest in the subject” from our paper in the ‘ Philosophical Trans-

actions.’ This, as I have already said, is not the case any more

than that he can have “satisfied” any inquirer into the fate of the

specimens by the “information” he has given. His final disclaimer,

in the same sentence, of intending any “imputation of carelessness” ~

requires acknowledgment from me. I only wish it had been ex-

pressed sooner, but trust that, now made, it will end the matter,

I remain, Gentlemen,

Magdalene College, Cambridge. Your obedient Servant,

9 March, 1872. Atrrep Nrewron.

322 Miscellaneous.

On the Grey Seal (Halichcerus gryphus).

By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &e.

Many years ago I was informed that the large seals lived on the

west coast of South Wales. I observed them with an opera-glass

in St. Bride’s Bay, and I was convinced they were the grey seal. I

offered a reward for the animal alive or dead, or for its skin and

skull, but was never able to obtain one. Several have been shot, but

they either escape or sink. This winter I received a note from

Mr. Stokes, of Cuffern in Pembrokeshire, informing me that Thomas

at St. David’s had two young seals. I immediately sent the note

to the Secretary of the Zoological Society, stating that the usual

St.-David’s seal was the grey seal, which I believe has never been

in the Gardens, and the Society had better send a person to see the

seals and procure them. Neither Mr. Stokes nor I ever received

any account of the result; but I am told there are two grey seals

from St. David’s in the Gardens, which are doubtless those I re-

ferred to.

The grey seal was first observed in Ireland by Mr. Ball, who

made several figures of it. Now we have specimens from the

west coast of Wales ; and I believe that it is found in various parts

of the Irish Sea and St. George’s Channel. I have heard of speci-

mens being seen in the Isle of Man; and I have reason to believe,

from parts of skin which I have seen, they occur as far south as

the Land’s End and Scilly Islands.

IT have not been able to procure an animal, or any part of one,

from the east coast of Scotland. We have one from the Fern

Islands in the British Museum. It is found in the North Sea, and

also in the Baltic.

On the Acclimatization and Anatomy of Pericheeta diffringens, Baird.

By M. L. Varian.

Dr. Baird was the first, in 1869, to indicate this worm as living

in a hothouse in North Wales. A little later I presented several

specimens of it to the Philomathic Society*, when the peculiarities

connected with the locomotion of this annelid were confirmed. The

individuals collected by M. Guinard in the neighbourhood of Mont-

pellier were obtained from M. Fage’s hothouses, where they had

been introduced in vessels containing Orchidee sent by M. Mazel

from Monsauve (near Anduse), with whom this curious species

has also become acclimatized. It is remarkable that both in England

and in France it is with Orchidex that the transportation appears

to have been effected. Being persuaded that this circumstance must

be very general, I have endeavoured to extend these observations ;

and last year I requested M. L. Rousseau to ascertain whether this

curious animal did not also occur at the Museum. Several horti-

culturists have also kindly lent me their aid; and almost every-

where my previsions have been realized; and we may now assert that

* Bull. Soc. Philom. tom. vii. p. 25 (1870).

Miscellaneous. o25

this Pertcheta is very widely spread, its resemblance to the true

Lumbrici alone causing it not to be recognized.

According to my observations this worm, whilst seeking moisture

and warmth, delights in light and aérated soils. Under conditions

of captivity in which the earthworms easily live, P. diffringens does

not thrive well; in damp moss it survives for a considerable time,

but in a wet clay or marly clay soil it dies in a few days. When

placed in water, suffocation takes place comparatively quickly.

When this annelid is dead the middle part of its body is already

decomposed, whilst the two extremities, having retained their normal

appearance, are still capable of contracting under the influence of

excitants. In Lumbricus terrestris, as is well known, decomposition

under these circumstances advances with more regularity from

behind forwards. When irritated, the animal, like various Zum-

rici, emits from its dorsal perforations a greenish-yellow liquid,

full of Psorospermie, measuring 0°026 by 0-018 millim., and having

very granular contents.

Anatomically P. diffringens differs but little from P. cingulata and

posthuma, which I described in 1867. The nervous system is con-

structed on the same plan. Behind the testes, in the midst of the

great dorso-ventral vascular trunks, I have found lateral, pyriform,

ganglionic inflations, measuring 0°128 by 0-092 millim., situated

upon the course of the nerves, which recalls to mind an arrangement

well known in some Hirudinee. The nerves which spring from

the connectives uniting the ventral ganglia are very distinct, as in

Iumbricus. In the last four or five segments the ganglia become

less distinct, and the two lateral halves of the apparatus tend to

separate.

-The gizzard presents interiorly a translucent chitinous apparatus,

of an opaline white colour, with iridescent reflections, forming a

section of an hexagonal pyramid, nearly 4 millims. in height ; and this

apparatus, singularly enough, does not adhere to the wall of the

digestive canal, a fact which in my previous researches I believed

(but, as it seems, wrongly) was to be ascribed to the state of

preservation of the individuals submitted to my examination,

The intestinal part of the digestive cavity, less simple than in

Lumbricus terrestris, varies in colour in the course of its passage ;

and in this respect we may distinguish in it three portions: the

first, extending to the lateral ceeca, already well known in P. cin-

gulata, is reddish, as are also these czeca at their adherent portion ;

the second and the bottom of the czeca are yellowish ; and the third

portion, which is less inflated than the preceding, is brownish red.

The dissepiments which sustain this last appear more distinct.

In this species I have not met with the large gland which, in the

species previously studied, unites by its duct with the deferent

duct towards its opening; on the other hand, the latter, which is

0-08 millim. in width during its course, becomes inflated into a

club at its termination, where its diameter attains 0°48 millim.

This dilated portion is recurved in the form of an 8; the wall, which

is very thick, seems to contain some glandular cells, but is chiefly

324 Miscellaneous.

composed of contractile fibres. There are four pairs of spermatic

reservoirs*, each consisting of a double vesicle, the outer one much

larger than the inner, and both furnished with a duct; these ducts

unite, to open externally at the intersections of the third, fourth,

fifth, sixth, and .seventh segments, by orifices which are rendered

visible by pale latero-central spots. The two vesicles and their ducts

are situated behind each of the dissepiments. These reservoirs con-

tain granular cells, with spermatozoids and Psorospermiz of 0-010 by

0-006 millim. ; the latter abound especially in the largest vesicles

of each pair.

In short, P. diffringens, in all the essential parts of its organiza-

tion, resembles the species which have already been studied, and

confirms the views expressed by me in previous memoirs.— Comptes

Rendus, August 7, 1871, pp. 385-387.

On the Animal of the Glass-rope. By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.RS. &e.

Mr. F. Kitton, in Hardwicke’s ‘Science Gossip’ for March 1872,

makes some ‘‘ Remarks on Palythoa investing the Glass-rope Sponge,”

and figures some of the animals growing on the surface of a ray’s

ova-case, evidently considering that this proves their parasitic

nature. He mentions a second case, in which they were growing

on a riband frond of some species of Algze.

I regard both these instances as proving just the contrary.

“The Algz had become entangled with the glass-rope.” The egg-

case of the ray is very often to be found attached by its elongated

ends to the glass-rope. I believe the figure only represents some of

the eggs or buds of the polypes growing on its surface, to which they

have become accidentally attached; and that they will never come

to perfection so as to form a crust or develope the rope-like spi-

cules. My reason for believing this to be the case is that the po-

lypes are isolated; they are of very different sizes, some being very

small and others being large ; some are crowded one upon the other,

so as to deform their shape, very unlike the uniform crust they form

on the glass-rope; and I bave no doubt of their being incapable,

from their position, of developing the usual rope.

Mr. Kitton states “that the examination of the Palythoa when

found apart from the sponge has enabled him to ascertain the spi-

cules peculiar to it. Figs. 24 & 25 of his previous paper appear to

be the only forms of spicula really belonging to the Palythoa.” He

omits to state that these spicules are siliceous, like the other spicules

found in the rope and bark of Hyalonema, which have not hitherto

been found in Palythoa; and the two forms he mentions from a

polype only differ from those found in other parts of that coral in

being thicker and more spinose.

* T think it necessary to indicate that the improper name of capsuli-

genous glands must no longer be employed, or at least referred to

D’Udekem, who has formally reverted to the opinion of Leuckart in his

well-lnown work on the genital organs of Aolosoma and Chetogaster..

Miscellaneous. 325

In a previous number of ‘Science Gossip,’ Mr. Kitton figures the

Hyalonema with its parasitical-sponge (fig. 19), and the various

spicules which he has observed in different parts of it (figs. 21-31):

these figures are good, except fig. 20, representing the ends of a

broken “fibre of the rope. He does not seem to be aware that

Hyalonema is more common without its parasitic sponge at the tip

than with it; but the specimens with the sponge were formerly

more sought for by travellers and brought to England, whilst

the Russian specimens, being collected by naturalists, were chiefly

without this parasite; and now we constantly receive them without

any appearance of sponge, covered with living polypes up to the tip

of the rope.

On Prognathodus Giintheri (Zyerton), a new Genus of Fossil Fish

from the Inas of Lyme Regis. By Sir P. pe M. Grey Eérrton,

Bart., M.P., F.R.S., F.G.8.

In this paper the author described a new form of fossil fish,

having a broad premaxillary plate somewhat resembling the incisor

tooth of a gigantic Rodent, a single maxillary plate like that of

Callorhynchus, and a mandibular dental apparatus closely resembling

that of Cochliodus. For this form he proposed the establishment of

the new genus Prognathodus, and named the species P. Giintheri.

Ischyodus Johnsoni, Agassiz, also probably belongs to this genus, as

it agrees with P. Gunther in the characters of the premaxillary

teeth. The author was doubtful as to the exact position of this

genus, which had a head extended in a horizontal instead of a ver-

tical plane, suggesting a resemblance to Zygaena, but covered with

hard plates like the head of a sturgeon, and exhibited in the dental

apparatus the curious combination indicated above,

Dr. Ginruer pointed out the interest attaching to the dentition

of this fossil fish as being an additional evidence in favour of the

connexion between the Ganoid and Chimeroid forms. The exist-

ence of three teeth instead of one on each side of the jaw, as in

Ceratodus and others, presented in it a generic character; but the

type was still the same. On one point he slightly differed from the

view of the author; and that was as to the application of the terms

maxillary and premaxillary to the teeth. He thought the former

belonged rather to the pterygo-palatine arch, and that the teeth in

the front of the jaw should be regarded‘as vomerine. He illustrated

this by reference to the jaws and dentition of sharks, Chimeroids,

and certain Ganoids, such as sturgeons. In these the teeth, instead

of being connected with the maxillary and premaxillary bones,

were, in fact, connected with the pterygo-palatine arch. He con-

sidered that this furnished additional grounds for including all three

forms in one subclass.—Proc. Geol. Soc. March 6, 1872.

Felis pardinoides. By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.RS. &e.

In the Minutes of the Meeting of the Zoological Society on the

20th February last, Mr. Sclater observes, a paper was read *‘ by Mr. D.

326 Miscellaneous.

G, Elliot on a cat described by Dr. Gray in the ‘ Proceedings of the

Zoological Society ’ for 1867 as Felis pardinoides from India, which

Mr. Elliot considered to be identical with Felis Geoffroyi of South

America.” If Mr. Sclater had referred to page 400 of the ‘ Pro-

ceedings’ above quoted, he would have found that the specimen

there described was received from the museum of the Zoological

Society, marked as having been brought from “ India by Capt.

Innes.” So if there be any mistake as to the habitat, the Society is

responsible. It is curious that Felis Geoffroyi is said to be the

same as Ff. pardinoides and Pardalina Warwicki, which haye very

different skulls,

Discovery of a remarkable Fossil Bird. By Prof. O. C. Marsa*.

One.of the treasures secured during our explorations this year

was the greater portion of the skeleton of a large fossil bird, at

least five feet in height, which I was fortunate enough to discover

in the Upper Cretaceous of Western Kansas. This interesting spe-

cimen, although a true bird (as is clearly shown by the vertebree

and some other parts of the skeleton), differs widely from any known

recent or extinct form of that class, and affords a fine example of a

comprehensive type. The bones are all well preserved. The femur

is very short ; but the other portions of the legs are quite elongated.

The metatarsal bones appear to have been separated. On my re-

turn, I shall fully describe this unique fossil under the name

Hesperornis regalis.—Silliman’s American Journal, Jan. 1872.

Pigs of the Society Islands. -

“Down by the sea [at Tahiti] was an enormous yard full of pigs,

and such pigs! of all sizes, from a Guinea-pig to a Shetland pony—

of all colours, from a zebra toa negro. And as for shape, they were

thin where they ought to be fat, long where they ought to be short,

more like great wedges with the sharp end uppermost than any

thing else I can think of. Such gaunt horrible monsters were

never beheld; the scene was like the nightmare of a dyspeptic

farmer.

“The pigs [of Huahine] presented to us turn out to be hideous

little animals of some aboriginal breed, at least one third head, and

very ugly head too. They gave one the general impression of having

been squeezed from their youth up between two tight boards. And

their manner corresponded with their appearance: wickeder pork,

for its age, I never saw alive. When Stevedore Mitchell civilly

offered one a banana, it flew at him and barked like a dog, to his

no small discomfiture. Then it dropped on its fore knees, and

seemed for some time to be wrapped in religious contemplation.

After fortifying its soul with prayer, it quite suddenly, and quite

* From a letter to Professor Dana, dated San Francisco, Cal., Nov.

29th, 1871.

Miscellaneous. 327

ad propos des bottes, attacked one of our little Maori porkers, who

was poking about the deck, thinking no evil; and a tremendous fight

ensued. Maori was so fat and round, that for some time the new

‘chum’ could not raise a bite out of him, more particularly as he

steadily presented the fattest and roundest part of his person to his

adversary. At last a new idea seemed to strike the latter, and he

took poor Maori by the tail, and made him squeak again. Maori,

paralyzed for a time, retired into a quiet corner thought the thing

over, and, his native fighting blood gradually rising to boiling-point,

he came out with a rush, and, with many a prod and poke and bite,

finished off his slab-sided assailant in one last and decisive round.

«He said that the queen (of Raiatea) had asked him to ask me

whether I would give her one of our ‘little round pigs,’ as she

expressed it, which, of course, I did, with many expressions of good

will. I have often been asked for a photograph on leaving, or per-

haps a lock of my hair, but never before for ‘a little round pig.’

These Society Islands are certainly original places.”—Eart oF

PempBroke, ‘ South-Sca Bubbles,’ pp. 48, 87, 120.

Flyingfish.

‘“‘Sailed for Huahine. Saw a very long-flighted flyingfish, with

large red pectorals, like a gurnet, which possibly it was. Flying-

fish do fly, moving their pectoral fins with extreme rapidity, like a

pair of twin screws. Moreover they raise and lower themselves

over the tops of waves, and do not dip into them to wet either their

whistles or their wings. I do not think that their flight is neces-

sarily the proof of submarine persecution: of course they fly if the

bonito is after them; but I suspect that, as often as not, they fly for

the mere fun of the thing. Why else do they make such wild dabs

at the bits of light in a ship’s side at night? I remember, between

Panama and Rapa, I used to see the cabin ‘ bulls’-eyes’ surrounded

by a circle of scales every morning, left there by flyingfish attracted

by the light within, and possibly asking for a passage.

I should consider two hundred yards avery good flight for a flying-

fish; and very few there be who do it, twenty or thirty being the general

range. Itseems limited, in some degree, by the difficulty of keeping

the body horizontal. The tail droops more and more and more, and

at last, splash! he goes into the sea. It struck me that as the

flyingfish grew scarcer they grew larger, as if only the very big

and strong individuals could reach the outside of the circle. When-

ever I have seen them in the New-Zealand seas they have been

large and solitary. The largest I ever saw (22 inches, if I recol-

lect right) flew on board the ‘ Tauranga,’ a small steamer in which

I was taking a passage to the Bay of Islands in New Zealand. It

went slap into the engine-room, and smote the engineer a smart rap

on the cheek. He, supposing that his stoker had assaulted him,

used language which I need not repeat, and threatened reprisals.

On explanation being given, however, the fish was discovered, and

328 Miscellaneous. .

handed over to Dr. Hector for preservation in the Colonial Museum,

where it may now, I have no doubt, be seen by the curious.

“From Panama to Wellington, from New Zealand to New Cale-

donia, from Auckland to Tahiti and back again, a fair number of

miles, I have watched the flyingfish carefully, and I never saw one

seized by a bird in its flight. Nor have I ever seen such an occur-

rence in the Atlantic or West-Indian seas. I cannot doubt that it

happens somewhere, because I have seen pictures of it; but in the

seas I know it must be rare. Possibly other lands other manners,

and, likely enough, other flyingfish and sea-fowl. I should as soon

think it possible for a kiw to catch a rifle-ball in full flight, as for

any real sea-bird to seize a flyingfish on the wing. The albatros

I dismiss at once, his chances of trying are too few to bring him

into question, as far as the South Pacific is concerned. ‘The frigate-

bird, or man-of-war hawk, decidedly the swiftest flier amongst sea-

birds I have ever seen, seems to have given up fishing on his own

account altogether, and makes use of the tern as his fishmonger,

The tern, if the sea be smooth, has a neat little way of picking up

small morsels from its surface, and, if necessary, makes a very

respectable gannet-like splash; never, however, as far as I have

seen, immersing himself, and always keeping his wings in motion

to get him up again.

«The gannet, a splendid yellow-headed species of which is common

in the South Pacific, is, I think, the finest of all fishing-birds from

John o’ Groat’s House to the Chatham Islands. But even he could

never catch a flyingfish, his strong point being ‘ perpendicular,’ not

the horizontal pace. Soaring high, he marks his prey beneath him,

and shutting up his wings (like a wood-pigeon darting into cover)

he plunges downwards with a splash that makes one’s head ache to

look at; and after a semicircular dive of five or six yards he

emerges, sneezing and flapping with his prey safely lodged in his

throat.”—Eart oF PemBroxe, South-Sea Bubbles, pp. 62-64.

Sunfish.

‘Whilst sitting in the canoe, something passed us swimming about

a foot under the water, which I took for a turtle, but which Joe

declared to be a sunfish. I have often seen sunfish (at Bora Bora)

basking upright in the water; but this one was swimming, not quite

on its side, but at a certain angle in the water ; and the wavy motion

of its fins gave it a very remarkable appearance, quite unlike any

fish I have ever seen. Unluckily we had no heavy spear in the

boat; or we might easily have secured it. Joe tells me that about a

month ago a very large one was killed in the harbour, and that it

had three live young ones in it: so much alive that they began to

swim as soon as they were put into the water. I cross-questioned

him on the subject; but he declared that there was no mistake,

there were three live little sunfishes in the old one. I do not

remember to have heard before that the sunfish was viviparous.”’—

Haru or Pemproxsg,. South-Sea Bubbles, pp. 130, 131.

THE ANNALS

AND

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[FOURTH SERIES. |

No. 53. MAY 1872.

XXXV.—On Oneirodes Eschrichtii, Liitken, a new Lophioid

Fish from Greenland. By Dr. Cur. LUTKEN*.

[Plate LX.]

SOME years ago Dr. Giinthert described and figured, under

the name of Melanocetus Johnsonti, a remarkable Lophioid

fish 3°8 inches in length, which Mr. J. Y. Johnson had ob-

tained at Madeira. ‘This differed from all previously known

(or properly systematized) Batrachioid fishes, with the excep-

tion of Ceratias Holbéllit, in wanting the ventral fins, and

from the rare and large Greenland Lophioid just mentioned,

amongst other things, by its perfectly smooth and naked skin.

It may be regarded as a great rarity ; for neither Mr. Johnson

nor Mr. Lowe, both of whom have occupied themselves so

much and with such great results about the marine animal-

life of Madeira, had heard it spoken of previously, and, be-

sides, the fish was quite unknown on the spot. Dr. Giinther

thinks that it is a deep-sea fish ; and this may certainly be

accepted with perfect justice with regard to this as with

regard to so so many others which are of rare occurrence

in literature and collections, because it is only accidentally

or under very peculiar circumstances that they are drawn

froin their usual habitation in the nearly inaccessible depths

of thesea. In the specimen described by Giinther, apparently

the only one of which any thing is at present known, the

belly was very strongly distended, like a great pendent sac,

* Translated by W.S. Dallas, F.L.S., from a separate copy of the paper

in the ‘ Oversigt over det Kongl. Danske Vidensk. Selsk. Forhandl.’ 1871,

pp. 56-74, communicated by the author.

+ Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1864, pl. 25.

¢ Described by Kroyer in the aruanistorek Tidsskvift,’ ser. 2. vol. i.

pp. 639-649, and figured in the ‘ Voyage en Scandinavie, en Laponie &c.

Zoologie, Poissons,’ pl. 9.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. ix. 23

330 Dr. Chr. Liitken on Oneirodes Eschrichtii,

and the stomach contained a spirally rolled Scopeline fish,

74 inches long—a prey, therefore, which was nearly twice as

long as the voracious fish which had swallowed it.

Under these circumstances it seems to me of interest to be-

come acquainted with a nearly allied fish, which undoubtedly

likewise has its home in the deep abysses of the sea, but in

the high northern latitudes near the coasts of Greenland, the

same from which (and, indeed, from the considerable depth of

80 fathoms) we have obtained the fish which clearly comes

nearest to Melanocetus in structure and form; nay, it is also

to the same man who has done such service to our knowledge

of the fauna of Greenland, that we are indebted for the dis-

covery of Ceratias and of the new arctic Lophioid, for which

I propose the name of Onetrodes* Eschrichtiz. The specimen

to which this communication relates was sent by Captain

Holbéll to Professor Eschricht, and is entered in the journal

of accessions to the Physiological Museum of the University

under date of 7th November, 1845, with the perfectly correct

designation “N. G. generi Ceratiw aff.,” but, unfortunately,

without any more exact information as to where in Greenland,

or under what circumstances, Holbéll came into possession of

it. After the superintendence of the above-mentioned museum

had passed into the hands of the present physiological pro-

fessor, and it had been removed into its new locality in the

Academy of Surgery, its collection of fishes was given to the

Zoological Museum of the University, which was thus en-

riched with many beautiful and interesting specimens, and

this valuable addition to the fauna of Greenland incorporated

in the ichthyological collection of the museum. After lying

in concealment, or in any case undescribed, for more than

twenty-five years, this remarkable form of animal may well

deserve to be fully elucidated and introduced into the ichthyo-

logical system; and I need scarcely apologize for seizing the

first opportunity that offers itself for this purpose, without

deferring it until I might have brought together and worked

up other additions to northern ichthyology which are acces-

sible to me. As the nearly allied Ceratias already bears the

name of their common discoverer, I have thought that we

might attach Eschricht’s to the new form, in order to preserve

in ichthyology also the memory of his persistent zeal and

universal interest in the collection of material for the elucida-

tion of the animal life of our high northern latitudes.

That the Greenland form is specifically distinct from: the

deep-sea Lophioid from Madeira which has been so often

mentioned, is seen at the first glance. Their differences, not-

* ’Oveipodns, dream-like.

a new Lophioid Fish from Greenland. | 331

withstanding their resemblance in many essential features,

are very sharply marked; nay, I consider that it will even be

admitted that they are great enough for the establishment of

a generic distinction. Before I pass to the detailed indication

of these differences, I may state that the specimen before us,

unfortunately, wants both the pectoral fins, but in other re-

spects is well preserved. As, of course, I could not sacrifice

the single existing specimen for the purpose of examining the

bony structures, I cannot say any thing about them, except

that in the solidity of its skeleton Onedtrodes seems to be

similar to Lophius: in this respect, however, it shares the fate

of the two genera between which it will have to take its place,

namely Melanocetus and Ceratias, in which the bony struc-

tures are likewise entirely unknown*. If in the following

description I chiefly compare the new form with Giinther’s

Melanocetus (so far as this can be done without directly laying

them side by side), this is a simple consequence of their near

affinity and great resemblance in many respects.

The form of the body in Onetrodes (Plate IX.) may be most

correctly described as compressed, although by no means to

the same degree as in Ceratias: and it is probable that this

compression may seem greater in the dead than it would be in

the living fish; for in an animal of a consistency so soft and

flaccid and molluscoid, the collapse consequent upon death

may certainly exert a sensible influence in this direction.

Although the belly is very flaccid and pendent, and perhaps

in the living body might have been more strongly distended

than is now the case, it is still far from forming such a large

pendent sac as in Melanocetus ; and although the head (reckoned

to the branchial clefts) does not perhaps make up a smaller

part of the whole animal than in Melanocetus, the mouth is

certainly much less in proportion to the size of the whole ani-

mal, as is best seen from the fact that the length of the jaw is

not contained quite 3 times (namely 2°7) in the total length

in M. Johnsonii, but nearly 4 (3°8) times in O. Eschrichtit.

In the next place, the mouth is not perpendicular (as in Mela-

nocetus and Ceratias), but horizontal (as in most other fishes).

Seen from the side, the outline of the fish nearly forms a

tolerably regular oval, somewhat pointed in front (in the

facial part), but with the snout itself truncated, and posteriorly

(at the root of the tail) somewhat produced. Seen from be-

* Since Kroyer published his description of this fish, the museum has

come into possession of some material towards the knowledge of its bony

structure—namely, of two skeletons broken into their constituent parts,

the separate bones. I hope to work up this material at some other

opportunity.

23°

332 Dr. Chr. Liitken on Oneirodes Eschrichtii,

fore (fig. 1), its physiognomy is very peculiar. The head is

quadrangular, with a broad, sloping, frontal surface, which is

hollowed out by a broad and deep furrow, and bounded at the

sides by an incurved wall, which projects strongly behind and

above on each side in an acute frontal spine, and anteriorly

and beneath, on each side of the apex of the snout, runs out

into a double tubercle (probably, to judge from Lophius, be-

longing to the palatal bones). No other tubercles or spines

besides those here enumerated occur upon the head, except

that the rami of the lower jaw run out into a little spine on

Fig. 1.

yy) \

Head of Onetrodes Eschrichtii, seen from the front, three fourths nat. size.

each side. Immediately over the rostral tubercles a small

nasal papilla may be observed on each side*.

The total length of the fish, from the snout to the apex of

the tail, is 205 millims. (or about 8 inches, more than double

that of Melanocetus Johnsonii), to the base of the caudal fin

160 millims.; the greatest depth, which will about coincide

with a line dropped from the isolated soft dorsal ray, to which

we shall refer further on, over the point of attachment of the

pectoral fin to the ventral margin, is about 105 millims., con-

sequently fully half the total length. The thickness, measured

between the two frontal spines, is 45 millims., and between

the angles of the mouth about 55 millims., consequently ap-

* This occurs also in Ceratzas.

a new Lophioid Fish from Greenland. 333

proximately one fourth of the total length; and this applies

also to the length of the jaws (about 54 millims.), to the

height of the fully expanded mouth, and to the distance from

the apex of the snout to the frontal spines (about 54 millims.),

or from the latter to the angles of the mouth (about 52 millims.).

When the mouth is shut, the apex of the lower jaw falls

within the upper jaw. The branchial clefts are situated at

about an equal distance from the tips of the snout and tail ;

they are comparatively not small (about 30 millims. high),

and are placed entirely below the attachment of the pectoral

fin and beneath a horizontal line drawn from the snout to the

apex of the tail. The eyes one would perhaps expect to occur

in the deep depressions at the sides of the head under the

lateral walls of the forehead; but they are to be found rather

further back, at the boundaries of these depressions; they

may easily be overlooked, partly because they are very small,

partly because they are nearly hidden under the skin, which

forms over them a small, white, translucent, oblong spot

(3 millims. in diameter). An eye-cleft does not seem to be

present *. The distance of the eye from the frontal spine is

about equal to half its distance from the angle of the mouth.

Behind the anus, immediately in front of the anal fin, a small

anal papilla is observed. The skin is everywhere black or

blackish brown, soft, loose, and smooth, without any traces of

scales, bony tubercles, or cutaneous lobes; the cavity of the

mouth also has everywhere the same dark colour.

Ata small distance from the apex of the snout, in the lowest

(foremost) part of the cavity of the frontal surface, there is

inserted a frontal ray (first dorsal ray) of an extremely pecu-

liar form, differing considerably from that in Melanocetus

Johnsonii, in which it is described as a simple filament dilated

at the apex into a little plate. The free part of this ray is

about 38 millims. in length; when laid back, it does not

extend beyond the frontal pit; it consists of two parts, the

“shaft” and the clavate ‘ head,” which are both compressed ;

and the shaft is attached by a kneed joint to a similar hori-

zontal piece (representing the “‘interspinous bone” in Lophius),

which projects only by its outermost skin-covered part from

* What Giinther states of the eye in Melanocetus—namely, “the eye is

situated high up on the side of the head ; it is very small, covered by but

appearing through the skin,” consequently applies perfectly to Oneirodes.

In Ceratias, on the contrary, a very distinct and well-developed eye-cleft

is present; the eyes in it are also very small, and “seem to be surrounded

by an annular muscle, by the aid of which the skin may be drawn toge-

ther over them like an eyelid, and almost entirely conceal them ” (Kroyer,

1, ¢. p. 643).

334 Dr. Chr. Liitken on Oneirodes Eschrichtii,

the channel between the forehead and the skin which serves

as its bed: the uppermost part of the head (fig. 2) is white

(colourless), with a sharp limit, and thus contrasts strikingly

with the otherwise black colour of the fish; it is, moreover,

furnished with several fine processes resembling tentacles, and

with some pigment-spots, the distribution and other peculiari-

ties of which will be better un-

derstood from the figures and

detailed description: here it may

be sufficient to state that, on

the upper surface of the clavate

head there are first three short

filaments (fig. 2, @) with black

tips, placed before and below

the base of a black tubercle (6),

and behind and below the lat-

ter and a lower light-coloured

tubercle (c) two similar but

much smaller tentacles (d). At

the posterior end there is also

a strong tubercle (e) with a

black apical surface, and behind

and below this a tolerably long it

tentacular filament, thin and AW iy

se iit aoe (f) sper The clavate head of the frontal ray,

E y seen from above and from the side

the middle of the upper surface enlarged. ) g

of the clavate head a trans-

verse series of four fine tentacular filaments (g), two longer

ones in the middle and a shorter one on each side, which might

be described as bifid or furnished with a shorter lateral branch,

if the two on the left side did not differ in having the inner

one simple and the outer, in compensation, trifid. Both these

and the unpaired hindmost tentacular filament are destitute

of the black pigment which characterizes the foremost set*.

Fig. 2.

* I am, of course, not in a position to indicate the purpose of this sin-

gular structure ; but I will not conceal that the whole arrangement has

above all produced a “mimetic” impression upon me, as if it were in-

tended to resemble, e. g., the head of a Nereid; and I have been compelled

to think of the old notions of the employment by the fishing-frog of its

homologous frontal appendage as a means of attracting other fishes,

which, indeed, have given origin to its scientific specific name (however

little we can place unconditional confidence in them).

I may admit that hitherto I have paid no particular attention to the

conjectures that the tentacular filaments, barbels, &c. of various fish are

employed merely as a means of attracting smaller fish of prey by their

resemblance to worms playing in the water; and it is therefore very pos-

sible that positive observations in this direction may have escaped me.

a new Lophioid Fish from Greenland. 335

This frontal ray is followed, about the middle of the back,

by a conical (second) dorsal ray, about 50 millims. in length,

somewhat depressed from before backwards, tolerably thick,

and entirely soft (which is entirely deficient in Melanocetus,

whilst in Ceratias there is a corresponding structure). Al-

though it seems to be entirely soft and flaccid, and deprived

of all rigidity, it is supported internally by a thin bony ray ;

when laid forward, it meets the clavate head of the frontal

ray when this is laid down in its bed the excavation in the

frontal surface ; posteriorly it reaches the base of the dorsal

jin. The fleshy base of the latter rises somewhat over the rest

of the dorsal line; the fin is composed of six thick, conical,

soft, and rather short rays, undivided and unjointed as in Ce-

ratias, and terminating in a fine point (Melanocetus has four-

teen such rays, while Ceratias has only four). On the other

hand, the anal fin, as in the two genera just mentioned, has

four rays of the same nature, and the caudal fin eight, of which

the four middle ones are deeply cleft*. The caudal fin is not

remarkable for its length (as in Ceratias) ; its length (45 mil-

lims.) is equal to the breadth of the head between the frontal

spines, less than the length of the soft (second) dorsal ray Ke.

When, for example, we read in Heckel and Kner’s ‘ Siisswasserfische der

éstreichischen Monarchie’ (1858, p. 311) of the Silure (Szlu-us glanis),

“Tn this the play of its barbels is of advantage to it, as it makes use of

them to capture fishes which snap at them,” we might easily suppose

that the authors had before them some definite information of this aaa

perbaps from fishermen of the Danube.

The difference between the frontal ray in Oneirodes and Ceratias is

probably less than it seems at the first glance. It is due in part to the

fact that the part which lies below the articulation, and which in Onez-

rodes has a horizontal position, is nearly hidden in its sheath of skin,

while in Ceratias it is free, erect, and consequently attached higher up

on the head (above the eyes), and at the same time elongated in quite an

extraordinary degree, partly to the clavate head being but little deve-

loped and therefore described as an “elongate ovate lobe of skin;” its

upper part here has also a lighter colour; and in the original specimen it

is plain enough that there have been more tentacular filaments than the

one that Kroyer figures at the apex of the cutaneous lobe (the second one

at its base is certainly due, as Kroyer himself states, only to an injury).

I have likewise seen traces of pigmented tubercles, and have in general

reason to think that when a specimen is obtained in which this part is

well preserved, it will appear to have no small resemblance in its whole

structure to the club in Onetrodes. With regard to the analogy which,

notwithstanding much difference, exists between the frontal ray in Onet-

rodes and the frontal crest in Himantolophus greenlandicus, I may refer to

the older Reinhardt’s description in vol. vii. of the ‘ Videnskabernes Sel-

skabs Skrifter,’ 4th series, p. 139, pl.4. In Melanocetus the frontal ray

has no joint at the base, and its terminal flap is destitute of all traces of

' the tentacular filaments &e. which adorn the corresponding part in

Oneirodes.

* In Melanocetus the six intermediate rays are cleft.

336 Dr. Chr. Liitken on Oneirodes Eschrichtii,

The teeth, as in the allied genera, and especially as in Me-

lanocetus, have the slender, conical, slightly curved form which

is already so well known in Lophius, and they are, as in this,

movable, so that they yield before a pressure coming from

without, and lie down within the cavity of the mouth; but, to

judge from the figures of MW. Johnsonit, they are comparatively

much smaller than in it, which, indeed, is in accordance with

the circumstance that the mouth in the northern species is

considerably smaller in proportion than in its southern ally.

They form a single, not particularly close series both in the

upper jaw (on the intermaxillary bone) and in the lower jaw;

in the latter they are on the whole larger, largest (about

6 millims.) in the vicinity of the symphysis of the lower jaw ;

I count 14-18 in each half of the jaw above, and 15 below.

On each of the anterior lateral expansions of the vomer there

are two or three teeth; on the other hand they are entirely

deficient on the palatal and pterygoid bones*. The same form

of tooth occurs upon the upper pharyngeal bones; but, as in

Ceratias t, the inferior pharyngeals, the branchial arches, and

the hyoid are completely destitute of teeth. The first (outer-

most) branchial arch bears no branchiz, and there is no fissure

between the fourth and fifth branchial arches; on the second

and third arches the branchial lamelle are seated in a double

series, but on the fourth only in a single one, as in Ceratias

and Melanocetus ; and there are thus, in Onevrodes, as in se-

veral other Lophioid fishes, only 24 pairs of branchie {. Of

* In Ceratias, as is well known, they are also deficient on the vomer.

On the supposed teeth of the palatal and pterygoid bones in Melanocetus,

see the postscript to this memoir (p. 348).

+ As Kroyer only mentions pharyngeal teeth in general without re-

marking that only the superior ones are present, it is not quite superfluous

to call attention to the fact that the two genera also agree in this point.

} In this respect, therefore, the three above-named Lophioid fishes

agree perfectly with each other and with the Malthea-group (Malthea

and Halieuwtea). Lophius, as is well known, has three pairs of branchiz ;

but they are borne on the first, second, and third branchial arches (the

fourth being here destitute of branchiz); and Antennarius has three and

a half pairs of branchiz. When Kroyer says (J. ¢. p. 644) that Ceratias

has three branchial arches, a// with branchial lamelle zm double series

(which is repeated in the Latin diagnosis, p. 648), he is in the wrong;

the third branchia consists only of one row of branchial lamellae, which

is the ordinary consequence of there being no fissure between it and the

lower pharyngeal bone (fifth branchial arch), which is expressed, but:

perhaps less clearly, by Kroyer in the words that the third pair of branchial

arches ‘is attached by its inner side.”

The absence of the opercular branchiz does not, indeed, distinguish.

Oneirodes from the Lophioids most nearly allied to it, but certainly from:

Lophius, in which these organs have generally escaped observation : both::

Kroyer and Valenciennes expressly deny their presence ; and Dr. Giinther '

ascribes this structure to the whole family Pediculati (“ pseudobranchize

a new Lophioid Fish from Greenland. 337

branchiostegal rays it is not easy without dissection to observe

more than the two tolerably strong ones, of which the tips

reach the anterior margin of the branchial cleft; but over

these there are besides two similar ones on each side, and be-

low them two much thinner ones, of which the lowest especi-

ally is very easily overlooked; there are consequently (so far

as I could ascertain by very cautious dissection) six pairs of

branchiostegal rays, as in Ceratias, or one more than are

ascribed to Melanocetus. Opercular branchiz are wanting.

What I can state with regard to the internal structure is

briefly as follows. The lining of the ventral cavity is coal-

black. The liver, which occupies the greater part of it, is not

(as in Lophius) divided by notches into several lobes, and ter-

minates on each side in a short, thick, obtuse, conical process,

which is more developed on the left than on the right side.

The gall-bladder is of considerable size, lies nearer to the liver

than in Lophius, and opens through the gall-duct into the

intestine at a very considerable distance from the stomach.

On each side of the external lateral walls of the stomach we

see three elegantly sinuous narrow bands which spring from

the aponeuroses which externally almost entirely cover the

cesophagus ; the foremost and the hindmost of these bands are

shorter, and terminate at some distance from the lower surface

of the stomach; but the middle one is twice as long, bends

round at a right angle, and continues, giving off a smaller

lateral branch, and following the curvatures of the stomach,

quite to the pylorus. (Upon the dark ground formed by the

wall of the stomach this yellowish band forms as it were an

elegant embroidery.) The stomach itself is of considerable

size, pyriform or sacciform, symmetrical, thick-walled and

muscular, dark-@oloured, with its mucous membrane finely

folded and curled; from the short and spacious cesophagus it

descends in a straight line, constantly enlarging, so that the

bottom of the sac is formed by its hindmost and lowest ex-

tremity, whilst the pylorus is situated quite in front under the

liver. At this point, in fact, the narrowed (but not produced)

pyloric portion of the stomach passes into the much more

spacious intestine, from which, however, it is sharply distin-

guished. The dntestine, which at first turns upward and to

absent”). On the other hand, we read as follows in Johannes Miiller’s

celebrated treatise on the respiratory organs of fishes (Vergleichende

Anatomie der Myxinoiden, dritte Fortsetzung, p. 75) :— Pediculati. All

the genera examined had free pseudobranchize—namely, the genera Lo-

phius, Chironectes, and Malthe.” As regards the first-mentioned genus,

at any rate, the thing is certain and easy to ascertain.

338 Dr. Chr. Liitken on Oneirodes Eschrichtii,

the right, and afterwards forms several smaller convolutions,

would, if fully extended, be more than half longer than the

total length of the fish (from the snout to the tip of the tail),

but far from twice as long; at the commencement it is very

wide (diameter about 14 millims.), afterwards considerably

narrower (about 4 millims.), but wider again in its last portion

(9 millims.). There are no pyloric ceca (Ceratias has two

short ceca pylorica, according to Kroyer); a swimming-

bladder is also wanting. The hindmost part of the ventral

cavity is occupied by two large, oval, somewhat flat ovaries ;

when the outer membrane of these is removed, masses of ova

are seen, forming as it were a chaplet in each of them, com-

posed of a plate contorted into close folds. The ova are small

and excessively numerous.

The essential differences between Melanocetus and Oneirodes

which have come out under the preceding comparative exami-

nation of the new arctic Lophioid will be as follows :—

1. The mouth in Oneirodes is not vertical, but horizontal,

and proportionately less than in Melanocetus; the length of

the jaws is in it at the utmost one fourth of the total length ;

and the teeth are comparatively smaller.

2. The frontal ray is clavate, and its thick “head” fur-

nished with various delicate tentacular filaments; its shaft is

articulated to a horizontal ‘interspinal,”’ resembling it in

form, inserted under the skin of the forehead.

3. The thick, isolated, soft (second) dorsal ray is wanting

in Melanocetus, which has fourteen, and Onetrodes only six,

rays in the true dorsal fin.

To these we may also perhaps add a small difference in the

number of the branchiostegal rays; and, finally, we might

say that the belly in Onedrodes does not forri a large pendent

sac, if it did not seem probable that this peculiarity was only

due to the fact that the specimen upon which the genus Mela-

nocetus is established had accidentally, a little before it was

captured, furnished an exceptionally strong proof of its vora-

city. Perhaps at another time it would not have presented a

belly more remarkably pendent than it is in our Onevrodes ;

nor, perhaps, should we have any more ground for surprise if

the latter should at some other time make its appearance with

its belly not much less distended than that of Melanocetus.

But even if we attach but little importance to this peculiarity

(which Giinther has, however, and, in my opinion, rightly,

included in the generic characters of Melanocetus), there still

remain sufficient characters to justify the opinion from which

I have. started here, namely, that Onedrodes and Melanocetus

belong to two different genera. Whether we adhere to the

a new Lophioid Fish from Greenland. 339

principle that when in two allied species there are expressed

two different “‘ideas’’*, two independent thoughts of the crea-

tive power of nature (if I may so express myself), they should

be placed in different genera, or express the rule more practi-

cally thus, ‘‘si queedam species ab aliis, quam maxime ipsi

affinibus, characteribus tamen ejusmodi differt, qui in aliis, ad

genus stabiliendum valent, non conjungenda est cum aliis,

sed generice distinguenda’”’}, we shall certainly recognize in»

Oneirodes Eschrichtii a type different from Melanocetus John-

sonit, although very nearly allied to it; and in order to have

something more definite to hold to, something that is not

merely a matter of more or less, we may appeal to the differ-

ences in the direction of the mouth, to the presence of the

peculiar (second) dorsal ray in the one species and its absence

in the other, and to the characteristic development of the

frontal ray in Onerrodes. On the other hand, it would seem

at present (probably as an immediate consequence of the

Darwinian ideas which are spreading so rapidly) that science

is passing through a reaction against a generic differentiation

which has been carried too far—a feeling with which I can

entirely sympathize (although I cannot altogether accept its

motive), simply because I must always see in the idea of the

genus an expression of a nature-thought, for which reason I

can by no means sympathize unconditionally with the modern

notion of the merely relative value of the idea of the genus.

The present case is one of those upon which opinions may be

divided. There are no fixed criteria as to which “ characters”

have and which have not absolute validity as generic distinc-

tions: what experience proves to be good generic characters

in one family are of no value in another (‘‘ scias characterem

non constituere genus, sed genus characterem!”’); and we are

thus referred to a subjective, and therefore to a certain extent

less certain, judgment as to what is the rght conception

in a given case. Now, as regards especially the relation

between Oneirodes and Melanocetus, I am not blind to the fact

that there is so thoroughgoing a resemblance between them in

all the more essential features, that one might perhaps feel

hesitation about weakening the impression of their intimate al-

liance by placing them in different genera. Would it not be

very natural to include two such nearly allied forms under

the same generic name? What would there be against species

within one genus of such abnormal fishes as the Lophioids

* See Brunner von Wattenwyl, ‘ Revue et Magasin de Zoologie,’ 1870,

pp. 118, 119. ‘A genus is a divine idea” (E. Forbes).

+ Van der Hoeven, ‘ Philosophia Zoologica’ (1864), p. 276.

340 Dr. Chr. Liitken on Oneirodes Eschrichtii,

unquestionably are, presenting a certain difference in the size

and direction of the mouth, in the strength of the dental ar-

mature, in the number of fin-rays, &c. &c.? And in this

whole group are not the number and development of the free

dorsal fin-rays so different and so variable that it would be

less natural to lay so great a stress upon the differences of the

two fishes under consideration in these respects ?

I will not here insist that in any case it would be necessary

to alter the generic characters of Melanocetus considerably in

order to make a place for the Greenland species within its

boundaries, because I feel so much less inclination to under-

take any such alteration of the definition originally given for

that genus, as I have not been able to lay together side by

side the forms in question, and thus to weigh similarity and

dissimilarity in the fine scale of direct observation ; but to this

hesitation we might in general only concede a subordinate and

merely subjective importance. What appears to me to settle

the question of the relation of Onetrodes to Melanocetus is the

relation of both to Ceratéas ; for under all circumstances it is

evident that Onetrodes (Eschrichtit) will have its natural place

between Melanocetus (Johnsonii) and Ceratias (Holbélli), cer-

tainly much nearer to the former than to the latter, but yet

distinctly pointing from the one to the other; and this to a

certain extent intermediate position must receive its most

adequate expression by proposing to elevate the new form into

the type of a distinct genus. I therefore entertain but little

apprehension that future investigations of new intermediate

‘forms should cause its abolition. As the facts stand now,

it seems to me that Onedrodes has not merely a formal right

to stand over against Melanocetus, but also a real, or, if you

will, an zdeal one ; Melanocetus is a not much less extravagant

modification on one side of the common trunk-form (to adopt

the speech of recent times) which we may here suppose repre-

sented by Onevrodes, than Ceratias is on the other. Between

all these there is the nearest affinity ; and they seem to form a

very natural little group of deep-sea Lophioids, of weak vision

and destitute of ventral fins, within the great family of the

Halibatrachi. This group is again divided into two—the

smooth, naked-skinned forms (Onedrodes and Melanocephalus)

and those with bony tubercles in the skin (Ceratias and Hi-

mantolophus).

Ceratias and Oneirodes, indeed, are not the sole representa-

tives of the Lophioids, and especially of the subdivision of

that family here under consideration, in the deep seas off the

Greenland shores. There is also here a third form, which the

elder Reinhardt described under the name of Himantolophus

a new Lophioid Fish from Greenland. 341

groinlandicus*, from a specimen which was thrown upon the

shore near Godthaab, in 1833, after a violent storm, and, un-

fortunately, much injured by crows and gulls: it was sent to

him by Captain Holbéll. The imperfection of the knowledge

of the species that could be gained from this incomplete spe-

ciMen was the reason that this distinguished ichthyologist did

not venture to refer this remarkable fish to a definite place in

the system; but I think that, now that we have become ac-

Uainted with Ceratias, no one having read Reinhardt’s de-

SCription can doubt that we have in it to do with an apodal

Lophioid fish very nearly allied to the above-mentioned genus:

oubt may rather arise whether Ceratias and Himantolophus

might not possibly be identical ; nay, one may perhaps be in-

clined to ask whether Ceratias may not be the female and

Himantolophus the male of the same fish, so that the remark-

able “frontal tuft’? which gave rise to the latter name may

be a peculiarity of the male sex. Unfortunately, there is no-

thing of Himantolophus preserved except the “frontal tuft,”

and the unmistakable resemblance between the bony tubercles

which closely cover its skin and those occurring in Ceratias

would rather confirm than weaken the supposition of such a

connexion between them. An attentive reading of Reinhardt’s

description, however, will remove this doubt; for there appear

in it such essential differences that their union becomes im-

possible. Thus I shall indicate :—that the teeth in Himanto-

lophus formed several irregular rows—in Ceratéas, on the con-

trary, only one, except at the front of the mouth, where there

are two; that the pectoral fins contained 12 rays, in Ceratias

19; the dorsal fin 9 rays, in Ceratias 4 ; and, finally, that the

spinous tubercles of the skin in the latter have at the utmost

a diameter of 2 lines, whilst in Himantolophus they are 10-

14 lines! I can therefore by no means entertain any doubt

that it differs specifically and also generically from Ceratias,

and that it forms a fourth member of the apodal Lophioid

group of the deep sea. As Kroyer did not find occasion to

refer to Himantolophus in the introduction to his description

of Ceratias+ (perhaps because he entertained doubt as to their

* “Tchthyologiske Bidrag til den grénlandske Fauna,” Vidensk. Sel-

skabs math.-naturv. Afhandl. dde Rekke, vii. Deel, pp. 152-136.

