PREFACE.

const Bh Cet ctane

The Asratic Socraty, on the 7th March, 1832*, passed a reso-

lution, that the montlily journal hitherto published under the name

of “ GLEANINGS IN SCIENCE,” should be permitted to assume that

of JourNAL oF THE AsIATIC SociETY, and to continue it as long

as the publication remains under the charge of one or both of the

Secretaries of the Society. This privilege has, as it was anticipated,

been the means of extending very considerably its circulation, while

it has given a character and authenticity to the work,by its connection

with an institution of established literary reputation, which no ano-

nymous magazine, however well conducted, could hope to command.

The advantages of extended circulation have reacted to the

benefit of subscribers, by enabling the Editor to increase the

quantity of letter press from 400 to nearly 600 pages ; and yet so

constant has been the growing support of its contributors, that

the pages of ruE JourNnat have been devoted, with few excep-

tions, to the insertion of original communications.

To many readers it would doubtless have been preferable

that THE JourNnat should contain more copious extracts from Eng-

lish scientific periodicals, which are not procurable in the interior

of India; but conceding that, as an organ of Indian scientific

intelligence, it must obviously derive its only merit among the ma-

ny similar periodicals of the present day, from its stores of oriental

literary and physical research, it will be generally acknowledged,

that the first object of the work should be to give publicity

to such oriental matter as the antiquarian, the linguist, the

traveller, and the naturalist may glean, in the ample field

open to their industry in this part ofthe world. While acting

* The January number was not published until the middle of March.—

Since then exertions have been made to bring up arrears, and in future each

monthly number will appear with regularity on the 10th of the following

month ; the insertion of the meteorological register rendering an earlier issue

impossible.

Vill PREFACE.

on this principle, however, the Editor has not lost sight of

the great utility of following, as far as means would permit, the

progress of the various sciences at home, especially such as are

connected in any way with Asia; the only limits thereto being

want of space, and want of time to peruse and extract from the vast

number of publications of the present day. - Want of room also

precluded the possibility of republishing the proceedings of the

Medical and of the Horticultural Societies ; but this had become

less urgent since both of those useful bodies adopted the excellent

rule afl giving early publicity to their own proceedings and records.

Yo theAsiatic Society rue Journat has naturally looked for its

most frequent and interesting communications; and in consequence

of its more intimate connection with that Institution, the proceed-

ings of that body have been given in greater detail than heretofore,

so that absent members may learn exactly what passes at its

meetings, and what accessions are made from time to time

to its library and its museum. Many absent members have

complained of the quarterly subscriptions they were hereto-

fore called upon to pay, while they remained in ignorance

of what was going forward; this source of objection is now

obviated, and perhaps a still greater amendment may yet be ef-

fected for their benefit, by an arrangement that all members of

the Society shall receive a copy of the Journal gratis, which

will reduce their annual payments nearly one fourth.

It is unnecessary to recapitulate the contents of the present

volume, or to allude in anonymous praise to those who have

favored its pages with their assistance; since the authors have,

in most cases, on suggestion, permitted their writings to be

authenticated by the insertion of their names, as should always be

the case in matters uf fact, observation, and research. One il-

lustrious name however must not be passed over without a tribute

of gratitude for its valued and frequent contributions, a tribute

more sincerely paid, since India has now lost the power and the

claim to their continuance ; she has resigned her most eminent

oriental scholar to climes where his talents may find more genial

appreciation, but where they cannot excite more respect or ad-

miration, than they will ever command in the land which called

forth their energies and directed their application.

PREFACE. 1X

The learned Societies at home will be proud to publish the

+ continuation of the Analyses of the Puranas, of which the four

first have appeared in these pages. Abstracts of four only were

ready for the press, but translations of the remainder of the eigh-

teen Puranas themselves had been completed under the superin-

tendence of Professor Wilson before he quitted India.

Mr. Alexander Csoma’s indefatigable labour, in opening to us

a first acquaintance with the literature of Tibet, will be estimated

as it deserves by literary men—a contracted circle perhaps, because

deep erudition and study are requisite to form critics capable of

appreciating the nature and bearing of his peculiar researches upon

the history, languages, and religions of other nations, both ancient

and modern. All may however feel sensible of the devotion, zeal,

and perseverance which are necessary to lead a man, alone and

unpaid, into a distant and wild country, to learn its language and

study its people at the fountain head. ‘The volumes of notes which

Mr. Csoma has presented to the Asiatic Society, will, it is hoped,

be published in their Researches at length.

In furtherance of the desire of the Government, the greater

part of Dr. Buchanan’s Statistics of Dinajpur has been printed in

a detached form, as commenced by the Editor of the GLEANINGs;

and to complete the work more speedily, two extra numbers have

been issued in the course of the year. It will be remarked, that

there are many plates referred to in the text: the drawings

alluded to are in possession of the Honorable Court of Direc-

tors, along with the original manuscripts; it was thought better

to preserve the references, in case the Hon’ble Court might here-

after be persuaded to publish them, either in a separate form or of a

size adapted to the present edition. It must not be forgotten that it

is this undertaking which gained to the GLEANINGs, the valuable

privilege of free postage through the Bengal Presidency. The

Editor is happy to announce that the same boon has, in the most

liberal manner, and without any solicitation, been extended to the

Presidency of Bombay and to the Government of Ceylon, by their

enlightened Governors, His Excellency Viscount Ciare, and

His Excellency Sir R. W. Horton, to whom his thanks are thus

publicly and respectfully addressed.

x PREFACE.

To his numerous correspondents the Editor can but proffer

thanks for past, and solicitations for future, support, bidding them

remember that, the scope and object of this publication embraces

the literature, the manners, the geography, physical and mineral,

the arts, the natural productions of Asia, the phenomena of its

climate, and observations of the heavens. In the words of the

illustrious founder of the Asiatic Society, ‘“ the bounds of its

investigation will be the geographical limits of Asia; and within

these limits its inquiries will be extended to whatever is performed

by man or produced by nature.”

CONTENTS.

No. 1.—JANUARY.

Page.

I. Abstract of the Contents of the Dul-va, or first portion of the Kah-gyur, from the

Analysis of Mr. Alexander Csoma de Koros. By H. H. Wilson, Sec. A.S... 1

TI. On the Native Method of making the Paper, denominated in Hindustan, Nipa-

lese. By B. H. Hodgson, Esq. Acting Resident, Nipal, 4c 8

11J. Account of anew Genus of Land Snails, allied to the Genus Cyclostoma, ng

Lamarck ; with a Description of a Species found on the outlying Rocks of the

Rajmahal range of Hills. By W. H. Benson, Esq. Bengal Civil Service, .. I1

IV. Examination of Minerals from Ava. By J. Prinsep, Sec. Ph. Cl. oe Va

V. New Bridge over the Mussi, at Hyderabad, o 3" SAiel 7/

VI. A Method of rectifying a Route Protraction, ive wi Sepp

VII. Comparison of the Indus and Ganges Rivers, de Bare

VIII. Summary of Meteorological Observations made at the Saree IGenemils

Office in Calcutta, during the years 1829-30-31, ae ae «. 20

IX. Screntiric INTELLIGENCE.

1. Account of an Earthquake at Lahore, 23rd Jan. 1832, th PRY Bu!

2. Population of Allahabad, sie oes i in ees

X. PROcEEDINGs OF SOCIETIES.

1. Asiatic Society, He is 4s -- 39

2. Medical and Physical Society, : te or .. 37

3. Société d’Histoire Naturelle of the Mauritius, ae Aes]

No. 2.—FEBRUARY.

I. Account of the Honorable Company’s Botanic Garden at poner By

J. F. Royle, Esq. late Superintendent, S. anal

Il. Further Illustrations of the Antilope Hodgsonii. By B. a. Eien, Esq. .. 59 ¥

TI. Note relative to the Account of the Jarai, published in the Gleanings, No. 14.

By the same, 50 ee ae

IV. On Modes of obtaining asortanl Results by Simple “Mears: By Capt. G.

Twemlow, Bomb. Ar ty, dy as ite ae -. 68

VY. ScrentiFic INTELLIGENCE.

1. Progress of the Indian Trigonometrical Survey, ate a 3 wk

2. Climate of Vera Cruz, z cf oe ben Seen

3. Range of the Barometer at Borhatege BPE a i3

4. Hourly Observations of the Barometer in the Bdicod of eevite, .. 74

5. Dr. Wise’s Ice Manufacture at Hiagli, bof Bien a oegtOe

VI. PRocEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

1. Asiatic ‘Society, ; oe is Bie As

2. Medical and Physical Siticty, é : ve a Savas |

3. Société d’Histoire Naturelle of the Manritins, - ay SoA

No. 3.—MARCH.

I. Analysis of the Puranas. By H. H. Wilson, Sec. As. Soc. Bi ea ek: |

1]. On the Poetry of Madagascar. By the Rev. Mr. Baker, 86

TE. Extr racts from Dr. Royle’s Explanatory Address on the Exhibition of his Collec-

tions in Natural History, at the Meeting of the Asiatic Society on the 7th March, 96

xil CONTENTS.

IV. On the Utility of Cess-pools in Calcutta,

V. On the Temperature and Saltness of the River Hagli, ds Calcutta to the Sea.

Fa Ass . 104

By G. A. Prinsep, Esq.

VI. Scientiric INTELLIGENCE.

. Burmese Varnish,

. Fishes of the Ganges,

. Carton-pierre, am

. Progress of Impr myaments’ in France,

Mode of conducting the Meetings of the Aleddaniis,

. Caoutchouc,

INH Om ew =

J. Hooker, L.L.D. Reg. Prof. Bot. at Glasgow,

8. Explanation of the Sketches of the Horns of the Jarai, Plate v.

VII. ProceEDINcs or SoOcIETIES.

1. Asiatic Society,

2. Medical and Physical Societys :

3. Natural History Society of the Maunitins,

No. 4.—APRIL.

Page.

. 100

2 LG

oe Fit

2b.

. 112

. Directions for Selleapins and preserving Plats 3 in Fereige Couaiiell By W.

. 113

. 115

ee lay

Boks

vil d9

1. Geographical Notice of Tibet. By Mr. Alexander Csoma de Koros,

I]. Account of Barren Isiand, in the Bay of Bengal. Drawn up by the Jate Dr. ‘TL

Adam,

Il. Flora Indica, or "Weseripieen of iedtan ipigna ee the we yall fae

burgh, M. D. F.R.S. E. &c. &c. Vols. I. II. and IIT.

TV. A Sketch of the Route and Progress of Lieut. A. Burnes and Dr. Goaae By

a recent Traveller,

V. Some Account of the Salt Mines of thé Baaab: By ee A. ee ee.

Army,

VI. Mode of Brtraeting the Gold Dust feo the Sand ‘of the Nunetbse Riv er,

VII. Note on Indian Saline Deposits. By the Rev. R. Everest,

VIII. Smelting of Tron in the Kasya Hills,

TX. On Chinese Vermilion,

X, Abstract of Meteorological Tables, kept at “Banctora, by Mr. J. MacRitchie,

for 1830 and 1831,

XT. Native Receipt Book,

XII. ProcEepIncs oF Soctetizs.

1. Asiatic Society,

2. Medical and Physical Society :

3. Natural History Society of the a bates:

XIII. Catalogue of Mammalia observed in the Dakhan. By Major W.H. Sykes,

XIV. Meteorological Register for March,

No. 5.—MAY.

I. Some Account of the Lacquered or Japanned Ware of Aya.

Burey, Resident at the Burmese Court, :

TI. Analysis of the Chinese Varnish. By Mr. I. Maxaite Prinsep,

III. Summation of Polynomial Co-efficients. By Mr. W. Masters,

IV. Geological Sketch of Masti and Landour, in the Himalaya ; together with an

Abstract of the Thermometrical Register kept at Landour during the year 1831.

By F. H. Fisher, Asst. Surgeon, «

V. On Modes of obtaining Important Results by Sipe Means.

Twemlow, Bombay Arty, Ai

By Major H.

‘By Capt. G.

CONTENTS. Xiii

Page.

VI. State of Science in England, - 198

VII. Memoranda regarding the Difference boowed Morning and Blain: Altitudes,

for ascertaining the Apparent Time on board Ship, By Capt. D. Ross, Marine

Surveyor General, Si ae Aa -- 202

VIII. Scientiric INTELLIGENCE.

1. Mr. A. Csoma de Koros, yO ae si 204

2. Higli Ice Manufactory, ae me te Ds

3. Mereni Dye Wood, i ot .. 205

4. Decline of Science in France, «« 206

5, Letter from Abdul Mojid on the subject of the Arbelon Deatiaee o« 208

TX. ProcEEDINGS oF SOCIETIES.

1. Asiatic Society, 3 ve .- 209

2. Medical and Physical Society” he <¢ oe 00;

3. Agricultural and Horticultural Society, ae . Qa

Meteorological Register, for May, is Ae -. 216

No. 6.—JUNE.

I. Analysis of the Puranas. By H. H. Wilson, Sec. As. Soc. / . 217

{I. Some Observations on the Quantity of Earthy Matter brought pat f by the

Ganges River. By the Rey. R. Everest, . 238

TIT. Note on the Magic Mirrors of Japan. By James on insep, Sec. Ph. Cl. As. ne, 242

IV. Description of the Native Manufacture of Steel in Southern India. By Dr.

Voysey, : ae = be Ae .. 245

VY. PROCEEDINGS OF Sécrmrtcs.

1. Asiatic Society—Physical Class, te so ae bis .. 248

Chirra Pinji Coal, se a ie te Aa sy Oe

Salem [ron Works, he A $2 oO

2. Medical and Physical Sociéty- ae Be ast .. 255

Be Agricultural and Horticultural Society, ta BOTTA

4. Natural History Society of the Mauritius, Ae is a .. 258

VI. European Intelligence, 9 5% ME i .. 260

Catalogue of Indian Birds, = he, oe ae . = 264

Meteorological Table for June, ore ae +4 ee 204

No. 7.—JULY.

TI. Translation of a Tibetan Fragment, by Mr. Csoma de Koros, with Remarks =

H. H, Wilson, Sec. . 269

II. Estimate of the Risk of Life to Civil Servants be ihe Bengal Presutonay in

each year of their residence in India. By H.T. Prinsep, Esq. Secretary to

Government, &c. &c. oc mie: DEV

_ IL. On the Gypsum of the Enno By Gap: Raat Cautey, vi ~« 289

IV. Climate of Chirra Punji, Se 7 ah. . 297

VY. Proceedings of the Asiatic Secs.” ia aA .. 298

2. Natural History Society of the Manritius, ee -» 302

VI. Screntiric INTELLIGENCE. ae

]. Boring for Water in France, He she «. (308

2. Meteorological Averages at Canton a Mander oe sie v0 1D)

3. Polyzonal Lens, ane ne ae -. 304

4, Litharge of Ava, Ae ae ee + .. 305

5. Timber Trade in Cachar, ib,

VII. Recommendations of the Sub- Cusiniiies of Aids Br itish ‘Pa getation for dis

Advancement of Science, fa 30 -- 306

VIL. Catalogue of Indian Birds, (asic ) -" we .. 313

XIV CONTENTS.

IX. Instructions for collecting and preserving Coleopterous Insects, ae

X. Meteorological Table, bo Ps .. 326

No. 8.—AUGUST.

_ I. Progress of Indian Maritime Surveys, ‘ 52307

II. On the Mammalia of Nepal. By B. H. Watieena: mee C. S. .. 335

TIL. Memoir of Giuseppe d’ Amato, f rs Shala .. 349

IV. Oriental Accounts of the Precious Minciale, ae ie . 353

V. Proceedings of the Asiatic Society—Physical Class, Ls -- 363

VI. Scientific Intelligence. °

1. Gold Mines of North America, yOGD

2. Analysis of the Copper Ores of Cuba, in with Geico a Villa Ciara: By P.

Don Ramon de la Sagra, . 366

3. Coal from the district of Guanah, in ‘the isiaa of Sia analysed by Don

Ramon de la Sagra, as . 366

VII. Progress of European Science, Blectrinity. ae oe .. 367

VIII. Meteorological Table for August, $f * staf

No. 9.—SEPTEMBER.