+ Only to those who are not well acquainted with the subject will it

be necessary to indicate that the two new Norwegian Lophioids the exis-

tence of which Kroyer likewise made known in a note to this work

(p. 639), and which were subsequently described by Diiben and Koren

. (Ichthyologiska Bidrag, Kongl. Svenska Vetensk. Akad. Handl. 1844,

pp. 63-79, pl. 3. figs. 1-5) as Lophius ewrypterus and Chironectes arcticus,

may be regarded as struck out of the catalogue of species, the former as

probably the young of Z. piscatorius, the latter as identical with C. pictus

342 Dr. Chr. Liitken on Oneirodes Eschrichtii,

difference, and could furnish no new information about it),

and Giinther entirely omits it in his ‘ Catalogue of Fishes,’ I

have thought that I ought not to miss this opportunity of

again calling attention to it.

The circumstance that for our knowledge of all these three

remarkable Greenlandic Lophioids we are indebted to one man,

Carl Holbill, deserves to be noticed as an indication of what can

be effected in this way by indefatigable attention and intelli-

gent zeal, and also of what may be expected from the future,

in proportion as interest in and knowledge of nature spreads

from the cultivators of science to a greater public.

Our new genus and species may be characterized as follows,

in accordance with what has been stated in detail in the pre-

ceding pages :—

Oneirodes Eschrichtti, Ltk.

Genus et species nova e familia Lophicideorum (Halibatrachorum),

nec non e tribu Lophioideorum apodum nudorum. Corpus breve,

crassum, mediocriter compressum. Caput maximum, tetragonum,

fronte declivi, profunde excavato; rictus oris mediocris, horizon-

talis; oculi minuti, absconditi; dentes mediocres, graciles, elon-

gati, conici, subincurvi, mobiles in maxillis, in vomere et in pha-

rynge supra; in palato nulli. Apertura branchialis sat magna,

infra insertionem primarum pectoralium; pseudobranchie oper-

culares nulle; arcus branchialis primus branchiis destitutus ;

branchiorum paria 24, cute arcum branchialem quartum cum osse

hypopharyngeali conjungente ; radii branchiostegi utrinque sex.

Pinne ventrales nulle (pectorales ignote). Radius frontalis cum

osse interspinali horizontali subeutaneo articulatus, haud procul

ab apice rostri insertus, sinum frontalem longitudine haud supe-

rans, claveformis ; caput clave compressum, tentacula plura mi-

nuta gerens ; radius dorsalis (secundus) summo dorso impositus,

conicus, depressus, flaccidus, frontalem longitudine superat.

Pinna dorsalis vera et analis breves, caudali approximate, sed

distinct ; caudalis mediocris, haud elongata. Pinnarum formula

radiorum: D.1+1+6, P.?, V.0, A. 4, C.8; radii molles, car-

tilaginei, haud articulati, caudales mediani quartuor soli fissi.

Squame nulle; cutis nuda, mollis, nigra totum corpus obtegit.

Vesica natatoria et appendices pyloric nulle ; ossa sceleti mollia,

semispongiosa, ut in piscibus affinibus, spinis binis frontalibus et

mandibularibus exceptis nullibi in tubercula vel spinas prodeuntia.

(see Giinther in Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. 1861, p. 190, and Steenstrup in

‘Videnskabelige Meddelelser fra den naturhistoriske Forening,’ 1863,

p- 208). I refer to this only in order that this note may not produce the

notion that this family of fishes is more strongly represented in the

northern seas than it really seems to be.

a new Lophioid Fish from Greenland. 343

To facilitate comparison with similar forms which may

hereafter be described, I will here collect in one place most of

the measurements scattered through the preceding description.

To give more seems to me to be superfluous and of little use:

in animals of this nature no importance can be ascribed to

small discordances in comparative measurements ; and greater

ones will always be sufficiently prominent by a comparison

with the figures.

Dimensiones speciminis descripti.

millims.

Longitudo corporis totius ab apice rostri usque ad extremi-

Ged EE, UNIS CAM GBI aS iar ot ties mca aee Ade Meee eee 205

Longitudo corporis totius ab apice rostri usque ad originem

FURAN OANS: oot Aty Me hkl eo ee alah a cone 160

Plt ida VAR AMIAS| 5 ahs FH ike, of Shh dit» Cle alae ree toe dre 105

Latitudo capitis inter spinas frontales ................ 45

“ ee Jj, j MNES OPIS, 1S a akiersids os aoe By)

orripmio ni tes AKON sc gl sates <houeid wioyeuste he cor eyaye 4a 54

Spine frontales ab apice rostri distant................ 55

a a sy SATE OPI ES iy ian ral cece cn ee ale 52

Aperture branchialis alfitudo ...c2% 00:5 660s nese uence 30

eAGiteOnt alts: LONSIGUAO: ~ o/c «(cc's « 515 teers! saute SSS 38

», dorsalis ethane ras tictes eat eisbe stan tib Ce ans RE 50

PPeeiricp Canalis.) o5 5 RA OT ions. nk ote as 45

EXPLICATIO ICONUM.

Fig. 1 (p. 332). Caput Onetrodis Eschrichtii, antice visum ; magnitudine

tres partes verze efficiente pictum.

Fig. 2 (p. 334). Clava radii frontalis cum tuberculis et tentaculis, superne

et ex latere visa; magnitudine aucta picta.

PuaTE IX. Oneirodes Eschrichtti; magnitudo iconis tres partes piscis

ipsius; pinna pectoralis deest; clava radii frontalis separatim

picta, magnitudine aucta.

- Postscript.—After the printing of this little memoir was

commenced, [ had, by Dr. Giinther’s kindness, during a short

residence in London, the opportunity of seeing and examining

the original specimen of Melanocetus Johnsonii. Whilst this

examination confirmed my conviction of its generic distinct-

ness from Onetrodes, and strengthened my confidence in the

perfect correctness of Giinther’s description and the figure

accompanying it, my suspicion increased with regard to the

right interpretation of the groups of teeth in the upper part of

the mouth, which Giinther had described as palatal and ptery-

goidal teeth. It seemed to me far more probable that it was

the superior pharyngeal bone, which otherwise must be sup-

344 Mr. E. A. Smith on Species of Bullide.

posed to be deficient. I communicated my suspicion té Dr.

Giinther, who had the kindness to examine the conditions more

closely, by clearing away the soft parts, and confirmed my

conjecture. As regards the toothlessness of the palate, there-

fore, there is no difference between these two genera.

XXXVI.—Remarks on several Species of Bullidee, with De-

scriptions of some hitherto undescribed Forms, and of a new

Species of Planaxis. By Epcar A. Siri, Zoological

Department, British Museum.

In comparing the specimens belonging to the family Bullide

contained in the collection of the British Museum with the

monograph by A. Adams in the ‘Thesaurus Conchyliorum,’

vol. i., and with the monographs by Sowerby of various

genera included in this family in the ‘ Conchologia Iconica,’

vols. xvi. & xvii., I have met with some errors, chiefly in the

latter work, some of which I am enabled to correct, since the

typical specimens of many of the species described in these

publications are in the Cumingian collection, now in the

British Museum.

Atys ferruginosa.

Adams (Thes. Conch. ii. p. 585, pl. 124. f. 110) describes

and figures a shell from Cuming’s collection, which he con-

siders the same as that figured by Martini, Conch.-Cab. i.

pl. 22. f. 209, 210, and assigns to it the name A. ferruginosa

of Chemnitz, which should be of Gmelin, Syst. Nat. p. 3482.

This is certainly an error; for, as Dillwyn (Cat. Rec. Shells,

i. p.477) has long ago intimated, the figure of Martini is

doubtless that of an immature Cyprea.

On careful examination of Adams’s type, which only differs

from A. naucum in possessing longitudinal irregular brown

stripes, it proves to be but a small example of that species,

which has retained the epidermis, the whole of which might

be removed, and with it the markings, for they are only epi-

dermal.

Atys cylindrica.

Bulla cylindrica, Helblings, Chemn. Conch.-Cab. x. pl. 146. f. 1356-7.

= Bulla solida, Brug. Enc. Méth. pl. 360. f. 2.

= Atys elongata, A. Ad. Thes. Conch. ii. p. 587, pl. 125. f. 121.

These three forms are figured by Adams in the last-named

work. The latter two must be considered varieties of cy-

lindrica, and, as their names imply, are respectively, the one

more solid and somewhat shorter than it, and the other more

Mr. E. A. Smith on Species of Bullide. 345

elongate and a trifle less solid. This conclusion is arrived at

after a careful study of a good series of specimens, among

which the connecting links are found. Sowerby (Conch. Icon.

XVii. sp. 4) says, in reference to solida, “‘ it may possibly be a

dwarf variety ” of cylindrica.

Atys ovoidea, Quoy & Gaimard, fide A. Ad. Thes. Conch. 11.

p- 585, pl. 124. fig. 111; and Sowerby, Conch. Ic. pl. i. f. 3.

The shell figured in the above works is not the Bulla ovoidea

of Quoy and Gaim. Voy. Astrol. pl. 26. f. 18, 19.

These authors describe it as a fragile species, “ trés-légére-

ment striée en long avec d'autres stries transverses et peu

nombreuses en avant seulement.” 'These characters, together

with the figures, at once separate it from the species referred

to it by Adams, which is the Atys obovata, Menke, Malak.

Blatter, 1854, p. 46. Sowerby, in the remark on this shell

(sp. 3), says it “‘ may only be a dwarf variety of Atys naucum,”

in which opinion I concur.

Atys muscaria, Guilding ; Sow. Conch. Icon. xvi. sp. 5.

For Guilding substitute Gould, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat.

Hist. vii. p. 138.

Atys semistriata, Gould; Sow. 1. c. sp. 27.

Hab. North America.

Substitute Pease, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1860, p. 20, for Gould;

and the above locality change to Sandwich Islands.

Atys debilis, Pease.

Add :—Proe. Zool. Soc. 1860, p. 20.

Hab. Sandwich Islands.

Atys porcellana, Guilding ; Sow. J. c. sp. 30.

Hab. Kagosima, Western States.

For Guilding substitute Gould, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist.

vol. vii. p. 138.

Alter habitat to Kagosima, Niphon, Japan.

The specimen from which Mr. Sowerby figured this species

is fixed to a tablet, on which the name and locality are written

thus :—‘‘ Atys porcellana, Gld. Kagosima, W.S.,” Gd. being

the contraction of Gould, and W.%S. the initials of Wiliam

Stimpson, who collected the shells, and not signifying Western

States. I give this explanation to show that the error does

not exist in the Museum collection.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. ix. 24

346 Mr. E. A. Smith on Species of Bullide.

Atys canariensis.

A, testa ovata, alba, pellucida, incrementi lineis irregulariter, et

transversim medio leviter, superius inferiusque profundius striata;

vertex aliquanto depressus ; apertura superius mediocre angusta,

super verticem paululum producta, basim versus sensim dilatata ;

labium tenue ad verticis medium (quo jungitur) incrassatum ;

columella arcuata parum reflexa; umbilici regio distincte per-

forata.

Long. 7 mill., diam. 43.

Hab. Teneriffe, Canary Islands.

Of the form of the young state of A. naucum; but the strize

are less distinct and not so far apart; also very like caribea,

D’Orb., but rather broader.

Atys M' Andrewit. B.M.

A, testa elongato-ovata, superius truncata, pellucida, fasciis angustis

numerosis lacteis et medio una latiore cincta, transversim superne

basique distanter striata; interstitium leve; vertex excavatus,

margine aliquanto acuto circumdatus; apertura angusta, super

verticem parum producta, basi sensim paululum dilatata et effusa ;

labrum tenue yerticis medio junctum et ibi sinuatum; columella

brevis, incrassata, haud torta; umbilici regio leviter perforata.

Long. 5 mill., diam. 23.

Hab. Lancerote.

I feel much pleasure in dedicating this species to Mr. R.

M‘Andrew, by whom it was dredged at the above locality and

most liberally presented to the British Museum, together with

a complete series of all the various species of Mollusca he

there collected.

It is at once recognized by the numerous lacteous bands

upon a pellucid ground.

Atys angustata. B.M.

A, testa parva, alba, semipellucida, nitida, elongato-ovata, superius

basique aliquanto attenuata et fortiter striata, medio levi; aper-

tura angusta, basim versus vix dilatata; labrum tenue, verticis

medio junctum et ibi valde incrassatum et sinuatum; columella

curta, recta, leviter reflexa.

Long. 5 mill., diam. 23.

Hab. Gulf of Suez (R. M‘Andrew), dredged.

A very narrow species, attenuated at each end and obscurely

angulated in the middle ; the labrum is very thick at its junc-

tion with the middle of the vertex, and strongly sinuated ;

the superior and inferior striz are each about twelve Ma

number.

Mr. E. A. Smith on Species of Bullidee. 347

Atys miranda. * - B.M.

A. testa elongato-ovata, pellucida, transversim tenuiter et incrementi

lineis irregulariter striata ; vertex depressus, medio (ex quo surgit

labrum) perforatus; apertura superius angustissima super ver-

ticem parum producta, basim versus sensim dilatata et effusa;

columella brevissima, arcuata, subito (ut in genere Achatina)

truncata.

Long. 10 mill., diam. 4.

Hab. Gulf of Suez. Dredged by Mr. R. M‘Andrew.

It is questionable whether the peculiar truncation of the

columella, which is very like that of the genus Achatina, is

not of subgeneric character ; but as there is but a single spe-

cimen at hand, it is advisable to wait until there are more to

judge from.

Haminea oryza, Gould; Sowerby, Conch. Icon. xvi. sp. 1.

Substitute for Gould, Totten, Silliman’s Journal, xxvii.

p- 350, f. 5.

This is already noticed by Tryon, Amer. Journ. Conch. iv.

p: 283.

Haminea natalensis, Sowerby, 1. c. sp. 7.

This is not 1. natalensis of Krauss, Siidafr. Mollusk. p. 71,

pl. iv. fig. 14. On comparing it with the types of H. peru-

viana, D’Orb., in D’Orbigny’s collection, they prove to be

almost identical. This species, not mentioned by Sowerby in

his monograph, is described in the ‘ Voyage dans l’Amérique

méridionale.’

Haminea rotunda, A. Ad.; Sowerby, U. c. sp. 9.

= Haminea rotundata, A, Ad. Thes. Conch. ii. p. 583, pl. 124. f. 5.

Haminea pemphix, Phil. ; Sow. /. c. sp. 12.

= Haminea pemphis, Phil. Zeitschrift f. Mal. 1847, p. 122.

Adams (in Thes. Conch. il. p. 580) places “ zelandie, Gray,

MS. Brit. Mus.” as a synonym. ‘This name is not a manu-

script one. It was published in 1845 in Dieffenbach’s ‘ New

Zealand,’ p. 243; and thus it would have precedence over

pemphis, Phil., should they prove to be identical; but, from

the descriptions and localities, I consider them distinct. How-

ever, it is certain, on comparing the specimens referred to

-pemphis by Adams and Sowerby with the type specimens of

H. zelandie presented to the British Museum by Dr. Dieffen-

bach, that these are the same species. In the Museum there

are two specimens from the Red Sea (the locality cited by

Philippi) which are identical with the types of zi ienelia; A.

348 Mr. E. A. Smith on Species of Bullide.

Ad. Thes. Conch. ii. p. 583, pl. 124. f. 104, of doubtful locality ;

and although considerably like zelandie, they are nevertheless

a little narrower, with the columella not so arcuate, and “e

rufescente alba, lineolis transversis exilissimis sculpta”’ (Phi-

lippt), thus differing from zelandiw, which is irregularly

scratched across, and of a white colour under a light-brown

epidermis.

Sowerby (/. c. sp. 13) has given a good figure of a full-sized

zelandice under the name of obesa, Sow., not being aware that

it had already been described by Dr. Gray.

Haminea constricta, A. Ad. MS.; Sowerby, /. c. sp. 16.

This is not a manuscript name, it being published in the

Thes. Conch. 1. p. 581, pl. 124. f. 95.

Haminea ferruginea, Chemn.; Sowerby, /.c. sp. 30.

Sowerby, in his monograph of the genus Atys (Conch. Ie.

Xvi. sp. 2) figures a species of this genus which he calls “A.

jferruginosa, Chemnitz, Hist. Conch. 1. tab. 22. f. 209, 210.”

See previous remarks on this.

Again, he cites the same two figures as representing a spe-

cies of another genus, Haminea ferruginea, Chemn., thus

referring two distinct genera to the same figure, which is

absurd, and only shows the hurry in which the monograph in

question appears to have been prepared, and also the little

amount of care bestowed upon it.

The shell figured /. c. f. 30 is HL. fusca, A. Ad., Thes. Conch.

ii. p. 581, pl. 124. f. 94, from Cagayan, Island of Mindanao,

Philippines.

Haminea angustata, Gould, MS.; Sowerby, /. c. sp. 32.

This should be angusta, Gould, Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist.

vii. p. 139.

Hab, “ Simonda, Western States of North America ’’ (Sow.).

This should be Simoda, Niphon, Japan.

This is another instance of the general want of care which

characterizes many of the monographs published in this work.

The shell Mr. Sowerby took his description and figure from

is in the Cumingian collection, and is placed on a tablet with

the name and locality thus written :—‘‘ Haminea angusta,

Gld. Simoda, W. St.” The W. St. signifies William Stimp-

son, the collector of the specimens, and not Western States of

North America. It is necessary to give this explanation, lest

it might be thought that the error really occurred in the Mu-

seum collection.

Mr. E. A. Smith on Species of Bullide. 349

Haminea nove eboract, Sowerby, /. c. sp. 6.

Corrected, in the mdex, novi eboracit. Tryon, in the

American Journ. Conch. vol. iv. says :— This is surely the

Bulla insculpta of Totten ; and the species figured by Sowerby

as insculpta is the solitaria of Say, if, indeed, the two are

really distinct.” I may add that Sowerby’s figures la & 14,

taken from. Cumingian specimens, are magnified, being half

as long again as the actual shells. Fig. 6 (novi eboraci) is of

the natural size. The only observable difference in the two

forms is that of size.

Haminea galba, Pease.

Add :—Proe. Zool. Soc. 1860, p. 432.

Hab. Sandwich Islands.

Haminea crocata, Pease.

Add :—l. ¢. p. 432, not 19.

Hab. Sandwich Islands.

Haminea glabra, A. Ad.

Add :—Hab. West Indies.

Haminea serica. B.M.

H., testa rotunde ovata, tenuissima, pellucida, albida, vix nitida, in-

crementi lineis et transversim concinne confertim striata; aper-

tura latiuscula, super verticem aliquanto producta, ad basim dila-

tata; columella parum incrassata, spiraliter intorta; umbilici

regio callo tenui haud nitido (qui ad verticem pertendit) obtecta.

Long. 11 mill., diam. 9.

Hab. ——?

This is a remarkably roundly ovate species, very finely

transversely striated, which produces a somewhat silky ap-

pearance, and having the region of the umbilicus covered by

a very thin dull callosity, which is extended along the whorl

to the vertex.

Although the sculpture is very like that of the HZ. insculpta,

Totten, the form is very different.

Haminea malleata. B.M.

H. testa albida, subpellucida, quadrato-ovata, irregulariter malleata,

transversim tenuiter incrementique lineis striata ; apertura latius-

cula, basi dilatata et aliquanto effusa; labrum super verticem

complanatum vix productum medioque junctum; columella valde

arcuata, callosa, reflexa.

Long. 12 mill., diam. 8.

Hab. ?

350 Mr. EK. A. Smith on Species of Bullide.

This species is remarkable for its short squarish form, the

irregular malleation, the reflected columella, and the flattened

vertex. Here and there are longitudinal depressions, giving

the shell a somewhat wrinkled appearance.

Haminea cuticulifera. B.M.

H, testa elongato-cylindracea, superius inferiusque rotunde qua-

drata, tenui, alba, epidermide albido, nitente, verticem basimque

versus luteo tincto, induta, incrementi lineis et superius basique

transyersim subdistanter striata; apertura latiuscula, basi dila-

tata, super verticem vix producta; columella brevis, subrecta,

reflexa, umbilici regionem obtegens, callo tenuissimo haud nitido

vertici juncta; labrum tenue, verticis medio junctum et ibi in-

crassatum.

Long. 14 mill., diam. 64.

Hab. New Zealand and Port Jackson.

The lateral outlines of this species are nearly straight; the

superior strie are about six in number, the inferior about

eighteen. H. papyrus, A. Ad., is its nearest ally; but it is

narrower, more elongate, with the striz not covering the whole

of the shell, the vertex is more depressed, and the aperture

is less broadly dilated and more effused at the base.

Haminea perplexa. B.M.

H. testa ovato-cylindracea, czeruleo-alba, pellucida, superius inferius-

que opaca, lactea, transversimque distanter striata, medio levi,

incrementi lineis striata; vertex valde depressus, medio sub-

perforatus; apertura angusta, super verticem vix producta, basi

aliquanto latior; columella simplex, leviter reflexa.

Long. 14 mill., diam. 73.

Hab. ?

This species has much of the aspect of the genus Atys; but

it is without the sinuosity of the labrum at the vertex, and is

there slightly perforated. The superior striz are about seven

in number, the inferior about twice as many.

Haminea equistriata. B.M.

H. testa oblonga, cylindracea, lateribus rotundatis, alba, pellucida,

tenui, nitida, incrementi lineis irregularibus transversimque

striata; striee (circiter 36) sub- et eequidistantes ; vertex aliquanto

depressus; apertura latiuscula, basi dilatata; labrum tenue ver-

ticis medio junctum; columella curvata, leviter reflexa.

Long. 12 mill., diam. 6.

Hab. Gulf of Suez. Dredged by Mr. R. M‘Andrew.

This species has much of the form of H. rugosa; but it is

Mr. E. A. Smith on Species of Bullide. 351

much larger, the lines of growth are very slight, and the

equidistant transverse strie which are over the whole surface

at once separate it.

Haminea rugosa. B.M.

H. testa cylindracea, lateribus curvatis, alba, pellucida, superius

leviter inferiusque distinctius striata, incrementi lineis irregu-

lariter rugosa; vertex parum depressus; apertura latiuscula, basi

dilatata; labium tenue, superius subangulatum verticis medio

junctum ; columella brevis, reflexa, rimam parvam fere tegens,

subtruncata.

Long. 6 mill., diam. 3.

Hab. Gulf of Suez and Persian Gulf.

This shell belongs to the same group as brevis, Q. & G.

It is peculiar for the longitudinal irregular wrinkles formed

by occasional deep lines of growth.

Cylichna nitens. B.M.

O. testa ovata, semipellucida, ceruleo-alba, nitente, longitudinaliter

indistincte et transversim superne basique striata; vertex exigue

umbilicatus; apertura angusta, aliquanto ad basim dilatata;

labrum solidum, crassum; columella crassa, medio dente parvo

vel tuberculo munita; umbilici regio subperforata.

Long. 5 mill., diam. 23.

Var. Testa major, minus solida. Long. 6 mill., diam. 3.

Hab. Fiji Islands.

A small, semitransparent, bluish-white species, chiefly cha-

racterized by the thick labrum and columella, which has a

small tooth or tubercle on the middle of it.

Cylichna propinqua. BM.

C. testa elongata, cylindracea, paululum medio contracta, alba, epi-

dermide pallide brunnea, que superne inferneque brunnior est,

induta; transversim exilissime undulatim striata; vertex exca-

vatus, medio anguste perforatus, margine acuto succinctus ; aper-

tura superne angusta, inferne dilatata; labrum anfractui fere

parallelum ; columella spiraliter tortuosa,

Long. 13 mill., diam. maj. 5.

Hab. Vancouver's Island.

This species in general aspect reminds one of the common

C. arachis, Q. & G.; but it is considerably narrower, with the

vertex only excavated with a minute perforation, not umbili-

cated, and the basal margin of the aperture is roundly trun-

cate.

352 Mr. E. A. Smith on Species of Bullide.

Cylichna fijiensis. B.M:

C. testa perelongata, angusta, cylindracea, paululum medio con-

tracta, alba, transversim exilissime striata, stria versus verticem

distantiores quam czterz, incrementi lineis indistinctis longitu-

dinaliter striata, vertice (qui margine acuto circumdatus est)

profunde umbilicata, basi subperforata; apertura superne angus-

tissima, inferius dilatata; columella crassiuscula, spiraliter torta,

apici callo tenui juncta.

Long. 6 mill., diam. 2.

Hab. Fiji Islands.

A pure white shining species, of nearly the same form as

C. biplicata, A. Ad., but rather narrower, with the columella

only spirally twisted, and the transverse striz finer.

Cylichna lacteocincta. B.M.

C. testa minuta, cylindracea, pellucida, fasciis pluribus interruptis

lacteis cincta, longitudinaliter exilius curvatim, et transversim

modo inferius striata; vertex umbilicatus, margine rotundato

circumcinctus ; apertura superne angusta, basim versus sensim

dilatata ; columella incrassata, oblique subtruncata.

Long. 23 mill., diam. 1}.

Hab. ?

This species may be at once recognized by the lacteous

bands upon a hyaline ground, and by the peculiar subtrunca-

tion of the columella, which almost forms a short channel with

the outer lip.

Cylichna pumilissima. B.M.

C. testa minutissima, breviter cylindracea, aliquanto medio contracta,

superne quadrata, alba, longitudinaliter curvatim lirata; vertex

umbilicatus, margine rotundato; apertura superne angusta, ad

basim perdilatata ; columella spiraliter torta.

Long. 14 mill., diam. .

Hab. Persian Gulf (Col. Pelly).

This species was dredged by Col. Pelly in great numbers

at a depth of 14 fathoms. It is remarkable for its minuteness,

the longitudinal curved ridges, and the very dilated aperture

towards the base.

Cylichna consanguinea. B.M.

C. testa minutissima, elongato-cylindracea, alba, longitudinaliter

curvatim striata; vertex umbilicatus, carina acuta circumcinctus;

apertura superne angusta, inferne modice dilatata ; labrum pau-

lulum medio eontractum ; columella spiraliter torta.

Long. 13 mill., diam. 2.

Hab. Persian Gulf, 14 fathoms (Col. Pelly).

Mr. E. A. Smith on Species of Bullide. 353

This species differs from C. pumilissima in being much

more elongate, and in having an acute keel around the ver-

tical umbilicus; the basal part of the aperture is also less dilated.

Cylichna perpusilla. B.M.

C. testa minutissima, oblongo-ovata, superne latiore quam ad basim,

pellucida, omnino levi, nitente; apertura superne modice lata

super verticem producta, basi paululum dilatata; vertex imper-

foratus, medio (ex quo surgit labrum) leviter depressus ; colu-

mella crassiuscula, haud torta.

Long. 1 mill., diam. 3.

Hab. Persian Gulf, 14 fathoms (Col. Pelly).

One of the smallest forms yet discovered. It is quite smooth,

white, and shining, of an oval form, rather narrower at the

base than towards the vertex.

Cylichna (Mnestia) puncto-sulcata. B.M.

C. testa late ovata, basi paululum angustata, tenui, haud pellucida,

fusco-alba, transversim tenuiter sulcata; sulci 27, equidistantes,

confertim punctati; vertex umbilicatus, intus striatus, margine

rotundato circumdatus; apertura lata, super verticem aliquanto

producta; labrum tenue; columella incrassata, smuosa; umbilici

regio subperforata.

Long. 43 mill., diam. 3.

Hab. Tunis, North Africa.

This appears to be very distinct from any other species ;

and it is at once recognized by the 27 closely punctured strie,

which are at equal distances from each other.

Cylichna (Mnestia) alboguttata. B.M.

C. testa ovata, aliquanto basi attenuata, tenui, semipellucida, al-

bida, confertim guttis lacteis opacis ornata, levi, nitente, incre-

menti lineis et transversim exiliter striata, superne basique di-

stinctius; vertex valde umbilicatus, intus transversim striatus,

margine rotundato circumdatus ; apertura superne latiuscula, basi

latior; labrum tenue; columella incrassata, alba, reflexa, fissuram

parvam fere tegens.

Long. 8 mill., diam. 43.

Var. Testa pallide rosea, guttis numerosis rotundis albis variegata.

Hab. West Indies.

This species is at once known from marmorata, A. Ad., by the

difference of form. It is without the contraction just below the

vertex, the apical umbilicus is smaller and not surrounded by

so sharp an edge, the striz above and below are not so strongly

marked, and the aperture is not so produced upwards as in

that species.

354 Mr. E. A. Smith on Species of Bullide.

Cylichna (Sao) Pellyt. — iB. Mi,

C. testa pyriformi, basim versus duplo latiore quam ad verticem,

alba, basi transversim distanter striata; vertex umbilicatus, ex-

trinsecus lira (que striis longitudinalibus curvatis semsim evanes-

centibus decussata est) circumcinctus ; apertura superne angusta,

super verticem producta, inferius valde dilatata; columella bre-

vis, incrassata ; umbilici regio perforata.

Long. 4 mill., diam. maj. 2.

Hab. Persian Gulf (Col. Pelly).

This species is rather like C. nitéda, A. Ad., in form; but it

is considerably larger, and proportionally narrower towards

the upper end.

Messrs. H. & A. Adams, in their ‘Genera of Recent Mol-

lusca,’ vol. ii. p. 21, give the following characters to Sao, which

they place as a subgenus of Atys :—“ Shell pyriform, umbili-

cated ; apex not perforated.”

Of these characters the first two certainly apply better to

some of the species of the genus Cylichna than to those of

Atys, and the third is a false one; for in the descriptions of

the species characterized by A. Adams, he mentions the vertex

as being “subumbilicata” or “ profunde perforata:” there-

fore I think Sao should be removed from Atys, and be placed

as a subgenus of Cylichna, from which it differs chiefly in

being pyriform.

Tornatina liratispira. B.M.

T. testa cylindracea, superius parum latiore quam basi, alba, nitida,

incrementi lineis curvatis striata; anfract. 5, superius acute mar-

ginati, primus tubercularis; spira brevissima, turrita, sutura late

canaliculata, medio lira filosa divisa: apertura angusta, basi sen-

sim dilatata ; columella spiraliter uniplicata.

Long. 6 mill., diam. 3.

Hab. Rio Janeiro.

This species is nearly allied to 7. Knockert, Smith, Proc.

Zool. Soc. 1872, from West Africa; but it may be known

from it by its larger size, and the absence of the plications at the

upper part of the body-whorl; the columellar fold also is less

strongly developed. The very fine ridge in the middle of

the sutural channel produces the appearance of a double edge

to the whorls.

Tornatina persiana. B.M.

T. testa minutissima, breviter cylindracea, alba, incrementi lineis

curvatis rugosa ; anfract. 3, primus ex tuberculo magno constat,

ceteri superius lira magna rotundata circumcincti ; sutura de-

On the Affinities of Paleozoic Tabulate Corals. 355

pressa ; apertura latiuscula, brevior quam anfractus ultimus, basi

sensim dilatata; columella brevis, incrassata, haud torta.

Long. 1} mill., diam. Z.

Hab. Persian Gulf, 14 fathoms (Col. Pelly).

Its minuteness constitutes the principal distinctive character

of this species. The tubercle which forms the apex is pro-

portionally very large.’

Planaxis puncto-striatus. B.M.

P. testa acuminato-ovata, nitida, alba, lineis spiralibus rufis, partim

interruptis (in anfr. ult. circiter 9), cincta; spira elongata, apice

obtuso; anfract. 6, parum convexi, primi 3 basimque versus

transversim sulcati, ceeteri crebre puncto-striati; apertura ovata,

alba, spiram eequans; columella arcuata cum labro callositate

juncta ; labrum incrassatum, intus denticulatum ; canalis basalis

brevis.

Long. 73 mill., diam. 32.

Hab. Gulf of Suez (M‘ Andrew).

This pretty species may be recognized from any other by

the nine transverse red lines and the punctured strie, about

twenty in the body-whorl.

XXXVII.—On the Affinities of Paleozoic Tabulate Corals

with Existing Species. By A. E. VERRILL.*

THe works of Milne-Edwards and Haime upon corals are so

extensive and important, and their classification is so well

understood and generally adopted, especially by geologists,

that it is of great importance that their errors of classification

should be pointed out and fully understood.

A very unfortunate mistake was made when they instituted

the exceedingly heterogeneous and artificial group known as

* MADREPORARIA TABULATA.” This division was based

wholly upon a single character of uncertain value, found in

certain corals differing very widely among themselves in all

other respects. This character, regarded by them as of such

fundamental! importance, was merely the existence of complete

transverse septa or plates across the coral-tubes, or cells, occu-

pied by the lower parts of the bodies of the coral-polyps, thus

dividing the lower unoccupied portion of these coral-cells into

a series of closed chambers, each plate in turn marking a

former position of the base of the polyp which occupied the

cell, as it grew upward. In most of the other corals, on the

* Communicated by the Author from the ‘American Journal of Science’

for March 1872.

356 Prof. A. E. Verrill on the Affinities of Paleozoic

contrary, there are either no transverse plates, or else they exist

between the radiating lamelle or septa, thus dividing each of

the radiating chambers into a series of transverse cavities, which

are usually not exactly on the same level in the different cham-

bers. At the time when this classification was proposed, the

polyps of but few of the ‘ tabulate corals” had been examined,

and no characters were drawn from the soft parts. The explana-

tion of the transverse septa seems to be, judging from my own

dissections and also from analogy with other animals, that they

are formed after each discharge of ova; the vacuity thus pro-

duced, being useless, is cut off from the visceral cavity above it

by the formation of a septum. Therefore, if the eggs be dis-

charged from all the radiating chambers simultaneously, or if

from any other cause the polyp ¢ abandons all the chambers simul-

taneously, it is obvious that a complete septum or transverse

plate will be formed across the entire tube; but if the eggs be

discharged at different times from the ovaries occupying the

various radiating chambers, thé septa formed below them in the

different chambers will not be coincident or exactly at the same

level in all. It would seem, therefore, that the existence or

non-existence of complete transverse plates is simply a matter

of periodicity in the discharge of ova.

We should naturally expect to find such variations in pe-

riodicity among the species and genera of many diverse groups;

and this, I think, can easily be shown to be the case. Thus,

for example, the genus Celastrea, V., an undoubted Astrean

coral, has the septa in all the chambers on the same level, thus

forming true tabule; the genus Alveopora (fig. 1, a), and

a, a longitudinal section of Alveopora spongiosa, Dana; 6, a vertical view

of some of the cells: both much enlarged, copied "from Dana’s Atlas

of the Zoophytes of the U. S. Expl. Exp. For the use of this cut I

am indebted to Messrs. Dodd and Mead, the publishers of Professor

Dana’s new work on Corals and Coral Islands,

Tabulate Corals with Existing Species. 357

others allied to Porites and Madrepora, have true tabule; also

the genus Astreopsammia, V., of the Hupsammide ; the species

of Pocillopora, a genus closely allied, in its animals and other-

wise, to Oculina and Stylophora, have very numerous and per-

fect transverse septa; even among the Alcyonaria, the genus

Tubipora occasionally has transverse internal septa; and the

same is true of Millepora, belonging to the class of Acalephs.

Notwithstanding the very sight basis upon which the group

of ‘Tabulata” was established, and disregarding the very

great and important differences which exist among the corals

thus unnaturally brought together, most writers upon corals,

whether recent or fossil, during the past twenty years have

adopted this classification without hesitation.

And yet this is but another instance forcibly illustrating the

general rule that classifications based on single characters are

very likely to be artificial and erroneous. It also illustrates

the manner in which such an error often leads to others of still

greater importance.

In 1857 Professor Agassiz made the very important disco-

very that the animals of Millepora are not true polyps, but

genuine hydroids, belonging to the class of Acalephs or

Meduse*. But, since Millepora is a genus belonging to the

“ Tabulata,”’ he immediately concluded that all the “ Tabu-

lata” are, therefore, hydroid Acalephs! And, not content

with this sufficiently bold generalization, he extended it

likewise to the extinct ‘ Rugosa”’ or Cyathophylloid corals ft,

at first apparently with some hesitation, but more recently

without qualification f.

From this conclusion, if admitted, it followed that in the

Paleozoic ages there were few, if any, true polyp-corals, but,

on the other hand, the class of Acalephs was abundantly re-

presented by a great variety of coral-making forms, some. of

them of great size, and capable of building extensive coral-

reefs, similar to those made by true polyp-corals in modern

times! Thus the geological importance of these two classes

of animals would be completely reversed, as well as our ideas

of the nature of corals and coral-reefs.

These views have been held and advanced by Professor

Agassiz for many years, and have been urged quite recently,

* Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History, vol. vi. p. 373,

1859. See also Pourtales, in Illustrated Catal. of the Mus. of Comp.

Zoology, no. 4, p. 56, 1871.

+ Contributions to the Natural History of the United States, vol. iii.

pp- 61-63, and vol. iv. pp. 292-296 & 338.

{ Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, vol. i. no. 13, p. 384,

1870.

358 ~— Prof. A. E. Verrill on the Affinities of Paleozoic

notwithstanding the great amount of evidence that has been

published to show that the “ Tabulata” include corals very

diverse in structure and affinities. The proposition of Pro-

fessor Agassiz to regard all “'Tabulate” and “ Rugose”’

corals as Acalephs has not been very generally adopted, but

has been received with more or less hesitation and doubt by

many zoologists and geologists. In fact it is not easy to see

how Professor Agassiz could reconcile, in his own mind, the

structure of many of the Tabulata and Rugosa with his own

definitions of the two classes Polyps and Acalephs. The di-

stinction upon which he and others have chiefly insisted is the

existence in the former of radiating fleshy lamelle, dividing

the interior of the body into a number of radiating chambers,

in the centre of which, in coral-making species, the radiating

plates are formed; while in Acalephs no such radiating

lamellee and chambers exist. Therefore it would not be pos-

sible for an Acaleph to form a coral having distinct radiating

plates or septa, unless we alter our definition of an Acaleph.

In that case I do not know what distinction would remain.

And yet we find many Tabulate corals, both recent and ancient,

with twelve or even twenty-four well-developed radiating

septa; and among the Rugosa there are very many genera in

which numerous radiating septa are as highly developed as in

the ordinary modern corals of undoubted polyp-origin, while

in some there are not even traces of transverse septa. If we

regard the relations of the soft parts to the corals, it will

therefore be necessary to consider all corals in which distinct

radiating plates are formed as true polyp-corals; but the

absence of such plates is not of itself proof that the coral was

not made by a polyp; for many corals now living, and formed

by genuine polyps, have no radiating septa (e.g. Tubipora,

some species of Pocillopora).

In the present state of science, the only stony corals which

are known to be formed by hydroids are the several species of

Millepora. We can reasonably infer that a few other genera

having essentially the same structure, or belonging properly to

the same family, are also the corals of Hydroids. But as to the

great majority of the ‘ Tabulata” and ‘ Rugosa,” there can

no longer be any reasonable doubt that they were made by true

polyps, essentially similar to those of the existing corals*.

* The following quotation from the ‘ Bulletin of the Mus. of Comp.

Zoology,’ vol. i. no. 13, p. 884, Nov. 1869, will serve to illustrate the views

of Protessor Agassiz :—

‘“‘Tf we now remember that the Acalephian affinities of the Tabulata

are unquestionable, and that, with them, the Rugosa must be removed

from the class of Polyps and referred to that of the Acalephs, and if we

further take into consideration the fact that Paleodiscus belongs to the

Tabulate Corals with Existing Species. 359

But among the Tabulate corals, after excluding the Mille-

poride, great diversities of structure still remain ; and no doubt

representatives of several families that ought to be widely se-

parated in a natural system are thus combined together on

account of a single unimportant character. Many of these

genera are extinct and apparently have no very closely allied

representatives among living corals. The aftinities of such

genera may long remain doubtful. But in other cases there

are living corals having very close relations with certain

Paleozoic genera, and these we are even now able to classity

with as much certainty as we can the ordinary forms of existing

corals.

Among the best-known of the tabulate corals are the nume-

rous species of Pocillopora and allied genera, which evidently

constitute a distinct family (Pocilloporide), largely represented

in the tropical waters of the Pacific and Indian oceans.

These corals are characterized by rather small tubular cells,

usually with 6, 12, or 24 radiating septa, which, even m the

same specimen, may be obsolete in some of the cells, by am-

perforate compact walls, and by a more ‘or less abundant

compact coenenchyma between the lateral cells, which may,

however, be absent where the cells are crowded, as at the ends

of the branches. The writer has shown in several previous

papers* that the Pocilloporide are the corals of true polyps.

type of Rugosa, and not to the family of Fungians, it becomes evident

that in their order of succession from the Mesozoic era, in which they

first make their appearance, the great types of the class of Polyps have

succeeded one another in the following order :—first Turbinolians, next

Fungians, next Astreeans, and last Madrepores—in exactly the sequence

in which these types stand to one another, as far as their structural gra-

dation is concerned, and in exactly the same order in which, during their

growth, these corals pass from one stage to another.”

But on the other hand, since we now find that the Acalephian affinities

of the Rugosa and most of the Tabulata are wholly imaginary and without

the slightest foundation in nature, all this beautiful theory of geological

sequence falls to the ground, and we find the Madrepores represented

even in the Lower Silurian rocks by Favosites and other Alveopora-like

forms, which are certainly neither /ow nor embryonic types! And even

in Mesozoic times the Astreans appear in force quite as early as the

Fungians or the Turbinolians. If there has ever been such a definite

geological sequence of the groups of corals as Agassiz imagines, it must

have taken place in the ante-Silurian ages, concerning the life of which

we know nothing. In the Lower Silurian seas the order was already well

developed and highly diversified.

* “On the Affinities of the Tabulate Corals,” in Proceedings of the

American Association for Advancement of Science, 1867, p. 148. Pro-

ceedings of the Essex Institute, vol. vi. p. 90, 1869. Transactions of the

Connecticut Academy, vol. i, p. 518, 1870. American Journal, vol. i.

p: 889, May 1871.

360 ~=—- Prof. A. E. Verrill on the Affinities of Palaeozoic

The animals of Pocillopora are exsert in expansion, with a re-

gular circle of 12, nearly equal, stout, tapering tentacles sur-

rounding the circular disk* ; and 12 internal, radiating, fleshy

lamelle show through the disk. Thus they closely resemble

the polyps of Stylophora, Porites, and Madrepora, which are

among the most typical of true polyps. The existence of

stellate cells, with 6 or even 12 well-developed radiating septa,

in several species of Pocillopora (e. g. P. elongata, Dana, P.

plicata, D., P. stellata, V.) should be sufficient evidence that

such corals have no Acalephian affinities whatever, even with-

out the conclusive evidence derived from a study of the living

olyps.

a The Silurian genus Colwmnaria appears to belong to a dif-

ferent family ; and if not actually a member of the Astreide,

it should at least be referred to a family very near that group.

It has from 24 to 36 well-developed, imperforate, radiating

septa, those of the first cycles wider and, in C. stellata (Hall,

sp.), reaching the centre, while those of the last cycle are quite

narrow. ‘The larger septa have the upper edge finely serrate.

The walls of thé adjacent cells are united together as in

Celastrea and Coniastrea; they are solid and apparently

imperforate. ‘The genus closely resembles Celastrea ; but the

budding is marginal or interstitial, while in the latter the cells

divide across the middle.

Another well-known and important group of tabulate corals

was abundantly represented in the Paleozoic seas by the genus

Favosites, with its numerous species, and by several other

allied genera, constituting the subfamily Favositine of Edwards

and Haime. In these corals the walls are thin and perforated

by more or less numerous pores or foramina, which are small

in Favosites, but large and numerous in Koninckia. The cells

are usually crowded and polygonal; and there is no ccenen-

chyma. ‘The radiating septa are sometimes obsolete, but

usually 12 or 24, which may be continuous or represented

only by vertical rows of spine-like points, as in Favosites and

the existing genus Alveopora (fig. 1, 6). The transverse

septa are variously developed, being often nearly flat but with

the intervening spaces variable (as in Havosites), sometimes

partly vesicular and incomplete (as in Hmmonsia), not unfre-

quently convex and vesicular (as in Michelinia), rarely infun-

dibuliform (as in Remeria). It is obvious that this group has

no relationship with the Milleporide, and at best only a distant

* Trans. Conn. Academy, vol. i. p. 523 (Pocillopora lacera, V.). The

polyps of P. damicornis, as figured by Quoy and Gaimard in the ‘ Voyage

of the Astrolabe,’ are quite similar.

Tabulate Corals with Existing Species. 361

one with the Pocilloporide, although Edwards and Haime

placed it in the same family with the latter.

In the ‘ Report on the Zoophytes of the U.-S. Exploring

Expedition,’ 1846, p. 509, Professor Dana instituted the

family Havositide, im which he included three subfamilies :—

Ist, Alveoporine, including the genus Alveopora ; 2nd, Favo-

sitine, embracing Stylophora, Pocillopora, Seriatipora, with

Favosites and other extinct genera; 3rd, Helioporine, for

Heliopora, Millepora, Heliolites: this family was placed

next to the Poritide. Although more recent discoveries have

shown that this arrangement is incorrect in several points, it is

nevertheless much nearer correct than the classifications of

Kdwards and Haime and Agassiz. In thus bringing Alveopora

and Favosites near together, Prof. Dana made a very important

step in advance, and one that has unfortunately been lost sight

of, or overlooked, by recent writers, and most unfortunately by

Edwards and Haime, by whom these genera are very widely

separated. In describing the genus <Alveopora, Professor

Dana gives, as one of its characters, ‘transverse septa

remote;” and on plate 48. fig. 3, d, of his ‘ Atlas,’ from

which the accompanying cut has been copied, he figured a

vertical section of Alveopora spongiosa, in which the transverse

septa are well shown (fig. 1, a). In this species the walls of

the cells are exceedingly thin and pierced by numerous large

openings, often leaving a mere skeleton of a wall. The

transverse septa, although thin, are perfectly developed and

imperforate, completely closing the cells at intervals of about

05 to ‘20 of an inch, varying even more than this in some

parts of the coral, but not more than do many species of

Favosites. Moreover the septa in many adjacent cells are

situated at the same level, giving the coral the appearance of

being divided into successive layers by broad, thin transverse

plates. This appearance is due merely to the thinness and

porosity of the walls and coincidence of the plates. ‘The same

arrangement of plates is found in the Silurian genus Dania,

which, however, is said to have imperforate walls.

The structure of the walls in the tabulated genus Koninckia,

' from the Cretaceous, is very similar to that of Alveopora.

Moreover the latter, like Alveopora (fig. 1, 6), has vertical

rows of spine-like points, representing the twelve radiating

septa. In some, if not all, species of Havosites the septa were

likewise represented by just such rows of slender points. And

the same is true of other extinct genera belonging to the same

group. Whether all the species of A/veopora have complete

transverse septa is uncertain; for they appear to have been

generally overlooked by the describers. Hdwards and Haime

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. ix. 25

362 Prof. A. E. Verrill on the Affinities of Paleozoic

make no allusion whatever to such septa in their descriptions

of the genus and its species. In all the species which I have

examined, however, these septa are to be found ; but they are

usually more remote and less evident than in A. spongiosa,

while the walls in most of the other species are thicker and

perforated by fewer and smaller openings, thus producing

firmer corals. In A. dedalea, Dana*, the walls are much

thicker and perforated by smaller rounded orifices, of which

there are two or three vertical series on each side of a cell.

The cells are very deep; and the transverse septa are complete

though distant, and coincident in adjacent cells. The radiating

septa are represented by twelve vertical rows of stouter spines,

which often meet at the centre. Mr. W. 8S. Kentt has

described and figured a recent coral, under the name of

Havositipora Deshayesti, which has well-developed transverse

septa, and agrees in all other respects, according to Mr. Kent,

with Alveopora. But as the presence of such septa appears to

be characteristic of Alveopora, the Deshayesti should be

regarded as a species of Alveopora in which the transverse

septa are, perhaps, unusually numerous. Mr. Kent also men-

tions a paleozoic fossil coral, supposed to be from North

America, which he refers to the same genus (/. paleozotca).

This may prove to be an ancient species of the genus Alveopora,

and in any case cannot be more than generically separated,

either from Alveopora or Favosites, as remarked by Mr. Kent.