I. Analysis of the Kah-gyur. By H. H. Wilson, Sec. As. Society, wos

II. On the Ancient Roman Coins in the Cabinet of the Asiatic ee By James

Prinsep, Sec. Ph. Cl. : -. 392

T1I. Observations of the Transit of Medoare By ditto, .. 408

IV. On the Habits of the Paludine. By Lieut. T. Hutton, 37th N. 4 se A

V. Proceedings of the Asiatic Society, ee AF Pra

VI. Miscellaneous Intelligence.

1. Extract of a letter from Lieut. Alex. Burnes, dated Balkh, 11th June, 1832, 418

2, Lithontrity practised in Persia, ie = a. 419

3. Cholera in Ava, ‘ te Ae os Kal 2B,

4, Rain at Chirra Punji, -. 420

5. Arabic method of ascertaining the Humidae? of the Soil,» re .- 420

6. Mirage in India, ‘Bic sie oe aia me 420

7. Hara Mina, or Green Basalt used for colouring Stucco, oe e208

8. On the Converging Beams of Light, ae seen opposite to the Sun, 28.

9. Errors in Dr. Arnott’s Physics, vol. ii. 2 oe ~. 422

10. Silver Mines discovered in Cuba, -- 423

1]. Supposed Change of Climate of the Nolin ashes of the Earth, -. 424

12. Limestone Formation, = aie Bea aiZO,

13. Correction of mistake vopartie ‘Mariag Guteeging! ae on ae

VII. Procress or EUROPEAN SCIENCE.

1. Steam Carriages, es 0 ae ma 20

VIII. Meteorological Table for Septaliien os ve -- 430

No. 10.—OCTOBER.

I. Analysis of the Vishnu Purana. By H. H. Wilson, Sec. As. Soc. -- 431

II. On the Standard Weights of England and India, . 442

III. Remarks on a late Paper in the Asiatic Journal on the Gepaun of the Hie:

laya. By the Rev. R. Everest, ae -- 450

IV. Description of the Regulating Dam- Sluices of the Deab Canal, : .. 454

V. Note on the Jabalpar Fossil Bones. By James Prinsep, Sec. &c. .. 456

VI. List of Articles of Materia Medica, obtained in the Bazars of India. By J. F.

Royle, Esq. 0 -- 458

VII. Proceedings of the Asiatic Boviety UP lsceal Class, 4 - -. 472

CONTENTS. XV

Page.

VIII. Notes in Natural History. By Lieut. T, Hutton, 37th N. I.

]. Ova of the Spider, He a a be 3 .. 474

2. The Scorpion, oi 5a Se AC ne “te wea 20%

3. Fresh-water Crab, is Ne ae sig ae Ses

IX. MisceLuanegous INTELLIGENCE.

1. Roman Coins in Upper India, as ave an ie Be - 476

2. Spontaneous Combustion of Coal, ac ae ale es 55 ao tie

3. Transit of Mercury observed in England, as of Se Be ee

4. Rain at Chirra Punji, 4 Age sc 42 Be -. 477

5. Electric Spark from the Magnet ee Bi AL mets! scot @Ote

No. 11—NOVEMBER.

I. Notice of the peculiar Tenets held by the followers of Syed Ahmed, taken chiefly

from the “ Sirat ul Mustaqim,” a principal Treatise of that Sect, written by

Moulayi Mahommed Ismail, . 479

II. Description of an Instrument for eee Anetea: By Lieut. 7. S. Burt, Basi

neers, .- 499

III. On the Trisection of wee By Mr. W. Masters, Werle aoadeiay: . 501

IV. Note on Indiaa Saline Deposits. a Mr. Henry Harpur ie, Bengal Medical

Service, Ve aie - 503

V. Eclipses of J apitae s j Satellites, ot . 504

VI. Abstract of Observations of the Temperature, Breese and Herendeen

___ states of the Air in the vicinity of Delhi. By Major Oliver, $4 -- 506

VII. Proceedings of the Society, a6 <8 es -- 512

VIII. Scientiric INTELLIGENCE, es ae se -. 514

TX. Progress of Geological Science, ae agi af .. 515

X. Procress of MECHANICAL SCIENCE.

1. Iron Suspension Wheels; me 2° a -- 529

No. 12.—DECEMBER.

I. Analysis of the Vayu Purana. By H. H. Wilson,Sec. As. Soc. .. . 535

IL. Extracts from a Journal kept by Mr. J. Emmott, Master Attendant at Mergui,

whilst visiting the Sapan Forests, . 544

III; Some additional Observations on the aanbite of Earthy Matter browehe dies,

by the Ganges, its depth and velocity, made during the rainy season of 1832, at

Ghaziptr. By the Rev. R. Everest, ne an os -. 549

IV. Eclipses of Jupiter’s Satellites, : - 550

VY. Description of the Anglometer, an isticunaent for wean he Galenkdidie.

By Captain C. Cowles, fe a 2) ODL

VI. On the Indications of the Pulse din to the Hindis, ae ~» 553

VII. Notes in Natural History. By Lieut. T. Hutton, 37th N. 1. 3: . 554

VIII. Proceedings of the Asiatic Society, ae me ae -. 559

TX. European Scientic INTELLIGENCE.

1. New Nautical Almanac, SE -. 568

2. Heated Air and Uncoked Coal for Smelting on Ore, we -- 571

8. Price as measured by Money, of 5¢ oe say e.

DIRECTIONS TO THE BINDER.

The sheets of Buchanan’s Statistics are to be separated from the month.

ly numbers. The Plates may either be bound up at the end of the volume,

or in the following order :

Hydetabad Bridge, isjsesss.qessies oaderas sas -dnatanreces adel on -depasnd ee 14

Deharanpur Garden, -... 0-0. dat ssowan tae ieeticen Sacadeinsst us tines Saieege Daan 41

Hornsof Antilope’ Hodgsonit,. .....'2.o..sctns See si~ooendaden evabeabaneeeeee 65

Measurement of Barrackpur Wasp,’ 0. cc.2:decsdes «ea vqe use cet por eRe en 71

Horns OF She Varal, © Ts ikendee dc aasegs sos oon qualsde dddec daa Cheer neh cee 115

Rasve Murnace.%.. oc 78s seas soregetes «00s osnep «0 -'pua aus nese alee tue ae 150

SED AMESS IMATTOR, «<< .agtacessicesvnsinse0os'os sass aaenmdertog nna ager aaiemmanes 244

Roman Coins, Pl. Wo... scccece.seevecigeowsiasd cogs uncpe Caan tales oo dk te mene 398

Do. do. Lf Re ree EEC es eee SS 400

Do. do. TILT, (Po sien tuna deteng cs Ai e~< deme teases + «ae ad eee 404

Do. do. BV. Sieh Sided Jetide ceca e oo UMmmbaeaasy 2» tacnal Meenas 406

Dam Slaices of thet Moab Canal 2.5. .licrcaceseccoesess dodesssdeceedeemeaene 454

Trisection Of Augers. x caiis vaocesaveseeessigse Toaveakascs «ta seen en aeaeeeeemeee 500

Tron Suspension Witeels,» |,.s<ccsses-andeeagteedsss avinscinias «<eaeey sue benemamaane 529

tAnglometer,™ \....cvesagbecaies canal sic’ s san< <eunacammmeaec teal «os ag ae eae 551

ERRATA.

Page 10 line 9 for “wool,” read “ wood.”

pre tals

— 7 from bottom, for “ plate 1, fig. 2,” read “ plate 2, fig.

last line, for “ delomite,” read “ dolomite.”

— 16 from bottom, for “3, 4,5,” read “1, 2,3, 4.”

— 8 from top, for “plate 1,” read “plate 2.”

— 9 for “he protracted,” read “the protracted.”

— ll for “BB” B’,” read “B” B’.”

— 16 for “intercepts,” rsad “intersects.”

AND

In Fig 2, nia IT. continue the dotted arc 1’1 a” to a’.

The line A c’ continue to c.

—

Beauie Aes

Per tel y een

— 148

— 7 fromtop, for “manima,”’ read “ minima.”

at bottom, for “ Artesien,” read “ Artesian.”

— 7 for “ January,” read “ February.”

410 — — in last column of Table II. for “2m. 58s. 8,” read “Om. 58s. 8.”

— 18 from top, after “which” imsert “comma.”

Sees “either” ditto.

— 2 from top, for “have,” read “has.”

— 12 for “994 992 993,” read “ 99! 992 993.”

— 24 and throughout the article, for “ sack,” read “sac

— 4 “ orbitar,” read “ orbital.”

— 10 “ interval,” read “internal.”

— 29 “lips,” read ‘‘tips.”

— 34 dele “by.”

— 15 for “compressed and hard; before,” read “compressed and hard

before ;”

— 28 for “lips,” read “ tips.”

— ll for “this Chiru,” read “ the Chiru.”

— 10 for “bambdoidal,” read “lambdoidal.”

— 14 for “ malars,” read “ molars.”

— 8 for “14,” read “ 35.”

— 2 from bottom, atten than,” read “the.”

— 15 for “9,” read “9h.”

— 21 dele “rufous,” repeated.

— 17 from bottom, for “ done,” read “donc.”

— — foot note, for “ Rutboo,” read “ Kubboo.”

”>

—— 226 Ist par. 5th line for “ Ekadantashtra,” read “Ekadanshtra,”

—— 226 4th ,, 4th — for “Kridama,” read “Srid’ama.”

—— 229 2nd ,, 5th — for “Vrishapati,” read “ Vrihaspati.”

3rd — for “Viswaséna” read “ Viswakerma.”

22 .

— ,, after “ Ganges river,” insert “ at Ghazipur.”

— 245 10 ,, from bottom, for “it,” read “ the mirror.”

— —Ist ,, 7th — for “He having,” read “ Having.”

—— 296 line 3 for “but mostly,” read “and,—

— 305

— 7 for “hydrogen. When,” read “hydrogen, where.”

— 20 for “circumference,” read “diameter.”

— 21 for “273 rupees,” read “2% rupees.”

XVill ERRATA.

Errata in Meteorological Register, for June.

Date Hour. Bar.

13 Sun-rise, for ,365 read ,465

14 3 5309 ,499

92 af 317 617

Add 0,010 to all the figures in the Barometrical column for 103 P. m.

— 340 — 6 after “Rhinolphus,” insert “and two species of Vespertilio.”

— 355 — 13 for “axavoa,” read “axavora.”

—- 355 — 2 from bottom, after “nilam,” insert “nil mani, (or manik.)”

— 356 after “College of Fort William,” zsert “the word bahrmani is

also used in the Khawdas-ul-hejar, as a variety of the yaqut.”

—— 358 — 20 dele “or a species of garnet.”

—— 358 — 22 for “manik,” read lalri.”

— 403 — 5 from bottom, for “ AIOKATI,” read “ AIOKAH.”

— 404 — 14 for OvA,” read “OYA.”

— 41l ~—~ 8 for “Latitude 25° 43’,” read “ Lat. 25° 47’ 26”.”

In Table IV. of the Estimate of Life in India, page 284, the first four figures in the

second and third column should stand thus :

Age. Survivors. Deaths.

20 52221 473

21 51748 489

22 51259 522

23 50737 557

The mistake arose from the calculations having originally been made to commence

with the age of nineteen, instead of twenty: and the 5 year averages in Table III.

page 283, will all be slightly affected by the same cause. The last figure in the second

column, page 284, should be reversed; and in the last column but one, for “2080,” read

“2008.”

Line 414 line 3 from below, for “ mollusce,” read “ mollusca.”

— 444 — 36 after “ministry,” znsert “ of a man.”

— 445 — 3 from below, for “ 2125,” read “ 212.5.”

— 446 — 7 for “in bullion,” read “ bullion.”

— 447 —.21 for “ will be,” read “ would be.”

— — — — after “at any,” imsert “ rate.”

—— 480 — 15-16 for “ Tariqa-i-Chishita,” read “ Tariga-i-Chishtia.”

— 483 — 36 for “lost about,” read “ tost about.”

— — — 39 for “ Majtabid-i-mustuqill,” read “ Mijtahid-i-mistaqill.”

—— 485 — 20 for “Taqwiat-ul-Imam,” read Taqwiat-ul-Iman.”

—— 487 — 15 erase “5” at beginning of line.

—— 488 — 7 for “ differences,” read “ difference.”

— 489 — 20 for “Kafr,” read “ Kuft.”

—— 491 — 23-24 for Ishrak f’il Tasarraf,” read “ Ishrak f’il Tasarruf.”

—— 492 — 10-1] for “ the authority or influence of Saints, as respecting interces-

sors,” read “ respecting the authority or influence of Saints as

intercessors.” :

— 498 — 23 for “Khatim,” read “ Khatima.”

501 — 12 after “ABC,” insert “ |fig. 5.]”

— 505 — 20for “55359,” read “5 5259.”

— 506 —11 + “55310,” read “553 27.”

JOURNAL

THE ASITATIC SOCIETY.

Mo. 1.—January, 1832.

I.— Abstract of the Contents of the Dul-vd, or first Portion of the

Kah-gyur, from the Analysis of Mr. Alexander Csoma de Koras.

By H. H. Wilson, Sec. A. S.

[Read 9th November. ]

Av the last Meeting of the Asiatic Society, a general view of the con-

tents of the two great Tibetan works, the Kah-gyur and Stdan-gyur,

and especially of the former, was submitted, founded on materials suppli-

ed by Mr. Csoma de Korés. It was also stated, that that gentleman had

consented to prepare a more detailed analysis of the whole from the copy

in the Society’s possession ; and he has accordingly furnished the Socie-

ty on the present occasion, with the result of his subsequent labours,

being an analytical sketch of the contents of the Dul-vd, or first great

division of the Kah-gyur.

It was stated in the preceding sketch, that the Kah-gyur usually con-

sisted of 100 large volumes, classed under seven great divisions ; each

comprising a greater or lesser number of volumes, treating of the religi-

ous practices and tenets of the Baud’dhas ; written originally inSanscrit,

but translated into Tibetan, for the greater part in the ninth century.

Of those divisions, it was also mentioned, that the first, or Dul-vd,

termed in Sanscrit Vinaya, Decorum or Discipline, occupied 13 volumes ;

and, as introductory to the whole, described the different observances

to be followed by the votaries of Bud’dhism, but more especially by

those, whether male or female, who adopted a religious life. These

observances are of a very comprehensive description, extending not

only to moral and ceremonial duties, but to modes of personal deport-

ment, and the different articles of food or attire. The precepts are

interspersed with legendary accounts, explaining the occasion on which

Sxya thought it necessary to communicate the instructions given.

2 Abstract of the Contents of the Dul-va. [Jan.

The Dulvd, according to the analysis now submitted, comprises

seven portions. .

1. Jib. Dul-va-zhi; Sans. Vinaya-vastu. The substance or basis

of discipline, 4 vols.

2. Tib. So-sor-thar-pé-do ; Sans. Pratimoksha Sutra. Rules for

emancipation, 30 leaves.

3. Vb. Dul-va-nam-par-jet-pa ; Sans. Vinaya-vibhanga. Neglect

of discipline or transgression, 4 vols.

4. Tib. Gé-long-m4-so-sor-thar-pé-do ; Sans. Bhikshuni-prati-mok-

sha Satra. Rules for emancipation for nuns, or female mendicants.

5. Tib. Gé-long-ma-dul-va-nam-par-jet-pa; Sans. Bhikshuni-

vinaya-vibhanga. Neglect of the discipline by female mendicants, in one

volume, with the preceding tract.

6. Tid. Dul-va-phran-tshegs-kyi-zhi; Sans. Vinaya-kshudraka-

vastu. Minor essentials of discipline, 2. vols.

7. Tib. Dul-va-zhung-la-ma ; Sans. Vinaya Uttara-grantha. The

last treatise on discipline, 2 vols.

Some admit only four divisions of the Dul-va, termed in Sanscrit :—

1. Vinaya-vastu. 2. Pratimoksha Sutra, and Vinaya-vibhanga. 3. Vi-

naya-kshudraka-vastu ; and 4, Vinaya Uttara-grantha.