The genus Koninckia of the Cretaceous is, perhaps, not

generically distinct from Alveopora, approaching A. dedalea

very closely, and differing from A. Verrilliana, D., chiefly in

having but six vertical rows of septal spines, instead of twelve.

The genus Gondopora is closely related to Alveopora, differing

chiefly in having about 24 radiating septa, which are more

fully developed, but perforated by large irregular openings,

and a distinct columella. The walls are usually rather firm

and rough, as if composed of coarse irregular granules so

united together as to leave many openings through the wall.

The lateral and younger cells are often very shallow, with a

large rough columella, and with six small paliform lobes arising

from the inner part of the septa; while in some cases the -

walls are much thickened and roughly granulous at the surface,

in these characters closely resembling Porites, to which it is

also allied in the internal structure of the coral. In fact

Goniopora combines many of the characters of Alveopora and

* This species, which proves to be distinct from the dedalea of

Forskal &c., has been named A. Verrilliana by Prof. Dana in his recent

work on Corals and Coral Islands.

+ Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. vi. p. 584, Nov. 1870.

Tabulate Corals with Existing Species. 363

Porites, and has some additional special characters. The

transverse septa are usually quite numerous and thin, usually

irregular, but with an evident tendency to coincide in height

in all the chambers of the same polyp-cell, though much

broken up and forced out of the transverse plane by the pre-

sence of the large irregular columella. In one species of

Goniopora I have occasionally seen cells with a deeply infun-

dibuliform septum completely closing the cavity below, thus

recalling the septa of Remeria.

The three genera Goniopora, Alveopora, and Porites agree

closely in the characters of their polyps; the first, however, has

24 tentacles, while the others usually have but 12, although

there are often afew larger polyps with 24 tentacles, scattered

among the smaller ones, in both the latter genera. It seems

necessary, therefore, to place these genera and the others that

are evidently closely allied to each of them in one family, Por-

tide. It will also be understood, from what has already been

said, that it is impossible to assign any characters sufficient for

separating the Favositine, even as a family, from the Poritide.

It is very doubtful whether the group can be maintained even

as a subfamily ; for Alveopora and Goniopora combine the

characters of both groups. The family Porrrrpa*, thus ex-

tended, might, perhaps, be provisionally divided into three

subfamilies :—Poritin®, for Porztes and the closely allied

genera; ALVEOPORINA, to include Alveopora, Goniopora,

Litharea, and, if considered distinct, Koninckia and Favositi-

pora; FAVOSITINA, to embrace Favosites, Emmonsia,Michelinia,

and the other closely allied genera. It is probable, however,

that even such a slight separation of Alveopora and Favosites

is greater than the differences actually observed will warrant.

Admitting these necessary changes in the classification, it

follows that the Madreporaria perforata or Madreporacea,

which is generally regarded as the highest division, or sub-

order, of the true corals, was abundantly represented even in

* The genus Montipora, for which Edwards and Haime constituted

their second subfamily of Poritide (Montiporine), belongs properly to

the Madreporide, as explained elsewhere by the writer (Trans. Conn.

Acad. vol. i. p. 501), and where it was also placed by Prof. Dana.

+ The opinion that the Favositine belong to the Madreporacea was

advanced by the writer in 1870 (Trans. Conn. Acad. i. p. 518). Mr. Kent,

in the article referred to, published simultaneously with mine, expressed

the same opinion and used independently nearly the same arguments.

He also uses the argument with reference to the impossibility that a

coral with radiating septa could be formed by hydroid polyps, as I had

also done both in the paper referred to and in that of 1867. This coin-

cidence of opinion, arrived at through studies pursued in different ways

and approached from different directions, could not fail to be gratifying

both to the writer and to Mr, Kent.

25*

364 Prof. Allman on the Morphology

the Silurian seas. Moreover the family Poritide, which now

includes many of the most important of reef-building corals,

was also, even in paleozoic ages, a family rich in reef-forming

species ; for some of the species of Yavosites grew into hemi-

spherical masses eight or ten feet in diameter. It also seems

probable that the genus Alveopora has existed through all

periods from the paleozoic to the present time, which would

seem the more remarkable considering the extreme delicacy

and fragility of these corals, and also the fact that, so far as

known, they are all shallow-water and reef species.

XXX VIII.—On the Morphology and Affinities of Graptolites.

By Prof. ALLMAN, F.R.S., F.L.8., &.*

AmonG the extinct forms of life few possess more interest than

these remarkable fossils, absolutely confined, as they are, to

one great section of the paleozoic rocks, where their vast

abundance, wide geographical distribution, and easy recogni-

tion render them of special value to the practical geologist.

The Graptolites are now by most paleontologists referred to

the Hydroida: and their living representatives are sought for

among the calyptoblastic genera of this order. While, how-

ever, [am unable to recognize their hydroid relations from

the point of view from which paleontologists have generally

agreed to regard them, I believe that their affinities with the

Hydroida are too decided to justify their omission from any

complete exposition of the paleontological history of this group

of the animal kingdom.

The typical form of a graptolite is that of a narrow tube,

straight or more or less curved, emitting from one side a series

of hollow denticles, which are the free extremities of little

cups or calicles, through which the cavity of the tube opens

* The following paper is mainly a portion of a chapter on the Distribution

of the Hydroida in Time contained in the second part of the author’s

‘Monograph of the Gymnoblastic Hydroids’ now nearly ready for delivery;

and as it contains some new views of a question much agitated at this mo-

ment, it was thought that its regular publication might be here antici-

pated. The section of the work to which it properly belongs was printed

off some time ago, and consequently before the appearance of Dr. Nichol-

son’s ‘ Monograph of the British Graptolitide,’ the first part of which,

just published, will be welcomed by the paleontologist as a very valuable

introduction to the systematic study of the graptolites. This difference

of date will explain the absence of reference to Dr. Nicholson’s work in

the Monograph of the Gymnoblastea. Dr. Nicholson, however, does not

seem to have essentially modified the views contained in his earlier publi-

cations and discussed in that Monograph.

and Affinities of Graptolites. 365

externally, and having a solid slender rod (“virgula’’) im-

bedded in the walls of the op- Fic. 1

posite side.” This type form TOS

(“ monoprionidian”’) is repre-

sented by the genus G'raptolites

proper (fig. 1), where the calicles

or tubular offsets from the com-

mon canal are in contact with

one another at their bases and

usually for a greater or less ex-

tent of their length, and by the

genus Rastrites, where they are aa

separated from one another by Longitudinal section of a frag-

considerable intervals. ment of Graptolites priodon,

But . ft after Barrande.

ut we may conceive of two

such graptolites being united back to back ; and the resulting

form will then present two series of tubular offsets, one on

one side of the main tube and the other on the side dia-

metrically opposite, while the solid rod will now occupy the

axis, holding just such a position as it would do if it had

been formed by the union of the two rods of the component

halves.

This form (“ diprionidian ”’) is represented by such genera as

Diplograptus, where the tubular offsets stand out more or less

free from the sides of the main tube, and by Climacograptus,

where they are adnate to one another, so as to appear entirely

immersed in its walls.

Some other forms also exist, such as Dicranograptus, in

which the graptolite with a double row of denticles, after con-

tinuing its course for a time, divides into its component halves,

which then diverge from the basal portion as two branches,

constructed each on the single-rowed type. Branched single-

rowed forms (Cladograptus, Dichograptus) also occur. In Di-

chograptus primary branches radiate from a common point at

the proximal end, where they are connected by a web-like

disk, apparently composed of a double membrane of the same

nature as that which forms the walls of the branches*.

There are also some anomalous forms (fettolites, Phyllo-

graptus), whose structure has not yet been determined with

sufficient certainty to admit of a satisfactory association with

the true graptolites ; but the essential features in the morpho-

logy of the graptolites, as well as their more important modi-

fications, are expressed in the genera already cited.

There is sufficient evidence to show that the graptolites

* See Hall, ‘Graptolites of the Quebec Group.’

366 Prof. Allman on the Morphology

were flexible, and that the solid parts, which are all that have

come down to us, were of a horny or chitinous consistence.

There is also evidence to show that, though some obscure

forms (Dendrograptus), associated on insufficient grounds with

the graptolites, were apparently rooted, the true graptolites

were never directly attached to any other bodies—thus differ-

ing from the hydroid trophosomes and most of the corals and

Polyzoa of the present day.

We are absolutely ignorant of the original contents of the

main tube and of its lateral offsets, and we know just as little

of other soft parts which may have accompanied the chitinous

skeleton ; so that in attempting to assign to the graptolites

their position in the system of nature we are driven to analogy,

by no means close, as our sole guide.

The resemblance of the forms just described to the tropho-

some of a calyptoblastic hydroid (sertularian or plumularian),

after the disappearance of all the soft parts, is sufficiently

obvious. And it is this resemblance between the fossil grap-

tolite and the recent chitinous skeletons of the sertularian and

plumularian hydroids which has induced modern paleontologists

to refer the fossil to the order Hydroida, regarding the lateral

offsets as hydrothecee and the main tube as the chitinous

perisare of the hydrocaulus*.

We shall presently consider whether the exact points of

contact between the graptolites and hydroids have been indi-

cated in this comparison. :

The fact which most obviously opposes itself to an accept-

* The sertularian affinities of the graptolites have been strongly insisted

on by Hall, who has greatly advanced our knowledge of these fossils in

his classical work, ‘ Graptolites of the Quebec Group,’ which forms one of

the memoirs of the Geological Survey of Canada. On the structure and

principal modifications of graptolites, the works of Barrande (‘ Graptolites

de Bohéme’) and of Geinitz (‘ Versteinerungen der Grauwacken. Die

Graptolithen’) should also be consulted. The sertularian affinities of

graptolites have also been defended by Mr. W. Carruthers, of the Botanical

Department, British Museum ; and I know of no one who has worked out

this question with so much care and completeness: see especially his

“ Revision of the British Graptolites ” in the ‘Geological Magazine,’ vol. v.

The hydroid relations of the graptolites are also maintained from the same

point of view by Dr. Nicholson in various publications, in which he hag

largely contributed to our knowledge of these bodies, and more especially

in his ‘ Monograph of the British Graptolitide,’ part 1, just published.

I must here express my thanks to Mr. Carruthers for the liberal way in

which he has placed at my disposal his large collection of graptolites, and

for the aid which I have derived from his extensive acquaintance with

the literature of the subject; and to Mr. Woodward, of the Palzonto-

logical Department, British Museum, for the readiness with which he

placed in my hands for examination the fine collection of graptolites in

the Museum.

and Affinities of Graptolites. 367

ance of the hydroid affinities of graptolites is found in the pre-

sence of a virgula, the rod or “ solid axis,” which constitutes an

essential feature in the structure of the graptolite. This rod was

apparently of the same chitinous material as that which formed

the rest of the firm skeleton of the graptolite. It is frequently

continued for some distance beyond the distal or growing end,

while its opposite or proximal end usually terminates in a

minute spine (‘radicle’’ of Hall), often continued into a

long slender filament, like that of the distal end. It grows

with the growth of the graptolite, as can be easily proved by

following the progress of the graptolite from its younger

stages; and it is difficult to explain its increase of length and

thickness without regarding it, like the proper perisarc, as an

excretion from the ccenosare ; and though, in the adult grap-

tolite, it appears to have been separated by a chitinous film

from immediate contact with the soft contents of the common

tube, it was probably in direct relation with these in the

younger stages, and would thus owe its existence to a special

activity and peculiar modification of the chitine-excreting func-

tion of the ccenosare at this part. It is sometimes found in the

-single-rowed graptolites to have become detached from the

test or chitinous perisarc, leaving behind it a furrow in which

it had lain, this furrow being, in the more perfect state of the

fossil, converted into a tube by a thin extension over it of the

test.

Though the virgula would thus form an extremely excep-

tional structure, its presence can hardly be regarded as offermg

an insurmountable obstacle to the admission of the graptolites

into immediate relation with the Hydroida. Until lately a

similar structure would have quite as justly excluded from the

Polyzoa any animal which possessed it. The discovery, how-

ever, of the living polyzoal genus Rhabdopleura shows that a

rod quite like that of the graptolite in all points, except in its

not being continued beyond the cell-bearing portion, might be

developed in an animal possessing in all other respects a typical

polyzoal structure*.

It is true that the extension of the rod in the fossil beyond

the limits of the common tube appears to increase the diffi-

culty of reconciling its presence with the hydroid affinities

of the graptolite. I believe, however, that this is, after all,

not so anomalous a fact as at first sight it may appear, and

that there is reason to believe that the ccenosare invested by a

proper perisare was originally continued along what now ap-

* Allman, “On Rhabdopleura,” in ‘Quarterly Journal of Microscopic

Science,’ Jan. 1869, p. 57, pl. 8.

368 Prof. Allman on the Morphology

pears as a free extension of the rod. Its distal extension

would then correspond to what had been the young growing

portion of the graptolite, as yet destitute of denticles and with

its perisarc so delicate as to be incapable of preservation in

the fossil, so that the thin perisare has perished along with the

soft ccenosare it included, its thicker rod-like portion being the

only part preserved.

This view is borne out by the fact that in the very young

stage of the graptolite a distal extension of the body along the

rudimental rod, and beyond the incipient denticles, may be

noticed; while it is further confirmed by an observation by

Dr. Nicholson*, who tells us that in some specimens of Diplo-

graptus pristis he has seen the common canal without denticles

continued on each side of the prolonged rod.

The continuation of the rod beyond the denticle-bearing

portion at the proximal end of the graptolite may also have

been accompanied by an extension of the coenosarc and its en-

veloping perisare in this direction, the rod alone remaining in

the fossil. To this view an observation of Mr. Carrutherst+

gives support; for he has noticed the prolongation of the rod

at the proximal end of Climacograptus scalaris frequently in- -

vested for a short distance by a sheath.

If this explanation be accepted, the continuation of the rod

as a naked filament beyond the denticle-bearing portion of the

graptolite need no longer surprise us. A comparison of the

rod with the chitinous spines which bristle over the surface of

Hydractinia may also here suggest itself; but these spines are

not only invested by a coenosarcal layer, but are permeated by

canals which are lined by ccenosare, while in other respects the

approximation of the graptolites to Hydractinia offers too

many. difficulties to allow of its being attempted.

The lateral spines often present at the proximal end of the

graptolite seem to be of a different nature from that of the rod,

and would rather appear to be referable to the same group of

structures as the chitinous spines and variously formed pro-

cesses by which the hydrothecee and other/parts of the perisarce

of living hydroids are not unfrequently ornamented.

It has been already said that the advocates of the hydroid

nature of graptolites regard their calicles or hollow lateral

offsets as hydrothece. If this be really the nature of these

parts, the mode in which their cavity opens into that of the

main tube is exceptional ; for in the living hydroids the point

of communication between the hydrotheca and tube of the

* Geological Magazine, vol. iv. 1867, p. 261, note.

+ In the ‘Intellectual Observer ’ for June, 1867, p. 370.

and Affinities of Graptolites. 369

hydrocaulus is more or less constricted, or even provided with

an imperfect diaphragm, so that the hydrothecee become proper

chambers, completely differentiated from the common perisarcal

tube (figs. 2 & 3). Now the calicles of the graptolite have

their cavity uninterruptedly continuous with that of the main

tube, there being no diaphragm or constriction of any kind at

the point where the one passes into the other (fig. 1) *.

There is, however, another view of the calicles which will

meet this difficulty, a view suggested by the remarkable bodies

known as nematophores, and which are characteristic of the

Plumularide. These bodies constitute cup-like appendages

formed of chitine and filled with protoplasm, which has the

power of emitting pseudopodia or amoeboid prolongations of

its substance, and having their cavity in communication with

that of the common tube of the hydrocaulus. They present

two principal modifications, the movable and the fixed. In

the movable forms (fig. 2) the nematophore always springs

from a narrow point of attachment, whence it rapidly widens *

towards the distal end, while its cavity is divided transversely

by an imperfect septum into two chambers. The nematophores

of this form are more or less movable on the narrow point of

attachment and are frequently caducous. They are charac-

teristic of the genera Plumularia proper, Antennularia, Ke.

The fixed forms (fig. 3) commence with a wide basis of attach-

ment by which they are immovably fixed to the hydrocaulus;

and they are usually, though not always, destitute of an in-

ternal septum. They are never caducous. ‘These are charac-

teristic of such genera as Aglaophenia, where (as is also the

case with the movable nematophores of other genera) they are

situated, some upon the median line, when they are necessarily

azygous, and some laterally, when they are in pairs. It is

more directly with these fixed forms that I would compare the

calicles of a graptolite ; and such a comparison will show how

exact is the resemblance. I have elsewhere shown that the

tooth-like processes which project from the edges of the hol-

low leaflets which form the walls of the corbula in Aglao-

phenia (fig. 5, F,¢) are bodies of an entirely similar kind; and

the resemblance between these and the tooth-like processes of

many graptolites is complete.

Now it is not alone in general form that the nematophores of

Aglaophenia resemble the calicles of a graptolite. The mode in

which their chitinous sheaths are seen to open into the common

* M‘Coy (‘ Brit. Pal. Foss.’) speaks of a septum at the base of the cali-

cles in certain graptolites; but subsequent observations have not tended

to confirm this statement.

370 Prof. Allman on the Morphology

Portion of a ramulus of

Antennularia anten-

nina, with hydranths

and movable nema-

tophores, showing the

protoplasmic contents

of the nematophores

and the emission of

pseudopodia.

hydranth extended ;

b, hydranth retracted ;

c, hydrotheca; d;d,d,

consecutive segments

of the ramulus; e, e,

azygous or mesial ne-

matophoreswith their

protoplasmic contents

quiescent; e’,e',e', azy-

gous nematophores

with their protoplas-

mic contents emitting

pseudopodial prolon-

gations; f, a pair of

geminate or lateral

nematophores, from

one of which a thick

branching pseudopo-

dial process of pro-

toplaam has been

emitted.

and Affinities of Graptolites. 371

canal of the perisarc (see fig. 3) after the destruction of all

the soft parts 1s entirely similar to the mode of communication

between the calicles and the common canal in the fossil (in

those cases, at least, in which the graptolite has afforded faci-

lities for examination such as to leave no doubt as to the struc-

ture of the parts in question), and quite different from that in

which the proximal extremity of the hydrotheca is connected

with the common tube of the chitinous perisarc in the existing

hydroid*.

I cannot help believing that this is the true view to take of

the morphology of graptolites. If so, the graptolites would

admit of an approximation through an unexpected channel with

the Plumularide. They would then be morphologically plu-

mularians in which the development of hydrothecee had been

suppressed by the great development of the nematophores,

probably the mesial ones+ ; while, on the other hand, the exist-

ing plumularian with well-developed hydrothecee would pre-

sent in its nematophores the last traces of the structure of its

ancient representative, the graptolite.

That the complete suppression of the hydrothece simulta-

neously with the retention of the nematophores is no over-

strained supposition, will be admitted from what may be seen

in certain plumularian hydroids which carry peculiar branches

destined for the support of the gonangia or generative cap-

sules. Now these branches are always destitute of hydro-

thecee ; but they are richly supplied with nematophores, which

are distributed along the length of the branch, sometimes in a—

single row like the denticles of the monoprionidian graptolites,

and sometimes in two opposite rows, like those of the diprio-

nidian forms. In one undescribed species, from the deep-sea

dredgings of the ‘ Porcupine,’ I have found quite similar

branches sent off from parts where they can have no connexion

with the generative functions of the colony. The resemblance

* In the older parts of the hydroid stem the chitinous walls may be-

come much thickened by successive layers of chitine, and the communi-

cation between the common canal and the cavity of the nematophore

may thereby become contraeted—a condition, however, which must not

be confounded with the nature of the communication between the hydro-

theca and its supporting stem.

+ It may be here suggested that while the calicles of the monoprionidian

graptolites have their representatives in the azygous or mesial nemato-

phores of the plumularian, those of the diprionidian graptolites are repre-

sented by the paired or lateral nematophores. I should not hesitate to

maintain this view, were it not that the comparison of a pair of opposite

calicles in a diprionidian graptolite with a pair of lateral nematophores in

a plumularian could hardly be reconciled with the view which would

(apparently with reason) regard the diprionidian forms as morphologically

representing two monoprionidian forms united back to back.

Bie Prof. Allman on the Morphology

of these branches with their rows of nematophores to certain

graptolites with their rows of calicles is too obvious to be

overlooked.

Hydrothecz of Aglaophenia piuma, with hydranths and fixed nemato-

phores.

A. Hydrotheca with the hydranth extended and with the protoplasmic

contents of the nematophores quiescent: a, hydranth; ce, serrated

margin of hydrotheca; d, segment of the ramulus, carrying the hy-

drotheca; e, mesial or azygous nematophore ; f, lateral nematophore ;

g, lateral aperture through which the cavity of the nematophore com-

municates with that of the hydrotheca.

B. Hydrotheca with retracted hydranth and with the protoplasmic con-

tents of the nematophores emitting pseudopodial prolongations :

a, hydranth; c, margin of hydrotheca; d, segment of the ramulus

carrying the hydrotheca; e, mesial nematophore with its protoplasm

projected in an irregular pseudopodial mass, g, through its lateral

aperture into the cavity of the hydrotheca; f, lateral nematophore

with the commencement of a pseudopodium.

C. Same parts, with pseudopodial processes more advanced.

D. Same parts, showing different states of extension of the pseudopodia.

and Affinities of Graptolites. o73

To the views here maintained further support is given by

certain undescribed hydroids in the collections of the United-

States Coast Survey placed in my hands for determination.

Among these are some plumularians in which that part of the

stem which lies at the proximal side of the pinna-bearing

portion (and is accordingly destitute of hydrothece) carries

along its length a single row of fixed nematophores separated

from one another by regular intervals, and appearing to take

the place of hydrothece (fig. 4). This part of the hydroid, if

detached from the pinnate portion, might (except from the

much greater slenderness of both common tube and calicles in

the fossil than in the living form) almost be taken for a recent

Rastrites.

Still further, the very im-

portant aid afforded in such

questions as the present by J

the history of development /(

may be here adduced ; for in

the plumularian genus An-

tennularta the embryonic

stem is provided with well-

developed nematophores be-

Fig. 4.

Portionofthe stem from

a the proximal side of

fore any hydrothece have

made their appearance.

Whether the calicles of the

graptolites gave lodgment to

true hydranths, or were filled

with simple protoplasm, as I

have already shown to be the

case with the nematophores

of the living Plumularide., it

is, of course, impossible to

assert with confidence. If,

however, we give analogy

its full weight, and extend

the resemblance between the

calicles of the graptolites and

the nematophores of the plu-

mularians to the nature of

their contents, we should then

have lodged in the graptolite-

the pinne in an un-

described —plumula-

rian from the Gulf-

stream, showing the

distribution of nema-

tophores along its

length.

a, part of the common

canal, with the walls

thickened by succes-

a sive layers of chitine ;

b, b, b, nematophores.

calicles, not hydranths, but simple masses of protoplasm,

capable of emitting pseudopodial prolongations, on which would

devolve the duties of conveying nutriment to the colony.

The graptolites would thus not merely manifest relations to

374 Prof. Allman on the Morphology

the Hydroida, but would exhibit others at least as strong to

the Rhizopoda. Indeed but a step would be needed to convert

such an organism into a true rhizopod; for if the common

canal as well as the calicles were occupied by protoplasm, the

whole might then be compared to an association of such rhizo-

podal forms as Gromia, united into a composite colony by a

common tube filled with a common mass of protoplasm.

A very general feature in the mode of growth of graptolites

is found in the fact that while the entire graptolite continues to

increase in length, the denticles which are situated towards the

proximal end remain of smaller size than those which succeed

them, while, after thus increasing in size towards the middle,

they again often diminish towards the distal end, the broadest

part of the graptolite being consequently in this case near the

middle. It may also be noticed that the denticles towards the

base of the graptolite occasionally differ from those which

succeed them, not only in size but in form.

Now, setting aside the undeveloped condition of the hydro-

thecee near the growing or distal point of the stem, I know of

nothing like this among the living Hydroida; while, on the

other hand, the nematophores of the Hydroida vary in form in

one and the same colony, and are sometimes found more or less

arrested or otherwise modified towards the proximal end of

the branch.

In support of the hydroid nature of graptolites, the occur-

rence of generative capsules in these fossils has been recently

adduced ; and as this is a matter of great importance in the

present question, we shall here consider the evidence on which

it rests.

Hall has described and figured in one of the double-

rowed graptolites (Diplograptus) certain appendages of an

irregularly triangular shape, having one angle continued into

a narrow band, by which they become attached to the body of

the graptolite. They are arranged with considerable re-

gularity in two opposite rows, which extend for some length

along the sides of the graptolite. These appendages are com-

pared by Hall to the gonangia of a calyptoblastic hydroid*.

I am indebted to Mr. Etheridge for an opportunity of exa-

mining a British specimen of a Diplograptus which carries

bodies of undoubtedly the same nature as those of Hall, and to

Mr. J. Hopkinson, who had previously examined this specimen

and determined its nature, for the inspection of an excellent

enlarged drawing of it, which has since formed the subject of

* Hall, ‘Graptolites of the Quebec Group,’ p. 32, pl. B. figs. 6-11.

and Affinities of Giraptolites. 375

a woodcut accompanying Mr. Hopkinson’s description of the

specimen lately published in the present Journal*. Now, after

a full consideration of Hall’s and Hopkinson’s descriptions

and a careful examination of Mr. Etheridge’s specimen, while

I admit the probability of the appendages in question be-

longing to the generative system, I am unable to satisfy

myself that they are the remains of gonangia. Indeed

they do not appear to me to be capsular bodies at all, but

rather double laminz, though the way in which they are occa-

sionally folded over on themselves, as seen in Mr. Etheridge’s

specimen, may give them the deceptive appearance of having

been capsules, while in reality this condition would be incon-

sistent with their alleged capsular form.

The regularity of their disposition, and the close resemblance

between those of the American specimens and those of the

British, will not allow us to regard them as mere parasitical

or accidental growths; and I believe that their connexion with

the generative system of the graptolite may be considered

probable. If so, then it remains for us to determine the parts

which represent them in the living hydroid ; and these I believe

will be found in the leaflets which compose the corbule, or -

basket-shaped receptacles of the generative capsules, in Aglao-

phenia (fig. 5).

The two rows, then, of appendages in the graptolite would,

according to this view, represent a corbula; and the gonangia

or generative capsules, if such had existed, would have been

borne upon the front of the graptolite along the bases of the

appendages. We should hardly, however, expect to find any

remains of gonangia in the fossil; for in “all living hydroids

which have their gonangia protected by corbulz these g0-

nangia are as delicate and perishable as the naked generative

sacs in the Gymnoblastea.

The corbulz of the graptolites, if such really had existed,

were probably open ones, like those of the living Aglaophenia

myriophyllum, and of several species from extra-Huropean

seas—a condition which indicates a low stage of differentiation,

and represents a form through which the closed corbula of

Aglaophenia pluma &c. passes in the course of its develop-

ment (fig. 5, A, B, C, & D).

The view here adopted of the nature of these supposed ge-

nerative capsules in the graptolite receives support from the

fact that in every case where they have been satisfactorily

observed the denticles of the graptolite become suppressed

* See ‘Ann, Nat. Hist.’ for May 1871.

576 Prof. Allman on the Morphology

in that part of the fossil which carries the appendages*,

a fact quite in accordance with what we know of the corbul

in the living hydroids; for in these the hydrothece with their

accompanying nematophores are replaced by the leaflets of the

corbula, while the naked gonangia of other hydroids are never

accompanied by an atrophy or other alteration of the hydro-

thece or neighbouring parts.

In both the American and British specimens the appendages

in question seem to have been supported by a framework of

branched chitinous filaments which remain behind after the

destruction of the intervening membrane. ‘The existence of

these filaments probably depends on the same morphological

conditions as those which determine the presence of the chiti-

nous axial rod; and it must be admitted that we have no

known analogy for them in any living hydroid, unless the in-

ternal narrow chitinous lamina which passes like a midrib

through the corbula-leaflet (fig. 5, F, ¢) admits of being com-

pared with them.

This comparison of the appendages of Hall to the corbula-

leaflets of an Aglaophenia is in harmony with the view here

advocated as to the nature of the calicles of the graptolite,

which we have compared to the nematophores of an Aglao-

phenia. I believe the corbule of the living Aglaophenie to

consist essentially of a special and excessive development of

the nematophores ; so that the graptolite, not only in its tro-

phosome, but also in its gonosome, would thus present us with

an instance of the great development of the nematophoral

system at the expense of the hydranthal.

This view of the morphology of the corbulz, in some cases

at least, seems placed beyond doubt by their formation in an

undescribed Aglaophenia from the deep-sea dredgings of the

United-States Coast Survey. The leaflets which form the walls

of the large and beautiful open corbule of thishydroid are mainly

composed of the greatly enlarged and transformed nematophores

which in the unaltered ramulus lie in front of the hydrothece.

The hydrothece of the parts which become transformed into cor-

* Hall notices a case (oc. cit. p. 33, pl. B. fig. 9) which he regards as

one in which the appendages are present ina graptolite which still retains

its denticles. This, however, is by no means a well-marked instance,

and one might be permitted to doubt the identity of the structures here

figured with the appendages previously described by him. In Mr. Hop-

kinson’s woodcut also, the denticles are represented as well developed for

some distance on that part of the graptolite which carries the appendages ;

I cannot satisfy myself as to the reality of this in the actual specimen ;

indeed the woodcut does not do justice to the excellent original drawing

kindly sent to me for inspection by Mr. Hopkinson.

and Affinities of Graptolites. 377

ig. 5.

Corbula of Aylaophenia pluma,

A. Very young corbula ; B. Corbula more advanced; C. Corbula in a still

more advanced stage; D. The mature corbula; E. Transverse section

of mature corbula, showing two of its contained gonangia, each with

a single gonophore: a, a, leaflets of corbula; b, b, gonangia; c, ramu-

lus which supports the leaflets; d, a hydrotheca.

F. Separate leaflet from mature corbula: a, continuation of the cavity of

the supporting ramulus into the leaflet, where it divides into two

branches, 5, ; c, nematophores, forming tooth-like processes on the

distal edge of the leaflet; d, imperfectly developed tooth-like pro-

cesses on the proximal edge; e, imperfect septum partially dividing

the cavity of the leaflet.

G. Gonangium from mature corbula: a, continuation of somatic cavity

into gonangium ; 8, blastostyle partially suppressed by the enlarging

gonophore; ¢, gonophore; d, spadix; 7, ovum; 4, chitinous wall of

gonangium.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. ix. 26

378 Prof. Allman on the Morphology

bul are not here actually suppressed, but remain of somewhat

smaller size, affording the clue to the morphology of the entire

organ ; and it can be plainly seen that it is the mesial nema-

tophore of each of these arrested hydrothecee which has be-

come enormously developed and flattened out so as to form the

leaflet of the corbula-walls, while at the same time it becomes

complicated by carrying along one edge a row of small tooth-:

like nematophores, as in the corbula-leaflet of Aglaophenia

pluma &c. The hydrothece, with their nematophores, which

in the untransformed ramulus constitute a single series along

the front of the ramulus, are, in order to form the walls of the

corbula, thrown alternately from side to side.

If these views be accepted, we shall have nearly the entire

graptolite in those instances in which the appendages of Hall

have been noticed converted into a corbula, a state of things

which naturally follows from the simple unbranched form of

the fossil. The graptolite has, in fact, become greatly changed

in form, and modified for a special reproductive function in a

way which reminds us of the so-called fertile fronds of certain

ferns as distinguished from the so-called sterile fronds.

It is true that the great rarity of these peculiarly modified

graptolites is opposed to what we know of living hydroids; for

among these we are not acquainted with a single trophosome

which we are not justified in believing destined at some period

of its life to develope a gonosome. A case, however, bearing

some analogy to that of the graptolites would be afforded by

fossil ferns ; for we know how rare a thing itis to find, among

the vast multitudes of individuals with which the coal-mea-

sures abound, specimens bearing fructification.

While the graptolites would thus seem to contrast with

living hydroids in their rarely developing a gonosome, it is

interesting to see them contrasting also in another respect—

namely, in their free if not floating habit. And here we are

reminded of the gulf-weed of the Sargasso sea ; for, throughout

the thousands of square miles over which the floating mea-

dows of this remarkable plant extend, no one has yet succeeded

in finding a single specimen in fructification, though the fruc-

tification of closely allied species, which grow attached to rocks

like ordinary seaweeds and like the rooted trophosomes of the

hydroids, is well known.

Certain bodies found associated with graptolites in the Silu-

rian shales of Dumfriesshire have been described by Dr.

Nicholson, who regards them as the “ ovarian vesicles ” of the

graptolites, and as proving the hydroid nature of these fossils *.

* Nicholson, in ‘Geological Magazine,’ vol. iv. 1867, p. 259, pl. 2.

and Affinities of Graptolites. 379

He describes them as “ oval, bell-shaped, pyriform, or rounded,

provided with a mucro at one extremity, and surrounded en-

tirely by a filiform border, resembling in texture the axis of a

graptolite.” They attain a length of nearly half an inch.

He has found them not only free, but in many cases attached

to the graptolite, not, however, to any constant point ; for some

spring ‘from the common canal, others from the apex of a

cellule, and others from the under surface of a cellule, the last

two modes being the most frequent.”

The largest of these capsules which he has seen attached

did not measure more than a tenth of an inch in diameter ; and

Dr. Nicholson believes that at this stage they become detached,

and then attain the large size he has observed in the speci-

mens found free in the shale; for he has there found them in

all stages of growth, from small rounded bodies, not larger than

a pin’s head, to bodies nearly half an inch in length.

Whatever these bodies may be, it is plain that Dr. Nichol-

son’s account of them is irreconcilable with the supposition

that they represent either the gonangia or the gonophores of a

hydroid ; for, apart from their supposed development after de-

tachment from the colony, their origin from the walls of the

denticle is alone decisive on this point. Indeed their con-

nexion with the graptolite appears to be purely accidental.

Hall has called attention to the occurrence, in the same beds

which contain the graptolites, of minute free bodies which he

regards as the young or “ germs” of the graptolites*. In

their earliest form they would appear to consist of a little chiti-

nous oblong sac traversed longitudinally by a slender chiti-

nous filament, which is continued for a little way at both ends

beyond the sac, while at one end it is accompanied by two

minute lateral spme-like processes.

This early form has been traced through more advanced

stages, in which it has been seen to become more and more

elongated, to develope denticles along its length, and finally to

attain a form in all essential points identical with that of an

adult graptolite.

Others, slightly differmg in shape from those described by

Hall, have been also obtained. Indeed these young grapto-

lites (for there is little doubt that Hall is right in so regarding

them) are now well known. They are by no means uncom-

mon in graptolitic shales, in some examples of which I have

seen them abounding in countless multitudes.

Hall believes that he finds evidence of their having been

contained within the so-called reproductive vesicles of the

* Hall, op. cit. p. 33, pl. B. figs. 12-19.

26#

380 On the Morphology and Affinities of Graptolites.

graptolite. From his account of their relation to these, how-

ever, I can recognize nothing but accidental proximity ; while

if we admit that he has grounds for this belief, we should then

have, in the advancement of the embryo to a stage in which it

has become covered by a chitinous perisarc previously to libera-

tion, a state of things quite at variance with all we know of

the reproductive phenomena of living hydroids.

It is not improbable, however, that these graptolite ‘ germs”

of Hall are free zooids rather than true embryos, and that they

had been originally thrown off by a process of non-sexual re-

production from some part of the living graptolite in a manner

which reminds us of somewhat analogous bodies which I have

elsewhere described as becoming detached from true hydroids

in the case of Schizocladium and of Corymorpha. As we de-

scend through the great biological groups it is no uncommon

thing to find the faculty of agamic reproduction becoming in-

tensified, until in the lowest members of the group we see it

(as in the case of the gulf-weed already referred to) taking more

or less the place of true sexual generation.

But little requires to be said regarding other views which

have been from time to time advanced as to the affinities of

graptolites.

Their alleged polyzoal affinities, however, have some claim

on our acceptance. Indeed, were it not for the discovery

of the probable graptolite gonosome (corbule ?), we should

have nearly as much to say for this view as for that which

would refer them to the Hydroida, more especially as the dis-

covery of Rhabdopleura renders us acquainted with a polyzoon

in whose test is developed a chitinous rod in almost all respects

like that of the graptolites*.

On the whole, then, it would seem that the graptolites con-

stitute a very aberrant hydrozoal group having manifest

affinity with the Hydroida, to which they are connected by

the nematophore-bearing genera of the latter, while they have

also important points of connexion with the Rhizopoda. The

undoubted members of this group are further characterized in

an eminent way by the possession of a solid supporting rod ;

and it is this feature which has suggested to me the name of

RuHApBpoPuora, by which I have proposed to designate them.

* The comparison of the rod of Rhabdopleura with that of a graptolite

has already been made by Dr. Nicholson (‘ Manual of Zoology ’), though he

adopts the more generally accepted view which finds hydrozoal rather

than polyzoal affinities in the graptolites.

Dr. A. Giinther on three new Species of Eremias. 381

XXXIX.—Deseription of three new Species of Exremias.

By Dr. A. GUNTHER.

Eremias nitida.

Snout not much produced or depressed, not much longer

than the cleft of the orbit. Hyelid scaly. The labial margin

of the suborbital shield is not longer than the preceding upper

labial. Ventral scutes in six longitudinal and twenty-six

transverse series. A brown longitudinal band along the back,

separated by a brownish-red line from the black lateral band.

Sides from behind the eye deep black, with two parallel white

lines proceeding from the eye, the upper above the tympanum,

the lower passing through its lower part. Tail and limbs

uniform brownish. Lower parts white.

West Africa. Two specimens; the body of the larger is

40 millims. long, its tail bemg 90 millims.

Eremias Speki.

Snout rather produced and pointed. yelid scaly. All the

shields on. the upper surface of the head ornamented by deep

grooves. Supraorbitals with a few small scales in front and

behind. The labial margin of the suborbital shield not longer

than the preceding upper labial. Vertical narrowest and

truncated posteriorly. Ventral scutes in six longitudinal and

thirty transverse series. Dorsal scales very small, but each

with an oblique keel. Brownish, with three white longitu-

dinal lines on the back, and sometimes with another rather

irregular one along the side. Short black cross bars between

the white lines.

Two specimens were obtained by the late Capt. Speke in

5° 7'S. lat., between the coast and Unyamuezi. The body of

the larger is 53 millims. long (without tail).

Eremias Fordit.

Allied to E. Knoxiti.

Snout pointed, moderately produced. yelid scaly. An-

terior frontal not in contact with the rostral; generally an

azygos shield between the posterior frontals. Vertical narrow

and truncated behind ; a series of granules between the supra-

ciliaries and supraorbitals. The infraorbital does not enter the

labial margin, and is situated above the fifth, sixth, and seventh

supralabials. _ Dorsal scales very small, each with an oblique

keel. Ventral scutes in twelve longitudinal and twenty-nine

transverse series. Preeanal scales rather large. Toes distinctly

serrated behind. Brownish, with black spots, which are ar-

ranged in longitudinal bands, one on each side of the back

being the broadest, and including round whitish ocelli, A

382 Note by Dr. J. Anderson on

narrow black median band is generally limited to the nuchal

region, rarely extending to the end of the trunk.

Cape Colony. Several specimens from Sir A. Smith’s col-

lection. The body of the largest is 63 millims. long.

XL.—Note on Trionyx gangeticus, Cuvier, and Trionyx

hurum, B. Hamilton. By Joun ANDERSON, M.D., Calcutta.

HAVING examined forty-five living specimens of a Trionyx

the young and adolescent individuals of which agree in their

form and coloration with the figure given in Hardwicke and

Gray’s ‘Illustrations of Indian Zoology’ as Trionyx java-

nicus, Schw., and having removed the skulls and compared

them with Cuvier’s figure of 7. gangeticus, I do not hesitate

to refer them to one and the same species, i. e. 7. gangeticus,

Cuvier; the adult skulls in form and size agree with the

skull figured by Dr. Gray as 7. gangeticus, Cuvier; whereas,

on the other hand, the Trionyx hurum and T. ocellatus of

Dr. Gray (that is, specimens corresponding exactly with these

drawings, which Dr. Gray afterwards referred to the 7. gan-

geticus of Cuvier) yield skulls quite distinct from Cuvier’s

figure of the skull which he regarded as the Trtonyx du Grange!

The true Trionyx gangeticus, Cuv., is therefore the species

which has hitherto gone under the name of 7. jyavanicus, Schw.,

if by the latter were meant Zrtonyches agreeing with the figure

so named in the ‘ Illustrations of Indian Zoology.’ The skulls,

however, of such forms, as they answer in every detail to

Cuvier’s figure, could not well be referred to any other species;

so we have here another instance of a Chelonian animal as a

whole having a specific geographical name allocated to it,

while its dismembered skull has awarded to it another but

kindred term. The cause of this unfortunate jumble of names

as applied to the Zrionya of the Ganges, and each of which

implies a distinct theory as to its distribution, is not difficult

to explain, so long as animals are described, as in this case,

from drawings, without any practical knowledge of the struc-

tural characters of the animal itself.

One hundred and twenty examples, living specimens, shells,

and sterna, of the common T’rionyx of the Ganges have passed

through my hands; but in collecting them I succeeded in ob-

taining only two individuals agreeing with Dr. Gray’s figures

ot T. hurum and T. ocellatus. The abundance, therefore, of

the former indicates the propriety that, in one sense, exists in

the name given to it by Cuvier. Specimens agreeing with

the last-mentioned figures yield skulls in no way resembling

the skull figured by Cuvier as 7. gangeticus. The head-

Trionyx gangeticus and Trionyx hurum. 383

coloration of the specimens yielding skulls identical with the

skull figured by Cuvier is. very characteristic and uniform,

except in very old individuals. The upper surface of the head

is uniformly greenish olive, and there is a black line running

from between the eyes to the nape, with three pairs of diver-

gent stripes on either side of it directed downwards and back-

wards. There is no yellowish temporal spot, nor any band

across the nose. Young individuals with these characters

have greenish-olive shells vermiculated with fine black lines ;

and of the large series of specimens that have come under my

observation, not one has presented any trace of ocelli. The

only change that occurs in the coloration of the adult is that

the lines on the head become more or less broken up, and the

vermiculations on the shell all but disappear. On the other

hand, about twenty specimens of Zrionyx with the yellow

spot on the temporal region, and another at the angle of the

mouth, with a yellow band across the snout, and with the

surface of the head marbled with reticulated black lines over

a ground-colour varying in the intensity of its yellow hue, and

with the upper shell marked usually with four ocelli, which

disappear with age, but of which generally faint traces can be

detected in the form of dark spots, have, as I have already

stated, skulls quite distinct from Cuvier’s 7. gangeticus. I

propose therefore to retain provisionally for this last-mentioned

form Dr. Buchanan Hamilton’s name of 7. hurwm, and for the

former T. gangeticus, Cuvier.

Dr. Giinther*, in writing of the 7. javanicus, Schweigger,

as identified by Gray, observes, “‘ that the characteristic mark-

ings of the head of the continental specimens are not men-

tioned in descriptions of Javan individuals, so that both may

be specifically different.” Now, however, that 7. javanicus

of Gray seems unquestionably to be 7. gangeticus of Cuvier,

may it not be that the “7. gangeticus, Cuvier” of Gray may

prove to be 7. yavanicus, Schweigger. I have never seen 7.

javanicus in the flesh, nor am I acquainted with its skull; so

that I only throw this out as a suggestion.

The skull of 7. gangeticus, Cuv., as I have now indicated

the species, differs from the form I provisionally designate 7.

hurum in its broader and shorter snout—two characters which

also distinguish the heads in life. But I shall elsewhere

illustrate and describe the two skulls in detail, the sterna, and

sexual characters.

The foregoing identification is an important one, as it opens

the way to a more satisfactory understanding of a group by

clearing away a load of synonyms.

* Reptiles of British India, p. 48.

384 _ Dr. R. Greef on the Structure and ~~

XLI.— Investigations upon the Structure and Natural History

of the Vorticelle. By Dr. RICHARD GREEF.

[Continued from p. 211.]

Body-cavity and Digestive Organs of the Vorticelle.

We are indebted to Ehrenberg for the first correct notion of

the nutritive apparatus of the Vorticelle. Whilst, before his

time, as has already been remarked, it was supposed that the

body of these animals constituted a hollow bell open anteriorly,

he showed that the anterior opening of the bell was closed by

a ciliated disk, and that it was only behind this disk that a

lateral orifice led into the interior of the body. He likewise

correctly determined the position of the anus as an orifice se~

parate from the mouth but lying in the same pit, which, as

we have already remarked, must be regarded as an essential

systematic character of the Vorticellan family. The mouth

and anus were said to be united by a curved intestine hanging

down to the bottom of the body; and to this, in accordance

with his conception of the polygastric nutritive system of the

Infusoria, the stomachal vesicles were supposed to be appended

by small lateral czeca.

After the refutation of the polygastric nutritive system, espe-

cially by the striking observation of the constant circulation of

the whole contents of the body in Paramecium (Focke), the

knowledge of the digestive apparatus of the Vorticelle made

an important advance by means of the researches of C. F. J.

Lachmann (of whose labours science was unfortunately so

early deprived), whose beautiful and careful investigations

form to a certain extent a new starting-point in the examina-

tion of the entire structure and natural history of these ani-

malcules.

Lachmann showed that the cilia upon the ciliated disk are

not placed in circles, as Stein stated, but run in a spiral line

to the mouth, which, indeed, Ehrenberg had already distinctly

seen, as appears from many figures in his great work on the

Infusoria (e. g. Taf. xxv. fig. u., Taf. xxvii. fig. m1. 3,2 &c.).

But to Lachmann’s observations we are indebted for the exact

determination of the course of the series of cilia, which com-

mences on the right from the external aperture of the nutritive

tube, previously called the buccal orifice, runs round the ciliated

disk once or several times, and then descends in a curve inte

the above-mentioned orifice and traverses the first part of the

nutritive tube. This commencing portion he called the vesti-

bulum, after the example of Johannes Miiller. The vestibulum

consequently forms a part of the ciliary spiral, and cannot well

be regarded as the cesophagus or as a part of the food-tube,

Natural History of the Vorticelle. 385

seeing that the anus also opens into it. The mouth therefore

only commences at the end of the vestibulum, near the anus,

which is situated in the same cavity. rom the mouth, a short

tube (the cesophagus) leads to the somewhat spindle-shaped

terminal part of the nutritive tube, which is characterized as

the pharynx. The nutritive particles attracted and carried

into the above-described canal by the ciliary current collect in

the first place in the pharynx into a morsel, which, when it

has attained a certain size, is forced into the interior of the

body, and here driven about with the soft gelatinous contents

until it is either entirely digested or removed again to the ex-

terior through the anus.

Lachmann made a particularly careful investigation of the

question whether the pharynx is really the terminal part of

the nutritive tube, or whether there issues from it a wider

canal which receives the morsels from the pharynx, carries

them forward for a certain distance in a curved direction (as

appearances would seem to indicate), and only then passes

them into the interior of the body; but he finally decides in

favour of the entire absence of any further canaliform structure.

Lachmann, then, regards the whole inner space enclosed by

the cuticula and the cortical layer as a great digestive cavity or

stomach, and the mass of contents rotating in it as chyme.

This is of great importance for the view which we have here-

after to expound.

With regard to the behaviour of the ciliary spiral above de-

scribed and its relation to the vestibulum, as also with regard

to the further course and mode of termination of the nutritive

canal, Stein has completely accepted Lachmann’s views. On

the other hand, however, he, and with him many others, has

expressed himself most decidedly in opposition to the concep-

tion of the interior space of the body as a digestive cavity and

of its contents as chyme, inasmuch as he denies the existence

of both the body-cavity and of the chyme filling it. He en-

deavours rather to reestablish the opinion that the whole con-

tents are to be regarded as contractile sarcode, supporting him-

self chiefly upon the supposition that the limits of the body-

cavity are not determinable, as the outer (cortical) parenchyma

passes quite gradually into the interior parenchyma, and is

intimately united with it at all points.

If we first of all take up what is certainly the most impor-

tant question, namely that of the existence of a digestive

- body-cavity, which has been answered so differently by the

two investigators, I will declare at once that my investigations

have led me quite unavoidably to Lachmann’s opinion, and

that I cannot admit the arguments brought against it by Stein.

386. Dr. R. Greef on the Structure and

In the preceding section we have endeavoured to prove that

the external covermgs of the body which enclose the interior

space consist of three different parts, namely the external cuti-

cula, the muscles lying beneath this, and the cortical layer

following upon these. Although with respect to what in the

Vorticellee and the Infusoria in general is to be regarded as

cuticula or as muscles, and with respect to the relations of

these two parts, we have been compelled to express opinions

in some points at variance with those of Stein, we are never-

theless in general in agreement with him in regard to the

actual existence of the cuticula and muscular fibres as separate

parts. We have here therefore to do chiefly with the exist-

ence and interpretation of the cortical layer, especially in its

relations to the imterior space and its contents.

If we examine a living Vorticellan carefully and for a long

time (for which purpose, of course, the species of Hpistylis are

best adapted, as with them we are not disturbed in observation,

as with the contractile-stalked Vorticellans, by constantly re-

peated and sudden contractions causing the continual disap-

pearance of the object), one of the most remarkable of pheno-

mena very soon strikes us—namely, that apparently the whole

mass of the contents of the body ¢s engaged in constant rotatory

movement. ‘This is the rotation-current first observed by Focke

and then by others in Paramecium and other Infusoria, and

also by Lachmann in the Vorticellee, which must so far be re-:

garded as a discovery of importance, that it furnishes us with

the clearest evidence against the nutritive apparatus ascribed

by Ehrenberg to the Infusoria. The actuality of this rotation-

current itself cannot be doubted ; it is one of the constant and

normal vital manifestations of the Infusoria in question. Itis by

no means, as Ehrenberg endeavours to establish for the further

support of his system, a pathological phenomenon produced by

pressure, displacement of the contents, &c. It is observed

under all circumstances in the living animal, even when not

the smallest altering influence, such as pressure &c., exists ;

and it may be most easily and distinctly recognized when the

contents of the body are coloured, or when for this purpose a

colour-diet (carmine) has been administered to the animals.

Epistylis flavicans, which has already repeatedly been re-

ferred to, is one of those species of Hpzstylis which are gene-

rally more or less intensely coloured yellow or yellowish brown

by nature, and also one of the larger species ; and in it, for

other reasons also, the phenomenon now under discussion may

be very well followed im all its details, for which reason, in

what follows, we shall chiefly take it as the foundation of our

observations. If we carefully examine the movement of rota-

Natural History of the Vorticelle. 387

tion in E. flavicans, we find that this movement does not occur,

as at first sight appeared, in all parts of the interior of the

body. The entire conical hinder part of the body, from the

attachment of the peduncle nearly to the point where the bellied

curve of the bell commences, takes no part in the movement

(Pl. XVI. fig. 1). This part also is not coloured, but hyaline,

and only occupied by a few dimly shining granules; hence it

is strikingly differentiated from the coloured contents of the

bellied part of the bell (Pl. XV. figs. 1&18). One sees most

clearly how the circulating mass of contents flows past the

inner wall of this conical hinder part without any portions of

the latter being carried away by the current. Yividently there

is here a fixed boundary between the constantly mobile fluid

contents and a firmer wall-parenchyma, which in the first

place fills the whole conical base of the Vorticellan body, but

from this rises like a cup on the lateral walls and lines the

inner surface of the cutaneous covering above described, pre-

senting everywhere a sharp boundary to the fluid contents of

the body.

Of this also we may convince ourselves by observation, by

earefully tracing the movement of rotation from the base

through the cavity of the bell. It is clear from this that there

ean no longer be any question of a gradual transition of the

fluid body-contents into the firm parenchyma of the walls, of

an amalgamation of the whole into a common sarcode or pro-

toplasm fillmg the body as a parenchyma; for the rotation

becomes brisker and more regular the further out it ts, and

passes everywhere with a sharp boundary by the inner walls of

the circumference of the body. If the contents gradually ac-

quired more consistence and tenacity outwards, and became

amalgamated here with the firmer cortical layer, which also,

although reluctantly, would be drawn into the rotation, the

movement must gradually diminish exteriorly. But precisely

the reverse takes place, as already remarked. Moreover, if the

cortical layer really rotated with the rest, how should we ex-

plain the fact that the contractile vesicle, the nucleus, the first

part of the nutritive tube (vestibulum and cesophagus), the

muscles, &c. are nevertheless still maintained in their detinite

position ? Must not they also be carried away and thus conti-

nually change their position? Or we must assume that these

organs are not situated in the cortical layer, but within the

cuticula. But they lie, as may be most easily ascertained,

beneath the cuticula and in the cortical layer, and are probably

not at all in contact with the former. In Rhizopoda, which

Stein adduces as objects of comparison and in support of his

view, and especially in Amebe, such a differentiation into a

388 Dr. R. Greef on the Structure and

firm, limited cortical layer and an inner space has not yet

been evolved, nay in many cases even an outer skin cannot be

demonstrated ; in these, however, the organs of the body have

not yet found any definite position, but they are driven about

in the interior with the mass of contents. Nevertheless I am

far from supposing the whole Amceban body, especially in

the large, independent, infusorium-like Amabe, to consist of

a simple homogeneous protoplasm ; but no doubt, as I hope to

demonstrate more completely on another occasion, we have

here to distinguish various substances and structures differing

from each other in form and vital manifestation. Far less can

we declare that an animal body comparatively so highly

organized as that we have before us in the Vorticelle, consists

of mere protoplasm. Might we not, with almost equal justice,

refer a great part of the Coelenterata, Vermes, &c. to the rank

of protoplasmic creatures ?

It is sufficient that the observations cited determine me to

accept for the Vorticellan body a cortical layer situated under

the cuticula and not rotating with the rest of the contents,

embracing within, with a firm boundary, a space, the body-

cavity, which therefore, as, according to what has been stated,

the wedge-shaped hinder part of the Vorticellan body is filled

with the firm cortical parenchyma, has a shape like that of a

cup or finger-stall.

The contents of the body-cavity consist of a thinly fluid

paste of incepted or more or less dissolved nutriment, 7. e. of

chyme, which, by the constant accession of fresh nourishment

‘and water from without through the mouth, and by giving off

exhausted material through the anus, is engaged in continual

change. In the interior of the body-cavity this nutritive paste

circulates constantly, as has been already fully described; and

by this means the fine division and chymification (in other

words, the digestion of the nutritive substances on the one

hand, and on the other their diffusion through the whole body)

are assisted. In the body-cavity of the Vorticelle: we conse-

quently see a gastrovascular space, in the full sense of the

words—a body-cayity in which digestion and circulation, 7. e.

nutrition, is effected in precisely the same way as in the

Coelenterata.

By no means can this paste be regarded as “ consisting

throughout of mere sarcode,” as Stein mantains very decidedly

in favour of the protoplasm-theory. Leaving out of considera-

tion that such a universalization of protoplasm would lead us

to remote and obscure paths, as was the case formerly by

Dujardin’s means, unprejudiced and careful observation is in

this point also strongly opposed to any such conception. And

Natural History of the Vorticelle. 389

according to this, the chyme when already elaborated into a

homogeneous granular substance (or, to anticipate no opinions,

the fundamental substance of the circulating paste) is not at

all sarcode or protoplasm in the sense applied to the term by

authors. For the movement of rotation, as careful examina-

tion shows, is not that of a tenacious, contractile substance ;

it does not manifest itself after the fashion of the amceboid,

slowly creeping protoplasmic streams with which we are else-

where aquainted, but it progresses everywhere easily and

briskly, sometimes even with a slightly tremulous current,

through the inner space. But how is this to be brought into

agreement with the phenomena of motion which we are always

accustomed to witness in the tenacious contractile protoplasm,

and which must be regarded as characteristic of the latter.

Is not the vibrating movement rather a proof that it is per-

formed by a readily flowing, non-contractile substance, 7. e.

precisely not by protoplasm? Moreover, we must here again

call attention to the phenomenon already insisted on in the

examination of the cortical layer surrounding the body-cavity,

according to which the current is briskest at the outer walls. -

Stein requires also, as evidence of a body-cavity, that this,

when its contents are evacuated, must also appear as an

empty cavity. If we could effect a transverse section through

the body of a Vorticellan (which, however, does not seem

possible, considering the minuteness and delicacy of the

object), we should, I have no doubt, be able to bring the body-

cavity under direct observation ; but even the examination of

the uninjured living animal satisfies this requirement. Thus,

if we isolate for a time in clear water, upon a glass slide or in

a watch-glass, a newly captured Vorticellan with its bell dis-

tended with food, we may see how the food-balls are ejected

one after the other. The body gradually becomes paler and

more elongated ; the walls acquire folds ; and after the lapse of

a certain time the well-fed convex Vorticellan becomes a slim

collapsed animalcule, the integuments of which sink here and

there into the evacuated stomachal cavity in deep folds and

sinuosities.

But, instead of food, water is now taken up through the

nutritive tube ; and according as the access of this is abundant .

or scanty, the body-cavity becomes fiiled out or not so com-

pletely collapsed as above indicated. At the same time, how-

ever, the remarkable phenomenon which is very characteristic

in the question now before us makes its appearance—namely,

that the movement of the contents is much brisker than be-

fore, and may generally be recognized in a distinct vibrating

current of the form-constituents still mixed with the water.

390 Dr. R. Greef on the Structure and

These form-constituents, which remain after the removal of

the larger food-balls, are, moreover, in some species, of very

constant form and size : for example, in Kpistylis flavicans they

consist of shining, light-yellow spherules, of which usually

three or four, but often several, are massed together into com-

paratively large balls (Pl. XV. fig. 5), so that one is induced

to regard the whole of the fluid, now freed from the coarser,

still undissolved or insoluble nutritive materials, as the blood

or chyle mixed with water.

The preceding observations and indications may for the

present suffice for the establishment of my assumption of a

digestive body-cavity in the Vorticelle; and we now come

to the second of the questions raised above, namely the nature

of the alimentary tube leading into this digestive cavity. As

has been already remarked, the correct position of the external

orifice of the nutritive tube described by him as the mouth, as

also the position of the anus, was first recognized by Ehren-

berg. According to him the rounded buccal aperture lies di-

rectly behind the ciliated disk, and the anus in a pit in the initial

portion of the nutritive canal which enters the body. Stein

showed further that this buccal opening is situated between

the ciliated disk and the peristome, and that from this point

the nutritive tube, distinguished by him into pharynx and ceso-

phagus, hangs down into the body. The food-balls were sup-

posed to be pushed through the cesophagus into the parenchyma

of the body, and in most cases the exhausted food to be carried

back again in the same way. The most accurate description

of the nutritive apparatus of the Vorticellee was given by Lach-

mann*., He found that the cilia upon the anterior disk of the

body took a spiral course, and, indeed, that in Carchesiwm

polypinum, for example, this ciliary spiral commenced to the

right of the external nutritive aperture called the mouth by

Ehrenberg and Stein, and then turned away to the left over

the latter and ran round the margin of the circular disk, to

sink again at last into the buccal aperture and into the first

portion of the alimentary canal (see Pl. XIV. fig. 9). At the

bottom of this first portion (as Khrenberg had already dis-

covered) the anus was situated, for which reason the mouth in

reality could only commence here. The initial portion, situ-

ated before this point, and including Ehrenberg’s buccal aper-

ture, was therefore described, after the example of Johannes

Miller, as the porch of the digestive apparatus, the vestibulum.

The vestibulum was continued into a thinner, short tube, the

esophagus, and terminated in a somewhat wider, spindle-shaped

part, which was called the pharynx, through which the par-

* Miller’s Archiv, 1856, p. 340.

Natural History of the Vorticelle. 391

ticles of food fall directly in balls into the soft parenchyma of

the body. Stein* afterwards confirmed Lachmann’s obser-

vations, and also on the whole adopted the designations chosen

by him for the different parts of the digestive apparatus, the

only alteration being that he includes the two parts distin-

guished as cesophagus and pharynx under the latter name, as

he cannot distinguish Lachmann’s pharynx from the preceding

tube, called the cesophagus, by any, even functional separation.

Both authors agree that there is no further canaliform continu-

ation of the alimentary tube from the posteriorly pointed end

of the pharynx, but that the alimentary materials accumulate

in the latter, and afterwards sink into the parenchyma of the

body which divides in an arched form.

I must, in the first place, express my entire concordance with

the observations of Stein and Lachmann as regards the ciliary

spiral and the vestibulum in Carchesiwm polypinum and many

others, especially of the smaller species of Vorticelle (see

Pl. XIV. fig. 9, in which the course of the ciliary spiral and

its relation to the vestibulum &c. in Carchesium polypinum

is shown). But in the larger species of Epéstylis there is so

far a deviation from this, that here the spiral is not confined

to a single turn, but describes several turns upon the ciliated

disk before sinking into the vestibulum ; to this, indeed, Lach-

mann has already called attention. A multiple circle of cilia

of this kind occurs, for example, in our Epistylis flavicans.

In this Vorticellan, moreover, the digestive apparatus appears

with so distinct and in part peculiar an arrangement, that we

will once more adhere to it in the investigation of this question

also. In Hpistylis favicans the anterior ciliated disk bears

four circles of cilia (Stein and Lachmann state three), which

apparently lie concentrically around one another. Lasy as it

is in many species of Vorticellans (Carchesium polypinum,

Epistylis plicatilis and parasitica, Zoothamnium alternans, &c.)

to detect the spiral course and the final bending into the vesti-

bulum of the series of cilia, it is just as difficult in Epistylis

flavicans, probably chiefly because in this the so-called “ pe-

duncle ” of the ciliary organ is deficient. The peristome seems

rather to come directly against the ciliated disk as a thin border

turned back when the bell is fully opened, without being sepa-

rated from the disk, as in most Vorticelle, by that deep furrow

from within which the ‘ cap-like” ciliary organ rises. The

external aperture of the alimentary canal therefore, so far as I

have as yet been able to see, is situated not merely behind the

ciliated disk, but also, differently from the other Vorticelle,

* Der Organismus der Infusionsthiere, i, pp. 84 et seg.

392 Dr. R. Greef on the Structure and

behind the peristome (Pl. XVI. fig. 1, and Pl. XV. fig. 5, ff).

Fromt his aperture (Pl. XVI. figs. 1 & 2,m ff) a tolerably

wide canal runs inwards directly behind the ciliated disk and

parallel to its plane; it then makes a knee-like bend (Pl. XVI.

fig. 1, A) and, gradually becoming narrower, runs again to

the buccal (ventral) side and then backwards, describing in

its course two or three more slight curves. As far as the

knee-like bend, according to Lachmann, the initial part of the

alimentary canal, the so-called vestibulum, extends. At the

bottom of the cavity of this knee, behind a long bristle which

traverses the whole initial portion of the alimentary canal and

projects from the external aperture (Pl. XVI. fig. 2, ff) the

anus is situated (fig. 2,/); and here, therefore, according to

Lachmann, the mouth should begin.

This determination of the buccal and anal apertures and of

the initial portion of the alimentary tube as the vestibulum,

has certainly some justice on its side; but in my opinion it

would render the whole conception of the alimentary canal

simpler if we were to retain the designation mouth for the

external aperture. That the anus opens into this initial por-

tion of the alimentary canal, and that consequently the ex-

ternal aperture serves at once for the introduction of food

and for the evacuation of exhausted materials, need not pre-

vent our designating it as the buccal aperture. We find pre-

cisely similar conditions in all Coelenterata and in many Echi-

noderms and worms, in which a special anus opening out-

wardly cannot be detected. Must we not in this case, for ex-

ample, characterize the alimentary sac of the Anthozoa also

as a vestibulum, and place the aperture of the mouth at its

open posterior end, as here also the true orifice of ejection

begins (that is to say, it opens into this initial part of the ali-

mentary canal)? Moreover, if we admit in designation and

conception that this vestibulum is to be regarded as the indtial

part of the alimentary canal, we need not hesitate to accept

the beginning of this initial part, ¢. e. its external aperture, as

the buccal aperture. At any rate by this means the whole

conception of the alimentary canal, and especially its descrip-

tion and terminology, would be materially facilitated and sim-

plified. Lachmann’s vestibulum would then, as formerly, be

designated the pharynx ; and in this we are justified by a pe-

culiar arrangement which exists in the kneed cavity of the

end of this pharynx. Thus we see distinctly that the particles

of food, driven into the mouth by the ciliary current, first of all

reach this point, and are then carried either back again and

out through the mouth or into the following section of the

alimentary canal. To effect this there are, in Hpistylis flavi-

Natural History of the Vorticelle. 393

cans, two valve-like partitions (Pl. XVI. fig. 2,4 & k'), which

occur in the posterior cavity of the cesophagus, the true pharynx,

and which, aided by the corresponding ciliation, determine the

direction of the two opposite currents.

From the cesophagus, or, if it be preferred, the vestibulum,

the alimentary canal is continued as already described, making

a curve and running, backwards and towards the ventral

side, in a tube furnished with proper walls and gradually be-

coming narrower, which then finally, according to observations

up to this time, passes into a portion which is a little widened

anteriorly and pointed posteriorly, and here terminates. In this

terminal portion the food driven by the ciliary current into

the digestive apparatus, is collected into a ball, and then pushed

directly into the parenchyma of the body. ‘This part of the

alimentary apparatus from the issue of the vestibulum (¢. e. from

the inner buccal opening) to the spindle-shaped terminal portion,

was called by Lachmann the cesophagus, and only the ter-

minal portion itself the pharynx ; whilst Stein names the

whole from the vestibulum, and therefore both the cesophagus

and pharynx of Lachmann, the pharynx. According to the

above statements with regard to the desirability of the deno-

mination “ vestibulum” for the initial portion, if we should

give the name of pharynx to this latter, the above-described

terminal portion must of course be regarded as the cesophagus.

But let this be as it may (as in it we have to do rather with a

more or less desirable conception and terminology than with

actual observation), the results of investigations up to this time

all agree to show that behind this spindle-shaped dilatation of

the pharynx or cesophagus there is no trace of special food-pas-

sages, but that the digestive canal here fully comes to an end.

Nevertheless, notwithstanding the careful investigations of

Lachmann and Stein relating to this point, I must affirm, from

my own observations, that, at least in Hpistylis flavicans, this

supposed terminal portion is really continued for a considerable

distance further into the body-cavity as a closed canal with

proper walls.

Of this we may convince ourselves in two ways :—first, by

the direct observation of the canal in question within the body-

cavity, nay, even by isolating it ; and secondly, by subjecting

the animal to a colour-diet, so as to trace the course taken by

the coloured (7. e. the food) particles. Let us first of all take

up the former as the direct and most certain course, and em-

ploy the second, which has been already so often tried and

which so easily leads to delusions, only for the completion of

our researches.

~ When a colony of Epistylis flavicans has been kept for a

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Sa 4, Vol. ix. 27

394. Dr. R. Greef on the Structure and

time isolated in clear water, the food-balls circulating in the:

body-cavity are all, as already stated, gradually expelled

through the anus. By this means the animals, which are

otherwise of a yellow or yellowish-brown colour, become paler

and more transparent, and render it possible to get a better

insight into the interior space of the body. When a Vorti-

cellan thus prepared is examined under careful compression

and in a suitable position, we see clearly in the first place the

course of the whole of the above-described alimentary appa-

ratus from the buccal aperture (Pl. XVI. figs. 1 & 2,m), through

the vestibulum (pharynx) and the cesophagus (figs. 1 & 2, 0), to

the spindle-shaped terminal portion (v), and at the same time

that the whole of this passage is clothed with briskly striking

although comparatively few cilia. The end of this canal, how-

ever, the spindle-shaped dilatation which has been repeatedly

mentioned, is, in Hpistylis flavicans, not as represented by Lach-

mann and Stein and as appears to be the case in most other

Vorticellz, a simple continuation of the canal preceding it (the

cesophagus), but it presents itself as a bellied funnel distinctly

marked off from the lattér (Pl. XVI. figs. 1 & 2, v), which em-

braces the end of the canal opening into it, and the posteriorly

directed point of which, as may be most distinctly seen under

favourable circumstances, passes into a fine canal (figs. 1 &

2, d), which describes a broad curve in the bottom of the body-

cavity and suddenly breaks off, z. e. opens freely into the body-

cavity, on the side opposite to the funnel and about at the level

of its commencement. The whole canal, from the point of the

funnel to its termination, when not dilated by nutritive ma-

terial or water, is more or less collapsed, and consequently, in

this state, appears as a clear curved line or fine streak. Some-

times by carefully and gradually compressing the body until

it is crushed, at the same time keeping the clear curved line

uninterruptedly in view, we may succeed in recognizing and

tracing it for a certain distance in the effluent contents, which

are quite out of their natural position. This phenomenon,

however, which is therefore to a certain extent equivalent to

an isolation of the part under consideration, is, I think, decisive,

as it can only be explained by the presence of an actual canal.

After this direct observation, which may certainly often be

attended with great difficulties and by frequent failure, with

much loss of time caused by constant repetitions, we may con-

firm and complete the picture thus obtained in the most beau-

tiful manner by administering a carmine diet to our animal-

cules, but at the same time meet with new difficulties in the

way of this conception. :

We see, in the first place, how the particles of carmine are

carried by the circles of cilia of the ciliated disk towards the

Natural History of the Vorticelle. 395

external aperture of the alimentary canal (buccal aperture)

situated on the margin of the peristome (Pl. XVI. fig. 1, m),

and here, for the most part, again thrown back in an eddy

towards the opposite side, whilst only a comparatively small

quantity passes into the vestibulum (pharynx). But even of

these last most of the particles are again expelled from the

deeply excavated bottom of the vestibulum, in which process

the above-described valve-like partitions in the cavity of the

vestibulum (pharynx) conduct the two opposite currents. (See

Pl. XVI. fig. 2, in which the arrows indicate the different di-

rections of the currents caused by the partitions (& & k') and

the ciliation.)

Those coloured particles which have freely passed the ves-

tibulum are now generally rapidly forwarded through the

canal which follows (figs. 1, 2, 0), by means of the cilia which

work briskly within it, fall into the funnel (v) and here stop,

until this receptacle is gradually completely filled with coloured

material. At the same time, however, water is of course

earried in through the alimentary tube, so that the ball of

coloured material appears to be surrounded by a hyaline

vesicle. When the cavity of the funnel is more or less tightly

filled, its point, which is directed backwards, opens sooner or

later (sometimes when only a small quantity of coloured

material has accumulated, and then perhaps by the pressure

of the water) ; and then the whole of its contents, im the form

of an elongated spindle-shaped morsel, glides at first backwards

to the bottom of the body-cavity (Pl. XVI. fig. 1, 4, 6), to turn

forward again in a curve about to the level of its point of issue.

On its arrival here we see a small button suddenly make its

appearance (fig. 1, 6’) on the anterior pointed end of the little

coloured body; and immediately afterwards the whole morsel

coalesces into a spherical ball. During, its whole course, the

lumen of the canal, opening in front and closing up behind it,

may be very distinctly traced. It is well worthy of notice, in

connexion with the whole process, that the velocity with which

the spindle-shaped corpuscles of coloured material glide over

the course just described is quite different from that of the

movement of the rotating nutritive jelly (¢.e. it is much greater,

and uniform throughout), and that this velocity ceases suddenly

and indeed at the very moment when the morsel coalesces into

a spherical ball in the manner described above. The coloured

ball now lies evidently imbedded in the nutritive jelly of the

body-cavity, at first still surrounded by a hyaline cyst (water),

and is then slowly carried along with this nutritive jelly.

The change of form and movement of the coloured corpuscles

is so remarkable and sudden that it cannot be explained ex-

27*

396 Dr. R. Greef on the Structure and

cept by the existence of a curved canal starting from the apex

of the funnel. This is especially evident at the moment when

the elongated, pointed, and rapidly gliding morsel suddenly

stops, projects with a little knob from the narrow canal, and

then apparently falls immediately from it and into the body-

cavity. It is not to be imagined that the described phenomena

could be produced by the balls of coloured material being

pushed directly from the funnel without the intervention of

any canal into the nutritive jelly of the body-cavity, especially

as frequently one morsel after another traverses precisely the

same curve in the same compressed spindle-shape, the whole

course being often even beset with carmine particles arranged

in a row, so that they shine forth from the interior like a red

curved line. Thus the coloured particles often remain long

within the canal marking its course, whilst all around the

rotating movement of the nutritive jelly is maintained. It is

clear that, if these coloured particles had simply fallen from

the funnel into this nutritive jelly, they must have been carried

along by the current of the latter, especially the small carmine

granules, and that they could by no means have remained

continuously arranged one after the other in a curved line.

When one has had the above-described pictures before one’s

eyes, both in the way of direct observation and of carmine

feeding, one can hardly doubt that in reality a canal exists,

running from the apex of the funnel in a curve in the bottom

of the body-cavity and then opening freely into the latter.

But we must not overlook the fact that, besides these

distinct and striking phenomena, others also come under ob-

servation, which, again, are of a kind to raise doubts as to the

existence of a special canal, and which, indeed, have led Lach-

mann and Stein to deny the presence of such a canal. Amongst

these there is, in the first place, the fact that the curves de-

scribed by the balls of carmine, ¢.e. the nutritive material

issuing from the funnel, are not always the same, but are

sometimes wider and sometimes narrower. ‘This, however, in

my opinion, is to be explained in the following way:—The whole

alimentary tube, from the external buccal aperture situated

behind the ciliated disk, to the funnel, has a definite form and

position not subject to change. It lies, as has already been

remarked, within the comparatively firm cortical layer enclo-

sing or forming the body-cavity, and is retained in its place by

this. But the fine curved tube issuing from the funnel is no

longer fastened by the cortical layer, but hangs free in the body-

cavity, and may therefore undergo a change of position now

and then by the movements of the nutritive jelly circulating

around it. Moreover it is easy to understand that the loosely

Natural History of the Vorticelle. 397

pendent tube may even be more or less curved, according to

the size of the morsel &c. It is also to be borne in mind that

under these circumstances mistakes may very easily occur, and

that we may fancy that we perceive a change of curve, whilst

it may be only that either by twistings of the animal itself or

by displacement of the tube the direction of the curve has

become different, especially by the fact that at one time the

free end of the tube is turned to the side, and at another more

or less towards the observer. This also explains why, when

a Vorticellan is sufficiently compressed, the curves are usually

most regular, as by the mere compression of the body the

movements and changes of position of the tube are limited.

Another objection against the existence of a distinct canal

is, that the morsel pushed in from the funnel does not always

traverse the same course, but escapes at a greater or less dis-

tance from its original point of issue. But this appearance

may also in many cases be produced by the above-mentioned

changes of position of the movable tube. On the other hand,

under certain circumstances, especially when the body-cavity

is for the most part emptied of its solid constituents and filled

with more or less fluid contents, and therefore with a diminished

pressure, the delicate tube appears to possess a great extensi-

bility, in consequence of which the morsels gliding through it

may then become balled together and widened earlier than

otherwise. This applies especially to water, which, when ac-

cumulated in the funnel and transferred into the curved tube,

dilates the latter by forming a large drop, which only disap-

pears gradually by mixture with the nutritive jelly.

The above-cited observations, as already remarked, apply

especially to Epistylis flavicans. In the other Vorticelle I

have been unable to demonstrate the canal in question with

the same certainty, although in many others also I have been

able to ascertain by direct observation the fine linear continu-

ation of the apex of the funnel into the body-cavity. It is

possible, however, that in other Vorticelle this tube is shorter

than in Epistylis flavicans, or perhaps that it may occasionally

be entirely wanting—for example, immediately after fission ;

upon these points further observation may decide. Moreover

the Hpistylis under notice also differs from the allied forms

inasmuch as in it the bellied, pyriform funnel always seems to

be distinctly marked off from the preceding cesophagus, and is

consequently to be regarded as a special part. In considera-

tion of this, we might perhaps see in this funnel the first

attempt at the formation of a stomach with proper walls, and

in the curved canal issuing from it a likewise very primitive

intestine.

[To be continued. |

398 Viscount Walden on supposed new Species of Birds

“XLIL—On some supposed new Species of Birds from Celebes

and the Togian Islands. By ARrruuR, Viscount WALDEN,

P:2.8:; FR:

Tue following five species of birds were obtained by Dr.

Meyer, three on the mainland of Celebes and two in the small

islands of the Togian or Schildpad group in the Gulf of To-

mini or Gorontalo. That two distinct species should inhabit

these small land-locked islands and yet not be known to occur

on the neighbouring mainland of Celebes is another of those

instances of the isolation of species and their restriction to small

areas so numerous in the Indian archipelago. One of the

two species belongs to a genus, Criniger, not as yet observed

in Celebes although occurring in the Sula Islands. ‘The other

is a Loriculus, combining some of the characters of the Sula

species, L. Sclater’, with those of the Celebean, L. stigmatus.

It is, however, not improbable that these Togian species, al-

though not found in North Celebes (Gorontalo, Minahasa),

may yet be proved to inhabit the more southerly eastern limb

(Bangaai and Ternate), a mountainous and as yet unexplored

region.

Loriculus quadricolor, n. sp.

Adult male. Bright green; crown and edge of shoulder

scarlet ; rump, upper tail-coverts, chin, and throat deep blood-

red; interscapulars and back bright golden; quills black,

half the inner web of each quill verditer blue; entire under

surface of rectrices verditer blue ; bill black, feet yellow.

Male, immature. Faint indications of a few scarlet feathers

on the forehead; a small red spot on the throat; edge of the

shoulder scarlet mixed with yellow; upper tail-coverts and

rump and remainder of plumage as in the adult. This stage

closely resembles the adult plumage of L. Wallace, G. R. Gray.

Male, still younger. Forehead, throat-spot, and edge of wing

yellow, mixed with minute traces of scarlet; rump mixed

red and green; upper tail-coverts as in adult; intersca-

pulars golden ; remainder of plumage of a less bright green

than in adult.

Female. The only example sent and thus marked by Dr.

Meyer is not quite adult. The head is entirely green, the

chin and throat scarlet, the shoulder-edge yellow, inter-

scapulars golden, back mixed green and golden, remainder

of plumage as in adult male.

Longitudo

Rostr. a nar. Ale. Caude. Tarsi.

dg adult.. 0°37 3°69 1:88 0°37

des a Ak 0-31 3°50 1:63 0°37

from Celebes and the Togian Islands. 399

This species is intermediate between L. stigmatus (Miiller

& Schlegel) and LZ. Wallacei,G.R. Gray. In dimensions the

three are about equal. From LZ. Wallacevit differs by having

a scarlet cap, by the golden of the back reaching to the nape,

by the darker red of the uropygium and upper tail-coverts,

and by the sexes differing; from L. stigmatus by the golden

back, by the chin and throat-spot being much smaller, and

the red of the uropygium not being quite so dark. All the

examples sent are from the Togian Islands.

Myzomela chloroptera, n. sp.

Entire head, excepting the space in front of the eyes (which

is black), back, upper tail-coverts, chin, throat, and_breast

scarlet; abdomen, ventral region, under tail-coverts, and flanks

pale greenish fulvous, each feather dark centred with ashy ;

wing-coverts and quills dark brown, with bright yellowish-

green outer edgings; scapulars dark brown, without any

other colour; tail dark brown; under wing-coverts pure

white; inner edging of the quills after the first two white ;

bill and feet black.

Longitudo

Rostr. a nar. Ales. Caudee. Tarsi.

0:37 2:18 1°75 0-62

Sent from Celebes by Dr. Meyer. The examples are in

such bad order that it is not possible to discover whether the

scarlet of the upper plumage is continuous or whether it is

interrupted by brown on the nape.

This bird very nearly resembles the figure given by Aude-

bert and Vieillot (Ois. Dorés, ii. p. 113, pl. 54), and drawn by

Edwards, of Latham’s Scarlet Creeper (Synop. i. p. 740),=

Certhia rubra, Gm., and described from an example in the

Leverian Museum said to have come from the South Seas.

But Latham describes “ the lower part of the belly and vent”

as white, and the wings as black.

Hyloterpe sulfuriventer, n. sp.

Chin, cheeks, and throat silky white, changing into pale

bywn on the upper part of the breast ; lower part of the breast

pat sulphur-yellow ; abdomen and under tail-coverts bright

sulfiur-yellow, most intense on the under-coverts ; head dark

olivebrown, back and wings a lighter shade; uropygium

and tper tail-coverts with a ferruginous tinge ; rectrices and

outer tebs of quills like the back; inner edges of the quills

albescex;; under carpal coverts yellowish white; axillaries

400 Viscount Walden on supposed new Species of Birds.

white, with sulphur-coloured tips; shoulder-edge sulphur-

yellow ; 1st primary half the length of the 2nd, which is much

shorter than the 3rd; the 3rd somewhat shorter than 4th,

and shorter than the 6th; the 4th and 5th equal and longest.

Longitudo

Rostr. a nar. Ale. Caude. Tarsi.

0°32 3°25 3 0°75

Two examples of this species have been obtained in North

Celebes by Dr. Meyer.

Criniger aureus, 0. sp.

Under surface bright golden yellow; upper dark golden

olive, darkest on the head, ear-coverts, and cheek; uropy-

gium lighter in shade than the back, upper tail-coverts still

more golden; upper surface of wings like the back; quills

on their inner webs brown, outer webs edged with golden olive ;

under shoulder-coverts bright golden; inner webs of pri-

maries, commencing with the second and increasing in extent

on each succeeding quill, bordered with bright yellow ; upper

surface of rectrices dull golden rufous, each feather terminated

by a pure golden narrow band; inner edges of all the rec-

trices, except the middle pair, pale yellow as seen from above,

bright yellow below; the darker cheeks contrast strongly

with the golden yellow of the chin and throat; lores yellow;

bill and legs black.

Longitudo

Rostr. a nar. Ale. Caudee. Tarsi.

0-63 4:88 4-63 0-75

Described from a male obtained by Dr. Meyer in the To-

gian Islands. ‘

This species is nearly allied to C. longirostris, Wallace, but

differs by being somewhat smaller, by having a much shorter

bill, and by the bright golden colouring of its plumage.

Cisticola Gray?, un. sp.

Forehead, crown, nape, sides of neck, breast, abdomer,

flanks, under and upper tail-coverts, and under carpal covers

unspotted rufo-fulvous, most intense on the head; back ad

quills dark brown, edged with rufo-fulvous; rectrices ark

brown, tipped with rufo-fulvous.

Longitudo

Rostr. a nar. Ale. Caude. Tarsi,

0°37 Vib 1°62 0:75

Mr. J. Gould on a new Species of Thrush. 401

Obtained in Celebes by Dr. Meyer, and represented by a

single example in such bad order that I am unable to describe

it more minutely. Many of the abdominal feathers seem to

be pure white, and the chin, throat, and ear-coverts to be pale

fulvous.

XLUI.—On a new Species of Thrush pertaining to the Genus

Oreocincla. By JoHN GouLp, F.R.S. &e.

Oreocincla todura, Gould.

Crown of the head, back, and wing-coverts orange-brown,

becoming of a paler and brighter tint on the rump and upper

tail-coverts, each feather being margined with blackish brown;

four middle tail-feathers of the same colour as the rump; the

three next on each side dark brown, very slightly tipped

with buffy white; the external feather light brown, with at

least an inch of buffy white on the tip of the inner web;

circle round the eye, lores, and a patch on the centre of

the ear-coverts buffy white; throat and all the under surface

white, each feather tipped with a lunate mark of black, which

is broadest and blackest on the chest and flanks ; across the

breast a wash of buff; axillaries white at the base, black on

their apical half; the last row of the lesser wing-coverts tipped

with yellowish white; greater coverts orange-brown, tipped

with yellowish; spurious wing and primaries dark brown,

margined externally with orange-brown; secondaries dark

brown on their internal and orange-brown on their external

webs; vent and under tail-coverts buffy white, without luna-

tions.

Total length 93 inches; bill 14, wing 5, tail 33, tarsi.14.

Habitat. (Queensland and Northern Australia.

Remark. After carefully comparing this bird with examples

of the genus from every other part of Australia, from Java,

the Philippines, China, and India, I cannot come to any other

conclusion than that it is distinct from the whole of them. In

comparison with the Australian members of the genus, it is a

smaller, much neater, and more compact bird, and has the

rump and upper tail-coverts orange-brown instead of olive-

brown; the bill also is smaller, narrower, and more delicately

formed than that of the Tasmanian and New-South-Wales

species.

402 Royal Society :—

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.

ROYAL SOCIETY.

January 11, 1872.—George Biddell Airy, C.B., President,

in the Chair.

‘“‘The Myology of the Cheiroptera.” By A. MacatistTER, A.B.,

M.B.T.C.D., Professor of Zoology, University of Dublin.

This paper is a record of the structural details of nineteen species

of Bats; and for purposes of comparison the author has appended a

description of the muscles of the Flying Squirrel (Pteromys) and of

the Flying Lemur (Galeopithecus). The species of Bats examined

were the following :—Pteropus edulis, medius, Edwardsii, Macro-

glossus minimus, Cephalotes Pallasii, Cynonycteris amplexicaudalis,

Eleutherura marginata, Rhinolophus ferrum-equinum, speoris, and

diadema, Megaderma lyra, Arctibeus jamaicensis, Vampyrops vit-

tatus, Vespertilio murinus, Vesperugo pipistrellus, Synotus barbas-

tellus, Plecotus auritus, Noctulina altivolans, and Scotophilus hes-

perus.

As the habits of the Bats are singularly different from those of the

other mammals, the study of their myology becomes a matter of

great interest. The special features displayed by their muscles are

very numerous; but the principal of these may be tabulated as fol-

lows :— :

lst. The singularly modified occipital trapezius.

2nd. The enormously developed and subdivided great pectoral.

3rd. The digastric being intersected by a linear inscription, form-

ing a connecting link between the mammals with a single-bellied

depressor of the mandible and those with a biventral muscle.

4th. The separate and displaced scapular deltoid.

5th. The palmaris longus acting as a superficial flexor.

6th. The displacements of the lower-extremity muscles conse-

quent on the rotation of the lower limbs backward—such as the

everted iliacus, the diminished glutei, and the weakness of the ex-

tensors of the knee.

7th. The increased size of the gracilis.

8th. The absence in general of the sartorius, tensor vagine

femoris, biceps, plantaris, popliteus, and soleus.

It is interesting, in connexion with this last peculiarity, to notice

the occurrence of a rudimental sartorius in one species and of a

rudimental popliteus in another.

The cutaneous muscles are of very great interest ; and this is in-

creased by the comparison with those of the other flying mammals.

The author regards it as a point of very great importance that

he has been able to apply the test of nerve-supply in the identifi-

cation of some disputed muscles. Thus he has shown that the

upper part at least of the occipito-pollicalis is of the nature of the

trapezius, although its continuation is a cutaneous muscle; and

this is interesting, as in the other flying mammals the entire of this

On Fossil Plants of the Coal-measures. 403

muscle is cutaneous and springs from the upper part of the pla-

tysma: he has also been able to show that the abdominal pectoral is

not part of the pectoralis minor.

By dissecting a large number of species, the author has been able

to correct a number of errors in the hitherto published records of

the myology of the Cheiroptera—such as the origin of the fourth

pectoral, the insertion of the latissimus dorsi, the arrangement of

the forearm-muscles, &c.

Although the general plan of the muscular system is the same in

all the species, yet there are very many suggestive varieties ; and, from

a comparison of their muscles, it would seem that each of the four

great groups of Bats is characterized by a slightly different arrange-

ment of muscles.

The author has, for purposes of brevity, carefully abstained from

adding any thing of theoretical deduction to this paper, which he

ae endeavoured to confine to a simple statement of anatomical

acts.

measures.” By Dr. W. C. Wituiamson, F.R.S. (in a Letter to

Dr. SHarpey, Sec. R.S.)

Owens College, Manchester, Noy. 16, 1871.

My pear Dr. SHarprey,—Since I read my last communication

to the Royal Society on the organization of the Fossil Plants of the

Coal-measures I have done a large amount of work, having cut between

two and three hundred new sections, and with most satisfactory

results. I have obtained a series of specimens almost completing

the life-history of one plant from Burntisland, beginning with the

tips of the smallest twigs and ending with the large stems. The

former are mere aggregations of parenchyma with a central bundle

of barred vessels mixed with a small amount of primitive cell-tissue.

As the twig grew the leaves assumed definite form, and the central

vascular bundle opened out at its central part, so as to form a cy-

linder, the interior of which was occupied by parenchyma. This

cylinder grew rapidly, the number of its vessels steadily increasing ;

but they were all equally arranged as in what I have termed the

medullary vascular cylinder, i. e. mot in radiating series. We thus

obtain the origin of that remarkable cylinder, and see that it is the

expanded homologue of the central vascular bundles of the living

Lycopods. Whilst these processes were in progress the cortical

portion became differentiated into layers, and the parenchymatous

cells of the pith continued to multiply, so as to occupy the expand-

ing interior of the vascular cylinder. After attaining a certain size

through the above processes, a new element of growth appeared :

an exogenous addition was made to the exterior of the cylinder, also

consisting of barred vessels ; but these are arranged in the radiating

series described in my last memoir. This series continued to grow

until it attained to considerable dimensions ; but the entire vascular

system always remains small, compared with the diameter of the

404 Royal Society.

stem, the chief bulk of which consists of an enormously thick bark.

The structure just descibed is that of a true example of the genus

Diploxylon of Corda. But I have got abundance of specimens with

leaves on the exterior of the bark, demonstrating that the plant. is

a true Lomatophloios, thus indicating the correctness of my suppo-

sition, advanced in my last memoir, that sooner or later the genus

Diploxylon would have to be abandoned.

As if to place beyond doubt the accuracy of these interpretations,

IT have now got magnificent specimens, apparently representative of a

cambium layer, in which the half-grown vessels and the imperfectly

formed medullary rays are exquisitely clear. In addition to these

discoveries I have obtained a Lepidostrobus, which I have no doubt

is the fruit of the above plant. It is provided with both microspores

and macrospores, the exteriors of the latter being curiously furnished

with numerous caudate prolongations, causing them to resemble

some of the fossil Xanthidia of the chalk.

I have further obtained, both from Lancashire and Burntisland,

beautiful stems of another type, and which I have no doubt belong

to Asterophyllites. These began to grow, as before, with a central

vascular bundle surrounded by a cylinder of parenchyma ; but the

transverse section of the bundle soon became ¢riquetrous instead of

circular. This, it may be remembered, is the characteristic of the

corresponding bundle of the strobilus which I have just described

in the ‘Transactions of the Literary and Philosophical Society of

Manchester,’ under the name of Volkmannia Dawsoni, and which I

referred to Asterophyllites. This central triangular axis does not

expand or become converted into a hollow cylinder; but vessels are

at once added to each of its three sides, exogenously, and in radia-

ting series, until it becomes converted into a cylindrical woody axis.

I have specimens showing the nodes and internodes, leaving little, if

any, room to doubt the close affinity between the plant in question

and the verticillate-leaved Asterophyllites.

The details of these discoveries, along with those respecting a

most remarkable series of Lycopodiaceous plants, to which I have

given the name of Dictyoxylon (but this will have to be aban-

doned for the late Mr. Gourlie’s name of Lyginodendron), will be

laid before the Royal Society with as little delay as possible. I

may observe that the plants last referred to have developed, so far

as type is concerned, in a way very similar to that of the Lomato-

phloios, allowance being made for generic and specific peculiarities.

I am, my dear Sir,

Very sincerely yours,

W. C. WILLIAMSON.

I ought not to close this letter without acknowledging the inde-

fatigable energy of G. Grieve, Esq., of Burntisland, who has supplied

me with a constant stream of specimens, upon which I have been

able to operate, thus rendering an admirable service to the cause of

paleophytology.

405

MISCELLANEOUS.

On the Genus Osteocella. By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &e.

Mr. Crirron, many years ago, sent, through Dr. Bowerbank, to the

British Museum the “backbone taken out of the marine animal in

bottle marked ‘No.1’ I caught him or it swimming with great

rapidity in shallow water.” The bottle never reached the British

Museum ; but the backbone did ; and I described it at the end of the

‘Catalogue of Sea-Pens or Pennatulide in the British Museum,’

published in 1870, under the name of “ Osteocella Cliftoni,” but

considered very doubtful its belonging to the Pennatulide.

The British see has lately received a very long slender bone,

643 inches long and ,3, inch broad in its broadest part, which was

sent to the Tenia Society by the Hudson’s Bay Company, and

evidently came from the northern seas, probably from the west

coast of America.

Mr. Carter has kindly examined the Australian specimen sent by

Mr. Clifton and the one sent home by the Hudson’s Bay Company

to the Zoological Society, and finds them, under the microscope,

‘* present the same horny structure, viz. a fibrous trama more or less

charged with oval cells or spaces,” quite unlike that of Gorgonia and

Pennatula, which present a concentric mass of horny layers charged

more or less with calcareous crystalline concretions. It is evidently

a second species of the same genus, Osteocella ; and it is more to be

regretted that the animal sent home by Mr. Clifton to Dr. Bowerbank

never reached its destination and was lost to science; but it is to be

hoped that before long we shall receive from West Australia or from

the Hudson’s Bay Company the animal which produces the Osteo-

cella,

Osteocella, Gray, Cat. of Pennatulide (1870), p. 40.

Style internal, elongate, calcareous, hard, smooth, with a slightly

pearly surface, formed of concentric layers, subcylindrical, taper-

ing at the ends; the apical(?) end shortest, more rapidly taper-

ing, cartilaginous at the tip, the other end longer, more gradually

attenuated, ending in a hard calcareous extremity like the rest of

the style. Animal or colony of animals free, marine; otherwise

unknown; most probably like the Pennatulide, but the style is

harder, more calcareous and polished than any known style belonging

to that group, which are generally square, sometimes cylindrical but

rarely fusiform in the genus Virgularia; or it may be the long coni-

cal bone of a form of decapod cephalopod which has not yet occurred

to naturalists, as Mr. Clifton spoke of its being a free marine animal,

and it has a cartilaginous apex like the cuttlefish. It is much to be

regretted that Dr. Bowerbank did not transmit the animal sent with

it to the Museum.

It is evident that there are two species of animal yielding this kind

of bony substance :—

406 Miscellaneous.

1. Osteocella Cliftoni. Thick, about 11 inches long, tapering at

each end. From Western Australia.

2. Osteocella septentrionalis. Long, slender, about 64 inches long,

attenuated at the base, and very much attenuated and elongated

at the other end. Northern Seas? Collected by the Hudson’s Bay

Company.

Mr. Carter informs me that subsequent examination of this axis

with acid ‘‘shows that it is similarly composed to that of Gorgonia,

viz. of kerataceous fibre or substance and calcarcous crystalline

matter like that of the stem of Osteocella Cliftoni and the other

Pennatulidee which it most nearly resembles ;” so that my original

view as to the nature of this organ seems to be thus confirmed.

The elongated northern species was called by a zoologist a “fish’s

tail,” by which was probably meant tke tail of a ray.

Further Remarks on the Relationship of the Limulide (Xiphosura)

to the Kurypteridee and to the Trilobita. By Henry Woopwarp,

Ksq., F.G.S.

In this paper the author described the recent investigations, made

by Dr. A. 8. Packard, Dr. Anton Dohrn, and the Rev. Samuel Lock-

wood, upon the developmental history of the North-American king

erab (Limulus Polyphemus), and discussed the conclusions as to the

alliances of the Xiphosura and Eurypteride, and to the general

classification of the Arthropoda, to which the results of these inves-

tigations have led Dr. Dohrn and some other continental naturalists.

According to this view, the Xiphosura and Eurypteride are more

nearly related to certain Arachnida (the Scorpions, &c.) than to the

Crustacea ; and this opinion is further supported by the assertion

of Dr. Dohrn, that in Limulus only one pair of organs (antennules)

receives its nerves from the supracesophageal ganglion, and that the

nature of the under lip in Jimulus differs from that prevailing

among the Crustacea. Dr. Dohrn also recognizes the relationship

of the Merostomata to the Trilobites, as shown especially by the

development of Limulus, and considers that the three forms (Limu-

lide, Eurypteride, and Trilobita) should be combined in one group

under the name of Gigantostraca, proposed by Hiickel, and placed

beside the Crustacea. The author stated, on the authority of Prof.

Owen, that Limulus really possesses two pairs of appendages which

receive their nerves from the supracesophageal ganglion, that,

according to Dr. Packard, the young Limulus passes through a

Nauplius-stage while in the egg, that no argument could be

founded upon the lower lip, the condition of which varied extremely

in the three groups proposed to be removed from the Crustacea ; and

he maintained that, even from the ultra-Darwinian point of view

taken by Dr. Dohrn, the adoption of his proposal would be fatal to

the application of the hypothesis of evolution to the class Crustacea.