The first part of the Vinaya-vastu treats of the Pravrajita-vastu,

the circumstances under which the religious profession may be adopted.

It opens with an account of the hostilities that usually prevailed

between the kings of Anga, the country about Bhagalpur, and the

kings of Magadha, or Behar, until PapMA-cnENpo, sovereign of the

latter, became tributary to his rival, an event that happened shortly

before SAK ya’s appearance on earth.

Before the same occurrence also, the birth and education of Vimsa-

sa’RA, surnamed Srenika, the son of Papma-cHENpo, are described.

The young prince encourages his father to withhold the tribute, and

in the war that ensues, defeats, and kills the sovereign of dnga, and

annexes that country to his patrimonial government. He subsequently

succeeds his father, and is ruling at his capital Rajagriha, at the time

of Sa’kya’s birth. )

The particulars of Sa’kya’s birth are not enumerated in this place ;

but an account is given of his two first disciples SaripuTRa and

MaAnearayana, two young philosophical Brahmans, who have studied

under different masters, without being satisfied with any of their

instructions ; the particular of whose tenets are enumerated. At last

they find Sa’kya teaching in Rajagriha, and attach themselves to his

person.

1832.] Abstract of the Contents of the Dul-va. 3

The doctrine of Sa’kya finds a patron in Vimpasa’ra, and he is

described as residing some time in Rajagrika, enjoying great fame as

ateacher and master of numerous converts; his mode of teaching is

also exemplified, and various philosophical controversies between him

and the advocates of other systems are detailed.

The mode in which his converts are received into the order of the

priesthood, either by himself or by his disciples, is then particularized.

Two presidents are appointed, and five classes of teachers ordained.

Questions to be propounded are given, and the description of persons

inadmissible from bodily imperfections or disease described. A varie-

ty of rules on the subject of admission is laid down.

The behaviour of the person after admission is then regulated ; the

cases in which he should require the permission of his principal speci-

fied ; and various moral obligations prescribed, particularly resignation

and forbearance, when maltreated or reviled.

Stories are related of improprieties committed by some juvenile mem-

bers of the community, and in consequence Sa’Kya desires that none

shall be admitted under 15, and no priest be ordained under 20 years

ofage. Other stories give rise to other limitations, prohibiting the ad-

mission of slaves, debtors, runaways, hermaphrodites, diseased or maim-

ed persons, young men without the consent of their parents, and persons

who have families dependent upon them. No person is to be admitted,

except in full conclave—nor any one to be allowed to reside amongst

the priests without ordination—no thieves, parricides, matricides, nor

murderers are to be admitted. Each of these prohibitions arises out of

some incident occurring in the course of Sa’Kya’s peregrinations be-

tween Magudha, Kosala or Oude, Sravasti, and Kapila.

The next subject is the performance of confession and expiation,

which should be observed every new and full moon, in a public place,

and congregation: the manner of conducting the ceremony is fully

detailed.

The rest of the first volume is occupied with a number of precepts

and prohibitions, some of them ofa whimsical character: such as thata

priest shall not wear wooden shoes, nor lay hold of a cow’s tail to assist

himself in crossing a river.

The second volume continues the subject of dress, especially on the

fitness of leather or hides for the shoes of the priests; a treatise on

drugs and medicaments then follows, which the disciples. of Sa’kya

are allowed to use or to carry about them.

The king of Magadha entertains Sa’kya for three months, and

various legends are told.

B 2

4 Abstract of the Contents of the Dul-va. [Tan.

In the course of them, the six chief cities of India are said to be

Sravastz, Saketana, Vardnast, Vaisalt, Champaé and Rdjagriha.

The two first are in Oude, Vardanasé is Benares, Vaisali is considered to be

Allahabad, Champa is Bhagalptr,and Rajagriha, or Rajgiriisin Behar.

From Magadha, Ssxya goes to Vaisalz, upon the invitation of the

Lichchivi inhabitants of that city, who appear to have been republicans,

and to have possessed great riches.

The peregrinations of Sa'kya are continued throughout the volume,

in which he encounters and converts many individuals, whose stories

are told, not only during the present, but their past lives. Amongst

others, Sa’kya_ relates his own, and how he became a Bodhisatwa, or

sage. The conclusion of the volume leaves him at the lake Manasa-

rovara, with 36 of his principal disciples.

The third volume continues in the same strain. At a place in

Kosala, Sa'xya and his followers are entertained by way of test, and

are found to be moderate and easily contented. The Brahmans are

tried by a similar test, and proved to be greedy and insatiable.

Similar lessons, as in the preceding volumes, are given to the priests.

They are permitted to eat treacle—to cook for themselves in time of

famine, and to cook in ten places—to eat meat under certain restric-

tions—to accept gifts from the laity. The stories and lectures are inter-

spersed with notices of medicines, and the mode of administering them,

and the medical employment of charms and incantations.

The subject of the succeeding pages is the proper attire to be worn

by the disciples of Sa‘kya; they are directed to wear not more than

three pieces of cloth, of a red colour—to wear cotton garments when

bathing—to be clean in their dress and in their bedding—and never to

go naked :—an injunction at variance with some notions of Bud’dhism,

the images of the saints of which have been supposed to be represented

without clothes, and furnishing a distinguishing characteristic between

them and the images of the Digambara Jains.

The subject of dress is followed by that of the use of mats or sheets

to lie upon.

A more important division then succeeds, on the conduct to be ob-

served towards refractory and disputatious brethren. They are first to

be admonished in public congregation, and if impenitent, to be expelled

from the community. The mode in which confession, repentance, and

absolution are observed is next explained, and illustrated by examples,

The residences and furniture of the monks are next described, and

the next subject is said to be dissensions in religious communities.

Little on this head, however, is given, and the rest of the volume is:

1832.] Abstract of the Contents of the Dul-va. 5

occupied with miscellaneous matter, One subject is an account given

of the origin of the Sa’kya race by Mancarayana, at the desire of

Sa’kya, to the people of Kapila vastu ; and another the birth and

education of Sa’xya himself.

Volume IV. continues the story of Sa’kya, especially the circum-

stances that led to his entering upon the life of an ascetic, and his subse-

quent proceedings. In this book, the Sakyas are called inhabitants of

Kosala, a country bordering onthe Aaildas mountains, and descendants

of the Hindé king Ixsuwaxu. The birth place of SXxya is said to be

Kapila-vastu, near the Himalaya, on the banks of the Bhagiratht.

The latter pages illustrate what is considered to be the subject of the

whole book, the evils of causing schisms, by instances of the inveterate

hostility of L’Has-K yim, the nephew of Sa’kyA, towards his uncle.

The fifth volume commences with the Pratinoksha Sitra, short

precepts for the securing of final felicity ; the sum of which is, that vice

is to be diligently avoided, virtue invariably practised, and the passions

be kept under entire subjugation.

Then follows, and extends through the rest of this volume and the

three next, a code of laws for the monks, comprehending 253 rules.

Each of these arises in general from some improper conduct in a religi-

ous person, which forms a separate incident or tale. The matter comes to

Sa'kya’s knowledge,who sends for the culprit into the congregation,where

he is duly lectured. On his confession and penitence, he is pardoned,

and SAxya enacts the rule or law preventive of a like transgression.

The ninth volume is of the same general character as the preceding

four ; but it is addressed to the female followers of Bud’dha, priestesses

or nuns, Gélong-md, or Bhikshunt : many of the rules and illustrations

are repeated from the foregoing volumes, and in the same terms.

The tenth and eleventh volumes relate to matters and rules of minor

importance, such as that the monks shall not use vitrified brick asa

flesh-brush, nor fragrant unguents, nor rings, nor seal rings of the

precious metals, nor eat garlic, nor learn music or dancing. There are

also directions for the construction of Chaityas, and the deposit there-

in of reliques, as the hair, nails, &c. of Bup’puHa, given by him to

various persons during his life. There are also some tales of a political or

historical character, especially the destruction of Kapila by the king

of Kosala, and the murder or expulsion of the Sakyas, many of whom

are said to have fled to Nepal. The eleventh volume closes with an

account of the Nirvan, or emancipation of Sa’kya in Kamrip, or

Western Assam. Eight cities contend for his remains, which are divided

amongst them, and deposited in chaityas or mausolea.

6 Abstract of the Contents of the Dul-va. [ Jan.

On the death of Sa’kya, Kasyapa, the head of the Baud’dhas,

directs 500 superior monks to make a compilation of the doctrines

of their master. The Do is also compiled by ANanpa; the Dul-va

by Uparr; and the Ma-moon, Abhidharma, or Prajnd-paramita by

himself. He presides over the sect at Rajagriha till his death.

ANANDA succeeds as hierarch. On his death his reliques are divided

between the Lichchivis and the king of Magadha; and two chaityas

are built for their reception, one at Allahabad, the other at Pataliputra.

One hundred years after the disappearance of Sa’kyA, his religion is

carried into Kashmir.

One hundred and ten years after the same event, in the reign of

Asoxa, king of Pataliputra, a new compilation of the laws of Sa’kya

was prepared by 700 monks, at Yangs-pa-chen (Allahabad).

The twelfth and thirteenth volumes contain supplementary rules and

instructions, as communicated by Saxya to Upaut, his disciple, in an-

swer to the inquiries of the latter.

We shall be better prepared, upon the completion of the catalogue

of the whole of the Kah-gywr, to offer any remarks upon the doctrines

it inculcates, or the historical facts it may be supposed to preserve. It

is therefore rather premature to make any observations upon the present

analysis, confined as that is to but one division of the work, and un-

accompanied by extractor translation ; but we may perhaps be permit-

ted to inquire what new light it imparts, as far as it extends, to the date

and birth-place of Sa’/KYA.

Any thing like real chronology is, if possible, more unknown in

Baud’dha than Brahmanical writings; and it is in vain therefore to

expect any satisfactory specification of the date at which the Bud’dha

Sxya flourished. We find however that 110 years after his death,

Asoxa, king of Pataliputra, reigned: now in the Vishna Purana and

one or twoother Puranas, the second king of Magadha from Chandra-

gupta, or Sandrocoptos, bears the title of Asoxa, or ASOKAVERDDHANA.

If this be the prince intended, SAxya lived about 430 years before the

Christian era, which is about one century posterior to the date usually

assigned for his appearance. It is not very different, however, from

that stated by the Siamese, to Mr. Crawfurd. “ By their account,

his death took place in the first year of the sacred zra, being the year

of the little snake ; on Tuesday, being thefull moon of the sixth month

of the year. The year 1822 was the year 2364 of the era in question,

and as Bud’dha is stated by them to have died when 80 years of age,

his birth by this account took place 462 years before the Christian era.”

Crawfurd’s Siam, 367.

1832.] Abstract of the Contents of the Dul-vd. 7

A discrepancy apparently of a more decided character occurs as

to the place of Sxxya’s nativity. This has been hitherto considered

to have been Kikata or Kagadha, the modern province of Behar,

the latter being evidently intended by that country in Jumbu Dwip,

or India, which is called Mukata by the Burmese and the Siamese,

Mo-ki-to by the Chinese, and Makata NKokf by the Japanese, accord-

ing to several European writers of authority.

Now according to the Kah-gyur the birth place of Ssxya is not in

Magadha, but in Kosala, or Oude, at acity called Kapila or Kapila-

vastu, and this latter term explains the nature of the mistake. The

Chinese specify Kau-pi-le, the Burmese Ka-pi-la-vot, the Siamese Ka-

pi-la-pat, the Cingalese Kimboul-pat, and the Nipalese Kapila-pir,

as the city in which their legislator was born—considering, therefore,

Makata to be the principality or province in which it was situated.

For some centuries before Christ, and about the probable period of S<-

KY A’s nativity, the greater part of central India was subject to Magadha ;

andit is not extraordinary therefore that Kosala,in which Kapila issitu-

ated, was considered as asubordinary, and may have been a tributary or

dependant principality, and sofar therefore Kapila was in the kingdom,

though not the country of Mugadha. At any rate, that Magadha was

the first and principal scene of SXxya’s labours is universally admitted.

Minutely accurate topography, and history, are not to be expected in these

cases; andit isnot wonderful that the followers of Bud’dha, who derived

their traditions from sources of a less authentic description than those

of Tibet, should have placed Kapila in Behar, or elevated its chief, a

petty Raja, to be king of central India. The latter mistake is commit-

ed by the Mongols, who as neighbours of the Tibetans, should have

known better ; yet even they call Sopupunt, the father of SXx ya, king of

Magadha, Der Konigvon Magadha. (Klaproth, Asia Polyglotta, 123.)

The precise situation of Kapila, it is not now easy to ascertain.

The Tibetan writers place it near Kailas, on the river Bhagirathi, or as

elsewhere stated, on the Rohini river. ‘These indications, connected with

its dependency on Kosala, render it likely that it was in Rohilkhund, or

in Kamaon, or perhaps even rather more to the eastward ; for the river

now known as the Rohini is one of the feeders of the Gandak—at any

rate it must have been on the borders of Nepal; as itis stated that

when the Sdkyas were dispossessed of their city, those who escaped

retired into that country.

Another question is, who were the Sakyas 2. The Bud’dha traditions

trace them from IxsHwaxu, a prince of the solar line, and ancestor of

the race that reigned in Ayodhya or Oude. The name however does

8 On the Native Method of making the Paper, [Jan.

not occur in the Hindd genealogical lists, either as that of a tribe or

people. It is most akin to the term Sakas, the Sauce or Scythians of

antiquity, the Tartars of modern time; and it is not at all unlikely

that a colony of these people settled in this part of India,as did the

Afghans many centuries later in Rohilkund. In that case, they pro-

bably brought with them the faith of Bud’dha, and communicated it to

India, whence it returned to them improved by the scholarship of learn-

ed converts. It is very doubtful, if Bud’dhism ever prevailed exten-

sively in central Hindustan, whilst it is quite certain, that it flourished

exceedingly in the north and west of India, about the commencement

of the Christian era. We know that it is still widely cultivated through-

out central Asia, and that part of the world is most probably its ancient

and original seat. Some additional light may possibly be thrown on

these subjects by the succeeding portions of the Kah-gyur.

II.—On the Native Method of making the Paper, denominated in

Hindustan, Nipalese. By B.H. Hodgson, Esq. Acting Resident,

Nepal.

For the manufacture of the Nipalese paper, the following implements

are necessary, but a very rude construction of them suffices for the

end in view.

1st. A stone mortar, of shallow and wide cavity, or a large block

of stone, slightly but smoothly excavated.

2nd. A mallet or pestle of hard wood, such as oak, and in size

proportioned to the mortar, and to the quantity of boiled rind of the

paper plant which it is desired to pound into pulp.

3rd. A basket of close wicker work, to put the ashes in, and through

which water will pass only drop by drop.

4th. An earthen vessel or receiver, to receive the juice of the ashes

after they have been watered.

5th. A metallic open-mouthed pot, to boil the rind of the plant in.

It may be of iron, or copper, or brass, indifferently; an earthen one

would hardly bear the requisite degree of fire.

6th. A sieve, the reticulation of the bottom of which is wide and

open, so as to let all the pulp pass through it, save only the lumpy parts

of it.

7th. A frame, with stout wooden sides, so that it will float well in

water, and with a bottom of cloth, only so porous that the meshes of

it will stay all the pulp, even when dilated and diffused in water ; but

1832.) denominated in Hindistan, Nipalese. 9

will let the water pass off, when the frame is raised out of the cistern ;

the operator must also have the command of a cistern of clear water,

plenty of fire-wood, ashes of oak, (though I fancy other ashes might an-

swer as well,) a fire place, however rude, and lastly, quantum sufficit of

slips of the inner bark of the paper tree, such asis peeled off the plant by

the paper-makers, who commonly use the peelings when fresh from the

plant ; but that isnot indispensable. With these “ appliances and means

to boot,’ suppose you take four seers of ashes of oak, put them into the

basket above-mentioned, place the earthen receiver or vessel beneath

the basket, and then gradually pour five seers of clear water upon the

ashes, and let the water drip slowly through the ashes and fall into the

receiver, This juice of ashes must be strong, of a dark bark-like red

colour, and in quantity about 2lbs.; and if the first filtering yield not

such a produce, pass the juice through the ashes a second time. Next,

pour this extract of ashes into the metal pot already described, and

boil the extract ; and so soon as it begins to boil, throw into it as

many slips or peelings of the inner bark of the paper plant as you can

easily grasp, each slip being about a cubit long, and an inch wide; (in

fact the quantity of the slips of bark should be to the quantity ofjuice

of ashes, such that the former shall float freely in the latter, and that

the juice shall not be absorbed and evaporated with less than half an

hour’s boiling.) Boil the slips for about half an hour, at the expiration

of which time, the juice will be nearly absorbed, and the slips quite soft.