—Proc. Geol. Soc. Dec. 1871.

Miscellaneous. 407

On some Pupipara parasitic upon Chiroptera.

By Dr. F. Rupow.

To the few animals of this kind described by Nitzsch, Frauenfeld,

Westwood, Kolenati, and others, I am able to add some which have

not yet been described, which live parasitically upon bats, chiefly of

America, and the original specimens of which are probably pre-

served in the collection founded by H. Schilling in the Hamburg

Museum.

1. Strebla longipes. Belonging to the group B of the convex forms

of Kolenati. Ochreous, tolerably thick, very rough; the abdomen

beset with dark-brown thick spines, standing singly among weaker

ones. All the horny parts coriaceously wrinkled. Head elongate

shield-shaped, nearly pointed in front, with long brown sete. Pro-

boscis strong, projecting acutely. Thorax cordiform, longer than

broad, slightly convex, with long bristles.

Legs tolerably thick; femora and tibie clavate; tarsus thin;

claws very strong, strongly bristled, with single, nearly black spines

among the bristles. Wings tolerably transparent, pale ochreous, at

least one third longer than the abdomen, nearly elliptical, with a

rather thin, laterally margined basal piece; fringe of hairs on the

sides tolerably long, but fine, as is also the hairy covering of the

whole surface. The venation is different from that of Frauenfeld’s

S. Kollari ; the two middle veins, which are not very prominent,

are furcate almost at the base, the others simple. Halteres very

small.

Abdomen elongate-ovate, with the segments indistinct, finely

fringed at the sides; terminal segment with some long bristles and

strong warts.

A female from Phyllostoma hastatum, 0-75 millim. A comparison

with the only other known species admits of no confusion between

them.

2. Liptoptena dubia. Ochreous, strongly bristled. Head broad,

particularly thick in the region of the eyes. Antenne very broad,

especially tbe last joint, and provided with strong spines. Strongly

bristly and spinous. Proboscis very long and acute. Thorax much

broader, nearly quadrangular, with rounded sides. Ground-colour

ochreous, with some curved, transyerse, and angulated longitudinal

furrows of a red colour. Legs moderately thick and long, strongly

bristly, with clavate jomts and sharp claws. Wing-rudiments

scarcely one fourth the length of the abdomen, rounded elliptical,

with long but fine sete. Abdomen very thick, broadly ovate, with

the segmentation indistinct, on the sides finely, on the back strongly

bristled, and with isolated long spines; terminal segment small,

with two thick obtuse tubercles, with very long sete.

Length 0°5 millim. On Noctilio dorsatus from Venezuela.

In our specimen, besides the wing-rudiments, there are on the

thorax very small rudiments of halteres, attached laterally, of a very

narrow oval form, and only a little smaller than the wings them-

408 Miscellaneous.

selves. The structure of ZL. cervina, from the roe, stag, and elk,

presents nothing of this kind; so that the above-mentioned animal

may be regarded, if not as a new genus, at least as a transition to-

wards Strebla.

3. Nycteribia elongata. Belonging to Group I. of Kolenati, with

no angular ridges on the thorax, and with the margin of the ante-

rior part of the thorax entire. Colour dark ochreous ; legs rather

paler. Animal elongated ; head small, concealed, with a long, ex-

tensible, acute proboscis, covered with long hairs. Thorax ovate,

depressed at the lower margin, translucent at the portion near the

head, furnished with a few transverse rows of stiff bristles, among

which there are some longer spines. Upper surface convex, lower

surface nearly flat. Lateral ctenidia of 17 teeth, almost reaching the

margin. Legs with very long bristles; femora elliptical, tibiz

clavate, both spinous on the lower surface ; tarsus long and slender ;

claws very thick and spinous.

Abdomen elongate, ovate, with a tuft of spines at the margin of

each segment. Colour of the sutures pale yellow. Anterior cteni-

. dium with 45 teeth. Anal segment of the male tolerably broad,

with a short forceps and long thin outer horny covers, strongly

hairy. Anal segment of the female at the sides with two truncated

tubercles, and two rounded ones in the middle.

Length 0°5 millim. On Myctophilus Geoffroyi.

4. Nycteribia varipes. Belonging to Group II., with angular

ridges and thin tibie. Colour pale ochreous. Legs quite pale.

Head elongated, thickly clothed with long sete. Proboscis short,

but sharp ; vertex with two rows of very long spines standing out-

wards. Thorax with distinct reddish-brown angular ridges in front,

which nearly touch one another. Lower surface finely and densely,

upper surface densely clothed with hairs, with a tuft of long sete.

Ctenidia rather distant from the margin of the thorax, 25-toothed ;

teeth of nearly equal length, with the exception of the outermost.

- Abdomen of the female 5-jointed; first segment narrow, second

very long and broad, third nearly as broad, but only one quarter as

long, the last two narrower; terminal segment with two warts

directed outwards at the angles, and two approximated ones in the

middle, all furnished with long sete. Upper surface with isolated

long sete among dense hairs; sides with short fringes; angles of

the segments furnished with dense tufts of hairs. Sutures dark-

coloured. Ctenidium with 50 teeth, not distinct.

Legs very long; femora elliptical, tibize narrow, tarsi long, strong-

clawed, finely but densely hairy, with long sete at the joints; fe-

mora and tibiz of the anterior legs almost truncated and tubercular

at the joints, with very small articulations.

Length 0-4 millim. On Miniopteris morio.

Sufficiently distinguished from the rest by its broad abdomen.

—Zeitschr. fur die Gesammten Naturwiss., neue Folge, Band iii.

pp. 121-124.

THE ANNALS

AND

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[FOURTH SERIES.]

No. 54. JUNE 1872.

XLIV.—On two new Sponges from the Antarctic Sea, and on

a new Species of Tethya from Shetland ; together with Ob-

servations on the Reproduction of Sponges commencing from

Augesis of the Sponge-animal. By H. J. Carrer, F.R.S.

[Plates XX., XXL. & XXIL]

AmonG the sponges preserved in spirit at the British Museum

which Dr. J. E. Gray wished me to examine with reference to

any thing that might remain untold about them, as well as to

their future arrangement there, are two glass jars partly filled

with specimens, which, but for the presence of spicules, might

very well pass for so much wet brown paper torn into pieces and

soaked in sandy mud. Notwithstanding this uninviting aspect,

however, they claim attention through bearing respectively the

following labels, so far as the writing on them can be now made

out, viz. :—

“Dredged from depth of 300 faths. Lat. 744°S......

Antarctic Exp. Admiralty.” And “ Dredged in 206 faths.

Lat. 774° S. and long. 175° West. Antarctic Exp. Admi-

ralty.” :

The fragments in both jars belong to the same species of

sponge; and the “locality” being known, there is no doubt

that they were dredged up by Captain Sir James Ross during

his Antarctic Expedition, which is further proved by the fol-

lowing extracts from that illustrious navigator’s book entitled

‘A Voyage of Discovery and Research in the Southern and

Antarctic Regions during the years 1839-43,’ viz. :—

“ Feb.16th. The lat. at noon was 75° 6! §., long. 189° 04’ W.

In the afternoon we hove-to and sounded in 290 fathoms on a

bottom of green mud, the temperature at that depth being 32°,

while that of the surface was 30°. .... The dredge was put

overboard for a short time, and many curious invertebrate

animals and a small fish taken in it” (vol. 1. p. 195).

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. ix.

410 Mr. H. J. Carter on two new Sponges

No doubt it was on this occasion that the fragments of

sponge still preserved in the British Museum were obtained.

Rolled over and over by the dredge, probably in a rough sea,

and mixed up with the sandy mud of the bottom, it is not ex-

traordinary that they should have passed into the state men-

tioned. The only part extraordinary is, that at such a time

and under such circumstances as those recorded in the book

to which I have alluded, the dredge should have been put

overboard at all. No one but a cool and intrepid scientific

investigator of the highest type could achieve such results

as were obtained in this Antarctic Expedition. Well might

England be proud of such men!

With this feelmg, then, it will easily be conceived that,

however uninviting the remnants of this sponge appeared, the

fact of their having been obtained when most men would have

been making their vessel snug and sailing away from such an

inhospitable locality demanded the little exertion which their

examination would entail on one sitting quietly at home by

his fireside.

Hence they were examined (‘ overhauled,” to use a nautical

expression very appropriate here) bit by bit, and carefully

scrutinized, with the most repaying results, as will presently

be seen.

Among the fragments were observed pieces four inches long;

there was evidently a porous surface on one side and a caver-

nous structure on the other, both like those of Hyalonema

( Carterta, Gray) and Holtenia, Wy.'Thomson (see figures of the

latter in Phil. Trans. 1870, pl. 69 &c.). The spicules belong-

ing to the fragments were of three kinds, viz. acerate, anchor-,

and fork-headed. It was therefore evidently a deep-sea

Tethya. Subsequently tufts of long anchor- and fork-headed

spicules were found attached to some of the fragments; and

these as evidently belonged to the base of the sponge, being

the means by which it was fixed to the muddy bottom. Thus

many points presented themselves which led to the conjecture

that the sponge must have been in form of body something like

Carteria and Holtenia,which in this respect are nearly identical,

—not possessing podal beards of spicules eighteen inches

long, like Mr. Kent’s noble specimen of Pheronema Gray? in

the British Museum, dredged up off the coast of Portugal, in

the yacht ‘ Norna,’ in 1870, but with short spiculous tufts not

more than an inch in length.

Up to this point, then, inference was all that I had to depend

on for the original form of this sponge, when, by good fortune,

among the mass I found a fully developed ovum or, rather,

young Zethya, about one-sixteenth of an inch in diameter,

from the Antarctic Sea, 411

which, when magnified, turned out to be so perfect that it

probably is as much a facsimile of the adult parent as a human

infant is that of a grown-up man. I therefore wanted nothing

further than to magnify this, and with the detail afforded by

the “fragments,” to give not only the figure and description of

the latter, but that of the entire sponge, for which I now pro-

pose the name of Tethya antarctica (Pl. XX.).

While examining these fragments I also observed that they

had acted in the dredge as a kind of “ tangle,” by having

caught up several large foreign spicules, of two distinct kinds,

but apparently belonging to the same sponge. There were

only these two kinds, “which were very numerous, and so long

and large that they could be seen and easily extricated with

unaided vision. One i is, up to this time, a unique form, viz.

an anchor-head with four arms, and sometimes a fifth—which

being a continuation of the shaft, the spicule is hexacti-

nellid. The other is a quaternate or quadrifid spicule, with a

cruciform head, whose four arms spread out horizontally and

somewhat siemoidly from the end of a vertical shaft. It is

evidently allied to the same form of large cruciform spicule

which spreads its long arms over the surface of Carteria and

Holtenia, but differs from these in being covered throughout

with a lay er of minute or micro-spines, which, in all but the

shaft, are accompanied by a great number of large or macro-

spines.

Thus, these two forms of spicule beg very numerous and

unaccompanied by any other foreign forms in the fragments

of Tethya antarctica, | have assumed that they are re spectively

the podal and surface spicules of a sponge allied to Carteria

and Holtenia, for which I propose the name of Rossella ant-

arctica (Pl. XXI.), in memory of the great antarctic nayi-

gator who dredged them up.

[have also found a branched Antarctic sponge belonging to

the Suberites, which will be described, with other sponges of

the kind, on a future occasion.

Lastly, in a jar labelled “Shetland. J.S. Bowerbank, 52.

3. 12. 70-73,” to which is added, in Dr. Bowerbank’s blue ink

and handwriting, “ Tethya li lyncurt tum,’ I found six specimens,

viz. two of Tethya cranium and four of another species of

Tethya as yet undescribed; so. that the conjecture of Dr.

Bowerbank in writing 7. lyneuré ium (Donatia, Nardo & Gray)

was very wide of the mark, and excusable if it had not been

for a public museum.

Having learnt by experience that appearances are more

misleading among the Spongiade than in any other of the

lower animals which I have been accustomed to study, from the

28*

412 Mr. H. J. Carter on two new Sponges

great resemblance of one sponge to another, I never now am

content to decide in this respect until I have actually examined

microscopically a bit from the sponge itself presented to my

notice. Thus, in examining all the six specimens mentioned,

I came upon four, distinctly different from Tethya cranium,

Johnston, which has been so aptly named and figured with its

oviform bodies by this accurate naturalist (Hist. Brit. Spong.

&ce. 1842, p. 83, pl. 1. figs. 1-8).

From the label on the jar, it is therefore evident that both

species inhabit the sea about Shetland, having probably

come from the “ Haaf Banks;’’ for Dr. Bowerbank states

that he obtained “ nearly three hundred specimens” that were

dredged up there (B.S. vol. ii. p. 84).

For this new species, which will presently be described, I

propose the name of Tethya zetlandica (Pl. XXII. fig. 1).

As all the specimens, viz. both 7. cranium and T. zetlandica,

are filled with ova in different stages of development, I took

the opportunity of mounting some of the more advanced ones

in Canada balsam, and found that they possessed the same

distinguishing characters which point out the differences be-

tween the adult forms of both these species.

Moreover the presence of the ova in different stages of

development from a very early period has enabled me to give

descriptions and illustrations of a sequence of them, preceded

by zygosis in the sponge-animals, taken from Halichondria

simulans, Johnston, in the living state, which thus far seems

to point out the mode of sexual reproduction and development

in the Spongiade generally.

The zygosis takes place by apparent union of the “collars”’

of two sponge-animals, animalcules, or infusoria (whichever

name pleases best), so that their “rostra” are brought into

apposition just like that witnessed in the Difflugie, where the

mouths of the two tests are brought together by an apparent

union of the contained animals. Of course it will be necessary

to give a detailed account of zygosis in the Difflugie to com-

pare it with that of the sponge-animalcule.

Yor the terms “collar” and ‘ rostrum,” see my description

and illustrations of the sponge-animal (Annals, 1871, vol. vii.

Diop ok. tee tan).

I shall also at the same time be able to add a few more ob-

servations on the development of the spicule.

Tethya antarctica, n. sp. Pl. XX.

Body globular; colour tawny yellow. Surface smooth, in-

terrupted frequently by papille, through which the spicules of

the interior project in bundles, cactus-like (Pl. XX. figs. 1

from the Antarctic Sea. 413

& 2). Dermal sarcode cribriform, from the number of minute

“pores”? in it (fig. 4), with here and there a large circular vent

(fig. 2,c¢cc). Summit presenting three or more large vents,

which branch off internally into the excretory canal-system

(3,aaa). Base furnished with tufts of long spicules, anchor-

and fork-headed respectively, some of which have their heads

in the sponge and their shafts free, and vice versd (fig. 2, e).

Internally cavernous, arising from a much dilated state of the

excretory canal-system, whose extremities are peripheral,

where the sponge-structure appears to be densest. Spicules of

three kinds, viz. :—1, acerate, very slightly curved, and long-

pointed (fig.5) ; 2, anchor-headed, of two forms, viz. one with

thick arms, hastiform (fig. 7), the other with the arms more

expanded (fig. 8); 3, tri-fork-headed, one prong much longer

than either of the other two, which are equal (fig. 6). No bi-

hamates. The first or acerate spicule is chiefly confined to the

body, and the two other kinds to the surface, being longest

and most numerous at the base. Thus the spicules generally

vary much in length. The largest acerate form averages

1-20th of an inch in the adult sponge (fig. 9); and the longest

fragment of shaft found with anchor-head attached did not

exceed 14 inch (fig. 10). Generally the longest of these spi-

cules do not appear to have been more than 14 inch in length.

The hastate form of anchor-head appears to be chiefly confined

to the body, and the expanded or grapnel form to the free ex-

tremities of the spicules of the tufts at the base of the sponge.

Size of young Tethya antarctica figured 1-16th of an inch in

diameter exclusive of the tufts at the base—inclusive of the

tufts, 5-48ths, or about 1-10th of an inch long (fig. 1). Size

of largest fragment of adult sponge 4 inches long.

Hab. Marine; deep sea, in 206 to 300 fathoms.

Loc. Antarctic Ocean, in lat. 74$° and 774°8., and long.

LTaGW

Obs. I have little to add to what has already been stated of

this sponge. The description of the form is taken from that

of the young one found in the parent, and the details of struc-

ture from the adult fragments; so that the whole is almost

as complete as if we had had the adult entire. Generally the

sponge corresponds to the Tethyade of which 7. cranium is

the type, modified more or less by a great dilatation of the

excretory canal-system, in which it more particularly agrees

with Carteria and Holtenia. It is also tufted at the base

for fixture in the mud and sand; but in this it does not

resemble these sponges any more than Tethya dactyloidea,

which not only is similarly tufted at the base, but presents a

large vent at the summit, through which the excretory system of

414 Mr. H..J. Carter on two new Sponges

canals empties itself (Annals, 1869, vol. i. p. 17, and 1872,

vol. ix. p. 82). Perhaps most of all it is hke Schmidt’s Tetilla

polyura, which came from Desterro, on the coast of Brazil ;

but it contains no bihamates, which makes it differ, I think,

from all the other species known but the one from Shetland,

about to be described.

Iam not able to state if, like the other Tethyade, its in-

ternal structure radiated from a nucleus; but if so, the frag-

ments would lead me to infer that this must have been situated

towards the base. Here, of course, our young one does not

assist us, as to ascertain this point by its destruction would not

compensate our loss of the only entire form of this sponge

that we possess.

With reference to the nature of the grains of sand which

pervade these fragments, I might here state that they have a

lava-like aspect and structure, as if they originally came from

the active volcanoes witnessed and measured by Sir James

Ross on the adjoining continent.

fossella antarctica, nov. gen. Pl. XXI.

Large peripheral spicule with quaternate or cruciform head,

consisting of four arms radiating at more or less than right

angles from the peripheral end of a vertical shaft (Pl. X_XI.

fig. 1); arms very long, spreading, somewhat sigmoid in their

course (fig. 6), round, ending in attenuated extremities, covered

throughout with a layer of microspines in close approximation,

and here and there large or macrospines, all directed out-

wards (figs. 1, a, b, and 4, ¢, d), the latter failing towards each

end of the arm; shaft also sharp-pointed, and covered with

the layer of microspines, but not so distinct, and entirely with-

out macrospines (fig. 1, d, c) ; so that, under a low power, the

arms appear spined and the shaft smooth.

Podal spicule consisting of a long shaft with anchor-head

composed of four recurved arms (fig. 7) and sometimes a fifth,

which is in continuation with the shaft, and thus renders the

spicule hexactinellid (fig. 8,a). Peripheral and podal spicules

both visible to the unassisted eye, the largest of the former

presenting a shaft about 43-12ths and each of the arms about

3-12ths of an inch long (figs. 5&6). Head of podal spicule

1-20th of an inch broad, and longest fragment of shaft, with

head attached, 14 inch (fig. 10). From the latter having be-

come attenuated towards the broken end, it is probable that,

if entire, it would not have exceeded two inches. Length of

podal spicule, generally, unknown.

Hab. Marine. Deep sea, in 206 to 300 fathoms.

Loc. Antarctic Ocean, in lat. 744° to 774° S., and long.

175° W.

_ from the Antarctic Sea. ALS

Obs. All that I have to offer respecting this sponge is the

description of these two forms of spicules. It might seem

strange that I should endeavour to establish a new genus upon

them, were it not considered that the fowr-armed anchor-head

(fig. 7) is unique, so far as our acquaintance with the Spon-

giadee at present goes; that is to say, with the exception of

Acarnus innominatus, Gray, where there is a fourth arm, but

in a totally different kind of spicule (Annals, 1871, vol. vii.

p- 273, pl. 17), I know of no other instance. Secondly, the

four-armed, spreading, or great peripheral spicule (fig. 1) is

so far identical with that of Carteria and Holtenia, but totally

differs from it in being spiniferous instead of smooth. Perhaps

the minute cruciform-headed and spined spicules congregated

in multitudes along the course of the smooth arms in Carteria

and Holtenia may be represented by the spines on those of Los-

sella. ‘The only question, therefore, is, whether the two spi-

cules belong to the same sponge or to two different sponges ;

and this seems to be answered by the facts that the two forms

are analogous to the anchor-head or anchoring spicule and the

great cruciform one of fol/tenia respectively, and also that

both forms are equally and abundantly present about the

fragments of Tethya antarctica, wherein they have become

entangled, to the exclusion of every other kind, except those

which belong to the Tethya itself. Thus we may fairly as-

sume that they both belonged to some deep-sea sponge which,

thus differing from all others yet known, merits a separate

genus, with perhaps no more appropriate name than that of

“ Rossella,” after the great navigator who dredged them up

from the bottom of the Antarctic Ocean.

It is impossible to say how long the shafts of the anchor-

headed spicules might have been, although the longest portion

that I have found is attenuated at the fractured end; for,

although this generally indicates an approaching termination,

still the attenuation may or may not be much prolonged.

But, judging from the average of specimens found, I should

say, as before stated, that the shaft probably did not exceed

two inches.

The occurrence of a fifth arm in the direction of the shaft,

forming a kind of spike at the end (fig. 8), seems to be too

common to be abnormal, and therefore allies this sponge still

more to the Hexactinellide of Schmidt.

I also found one of these six-armed spicules in which there

is an extension of one of the recurved arms to such a degree

as to be almost equal in size and length to the shaft (fig. 9, a).

This, I fancy, must be an abnormal form.

In no portions of Tethya antarctica that I mounted in Canada

416 Mr. H.J. Carter on a new Species

balsam, nor in any others examined, could I find the least

trace of any of the minute kinds of spicules which characterize

the Hexactinellide. Then it must be remembered that, al-

though the large spicules of a sponge of this kind might be

caught up and preserved by such a “tangle” as the Tethya

afforded, the small spicules to which I allude would inevitably

escape.

Fig. 3 is a more magnified view of the central portion of

one of the great cruciform peripheral spicules, here introduced

for comparison with the fossil fragment (Annals, 1871, vol. vil.

p- 126, pl. ix. fig. 37). It isthe only part of this spicule which

in the hurly-burly of the waves and currents, would be likely

to survive all the rest on its way to become fossilized; and the

identity is so great that my conjecture, at the page mentioned,

of their having belonged to a “ quaternate or quadrifid system,

whose parallel is only to be found in Hyalonema( Carteria) &e.”

is thus confirmed. That which I supposed to be an enlarged

central canal in the fossil is the original shaft, and the external

portion (7) an additional layer, as evidenced by the recent

specimen—thus being only an instance of the common mode

of strengthening and enlarging the structures of the Spon-

giade, viz. by the addition of layers to the external surface of

the horny or silicified fibre.

Hence, having found fossilized fragments of this system in

the Greensand, the Hexactinellide cannot be descended from

the Ventriculitide of the Chalk, as Schmidt’s pedigree-table

(Atlant. Spong. Faun. 1870, p. 83) would have it, in support

of the evolution-theory. But as a ‘“theory”’ is but a “theory,”

it is only to correct the mistake and maintain the remaining

part until another error is found out, and so on.

I take this opportunity of stating, in modification of what

Thave said in my “ Fossil Sponge-spicules of the Greensand,”

p- 126 (op. et loc. cit.), viz. that I had not been able to find

any hexradiate spicules in my mounted specimens of Hyalo-

nema, that since then I have obtained and mounted other

specimens from an undoubted Hyalonema, taken off with my

own hands, in which hewxradiate spicules, of minute size, are

as plentiful as in any other sponge of the kind. Still I main-

tain that, if Hyalonema is to be considered one of the Hexacti-

nellide, it must be based upon the presence of these small

hexactinellid spicules ; for the large ones of the periphery, and

the minute feathered ones too, there, which appear to be the

same in this respect as in Holtenia, bear no trace of the sixth

ray, that I can see. Indeed the sixth ray, if on one of these

large cruciform peripheral spicules, which appear to be in-

tended to bind down the surface smoothly, would, by its pro-

of 'Tethya from Shetland. 417

jecting outwards, be evidently out of place; and if these spi-

cules are to be considered hexradiate because a little projection

of the central canal may be observed where the sixth ray

would be if developed, to carry out this principle in the

Spongiade will be found very inconvenient, if not wholly

impracticable. In distinguishing species, which is a purely

conventional arrangement, we should select, if possible, pro-

minent features that are easily recognizable, both for practical

purposes and to facilitate the study of natural history,

there being, comparatively, no limit to minute distinctions,

as there is no real line of demarcation in nature, if we do not

limit the power to which the microscope should be used in this

respect. ‘The infinite mind of Nature does not require them ;

but the finite mind of man cannot get on without this aid,

and still less the “‘fmite purse ;’’ when the more costly, 7. e.

the highest, powers of the microscope are required for their

detection.

Tethya zetlandica, n. sp.

Pl. XXII. figs. 1-6 and 11-13 and 14-17.

Conical, globular, or slightly compressed (Pl. XXII. fig. 1).

Colour bright grey in spirit. Surface smooth, interrupted by

thick-set papillae irregularly disposed, large and separate

(fig. 2,a) or small and approximate (fig. 1,@). Pores and

vents for the most part closed by contraction. Internal struc-

ture consisting of bundles of spicules (fig. 13, 6 bb) radiating

from am excentric nucleus or point (a) to the circumference, where

they end respectively in the papille of the surface (f), im-

bedded throughout their course in the sarcode of the body (ccc),

which is charged, in the adult state, with minute ova (fig. 7), and

presents, in dilated cavities connected with the excretory canal-

system (fig. 14), a great number of pendent seed-like bodies

—that is, the young Tethye (fig. 13,d dd); sarcode termi-

nating peripherally in a condensed tough lamina (fig. 13, eee),

which forms a kind of cortex to the whole, and, extending up-

wards on the projecting bundles of the spicules respectively, also

forms the papillary prolongations of the surface (fff). Spi-

cules of three kinds, viz. :—1, acerate slightly curved; 2, tri-

forked, with the prongs of equal length; 3, anchor-headed.

All these spicules vary in length with their position; the

acerate, which are much the shortest, are chiefly confined to

the body and internal parts, while the two others chiefly oc-

cupy the surface and base, being shortest on the upper part of

the body and longest towards the base; all three kinds may

be found projecting from the papille in variable plurality

when the anchors and forks have not been broken off, which

418 Mr. H. J. Carter on a new Tethya from Shetland.

is generally the case. There are no bihamates. Average

length of longest spicule, which is the anchor-headed shaft at

the base of the Zethya, about 5-12ths of an inch. Size of

specimen, viz. fig. 1, about 2 inches high by 1? inch broad.

Hab. Marine; deep water.

Loc. Sea about the Shetland Islands; Haaf Banks.

Obs. I have assumed that this species comes from the

Haaf Banks, seeing that the label on the jar bears the words

“Shetland. J.S. Bowerbank,” with “ Tethya lyncurium”

written, as before stated, in Dr. Bowerbank’s hand, who, in

his ‘ British Sponges,’ vol. ii. p. 84, as before stated, observes,

with reference to 7. cranium:—“ I obtained nearly three

hundred specimens of this sponge from the Shetland deep-sea

fishermen, through their agent,” part of which, viz. the two

specimens of 7. cranium and four of the species just described,

in the jar at the British Museum, I further assume to have

belonged to that collection. ‘ Tethya lyncurium” (Donatia,

Nardo & Gray) does not appear to have been yet found north

of Connemara Bay, in Ireland, viz. lat. 53° 26’ (Johnston, op.

cit. p. 85).

T. zetlandica is closely allied to 7. cranium in most ways.

It appears to inhabit the same locality, and sometimes, in like

manner, to grow in the cavity or on the stem of Halichondria

ventilabrum, Johnst. (see illustrations of both species, Pl. -

XXII.) ; but it markedly differs from 7. cranium in two points,

viz. in the disposition of the spicules on the surface, and in

the absence of bihamates. This is at once seen in fig. 9,4vhere

the hoary, shining, asbestine appearance of the spicules of 7.

cranium, arranged in whorls like the hair of the human head,

parting from the crown, from which Johnston has aptly named

it (op. cit. pl. 1. fig. 1), contrasted with the irregular disposi-

tion of the same in 7. zetlandica (fig. 2), at once points out the

two species ; while the entire absence of bihamates (fig. 9, c)

in the sarcode (which is pregnant with them in 7’. cranium) 1s

a not less distinguishing microscopic character, in which 7’

zetlandica agrees with T. antarctica. And not only, as before

stated, are these differences to be seen in the adult forms, but

they equally characterize the still unborn Tethye of the

interior in each species (figs. 11 &12). Thus the spiral twist

of the spicules and the presence of bihamates, though all very

minute, in the young Tethye of T. cranium, are as charac-

teristic of it as the opposite is characteristic of 7. zetlandica.

For the purpose of illustration, I have given figures of two

specimens of 7. zetlandica, in one of which the papillae are

large and separate (fig. 2) and in the other small and almost

confluent (fig. 1); the latter, as will be observed, has grown

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Reproduction of Sponges. 419

on the stem of Halichondria ventilabrum: also a figure of 7’

cranium growing in the bottom of the cavity of a specimen of

Halichondria ventilabr wm, from another jar in the British

Museum, labelled “ Halichondria ventilabrum. J. 8. Bower-

bank, 52. 3. 12. 54.”

The reader will at once observe that these are mere outlines

of the objects they are intended to represent, and not finished

drawings, as the latter would occupy more time than I feel

disposed to give them, and are not absolutely necessary for

the purpose, “since, with the description and these diagram-

matic sketches, the general appearance of both species, with

their distinguishing characters, can at once be seen and

applied.

In the illustration of 7. craniwm may be observed a distinct

group of vents (fig. 9,@), to which attention is here directed

because Dr. Bowerbank in his diagnosis inserts, “‘ Oscula and

pores inconspicuous” (op. cit. p. 83). But the distinctness of

the whorls or spiral lines of spicules (fig. 9,5) must be viewed

as diagrammatic, since in the natural state they no more ap-

pear than in the hair of the human crown.

I have also added a group of the bihamates magnified

(fig. 9, c), which are not to be found in 7. zetlandica.

The word bihamate,” first applied by Dr. Bowerbank’ to

this spicule, does not always meet the requirements of the

case, although it is quite as good as any other that has been

chosen. The name, however, does not matter, so long as we

remember that it is a C- or S-shaped body, of a more or less

spiral tendency, with the ends so turned in opposite directions

that, if laid on a flat surface, they do not both rest on the same

plane; so that, in whatever position the bihamate is, one end

is always projecting, ready to catch any thing that may come

into contact with it: hence Dr. Bowerbank has placed this form

among his “retentive spicula”’ of the sarcode.

N ature, however, does not always require them for this

purpose, as they are absent in 7. antarctica and T. zetlandica,

where the sarcode is held together apparently without any

thing else of the kind. The habit of assigning a cause for

every thing that Nature does more frequently meets with con-

tempt than admiration.

Reproductive Process.

As with Tethya cranium, so with T. zetlandica ; both species,

in the adult condition, are richly charged with the small

globular and compressed elliptical bodies (fig. 13, ddd) first

described and figured by Johnston under the designation of

“ oviform ”’ (op. cit. p- 84, pl. 1. fig. 8). Those in T. cranium

420 Mr. H. J. Carter on the Reproduction of Sponges.

are about 1-24th and those in 7. zetlandica about 1-16th of an

inch in diameter: they are therefore easily visible to the un-

assisted eye, and hence I have been able to give the outlines

of a section of fig. 2 in fig. 13, which is pregnant with them,

while, every part having been drawn of the natural size, the

reader will, by reference to it, have nearly a facsimile of the

object itself. Most of the oviform bodies and many in the

section only just showing themselves above the level of the

sarcode, while others are on their edges, their outlines, of

course, are not all of the same size and shape. Whether the

compression, which, as will hereafter be seen, is confined to

the less-advanced forms, arises from the contracting effect of

the spirit on a globular form when fresh, or whether it is natural

to these bodies, I am ignorant, having never seen a Tethya

under these circumstances while ving.

In Dr. Bowerbank’s ‘ British Sponges,’ pl. 25. fig. 343, will

be found a monstrous representation of one of these oviform

bodies under the designation of ‘‘gemmule,” which is only

surpassed by his description (vol. 11. p. 87), where he applies

the term ‘‘ sexual”’ to them, and conjectures that one may be

the “female or prolific gemmule;”’ but Dr. Bowerbank had

never been able to discover any “‘ spermatozoa” in either!

As this is a kind of physiology which I do not understand,

let us go back to the term “ oviform”’ first applied to these

bodies by their original discoverer, and see if we can trace

them from their earliest appearance up to the complete deve-

lopment of the full-formed young Tethya. But before enter-

ing upon this subject, it is desirable to premise a description

of the sponge-animal from which the ova are first produced,

and then the mode of sexual union by which impregnation is

accomplished.

Last year I confirmed Prof. James-Clark’s discovery of a

“collar”? round the cilium of the sponge-animal (Annals,

vol. iv. p. 1, pls. 1 & 2), and at the same time gave a full

figure of this body, which must now be regarded as the animal

of the sponge just as much as the polype is regarded as the

animal of the coral.

Since then most of my observations on the “ ultimate

structure of Spongilla,” in which the animal was first pointed

out (Annals, 1857, vol. xx. p. 21, pl. 1), have also been con-

firmed by Prof. James-Clark in his description and illustration

of the American Spongilla (American Journ. Sc. and Arts,

Dec. 1871, vol. ii.; republished in the Annals, 1872, vol. ix.

p- 71, pl. 11, and in the Monthly Microscop. Journ. for March,

No. xxxix. p. 104).

Shortly describing the animal, animalcule, or infusorium of

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Reproduction of Sponges. 421

the Spongiadx, whichever appellation may be thought most

appropriate, it is, in its passive form, a minute globular cell,

apparently filled with granuliferous plasma, bearing a nucleus

and two contracting vesicles, provided with a rostrum or pro-

jecting cylindrical portion supporting a delicate fimbriated

collar, in the midst of which is a single cilium, and, in its

active state, will take into its body crude material (that is,

particles of indigo) if they be presented to it. The collar and

rostrum possess the power of polymorphism; and, when neces-

sary, the whole body can be thus transformed. The latter is

about 1-3000th of an inch in diameter in the calcareous sponges,

and only half that size in those of the siliceous ones that I

have examined; and they are arranged in countless groups

on the lining sarcode of the areolar cavities of the sponge.

Of all other animalcules or Infusoria with which I am ac-

quainted, the sponge-animal seems to me to come nearest to

Difflugia, or to that kind of Ameba which throws out its

pseudopodia from one part of its globular form in particular

(see an illustration of this in ‘Annals,’ 1856, vol. xviii. pl. 5.

fig. 17). Hence it may be inferred that, if among the sponge-

animals we find instances of two in apparent union similar to

that which is termed “ zygosis” among the Diflugie, we have

strong reason for believing that in both instances this kind of

union is for the same purpose.

In zygosis of the Diffugie the mouths of the two tests are

brought together by an apparent union of the two contained

animals; and if this be watched, the two animals thus united

will be observed to flow backwards and forwards into each

other’s tests, as if their incorporation was as complete as the

union of two drops of water; after which they separate, and

each betakes itself to its own test.

Of this process Mr. W. Archer, of Dublin, who is probably

the highest authority living, from his extensive and actual

observation of the nature and habits of these animals, states

respecting zygosis :—‘‘ Whatever may be the significance of

the phenomenon, it is at least one which I have noticed my-

self in nearly every form of all the genera [of the freshwater

Rhizopoda], each individual species always conjugating only

with its own fellow ” (Quart. Journ. Microscop. Se. April 1871,

No. xlii. p. 111). I can confirm what Mr. Archer has stated ;

and in one instance I found five Diffugie of the same form

and species, which is one of the largest, viz. D. urceolata, Cart.

(Annals, 1864, vol. xui. pl. 1. fig. 7), all united together by

their mouths, after the manner of zygosis. But, whether they

be found united in pairs, which is the usual way, or in greater

number, they are always, as Mr. Archer has stated, of the

422 Mr. H. J. Carter on the Reproduction of Sponges.

same species. Neither of us has ever seen two different spe-

cies of Difflugie in zygosis, which is not less significant of

the act being for sexual reproduction than that the individuals

engaged in it are not mere varieties of one species, as some

would have it.

I have also long since tried to find out. the whole bearing of

this phenomenon in connexion with the oviform bodies found in

both the Difflugie and Amebe, and from time to time have

recorded what I have observed, by illustration as well as de-

scription, which those who wish to consult my contributions

in this respect may find in different numbers of the ‘ Annals,’

viz. in vol. xviii. p. 115 (1856), vol. xii. pp. 30 & 261 (1863),

vol. xiii. p. 23 (1864), and vol. xv. p. 171 (1865), since which

time I have not returned to the subject. I had hoped to

publish a figure, now in my journal, of zygosis in D. urceo-

lata, in which every detail was measured and drawn upon

the same scale, that the relative sizes of all might at once

be seen ;_ but, thinking that this might be indefinitely post-

poned, on account of my studies having taken another direc-

tion, | published the description of it in my last paper on the

conjugation of certain species of Diatomacez, viz. that in the

‘ Annals,’ vol. xv. above mentioned.

Finding that I could obtain no more knowledge of the pro-

cess by mere observation of it externally, I tried what the

effect of crushing and tearing to pieces a pair of D. wrceolata

(for this is the largest and thus best adapted species that I

have found for the purpose) under the microscope, with the

following results, which, as a kind of w/timatum on the sub-

ject, was thus published in the paper last mentioned :—

“Returning, then, to the question of impregnative genera-

tion in the Diatomez, it seems to me that, being so closely

allied to the Rhizopoda in their organization, they might be

inferred, by analogy, to follow the same mode of producing an

impregnated generation as Diffugia. ‘That this mode has

been demonstrated, I by no means wish to assert; but obser-

vations on the subject, made subsequently to those published

in my last communications to the ‘ Annals,’ still further sup-

port me in the views therein announced, viz. that the nucleus

furnishes the sperm-, and some other part of the body of the

Difflugia the germ-cells, which produce the new generation.

For in that large species which I have designated urceolata in

my last communication, and which I have since ascertained

to be one of the most persistent and plentiful forms about this

neighbourhood, I, last summer, almost invariably found the

nucleus (instead of undergoing ‘the change as a whole) to be-

come divided into several “spherical cells of equal size, each of

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Reproduction of Sponges. 423

which presented bodies in its interior similar to a brood of

cells, which, on other occasions and under similar appearances,

I have found to issue in the form of ciliated, monadic, poly-

_morphic Rhizopods. With these also were present a number

of much larger round and subround refractive cells, in which

a nucleus was present, but very difficult to be seen, owing to

the extreme fineness and apparent homogeneity of the mate-

rial they contained. There were also several starch-grains

present; and on many occasions, but on one in particular, a

pair of these Difflugie in zygosis, when. crushed in water

under the cover of the slide, presented in their interior, besides

a great number of the three kinds of cells mentioned, a still

greater number of ciliated, monadic Rhizopods, of the sizes

of the bodies in the nuclear cells, and a number of small

unciliated Amebe, about the size of the ‘refractive cells.’

So far, then, only, do I feel justified in stating that this ap-

pears to me to be the mode in which the impregnated genera-

tion of Diflugia is produced; and if it be so, then all that

remains to prove it 1s the evidence afforded by witnessing the

actual union of the ‘ciliated monadic Rhizopods’ with the

‘unciliated refractive cells’—an act which, probably taking

place within the body of D. wrceolata in an undisturbed con-

dition, is not likely to be soon seen among its contents when

forced out of the test into water by crushing and the pressure

of a glass cover” (Annals, 1865, vol. xv. p. 171 et seq.).

I have quoted this paragraph at length, not only to

show the results of my last observations on zygosis, but to

point out what may take place in the sponge-animalcules

under similar circumstances, if we can satisfy ourselves that

they also enter into this kind of union. But before com-

mencing this part of our subject, it is also desirable to add

briefly what I have observed in the oviform bodies of the Dif

flugie, which we may assume to be the result of their zygosis.

One thing is always obvious, viz. that the nucleus disap-

pears, leaving the nuclear utricle empty; and the changes

which take place in the oviform bodies in Luglypha are recorded

in the following extract, viz.:—‘‘I have seen the ovule of

Euglypha in every stage, from its first appearance in the test

to the time when it has acquired the power of putting forth

rhizopodous prolongations (fig. 31), after which the tests of

very small Luglyphe presented themselves in the same basin,

which did not appear before the parents had died off and left

their ovules to shift for themselves’ (Annals, 1856, vol. xviii.

p- 230, pl. 5). All this was described and figured in the place

just mentioned, more than fifteen years ago.

We are now in possession of the form of the sponge-ani-

424 Myr. H.J. Carter on the Reproduction of Sponges.

malcule as well as that of the Difiugie and Amebe. We

know that they all possess the power of polymorphism, and

take in crude material for nourishment, but that the former

differ from the latter in being infinitely smaller, in possessing _

a cilium, and in living in communities. However, if we view

the sponge-animalcules as but an inferior grade of Amabe, as

we view the compound Tunicata as inferior grades of the great

separate Ascidians, then the presence of the cilium in the

sponge-cell finds its explanation in the fact, according to

my observations, that the young Amebe begin life with a

cilium, which is afterwards retracted. (Annals, 1863, vol. xi.

p. 48, and 1864, vol. xi. p. 21, pl. 2. fig. 19.

We have also become acquainted with the phenomenon

called zygosis in the Difflugie, and its probable consequences,

including the formation and development of the oviform bodies

into forms like the parent. Let us now see how far any thing

in the sponges may present itself to us like the latter.

In Dec. 1869, long before I knew any thing, from actual

observation, of the form of the sponge-animal, as described by

Prof. James-Clark, I had a very small Halichondria simulans,

Johnston (7. e. not more than a quarter of an inch in diameter),

under microscopic observation, in a watch-glass with sea-

water, for several days; and during this time I repeatedly

assured myself of the torm and measurement of all its elemen-

tary parts, which, with the position of the spicules, were care-

fully drawn in my journal, upon the scale of 1-6th to 1-6000th

of an inch. I have therefore now the most reliable informa-

tion on this subject, particularly as these observations and

drawings were again repeated with similar results on another

specimen of the same species in January 1870.

Among these elementary parts there are figures of the con-

jugation of cells somewhat larger than the sponge-animals of

the “ groups,’”’ but bearing such a strong resemblance at once

to the form of the sponge-animalcule among the sponges, and

to zygosis among the Diflugia, that little doubt can be enter-

tained of the latter being identical.

T have therefore selected for publication that figure (8) which

best illustrates the facts, as the others, although equally con-

vincing, are more or less complicated with pseudopodial pro-

longations.

In this figure we observe distinctly the bodies (a a) of the

two sponge-animalcules in conjugation or zygosis, united by

their rostra (6), drawn upon the scale, as just stated, of

1-6th to 1-6000th of an inch. This would give the ordinary

size of the sponge-animalcule of the calcareous sponges, which

appears to be about double the size of that of the siliceous

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Reproduction of Sponges. 425

ones—measurements which at all times, of course, with such

small objects, of such a polymorphic nature, and viewed under

such circumstances, should only be regarded as approximative.

I have already stated (Annals, /. c.) that, among the marine

siliceous sponges, Halichondria simulans, from its hardiness

and the apparently larger size of its sponge-animalcules, to-

gether with its plentifulness, affords one of the best species for

observations of this kind.

Besides the figure of zygosis above described and given in

the plate, there are others where the sponge-animalcules are

united linearly, like the individual Diatomez in the filament

of Melosira, with here and there a conjugation like that of our

illustration. Schmidt has also figured something of this kind

in an allied species, viz. Reniera aqueductus (Adriat. Spong.

1st Supp. pl. 1. fig. 12). But, with the polymorphic nature of

the sponge-animalcule, such diversities of form being unlimited,

our present object has been to select that which is most like

zygosis in every respect, an almost facsimile of which I figured

long ago in Ama@ba radiosa (?) (Annals, 1856, vol. xviii. pl. 5.

fig. 17).

Not knowing until last year the form of the sponge-animal-

cule by actual observation, I only viewed this conjugation as

very like zygosis in the Diflugie ; but now that I am familiar

with the figure and habits of this animalcule, the identity of

the process seems to me complete.

Thus having obtained a starting-point for our history of the

reproductive process of the Spongiade by impregnation, let

us revert to the seed-like bodies in the 7ethye, for the pur-

pose of following it up to the fully developed young animal of

the Shetland species, with which we are now most immediately

concerned.

And taking a portion of the sarcode of 7. zetlandica (i. e.

from fig. 13), it will be found, when torn to pieces in water

under the microscope, to be thickly charged with granuliferous

cells about 15-G000ths or 1-400th of an inch in diameter

(fig. 7). There is, of course, a wide difference between this

size and even that of the body of the sponge-animalcule, which

may be set down roughly about the 3000th of an inch. But I

can recognize with certainty in these spirit-preserved specimens

no stages between the two sizes; so [ must be content to as-

sume that this is an advanced state of the sponge-ovule, what-

ever its original size might have been.

When further examined, this cell is observed to be filled

with nucleated cellules (c), each of which is again filled with

minute granules (@), and in the midst of all an effete (?) nuclear

cell(5), like that seen in the Difflugiw and Amebe (see also

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.4. Vol. ix. 29

426 Mr. H.J. Carter on the Reproduction of Sponges.

Annals, 1863, vol. xii. pl. 3, on Amaba princeps)—that is,

without the nucleus. This cell, again, is exactly like that

which I have described and figured as existing so abundantly

in Dercitus niger and Stelletta aspera (Annals, 1871, vol. vu.

p- 13, pl. 4), and which therefore now must be regarded as ova,

From the condition of the ovule imbedded in the sarcode,

as just described, we go to the seed-like bodies outside it, viz.

in the dilated cavities of the excretory canal-system, where

they are still pendent to the sarcode by a little pedicle which

is analogous to the umbilical cord in higher animals (fig. 14),

and which, as the young Zethya becomes fitted for an inde-

pendent existence, gradually atrophies until the separation is

complete.

Here, although there is every stage to be observed between

the least and most advanced ovule in this part of their deve-

lopment, we shall find it convenient to divide them into two

groups, viz. that in which the ovule is elliptical, compressed,

pear-shaped, and circumscribed by a kind of capsular cover-

ing (figs. 14,666, and 6 & 12), and that in which it assumes

a globular form, with undefined spiculiferous border and

areolar sarcode (figs. 14, aa, and4 & 11).

In the first instance (figs. 6 & 12) the cellules of the ovule

appear to have become broken down into a granuliferous ho-

mogeneous sarcode (c) charged with minute refractive silicified

spheres, which may be the germs of the spicules that are sub-

sequently to appear in the centre of the mass. Those that are

now present are all acerate (that is, without heads), and do not

reach the confines of the ovule (fig. 5)—which presents a de-

fined margin (a) with the shape above mentioned, and in this

form is attached to the dilated cavity of the excretory canal-

system by the little pedicle mentioned.

In the second instance (figs. 4 & 11) the “ granuliferous ho-

mogeneous sarcode” has become areolar (a); the spicules have

greatly increased in number (0); heads of different shapes

have been and are being added to them; they have burst

through the defined margin of the foregoing development, and

carried out with them the areolar sarcode into a papillated

globular form, in miniature, like that of the parent. Young

sponge-animals have in all probability begun to grow in the

areolar cavities; and the pedicle of attachment perishing, the

little sponge falls loose into the excretory canal-system, through

which it is rapidly ejected into its new element, there to find

a place of attachment (perhaps again the stem of a Halichon-

dria ventilabrum) and finally attain its adult size.

These two descriptions apply to the ovules of Tethya

cranium as well as to those of 7. zetlandica; only the spi-

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Reproduction of Sponges. 427

cules in the former are arranged in a whorl from the com-

mencement, and accompanied by the bihamate spicule (figs. 11

he 12), which points of distinction are, of course, absent in the

atter.

It might also be observed that, although the one-armed

anchor-headed spicules project beyond the rest in the young

Tethye of both species, they do so to such an extent in 7’

cranium as to form a kind of fringe (fig. 11, c).