Then take the softened slips, and put them into the stone mortar, and

beat them with the oaken mallet, till they are reduced to a homo-

geneous or uniform pulp, like so much dough. ‘Take this pulp, put it

into any wide-mouthed vessel, add a little pure water to it, and churn

it with a wooden instrument like a chocolate mill, for ten minutes, or

until it loses all stringiness, and will spread itself out when shaken

about under water. Next, take as much of this prepared pulp as will

cover your paper frame, (with a thicker or thinner coat, according to

the strength of the paper you need,) toss it into such a sieve as I have

described, and lay the sieve upon the paper-frame, and let both sieve

and frame float in the cistern : agitate them, and the pulp will spread

itself over the sieve; the grosser and knotty parts of the pulp will

remain in the sieve, but all the rest of it will ooze through into the frame.

Then put away the sieve, and taking the frame in your left hand, as it

floats on the water, shake the water and pulp smartly with your right

hand, and the pulp will readily diffuse itself in an uniform manner over

the bottom of the frame. When it is thus properly diffused, raise the

frame out of the water, easing off the water in such a manner, that the

10 On the Native Method of making the Paper, [ Jan.

uniformity of the pulp spread shall continue after the frame is clear

of the water, and the paper is made.

To dry it, the frame is set endwise, near a large fire; and so

soon as it is dry, the sheet is peeled off the bottom of the frame, and

folded up. When (which is seldom the case) it is deemed needful to

smooth and polish the surface of the paper, the dry sheets are laid on

wooden boards, and rubbed with the convex entire side of the conch-

shell; or, in case of the sheets of paper being large, with the flat surface

of a large rubber of hard smooth-grained wood ; no sort of size is ever

needed or applied, to prevent the ink from running. It would proba-

bly surprise the paper-makers of England to hear, that the Kachdr

Bhoteahs can make up this paper into fine smooth sheets of several

yards square. This paper may be purchased at Katmandu in almost

any quantity, at the price of 17 annas sicca per dharni of three seers :

and the bricks of dried pulp may be had* at the same place, for from

8 to 10 annas sicca per dharni. Though called Nipalese, the paper is

notin fact made in Nepal Proper. It is manufactured exclusively in

Cis-Himalayan Bhote, and by the race of Bhoteahs denominated (in

their own tongue) Rangbo, in contradistinction to the Trans-Himalayan

Bhoteahs, whose vernacular name is Sokhpot. ‘The Rangbo or Cis-

Himalayan Bhoteahs are divided into several tribes, (such as Mirmi,

Lapcha, &c. &c.) who do not generally intermarry, and who speak

dialects of the Bhote or Tibet language so diverse, that, ignorant as

they are, several of them cannot effectually communicate together.

They are all somewhat ruder, darker, and smaller, than the Sokhpos,

or Trans-Himalayan Bhoteahs, by whom they are all alike held in

slight esteem, though most evidently essentially one and the same with

themselves in race, and the language, as well as in religion.

To return to our paper-making—-most of the Cis-Himalayan

Bhoteahs, east of the Kali river, make the Nipalese paper; but the

greatest part of it is manufactured in the tract above Nepal Proper,

and the best market for it is afforded by the Nipalese people, and

hence probably it derived its name; a great quantity is annually made

* The pulp is dried and made up into the shape of bricks or tiles, for the con-

venience of transport. In this form, it is admirably adapted for transmission to

England. See the P. S.

+ The Newar language has terms precisely equivalent to these ; the Rangbo

being called, in Newary, Paloo Sén ; and the Sokhpo, Thé-Sén. The Sokhpo

here spoken of is not really a different word from Soghpf&r-nomade, the name or-

dinarily applied in Bhote to the Mongols. But this word has at least a different

sense in the mouths of the Tibetans towards ¢his frontier, on both sides of the

snows.

1832.] denominated in Hindistan, Nipalese. 11

and exported southwards, to Nepal and Hindustan, and northwards, to

Sakya-Gumba, Digarchz, and other places in Tramontane Bhote. The

manufactories are mere sheds, established in the midst of the immense

forest of Cis-Himalayan Bhote, which afford to the paper-makers an in-

exhaustible supply, on the very spot, of the firewood and ashes, which

they consume so largely : abundance of clear water (another requisite)

is likewise procurable every where in the same region. I cannot learn

by whom or when the valuable properties of the paper plant were dis-

covered ; but the Nipalese say, that any of their books now existent,

which is made of Palmira leaves, may be safely pronounced, on that

account, to be 500 years old : whence we may perhaps infer that the

paper manufacture was founded about that time. I conjecture, that the

art of paper-making was got by the Cis-Himalayan Bhoteahs, via

Lhassa, from China—a paper of the very same sort being manufactur-

ed at Lhassa ; and most of the useful arts of these regions having flowed

upon them, through Tibet, from China ; and not from Hindustan.

Nepal Residency, Nov, 1831.

P. §S.—Dr. Wallich having fully described the paper plant, it would

be superfluous to say a word about it. The raw produce or pulp (beat

up into bricks) has been sent to England, and declared by the ablest

persons to be of unrivalled excellence, as a material for the manufac-

ture of that sort of paper upon which proof-engravings are taken off.

The manufactured produce of Nepalis for office records incomparably

better than any Indian paper, being asstrong and durable as leather al-

most, and quite smooth enough to write on. It has been adopted in one

or two offices in the plains, and ought to be generally substituted for

the flimsy friable material to which we commit all our records.

III.—Account of anew Genus of Land Snails, allied to the Genus

Cyclostoma, of Lamarck ; with a description of a Species found on

the outlying Rocks of the Rajmahal range of Hills. By W.H.

Benson, Esq. Bengal Civil Service.

: [Plate I. fig. II. a. b.¢.]

Genus ptERocycros. Testa discoidea, supra convexiuscula, subtis

concava, late umbilicata ; anfractibus cylindraceis, vix cohzrentibus,

omnibus utrinque apparentibus ; suturis excavatis ; peristomate reflexo,

superné sinu obliquo interrupto ;labro supra ala fornicata sinum ob-

tegente instructo ; ala lata, tumida, anticé declivi, mucronata, anfrac-

tui penultimo adhzrente,

~ Animal adhuc incognitum, forsin Cyclostomati simile.

c 2

12 Account of a new Genus of Land Snails. [ Jan.

Habitat in rupibus umbrosis Patharghate et Sikrigali.

Shell discoid, somewhat convex above, concave below, and widely

umbilicated ; whorls cylindrical, slightly adhering together, and visible

on both sides. Sutures channelled. Peristome reflected, interrupted

at the summit of the aperture by an oblique sinus. Outer lip furnished,

at the upper part, with an arched wing, which overhangs the sinus.

Wing broad, tumid, bending downwards, and mucronate in front,

adhering to the penultimate whorl.

This new form I dicovered on the 15th and 16th December, 1831,

among the jungle-covered rocks of the hill of Patharghata, one of the

western outliers of the Rajmalhal range, situated a little below Kalgaon,

on the Ganges ; and on the eminence of Sikrigali, another outlier of the

same range to the north-east. The specimens were met with under the

perpendicular and overhanging faces of low rocks, and under accumu-

lations of dead leaves. All those found were unfortunately destitute of

inhabitants, a circumstance the more to be regretted, as the conforma-

tion of the upper part of the peritsome and the presence ofa wing, (a

character hitherto unknown to belong to land shells, as far as my in-

formation on the subject extends,) argue a corresponding variation in

the animal from any known type. The sinus probably affords a passage

to some process of the mantle, which the wing is intended to defend

from injury.

The genus which most nearly approaches to Pterocyclos is Cyclosto-

ma, which is furnished with a circular aperture and a continuous peris-

tome ; but the characters above referred to will necessarily exclude this

shell from it. Lamarck’s species, C. planorbula, which varies much

from his other species, and which is also widely umbilicated, appears

to have the greatest affinity to the shell before me; and it has a still

closer affinity to it than would be supposed from Lamarck’s de-

scription, if Wood’s figure of Helix cornu-venatorium is to be relied on,

for the latter shell has a sinus (not alluded to by Lamarck) at the top

of the aperture ; but it shews no trace of the overhanging wing. _—__La-

marck gives Helix cornu-venatorium of Gmelin as a synonyme of his C.

planorbula, but with a mark of doubt, and refers to a figure in Chem-

nitz, to which Wood also refers for his Helix cornu-venatorium. It is

probable, that that species will be found to be osculant between the

genera of Cyclostoma and Pterocyclos.

If it had been my good fortune to have procured any of the Pterocycli

alive, I should have had a good opportunity of comparing the characters

of the animal with those of Cyclostoma ; having found several fine

specimens of a new species of tlie latter genus, with the live animals, at

1832. ] Account of a new Genus of Land Snails. 13

Sikrigali and at Rajmahal. It is highly probable, that Pterocyclos will

be found on the neighbouring outlying rocks of Pirpointi, on the ridge

between Patharghata and Kasita, on the isolated hill in the neighbour-

hood of an Indigo-planter’s house, between Kasita and Kalgaon ; and

ona similar hill, at the back of the latter place, as well as on any part

of the neighbouring main range of Rajmahal. It wou'd be worth a

conchologist’s while, who may have an opportunity of visiting these

rocks in showery weather, or shortly after a fall of rain, to seek for spe-

cimens of the shell for the purpose of inspecting the animal. I regretted,

that I had no time to spare for a careful search at either of the places

cited as localities of the species. | Those which I found were with se-

veral specimens of a Cyclostoma, a reversed Carocolla and Macrochla-

mys*, collected in the space of a few minutes, and in a hurried search.

The best methed of collecting is to take several servants up the rocks,

and after shewing them what objects are required, to employ them in

turning over the fallen leaves, and in inspecting the loose rubbish in the

crevices of rocks.

The species, which appears to be confined to rocky hills, I shall

name P. rupestris. Its specific character issubjoined. It is probable,

that some of the less material characters, which I have added to the

generic character, in order to make the description as perfect as possi-

ble, will be required to be added to the specific character of P. rupes-

tris, when other species shall be discovered, in consequence of their not

being found to be common to all.

P. rupestris. Testa longitudinaliter confertim striata, albida, sub-

diaphana, lineis longitudinalibus castaneis supra et infra picta ; versus

apicem piscescens, anfracte ultimo fascia media castanea ornato.

Var. 1. Fascia media omissa.

Var. 2. Lineis angulatis subtus omissis.

Var. 3. Testa tota cornea.

Shell sub-diaphanous, whitish, closely striated) across the whorls,

marked above and below with angular chesnut lines running across

the whorls, and with a band of the same colour on the centre of the

last whorl, purplish-brown towards the apex.

Var. 1. The same without the medial line.

Var. 2. Ditto without the angular markings underneath.

Var. 3. The whole shell horn-coloured.

The medial band in the type specimen, and in the second variety,

appears to be composed of arrow-shaped spots, and is only a more pro-

nounced expression of the angular lines,

* A new genus of the Helicide, separated by me from Helix, in consequence of

the wide departure of the animal from the type of that genus.

14 Examination of Minerals from Ava. | [ Jan.

I am preparing a description of the Carocolla above-mentioned, the

animal of which, as far as this particular species is concerned, fully

justifies Lamarck’s separation of the genus from Helix. Since writing

the above account, I have discovered a new genus of amphibious

shells, inhabiting the tract between high and low water mark in the

river Hooghly, the animal of which, bearing only two tentacula, differs

alike from the fresh water and land genera, which are similarly circum-

stanced in having the eyes (or, more properly speaking, the percipient

points) on the summits of the tentacula, as in the quadri-tentaculated

species, instead of at their base. ‘The discovery of two new genera,

and of as many new species in Bengal, in the course of a burried trip

down the country, and in an unfavorable season, leads us to the

conclusion, that many other novelties in terrestrial and fluviatile

conchology remain to be discovered in that province, and in the

neighbouring unexplored territories of Arracan and Ava, It is

to be regretted, that a species of Cyclostoma recently discovered

alive at Tenasserim, and described in the Zoological Journal, as

C. Perdix, was not described before death, as the keel, with which

the shell is provided, gives reason to conjecture, that the animal

differs in some respects from the animals of other species which have

been described. Persons not conversant with conchology would do

well to preserve the shells, with the animals alive, in a small box, with

cotton around them, in which state land-shells may be preserved for

several months, and when excited by moisture, they will make their

appearance, and afford instruction to observers competent to note

their characters, to whom they may be submitted. I have kept num-

bers of species of Bulimus alive for nine months, without any of them

manifesting an inclination to come forth: and [ have now by me in

good health the species of Cyclostoma and Caracolla, which I collected

in the localities mentioned in the early part of this paper.

Calcutta, Jan. 17, 1832.

V.— Examination of Minerals from Ava. By J. Prinsep, Sec. Ph. Cl.

[Read 16th Nov. ]

Major H. Burney has favored us with a further supply of minerals

from Ava, proving that country to be as promising a field for varieties

of the earthy minerals as it has already turned out prolific in metallic

ores: among the present series may be enumerated ;

1.—Asbestos, from the crevice of arock among the hills of T’sa-gain ;

fine silky white Amianthus, crystallized on szlicious dolomite, as it

1832.] Examination of Minerals from Ava. 15

may be called from its behaviour with tests : the colour of the latter is

greyish white, with greenish yellow imbedded nodules: before the blow-

pipe it is unalterable, but it hardens so as to scratch glass easily : it

effervesces strongly with nitric acid, and leaves a silicious residue: the

solution lets fall a small prectpitate with sulphate of soda, and a more »

copious one with ammonia and phosphate of soda.

2.—Small hexagonal plates of Mica ; splitting into thin plates of a

dark-brown colour: non-elastic: heated on charcoal, they assume a

golden colour from the separation of the plates : with a stronger heat they

fuse into a black enamel: resembles Hauy’s Mica annulaire.

3.—Crystallized and anhydrous Gypsum.

4.—Dark green prismatic Hornblende ; obliquely hexahedral, with

_ rhomboidal cleavage :—fuses with difficulty into a black enamel.

Metallic Minerals.

5.—Quartzy Malachite ; of a light-green colour: by digestion in

boiling nitric acid this mineral yielded 183 per cent. of oxide of copper,

6.— Black oxide of Manganese ; fracture dark grey, granular, earthy :

exterior surface shining black and mammellated ; with borax, in the

blow-pipe flame, gave a peuce coloured glass, discriminative of manganese,

7.—Pisiform axide of Fron—in dark-brown balls of the size of peas:

exhibiting a stellated structure on fracture: before the blow-pipe, and

cupellated with lead, proved to be almost entirely composed of red

oxide of iron.

8.—Argentiferous Galena—from ‘a newly discovered mine near

Ava: yielded on analysis 5 per cent. of silver, with slight contamination

of copper and zinc.

9.—Crystallized oxide of Lead or Litharge.—This mineral is believed

to be new, at least it is not described in any catalogue of the ores of

lead, which have been consulted.

The specimen resembles yellow micaceous schist in general appear-

ance: it is composed of a confused aggregation of micaceous crystals

ofa pink-yellow colour : the interstices in some places filled with yellow -

earthy litharge :—and the exterior of the nodule coated with white

carbonate of lead.

The analysis was effected by solution in nitric acid, and preci-

pitation by sulphate of soda, which yielded 133,5 grs. of sulphate,

equivalent to oxide of lead ........ eee seeee cece cece neeres 99.