I am not prepared to make any lengthened comparison

between these young Yethye and the so-called “ seed-like

bodies” of Spongilla. At first it would appear that there is

not any very great difference between their sizes respectively,

the fully developed young Tethyade of T. cranium and T.

zetlandica being respectively 1-24th and 1-16th of an inch in

diameter, while the seed-like bodies of the five species of

Spongilla at Bombay, viz. c/nerea, Cartert, alba, Meyent, and

plumosa, average respectively 1-63rd, 1-29th, 1-30th, 1-47th,

and 1-22nd of an inch in diameter, the last measurement being

the long diameter of the elliptical form (Annals, 1849, vol. iv.

p- 81). But when it is considered that these measurements

include the thick crust which surrounds each seed-like body,

and that the globule of soft contents is still smaller, that no

spicules are yet developed in it, and that it cannot be con-

sidered the “fully developed” young Spongilla until it has

left the capsule, it becomes evident that we are not comparing

like with like. In short, the state of the contents of the seed-

like body much more resembles the ovule of the Tethya while

“imbedded in the sarcode”’ (fig. 7) than any other stage of the

latter above described. At a very early period the seed-like

body of Spongilla very much resembles in all particulars the

globular body of the sponge-animaleule itself, somewhat

enlarged; and when fully formed, its contents consist of a

globular cell containing a number of spherical cellules filled

respectively with granular matters, among which are many

still smaller cells or germs. Thus it closely resembles in this

respect the ovule of the Tethye before it leaves the sarcode to

become pendent in the dilated cavity of the excretory canal-

system. Hence it now seems to me that we should regard the

so-called seed-like bodies of Spongilla as true ova, which, like

the seeds of plants, are wrapt up in a shell for preservation

until such time and circumstances occur as are favourable to

their development. As the contents of the seed-like body

issue from the capsule, the globular cells and thecr contents

respectively appear to pass directly into the globular groups

of sponge-animalcules, and the excretory canal-system to be

hollowed out, and the horny skeleton and spicules formed; in

428 Mr. H.J. Carter on the Reproduction of Sponges.

the intercellular plasma which exists between the globular

cells (Annals, 1857, vol. xx. p. 26).

The presence of a capsular covering to the ovum in Spon-

gilla, and its absence in the Zethye and the marine sponges

generally, is explained by the drought to which the former

may be exposed during subsidence of the fresh water in

which it is growing. ‘Thus the masses of Spongilla in the

tanks of Bombay become uncovered and perfectly dry for

several months in the year—a contingency to which the

marine sponges can never be exposed; and hence the capsule,

instead of being a protection to them, would be in the way of

the full development of the ovum, which goes on uninter-

ruptedly from the beginning to the end, when it is ejected

into the water in a state of comparative maturity. The con-

tents of the ovum of Spongilla, on the other hand, do not

reach this state until they have emerged from the capsule and

become developed into the young Spongilla.

Of course, in a new field like this, to which I have now and

then turned my attention for the last twenty years, my views

progressively have been somewhat modified—and yet not

much, as will be seen by my ‘“ Description of the Fresh-

water Sponges of Bombay,” first published in the ‘Journal of

the Asiatic Society of Bombay,’ in 1849, and subsequently

reprinted in the ‘ Annals’ of the same year (/. c.).

- In describing the development of the young Spongilla from

the seed-like body in the paper just mentioned, it may be ob-

served, at p. 87, that I mention an ‘intercellular substance,”

or “‘semitransparent mucilage,’’ which forms the ‘ bond of

union between the cells” of Spongilla, that it possesses a

power of polymorphism ‘ independently of the sponge-cells,

and presents contracting vesicles.”’ All this, too, is figured in

the illustrations (pl. 4. fig. 2). Finally, at p. 95 is the fol-

lowing sentence :—‘‘ My impression, however, is, that both

the horny skeleton and its spicules are formed in the inter-

cellular substance, and not within the cells.”’ This is Hiickel’s

view in 1870; and for this “intercellular substance ”’ he pro-

poses the name of “ sarcodine”’ or “ syncytium” (Annals, 1870,

vol. v. pp. 112 & 113, “ On the Organization of Sponges &e.,”

translated). No allusion whatever is made to my notice of the

same substance &c. in 1849, which probably would have been

the case had this naturalist read all that had been written on

the subject previously to writing himself. How unlike the old

Salmasiuses and Bocharts, &c., who read every thing on their

subject and acknowledged it! Has not the age for these

master minds passed away amidst the growing desire to avoid

every thing that gives extra trouble, even though it may entail

inferior work ?

Mr.H.J.Carter on the Development of the Sponge-spicule. 429

The same kind of bodies which Dr. Th. Eimer found in the

siliceous and calcareous sponges at Capri, from March to July

1871, and figured, with description, as spermatozoa of these

sponges, in the followmg December (Schultze’s Archiv fir

Mikroscop. Anat. vol. viii. pt. 2, p. 281), I found in Microciona

atrosanguinea, at Budleigh-Salterton, Devon, in July 1870,

and fully described them as such in the following October

(Annals, vol. vi. pp. 339,340)—conjecturally, it is true, because

I do not know that any one has yet seen them pass into the

ovum of the sponge, which is thus still wanting to confirm the

otherwise well-assumed fact. My description is unaccompanied

by illustrations ; but the figures in my journal, from which it

was taken, are identical with those of Himer, and therefore the

description too.

The “ thread-cells”” which Eimer figures from the Renie-

ride &c., at p. 283, 2b., I have not yet seen.

I could have wished that Eimer had alluded to my descrip-

tion of October 1870 instead of quoting Hiickel’s account of

mine and Prof. Huxley’s figures respectively (published in

the ‘Annals,’ in 1854 and 1851) of spermatozoa in the

sponges, as explained by Lieberktihn, whose identification

of the latter with a flagellated infusorium is now shown by

Eimer’s figures to have been most unfortunate—and as regards

my own, doubtfully given from the first (in 1854, and contra-

dicted in 1858) as spermatozoa, equally unjust; for although

probably not the spermatozoa of Spongilla, there can be no

doubt that they really belonged to it, and, by their habits,

could not have been the infusorium mentioned by Lieberkiihn.

In short, had Lieberkiihn read my description as well as seen

the figures, he would not have suggested this explanation.

Eimer states, in his “ Addendum,” that Hiickel has also

now seen spermatozoa in both the siliceous and calcareous

sponges (Jenaisch. Zeitschrift, vol. vi. pt. 2).

Development of the Spicule.

While the opportunity was afforded of tracing the develop-

ment of the ovule generally in the two Tethyw mentioned,

it will not seem unlikely that I should have endeavoured to

find out something more of the development of the spicule

than is stated in my “ Ultimate Structure of Spongilla”

(Annals, 1857, vol. xx. p. 23); but I could not, so far as its

earliest and primary form is concerned (that is, the simple

acerate one), although I have been able to do so as regards its

arms or appendages. It should be understood, however, that

I am not going into the whole of the development of the spicule

430 Mr. H. J. Carter on the Development

now, as J am accumulating material for a separate paper on

this subject.

In the development of the young Spongilla, I, of course,

had nothing to deal with but the acerate or primary form of

the spicule, as this is the only large form in this sponge; but

in the young Tethyc, as will have been seen, there are arms

to many of the spicules, resulting in the development of se-

veral different forms, the chief of which, and that which is

peculiar to the young Tethya, is the one-armed anchor-headed

spicule.

To resume shortly what I have already stated in this re-

spect :—the development of the ovule commences with the

cell of cellules &c. im the sarcode; then follows the breaking

down of all these cellules into a granular mass of plasma, of

an ovoid shape, appended by a pedicle to the outside of the

sarcode, in a dilated cavity of the excretory canal-system ;

then a few acerate spicules appear in the centre of this, toge-

ther with many minute spherical refractive granules, appa-

rently of a siliceous nature; lastly, the granular plasma be-

comes areolar, the spicules greatly increase, and heads of

various forms develope upon their peripheral ends, among

which the one-armed anchor-headed one mentioned is not only

the most numerous, but, as before stated, extends somewhat

beyond the circumference of the young Tethya, now become

globular. It is to this form, which appears in all stages of

development, that my attention has been chiefly directed ; and

from it I am able to add a little more to the development of

the spicule than I have already given.

The four representations under fig. 16, Pl. XXII. are in-

tended to furnish a series of forms illustrative of the develop-

ment of this one-armed anchor-headed spicule, which, of

course, will apply to all other developments of the same kind

of form: that of @ is, of course, assumed, since, before the

end of the shaft begins to be inflated, there is no indication of

what it is to be, beyond a linear acerate form. I have drawn it

as open at the ends, though I am not certain if this state always

precedes the inflation, as it is frequently seen in the simple

acerate spicule. In 6 we have the inflation of the head, which

undoubtedly precedes the formation of the arm, together with

a terminal expansion of the central canal in a compressed

cellular form. Our figure c shows the first budding of the

arm and the extension of the central canal which leads to it

branching off below the terminal compressed expansion; while

d not only shows the full formation of the arm, but that of

the one-armed anchor-headed spicule generally, attended by a

frequent occurrence, viz. the budding of another arm, e. All

of the Spicule of Sponges. 431

these figures are drawn to the same scale, viz. 1-24th to

1-600th of an inch, whereby they furnish facsimiles equally

magnified of the objects they are intended to represent.

Fig. 3 is the head of an average anchor-spicule taken from

the base of the adult form (fig. 1) and magnified to the same

scale. It not only also shows an extension of the central canal

beyond the branches given off for the arms, but points out the

relative sizes of the adult and foetal spicules of this kind, when

compared with d of the following figure.

There are other spicules in the young Tethya, especially

fork-heads having one, two, or three arms; and these are re-

presented under fig. 17: a is one-armed, analogous to the one-

armed anchor-head just described ; ¢ has two arms, and is the

most numerous form in the young Tethya after the one-armed

anchor ; 6 is the three-armed form, which is scantily present,

like the three-armed anchor-head, d; while e is the acerate

form. I need hardly add that the other ends of all these spi-

cules are single-pointed.

Thus the development of the arm is always accompanied by

an extension of the central canal of the shaft. But there are

other additions to the spicule, viz. spines &ec., which are not

always so accompanied, as may be seen by reference to fig. 4,

Pl. XXII., where they may be observed to have been added

to the outside of the shaft after the latter had been formed.

Hence, in this instance, it is not the extension of the central

canal which determines the ultimate form of the spicule, but

some external agency, which adds to and modifies the external

form of both the horny and silicified fibre, as well as the spi-

cules. That this should be easily effected on all sides in the

midst of the sponge, where these parts are enveloped in the

intercellular sarcode, may be easily conceived; but it is not

easy to conceive how this takes place in the long spicules of

Hyalonema and Holtenia, unless they grow, like hairs, by ad-

ditions to their proximal extremities, or the sarcode creeps out

over them to their ultimate terminations.

Still, we are dealing here with the developments of the spi-

cule after the shaft has been formed, and not with its earliest

appearance, to which I can add nothing more than I stated in

1849, /.¢., viz. “‘ My impression still is, that both the horny

skeleton and its spicules are formed in the intercellular sub-

stance, and not in the cells.” But how they come into being

I know not, any more than the “ Preacher,” who, 3000 years

ago, wrote :-—

“As thou knowest not what is the way of the spirit, nor

how the bones do grow in the womb of her that is with child;

432 Mr.H.J.Carter on the Development of the Sponge-spicule.

even so thou knowest not the works of God who maketh all”

(Ecclesiastes, x1. 5).

Undoubtedly the power which developes the ovum, and

causes it to pass into the new being, acts without brain and

organs of sense. It is a power which pervades all nature, and

is infinite. Hence, as our brain and organs of sense are

secondary products with a finite power, we can never compre-

hend the infinite one. So that all idea of ever finding out how

things come into existence or grow may as well be abandoned.

We can see a crystal as soon as it is formed, but the highest

magnifying-power does not enable us to see it come into exis-

tence or increase in size. As familiar instances of this power,

we might perhaps mention the return of the messenger-pigeon

direct to its home, the bee to its hive, the young cuckoos

to the land of their parents, &c. But the instances are infinite,

as the power is unknown; like that of the mind itself, we only

recognize it by its manifestations. It is called “ instinct,” and

is regarded by most as a kind of inferior intelligence ; but it

can see without eyes and reason without a brain, better than

we can do with either. In short, it is nature unbounded, of

which man is but a finite imitator.

So also in investigations with the microscope, it seems to

me highly unphilosophic to speak without modification of the

“ structureless jelly,” to wit, of an Ameba, or of the absence

of a cell or layer round this animalcule or any body of the

kind, because it is not demonstrable to our senses. The leg

of a Huplotes is probably as complicated in its muscular appa-

ratus as that of a crab-claw, yet it is as transparent and

apparently structureless as glass. The texture of a cell- or

surface-layer may be infinitely delicate or infinitely dense.

There is no difficulty in calling it such under the latter; and

it would be unphilosophic to deny its existence in the former.

There are, no doubt, textures in the Spongiadee that loom, as

it were in the misty distance of development, which in higher

animals can be recognized by the coarsest sense; but in the

former condition we should only speak of them as such, and

not with that certainty that we would of the latter. The atoms

which make up the complicated and beautifully formed body

of a Huplotes rush about before us, under the microscope, as a

whole, with the appearance of being as tough and compact

almost as a crab. But let death occur, and the phenomenon

called “ diffluence”’ will immediately succeed, in which the

atoms fall asunder like a bunch of iron-filings held together by

magnetism, when the latter is suddenly withdrawn. Lastly,

both motion and change of form may be infinitely slow

Mr. H. J. Carter on new Sponges. 433

or infinitely rapid. We could not see either in the Ameba

were it not for the magnifying-power of the microscope, nor

in the heavenly bodies, were it not for their great size and

great distance. Hence we cannot comprehend this infinity,

and should only speak of these phenomena as they appear to

our finite organs of sense, modifying our assertions by our

equally finite reason, in all philosophic humbleness. I have

been induced to make these remarks because I have lately

observed a tendency to speak more decidedly in microscopic

inquiries than our powers justify.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

PLATE XX.

Fig. 1. Tethya antarctica, n.sp.; fully developed young one, natural size.

Fig. 2. The same, lateral view, magnified to the scale of 1-48th to

1-1800th of an inch: a, summit; 6, base; cece, vents; ddd, pa-

illze of surface supporting spicules; e, tufts of spicules project-

ing from the base; f, two very long anchor-headed spicules

projecting from the side.

N.B. The greater part of the anchor-heads have been broken

off.

Fig. 3. The same, end view of summit, magnified to the same scale,

showing three large vents, which branch off internally into the

excretory canals: aaa, vents; 666, papille of the surface sup-

porting spicules.

Fig. 4. The same, full-grown specimen ; portion of dermal sarcode, show-

ing the pores and spicules of the surface : aa, pores; 6, spicules.

Scale 1-48th to 1-1800th of an inch.

Fig. 5. The same, form of acerate spicule.

Fig. 6. The same, form of triforked spicule ; one prong much larger than

the other two, which are equal.

. 7, The same, form of anchor-headed spicule of the body.

Fig. 8. The same, form of anchor-headed spicule of the tufts at the base.

N.B. All these are adult forms, drawn to the scale of 1-24th

to 1-1800th of an inch.

Fig. 9. The same, real average length of largest acerate spicule.

Fig. 10. The same, real length of longest portion of shaft, to which the

anchor-head remained attached.

PLATE XXI.

Fig. 1. Rossella antarctica, nov. gen.; large cruciform peripheral spicule,

showing :—aaaa, the four arms, covered respectively with a

layer of large and small (macro- and micro-) spines; }, con-

tinuation of adjoining arm ; c, shaft or vertical arm, covered with

a layer of microspines only; d, continuation of same, to show

form of free extremity. Scale.1-48th to 1-1800th of an inch.

N.B. In this figure the arms are truncated, to meet the size of

the plate, and drawn straight instead of sigmoid, for con-

venience. See the natural form in figs. 5 & 6.

Fig. 2. The same, lateral view, to show the position of the arms relatively

to that of the shaft. All truncated to make the figure smaller.

434

Fig. 8.

Fig. 4.

Fig. 5.

Fig. 6.

Fig. 7.

Fig. 8.

Fig. 9.

Mr. H. J. Carter on new Sponges.

The same, central portion, drawn to a larger scale, viz. 1-24th to

1-1800th of an inch, to compare with the fossil one, fig. 37. pl. 9,

vol. vii. p. 126, Annals, 1871: a, shaft or vertical arm ; 66 6b, ho-

rizontal arms; c, central canal; d, subsequent layer added to

the original shaft.

The same, portion of a horizontal arm much more magnified,

showing the original shaft, the spiniferous layer, and the rela-

tive size of the macro- and microspines: a, original shaft ; b, ad-

ditional or spiniferous layer ; c, macrospines; d, microspines.

The same, lateral view, nat. size.

The same, to show sigmoid curve of horizontal arms and straight

shaft, nat. size.

The same, podal (?) spicule, showing portion of shaft and anchor-

or, rather, grapnel-head, consisting of four recurved arms.

The same, hexactinellid form, in which the shaft is continued on

into a fifth arm (qa) or straight spike.

The same, hexactinellid form, where one of the recurved arms (@)

is Petanens after the manner and length of a shaft. Abnormal

form !

N.B. These three figures are all drawn to the scale of 1-48th

to 1-1800 of an inch.

Fig. 10. The same, longest portion of shaft found with anchor-head at-

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 3.

Fig. 4.

Fig. 5.

Fig. 6.

Fig. 7.

Fig. 8.

tached, nat. size.

PLate XXII.

Tethya zetlandica, n.sp., attached to the stem of Halichondria

ventilabrum, Johnston, nat. size: a, papilla, small and closely

approximated ; 6, stem of H. ventilabrum.

The same, nat. size, half the specimen : a, papille, here large and

separate.

The same, anchor-headed spicule of the base of fig. 1, to show,

a, the continuation forwards of the central canal towards the

point. Scale 1-24th to 1-G000th of an inch.

The same, fully-developed young one, nat. size, viz, 1-16th of an

inch in diameter.

The same, magnified about 16 diameters, showing :—a, areolated

sarcode ; b, spicules, chiefly one-armed anchor-headed, of the

form given in fig. 16, d.

N.B. This must be viewed merely as a diagram. It would be

almost impossible to give a facsimile of this beautiful object

with all its detail on this scale.

The same, earlier stage: a, defined margin of. the ovule; 8, gra-

nular plasma; ¢, spicules, now few and all acerate or without

ner showing that the acerate is the fundamental form of the

spicule.

PNB. The same remark applies to this figure: it must be

regarded as a diagram. To have introduced a shade for the

‘“‘oranular plasma” would have confused the whole.

The same, still earlier stage of the ovule, viz. while it is imbedded

in the sarcode, now about 1-400th of an inch in diameter:

a, cell-wall; 6, nuclear cavity (?); c, nucleated cellules ; d, nu-

cleated cellule, more magnified, showing contained granules.

Halichondria simulans, Johnston ; two sponge-animalcules in

zygosis?: aa, bodies of sponge-animaleules respectively ; 6,

their necks or rostra in conjugation,

Mr. H. J. Carter on new Sponges. 435

Fig. 9. Tethya cranium, Johnston, attached to the stem of Halichondria

Fig. 10.

Fig. 11.

Fig. 12.

Fig. 13.

Fig. 14.

ventilabrum, Johnston, nat. size: a, group of vents at the apex ;

bb, lines indicating the disposition of the projecting spicules of

the surface winding round the summit, like the crown of the

human head; c, form of bihamate spicules with which the

sarcode is charged; d, stem of H. ventilabrum; ee, part of cup

of same.

The same, fully developed young one, nat. size, viz. 1-24th of an

inch in diameter.

The same, magnified about 16 diameters, showing :—a, areolated

sarcode; 6, spicules, chiefly one-armed anchor-headed, disposed.

in a whorl; c, extension of anchor-headed spicules beyond the

periphery of the young Tethya; d, minute bihamates.

.B. The same remarks apply to this and the following figure

as to figs. 5 & 6. Note the disposition of the spicules in a whorl,

and the presence of the bihamates as distinguishing this species

from T. zetlandica.

The same, earlier stage: a, defined margin of ovule; 6, granular

plasma ; ¢, spicules, few in number, and all acerate or without

heads, already disposed in a whorl; d, bihamate spicules.

Tethya zetlandica, vertical section of fig. 2, about two-thirds of

nat. size: a, nucleus; 656, bundles of spicules radiating from

the centre of the nucleus to the circumference of the Tethya,

where they end in the papillary projections of the surface; |

eec, sarcode filling up the intervals between the bundles of

spicules, charged with the ovules, fig.7; ddd, young Tethye

(magnified in figs. 5 & 6) in dilated cavities of the sarcode con-

nected with the excretory canal-system, fig. 14; ee, condensed

layer of sarcode forming the cortical layer of the Tethya; ff, pa-

illary prolongations of the same extended up upon the project-

ing ends of the spicule-bundles.

N.B. All parts of this figure are of their natural size.

The same, diagram of dilated cavity of sarcode connected with

excretory canals, showing pendent position and forms respec-

tively of the young Tethye, figs. 5&6; also openings of the

excretory canals: aa, fig.5; 664, fig.6; ccc, openings of ex-

cretory canals.

. The same, three young Tethye attached to one pedicle.

. The same, four figures showing the development of the one-

armed anchor-headed spicule, viz. :—a, simple shaft; b, the same

with end inflated; c, showing the budding of the “one arm;”

d, the arm fully formed; and e, the bud of a second arm.

Scale 1-24th to 1-6000th of an inch.

. The same, other spicules of the fully developed young Tethya,

fig. 5: a, one-armed forked spicule analogous to the one-armed

anchor; ¢, two-armed forked spicule; 6, three-armed forked

spicule; d, three-armed anchor-headed spicule; e, acerate

spicule.

Of course, the ends of all these spicules, which are not repre-

sented, are single-pointed.

Budleigh-Salterton, Devon.

25th March, 1872.

436 Dr. J. Hector on the New-Zealand Bottlenose.

XLV.—On the New-Zealand Bottlenose (Lagenorhynchus

clanculus, Gray). By Dr. JAmes Hecror, F.R.S.

SEVERAL lower jaws, a skull, and one complete skeleton of a

Bottlenose Dolphin referable to this species are in the Colonial

Museum, the skeleton having been described by me in the

‘Transactions of the New-Zealand Institute,’ vol. 11. p. 27.

It was not till December last, however, that | had an op-

portunity of examining this dolphin in the flesh, although it

appears to be common in Cook’s Straits, at least during the

summer months; and as the species appears only to have

been founded on a skull obtained in the Pacific Ocean, and

now in the British Museum, the notes I made may have some

interest.

The specimen I have to describe was shot from the deck of

the Colonial Government 8.8. ‘Luna,’ at Cape Campbell.

The vessel was at anchor under shelter of the Cape during an

official inspection of the lighthouse; and a large schul of

these “‘ porpoises,” as they are commonly called, kept tempt-

ing fate till two were shot. Only one was secured; and the

preparation of the skeleton has lett no doubt that, although a

smaller individual, it belongs to the same species as the one

already in the Museum.

The colouring, which, as far as I have been able to judge

by casual inspection, is very uniform in all the individuals,

has very marked characters. The nose and forehead are pure

white, bounded by a black crescent behind the blow-hole,

sharply defined in front, but shading off behind to light

grey, which is the uniform colour of the upper surface of the

body. The fins are all blacker than the trunk; and there

is also pure black round the blow-hole, cloaca, and vent.

The white of the snout extends behind the eye; but the

dusky colour extends forward beneath the angle of the mouth.

The inferior surface for about one third of the girth is white

as far back as the vent, but crowned by an oblique V-shaped

isthmus of dark grey beneath the pectorals. The white band

is also continued behind by two lateral stripes that ascend on

Dr. J. Hector on the New-Zealand Bottlenose. 437

the flanks, but does not extend far beyond the vertical over

the vent.

Form. Head convex; snout conical; lower jaw longest.

Body fusiform; greatest height one fifth the total length.

Pectoral extremity narrow, falcate, equal in length to base of

dorsal; dorsal low, rounded, commences at middle of the

back and over the umbilicus. No second fin-like ridge near

the tail. ‘Tail-lobes narrow, falcate, each one third longer

than the pectoral.

Total length 51 inches; girth 32 inches; weight 78 lbs.

inches.

Snout to anterior margin of pectoral ........ 12

S MneLe OLAMOUON: Vor idscs-6 aoe ree ee 6

iP blow=holed: Gates eR rrs Oe 8

ss commencement of dorsal............ 24

5 OGM PVICUH A als dist tea ee eae ares 24

vy METI G os Sof Bea yer i cRsas at Figen eee ae 36

Hengtinor pasetot dorsal (sc cen etn et ces 8

Spread! or calle ARS eee ears oF ies eh Cn 15

Length of anterior margin of tail-flipper...... 12

This species thus differs in external characters from the

enus Lagenorhynchus as described in Dr. Gray’s ‘ Catalogue

of Seals and Whales,’ p. 267, in the forward position of the

dorsal and the absence of a second fin-lobe on the back.

The dentition of the specimen in the Museum is as follows,

and shows that this character is a reliable one for the distinc-

tion of species :—

Length of lower jaw. Teeth.

inches.

1. Complete skeleton ...... Ee Sie = ‘

31 31

eee Bete Ey Bihs OMe sactaet pe

4, Lower jaw only ........ TDi hleeos ae

5 ” gat PA Ml lkwis es stele s ND eres 31 s 31°

6 “5 Py Rea e ahs Weed aT ae

In every case the three or four front teeth are feeble and

irregularly developed, being difficult to observe, the variation

in the numbers observed depending on the condition of this

part of the jaw. The other teeth are cylindrical and acutely

incurved, the middle ones being the best-developed.

438 Dr. A. Giinther on two new Fishes from Celebes.

There is also in the museum a skull prepared from a speci-

men cast ashore in Porirua Harbour, in December 1870, which

appears to agree with Delphinus nove-zealandie, Gray. The

characters of the animal were not obtained; but those of the

skull are as follows :—

inches.

Total inethy \) aathe els. «ss, sedstireeee am 20°5

Bae goa cee optorcyiee eA Sas doko» Vevey o/s toys a pet gab 11°5

SGOALESGEWAGED. 6. ccepe gies 6 co csse ese Sheng ere 9:0

WHCGHGAG OECD nt cree sf alors sain Sate cele ee ae 4:5

Sp REC TOL UES ASE he. civ ns tee aca ea 8:0

», of intermaxillaries at blow-hole ...... 3-4

», of intermaxillaries at middle of beak .. 1:3

Width of foramen magnum .... sisilcssfd.. 15

32) OLLCONNYIOS: Yeiniiitie nt sieel aay tee 3°8

Has a marked occipital crest and transverse ridge. Also

a smaller specimen with beak imperfect, the width at notch

being 3°7. Teeth small, irregular in shape, pointed, 2 - 3-

Another recent addition is an imperfect skull of much larger

dimensions than the foregoing, the width being 14 inches and

the height of the occiput 9 inches. At the same time the

bones of the cranial arch are thin, convex, and without pro-

minent crests. It was picked up on the beach outside the

harbour of Wellington. The beak with the teeth are wanting ;

so that the group to which the skull belongs cannot be stated,

but it is probably allied to Beluga.

Colonial Museum, Wellington, N.Z.

Feb. 19, 1872.

XLVI.—Notice of two new Fishes from Celebes.

By Dr. ALBERT GUNTHER.

SyMPHORUS.

Allied to Dentex, but with the preoperculum finely serrated.

Form of the body oblong, compressed; eye moderate; cleft of

the mouth of moderate width, rather oblique, with the jaws

nearly equal. One continuous dorsal fin, with the numbers

arg; anal=. Caudal fin emarginate. Canine teeth in both

jaws. Preorbital entire, broad, the distance between the eye

and angle of the mouth being great; preeoperculum finely

serrated, with more than three series of scales. Seven

branchiostegals. Scales of moderate size, ctenoid. Pseudo-

branchie well developed.

Celebes.

Dr. A. Giinther on two new Fishes from Celebes. 439

Symphorus teniolatus.

D.y <A.j L. lat. 55. LL. transv. 9/20.

The height of the body is a little more than the length of

the head, and one third of the total (without caudal). Eye

situated immediately below the upper profile of the head,

rather nearer to the extremity of the snout than to the end of

the operculum, one fifth of the length of the head. The

maxillary extends somewhat beyond the vertical from the

front margin of the eye. The width of the interorbital space

is not much more than the diameter of the eye. Scales on the

cheek small, forming about ten series. Dorsal spines rather

feeble and short, the third to ninth not much differing in

length, about one fourth of the length of the head; the tenth

is conspicuously longer, and attached to the first ray. The

soft dorsal fin elevated, the third to sixth rays being produced

into long filaments. Anal spines feeble, the third nearly

thrice as long as the second; anal rays long, especially the

third, which is produced into a filament. Caudal fin emar-

ginate. Pectoral reaching to the vent, the fifth upper ray

being the longest. Ventrals not produced into filaments.

Olive, fins with a reddish tinge. Body with seven narrow,

slightly oblique and undulating, bluish bands, edged with

darker ; a narrower parallel stripe of the same colour between

every pair of the bands. The bands and stripes are continued

along the side of the head, but more irregular and broken up

in their course. The interradial membrane of the soft vertical

fins with round violet spots as large as the pupil of the eye.

One example, 12 inches long, was found by Dr. A. B. Meyer

at Macassar.

Batrachus grunniens.

It is worthy of remark that in two specimens from Celebes

the vomerine and anterior palatine teeth are not uniserial, but

form rather a narrow band.

Mugil Meyert.

Very similar to Mugil nepalensis.

D.4]5. A.3. L.lat. 27. LL. transv. 11.

The height of the body is contained five times in the total

length, the length of the head five times and a half; the latter

equals the length of the caudal fin. An adipose membrane

covers a portion of the iris anteriorly and posteriorly. The

upper profile, from the dorsal to forehead, is nearly straight.

440 Prof. W. H. Flower on a Subfossil Whale

The interorbital space is flat, and its width is two fifths or

one third of the length of the head. ‘The upper lip is mode-

rately thick, and forms the front margin of the snout. The

anterior margins of the two mandibular bones form an ob-

tuse angle; and the cleft of the mouth is very much broader

than deep. The preorbital is angularly bent, and has its

extremity truncated and distinctly denticulated. The extre-

mity of the maxillary is conspicuous behind and below the

mouth. There are nineteen series of scales between the

spinous dorsal and the snout. ‘The pectoral extends to the

seventh scale of the lateral line, and is as long as the head,

the length of the snout not included; it has no elongate scale

in its axil. The anterior dorsal commences above the ninth

scale of the lateral line, midway between the snout and the

base of the caudal fin; its anterior spines are stout, the first

the longest, two thirds of the length of the head; there is an

elongate pointed scale at its base. The soft dorsal and the

anal are enveloped in scales, and lower than the spinous

dorsal; the former commences above the eighteenth scale, or

above the middle of the anal fin. Caudal distinctly emar-

ginate.

Two specimens, 74 inches long, were sent by Dr. Meyer

from Macassar.

XLVIIL—On a Subfossil Whale (Eschrichtius robustus) dis-

covered in Cornwall. By Witi1AM Henry FLower,

F.R.S.

In the Museum of the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall

at Penzance are preserved some bones of a whale, which were

discovered more than forty years ago at Pentuan, in the parish

of St. Austell. The circumstances under which they were

found are of considerable geological interest, and are fully

described in a paper communicated to the Society by the late

Mr. J. W. Colenso, entitled ‘‘ A Description of Happy Union

Tin Stream-Work at Pentuan” (read October 1829), and

published in the fourth volume of the Society’s Transactions.

It appears that they were found about half a mile from the

present sea-shore, and at a depth of rather more than twenty

feet from the surface, imbedded in a stratum of sea-sand,

above which was a bed of rough river-sand and gravel, and

which overlay a remarkable deposit of sand containing timber

trees (chiefly oaks), remains of various land-animals, red deer,

oxen and boar, human skulls, and, at a still lower level, stumps

of trees in sttu, moss, leaves, hazel-nuts, &c. Beneath these

discovered in Cornwall, 441

was the tin-ground, on account of which the excavations

were made, lying on hard rock composed of blue killas, at a

depth altogether of about 60 feet from the surface, the greater

part of which is below the present sea-level. These conditions

appear to indicate that at one period the spot was occupied by

dry land, and was the site of a forest—that it subsequently

became submerged to a considerable depth below the sea,

at which period the whale would be stranded—and that it

has since been restored to the land, either by elevation or by

accumulation of sand driven up by the sea, together with

gravel washed down from the neighbouring hills. As to the

date of the whale’s stranding, I will not venture to offer a

conjecture; but the evidence is conclusive as to its having

been subsequent to the occupation of the country by man and

recent animals, as the red deer.

The bones mentioned by Mr. Colenso are all now in the

museum at Penzance, and are (1) the right ramus of the

mandible or lower jaw, (2) a lumbar vertebra, (3) a humerus,

(4) a radius, (5 & 6) two metacarpals. There is every reason

to suppose that they have belonged to the same individual,

and to an animal which had probably attained its full size,

though the disk-like terminal epiphyses of the vertebra had

not yet coalesced with the body. At the time of their dis-

covery, they were rightly identified as having belonged to “a

large whale ;” but they have never been fully described, nor

has the species to which they belong been ascertained. During

a recent visit to Penzance, I had the opportunity, through the

kindness of the officers of the Society, of making an examina-

tion of them; and I propose to present the results in a com-

plete form to the next meeting of the Society, that the full

description of the bones may appear in the same series of

publications which contains the account of the geological fea-

tures of the spot in which they were found; but in the mean

time I think it desirdble that an abstract of these results

should be placed on record.

It is perfectly evident that these bones belong to no species

of whale known to inhabit the British seas; indeed the pecu-

liar form of the mandible and the relative proportions of the

different bones to each other exclude not only all these, but all

_known existing whales. On turning to the published descrip-

tions of skeletons of whales supposed to be extinct, it was

with much interest that I was able to identify them with those

of a specimen found under remarkable and somewhat similar

circumstances in the Swedish island of Griisé, in the Baltic.

In this case, fortunately, the skeleton was far more complete

than in the Pentuan specimen ; and as all the bones have been

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. ix. 30

442 Dr. J. E. Gray on the Classification of Sponges.

excellently described and figured by Professor Lilljeborg, of

Upsala*, there is no difficulty in making a satisfactory com-

parison. ‘This specimen was first named by Lilljeborg Bale-

noptera robusta; but it constitutes the type of the genus

Eschrichtius of Gray—a designation which has been adopted

by its discoverer in his subsequent and more detailed deserip-

tion above referred to. It was found in a field, imbedded

partly in sand and partly in clay, at a depth of from 2 to

4 feet from the surface, 10 or 15 feet above the present sea-level,

and 840 feet from the shore, in conjunction with shells of Mytilus

edulis and Tellina balthica of precisely the same appearance as

those now met with in the Baltic—indicating a period when the

general physical features of the sea were as at present, though

anterior to the elevation of the island to its present level.

In size the Cornish specimen was slightly inferior to the

Swedish, the length of the mandible of the one being 7 feet

6 inches, of the other 7 feet 114 inches (English); the remaining

bones bear a corresponding proportion. ‘The entire length of

the Swedish skeleton was estimated at between 45 and 50 feet.

A single cervical vertebra, in a mutilated condition, cast

ashore in Babbicombe Bay, Devonshire, in 1861, has been

referred by Dr. Grayt to the same species; and Mr. Cope

considers that a jaw-bone preserved at Rutger’s College, New

Brunswick, N.J., may belong to itt.

These are the only known instances of the occurrence of

this whale, which, if extinct, must have become so at a com-

paratively recent period. Its systematic position is of much

interest, as it certainly cannot be placed in either of the three

principal genera into which the existing whalebone-whales

arrange themselves, viz. Balena, Megaptera, and Balenoptera,

but is in some respects an annectent form, though with certain

peculiarities of its own.

XLVIII.—Notes on the Classification of the Sponges.

By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &e.

IN the ‘ Proceedings of the Zoological Society’ for May 9, 1867,

I published some notes on the arrangement of sponges, and

descriptions of some new genera—in which I divided the genera

into sections, orders, and families. ;

In the present paper I propose to make an alteration in the

* “On two Subfossil Whales discovered in Sweden,’ Nova Acta of

the Royal Society of Sciences at Upsala, ser. 3. vol. vi. 1867; also Recent

Memoirs on Cetacea (Ray Society), 1866, p. 278.

t Catalogue of Seals and Whales in the British Museum, 1866, p. 133.

{ Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philadelphia, 1868, p. 194.

Dr. J. E. Gray on the Classification of Sponges. 443

general arrangement of the families, which is the result of a

continued study of the sponges and of the various books and

essays that have been written upon them.

I have thought it well to propose this arrangement, leaving

the details of the genera for naturalists who are younger and

have better eyes than I have or am likely to have at my

advanced age.

In the ‘Annals and Magazine of Natural History’ for 1868,

vol. i. p. 165, I did propose a revision of the arrangement of the

families; but more experience in the study of these bodies has

induced me to suggest a further modification, retaining the

families suggested in the first paper, but abolishing the divi-

sion of Malacosporee and Chlamydospore (as it is nearly certain

that what Dr. Bowerbank calls spores or ova in Geodia have

nothing to do with generation), though retaining the section for

the freshwater sponges, which have ova of very different

structure from that found in marine sponges.

I believe the system I proposed in 1867 and 1868 may be

much simplified by leaving out some of the larger divisions,

though the groups separated by them are evidently natural.

Thus, for example, misled by the confidence I placed in Dr.

Bowerbank’s observations, I called the spherical mass of spi-

cules in G'eodia ovisacs, which he says become converted into

these balls; but my friend Mr. Carter states, in the ‘Annals

and Magazine of Natural History’ for 1869, vol. iv. p. 17,

that “on no occasion have I been able to discover any central

cavity in any stage of their development ;” and he calls them

“lobular crystalloids,” considermg them the same as the

large stellate bodies in Tethya, called by Dr. Bowerbank

“stellate spicules,” while he describes the seed-like bodies of

Spongilla as commencing in a simple spherical soft cell, look-

ing like a white speck imbedded in the sponge, and finally»

becoming coated with its horny and siliceous spicular cortical

coat.

This being the case, I propose to abandon the sections

Malacospore and Chlamydospore, and to retain the orders

Spherospongia and Potamospongia, only rendering their cha-

racters more consistent with our present knowledge of the

subject. This systematic distribution is considered only a first

attempt at arranging the genera of sponges in a systematic

order, according to an analytical method. It is doubtless very

incomplete, but it has the adv antage of being capable of any

extension that may be required; and I shall consider it a step

in advance if it allows naturalists to be able to say at once to

what group a majority of the sponges they examine will be-

long. I am aware that there do occur sponges which are

30*

444 Dr. J.E. Gray on the Classification of Sponges.

intermediate between the orders—as, for example, Mr. Carter

has described a Tethyoid sponge which has the defensive spi-

cules of the Hamispongia, and there are some sponges which it

is difficult to say if they belong to the Astrospongia or Sphero-

spongia; but such annectent or intermediate genera are found

in all methods of arranging animals and plants. Dr. Bower-

bank and Prof. Oscar Schmidt form genera for single species

or for small groups of species, and at the same time place

beside them genera of a most polymorphal character, contain-

ing an abundance of species, which would break up into natural

groups having characters quite as marked as those which

distinguish the limited genera which they admit. But all this

must be left to younger eyes.

Some sponges have the habit of collecting and imbedding

in their skeleton or sarcode spicules which are the remains of

other sponges that have died and decayed in the sand on the

sea-coast on which they live. Some species are so particular

that they select one or more special kinds of spicules for this

purpose; therefore it is necessary to determine with care the

real spicules that naturally belong to the organization of the

sponge and those that have been added to it.

It has been repeatedly stated that the external form of

sponges does not afford any character for their distinction, and

that they can only be distinguished by their microscopic

structure. It is quite true that the microscopic structure and

the form and arrangement of the spicules do afford most im-

portant characters for the distinction of the sponges, as they

do in all other natural and artificial bodies; but the external

character is quite as important, and the two together must be

studied before a natural method of classifying these animals can

be arrived at. This fallacy has arisen from the sponges having

of late been chiefly studied by microscopists: since they found

that the spicules form very pretty slides, of course they con-

sidered their method of study was the only one to be followed.

I think no one can look at an extensive collection of sponges

without being struck by the persistence of the forms which the

species assume, and how the species naturally fall into groups

according to their external form ; and it is curious to see that

the microscopists who write most strongly against any atten-

tion being paid to the external form, are themselves influenced

by it in the formation of their genera. It is very true that some

species are very polymorphous, as, for example, the Voluspa

polymorpha ot Miklucho-Maclay, from the North Pacific

Ocean; but there are polymorphous species of Algee and zoo-

phytes, and yet the general forms of these animals and plants

are used in their arrangement, and the polymorphism, as in this

Dr. J. E. Gray on the Classification of Sponges. 445

case, is the exception and not the rule; if the example cited

is confirmed by future research, then polymorphism will be

one of the characters of the group.

Amateur naturalists and microscopists often complain of the

brevity of the characters that I have given to the genera,

forgetting that it is only necessary to give a character which

separates it from the genera of the same family or section

of the family to which it is referred. To make this analytic,

the character often requires a considerable knowledge of the

subject and of the structure of the group, while almost any

body with a slight knowledge of the terms can easily make a

long description of a sponge, which will probably contain the

characters of the class, order, and family to which it belongs,

but very likely not contain the essential character of the special

sponge; or if it does contain it, it can only be discovered by

repeated reading of the description, and comparison of it with

equally prolix descriptions; so there can be no doubt of the

advantage of the analytic method and of the great improve-

ment that the Linnean system introduced. But to form them,

and, perhaps, properly use them, requires preliminary and

systematic study.

Ellis, in his ‘ Zoophytes,’ mentions the existence of glassy

spicules in sponges ; but, I believe, the first person who figured

them, and showed their structure in the different sponges, was

Jules César Savigny, who figured several Egyptian species

which had spicules, in the large and expensive work, published

by order of Napoleon, to illustrate the history and antiquities

of Egypt. Ido not think that Savigny ever published the

descriptions of his plates, the work being too large to be

finished, and Savigny having unfortunately become blind in

after life. It was one of the saddest of the many sad sights

I saw in Paris, when I visited the two great naturalists, viz.

Savigny and Lamarck, both stone-blindand suffering mostabject

poverty. I believe Savigny’s only means of support was the

small allowance he had from the Academy of Sciences; and

he had to wander to the meetings of that body, led by a boy,

that he might obtain the larger allowance given each time that

he made his appearance in person. The last decade of La-

marck’s life was even still more sad and tragic; but I believe

that I have already recorded the greater part of this in another

place. Indeed the end of the purely scientific man in France,

uninfluenced by any thing but the love of nature, is most

distressing. Fortunately I have never known men even

with far lower scientific pretensions in such distress in this

country. As soon as it was known that Ralfs was in diffi-

culties, his wants were most amply provided for by public

446 Dr. J. E. Gray on the Classification of Sponges.

subscription among scientific men ; and I could refer to several

cases where such were hardly known before they received

similar sympathy, whatever might have been the cause of

their distress respectively.

Section A. THALASSOSPONGTA. (Marine Sponges.)

Sponge marine, brown, red, or purple. Ova membranous,

unarmed.

Subsection 1. Lxrospovera, Gray, P. Z. 8. 1867.

Sponge horny, without any spicules, or, when spicules are

present, they are of the most simple kind, being either fusi-

form, needle-shaped, or pin-shaped, often varying in size in

the same species, and sometimes strengthened with sand and

other extraneous bodies.

Order I. KERATOSPONGIA.

Sponge consisting of horny fibres, often anastomosing and

more or less elastic; sometimes purely horny, at others

strengthened with grains of sand, broken spicules, or siliceous

spicules, either enclosed in the centre of the fibres or scattered

on the surface. The thickness and solidity of the horny coat

vary in different families; sometimes it is very thick and

hard, and at others it scarcely covers the spicules with a very

thin coat.

A. The skeleton of the sponge horny or only strengthened by

grains of sand or foreign spicules borrowed from the sand.

Fam. 1. Spongiade, Gray, P. Z. S. 1867, p. 508.

Skeleton formed of reticulated horny fibres.

a. The fibres of the skeleton homogeneous. Spongia, Spon-

gionella, Cacospongia, Phyllospongia (Khlers).

b. The fibres of the skeleton surrounded by a soft cortical

substance. Aplysina.

c. The fibres with a central tube. Verongia, Ianthella (Gray).

Fam. 2. Ceratellade, Gray, P. Z.S. 1868, p. 575.

Sponge iregularly dichotomously branched; stem hard,

solid, dilated at the base, with abundance of very minute,.

cylindrical, tortuous tubes ; branches and branchlets tapering,

formed of very tortuous cylindrical fibres forming loops, which

produce a spicular surface.

Ceratella and Dehitella, Gray, P.Z.S. 1868, p. 579, figs. 1,2.

Auliskia appears to be a sponge-fibre on which a horny

Dr. J. E. Gray on the Classification of Sponges. 447

zoophyte has grown. Dr. O. Schmidt says it is a parasitic

Alga, but I know no Alga of a horny texture!

Fam. 3. Hirciniade, Gray, P. Z. 8. 1867, p. 510.

Skeleton formed of two kinds of horny fibres :—the one

thick, and with a central line of broken spicules or grains of

sand within, reticulated, forming the base of the skeleton; the

other very slender, forming radiating spicular tufts, which do

not anastomose.

Hircinia, Sarcotragus, Stematumenia.

Fam. 4. Dysideide, Gray, P. Z. 5S. 1867, p. 511.

Skeleton formed of reticulated horny fibres, with sand or

broken spicules of other sponges imbedded in the centre, and

covered with a more or less thick coat of horny matter; brittle

when dry.

Dysidea.

B. Skeleton formed of anatomosing filaments having one or

more serves of spicules in the central line.

Fam. 5. Chalinide, /. c. pp. 503 & 511.

Fam. 6. Phakelliade, /. c. pp. 503 & 516.

Fam. 7. Halichondriade, /. c. pp. 503 & 518.

Fam. 8. Polymastiade, /. c. pp. 503 & 527.

Add :—Quasillina (brevis), Bowerbank. Very like Huplec-

tella, but without hexaradiate and other spines.

C. Skeleton formed of anastomosing filaments or expanded fin-

like lobes covered with diverging spicules on the outer

surface.

Fam. 9. Ophistospongiada, /. c. pp. 503 & 514.

* Spicules smooth. Ophistospongia.

. ** Spicules verticillately spimed. LHctyon.

Order IT. SUBERISPONGIA.

Skeleton massive, composed of sarcode densely charged

with simple or pin-like spicules; without branched excretory

system, which is replaced for the most part by areolar cavities

inosculating and finally terminating in vents on the surface.

Fam. 1. Suberitide.

Suberita, Spiculina.

Fam. 2. Raphiophoride.

Raphiophora, l.c. p.524; Raphyrus, lc. p.516; Osculina,

448 Dr. J.E. Gray on the Classification of Sponges.

but the figure appears much embellished, and the papillee are

the excurrent canals.

Fam. 3. Clioniade, J. c. pp. 504 & 524.

Generally living in shells or rocks.

Ciocalypta probably belongs to this order, but is quite un-

known to me.

Order II]. ARENOSPONGIA.

Skeleton consisting of agglutinations of grains of sand,

forming a subcireular disk, with spicules on the circumference

and at the mouth of the oscules.

Fam. 1. Xenospongiade, /. c. pp. 504 & 547.

Sponge consisting of a subcircular disk of agglutinated

siliceous spicules and sand, with a series of diverging filiform

spicules on the circumference and around the oscules.

Halichondria patera, from Mr. Barlee, in the British Mu-

seum, and the type of Halicnemia patera, Bowerbank, seems

to be allied to Xenospongia (1868).

Subsection 2. AcawrHosPoner.

Sponge armed with peculiar-shaped spicules, as well as the

usual formed ones found in the other sections. Often several

kinds in the same sponge.

Order IV. HAMISPONGIA.

Sponge horny or fleshy, strengthened with fusiform or

needle-like spicules, interspersed with anchorate or bihamate

spicules.

Hsperiade, Gray, P. Z. 8. 1867, pp. 504 & 531.

Desmacidon, O. Schmidt, Spong. Faun. ‘

The fusiform spicules are generally imbedded in more or

less abundant horny matter ; but in some this horny matter is

so small that the spicules appear to form fascicles in the

sarcode.

Fam. 1. Esperiade.

Anchorate spicules with a large and a small or rudimentary

fluke, attached to the keratose skeleton ; bihamate and poly-

hamate spicules are often immersed in the sarcode.

Hsperiade, sect. 1 & 2, P. Z. 8. 1867, p. 532.

Esperia, Mycale, dfgogropila, Menyllus, Alebion, Lophon,

Carmia, Grapelia.

Dr. J. E. Gray on the Classification of Sponges. 449

Fam. 2. Desmacidonide.

Retentive spicules with a similar well-defined expanded

unilateral fluke at each end (equibianchorate), free in the

sarcode, which also contains simple or bihamate spicules.

Esperiade, sect. 8, Gray, /. c. pp. 532 & 534.

The flukes of the bianchorate spicules are of very different

shapes, as described in the paper above referred to; and the

sponges are of very different forms, sometimes probably con-

taining more than one family.

a. Ends of spicules divided into two or three spines. Jso-

dictya, Emplocus, Anchinoé, Microciona, Dendoryx, Pronazx,

Euthymus, Desmacidon, Hamigera, Hymedesmia, Tereus, Ho-

meodictya, Ehlers.

b. End of spicules concave, with a single central apical

tubercle. Corybas.

c. End of spicules cup-shaped. Ingallia.

d. Spicule oblong, boat-shaped, concave on the sides. Na-

viculina.

Fam. 3. Hamacanthide.

Retentive spicules with a definite compressed sharp-edged

fluke at each end, free in the sareode. Sponge thin, coating.

Esperiade, sect. 4, Gray, /.c. pp. 532 & 538.

Hamacantha = Desmacella.

Fam. 4. Gelliade.

Defensive spicules simple or contorted, without any bi-

anchorate spicules intermixed, free in the sarcode.

Esperiade, sect. 5, Gray, l. c. pp. 532 & 538.

a. Defensive spicules filiform. Gedlius, Biemna, Asychis,

Oceanopia (Norman).

b. Defensive spicules clavate at the end. Dymnus (Damo).

Order V. CORALLIOSPONGIA.

Skeleton with hexaradiate spicules covering the surface or

imbedded in the sarcode, and very often simple or forked tri-

curvate spicules imbedded in the sarcode. The sarcode of this

family is very fluid or very slight, and scarcely visible in the

dried sponge.

The hexaradiate stellate spicules, which are the essential

character of this order in the perfect state of development,

consist of an elongate needle-shaped spicule, which has four

diverging rays springing from about the centre of its length.

450 Dr.J. E. Gray on the Classification of Sponges.

The primary spicules and rays are generally smooth and

tapering to a point; but one or both ends of the primary spi-

cule, and sometimes of the rays, are armed with spines which

are recurved from the centre; sometimes these spines are so

numerous and crowded that they imbricate one over the other.

Very commonly when the transverse rays of the spicule form

the outer surface of the sponge, or are attached to the internal

skeleton of the sponge, one end of the central axis is re-

duced to a small tubercle in the centre of the rays. Some-

times one or even all of the lateral rays may be very small

and so abortive as to be only represented by a small tubercle

or swelling in the needle-shaped primary spicule; but when

this is the case, there is always to be observed a tube crossing

the central tube of the primary ray where the diverging rays

would have been situated. ‘he variations of the spicules are

well figured in Schultze’s work on Hyalonema, tab. il. & iv.

The sponges of the genus Awos have the primary spicules

and rays very short, and of equal thickness and length; they

look like seven cubes, one of which is placed on each side of

the central one.

The study of the variation which one kind of spicule may

undergo, even in a single species, is most important ; and it is

to be regretted that Dr. Bowerbank, in his paper on the orga-

nization of sponges, has not paid more attention to this part

of the subject, rather than giving his long and composite

names to all the varieties of spicules that had occurred to him.

This is a subject that must be studied in detail before we can

hope to understand the organization of the sponges.

Sect. 1. The hexaradiate spicules on the outer surface of the

sponge.

Fam. 1. Pteronemade.

Sponge oblong; outer surface formed of hexaradiate spicules;

lower surface with elongate filiform spicules ending in three

recurved lobes.

a. Anchoring filaments arising in a circle of tufts around

the base of the sponge. Pteronema, Leidy, Kent, - Microsc.

Journ. 1870, = Holtenia, Thompson, P. Z. 8. 1869, p. 32.

b. Anchoring spicules arising from all parts of the sponge.

Caliptera = Pheronema Grayi, Kent, Microsc. Journ. 1870.

Vasella = Holtenia, Smit.

Fam. 2. Lanuginellide.

Sponge cup-shaped, attached ; surface of the sponge formed

of abundant irregularly placed hexaradiate spicules, with very

Dr. J. E. Gray on the Classification of Sponges. 451

long subulate ends, and with scattered iad of very long

radiating spicules with dilated ends.

Lanuginella, Kent, Microsc. Journ. 1870, tab. Ixv.

Sect. 2. Hexaradiate spines in the ail 9

A. Sponge free, attached to the mud by numerous elongated

jilamentous spicules surrounding its base and having

small recurved spines at the end. Skeleton formed of

elongated cylindrical spicules more or less united by sili-

ceous secretion.

Fam. 3. Euplectellade.

Sponge tubular, free, formed of bundles of elongated thread-

like spicules placed in horizontal transverse and oblique direc-

tions, often crossing each other, forming more or less irregular

network, and often closed at the top by a netted lid formed

of shorter spicules; the base with elongated free spicules

terminating in three or four short spines, by which it is fixed

to the mud. The sarcode mucilaginous, studded with dif-

ferently shaped spines, some of which are many-rayed, stellate,

with clavate arms.

EKuplectellade, sect. A, Gray, P. Z. S. 1867, p. 528.

Euplectella.

Fam. 4. Hyalothaumade.

Sponge elongate, free, wider above, with anchoring fibres at

the base. The filiform spicules united into bundles, which

anastomose freely with each other, forming a solid framework.

Hyalothauma, Herklots and Marshall ; ? Semperella, Gray,

Ann. & Mag. N. H. 1868, xi. p. 373; Eureta, Semper.

B. Sponge fixed ; spicules united together by siliceous matter,

forming a netted mass covered with sarcode, in which

are scattered other differently shaped spicules. Spicules

of skeleton forming a coral-like mass.

CORALLIOSPONGIA, Gray, P. Z. S. 1867, p. 505; Ann. &

Mag. Nat. Hist. 1868, i. p. 165.

These sponges are hard and coral-like, the skeleton being

formed of siliceous spicules anchylosed together, forming a

hard siliceous mass, covered with sarcode. They contain a

number of very curiously shaped spicules, which are generally

free, of very different forms in the different genera: some

have regular spines with three-spined ends, like Tethya and

Geodia, which are sometimes bifid and forked at the end,

452 Dr. J. E. Gray on the Classification of Sponges.

and others are trifid. In other genera the spine is short, and

the lobe is slender and weak and forked at the end, which

gradually pass into spicules which have the lobes variously

divided into branches in a most unequal and irregular man-

ner, gradually passing into others which have an orbicular

horizontal disk at the end of the short spine instead of the

lobes or hooks.

This order presents the greatest abundance of spicules and

the most diversified forms of them. ‘The spicules that form

the greater part of the skeleton of these sponges are most fre-

quently united together by an extra development of siliceous

substance. Dr. Bowerbank has repeatedly denied that the

latter is a true explanation of their structure, and calls them

siliceo-fibrous sponges. Any one who will grind down any of

the siliceous network of these sponges, so as to expose

their internal substance, will see the perfect form of the spi-

cules, and the additional deposit of siliceous matter which

unites them together. This deposit is formed of thin concen-

tric coats, like the spicules. The same thing may be seen by

submitting a similar piece of the skeleton of the sponge to the

action of a spirit-lamp, when the different layers of the

cementing portion and spicules separate. This structure is

well shown in Prof. Claus’s beautiful work on Huplectella.

Dr. Bowerbank, in the ‘ Proceedings of the Zoological So-

ciety,’ 1869, pp. 66 & 323, has published “a Monograph” of

the “ Siliceo-fibrous Sponges,” illustrated with eight plates

by Lens Aldous. I have the utmost confidence that these

plates accurately represent the specimens in the slides placed

before the artist; but knowing how many of the specimens

so mounted were obtained and manipulated, I have great

doubt of the fragments figured belonging to or fairly repre-

senting the structure of the species they are said to illustrate ;

at least, I know that they are taken from very different parts

of the sponges. Thus what is figured as Myliusia Grayit

was a very minute fragment which was nipped off from the

upper margin of a minute sponge, about the size of a large

thimble ; and that which was described as Dactylocalyx Prattit

is from a specimen cut from the expanded root of the sponge.

Now it has never been proved that the structure of two such

different parts of a sponge is identical, and therefore that frag-

ments, taken from different parts, fairly represent the generic

or even specific character of a sponge. The specimen which is

described as the type of the genus Myliusia of Bowerbank, as

distinct from my genus of that name, is taken from a very

young and imperfectly developed sponge which, I believe,

belongs to a very large species. It is to my mind very doubtful

Dr. J. E. Gray on the Classification of Sponges. 453

if the microscopic structure of such a young specimen can be

taken to fairly represent the structure of the adult sponge ;

and I am more inclined to this opinion as the specimen, which

is very like it, but rather more developed, has, even according

to Dr. Bowerbank, a different structure, and the same structure

as the adult specimen which Dr. Bowerbank refers to another

genus. At any rate, it has to be proved that these coral-like

sponges do not change their structure from the very early and

thin paper-like state till they arrive at their usual thick coral-

like condition. Until this is proved, a genus founded on such

materials, I am afraid, must be placed in the same category as

a genus of sponges from the cocoon of the common leech, and

of that founded on the Foraminifera so common on the fronds

of Alge on the south coast of England. At least I think that

one must lose confidence in the system proposed in this paper

when one finds that a sponge which M. Valenciennes and

even Dr. Bowerbank himself formerly considered to be one

species, under the name of Jphiteon paniceum, is now divided

into two genera, viz. Dactylocalyx pumiceus and Iphiteon

panicea—that, of two sponges which I had regarded as be-

longing to the same species, having the type specimens before

me, both, like the former species, coming from the West Indies,

one is, according to Dr. Bowerbank, Dactylocalyx pumiceus,

and the other Zphiteon Ingalli. It is natural to conclude that

that cannot be a natural division, when it separates into dif-

ferent genera specimens which are so nearly allied that natu-

ralists who have had considerable experience in sponges have

regarded them as the same species, as I am still inclined to

regard them, even after Dr. Bowerbank’s prolix descriptions

and figures, as I think all the differences may be derived from

his having taken his fragments from different parts of the

sponge; and the unnatural character of the genus becomes

more apparent when we observe that in the genus Jphiteon

he places Myliusia and Aphrocallistes—genera which have

been adopted by Percival Wright, Oscar Schmidt, and others.

In the same manner the genus Dactylocalyx, though sepa-

rating species that have been regarded as the same, includes

in it my Macandrewia—sponges which at any rate have a very

different external appearance and general form.

In the West Indies there are, according to Dr. Bower-

bank :—

1. Dactylocalyx pumiceus, p.77; Iphiteon panicea, p. 324;

Iphiteon Ingalli, p. 331.

2. Iphiteon callocyathes; Myliusia Grayii; Dactylocalyx

polydiscus.

454. Dr. J. E. Gray on the Classification of Sponges.

From Madeira and the Azores :—

3. Dactylocalyx Macandrewti; Dactylocalyx Masoni; Dac-

tylocalyx Bowerbankti, p. 94; ? Dactylocalyx Prattit.

I believe, from the examination of the specimens, that all

these names belong to only three species, belonging to the

three genera Dactylocalyx, Myliusia, and Macandrewia, each

of which, unfortunately, has several synonyms.

It is to be observed, with one or two exceptions (and they

are mnore apparent than real), that all the species in this mono-

graph are founded on a single specimen—in other words, that

each specimen that has come under Dr. Bowerbank’s exami-

nation is regarded by him as a distinct species or genus.

This bemg the case in this beautiful family of sponges, which

have such distinctive external appearance and characters,

which are to be so easily observed, and which come from so

few localities, it leads one to inquire, is the way in which

Dr. Bowerbank examines sponges a good one for the deter-

mination of genera and species? And it leads one to look at

his ‘ History of British Sponges ;’ and there one observes the

same descriptions of species from the specimens collected in

the same locality or at the same time; and, judging by this

monograph, I think that it explains the reason why in that

work so many sponges are described as new species.

Tam glad to see that the Ray Society is about to publish

figures of the species of British sponges, which must increase

our knowledge of Spongiade; but these figures, being taken

from slides prepared for the microscope, instead of from the

actual examination of one specimen, will thus, unfortunately,

have all the uncertainty attached to them that belongs to the

figures of this monograph.

Dr. Oscar Schmidt, who stayed some time at St. Leonards,

in his just published ‘ Spongienfauna,’ observes that Dzplo-

demia vesicula “ appears to be a fragment or a young state of

a Chalina” (p. 77); and in speaking of Hymeniacidon Buck-

landi, he observes that Dr. Bowerbank, in the diagnosis of

this sponge, says, “‘ Tension-spicules tricurvate, few in num-

ber.” “'These siliceous bodies, belonging to Desmacidon,

have, without doubt, got into the preparation merely by acci-

dent’ (p. 76). Mr. Carter informs me that this is a mistake

on Dr. Schmidt’s part. The spicular composition of this

sponge is exactly as Dr. Bowerbank describes it. Schmidt

observes, under Desmacidon Jeffreysii (which he says is a

species of Esperia, and which Dr. Bowerbank now calls the

cloaca of a new genus, Oceanopia) :—“ The anchor-shaped

siliceous bodies have escaped Bowerbank’s notice in this spe-

Dr. J. E. Gray on the Classification of Sponges. 459

cies. I suspect that that has been the case frequently, espe-

cially in the species of Hymeniacidon, which, according to his

account, have knobbed spicules.” Dr. Bowerbank does not

mention them in the character of Oceanopia.

A friend observes :—‘ Indeed it is remarkable that one of

the most practical men of the day in the examination of

sponges, viz. Dr. O. Schmidt, has failed to identify the greater

part of the sponges described by Dr. Bowerbank in his

‘ British Spongiade,’ as may be seen by his attempt to syno-

nymize the latter in his ‘Atlantisch. Spongienfauna.’”’

Surely the having the name of “ Bowerbank”’ after each of

the species can have had no influence in causing him to

alter the generic names of the greater part of these sponges,

and to make species of what I regarded as varieties; but it

does look very suspicious to see the name of ‘ Bowerbank”’

at full length after all the species but one in this mono-

graph, placed there solely because he has changed the name.

The same occurrence of this name may be observed in the

work on British Sponges, where there are whole pages of

names with the word “ Bowerbank”’ at full length after each

species. Botanists have observed that the having “ mzhi” or

“ny. sp.”’ after a name has influenced the manufacture of many

nominal species; but that is not to be compared to the above

system.

On a former occasion I have stated that Dr. Bowerbank

assured me, in the presence of three other naturalists, in such

a decided manner that there could be no misunderstanding,

that the specimen of Macandrewia azorica that I described

and figured was certainly the type of his manuscript species

Dactylocalyx Prattit. In this work he describes Dactylocalyx

Prattii for the first time, and gives East Indies, without any

doubt, as the locality ; but he afterwards states that Mr, Pratt

“was not quite certain of his locality,” at which I am not

astonished, as my poor friend, for many of the latter years of

his life, had entirely lost his memory—even more so than Dr.

Bowerbank (for that is the excuse that his friends make for

many of his statements) ; but he afterwards says that he found

in the British Museum another specimen of the same sponge,

brought from Formosa by Mr. Swinhoe (a sponge which I had

called Theonella, P. Z.S. 1868, p. 565), and states that the

acquisition of “this specimen trom Formosa is in favour of

Mr. Pratt’s belief that the type one was really an Kast-Indian

specimen ;” and now he has described the Formosan specimen

as D. Prattii, Bowerbank.

I do not see the force of this argument. Does Dr. Bower-

bank think that Formosa in the Pacific Ocean is a part of

456 Dr.J.E. Gray on the Classification of Sponges.

India? or is he not aware that it belongs to a different

zoological region? I believe the specimen which Dr. Bower-

bank first named is a sponge which Mr. Pratt obtained in

Portugal, which he showed me along with the Hippurites

which he collected during that excursion, and that it is most

probably from Madeira or the Azores; and Dr. Bowerbank

was right when he said that Macandrewia azorica was the

type of his then D. Prattci. At any rate I should want much

better authority than the very brief examination that Dr.

Bowerbank bestowed on Mr. Swinhoe’s specimen and the

examination of the small piece which he cut away from its base,

to convince me that the Formosa sponge is the same as Mr.

Pratt’s specimen, which is the type of Bowerbank’s D. Prattit.

To obtain a clear view of the value of Dr. Bowerbank’s

very prolix and apparently minute descriptions, we have only

to read the descriptions of Jsodictya robusta and Desmacidon

Jeffreysia, which he now informs us are only fragments of

the same sponge which Mr. Norman has formed into a genus

under the name of Oceanopia. It is remarkable that the

sponges of the same or nearly the same locality, alike in ge-

neral form and appearance, should belong to different genera

and species. I think we may well say that the microscope

may be a most deceptive aid in the hands of a man with

strong predisposed opinions, who believes that he has nothing

to learn, and works from slides prepared at different times, by

different people, and, may be, from different species.

M. Bocage published a paper on new siliceous sponges of

Portugal, in the ‘Jornal des Sciencias Math., &c.’ (1869), in

which he has described some new genera, Discodermia &e.

Dr. Oscar Schmidt, in his ‘Spongien-Fauna,’ which has just

appeared, has noticed eighteen species of coral-sponges, di-

viding them into two families and ten genera; but, with the

assistance of the detailed figures which accompany the book,

and of microscopic slides containing parts of these sponges,

which Dr. Schmidt has been kind enough to furnish me with,

I have not been able to understand the characters of several

of the genera and species. Indeed these coral-like sponges

seem to have attracted much attention from many authors ;

but still, | may say, they appear to me to require a careful

re-examination and illustration.

Fam. 5. Macandrewiade.

Sponge massive or expanded, fixed, fan-shaped or cup-

shaped. Skeleton very irregularly reticulate, with roundish

openings.

Macandrewia, Theonella, Gray, P. Z. 8. 1868, p. 565.

Dr. J. E. Gray on the Classification of Sponges. 457

The small cup-shaped specimen figured in the Proc. Zool.

Soc. 1859, tab. 15, as I. azorica, has distinct conical vents

on the inner surface; two much larger, circular, very sinuous

specimens, also from the Azores, have only very minute vents

on the upper surface; and the large circular sinuous specimen

from Madeira, which is called M. Bowerbankii, has no visible

vents on either surface: so I believe them to be only varieties.

Mr. Carter observes, one should recollect that sponges often

grow from the roofs of caves and rocks, dependent from

above ; and what appears, when the specimen is in a museum,

to be the upper is in reality the lower surface, and the surface

next the root is in reality the upper one.

Fam. 6. Farreade.

Sponge expanded or tubular. Skeleton nearly regularly

reticulated, with four-sided openings.

Farrea, Kent, Microsc. Journ. 1870; Sympagella,O. Schmidt.

Fam. 7. Dactylocalycide.

Sponge massive or expanded or cup-shaped. Skeleton

more or less regularly reticulated, with angular openings di-

verging from the centre.

Dactylocalyx, Myliusia, Kaliapsis (Bowk.), Discodermia

(Bocage ?).

Fam. 8. Aphrocallistide.

Sponge tubular; tube closed with a netted lid or a rounded

end. Skeleton more or less regularly netted with angular

openings.

Aphrocallistes, see Kent, Microsc. Journ. 1870.

C. The sponge fixed, formed of fusiform spicules anchylosed

together by siliceous coats. Hexaradiate spines in the

sarcode.

Fam. 9. Corbitellide.

Sponge tubular, attached, without any anchoring filaments at

the base. The walls formed of irregular network or bundles of

siliceous needle-shaped spicules loosely arranged in sheaves

intersecting each other, and united by sarcode; spicules of

skeleton and sarcode hexaradiate, free from one another.

Euplectellade, sect. B, Gray, P. Z. S. 1867, p. 530.

Corbitella and Heterotella, Gray, 1. c.; Habrodictyon, W.

Thomson.

I formerly regarded this family as a peculiar section of

Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. ix, 31

458 Dr. J.E. Gray on the Classification of Sponges.

Euplectellade, as I had not the opportunity of examining the

sponges, and only knew them from having seen them in Paris

and by the photographs of Dr. Wyville Thomson.

Dr. W. Thomson has since described them as a genus,

observing, “as I am precluded from using either of Dr. Gray’s

names, I substitute Habrodictyon, which I had in MS. before

I saw Dr. Gray’s paper.” Why he is precluded is not stated.

When he sent me the photographs, with the permission to

describe and name them (see Proc. Zool. Soc. 1867, pp. 530,531),

he did not communicate any name to me, or I would gladly have

used his generic name; but I fear that now the question is out

of both our hands, and must follow the recognized rules of

nomenclature.

Fam. 10. Askonematide.

Sponge fixed, cup-shaped, formed of abundant elongate

spicules, with scattered hexaradiate spines often denticulated on

the edge of the rays; spicules with bifurcate ends repeatedly

forked, and spherical groups of elongate spicules, which are

capped at the end.

Askonema, Kent, Quart. Journ. Microsc. Science, 1870.

D. Sponge fixed, formed of fusiform spicules imbedded in

keratose matter. Hexaradiate spines in the sarcode.

Fam. 11. Carteriade.

Sponge cup-shaped, formed of abundant netted fibres con-

taining many fusiform spicules, with scattered six-rayed stel-

late spicules, ending in a circle of reflexed lobes; the rays are

often abortive, producing a cylindrical axis terminating at each

end in the reflexed lobe, and hence they have been called birotu-

late spines. Mr. Carter has found rudiments of side branches

on the central axis, and some specimens have all the six lobes

perfect and furnished with rays at the end, showing that the

birotulate specimens are only the result of the more or less

complete abortion of the lateral lobe, and that it belongs to

this order.

Carteria, Gray, P. Z. 8. 1867, p. 540.

Fam. 12. Axide.

Sponge arborescent, branched, with hexaradiate subcubical

spicules, as if formed of six cubes placed on each side of a

central one, and with three rayed stellate spicules.

Axos = Echinospongia, Gray, Ann. & Mag. N. H. 1870,

Vi. D> ave

Dr. J. E. Gray on the Classification of Sponges. 459

Order VI. SPHAZSROSPONGIA.

Sponge generally massive, grumose; skeleton strengthened

with numerous small spicules crowded into globular or stellate

balls, and with elongate spicules terminating at the outer end

in three recurved spines, which are simple or forked.

I. The globular or oblong balls of spicules crowded, forming a

coat to the outer surface-of the sponge.

Bowerbank regarded these balls of spicules as ovaria. I

have called them in my arrangement of sponges ovisacs ; but

further research has convinced me that they have nothing to

do with the ova.

A. Sponge grumose, with elongate spicules, the long ones with

two or three expanded or recurved acute branches.

Fam. 1. Geodiade.

The spherical masses of spicules forming a thick external

crust to the sponge.

a. Crust interrupted with a conical cloaca covered with a

netted or perforated lid. Geodia.

b. The external crust continuous. Cydonium and Pachy-

matisma.

B. Sponge calcareous, solid, with simple spicules between the

outer layer and axis, which is formed of spheres of spi-

cules,

Fam. 2. Placospongiade.

Sponge branched, coral-like, with a central axis and a hard

outer coat entirely formed of solidified spherules of spicules.

The axis and outer lamina separated from each other by a

layer of sarcode strengthened with bundles of spicules.

Placospongia.

Il. The stellate balls of spicules scattered in the outer surface

and inner part of the sarcode,

TETHYAD®, Gray, P. Z. 8. 1867, p. 540.

Sponge oblong, massive, fleshy, armed with simple fusiform

spicules, many having three prongs or three recurved points

at the outer end or distal outward extremity, forming the

surface or extending beyond the surface of cae sponse, and

460 Dr.J. E. Gray on the Classification of Sponges.

often imbedded in the sponge; stellate spicules in the sarcode

all crowded together.

A. Sponge short, globose, with elongate spicules having three

acute recurved branches on the outer end, which support

the outer surface, or extend beyond tt.

* Sponge attached to rocks, with an expanded base.

Fam. 3. Tethyade.

The tricurvate spicules extending beyond the outer surface

of the sponge. Tethya.

See Tethya arabica, Ann. & Mag. N. H. 1869, iv. p. 3,

plas 1 & 2.

The young, just hatched, of Tethya, as is proved by Mr.

Carter (see this Number, p. 413), is furnished with elongate

rooting fibres, which are lost when the animal becomes at-

tached. But in certain genera, as Huplectella, Hyalothauma,

&c., which remain free, these fibres are retained during life ;

and it is doubtful if Lophurella, which is only rather more

than a quarter of an inch long, may not be a young specimen

in a state of change.

Fam. 4. Donatiade.

The tricurvate spicules supporting the outer surface of the

sponge.

Tethyade, sect. I.*, Gray, /. c. p. 541.

Donatia &e.; add Tethyopsis, Stewart.

** Sponge free, with elongate anchoring spicules ending in

three or four recurved spines.

Fam. 5. Theneade.

Sponge oblong, with many excretory pores above, with tufts

of spicules beneath, and numerous stellate masses in the flesh

on the underside.

Thenea, Gray, P. Z. S. 1867, p. 541,= Tethya muricata,

Bowerbank, B. 8S. fig. 35, and figs. 304 & 305. Dorvillia

agariciformis, Kent, Microsc. Journ. 1870. Tisiphonia, Wyv.

Thomson; Stelletta, O. Schmidt. Wzyviille-thomsonia Wal-

lichit, Perceval Wright, is said to be the young state of this

species.

Fam. 6, Lophurellide.

Sponge oblong, with a single excretory pore above, and

Dr. J. E. Gray on the Classification of Sponges. 461

with a depressed central cavity ; lower part of the body with

numerous scattered anchorate rooting spicules.

Lophurella, = Tetilla lophura, O. Schmidt, tab.

Dactylella, = Tethya dactyloidea, Carter, Ann. & Mag. N. H.

1869, vol. i. p. 15.

#e* Sponge free ; base surrounded by a funnel-shaped expan-

sion or disk formed of elongated spicules united together.

Fam. 7. Casulade.

Casula = Tethya casula, Carter, Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist.

1871, vol. viii. p. 99, pl. 4.

B. Sponge without elongate tricurvate spicules, with stellate

groups of spicules in the outer surface and inner part of

the sarcode.

Fam. 8. Chondrillade.

1. Stellate spicules of one kind. Chondrilla.

2. Stellate spicules of distinct kinds. Cortievum,

III. Sponge without globular balls of spicules or stars, but with

elongate spicules, two- or three-rayed and recurved at the

outer end, on the margin of the sponge.

Fam. 9. Ancorinide.

Ancorina, Normania.

Section B. POTAMOSPONGIA. (Freshwater Sponges.)

Sponge freshwater, of a green colour; ova coriaceous,

strengthened with variously shaped spicules placed in the

substance of the ovisacs; they are found in the substance of

the massive branched sponge, which is strengthened by fusi-

form spicules; sponge spiculose, with fusiform spicules in a

sarcode.

Fam. 1. Spongillade, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1867, p. 550.

1. The spheres thick, smooth, armed with birotulate spi-

cules. Ephydatia, Dosilia.

2. Spheres tessellated on the surface, and with sunken fusi-

form spicules. Metania, Acalle, Drulia,

3. Spheres covered externally with fusitorm spicules. Zu-

napius and Spongilla.

AG2 . Dr. R. Greef on the Structure and

XLIX.—Investigations upon the Structure and Natural History

of the Vorticelle. By Dr. RicHARD GREEF.

[Concluded from p. 397. ]

The Contractile Reservoir of the Vorticelle.

In many Vorticelle, especially in Hpistylis flavicans, Car-

chesium polypinum, &c., [have been able to observe the rosette-

like canal-system ascribed by Stem* to many other Infusoria ;

but, as a rule, I could only see it very distinctly when the con-

tractions were rendered slow by pressure &c. At the commence-

ment of the systole, just as Stein describes, bubble-like vesicles

make their appearance round about the margin of the reservoir ;

and these, as the central reservoir becomes smaller, acquire a

rosette-like grouping, in which, however, the individual vesicles

are not generally all of the same size, whilst during diastole they

coalesce again into asingle vesicle. Sometimes I have thought

that I could observe a communication between the contractile

reservoir and the initial portion of the alimentary tube (vesti-

bulum), in the vicinity of which the former is always situated ;

but I could never attain to certainty upon this point.

The contractile reservoir of the Vorticellz is always situated

within the cortical layer of the body, pretty close to the ex-

ternal cuticula; it has a definite position here, which remains

unaffected by the currents of the general contents of the body—

a further indication that the cortical layer forms a firm paren-

chyma, which takes no part in the current of rotation, as

otherwise the contractile vesicle, as also the other organs

already mentioned with respect to this point (nucleus, alimen-

tary tube, &c.), must also constantly change its position.

In Carchesium polypinum there is a very peculiar organ,

which, so far as I know, has not yet been described, and

which may take its place here provisionally, because it always

adheres to the contractile reservoir. It is, like the latter, a

vesicular but not contractile space, covered throughout its

whole periphery with fine, short, straight bacilli, which, ap-

parently, lie in a tangential direction to the surface (Pl. XIV.

fig. 9,7). The bacilli, however, can be observed only in the

fresh state, ¢. e. in the living animal; when the Vorticellan

is dead, or too strongly compressed, they become indistinct, or

entirely disappear ; sometimes also I have missed them even in

uninjured individuals, whilst the organ under notice is itself

never wanting. Its inner space seems to contain a hyaline

fluid, which, however, does not always entirely fill it, so that

indentations and processes are often produced on its surface.

* Der Organismus der Infusionsthiere, i. p. 88.

Natural History of the Vorticellee. 463

Sometimes I thought I could detect a connexion with the con-

tractile reservoir, sometimes, as in the case of the latter, a

union with the initial portion of the alimentary tube—that is

to say, an opening into it; but I was unable to arrive at any

certain information upon this point, as, indeed, upon the signi-

ficance of the whole structure.

Reproduction and Development of the Vorticelle.

The asexual reproduction of the Vorticelle: by fission is one

of the oldest observations of the kind upon the Infusoria and

lower animals in general, and has been confirmed times out of

number. In all Vorticelle (if we except the genus Lageno-

phrys belonging to the Ophrydine, which increases, according

to Stein, by diagonal fission), it occurs as longitudinal fission,

and, indeed, as a division into two more or less completely

similar halves. The introduction to fission is always that the

Vorticella retracts the ciliated organ into its interior, con-

tracts the peristome firmly over it, and remains in this con-

tracted, spherical condition for some time, during which the

contractile-stalked forms repeatedly spring back, Soon after

this the spherical form is seen to become flattened from before

backwards, whilst the lateral parts gain in extension (Pl. XII.

fig. 1). At the same time the cord-like nucleus places itself

transversely—probably, in the first place, because the whole

body is drawn out to the right and left; and the contractile

reservoir is also driven to the median longitudinal axis

(Pl. XII. figs. 2 & 8). Now the constriction commences,

First of all we see a slight depression make its appearance in

the middle of the anterior surface of the body (Pl. XII. fig. 1) ;

and this is soon followed by an emargination on the posterior

base of the body attached to the peduncle. The two con-

strictions, occupying the two longitudinal poles of the body,

advance towards each other, so that the whole body is soon

surrounded by a median longitudinal annular furrow, which

in the first place divides the surface into two equal lateral

halves (Pl. XII. figs. 2 & 8). This annular furrow cuts in

deeper and deeper, whilst the jerking back by means of the

peduncular muscle is more frequently repeated, by which the

contractions and the whole process of constriction are evi-

dently forwarded. The nucleus, the contractile reservoir, the

ciliated organ, and the peristome are drawn in to take part in

the act of fission; and finally, when the two halves are com-

pletely separated, and only connected at their base by the

peduncle, each fissional scion has almost completely the organi-

zation of the parent animal, and does not even differ greatly

464 Dr. R. Greef on the Structure and

in size from the latter. Owing to the continual strong contrac-

tion of the body, however, it is difficult to ascertain how the

alimentary tube behaves in the act of fission; but at any rate

each half receives one or the other section of it, replacing the

‘deficient portion by new formation. In the Vorticelle which

do not form stocks, as is well known, only one of the fissional

scions remains upon the parent stalk, or im the parent cell;

the other separates completely after it has formed what is

called the posterior circlet of cilia, which commences by a

transverse annular furrow making its appearance at the poste-

rior end of the body where the conical base passes into the

bellied bell-shaped portion, and afterwards becoming a cushion-

like ridge. Upon this ridge the circlet of cilia is developed

(Pl. XII. fig. 3, h). .

Besides bifission, a second kind of asexual propagation has

been described among the Vorticellz, and, indeed, long ago,

namely by Spallanzani and others in the last century. ‘This

is a formation of buds, by which a comparatively small portion

of the body of the parent is pushed out in the form of a bud

at the side walls, and gradually constricted off as a new scion.

Stein has the merit of having furnished the very interesting

proof that these bud-like structures observed on the bodies of

Vorticelle are in reality not buds (that is to say, products of

their bearer), but small fissional scions produced by the several

times repeated longitudinal fission of other individuals, which

swim from without to the larger individuals, and attach them-

selves to their lateral walls, becoming united with them, and

thus completing an “act of conjugation.” Stein has traced

this extremely remarkable process by a series of careful in-

vestigations, and named it gemmiform conjugation.

It would carry us beyond the purpose of this little memoir

if we were to follow, even in abstract, Stein’s series of obser-

vations on gemmiform conjugation and the reproduction of the

Vorticellee in general, which have been treated by him with

the most minute detail, but unfortunately are still entirely un-

illustrated by figures, which would facilitate our comprehension

of them. I will therefore for the present confine myself to

presenting briefly my own observations in comparison with

Stein’s, in the hope of being able, hereafter, in continuation of

this, to offer something further, as, with regard to both the

Vorticellee and other Infusoria, there is still much obscurity

that requires clearing up; or at least the clearness which Stein

supposes to have been attained is far from existing. It is

only by the most many-sided and unprejudiced observations

both of the Infusoria and of the other sections of the Protozoa,

without at once drawing from every detail far-reaching general

Natural History of the Vorticelle. 465

conclusions(which often rather hinder than forward knowledge),

that it may be possible to separate those things which really

‘belong to the cycle of reproduction from other phenomena,

and to group them together so as in time to obtain a fixed

point of view.

In the first place I have been able in many cases to con-

firm the important observation of Stein that the gemmiform

appendages of the Vorticelle: are not products of their sup-

porters, or true buds of them, but smaller individuals pene-

trating from without and uniting with them, and that, conse-

quently, throughout the Vorticellee, no reproduction by gemma-

tion or sprouting seems to occur.

The first observations relating to this pot were made

‘several years ago during a sojourn in the North Sea (at

Ostend) on a marine form which is abundant there, usually

adherent to Alege. In this Vorticellan I was at once struck

by the comparatively very. frequent occurrence of bud-lke

structures on the lateral walls of the individual animals, these

otherwise in general only rarely coming under observation.

In the above-mentioned Vorticella, which differs in its whole

habit from the marine Vorticella patellina of Ehrenberg, found

by him near Wismar, in the North Sea, and therefore may

probably be a distinct species, | was able to trace the whole

process of the so-called gemmiform conjugation, step by step,

as I have represented it in Pl. XIII. figs. 1-7. In fig. 1a

small individual furnished with the posterior circlet of cilia

has swum up to a larger one. The ciliary organ is retracted,

and the conical base directed perpendicularly towards the

lateral walls.. Thus we see the smaller individual creep

about upon the surface of the larger one by means of the

cilia, which are constantly in undulating movement, some-

times skipping up and down, sometimes creeping round it,

and apparently feeling and seeking everywhere. In spite of

the frequent jerkings back of the larger individual, which

seem as though it was trying to escape from the irritations

produced by the intruder, the latter obstinately persists in

holding the position which it has once selected. Even if it

is now and then shaken off for some distance by a sudden

and violent jerking, it makes its appearance again the next

moment, always swimming again upon the same animal in

order to renew its attacks. After some time we observe

that the conical base of the smaller Vorticella, which pre-

viously projected acutely, becomes retracted, so that a posterior

pit is produced, which then frequently sinks so deeply that the

posterior circlet of cilia is also retracted or borders the margin

of the pit. This pit serves as a sucking-disk, with which the

466 Dr. R. Greef on the Structure and

animalcule now adheres to the side walls of the other, for

which purpose a position on the hinder part of the body,

nearly corresponding to the bottom of the body-cavity, is

generally selected (Pl. XIII. fig. 2).

After a short time the smaller Vorticella adheres firmly to

the larger one, so that, if the process has not been traced, one

supposes one sees a bud-formation. By careful examination,

especially with the aid of cautious compression, we now make

the further interesting observation that the conical base which

was at first retracted to form the sucking-pit is again ex-

tended, and serves as an organ for boring into the subjacent

side wall of the larger Vorticella (Pl. XIII. fig. 3). The

conical process thus formed gradually penetrates deeper and

deeper; and this is the introduction to a complete amalgama-

tion of the two individuals. The intervening walls are ab-

sorbed, and soon there is an unobstructed communication

between the two body-cavities. The pressure exerted in

this process is so strong that we frequently see clear, bead-

like drops of parenchyma make their appearance at the

margin of union (Pl. XIII. fig. 4). The bud-like structure

now contracts or shrivels more and more, its contents being,

as it were, sucked up by the large Vorticella; so that finally

there is only left on the side wall a tubercle with a small

external aperture, the contours of which pass directly into

those of its bearer, and in which we can no longer recognize

the Vorticellan form and organization. In this way in course

of time the whole contents of the small Vorticella pass into

the larger one; and at last only a more or less thin lobe pro-

jects from the wall of the latter, evidently the contracted and

shrivelled empty skin of the former bud-like individual

(Pl. XIII. fig. 6,4). This lobe is usually apparently beset

all round with fine hairs or bristles, which, however, are

probably only the. expression of the numerous foldings of

the originally annulated integument. Finally the lobe itself

is constricted off, and often remains connected with its sup-

porter only by a thin tenacious filament (fig. 7,/), until this

also is torn by a sudden jerking back of the Vorticella, and the

lobe is cast off, by which the process of amalgamation of the

two individuals is completely finished.

I must expressly remark that, notwithstanding I have

repeatedly sought for them, I have never observed in this

marine Vorticellan the so-called rosettes of fissional scions

produced by rapidly continued division, but always only

bifissions, although these, smgularly enough, are remarkably

frequent in combination with the bud-like amalgamation. It

is, therefore, not to be supposed that the smaller individuals,

Natural History of the Vorticelle. 467

which, however, are sometimes but little inferior in size to

those selected for union, had proceeded from simple bifission

without rosette-formation. Moreover I have not observed

the action on the nucleus described by Stein in this form, but

have limited myself to the above-described external phe-

nomena of the act of union.

In freshwater Vorticelle, however, especially from the

Poppelsdorf Castle-pond near Bonn, I had abundant oppor-

tunity of observing both the rosette-formation of the fissional

scions and the internal processes arising from the gemmiform

amalgamation. In the first place, it was again in an animal-

cule belonging to the genus Vorticella ( Vorticella campanula?),

which is characterized by a comparatively large body and an

unusually long peduncle (Pl. XIII. fig. 8), that I found many

gemmiform unions. In that represented in fig. 8 an open

union of the two body-cavities and a complete external

amalgamation had already occurred. The body-cavity of

the smaller Vorticella (&) was filled with oval, sharply con-

toured, dimly shining corpuscles which passed through the

interior with a brisk skipping motion, and also repeatedly

passed over into the larger Vorticella. I could not perceive

a nucleus in the gemmiform appendage. The body-cavity of

the other individual, however, was filled with comparatively

large corpuscles, also of an oval form and sharply circum-

scribed, which strikingly resembled hard-shelled ova. Here

also I could perceive no nucleus. It seems probable, there-

fore, that, in accordance with Stein’s observations, we ma

regard the two different bodies in the bud-like individual

and its supporter as produced by the breaking up of the nucleus

in consequence of the ‘‘gemmiform conjugation.” I have

been unable, however, to observe any further development of

these bodies, as material of the same Vorticella, afterwards

obtained, showed no trace of gemmiform unions.

The remarkable rosettes, and the bud-like individuals which

separate from them and unite with the larger Vorticelle, were

first of all repeatedly observed by me in Epistylis flavicans,

The rosettes occurred as groups of from four to eight indi-

viduals ; and we may often see several rosettes at the same

time upon one stock (Pl. XV. fig. 1, 7,7, 7,7). The groups

often remain together in the form of a rosette without being

in direct, firm union either with each other or with the stock,

their conical bases converging towards one another, and being

held in companionship by constant undulation of the posterior

circlet of cilia. Besides these, I also met with many gemmi-

form unions, but without succeeding in observing the internal

phenomena possibly connected therewith,

468 Dr. R. Greef on the Structure and

I was enabled most definitely to observe both the external

circumstances (7. e. the rosette-formation and gemmiform

unions) and the imner changes of the nucleus accompanying

or rather proceeding from these, in Carchestum polypinum.

In the first place, in the nucleus, which, in Carchestwm

polypinum, is usually very long and bent and twisted like a

worm (Pl. XIV. fig. 1,7), I frequently saw appear those

clear, usually double-contoured, nucleoles which Stein had

previously observed in Vorticella mécrostoma, and which

often produce the impression of nuclei with large nuclear

corpuscles (fig. 2). In others the whole nucleus was broken

up into separate segments of a roundish or oval form, which,

however, were still surrounded by the common membrane of

the nucleus, and also placed together in the form of the

original nucleus (fig. 3). In the interior of the individual

segments, again, there were several of the above-mentioned

nucleoles (fig. 3,7). Lastly, in other individuals the membrane

of the nucleus was evidently broken through, and the whole

contents evacuated into the body-cavity. Sometimes larger

and smaller oval or round disks representing the nuclear

segments (Pl. XIV. fig. 4), but containnmg a comparatively

far larger number of nucleoles than before, swam about—some-

times individual nucleoles already separated from the common

envelope, and then sometimes enlarged three or four times.

The larger nucleoles, especially when oval, again produced ex-

actly the impression of hard-shelled ova (Pl. XIV. fig. 4, a).

In discussing the above observations I must in the first

place remark that by these, as by Stein’s observations, I have

not attained to any complete and clear insight into the significa-

tion of the “ gemmiform conjugation,’ as Stein called it, and

therefore do not at present venture to append to them definite

ideas and consequences, as Stein has done, especially as I

have detected exactly the same alterations of the nucleus

which I have described above, on the whole in accordance

with Stein, as the results of gemmiform union, where I could

not discover, either on the individuals in question or in the

whole colony of Carchesium, any external trace of gemmiform

unions, which of course does not exclude the possibility that

such unions may have previously taken place. Stein even

oes so far as to assume that, by swarming forth, such indi-

viduals of the stock as have completed the gemmiform union,

and in consequence of this are filled with the products of the

nucleus (called by him the placenta), might give origin, by

adhesion and renewed colonization, to the building up of an

entire stock, the individual members of which, of course pro-

duced by bifission from those first formed, are all provided

Natural History of the Vorticelle. 469

with placental disks. This, however, is only a more or less

probable supposition, which, for the present, is destitute of that

support of actual observation which alone could prove it.

Moreover, in one and the same species, namely Epistylis

flavicans, besides the gemmiform unions, I have made ex-

tremely remarkable observations of another kind, which also

indicate a mode of reproduction, but of a very different nature.

These may be briefly noticed here at the close of this com-

munication. Like most of the Vorticelle, Epistylis favicans

possesses a cord-like nucleus, bent more or less into a horse-

shoe shape. Frequently this nucleus, in all the individuals of

the stock, is filled only with a finely granular and otherwise

homogeneous parenchyma (Pl. XV. fig. 10); but sometimes

the nuclei of LHpistylis flavicans exhibit very remarkable

alterations. In the first place we sometimes find individuals,

almost always several upon the same stock, the nucleus of

which is considerably thickened, but at the same time shortened,

so as to acquire the form of a somewhat crooked sausage,

which, by its dark contents, shows sharply from the interior,

and therefore catches the eye even under a low power and in

the living and moving animals (Pl. XV. fig. 9). If the

nucleus of this form be examined more closely, and with a

higher power, we see that it acquires its dark appearance

from a mass of capillary structures with an undulating

course, which give the whole organ the appearance of being

iled with a ringlet-like mass of filaments resembling sperma-

tozoids (Pl. XV. fig. 5, x). No movement can be detected

in them. If this substance be isolated by tearing or bursting

the nucleus, we find that it consists of nothing but capillary

bacilli, slightly curved in a sickle-like form, which appear to

be a little dilated at one end and pointed at the other. All

are rigid, dimly shining, and sharply defined (Pl. XV. fig. 6).

These, no doubt, are similar structures to those first found by

Johannes Miiller and his pupils Claparéde, Lachthann, and

Lieberkiihn, and afterwards by Stein, Balbiani, and others, in

the nucleus and nucleolus of many other Infusoria, and which

have subsequently been regarded as the spermatozoids of the

Infusoria. One is very much inclined, in the present case, to

regard the structures in question in L, flavicans, from their

whole mode of occurrence and appearance, as spermatozoids.

However, especially taking into consideration the “ gemmi-

form conjugation” which occurs in this species also, I do not

venture at present for my own part to treat these as the

spermatozoids of the Vorticellz, as has already been done by

others, perhaps too definitely, although, of course, I am no

more-inclined to accept the second supposition, that they are

parasitic structures.

470 Dr. R. Greef on the Structure and

In the same colonies of which some animals bear a nucleus

with the above-described hair-like structures, there are others

the nucleus of which has retained the ordinary elongated,

horseshoe-like form. But on closer examination we observe,

even in these, very noteworthy alterations, which, when we

pass under, review a series of different individuals, show a

certain gradational sequence. ‘The first stage appears to be

that, in the midst of the nucleus, a clear, irregularly formed,

and often repeatedly interrupted longitudinal axis makes its

appearance (Pl. XV. fig. 11). In a subsequent stage this

longitudinal axis is seen as a uniform cord, filled with dark

granules, passing through the substance of the nucleus (fig. 12),

so that, especially taking into consideration the following

structures, one is vividly reminded by it of the rhachis of the

Nematoda. Further investigation shows us the axial cord

surrounded by large pale nucleoles, which have apparently

sprouted from the former (fig. 13). These nucleoles constantly

increase in number with a gradual increase in size (fig. 14),

so that finally they occupy nearly the whole of the nucleus.

Subsequently [have fancied that I detected such nucleoles also

floating in the body-cavity, but have been unable to arrive at

any certainty upon this point.

It is indeed very seductive to express the opinion, which

might be supported by many analogies with other observa-

tions, that the above-described phenomena in the nucleus

stood in connexion with the spermatozoid-like structures in

the nucleus of other individuals—in other words, that we are

here in presence of a sexual reproduction in the Infusoria, and

this not merely brought about by special organs to be re-

garded as ovarium and testes, but even by these organs being

distributed upon different individuals of the same stock, so

that these animals are of separate sexes (moncecious). But,

with reference to the above remarks, I prefer in this case also

simply to-communicate the discovery, leaving a decision upon

it for further investigations.

It seems, however, to be beyond doubt that both the

organization and life-history, not only of the Vorticelle, but

of the Infusoria in general, are comparatively rich and highly

developed, but that only a little of it has hitherto been de-

ciphered with certainty—and that Ehrenberg, although he may

have erred much in details, especially in the interpretation of

the organs and structures first seen or discovered by him (and

this must be borne in mind), nevertheless, on the whole,

supported by his extended and indefatigable investigations

and abundant observations, has recognized with just tact and

acuteness the high organizational value of the Infusoria.

Natural History of the Vorticelle. 471

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

Puate XII,

Figs. 1-6. Representation of the asexual propagation by bifission of Vor-

ticella marina (sp. n.?).

1. Commencement of the division by retraction of the ciliated organ

and contraction of the whole body, with increase of the trans-

verse diameter.

2, Segmentation and gradual deepening of the constriction which

divides the body into two similar halves: the nucleus (m) and

contractile vesicle are divided at the same time.

3. Division completed: one fissional scion is separating from the

peduncle and forming the posterior circlet of cilia (7).

4,5, &6. Free, swarming fissional scions.

igs. 7-11. Fission of Cothurnia imberbis.