Prussiate of potash proved the existence of copper and iron,

Cie Tae gre oo Wain as a 2 6 an ain Migie «0 ewido n, Mle wine ee eel e oy als

100

16 Examination of Minerals from Ava. [Jan.

This natural litharge is readily fusible without effervescence, and

resembles, in the reddish brown colour it assumes, the vitreous coat,

which is always remarked upon the Dain and Yowetni silver cakes

from Ava: I had previously occasion to examine the composition of this

substance, which I had found to consist of

CD x1G NOL LEAs Ree. see to S = son, 0s ou aloes, « see Oe

Oxide’ of antimony, ....0......%. *‘seee mm Law

Oxide’ Of COPPeP ces. 5 4% tree «se ue « sity, Om

Silver, probably entangled in the slag, .... 6.0

Harthy matters .. cies. 5 > ee. as. aan ee

100.

I at the time concluded, that the Burmese refiners made use of

antimony and lead in refining their silver, and that a little of the arti-

ficial slag remained attached to the surface of the silver upon its being

suddenly cooled before the litharge was entirely worked off. I have

been assured, however, that they use a natural ore to produce the

peculiar effeét remarked ; and if so, the mineral now under description

must undoubtedly be the substance employed.

It is worthy of remark, that the Burmese assayers judge of the

quality of silver by the crystallization of this coat, or rather by the

crystallization of the surface of the metal itself under its proteetion. A

star is the emblem formed upon their standard silver, which consists

nearly of the proportion of 1 atom. copper (10.5) to 5 silver (89.5).»

It would be curious to ascertain whether this crystallization is a con=

comitant of other definite mixtures of the same metals. The Kharibat r

silver, containing 5 per cent. of copper, exhibits spiral circles of litharge

on its surface, in lieu of the star.

10. Platina Ore. In addition to our information respecting the lo-

cality ofthe platina ore of Ava, Major H. Burney has favored us, through

Mr. Swinton, with the following interesting particulars : ‘

“‘T find that a good deal of the platina ore is brought from some:

mountain torrents or small streams, which fall into the Ayendween

river from the westward, near a town called Kannee ; and it is collect-

ed in a very curious manner, as Mr. Lane is informed, although he hesi-

tates to believe the fact. The horns of a species of wild cow in this

country called T’sain, perhaps the same as the Nylgao of India, have

a velvet coat before the animal reaches the age of two or three years:

a number of these horns are taken and fixed in the beds of the small

streams, and at the close of the rainy season, when the water subsides,

a coth is put down over each horn separately ; and the horns, and cloth

1832. ] New Bridge over the Misst at Hyderabad. 12

as well as a portion of the sand around it, are taken up together. The

horns appear to collect around them a good deal of gold dust, which

the streams have washed down, and with this dust grains of platina are

found mixed. ;

The Burmese look chiefly for the gold dust, separating and bring-

ing that alone generally to Ava; and although Mr. Lane has often

urged the men who are engaged in this trade to bring at once the

whole of what they take up with the horns, he has not yet been able

to persuade them to do so. These horns sell sometimes for 12 or 13

ticals a piece, and deer’s horns are sometimes used instead of them.

The Burmese call platina, Sheenthan ; much of this ore is also found

with the gold dust collected among the small streams which fall into

the Erawadi, to the northward, in the direction of Banman.”

The same officer also writes, in allusion to a newspaper notice, “ I

observe, that some correspondent in the Calcutta Government Gazette

states, that Kannee, where the platina ore of Ava is found, is not a town,

but signifies a mine. Kannee-myoo, or town, is well known as a place

forming the assignment of the King’s aunt and step-mother, whom I

visited on my first arrival here; and Kannee certainly doesnot mean a

mine in the Burmese language.”

V.—New Bridge over the Misst at Hyderabad.

Our notice of the Caramnassa Bridge in the GLeanines of last

October has, we are happy to observe, put us in possession of further

materials on the interesting subject of public works. On the present

occasion, the merit of the undertaking is not due to a simple indivi-

dual, but to the enlightened policy of a native government. Several

indications of a similar liberal system of public improvement have

been manifest of late ; and that too, it must not be forgotten, after the

British Government has avowed a general determination of non-inter-

ference in the internal administration of the native states, In Oude

in particular, the present ministry has been forward in promoting public

works: the cast-iron bridge which was sent out fifteen years ago, and

which has since lain in rust and neglect on the banks of the Gumti, is,

we understand, about to be erected over that river; and several other

bridges on the suspension principle are also in the course of preparation :

an astronomical observatory, to be provided with the best instruments,

has been lately established at Lakhnad : a survey of the country is in

contemplation; and yet all these benefits have gone hand in hand with

_-retrenchments and reform of the civil expenditure.

18 New Bridge over the Misst at Hyderabad. [ Jan.

Of the progress of public works at Hyderabad, we have now an

opportunity of judging from the account of the completion of a hand-

some stone bridge over the Mussi river, communicated by Captain

James Oliphant, the engineer who erected it, to the British resident

at the Nizam’s court, which has been obligingly put into our hands for

publication. We regret, that we are unable to add any particulars of

the river itself, or of the precise situation of the bridge ; but we believe

that it lies on the high road between the residency and the city.

“ The first stone of the bridge was laid on the 15th January, 1829.

According to the original plan, there were to have been eight arches,

semi-elliptical, each 56 feet span, and 18 feet rise. The piers 10 feet

wide, the breadth of the bridge 24 feet.

Eight arches were fixed upon, because by this division of

the channel, the best foundations were obtainable for the piers;

and the chief reason for the general preference of an odd number of

arches was inapplicable, as it will be seen by reference to the plan, that

the strength of the current is not in the centre of the channel, but at

the arch next the abutment on the left bank.

By October, 1829, the whole of the piers had been raised above

what was then considered high-water mark; two arches had been

finished, and a third was almost completed, when the river rose to the

extraordinary height shown by the dotted line in the elevation: the

piers were destroyed, and the third arch fell in, the centering having

been carried away.

The sudden shock must have been a severe trial to the neighbouring

arch; but it stood firm, nor on examination did it appear to have sus-

tained any damage.

In consequence of the disaster, the work was discontinued ; and

nothing was done till it was recommenced 14 months afterwards, on

the 21st of December, 1830.

The engineer, having been alarmed at the height to which the river

rose in the floods, determined to deviate so far from the original plan,

as to give two feet additional rise to the two centre arches, and a pro-

portional increase to the adjoining ones; and instead of making the

approach on the left bank solid, as he at first intended, to provide ad-

ditional water-way by throwing an arch across the ravine. These alter-

ations were carried into effect, as shown in the plan, :

The arch under the approach is the are of a circle of 63 feet radius ;

its span 77 feet, and rise 16 feet; breadth of the road-way 30 feet.

The piers and arches throughout are composed of squared granite

stone, brought froma distance of from four to five miles. ‘The spandrels

1832. ] A Method of rectifying a Route Protraction. 19

are solid to the height of the top of the cut-waters, after which they are

completed with longitudinal stone walls, covered over with large stones,

just under the road-way. The arch stonesare five feet long at the spring,

and diminish gradually to the key stones, which are 2 ft. 9 in, In the arch

under the approach, they are six feet at the spring, and 3-2 at the crown.

During the progress of the work, it was invariably observed, that

before the keys were driven, the centres had sunk 34 inches at the

crown ; and when they were struck, which was done the second or third

day after the arch was finished, that there was a settling of 24 inches.

The large arch settled 34 inches, and several of the long stones at the

haunches cracked, which however can hardly be considered detriment-

al, as it is only a proof that the hollows, which would otherwise have

existed, have by the fractures been filled up.”

We are greatly surprized to find, from the statement furnished to

the resident by Captain Oliphant, that the outlay upon this extensive

structure exhibits a total of less than 95,000 rupees, or including the

labour of 90 men from the Corps of Engineers, rupees 1,02,000, not

including the repair of the damage sustained in the flood of the 22nd

October, 1829. Considering the dimensions of the bridge, and the

high price of labor in the Nizam’s dominions, this seems exceedingly

moderate: it must however be remembered, that the foundations rest

upon rock, and that the granite quarries, whence the stone was extract-

ed, are close at hand.

We have given a reduced engraving of the architectural elevation

and plan of the bridge, in Plate II. figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, which do not re-

quire any explanation: the plan adopted of springing the voussoirs of

the elliptical arches from an inclined bed on the piers, so as to rest at

right angles to the thrust of the arch, instead of forming right angles

with the curvature of the ellipse, reminds us of Mr. Seaward’s elegant

design for the new London bridge, wherein the advantage of such a

construction is fully developed. The attempting of elliptical arches in

stone, with native mistrés, was a work of daring, and its successful

accomplishment does credit to the perseverance and abilities of

Captain Oliphant.

VI—A Method of rectifying a Route Protraction.

It frequently happens, that a surveyor has to protract a survey of his

route between two fixed points on a map, and that when the operation

is performed, he finds the work does not close, and perhaps the termi-

nating point of his protraction either goes beyond or falls short of the

20 Comparison of the Indus and Ganges Rivers. [ Jan.

fixed one. Andif the survey be hastily executed, he will probably find

the general direction of the line, as given by his protraction, to be con-

siderably at variance, with that connecting the two fixed points. To

divide the error, whichis generally in excess, proportionally among the

smaller lines of the protraction, according to the principles of geometry ;

or in fact, to make the route fit in between the two fixed points, is our

present purpose.

Let AB then (Plate II. fig. 2) be the two fixed points on a map;

and Aa, ab, bc, cB’, the protracted route. (The error is apparent ; in

the general direction, as much as the angle BAB’; and in the direct

distance, too much by the quantity B”B’.) First, draw lines from A

to each bend in the route, as Aa, Ab, and Ac. Then on the line AB’

lay off AB” equal to the true distance AB. Now, parallel to B’c from

B”, draw the line B”c’, and observe where it cuts the line Ac ; make a

mark, and call that point c’?: then parallel to cb, draw c’b’, and where

it intersects the line Ad, mark the point 0’: proceed similarly till you

find the point a’. Join Aa’, a’b’, 6’c’, and c’B”, and the route is reduced

to the true distance. But we have yet to transfer this to the line AB:

for this purpose, take Aa’, Ab’, Ac’, each as radius in your compasses,

and from the points a’, 0’, c’, describe arcs cutting both the lines AB”,

and AB, in the points 1, 2, 3,and 1’, 2’, 3’. Lay off the distances 1a’,

26’, 3c’, on the arcs from 1’ to a”, 2’ to 6”, and 3’ toc”: lastly, draw

the lines Aa”, ab”, 6”c”,c”B, and the route is duly transferred.

This method also admits of applying correction, where the protraction of

the route falls short of the true distance.

Calcutta, 28th Nov. 1831. J. G.

VIUII.—Comparison of the Indus and Ganges Rivers.

Lieutenant A. Burnes, Assistant Resident in Cutch, who lately com-

municated to the Bengal Government a geographical report upon the

Indus, drawn up from notes and surveys made on his recent mission to

Lahore, estimates the magnitude of the Indus, at Tatta, a place situated

equidistant fromthe ocean with Sikrigali on the Ganges, as four times

greater than the latter river, upon the estimation given in the GLEAN-

ines, III. 185, inthe month of April: but it may reasonably be doubt-

ed, whether the discharge of water in the Ganges is not underrated at

21,000 cubic feet per second at Sikrigali, since the same quantity is also

estimated to flow past Benares, and that upon more accurate data, at

the same season. Lieutenant Burnes thus states the chief data of the

comparison.

1832.] Comparison of the Indus and Ganges Rivers. » 21

“In the middle of April, I found the Indus at Tatta to have a

breadth of 670 yards, and to be running with a velocity of 22 miles

an hour. It happens, that the banks are steep on both sides of the river

in this part of its course, so that the soundings, which amount to fifteen

feet, are regular from shore to shore, if we except afew yards on

either side, where the water is still. These data would give a discharge

of 110,500 cubic feet per second, but by Buat’s equations, for the

diminished velocity of the stream near the bed, compared with that of

the surface, it would be decreased to 93,465 cubic feet ; some further

deductions should be made for the diminished depth towards the

shores, and 80,000 cubic feet per second may be taken asa fair rate of

discharge for the Indus in the month of April. It is a source of regret

to me, that I am unable to extend my observations to the river during

the rainy season; but [ had not an opportunity of seeing it at that

period, and do not desire to place opinion in opposition to fact. I may

mention, however, that at Sehwan, where the Indus is 500 yards wide,

and 36 feet deep, and sweeping with great velocity the base of a rocky

buttress that juts in upon the stream, there is a mark on the precipice,

which indicates a rise of 12 feet during the inundations. This gives a

depth of 8 fathoms to this part of the Indus in the rainy season: if [

could add the increase of width on as sound data as I have given the

perpendicular rise or depth of water, we should be able to determine

the ratio between its discharge at the oppositeseasons ; but I have only

the vague testimony of natives to guide me, and therefore dismiss

the subject.

“¢ From what has been above stated, it will be seen, that the Indus,

in discharging the enormous volume of 80,0CO cubic feet of water ina

second, exceeds by four times the size of the Ganges in the dry season,

and nearly equals the great American river the Missisippi. The much

greater length of course in the Indus, the tortuous direction of itself

and its numerous tributaries, among towering and snowy mountains near

its source, that must always contribute vast quantities of water, might

have prepared us for this result ; and it is not extraordinary, when we

reflect on the wide area embraced by some of these minor rivers, and

the lofty and elevated position from which they take their rise: the

Sutlej in particular flows from the sacred lake of Manasarovara in

Tibet, 17,000 feet abovethesea. The Indus traverses too a compa-

ratively barren and deserted country, thinly peopled and poorly culti-

vated ; while the Ganges expends its waters in irrigation, and blesses the

inhabitants of its banks with rich and exuberant crops. The Indus,

even in the season of inundation, is confined to its bed by steeper and

22 Comparison of the Indus und Ganges Rivers. [ Jan.

more consistent banks than the other river, and, as I have shewn in my

memoir, seldom exceeds half amile in width ; the Ganges, on the other

hand, is described as an inland sea in some parts of its course, so that

at times the one bank is scarcely visible from the other, a circumstance

which must greatly increase the evaporation. The arid and sandy

nature of the countries that border the Indus soon swallow up the over-

flowing waters, and make the river more speedily retire to its bed.

Moreover, the Ganges and its subsidiary rivers derive their supply from

the southern face of the great Himalaya, while the Indus receives the

torrents of either side of that massy chain, and is further swollen by

the showers of Cabul, and therains and snow of Chinese Tartary. Its

waters are augmented long before the rainy season has arrived ; and

when we look at the distant source of the river, to what cause are we

to attribute this early inundation, but to melting snow and ice.

«‘ The slope on which the Indus descends to the ocean would appear

to be gentle, like that of most great rivers. ‘The average rate of its

current does not exceed 24 miles an hour, while the whole of the Pun-

jab rivers, which we navigated on the voyage to Lahore, were found

to be one full mile in excess to the Indus; we readily account for this

increased velocity by their proximity to the mountains, and it will serve

as a guide in estimating the fall of the great river. The city of Lahore

stands at a distance of about 1,000 British miles from the sea, by the

course of the river; and I am indebted to the kindness of Dr. J. G.

Gerard, of the Bengal Establishment, for a series of Barometrical obser-

vations made at Amritser, a city about 30 miles eastward of Lahore.

The mean of 18 of these observations gives us the

height of the Barometer at. ........0.0.5--005 deta als 28.8613

The corresponding observations at Calcutta give... . 29.7115

Making a difference of..... 8502

“ T am informed, that the height of instrument registered in Calcutta

may be 25 feet above the level of the sea, and as the city of Amritser

is nearly on the same level as Lahore, (since both stand on the plains

of the Punjab,) it must have an elevation of about 900 feet from the sea.

It remains to be considered in what and how great a proportion this

slope is to be distributed among the rivers from Lahore downwards.

On acomparison with the Ganges, we cannot give a greater fall down-

wards from Mittun, where the Indus receives the Punjab rivers, than

6 or perhaps 5 inches per mile; nor can we allow more than 1-4th of

the 900 feet as the height of that place about the level of the sea, forthe |

river has not increased here in velocity of current, though we have neared —

1832.] Meteorological Observations. 23

the mountains. Mittun is half-way to Lahore, and about 500 miles

from the sea, and nearly 220 feet above it. The remaining 680 feet

we may fairly apportion to the Punjab rivers, from their greater ra-

pidity of course, which would give them a fall of 12 inches per mile.

“ It is an additional proof ofthe greater magnitude of the Indus, that

at its lowest it retains a velocity of two and a half miles witha medial

depth of 15 feet, moving throughout the year in one majestic body to

the ocean ; while the Ganges partakes more of the nature of a hill stream,

insignificant at one season, and overflowing its banks at another.

' « Before bringing these remarks on the Indus to a close, I wish to

add a few words regarding the effect of the tide on the two rivers. In

the Ganges, itruns considerably above Calcutta, whereas no impression

of it is perceptible in the Indus 25 miles below Tatta, or about 75

miles from thesea. We are either to attribute this occurrence to the

greater column of water resisting the approach of the sea,

‘ Whose vanquished tide, receding from the shock,

‘ Yields to the liquid weight,’

or to the descent of the water of the one river being greater than that

of the other: the tide in the Indus certainly runs off with incredible

velocity, which increases as we near thesea. It would appéar, that the

greatest mean rise of tide in the Ganges is 12 feet. I found that of the

Indus to be only 9 feet at full moon, but I had of course no opportuni-

ty of determining the mean rise of the tide as in the Ganges. The

tides of Western India are known to exceed those in the Bay of Bengal,

as the construction of docks in Bombay testifies; and I should be dis-

posed to consider the rise at the mouths of the Indus and Ganges to be

much the same. Both rivers, from the direction of their fall into the

ocean, must be alike subject to an extraordinary rise of tide, from gales

and winds; and with respect to the whole coast of Sinde, the south-

west monsoon blows so violently, even in March, as to break the water

at a depth of 3 and 4 fathoms, and long before its depressed shore is

visible tothe navigator.”

Lidiana, Nov. 14, 1831.

VIII —Summary of Meteorological Observations made at the Surveyor

General’s O ffice, in Calcutta, during the years 1829-30-31.

The monthly tables kept by the Surveyor General, and uniformly

published in the GLEANINGs, since its commencement, are now capable

_. of furnishing three years data for the illustration of the climate of

Calcutta, as regards the pressure, temperature, moisture, rain, state of

24 Meteorological Observations. { Jan:

the winds, and aspect of the sky ; and as such regularity prevails in

atmospherical phenomena within the tropics, there is no occasion for

further delay in presenting our readers with a summary of the results,

adding a few observations and comparisons with such other registers of

Oriental climates as are within our reach. Meteorology is now attract-

ing more and more attention in Europe. Societies have been established

for its exclusive cultivation in some countries, and more recently at

Paris, a “ correspondance pour l’avancement de la meteorologie” has

been undertaken by M. Morin, who not only hopes to frame a com-

plete “ histoire du tems” for the whole world, but even eventually to

be able to predict the future weather of any climate from accurate

analysis of the effects of past seasons : towards this laborious undertak-

ing Mons. Morin invites assistance from all those who are in the habit

of recording their observations, and we with pleasure give circulation to

his proposals, in return for the copy of his Essays on Meteorology, with

which he has kindly favored us: but we should rather recommend,

[for our own sakes, no less than to save labour to M. Morin himself, ]

that our pages should in the first instance be made the medium of his

Indian correspondence ; and we further recommend, that the tables with

which we may be favored may be abstracted by observers in a conve-

nient form for reference and comparison, such perhaps as we have pre-

pared on the present occasion, to exemplify the climate of Calcutta. We

hope hereafter to lay before our readers some extracts from the essays of

M. Morin; they abound in curious remarks upon the phenomena, which

he has professedly engaged to study, not only from nature, but from

written authorities in all the current languages of Europe, nay even from

the Chinese manuscript of Youe-ling, the Daniel of the celestial empire,

now under translation by M. Brosset, which besides meteorological facts

‘¢ contient encore beaucoup d’autres choses curieuses.”

But the object of the present paper is to exhibit a tabular view of

the climate of Bengal, from the registers already published in detail.

These registers have been purely instrumental, for as M. Morinremarks,

there are two modes of observing the weather, one by means of fixed

instruments, the other by a continual log-book of ocular observations

on the formation and dispersion of clouds, force and direction of winds,

influence of the ground, hills, water ; of storms, lightning, aurore, and

so forth. In this department, our registers are perhaps deficient, but

the regularity of our seasons is such, that there is not the same interest

in watching the sky as in the ever-changeable tropics: it is no difficult

matter here to predict the course of seasons, and the occurrence of

occasional gales and north-westers is almost the only phenomenon not

restricted to stated periods in the revolution of our Indian year.

1832. ] Meteorological Observations. 25

The first of the following tables comprehends the general range of

the weather ; the wind, the clouds, and the rain: having the same

letters to denote the nature of the clouds as are applied in the monthly

registers : zero denotes the absence of wind or cloud, and the degree of

force or of prevalence of particular winds is shewn by the form or size

of the type, appealing at once to the eye. :

The south or south-easterly monsoon prevails from the spring to

the autumnal equinox, and northerly winds for the remainder of the

year ; there are intervals of calm and variable winds at the equinoxes and

solstices: the registers do not particularize storms, but two or three

very severe ones have occurred in the interval under review. We may

instance the storm of May, 1830, which injured so many houses in

Calcutta; and the gale of November, 1831, which committed such

havoc in the Cuttack district. Asa sample of the course and disastrous

effects of these storms, we extract a description of the one last men-

tioned from Mr. G. A, Prinsep’s recent work on Saugor Island.

*¢ While these pages have been in the press, another inundation has occurred more

destructive than that of 1823, at a period of the year when such an event was

unknown in the upper part of the Bay. Since the 22nd of October, the northerly

monsoon seemed to be steadily set in with a cloudless sky; and the freshness of

the mornings, indicating an early and a long cold season, was the common subject

of congratulation among the Europeans residing in Calcutta. A depression of

less than a tenth of an inch in the Barometer on the 30th excited no attention :

the day was fine as usual, with very light northerly airs ; but towards evening, a

veil of cirrus enfeebled the sun’s rays, and some heavy clouds shewed themselves

in the south-east. At 8 Pp. M. a light puff or two from that quarter momentarily

interrupted the northerly breeze, which had freshened a little, about the time that

a gust from the same direction was felt in Howrah, strong and sudden, like a

north-wester. At day-break, on the 3lst, the sky was overcast with a drizzling

rain, the wind rather fresh at N. E. and increasing : by noon it was blowing a gale,

and at short intervals heavy showers succeeded each other, during the rest of the

day: violent gusts after sunset reminded us of the storm in May last year. The

direction of the wind was still N. E. to E. After midnight, it suddenly veered to the

southward, blowing tempestuously for several hours. During the Ist, it came

round to the S. W. abating in force with every fresh point of westing. The 2nd

was a dull cloudy cold day, with the wind at west to N. W. but the gale had

ceased: while it continued, there fell about 2 inches of rain. The Barometer

jndicated at its lowest ins. 29.672 at 4 p. M. on the 3lst, and at sunrise on the Ist

November, being only a fall of .348 with reference to the highest point at which

jit stood on the 29th. But the river was unusually troubled, and much damage

occurred among the boats: at Mr. Kyd’s dock-gates, the water rose to the mark

of 21 feet 6 inches* in the night tide of the 31st, having been only at 14 feet 6

* 20 feet by the river gauge reduced to correspond with his tide tables.—In the

great storm of May 1823, the water only rose to the mark of 20 feet (River 18. 6)

being 1 foot 4 inches above the proper level: the greatest difference was then at

26 Meteorological Observations. [Jan.

inches at high water in the morning, although, when the springs came on, the

highest level was only 17 feet 9 inches in the night tide of the 4th. The low-water

level was raised more than 5 feet, being by the mark 13 feet, instead of 7 feet 10

inches, its proper level, in the day tide of the 1st November.

Such was the character of the storm at Calcutta, where few fallen trees exhibited

signs of extraordinary violence. Indeed, it would seem to have been more sparing

of its ravages here than almost in any place exposed to its influence. Hundreds

of boats are said to have been lost upon the Ganges, some of them laden with

Indigo; and a letter from Bancoorah reports the destruction of trees to have been

very great in that neighborhood. The weather at Saugor is thus described by a

gentleman residing at Ferntosh.

‘© 30th October, 2 pe. mM. clouds gathering in the E. quarter—3 Pp. M. some

drops of rain.

31st, morning, strong breeze from N. E. with light rain—increasing towards

noon with heavy rain—evening, hard gale at E. and heavy driving rain—8, 30 Pp. M.

blowing very hard from S. E. and the tide beginning to pass over the bunds of

the estate—10 Pp. mM. wind S. W. blowing a hurricane—trees and honses fallirg—

the wooden bungalows shaking very much, and the water within a foot of the floor,

which is raised between 5 and 6 feet above the ground.

1st November—wind S. W. moderating, but strong squally breezes all day from

S. W. to W. S. W. without rain.

2nd—wind N. to N. W. and cloudy.”

Here the gale was much more severe than that of 1823, and the water rose at

least a foot higher over the land: but its greatest fury was spent in the Midnapore

district, and on the unfortunate coasts of Kedgeree, Hidgelee, and Balasore. The

large bunds of those coasts, behind which a numerous population slept in fancied

security, were suddenly overwhelmed by a tremendous wave, sweeping away with

resistless force every house and every article of property in the native villages, and

destroying the paddy crops, all the cattle of an extensive tract of country, and a

large portion of the inhabitants. Hundreds of cattle were seen floating past the

ships at the Sand Heads. The Collector of Balasore, who with difficulty saved

himself and his family, has given a frightful picture of the desolation around

him—the atmosphere being infected by the carcases of men and animals, which the

retiring waters had left scattered upon the ground. A letter from Cuttack, pub-

lished in the newspapers, estimates the destruction of lives at 10,000, the

entire population of 300 villages, which are said to have been annibilated by the

waves. The inundation extended from Kedgeree as far as Cuttack, and even broke

through the bunds at Culpee and Diamond Harbour, besides creating a tremendous

bore of 5 feet in the Roopnarain, at Tumlook, which destroyed a great many boats.

and nearly all the people in them.

Saugor has been more fortunate than the opposite coast ; but, although from

age and the grass upon them, the bunds of all the estates were stronger, while at

the same time they were in general larger than in 1223, and mostly in good repair ;

no part of the island has escaped inundation, except a few of the tanks—a very

important exception, with reference to the time of year, and the number of persons

dependent upon them for subsistence.

—

low water, the river level being 9 feet 3 inches, instead of 6 feet 4 inches, as it

ought to have been by calculation.

Meteorological Observations.

1832.] 97

Most fortunately the storm came on during neap tides: had it occurred at any

time between the 2nd and 6th November, the tide would have risen three feet six

inches to four feet higher at Saugor, and the frail asylum of the fallen thatch of

their houses would have been swept away with most of tle inhabitants. The de-

struction of lives would then perhaps have been as great upon the island, as it has

been at Kedgerce, Hidgelee, and Balasore; and in those districts the desolation

would have been awful indeed. Nor itis unlikely, that the inundation might have

extended even to Calcutta, where the river would overflow its banks at less than

23 feet, (by Mr. Kyd’s tide register,) which is but 3 feet above the level it attained.’

By the papers it appears that a most severe hurricane was experienced

at Manilla, a few days previous to this storm, and if the whole inter-

vening space could be submitted to enquiry, a connection between the

two might very probably be proved.

TaBLE I.—Winds, Rain, and aspect of the Sky, most prevalent at Calcutta, from

three years’ observations.

SUN- RISE. NOON. SUN-SET. RAIN.

MONTH. ee _

0 N ne 0 ci. 0 nw. 0

January .. nw, 0 fogs INW n.| 0 cu. | 0 0 0.00

ne, 0 NW var.| 0 0 0

morning |N-~ var.| 0 ci 0 0

February ne. fogs NE var.{cir.cu. In.e. 0 |0 cum. 0.53

nw. cir. W svar.jcum n.w. 0 |0 cum.

e. var 0 ci. variable |cum 0 0

March .. 0 ci. SW varjcum. st. |0 s. |cum, 0.74

se. SW 0 ci. variable |cum. 3.e, cir.

southerly cum, SW SEjcum. ci. |SE cir.

April .... S. cum. S Sw.jcum. ci. |SE cum. 4,08

sw. se cir. SE .sw.jcum. Svar. |cu. ci.

0 os. cum. N) var.|cum., S s.W./cum,

May ...-4{|0 s. var. S sw.fcum. str.|/S —s.e.jcum. 5.78

0 se. cir. SSE nim, ci. |SZ cum, Ci.

sw. 0 cum. SE sw.}cum. str.|S cum. str.

June .... 4 |se. var, SE var.icum, str.|SE Nn. Ci. S. 16.71

san var. S calms|cum.n. |SE cum, Str.

sw. se cir. str. |SE_- sw.jcum. str./sw. 0 cum, st.

July ....4/0 5s. cum, str./var. SEjcir.n. |se. var. |ci. str. 8.98

0 se. v. |nim. var. wW.jnim. cu.|sw. var. Ici. cu.

Ss. cum. str.|/SE cum. str.|SE cum, str.

August .. 4 |se. cum, str.|SE —_-s.J}cum. str.|SZ var. |cir. str. 10.41

s. ne. sun. str. |SE var.jcum. str.|S var cir. n.

0 se. cum, str.|SEZ var.jcum. str.|/SZ cum. str.

September < |0 cum. str.|S —-var.jcum. str./S sw, se.|cir. str. 6.70

0s. ne. jcir. str. |variable |cum. cir.|variable |cum. ci.

0 ne. se.jcum.ci. |Z var.}cum ne. 0 cum.

October ..< |0 var. jcum. NE var.jcum 0 var. |cum. 5.84

0 n. ne. | 0 cu. N- e.w.jcum, ne. var. |cum,

0 ne, 0 NE cum NW 0 0

November 0 n. cir. N | var.] 0 var. 0 | O% cu. 0.06

0 cir. NE n.jcum. 0 n.e. 0 ci.

0 n. 0 NE nw. 0 cu. |] 0n, 0

December 0 n. 0 N nw.] 0 cum 0 0 ‘ 0.00

0 0 NW nej 0 cs.! 0 now. 1 0

Average of Rain for three years, 59.83

28 Meteorological Observations. [ Jan.

Barometer and Thermometer.

The next two tables require no explanation; they shew the usual

range of the atmospherical pressure and temperature throughout the year.

The registers of the Barometer have been uniformly reduced to

the temperature of 32° Fahr. which greatly facilitates their applica-

tion to useful purposes. The periods of diurnal minima and maxima

also have wisely been chosen for observation, but it is to be regretted

that the same precaution could not have been extended to the parallel

hours of the night.

TaBLe I].—Mean Atmospherical Pressure in Calcutta, for 1829-30-31.

Barometer reduced to 32° Fahrenheit.

| Maximum (for 1830- | Minimum

Month. | Sun-rise. |/Pressure at erie ee 31) 2h.50m.} Pressure, Sun-set.

Oh: 400m, oe CRs P. M. 4 P.M.

inches. inches, inches. inches. inches. inches,

Jan. 30.034 30.084 30.033 30.019 29.961 29.971

Feb. 29.959 29,995 29.960 29.904 29.878 29.892

March, .877 -922 .885 825 197 808

April, 748 796 .763 721 .672 .685

May, -625 .670 -638 579 oo tong

June, .526 063 Jon 497 468 484

July, 558 091 By/)! .529 501 -520

August, .589 .624 -099 sioe -025 2037

Sept. .655 .700 .667 .616 599 .609

Oct. .796 839 792 736 2/29 743

Nov, 935 978 .928 .875 .871 916

Dec. 30.038 30.079 30.025 971 -965 .978

Means 29.778 29.818 29.783 29.734 29.710 29,727

Mean of the columns of maxima and minima for three years, 29,764

TABLE JIIl.—Wean Thermometrical Range for the same period.

Minimum A Maximum

Month. |temperature |[X. 40 a. M. “aes temperature | IV. P.M. Sun-set.