7. The animal retracted within its envelope.

8. Constriction into two halves.

9. One fissional scion separating from the envelope and forming the

posterior circlet of cilia (7).

10 & 11. Fissional scions which have swarmed out of the envelope.

Fig. 12. Single Cothurnia extended out of its envelope: the arrows indi-

cate the current of rotation in the interior; the cuticula shows

a distinct transverse annulation.

PLATE XIII.

Figs. 1-7. Representation of the various stages of “gemmiform conjuga-

tion” in Vorticella marina: k, the bud-like Vorticella; 7, con-

tractile vesicle.

1, The bud-like fissional scion (%) furnished with the posterior circlet

of cilia has attached itself to a larger Vorticella for the purpose

of conjugation.

2. The conical hinder part of the body of the bud-like Vorticella is

retracted, and the base thus converted into a sucking-cup.

3. The union is completed by means of this sucking-cup.

4, The pressure during the amalgamation, which is constantly be-

coming firmer, is so strong that bead-like drops of parenchyma

make their appearance round about the point of union.

5. The bud-like Vorticella has become contracted into a mere

tubercle.

6. The contents of the bud-like Vorticella have completely passed

into the larger Vorticella, so that merely the external sac of in-

tegument remains projecting from the latter as an empty lobe.

7. The cutaneous lobe is thrown off after some time: the spinous

appearance usually observable upon it is produced by the col-

lapsed, annulated cuticula.

Fig. 8. Gemmiform conjugation in Vorticella campanula (see p. 467).

PLATE XIV.

Fig. 1. Carchesium polypinum: m, mouth; 6,’contractile vesicle ; », ru-

cleus ; k, bud-like scion in the act of attaching itself to a larger

Vorticella ; s, nucleiform corpuscles arranged in longitudinal

series following the course of the muscles.

Fig. 2. baa of Carchesium polypinum after gemmiform conjugation :

e, nuclei. :

Fig.

Fug.

Fig.

Fug.

(60) — Siferp ty

Wejte@ei Ni fer)

On the Structure and Natural History of the Vorticelle.

. The nucleus broken up into separate segments, as a further effect

of gemmiform conjugation.

. The segments of the nucleus (placenta, Stein), and in part also

the nucleoles contained in them, have escaped from the common

nuclear envelope, and are driven about freely in the body-cavity

of the Vorticella: 4a, free larger nucleoles of the nuclear segments.

. Epistylis minuta, sp. n. The whole stock shown magnified about

400 diameters.

. Zoothamnium alternans (North Sea).

. A single branch of Zoothamnium alternans with two small indivi-

duals, more highly magnified.

. The conical base of the body of Carchesium polypinum seen from

below (in transverse section). The circles of granules indicate

the lumina of the muscles of the body and peduncle.

. Representation of the course of the ciliary spiral in Carchesiwm

polypinum: s, commencement of the spiral; the arrows indicate

the course of the spiral from the right of the buccal orifice to-

wards the left, to penetrate, after one circular turn (w), in a

curve into the end niki ; p, the outer peristome ; v, entrance

into the vestibulum (buccal orifice); g, the long seta projecting

from the vestibulum; a, anus; 6, contractile vesicle ; 7, the non-

contractile receptacle, covered with bacilli (see p. 462).

PLATE XV.

. Epistylis flavicans, under a low power: 7, rosettes of fissional

scions; k, gemmiform conjugation.

. The posterior extremity of the peduncle of Epistylis flavicans,

more highly magnified (800-400 diam.).

. Epistylis flavicans seen from the point of junction with the pe-

dunecle. The fibres radiating from the peduncle indicate the

longitudinal muscles, and the concentric circles the transverse

annulation of the skin.

. Transverse section of the peduncle of Epistylis flavicans.

. Epistylis flavicans, magnitied 300 diam.: », nucleus filled with

spermatozoid-like corpuscles; 4, paired capsules with rolled-up

threads in their interior (urticating capsules?) situated under‘

the skin; g, the longitudinal fibres (muscles) and transverse

striz of the cuticula (compare fig. 3).

. Isolated spermatozoid-like bodies from the nucleus of fig. 5, mag-

nified about 800 diam.

. Isolated (urticating) capsules, more highly magnified: a, with the

threads rolled up in the interior; 4, with protruded threads.

. The same, magnitied about 300 diam.

. A branch of £pistylis flavicans with two individuals, of which

the dark prominent nucleus is filled with spermatozoid-like

bodies. 7

Figs. 10-14. Development of nucleoles (germ-granules) in the nucleus of

Epistylis flavicans.

10. Nucleus filled with finely granular substance, in which no fur-

ther form-constituents are recognizable.

A clear longitudinal axis, still consisting of separate pieces, runs

through the middle of the nucleus.

. The longitudinal axis is continuous and filled with dark gra-

nular substance.

13. Nucleiform structures issue from the longitudinal axis, finally

enveloping it.

Ti, Sk Gray on Indian Mud- Tortoises. 473

Fig. 14. The longitudinal axis of the nucleus entirely filled with gra-

nules.

Fig. 15, Bud-like scion from a rosette of Epistylis flavicans, magnified

about 300 diam. : m, nucleus; 6, contractile vesicle.

Fig. 16. Encysted Epistylis flavicans.

Fig. 17. Branch of Epistylis flavicans on which the nuclear formations

described under figs. 10-14 occurred. For distinction from those

of fig. 9 the nuclei are not visible.

Fig. 18, Large variety of Epistylis flavicans: x, the parasitic (?) Flagellata

seated on the peduncle.

Fig, 19, The parasitic é) Flagellata under a higher power.

Prater XVI.

Fig. 1, Representation of the alimentary system of Epistylis flavicans.

The animals have been subjected to a carmine diet. The arrows

indicate the current of rotation of the coloured material (balls

of nutriment) in the interior of the digestive body-cavity:

m, buccal orifice (entrance into the vestibulum) ; 0, cesophagus ;

v, funnel-like termination of the cesophagus; d, canaliform

continuation of the funnel. The colour-balls issuing from the

funnel glide as spindle-shaped bodies (6) through the canal,

and project at 6’ with a little knob from its hinder opening ;

n, nucleus.

Fig. 2, The alimentary tube of Epistylis flavicans isolated. The arrows

indicate the direction of the flow of the food: m, mouth;

k & k', valvular partitions; 0, cesophagus; v, funnel; d, canali-

form continuation of the funnel; /, anus, from which a long

seta projects outwards.

3. Alimentary apparatus of Epistylis plicatils.

Fig. 4. Branch of Epistylis plicatilis: k, contracted animal; », nucleus

with nucleoles ; 6, contractile vesicle ; g, muscles.

. Posterior adherent extremity of the peduncle of Epistylis plica-

tilis: f, foot with sole.

L.—On Indian Mud-Tortoises (Trionyx).

By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &c.

Berore I saw the ‘Annals’ of last month, I was told that

Dr. Anderson had examined nearly two hundred specimens of

Indian mud-tortoises. I observed that I supposed he had

availed himself of my suggestion, and was about to give us a

paper worthy of his position in the Museum and University.

But when I saw the paper, this delusion was dispelled. The

paper might be shortly written thus:—The mud-tortoises of

India have been properly divided into two species. He might

have added, with truth and justice, that the species had been

well characterized, and their synonymy well made out; but

this would show the ridiculousness of the vain boast which

terminates his paper. ‘The species are so distinct that

the native fishermen and market people know them by dif-

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. ix.”

474 Dr. J. E. Gray on Indian Mud-Tortoises.

ferent native names, and the cooks as of different values as

articles of diet. The short paper itself is most confused and

most carelessly written, but with a most unwarranted as-

sumption of high scientific importance. ‘The same species is

referred to under different names; and the names given are

rarely used by the authors quoted. or one example among

many, he speaks of “ Trionyx javanicus, Schweigger,” but

that author never uses such a name. I suspect this is from

carelessness and want of consideration*. But a friend has

pointed out that he gives one author as the authority for a

name when he differs from that writer, and gives another

author for the same name when it meets with his approval,

both being on the same authority.

Dr. Anderson, when in London about a year ago, stated

that he did not think that I properly estimated the late Dr.

Fleming, a gentleman whom I knew personally and much

esteemed, but I was not aware that I had ever expressed or

written a word respecting his writings; and he stated that for

all he (Dr. Anderson) knew in zoology he was indebted to the

lectures and teaching of that professor. I did not in the least

doubt his assertion, but only observed that Dr. Fleming be-

longed to a time long passed away, and that his best book

was a very diluted abstract of part of Cuvier’s ‘ Régne Animal,’

published in 1815, and entirely superseded by the second edi-

tion of that work. Dr. Anderson’s paper in the last Number

of the ‘ Annals’ confirms this statement; for here, in 1872, we

just have what Dr. Buchanan Hamilton did at the end of the

eighteenth century, and what I did in the ‘ Synopsis of the

Reptiles,’ published in 1831.

Any one reading Dr. Anderson’s paper would imagine that

my ‘ Illustrations of Indian Zoology’ was a modern publica-

tion, whereas it appeared in 1832, when, I believe, there was

not a single specimen of 7yionyx from India in this country ;

but knowing that Dr. Buchanan Hamilton had studied the

genus, I published copies of his figures in my ‘ Illustrations,’

with his names, and compared them with figures in Hard-

wicke’s collection of drawings from Indian specimens, and

published the results of my examination in my ‘ Synopsis

Reptilium,’ in 1831. It is to be remembered that that very

industrious naturalist, General Hardwicke, to whose exertions

Indian zoology owes such a debt of gratitude, formed no less

than three collections, and had the misfortune to lose each of

* Dr. Anderson published a paper in the ‘ Annals’ for 1871, vol. viii.

p- 824, entitled “On Zestudo Phayret, Theob. & Dr. Gray ;” but the whole

paper is about a Trionyx, which must not be confounded with Zestudo

Phayret of Blyth.

Bibliographical Notices. 475

them by shipwreck on their way to this country, escaping with

difficulty with his life. After his second shipwreck, and when

no longer young, he left England to form a third collection ; and

that shared the same fate as the preceding two; so that we can

only use his drawings and the few materials which were then in

our hands. Now Dr. Anderson observes that he has examined

45 living specimens of one and 120 living specimens of another

species; but, curiously enough, his paper contains nothing that

is not to be found in Hamilton’s and Hardwicke’s drawings,

and in my Synopsis, and other works published years ago.

The two Indian mud-tortoises are:—first, the Testudo

gotaghol of Hamilton, the Trionyx javanicus of Geoftroy

St.-Hilaire, and the Hmyda javanica of Schweigger, which

are characterized in my Synopsis before quoted by the very

characters which Dr. Anderson gives to distinguish them.

The second is Trionyx hurum of Hamilton, which is described

and figured, just as Dr. Anderson describes it, at p.47 of my

Synopsis, and figured at t. x in the same work, from Hard-

wicke’s drawing; but perhaps Dr. Anderson thinks it for-

gotten.

Dr. Anderson observes that the skulls of these two species

are very different—certainly no new observation; for one is

the type of the modern restricted genus Jrionyx, and the

other the type of the genus Potamochelys, established on the

differences in the skulls. The skulls of both have been re-

peatedly figured. ‘Truly Dr. Anderson seems to have learned

little since he attended my late esteemed friend’s lectures.

Fortunately there are several very good zoologists and com-

parative anatomists in India, who are doing good work and

extending the science.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.

A Ihstory of the Birds of New Zealand. By Waurer Lawry BuiiEr,

Se.D., F.L.S., F.G.8., &. London (John Van Voorst) and New

Zealand (the Author): 1872. 4to. Part I. With 72 pages and

7 coloured plates.

Tue first work professing to give a complete account of the orni-

thology of New Zealand must needs be an important one. This

ornithic fauna presents so many points of general biological in-

terest, that only those of the islands east of Africa can be com-

pared with it. The last remnant of a former continent, and pro-

bably the oldest country on the face of our globe, New Zealand is,

or was, tenanted by ornithic forms which have arrived at the verge

32*

476 Bibliographical Notices.

of life ; already a number of gigantic flightless birds have gradually

succumbed (may be through internal decline, accelerated by the un-

ceasing attacks of men and of a bird of prey twice the size of an

eagle), and their only surviving representative, the dwarf race of

Apteryx, will probably soon follow. Geographically considered, this

fauna may be expected to be composed of forms most aberrant from

European types ; and, indeed, this is the case in a great measure ;

yet, in spite of essential structural differences, some of the birds

most characteristic of New Zealand show, with regard to their

habits and the place they fill in the economy of nature, such

striking analogies with our European species, as to remind us at

once of our starlings, thrushes, wrens, &c. The birds peculiar to

New Zealand may be considered its oldest inhabitants; they are

mixed with Polynesian forms and others having a still more ex-

tended range; and the total number amounts to some 150 species.

It was high time that a complete account of this fauna should be

given by a competent naturalist. Some of the most interesting

forms have already become almost, if not quite, extinct ; others are

fast expiring, or obliged to accommodate themselves to the changed

conditions of the country. This change in the fauna is effected by

several agencies :—first, by one which, we believe, is universally at

work so steadily as to be almost imperceptible, and which, there-

fore, is not generally recognized. Every species, as it has its origin

and period of fullest development, so it has its period of decline

finally leading to its extinction; and if this be really the case, we

may expect that in New Zealand, which is presumed to be the

oldest country on the face of the globe, certain of its most highly

developed animal forms are disappearing from this innate cause.

The second agency is the progress of colonization and culture,

which, rapidly spreading over a country not larger than Great

Britain, will deprive a part of the species of their retreat and food,

and conduce even more effectually to their extirpation than the in-

creased number of guns, traps, and cats. The third cause of the

change is the introduction of European birds. Sparrows, larks,

robins, starlings, thrushes, pheasants, are most easily acclimatized

and multiply; of necessity they will take up a not inconsiderable

portion of the range occupied by the native birds, and, readily

accommodating themselves to the conditions of culture, will replace

those which cannot reconcile themselves to these conditions. We

do not say that the majority of the native species will not survive,

though in diminished numbers of individuals ; but it is quite proba-

ble that some of these survivors will be preserved by accommodating

themselves to the new state of things, modifying in a more or less

perceptible manner their nidification, food, or some other part of

their mode of life: and if such changes should occur, the student of

a future generation will find in Dr. Buller’s work the means of

comparing the birds of his time with those of the past.

Having made these remarks, in order to show the interest at-

tached to the subject, we will state in a few words the plan of the

Bibliographical Notices. 477

work. It will comprise an introductory treatise on the ornithology

of New Zealand, a diagnosis of each bird (male, female, and young)

in Latin and English, with the synonymy and references to the

more important portion of the literature, and a detailed description

of the external characters, of variations, and of the habits. About

one half of the species are represented by coloured illustrations.

The work will be published in five parts, each containing not less

than seven plates. Moreover we understand that the author in-

tends to conclude the work with an account of the osteology of

the more remarkable forms.

There can be no doubt that Dr. Buller is eminently qualified for

carrying out this task. Resident in the colony for many years, he

has made this part of the fauna his special study ; his official posi-

tion has enabled him, during a period of more than twelve years, to

visit nearly every part of the country, bringing him into frequent

intercourse with the various native tribes, who assisted him in

collecting specimens and information. By his previous preliminary

publications he had entered into fruit-bearing communication with

ornithologists in Europe; and in New Zealand itself he had in

Mr. Potts a most indefatigable and trustworthy fellow-labourer.

Finally, by a lengthened visit to England, he derived the great

advantage of examining types in European collections, especially in

the British Museum, and of availing himself of that typographic

and artistic skill in which this country excels.

The author has shown unremitting care in adducing all the infor-

mation that can possibly throw light on his subject; he has spared

no pains in illustrating it in the most perfect manner; and the result

is that a most valuable work is placed before the student of ornitho-

logy, which will offer to every lover of natural history real and per-

manent enjoyment, and which, by its attractive form, will allure

many a young man in that colony from the pursuit of other branches

into the camp of ornithology. We do not mean to say that the

critical eye does not detect faults ; but they refer to isolated details,

and do not affect the character of the work. There is only one

point in which we may be allowed to caution the author; and that

is, to weigh carefully his reasons when he enters into questions of

natural affinity of various groups. Nobody will deny that Stringops,

by its nocturnal habits, and consequent external modifications of a

portion of its head and plumage, reminds us of the owls; but if (as

the author justly observes), “in all the essential characteristics of

structure, it is a true parrot,” it cannot supply, “in the grand

scheme of nature, the connecting link between the owls and par-

rots.” This view would be as little true as that the shrew-mice

are a connecting link between the Insectivora and Rodents. If

such a connecting link were in existence, we feel sure it would be

in a part of the world where the Stringine and Psittacine types

are more developed than in New Zealand.

478 Bibliographical Notices.

A Synonymic Catalogue of Diurnal Lepidoptera. By W. F. Krrsy.

8vo, pp. 690. London: Van Voorst, 1871.

Tue Diurnal Lepidoptera have long been a favourite study, and at

the present time, in this country at least, are receiving an amount

of attention which has probably never been surpassed. Every

quarter of the globe is being ransacked for novelties ; and the results

of numerous expeditions are being constantly made known through

the pictorial works of Mr. Hewitson and Mr. Butler, as well as

through the medium of the Proceedings and Transactions of those

societies whose pages are open to such matter. At a time when

most writers and collectors are striving only how they may increase

the number of described species, it is a pleasure to find a man-who

will undergo the self-imposed drudgery of revising the whole sub-

ject with a view of putting the synonymy of the established species

in proper accordance with modern ideas. And this is what Mr.

Kirby has done in his recently published Catalogue of Diurnal

Lepidoptera. He has carefully collated all the references to de-

scriptions of the butterflies described since the time of Linnzeus

(very properly, we think, selecting the 12th edition of the ‘Systema

Nature’ as his starting point) down to the date of the publication

of his book (1871). So far as we can see, and the list of authors

quoted whose works Mr. Kirby has consulted in whole or in part

aids us in forming an opinion™, the literature of the Diurnal Lepi-

doptera has been pretty thoroughly searched; and this catalogue

may be trusted with reasonable confidence as including a sufficiently

accurate list of the described species for practical reference by future

writers.

It will thus be seen that this work will be of very great service

in arranging a cabinet and in the determination of species.

In the internal arrangement of his subject we think that Mr.

Kirby has hardly been so successful. In his preface he says that it

appeared to him that any arrangement of the species in each genus

was better than an alphabetical one; here, we think, he was

wrong, and that, had he adopted such an arrangement, several diffi-

culties involving error would have been avoided. It is hardly to be

supposed that Mr. Kirby should be autoptically acquainted with

nearly all the species he was arranging ; and we think we trace to

Mr. Hewitson and Mr. Butler, whose aid he frankly acknowledges, the

criticisms respecting the validity of many species scattered through-

out his pages. ‘To the former we attribute the free use of the term

‘“‘variety,” and to the latter the minute specific subdivisions by

which all his work is characterized. These two systems, if such they

are, cannot be made to work harmoniously in the same book; and

this we think Mr. Kirby ought to have seen.

*. Mr. Kirby marks the names of the authors the whole of whose works he

has consulted with an asterisk (*), those which he has seen only in part thus t ;

he omits to tell us the state of his knowledge concerning those works which bear

no special mark at all,

Bibliographical Notices. 479

We next come to the treatment of genera; and here Mr. Kirby

has made a conscientious attempt to introduce order into an ex-

tremely complex and unsatisfactory subject. But we cannot help

thinking that in many of the changes made an overstrained idea

of justice to old authors has been kept in view rather than the

interests of the living science.

The source of this, we think, is to be traced to the absolute indif-

ference shown by Mr. Kirby as to whether a genus is intelligibly

defined by its author or not. With him (and he does not stand

alone) a genus is merely a name under which a greater or a less

number of species are arranged, and the practical working of the

system is that some one of such species is chosen as the type of the

genus, and the student is left to find out its generic characters for

himself! Space will not permit us to pursue this uninviting subject

far ; but we will quote one instance of a name changed by Mr. Kirby

which will, we think, show how disadvantageously to the true inter-

ests of science the system he adopts may be made to work.

For a well-known genus [we were going to write of “ Erycinide ;”

but this term is denied us] Mr. Kirby adopts Hiibner’s title Huselasia,

proposed in 1816 with the following valueless definition :—* Alle

Fliigel oben zeichenlos, glattrindig; unten zierlich gezeichnet.” In

1836 Boisduval gave the name Hurygona to an insect of the same

genus, one side of the figure of which gives the formula of the

neuration. This latter name was adopted by Mr. Westwood in the

‘Genera of the Diurnal Lepidoptera,’ where a full and elaborate de-

scription of the genus is given. According to Mr. Kirby’s method,

if we want to find the generic characters of this group, what is the

process? After rejecting Hiibner’s definition as absolutely worth-

less, we mus} turn to the ‘Genera,’ and then having found all we

want, we are still to reject the name there used! But the change

does not stop here, for Mr. Kirby forbids us to use Mr. Bates’s sub-

family name Eurygonine, proposed in an exhaustive catalogue of the

species of this family, and thrusts Huselasia again before our eyes in

the form of Huselasiine. Without defending the use made in the.

‘ Genera’ of some of Hiibner’s names, we still think that the estimate

then made of the ‘ Verzeichniss bekanrver Schmetterlinge’ was a

proper one, and that to many of Hiibner’s names the courtesy attach-

ing to manuscript names was alone dve. The obligation to use them

ought not to be imperative ; and they certainly ought not to be made

to ‘supersede well-characterized generic titles.

In closing these remerks we will only call attention to one other

matter which we cannot help thinking also shows a certain amount

of misapprehension as to the nature of genera. Mr. Kirby, in the

first rule he imposes upon himself, says, ‘‘The name of every

homogeneous genus, if not a synonym, or previously used in zoology

or botany, should be retained for some part of it.”

This rule has puzzled us much; and we are at a loss to discover

what its meaning is; for if a genus is homogeneous, it appears to us

that the necessity, nay, even the possibility of dividing it ceases to

exist.

480

MISCELLANEOUS.

The late Gkorcr Rosert Gray.

Srvce our last publication, zoology, and ornithology in particular,

has sustained a severe loss by the death of George Robert Gray,

Assistant Keeper of Zoology in the British Museum, whom we have no

hesitation in pronouncing one of the most distinguished ornithologists

of the present day. He was the youngest son of Samuel Frederick

Gray, himself a distinguished chemist, pharmacologist, and na-

turalist, and brother of Dr. John Edward Gray, the present Head

Keeper of the Department of Zoology in the British Museum, so

well known and so eminently famed for his numerous zoological

and other labours. Born in July 1808, he was educated at Mer-

chant Tailors’ School, in the City of London, and early in life

assisted the late Mr. Children in the arrangement of his extensive

collection of insects. In this congenial occupation he spent several

years, until 1831, when he became an Assistant in the Zoological

Department of the British Museum, of which Mr. Children was the

Keeper. He contributed greatly to the enlarged translation of

Cuvier’s ‘ Animal Kingdom,’ then in progress under the charge of

Mr. Griffith, and published various works on insects, the chief of

which was a revision of the Phasmidee—and at a later period gave

to the world a revision of some of. the divisions of the Linnsean

genus Papilio, and an account of insects parasitical on other

insects and on planis, most elaborately worked out. In 1840

he printed privately a ‘List of the Genera of Birds,’ containing

1065 genera, and noting the type species on which each genus was

founded ; and in the following year he published a second edition

with additions and corrections, in which he extended the list to

1232 genera. The third edition of this work, entitled a ‘ List of

the Genera and Subgenera of Birds,’ contains 2403 genera and

subgenera. The last of this set of “ Lists” was a ‘Hand-list of the

Genera and Species of Birds,’ containing not only the generic and

subgeneric names, but also a comprehensive list of the species

belonging to each. Of these works it may be sufficient to say that

they were elaborated with the utmost care, that they are almost

_unequalled for the accuracy of their details, and that no ornitholo-

gist can possibly work without constant reference to them and to

the authorities on which they are founded and to which they refer.

In 1844 he commenced, in connexion with the late David William

Mitchell, who undertook the illustration of the book, the publication

in numbers of a work entitled ‘ The Genera of Birds,’ which he com-

pleted in 1849. In this work the genera figured amounted to about

800, selected from the larger list contained in his other works as

the most essential, and they were accompanied by descriptive cha-

racters and by an extensive list of species belonging to each genus.

It was on this list that the much more enlarged catalogue contained

in his ‘Hand-list’ was chiefly founded, containing upwards of

11,000 species which the author considers autheniic, and no less

than 40,000 references to specific names given by various authors.

Miscellaneous. 481

In all these works, which are of such essential value to writers

on ornithology, it is difficult to overestimate the labour, the accu-

racy, and the importance attached to their compilation. The author

was indefatigable in his researches, and spared no pains in searching

out all that had been done in ornithology from every available

source ; and his success was in most respects commensurate with his

labours. His chief fault lay not in an overweening confidence in

his own conclusions (for he was always most ready to avail himself

of any suggestions or corrections that were made to him), but in an

over-sensitiveness which made him impatient of criticisms which he

considered carping, or of suggestions made without due considera-

tion on points which he had himself studied with the utmost

attention.

In his official capacity he was always most ready to attend to and

assist the numerous students who visited the Museum, and to give

them whatever information he possessed on the subjects on which

they were engaged; and many of our leading ornithologists will

readily admit that they owe much to his kind assistance and advice.

In private life he was equally kind-hearted and liberal, with some-

what of the same over-sensitiveness to which we have above referred

as distinctive of his scientific character. But a truer-hearted and a

better friend has seldom existed; and there are many, both in

public and private, who will sincerely deplore his loss. He died on

the 6th of May, in the 64th year of his age, leaving a blank in the

world of science which will not readily be filled up. He became a

Fellow of the Linnean Society in 1845, and of the Royal in 1866.

Jukella, a new Aleyonarian from Sir C. Hardy’s Island.

By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &c.

JUKELLA.

Coral hard, fleshy, forming a thick, smooth, barren stem, marked

by irregular longitudinal grooves or ridges; divided at the top into

irregular transverse foliaceous expan-

sions, sinuated or lobed on the mar-

gins, which are covered with close re-

tractile polypes on each of their sides.

All parts of the coral studded with

calcareous cylindrical spicules, which

have four more or less large, promi-

nent, separate, transverse plates, which

are largest in the middle and more

or less small or rudimentary at the

ends.

Jukella cristata.

Hab, Sir C. Hardy’s Island, South Pacific. Presented by J. B.

Jukes, Esq. Brit. Mus.

Attached to a shell and part of a rock. The stem is about four

Inches high; and the crests, of very irregular form and size, are

nearly parallel to each other, as if placed across the fleshy stem.

482 Miscellaneous.

Thouarella antarctica, from the Falkland Islands.

By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.BS. ce.

This species was first described by M. Valenciennes in the ‘ Voyage

of the Vénus,’ t. ii. f. 2, from a specimen found by Admiral Dupetit -

Thouars in the Falkland Islands. The British Museum has lately

received, by the kindness of Capt. Henry Toinbee, of the Meteoro-

logical Office, a very fine specimen of this species (which shows that

the one figured by Valenciennes must have been in a very imperfect

state), which was obtained by Capt. James Clark, R.N.R. (now

Captain of the ‘ Western Empire’), when dredging, on a calm day,

off Burwood Bank, lat. 54° 27'S8., long. 59° 40’ W., in 45 fathoms,

on the 1st of January 1872.

The corals were brought up in great abundance. The specimen

sent by Capt. Clark to the Museum consists of five similar branches

of very unequal length, the longest being 18 inches long, and of an

elongate cylindrical shape, each being surrounded by very numerous

club-shaped branchlets ending in a polyp. The branches are of un-

equal length, and make it like a cylindrical bottle-brush, but at-

tenuated towards the tip; they are all of a bright yellow colour.

Mr. Carter has kindly examined the cells under the microscope,

and observes that they are formed of oval imbricated scales, lacerated

on the edge, with radiating lines and scattered circular dots of a

calcareous secretion.

Capt. Clark obtained at the same time, and sent to the British

Museum,’a fine specimen of a Porella*like Porella cervicornis, of a

bright crimson colour, with pale compressed forked tips ; it may be

called P, antarctica.

Prize Question proposed by the Danish Royal Society of Scvences

for the Year 1872.

It is now a hundred years since the celebrated observations of

O. F. Miller upon the agamic reproduction (gemmiparity) of the

Naides were published ; and although there is no reason to doubt

their perfect exactitude in all essential points, it would be very de-

sirable that they should be taken up again from the present scientific

point of view, and with the means which science has now-a-days at

her disposal. Schultze, Leuckart, and Minor have furnished valu-

able contributions to the history of this mode of reproduction in the

Naides proper, as have Claus and Lankester for Cheetogaster ; never- -

theless more is wanted to place science in possession of sufficient

materials for the comprehension of all the points which it is neces-

sary to take into account. We do not know exactly what is the first

origin of the buds or new individuals; and consequently the relations

between the scissiparous and gemmiparous modes of reproduction

need to be better elucidated. The complete evolution, from the

moment when a Naid escapes from the ovum until, among the ge-

nerations issuing from this Naid, sexual ones again occur, has not.

been investigated in all its phases; and we may still inquire whether

the same individuals (zooids) are gemmiparous aud sexual, or whe-

Miscellaneous. 483°

ther the sexual and agamic reproductions are strictly confined to

different individuals or generations,

With regard to the other two groups of Annelides in which

agamic reproduction has hitherto been observed, namely the Syllidea

and the Serpulidea, the question is nearly in the same position.

For these reasons the Society wishes to induce a thorough inves-

tigation, in accordance with the present requirements of science, of

agamic reproduction and of all the points relating to it in one of the

groups of these setigerous Annelides. It therefore offers its gold

medal as a prize to any one who shall solve this question in a satis-

factory manner, either for one or several species of the group of

Naids (including Chetogaster), or for one or several species of Syl-

lidea or tubicolar Annelides. The memoirs must be accompanied

by the necessary drawings, so as to elucidate the points to which

the investigations have been specially directed.

The memoirs in answer to this question must be sent in before

the end of October 1873, addressed to Councillor Japetus Steenstrup,

Secretary of the Society. They may be written in Latin, French,

English, German, Swedish, or Danish. The memoirs must not bear

the names of the authors, but must be furnished with mottoes; and

each memoir must be accompanied by a sealed packet bearing on

the outside the same motto as the memoir, and enclosing the name,

profession, and address of the author. The value of the gold medal

is stated at 450 francs.

The Ears of Sea-lions and Sea-bears. By Dr. J. KE. Gray, F.R.S. &e.

Dr. Peters, in his ‘ Revision of the Eared Seals’ (Otaria), used the

length of the ears as a subgeneric and specific character; but, as

only preserved skins of these seals were to be observed and compared,

I had very little faith in the characters taken from those parts, as I

know by experience that the variation of the length and size of the

ears and the length of the lobes of the fins is produced by the manner

of preserving the animals, even by the most careful taxidermists.

In the Zoological Gardens there are now two species living, which

are the sea-lion from the Falkland Islands (Otaria jubata) and a

sea-bear or fur-seal (Arctocephalus antarctica) from the Cape of

Good Hope. The latter, my granddaughter informs me, has the ears

more than an inch long, the ears of the sea-bear being very much

more developed and larger those of the sea-lion; but I do not know

whether this may be a generic distinction or a specific peculiarity.

These remarks are confirmatory of Dr. Peters’s observation of the

skins ; for he describes the ears of the subgenus Otaria (jubata) as

short, 15 or 20 millims., and the ears of his subgenus Arctocephalus

and some of the other subgenera as longer. Do the elongated

palate and the short ears of the sea-lion and the long ears and short

palate of the sea-bear characterize the groups ?

484 Miscellaneous.

The Sea-Serpent agar !

“To the Editor of the Natal Colonist.

« Srr,—Thinking that a truthful description by an eye-witness of

that marvel of the ocean, the sea-serpent, may interest your readers, 1

crave your kind indulgence for the insertion of the following parti-

culars :—

“During my late passage from London I saw no less than three

sea-serpents ; but an account of the last will suffice.

«On the 30th of December last, on board the ‘ Silvery Wave,’ in lat.

about 35° South and long. 33° 30’ East, at 6.20 p.m., solar time, an

enormous serpent passing nearly across our bows compelled the alter-

ation of our course. He was at least 1000 yards long, of which

about one third appeared on the surface of the water at every stroke

of his enormous fan-shaped tail, with which he propelled himself,

raising it high above the waves and arching his back like a land-

snake or a caterpillar. In shape and proportion he much resembled

the cobra, being marked by the same knotty and swollen protuber-

ance at the back of the head on the neck. The latter was the

thickest part of the serpent. His head was like a bull’s in shape,

his eyes large and glowing, his ears had circular tips and were level

with his eyes, and his head was surmounted by a horny crest which

he erected and depressed at pleasure. He swam with great rapidity

and lashed the sea into a foam, like breakers dashing over jagged

rocks. ‘The sun shone brightly upon him, and with a good glass I

saw his overlapping scales open and shut with every arch of his

sinuous back, coloured like the rainbow.

“Tam &e.,

“J, Coppin.”

“ West Street, Durban, Jan. 22, 1872.”

Observations on the Extinct Whalebone-Whales (Baleenoida) the

Remains of which have been found in the Vienna Basin. By Prof.

J. F. Branpr.

This memoir relates to the numerous remains of marine Mam-

malia which are met with in the Sarmatian deposits of Vienna ; and

the author shows, that in the neighbourhood of Vienna and Linz

no fewer than three genera of whalebone-whales, namely Cetothe-

rium, Cetotheriopsis, and Pachyacanthus, are represented, the last

two being only known from this district. Cetotheriopsis includes

only the animal hitherto known as Balenodon lintianus, whilst the

genus Pachyacanthus embraces two species of small, heavily built

Cetaceans, remarkable for the incrassation of their vertebral pro-

cesses, and belonging solely to the Sarmatian deposits of Vienna.—

Anzeiger der Akad. der Wiss. in Wien, April 18, 1872, p. 82.

485

INDEX to VOL. IX.

ABLABES, new species of, 18.

Actinia, on a probably new species

of, 304,

Agarics, on the evolution of ammonia

by, 231.

Agassiz, Prof., on deep-sea dredgings,

169; on a fish-nest in the seaweed

of the Sargasso-sea, 243.

Ahetulla, new species of, 25.

Allman, Prof., on the morphology

and affinities of Graptolites, 364.

Amouroucium, new species of, 94.

Amphicentrum, new species of, 255.

Anderson, Dr. J., on Trionyx gange-

ticus and T. hurum, 382.

Animals, on the distribution of ma-

rine, on the southern coast of New

England, 92.

Annelides, on the reproduction of

the, 482.

Arctocephalus, on the ears of, 483.

Arctocephalus Hookeri, notes on, 89.

Argas reflexus, on the occurrence of,

at Canterbury, 242.

Atelicus, new species of, 154.

Aterpus, new species of, 154.

Atthey, T., on Pleurodus Rankinii,

on two new species of Platysomus,

and a new Amphicentrum, 249.

Atys, new species of, 346.

Azoic-mud theory, on the, 1.

Balaninus, new species of, 159,

Baptisia perfoliata, on the arrange-

ment and morphology of the leaves

of, 174.

Baranetzky, M., on the decomposition

of carbonic acid in the leaves of

plants, 148.

Batrachians, new Ceylonese, 85.

Sennett, Dr. G., on some Queensland

fossils, 514.

Bird, on a remarkable fossil, 326.

Birds, new, 47, 195, 305, 398, 401 ;

habits of tropic, 242.

Books, new:— Baily’s Figures of

Characteristic British Fossils, 240;

Nicholson’s Manual of Zoology,

241; Buller’s Birds of New Zea-

land, 475; Kirby’s Catalogue of

Diurnal Lepidoptera, 478,

Borodin, M., on the influence of light

upon chlorophyl, 144.

Brady, G. 8., on the distribution of

the British Ostracoda, 48.

Brandt, Prof. J. F., on extinct Whale-

bone- Whales, 484.

Bufo, new species of, 87.

Bullide, descriptions of new, 344.

Burmeister, Dr., on Arctocephalus

Hookeri, 89.

Cacophis, new species of, 35.

Calotes, new species of, 86.

Carter, H. J., on the structure of

Tethya dactyloidea, 82; on two

new Sponges from the Antarctic

Sea, 409; on a new species of

Tethya from Shetland, 417; on

the reproduction of Sponges, 419.

Cells in crystalline form, on, 99.

Chantran, 8., on the fecundation of

the Crayfish, 173.

Cheiroptera, on the myology of the,

402; on some Pupipara parasitic

upon, 407.

Cherrus, new species of, 155.

Chlorophyl, on the action of light

upon, 144,

Chlorostilbon, new species of, 195.

Chrysopelea, new species of, 27.

Cisticola, new species of, 400.

Cladodus mirabilis, on, 260.

Cope, Prof. E. D., on the systematic

relations of fishes, 155.

Corals, on the affinities of palzeozoic

tabulate, with existing species,

355.

Coronella, new species of, 19.

Crayfish, on the fecundation of the,

173.

Criniger, new species of, 400,

Ctenodus, on the body-scales of, 257.

Curculionide, on Australian, 152.

Cyamus Rhytine, observations on,

312,

Cydmea, characters of the new

genus, 137.

Cylichna, new species of, 351.

Cypris, new species of, 55.

Cytheropteron, new species of, 61,

Deep-sea dredgings, on, 169,

486

Demyrsus, characters of the new

genus, 156.

Dendrophis, new species of, 25.

Diemenia, new species of, 35.

Diphyes, on the anatomy of the

nervous system of, 114.

Diplotropis, characters of the new

genus, 24,

Dipsas, new species of, 32.

Dromicus, new species of, 22.

Drosera as a fly-catcher, 104.

Egerton, Sir P. Grey, on Prognatho-

dus Giintheri, 325.

Ehlers, Prof., on the development of

Syngamus trachealis, 236.

Ehrenberg’s, Prof., species of Fora-

minifera, observations on, 211,280.

Elseya, on a new species of, 303.

Kremias, new species of, 381.

Eschrichtius robustus, discovery of,

in Cornwall, 440.

Felis pardinoides, note on, 325.

Fishes, on the systematic relations of,

155; new, 329, 438,

Fish-nest in the seaweed of the

Sargasso-sea, 243,

Flower, W. H., on a subfossil Whale

discovered in Cornwall, 440,

Flyingfish, notes on, 327.

Foraminifera, on the nomenclature

of the, 211, 280.

Fossils,a trip to Queensland in search

of, 314.

Frank, Dr. B., on a peculiar property

of chlorophyl, 145.

Geophis, new species of, 15.

Giraffe, on the horns, viscera, and

muscles of the, 177.

Goeppert, Prof., on the degree of

cold which living plants are able

to support, 153.

Gould, J., on two new species of

Humming-birds, 195; on a new

species of Thrush, 401.

Graptolites, on the morphology and

affinities of the, 364.

Gray, Prof. A., on the arrangement

and morphology of the leaves of

Baptisia perfoliata, 174.

Gray, G. R., notice of the late, 480.

Gray, Dr. J. E., on Tapirus villosus,

169; on a four-bearded Water-

Terrapin from North Australia,

303 ; on Halicheerus gryphus, 322;

on the animal of the Glass-rope,

324; on Felis pardinoides, 325; on

the genus Osteocella, 405; on the

INDEX.

classification of the Sponges, 442 ;

on Indian Mud-tortoises, 473; on

a new Alcyonarian, 481 ; on Thou-

arella antarctica, 482; on the ears

of Sea-lions and Sea-bears, 483.

Greef, Dr. R., on the structure and

natural history of the Vorticelle,

105, 196, 384, 462.

Gulliver, G., on the occurrence of

Argas reflexus, 242.

Giinther, Dr., on new species of

Snakes, 13; on new Ceylonese

Reptiles and Batrachians, 85 ; on

three new species of Eremias,

381; on two new Fishes from

Celebes, 438.

Gyracanthus tuberculatus, observa-

tions on, 260.

Halicherus gryphus, note on, 322.

Haminea, new species of, 349.

Hancock, A., on Pleurodus Rankinii,

on two new species of Platysomus,

and a new Amphicentrum, 249.

Hapsidophrys, new species of, 26.

Hector, Dr. J., on the New-Zealand

Bottlenose, 436,

Heliangelus, new species of, 195.

Heller, Prof. on the Hydroida of

the Adriatic, 116.

Helodus simplex, note on, 261.

Herpetodryas, new species of, 23.

Hildebrandt, M., on the fecundation

of phanerogamous plants, 233,

Hincks, Rey. T., on the Hydroida of

the Adriatic, 116.

Hulke, J. W., on a fragment of a

Teleosaurian snout, 104.

Hyalonema, on the animal of the, 324.

Hydreethiops, characters of the new

genus, 28.

Hydroida of the Adriatic, on the, 116.

Hydrophis, new species of, 33.

Hydrozoa, oceanic, on the neryous

system of some, 114.

Hyloterpe, new species of, 399.

Ixalus, new species of, 87.

James-Clark, Prof. H., on the Ame-

rican Spongilla as a craspedote

flagellate Infusorian, 71.

Jeffreys, J. Gwyn, on the Mollusca

of St. Helena, 262.

Jones, Prof. T.R., onthenomenclature

of the Foraminifera, 211, 280.

Jukella, description of the new ge-

nus, 481.

Karsten, Prof. H., on cells in crys-

talline form, 99,

INDEX.

King Crabs and Trilobites, on the

systematic position of the, 98.

Kyle, R., on a probably new species

of Actinia, 304.

Leemosaccus, new species of, 140.

Lagenorhynchus clanculus, observa-

tions on, 436,

Larix, on the morphology of the

carpellary scales in, 245.

Leighton, Rev. W. A., Notulee Li-

chenologicze by the, 122.

Leptocalamus, characters of the new

genus, 16.

Leptodira, new species of, 31.

Leptognathus, new species of, 30.

Lichenocrinus, on the genus, 247.

Light, on the abyssal theory of, 1.

Limulidee, on the relationship of the,

to the Eurypteride and to the

Trilobita, 406.

Liptoptena, new species of, 407.

Loriculus, new species of, 398.

Liitken, Dr. C., on Oneirodes Esch-

_ richtii, 329.

Macalister, Prof, A., on the myology

of the Cheiroptera, 402.

Macdonald, Dr. J. D., on the nervous

system of Diphyes, 114.

M‘Intosh, W.C., ontheabyssal theory

of light, the protozoic-absorption

theory, and theazoic-mud theory, 1.

Maple, on the ascent of the sap in

the, 230.

Marsh, Prof. O. C., on a remarkable

fossil bird, 326.

Meehan, T., on the morphology of

the carpellary scales in Larix, 245,

Meek, F, B., on the genus Licheno-

crinus, 247,

Melanterius, new species of, 141.

Merulina, on a fossil coral allied to,

84,

Metacypris, new species of, 51.

Micheli, M., on some recent re-

searches in vegetable physiology,

142, 230.

Microdromus, characters of the new

genus, 17, |

Microscope, on a new micrometric

goniometer eye-piece for the, 175.

Microxylobius Westwoodii, observa-

tions on, 112.

Mollusca of St. Helena, on the, 262.

Mugil, new species of, 439.

Murie, Dr. J., on the horns, viscera,

and muscles of the Giraffe, 177; on

the skin &c, of the Rhytina, 306,

487

Myzomela, new species of, 399.

Naides, on the agamic reproduction

of the, 482.

Nessia, new species of, 86.

Newton, Prof. A., on the osteology

of the Solitaire, 168, 321.

Notule Lichenologics, 122.

Nycteribia, new species of, 408.

Nylander, Dr. W., on the genus

Ramalina, 122.

Ochropheebe, characters of the new

genus, 139.

Oncidium celticum, anatomico-zoolo-

gical remarks upon, 101.

Oneirodes Eschrichtii, description of,

329.

Opisthotropis, characters of the new

genus, 16

Oreocincla, new species of, 401.

eee observations on the genus,

405.

Ostracoda, on the distribution of the

British, 48.

Otaria, on the ears of, 483.

Owen, Prof., on the osteology of the

Solitaire, 241,

Paradoxostoma, new species of, 53.

Parker, W. K., on the nomenclature

of the Foraminifera, 211, 280,

Pascoe, F. P., on Australian Curcu-

lionide, 152.

Pembroke, Earl of, on the habits of

tropic birds, 242; on the pigs of

the Society Islands, 326; on flying-

fish, 327.

Pericheta diffringens, on the accli-

matization and anatomy of, 322.

Perophora, new species of, 94.

Pfeiffer, Dr., on the decomposition of

carbonic acid in the leaves of

plants, 148.

Philodryas, new species of, 25.

Phosphorescence of marine animals,

on the, 3.

Pigs of the Society Islands, on the,

326,

Planaxis, on the species of the genus,

57 ; new species of, 355.

Plants, on the decomposition of

carbonic acid in the leaves of, 148;

on the diffusion of gases in the

interior of, 150; on the degree of

cold which living plants are able

to support, 153; on the fecundation

of phanerogamous, 233 ; fossil, of

the coal-measures, researches on

the, 403,

488

Platysomus, new species of, 252.

Pleurodus Rankinii, observations on,

249,

Polyphrades, new species of, 133.

Porzana, new species of, 47.

Prognathodus Giintheri, description

of, 325.

Protozoic-absorption theory, onthe, 1,

Pseudonaja, new species of, 35.

Pupipara, on some new, parasitic

upon Cheiroptera, 407.

Reptiles, new Ceylonese, 85.

Rhinaria, new species of, 135.

Rhinelaps, characters of the new

genus, 33.

Rhinotia, new species of, 158.

Rhytina, on the skin &c. of the, 506.

Robertson, D., on the distribution of

the British Ostracoda, 48.

Rossella, new species of, 414.

Royal Society, proceedings of the,

402.

Rudow, Dr. F., on some Pupipara

parasitic upon Chiroptera, 407.

Sachs, Prof., on the action of light

upon chlorophyl, 145.

Schroeder, M., on the spring period

of the Maple, 280.

Sea-serpent, a “truthful” description

of the, 484.

Seeley, H. G., on the origin of the

vertebrate skeleton, 265.

Simotes, new species of, 20.

Smith, H. A., on the species of the

genus Planaxis, 37, 344; on several

species of Bullide, 544.

Snakes, new species of, 15.

Solitaire, on the osteology of the,

168, 241, 321.

Southworth, J. P., on a new micro-

metric goniometer eye-piece for

the microscope, 175.

Sponges, on the affinities of the, 71;

on the reproduction of, 419; on

the classification of the, 443; new,

409, 417.

Spongilla arachnoidea, on the struc-

ture and development of, 71.

Stenocorynus, new species of, 134,

Strebla, new species of, 407.

Sunfish, on the viviparity of the,

328.

Symphorus, characters of the new

genus, 458.

INDEX.

Syngamus trachealis, on the develop-

ment of, 236.

Tachymenis, new species of, 19.

Tapirus villosus, note on, 169,

Tethya, new species of, 412, 417.

Tethya dactyloidea, on the structure

of, 82.

Thouarella antarctica, notes on, 482.

Titinia, new species of, 132.

Tornatina, new species of, 354.

Trilobites, on the systematic position

of the, 98.

Trionyx gangeticus and T. hurum,

observations on, 382, 473.

Vaillant, L., on Oncidium celticum,

101; on the acclimatization and

anatomy of Pericheta diffringens,

322.

Van Beneden, M. E., on the syste-

matic position of the King Crabs

and Trilobites, 98.

Vegetable physiology, on some recent

researches in, 142, 230.

Verrill, Prof. A. E., on the distribu-

tion of marine animals on the

southern coastof New England,92;

on the affinities of palzeozoic tabu-

late Corals with existing species,

305.

Vertebrate skeleton, on the origin of

the, 265.

Vicary, W., on a fossil Coral allied

to Merulina, 84.

Vorticelle, on the structure and

natural history of the, 105, 196,

384, 462.

Walden, Viscount, on a new species

of Porzana, 47 ; on a supposed new

species of Cuckoo, 305; on new

species of birds, 398.

Whale, on a subfossil, discovered in

Cornwall, 440.

Whales, on extinct Whalebone-, 484.

Williamson, Dr. W. C., on the fossil

plants of the Coal-measures, 403.

Wollaston, T. V., on Microxylobius

Westwoodii, 112.

Woodward, H., on the relationship

of the Limulide to the EKurypte-

ridee and to the Trilobita, 406.

Zamenis, new species of, 22.

Zamenophis, characters of the new

genus, 21,

END OF THE NINTH VOLUME,