Sun-rise. 00D. 12h. 50m P.M

Jan. 56°.8 67°.5 73225 772.0 75°.3 70°.1

Feb. 63.6 74.7 77.9 82.1 82.0 76.5

March, 72.8 80.0 84.4 86.8 86.4 81.2

April, 76.6 85.8 89.6 91.2 90.5 85.3

May, 79.9 88.4 91.3 93.6 91.4 86.6

June, 80.5 85.6 88.6 88.1 86.8 83.8

July, 80.3 84.3 85.6 86.4 85.1 82.9

August, 79.4 84.4 85.5 85.3 84.4 82.5

Sept. 79.4 84.9 86.1 85.6 84.7 82.9

Oct. 77.1 83.2 85.6 85.5 84.1 81.1

Nov. 66.7 74.8 78.8 80.1 78.7 75.4

Dec. 59.7 £ 169.7 74.9 76.8 75.4 70.9

Means 72.73 81.11 ! 83.49 84.89 83.57 79.86

Meéantofextremes.. so isceebas aenste 78.81

Mean temperature of the day,..... ole

of the night,..... 75.00

Deduced mean of the 24 hours,..... 78.13

Mean temperature of Calcutta in 1784-5 78°.0 (As. Res. IV.)

To place the relative course of the two instruments in a more con-

venient form for comparison, the following tabular view of their range

1832. ] Meteorological Observations. 99

throughout the year has been constructed; and it derives addi-

tional utility from the paralled columns which we have been enabled to

insert for other localities, so that the whole presents a convenient

epitome of meteorological phenomena between 12° and 309 of north lati-

tude. Of the climate of Madras, the minutest details are recorded inthe

voluminous and careful reports of the late astronomer Mr. Goldingham;

whose results merely required to be reduced to the freezing point,

The Ava tables are abstracted from Major Burney’s registers pub-

lished in the Greanincs; the Benares tables are taken from the

Oriental Magazine, 1827 : for the Seharanpur results we areindebted to

Dr. Royle, who allowed us to look through his copious registers for

the purpose. As the several Barometers were never absolutely com-

pared together, entire dependence cannot be placed upon the mean

altitudes given; but with regard to Calcutta, Benares, and Seharanpar,

as some opportunities occurred of comparison through the instruments of

different travellers, the relative altitude of these places can be esti-

mated tolerably well: Thus, Seharanpar will be found to be almost

exactly 1000 feet above the sea, as was before estimated by Captain .

Hodgson:—Benares in like manner may be safely stated in even

numbers to be 300 feet above the sea,

TaBLeEIV*. Monthly Deviations of the Barometer and Thermometer from their

annual mean height at Calcutta; and at several other places, introduced for the

sake of comparison,

Barometer at 32° Fahr. Thermometer.

xs oo [2a as.e| 2 a |¥%

a SS |r See) o 3.58

=) ee ior fo) Bae uo ea S .|o

2 § Berar Sy fee ee! Glee Bees We

oo. Sepals She 2-5) 2 2S Beis es

Bee Ss | eS las | Bat hE Ow) oe |e bole! Se

. angw ae Sa iP Sol santa. ©] Me |S6 8 va El an

Resets: | Saison) Sa $e 2 ke Se, =|8h sp fe

e \sis| ¢ | 23 i827] 281884] fs lSexlees] 28

Dia Bom ose feo SS eal el eo

Jan. |-4-.146 |4-.229 |--.208 |-4-.273|+.274 |— 6.5 |—13.7 |—11.6 |— 17.0] —21.8

Feb. |---131 |4-.115 |-+-.172 |4-.175|4+.219; —4.5/— 4.9 |— 6.0 |— 11.5] —20.9

Mar. |-+.087 |+-.051 |--.095 |-+.107}-+.151] —1.8 |— 2.8|+ 1.0|/— 1.5] +4 0.1

April, |—.006 |—.028 |—.030 |—.043 | 4.061] 49.7 | 7.8|+ 5.1|4+ 9.5) + 6.1

May, |—-124 |—.105 —.152 |—.136|—.060] +5.2 |-+ 5.6 | 7.5 |4-13.9| +11.6

June, |—-117 |—.156 —.248 |—.289|—.217] 47.4 | 7.1 | 5.5 | 13.1] 17.5

July, |—-103 }—.176 |—.218!|—.308 |—.398] 13.9 |4+ 4.4 |-p 4.6\4 6.4] +128

Aug. |—.088 |—.126 |—.194|—.2¢3 |—.278] 4£3.0 |4+ 4.1 | 3.6/4 6.4/4-10.0

Sept. |—.057 | —.098 |—.115 |—.098 |—. 158] #2.1 |4 4.3 1+ 3.7/4 5.8) 9.5

Oct. |—.018 |—.010 |--.020|4-.074|—.0474 0.1 |4+ 2.2 | 2.5/4 1.3/— 0.8

Nov. |-+.006|+-.102 |+4.161|+-.181| 4.209] —3.1 |— 4.2 |— 5.4|— 9.7]—10.8

Dec. |+.124 |-+.201 |-4.258 |-+.279| 4.245] —4.9 |—10.1 |—11.5|— 17.6] — 13.8

Ann. |---| ——_' ———— | ——__|—--|—_—_ | —__- -————-

mean {29.810 |29.573 |29.764 |29.464 |28,766] 81.69 | 78.39| 78.13] 77.81| 73.5

270) 405! .506| .587| .672{ 13.9 J 21 19} 31.5 3

It will be remarked that the range of variation in the weight of the

atmosphere increases with the latitude, even up to the foot of the Himalaya

30 Meteorological Observations. [Jan.

mountains, and that it is accompanied by a corresponding increase in

the range of the thermometer. We have elsewhere reasoned on this sub-

ject, and do not intend, in the present view of observed facts, to enter

into any theoretical discussions ; at any rate before doing so, it is to be

wished that we may be able to extend the table of comparisons to other

principal points on the continent of India; it is evident that in calcu-

lating barometrical altitudes, by corresponding observations at distant

places, a corrective equation must be introduced, depending on the time

of year, having its maxima at the two solstices.

We now come to the diurnal oscillation of the Barometer, for which

the same sources have furnished me with materials for framing a com-

parative table for five localities considerably distant from one another ;

we could have added Marshedabad to the list, but that the thermome-

tric series for that place was incomplete. At Seharanpur the horary

observations were confined to a single day, the fifteenth, of each month.

At Madras, to three similar days: at Benares perhaps the hour of the

minimum was not always exactly observed: thus a little irregularity

must be expected, but on the whole the results are wonderfully equable.

TasLe V, Diurnal Oscillations of the Barometer and Thermometer at Calcutta,

with comparative observations at other places.

Barometer at 32). | Thermometer.

sos s : mI SO . Gs) = Sy AOS

== |e = wie te 3 = 5 cs) 2 ioe!

Oo < > 30m a =I =S |/2o0 S/n Dig

Dae fee c® lon se] = a 5 Wie pe ee

epee A oa er bat a oes) LE 2 ae ete eS

Sg Hic cy lero al 7 SSeS. = eS YS Ele a

1/225(22 | 22/22/2532] 22 | 22| gs [222/234

e Iocel s of lz..jwezt6e 5 a BE leesle8s

S BRTl Et | Select e(sccp san; Sa | Pe lSesSiae2q

Se < cone es a = < S waa oes:

inch. | inch. | inch. | inch. | inch. } deg. | deg. | deg. | deg. | dex

Jan 072 144 123 097 103 11.0 9.4 | 20.7 17.8 | 24.5

Feb 070 126 117 103 093 7 10.0 | 16.8 | 18.5 192 22120

Ma 076 107 125 121 146 7.0 | 20.8 | 14.0 | 20.7 | 26.0

April, 081 110 124 125 107 9.0 | 20.9 | 14.6 | 23.27] 31.0

May, 081 113 llb 124 .160 9.0 | 20.4 | 13.7. | 21.9 | 38.0

June, 092 136 | .095 JTS. 4 eri 9.0 9.0 7.6 | 16.1 | 31.5

July, (97 133 | .090 | .077 | .103 7.0 6.6 6.1 90S) e553

Aug. 105 109 | .099 088 | .079 7.0 8.8 5.9 8.3 | 11.5

Sept. 094 145 | .101 103 123 6.0 7.8 6.2 | 10.3 | 13.0

Oct... | .068 144 | .110 100 120 8.0 5.0 8.4 | 18.1 | 31.5

Nov... | .071 127 | .107 107 147 8.0 6.7 | 13.4 | 16.8 | 29.3

Recs 071 126 | .114 098 124 9.0 8.5 | 17.1 | 16.3 | 17.5

ean [| —— [> | 7 | I || —|~

tide [ .081 [| .126 | 110 | 105 | 120 | 85 !10.6 '122 ‘166 ! 94.9

With due allowance for the difference of sensibility in the instruments

the above table shews that the average diurnal tide of the Baromete

between the equator and 30° north latitude exceeds one-tenth of an inch,

and that it is progressively greater as the variation of temperature dur-

ing the day is also greater. With regard to the nocturnal tide of the

1832. | Meteorological Observations. 31

atmosphere, the Calcutta tables afford us no data, for want of an obser-

vation at 10 p. m., the hour of the supposed maximum at night ; all

that is indicated therein is, that the Barometer is constantly lower at

sunset than at sunrise. At the Madras observatory, in 1832, a

series of horary observations was made for three days in each month,

which seems to establish the fact of a night-tide beyond a doubt to the

extent of .04 inch; when however the corrections for the temperature

of the mercury are applied, this amount is reduced to two hundredths

of an inch, which is one-fifth only of the diurnal tide.

The same result is obtained from a month’s horary observations under-

taken by Col. Balfour at Calcutta, in the year 1784. We have also in

manuscript a diary kept by Mr. G. A. Prinsep, during 32 days of a voy~

age from Calcutta to Bombay, whence it appears that upon the ocean the

Barometer falls from 10 pr. Mm. to sunrise —.O022

rises from sunrise to 104. mM. -+.044

falls from SOr.m. to 4rp.m. —.102

rises from 4p.m. to 10p.m. +.080

on the other hand, the Berhampuar register exhibits a constant rise

from 10 Pp. m. to 5 A.M. but as the corresponding thermometrical register

is unfortunately not in our possession, we have been obliged to substitute

a correction from the means of the Calcutta register, and the results may

be in some measure erroneous: they cannot however be so far from the

truth as to reverse the apparent issue. At Seharanpar also the exis-

tence of a nocturnal tide is equivocal; the following table exhibits all

that we can gather towards the elucidation of the point in India, ex-

pressing by minus signs the real tide, or fall of the barometer, from 10

p. M.to 5 A. M. and vice versa.

TaBLe VI, Nocturnal Oscillation of the Barometer from 10 P.M. to 5 A. M.

reduced to 32° Fah.

Madras, 3 Berbampér,|Seh4ranpar, Vera Cruzin -

Month. days ineach| from Dr. Rus-| Dr. Royle’s | Mexico, by

month. sel’s tables. observations.| Fray Juan.

January, «.......2..| —.004 +.034 —.043 +.018

February, ...... oe ee] —.029 + .026 —.009 +.009

DEMAIGR, Wcav.s 0.05.) —-026 +.009 —.008 —.002

eee le cies.) —.027 +.088 —.007 +.008

Gaede acts 2 |, —.014 +.020 —.020 +.005

Van (a —.026 +.012 + .039 +.003

PEM ykowe aes | —.009 + .000 —.005 —.002

POPWSE, cpccs-eceae-| —.028 +.014 —.016 —.007

September,..........] —.024 +.011 +.011 ae

Metober cee eiies «2 |)" 033 +.009 —.004 Dat

November, ..........| —.010 +.009 +.024 +.001

December, ..... sare 019 +.027 +.015 —.023

MEGAN, 15 ajpheiceisms es char——021 +-.020 —.001 —,002

LCL LLL TC TS

32 Meteorological Observations. [Jan.

The last column is taken from the manuscript observations of F ray

Jaun, at Vera Cruz, in 1817-18, in the possession of a friend: the

latitude of that place, 19° N., should make the results applicable here.

There is still sufficient ambiguity respecting this second tide, there-

fore, to render further enquiry necessary ; and it would be desirable to

employ a barometer for the purpose, which should not require to

have any correction applied for the temperature of the mercury; this

might be easily effected by enclosing the barometer tube in an outer

tube of the same length, also filled with mercury, upon the surface of

which the scale might float.

Hygrometry.

The Calcutta tables afford sufficient data for calculating the

state of the air with respect to moisture, whenever the temperature

of an evaporating surface can be converted with certainty into equiva-

lent expressions of the more obvious phemomena of Hygrometry, such .

as the ¢ension or relative dryness ; or the absolute quantity of aqueous

vapour contained in a given space.—The first of these points may be

found within the limit of 2 or 3 per cent by the tables published in the

first volume of the Gueanines :—and/the second may easily be calculated

therefrom by the formule of Dalton or Ure.—In the following tables

this has been done, and the uniformity of the results is satisfactory

enough. August is the most damp month of the year to the sense ; but

June is the month in which the atmosphere is really loaded with the

greatest weight of aqueous vapour. January is in every respect the

driest season of the year, but the drought at Calcutta naturally falls

far short of what is experienced at Benares and Seharanpur, where the

depression of the moistened thermometer sometimes exceeds 35 degrees,

Taste VII. Depression of the Wet-bulb Thermometer and deduced Tension of Va-

pour in the atmosphere, ut Calcutta, 1829-30-31.

Sunrise. ) 940 a.m.| Noon. 250 p. w.| 4 p. m. ) Sunset.

Month. ———. |__| ——_.. |- ———__--|-———_—_-|- ___—-

Dep.|Ten./Dep.| Ten. |Dep. ;Ten.|Dep. |Ten.|Dep. |fen.|Dep. |Ten.

January, ....{2°.3 | .82/80.4 | .Al |13°.1] .37 |15°.9 | 31 |14°.4] 3219993 | 50

February. ..|1.6 | .87/8.5| .56 {12 .4| .41 |14 .4 | .38 |13 9} .39 |11 .1| .47

March, ....{1 .9j| .89/8.7 | .59 [12.6] .47 (14 .2 | .41 14.1] .41 110 .7 | .51

April: Svopeiske'« 1.44 9418.1] .66-111 .7] .53 |13 9 | .46 (12.71 750} 8 .1 | 264

May, .02-++|1 8) 9217 .3|) .69° 1 9 8 | 62 |10 28) .58)) 9°74 GR Glee

June, 1.6] .92/1.4] .78 | 6.6] .711 6.6] .73| 5.2] .76| 0.51.83

Saale ir dieicte 1.94 29014%6 |) 4791 5 5.).75 | S 5AN74)1%5. O17 eee

August, Y.6 | 93 14.40 )>280°| 5 41.771, 4 9" 77) 4-8 1078s e eas

September, ..]1 .7 | -91|5.3| .76 | 6.5] .71| 5 81°73) 5 21-76) 379) (81

October,....{1 .5 | 9216.1] .71 | 8.0] .65] 8.6} .63| 7.4] .66 | 4.3] .79

November, ../2 .8 | .85/9 0] .55 |12.3] 44/13 .9] .40 12.6] .43| 8.1] .59

December, ..]2 .4 | .83]/7.4] .59 [10 .8| 47/12 .5] 43/11 .3 | :44] 6.9] .61

Mean Tension 892 .665 577 - (547 070 .680

1832. | Meteorological Observations. 33

Taste VIII. Mean Barometric Pressure of Aqueous Vapour in the Air during the

same period, deduced from Table VII. and Dalton’s Table of Aqueous Tensions.

hem. h. m.

Month. Sunrise. |9 40 a.m. | Noon. | 250 p.m.] 4 p.m. | Sunset,

inch. inch. inch. inch. inch. inch.

January, .... 0,336 0.336 0.300 0.288 0.275 0.275

February, .. 513 476 413 407 300 403

Miareh. yes is 703 .590 046 004 500 535

(| ee .846 192 wl 649 690 100

Wig A Bes .904 931 911 911 902 941

SUNG. «ss .994 .980 .975 985 995 987

Cl igen .909 .908 .900 903 901 910

August, .... 911 920 916 914 897 926

September, .. .892 889 859 .869 887 861

October, .... .840 .788 773 “fo .760 814

November, .. 588 495 449 424 432 543

December, .. 465 456 424 -413 404 .485

Means, .. .. 751 713 682 667 669 710

It is here observable, that besides the apparent drying of the air

caused by the increase of heat during the day, it actually seems to be-

come less loaded with moisture from sun-rise to 3 pv. m. to the extent

of about 10 per cent. : this is not easily explained without recourse to

suppositious errors of the instruments or of the formule of calculation ;

for it is difficult to imagine that the vapour should rise independently

of the air with which it is mingled ; or if it does rise, that it should fall

again so rapidly, to resume its place in the lower atmosphere on the fol-

lowing morning.—It might be expected 4 priori that where fogs prevail-

ed in the morning, or where dew was deposited, the pressure of aque-

ous vapour measured in the morning would be less than in the middle

of the day ; and the appearance of a contrary result, if it does not point

to a probability of errors in the instruments, or in the experiments

upon which the calculations are grounded, tends at any rate to show

that much remains to be done to explain facts, and to place this branch

of meteorological inquiry upon a firm basis.

It is however some satisfaction to know, that the register, kept at the

surveyor general’s office, isin this, as well as other respects, superior to

most of those published in the scientific journals of England, where the

column devoted to the hygrometer is generally a mere mass of figuresye

convertible to no useful purpose. It is to be hoped, that all who regis-

ter their observations in India will adopt the same kind of hygrometer,

namely a thermometer with a bulb projecting from the scale, and

covered with a wetted muslin bag. Its indication should first be

carefully compared with the dry thermometer, and corrected for any

errors of division. P.

34 Scientific Intelligence. [Jan.

IX.—Scientiric INTELLIGENCE.

Il.—Extract of a letter from Leiut, Alex. Burnes, dated Lahore, 23rd

January, 1832.

‘* As you will have perceived by the date of my letter, I have crossed the fron-

tier, and am now at Lahore. An event occurred here last night, which will, I am

sure, prove of interest to you—a severe shock of an earthquake. There were two

distinct vibrations, the last continuing for about 10 seconds, with alarming vio-

lence. The priucipal shock occurred at 11 P. Mm. after we had retired to bed, and

were asleep. The door of my apartment and all the furniture were shaking with

a rattling noise, when I awoke and ran into the open air. The house in which we

are lodged is a most substantial dwelling of two stories, built of bricks and chunam,

and the garden-house of Mr. Allard ; yet it was shaken most violently.

“*T am informed by the Chevalier, that earthquakes are of frequent occurrence

in this city, particularly during winter; but he does not remember so violent a

vibration as in the one I have just mentioned. The shock was from east to west,

or rather S. E, to N. W. The lofty minarets of this city afford however convin-

cing proof that there can have been no very violent commotion of nature in

Lahore within these 200 years. The earthquakes of Kashmir are frequent, and

the natives inform me, that the shocks are more violent nearer the mountains.

**T should mention, that the atmosphere had indicated nothing unusual before the

earthquake, nor did the barometer undergo any variation before or after it. The

Thermometer stood at 37°; for the last 10 days it has been four degrees below

the freezing point every morning at sun-rise, a much greater depression than I had

expected in the Punjab, where it rose to 102° daily when I was here last July.””

2.—Population of Allahabad.

The following estimate of the population of the town of Allahabad was drawn up

by the native officers of police, under the magistracy of G. Brown, Esq. in 1824, as

an accompaniment to Major (then Captain) Irvine’s map of the city ; and although

evidently not made with particular attention to accuracy, as the proportion of

males and females sufficiently proves, yet, in the absence of a more minute census,

it is worthy of being placed on record among the statements of a similar nature

already published in the GLEANINGs. Contrary to custom, it is considerably in

excess of the statement given in Hamilton’s Hindistan, which makes the population‘

of Allahabad, in 1803, only 20,000. The town itself does not seem to have been

on the increase, but rather to have suffered in size and importance: an extensive

suburb, Kydgunj, has however sprung up between it and the fort, but this is not

included in the present census.

Mehala. Houses. Mehala. Houses. Hindis. Musulmans.

Parani Nakhds, 127 Ganga Das Chouk, 65

Thatheri-bazar, 103 Mahajant tola, 143

Chouk, 100 Tripaolia, 40

Bajdza-bazar, 45 Unchi mandei, 227 M. F. M. F

Rani mandei, 123 Gosain told, 157 is =

Khatri tola, 151 Chak Mebala, 94 Ba aS

Utr-Suyia, 112 — Ss

Total of the Kotwali Thana, 1487 5072 3044

1832. | _ Proceedings of Societies. 35

Mehala. Houses. Mehala. — Houses. Hindis. ~— Musulmdas.

M.F, M.F,

Badyabad, 274 Shahganj, 122

Badshahi mandei, 388 Mahajani tola, 125

Milasim ganj, 315 Nar ganj, 204 Tee ies

Pandaréba, 139 Sarj Kund, 196 aS BS

Badshahi m. Thana, 1733 9140 4192

Khuldabdd, 133 Chandri told, 262

Shahajmetdaireh, 299 Diindipura, 185 DS BH 2

Bakshi-bazar, 69 Muezama Jarhi, 174 ue Sones

Khuldab4d Thana, 1122 3547 2777

Nya katra, 86 Koréshipfir, 78 ies oo

Nya basti, 43 Bahadur ganj, 406 aS a ot

Katgarh, is —— a —-

Moti ganj Thana, 786 2326 600

Daryabad, 392 Yahiapur chhota, 39

Minapar, 83 Rani mandei, 174 Shieh ase

Yahiap&r bard, 253 Bhor mal, 96 nomen ie

Daryabad Thana, 1037 5011 2322

EV ITNGHS 2 stele /a's)<ie/¢,~1e)e1a sores 25,096

Musulmans,,.....05 sscees 13,135

Total population,.......... eotdsigiac cane ane werecol

NIM eOLMOUSESs) ssc aye saicje seisielas » <> 40 6,165

Proportion of inhabitants per house, ........ 6.2

Ratio of males to females, Hindfis,........ 100 :177

IVINS MAAS 5 onfel sieve lctatoreje iereuc interes steieroieier ells - 100 : 148

Ratio of Hindais to Musulmans, ........<-. 100: 52

X.— Proceedings of Societies.

1,—AsIATIC SociETy.

Wenesday, 4th January, 1832.

The Honorable Sir CuarLes GREY, President, in the chair.

Mons. Du Marcel was elected an Honorary Member. The Hon’bles Sir J.

Franks, Sir E. Ryan, and Sir C. T. Metcalfe, Bt. were elected by ballot, as Vice

Presidents, for the ensuing year ; and for the Committee of Papers, Messrs. Cal-

der, Carey, Everest, Gordon, Mill, J. Prinsep, Tytler, Thomason, and Troyer.

Read a letter from Mons. Petit, proposing to exchange the duplicates of his Ento-

; mological Cabinet. The Society, not having an entomological cabinet, were obliged

to decline Mons. Petit’s offer with thanks.

Reported, that the floor of the lower story was in a bad condition, upon which

Mr, Prinsep was requested to examine it, and estimate what it would cost to repair

the same.

Read a letter from Mr. Witsen, Secretary to the Royal Academy of Prussia, for-

warding a question for the Prize Essays of 1832.

The followiug Presents were received, and thanks voted for the same.

A description of Tamul Castes, by Simon Casie Chitty.— Presented by the Author,

A copy of the Jnaya, and a Persian and English Dictionary.— Babu Rémdhan Sen.

Transactions of the Medical and Physical Society, 5th vol.— The Society.

Journal Asiatique, Nos. 40, 41.—Asiatic Society of Paris.

36 Proceedings of Societies. [Jan.

The following books,—by the General Committee of Public Instruction.

Fatawa Alemgeri, vol. 2, 3. Menu Sanhita, 2 vols.

Inayah, 3 vols, Mrichhakati.

ZEsop’s Fables, Persian. Vikramarvasi.

Naya Sutra Vriti, Sanscrit. Malati Madhava.

Vedanta Sara. Uttara Rama Cheritra.

Sahitya Durpan. Mitakshara.

Déya Bhaga.

The Meteorological Register for October.—TZhe Surveyor General.

The question proposed by the Class of Philosophy and History of the Royal

Academy of Science at Berlin has reference to Oriental History, and it is to be

regretted, that its announcement was only made to the Asiatic Society in the year

when the prize will be awarded. It is accompanied by the following remarks :

“‘Quoique l’étude de l’Histoire Orientale, grace 4 la publication de matériaux

precieux et aux recherches profondes de plusieurs savants distingués, ait fait de

notre temps des progrés trés-considérables et que Vélan que la philologie Orientale

a pris récemment, n’ait pas manqué d’exercer une influence utile sur la critique

de l’histoire des peuples et royaumes de l’Asie: il parait cependant que l’organisa-

tion intérieure des peuples Orientaux, les détails de leurs instituticns politiques, et

les rapports mutuels des élémens dont se composent les monarchies de l’Orient,

n’ont pas encore excité Vintérét que ces objets importants réclament a juste titre.

L’histoire intérieure méme de l’Empire Arabe et le systeme d’administration que

les Arabes adoptérent pour les provinces conquises et qui est trés-mémorable sous

plus d’un rapport, n’a pas encore été suffisamment éclairci, quoiqu’on ait reconnu

et signalé dans plusieurs ouvrages anciens et modernes l’importance des effets,

souvent méme salutaires, que la domination des Arabes eut pour plusieurs pays,

p. ex. pour VEgypte et l’Espagne.

“ Ces considerations ont déterminé la Classe de Philosophie et d’Histoire de

l’Académie Royale des Sciences de Prusse de rappeler l’attention des historiens et

des orientalistes vers le développement historique dusystéme de l’administration pro-

vinciale des Arabes, en proposant pour le concours del’an 1832 la question suivante :

“Quel fut état de administration des provinces de l Empire Arabe pendant la

“© durée de la puissance seculiére des Khalifes, c. &. d. depuis Vorigine de Empire

6 sivele de l’ Ere Chretienne.”’

La Classe désire que l’administration que les Arabes introduisirent dans les

provinces conquises, ne soit pas seulement discutée et exposée en général, mais

qu'elle soit surtout développée par rapport aux différents pays qui furent successive-

ment soumis & la domination des Arabes ; que la condition des habitans originaires

des différentes provinces, et les rapports, tant politiques et juridiques, que religieux

et moraux, dans lesquels ils entrérent avec leurs nouveaux mattres, soient éclaircis,

ainsi que les attributions et les fonctions des gouverneurs et des magistrats infé-

rieurs, les relations qui subsistaient entre ces magistrats et la cour des Khalifes, et

les changements que ces relations subirent successivement. La Classe désire prin-

cipalement qu’on répande du jour, tant sur l’organisation judiciaire des provinces

Arabes et sur les formes de la jurisdiction qui s’y exergait pendant l’époque mar-

quée, que sur les institutions que les Arabes établirent, soit pour seconder l’admi-

nistration financiére, soit pour faciliter les progrés des arts et des sciences de

‘

1832.] Proceedings of Societies. 37

agriculture, ducommerce, et des autres branches de 1’activité humaine, et sur les

effets que ces institutions produisirent. Il seroit aussi x désirer, que les traces

que les institutions des Arabes ont laissées dans les pays soumis a la domination des

Khalifes, fussent indiquées. Enfin la Classe demande, que non seulement en général

les résultats des recherches, dont on vient de préciser le point de vue et l’étendue,

soient justifiées par des citations exactes des sources, mais qu’en particulier dans

le cas ou les concurrents pourraient puiser dans des sources manuscrites, on ajoute

les textes des passages cités dans les langues originales avec 1’exactitude la plus

scrupuleuse.

“ Les mémoires envoyés au concours devront porter chacun une épigraphe ou de-

vise qui sera répétée dans un billet cacheté joint au memoire et contenant le nom

de l’auteur, et ne seront recus que jusqu’au 31 Mars 1832, ils devront étre écrits

d’aprés le choix des auteurs en Allemand, ou en Francais, ou en Anglais, ou en

Italien, ou en Latin. Le prix sera de 100 ducats, dont l’adjudication se fera dans

la séance publique, anniversaire de Leibnitz, au mois de Juillet 1832.’

2.—MEDICAL AND PHYSICAL Society,

Saturday, 7th January, 1832.—Messrs. Wood, Macnee, Christopher, and J, P,

Grant were elected Members of the Society. The Ballot was then taken for

Office Bearers for the year 1832, and the following Gentlemen were elected,

J. Tytler, Esq. Vice-President.

W. Twining, Esq. Secretary and Treasurer.

C. C. Egerton, Esq. Assistant ditto and ditto.

H. S. Mercer, Esq.; John Grant, Esq.; Geo. Waddell, M. D. ; Duncan Stew-

art, M. D. Members of the Committee of Management.

H. S. Mercer, Esq. ; John Grant, Esq. ; Dr. Macqueen ; Geo, Waddell, M. D.;

A. R. Jackson, M. D.; Duncan Stewart, M. D. Committee of Papers.

The following communications were then presented to the Society :

Ist.—Dr. Boswell’s case of Pendulous Tumors of the nose, with a drawing, by

which it seems the patient must have had a most grotesque appearance, as some

of the tumors hung down as low as the chin: the disease occurred in a Malay

man. The tumors were removed ‘by ligature and the knife-—2nd. An account

of the varieties of East India Opium, by Dr. Smyttan, of the Bombay Service.—

3rd. Dr. R. Tytler’s account of a plant used by natives, to prevent the Scorpion

from stinging them, with a relation of the trials made to provoke the Scorpion

to sting the arm of a man while the plant was held near it. These trials were

made in presence of other witnesses besides Dr. Tytler, and as far as can be judged

of the experiments related. it appears, that the Scorpions then used were not easily

provoked to sting those who handled them; but there is no information as to

whether any trials were made to irritate these reptiles when the plant, which is

supposed to stupify or fascinate them, was not held near. A large blue Scorpion

and a brown Scorpion were used in these experiments. A well finished drawing

of the Scorpion, and of the root alluded to, accompanied this communication, and

two specimens of the plant, in its dried state, which is said to be of the class

Syngenesia; but not being accompanied by the_flower, its Botanical characters

cannot be exactly ascertained. A short notice of similar experiments, which were

made in the presence of Brigadier O’Halloran, was also transmitted through the

Medical Board, by Mr. Playfair of Benares.—4th. Mr. Boswell’s abstract of

38 Proceedings of Societies. ps AN:

Meteorological Register, kept at Penang, for the months of August, September,

and October, 1831, whereby it appears that in those three months, the

quantity of rain which fell on the hill was 35.25 inches ; while in the valley, at

North Beach, the quantity of rain, in the same period, was 25.92 inches. The

Thermometer was, on an average, nearly eight degrees lower on the hill than in

the valley.—5th. Two Tables, presented by the Medical Board of Bengal, shew-

ing the number of sick and rate of mortality in the European and native Troops

at the Madras Presidency, for several years.—6th. Observations on the contagi-

ous nature of Cholera, by James Hutchinson, Esq.—7th. Medical Report on the

diseases at Penang, for three months, ending September, 1830, with copy of cases,

by Mr. J. C. Boswell, Assistant Surgeon at Penang.—8th. Case of Elephan-

tiasis of the Scrotum, witha drawing, by Dr. J. N. Casanova.—9th. An Essay on

the peculiarities of the foetal circulation, printed in the Oordoo language, by J.

Tytler, Esq.—10th. A Jetter from Dr. Gregory Vos, of Calcutta, offering to the

Society an analysis of authenticated facts relative to the contagious nature of

Cholera.

Dr. Mouat’s observations on the prevalance of Hepatitis at Bangalore were then

read, and discussed by the Meeting. _A detail of Meteorological Observations,

made at Bangalore, is prefixed to this Essay, shewing, that} for a considerable pe-

riod of the year, the morning temperature in a cool room is from sixty-two to

seventy-four degrees of Fahrenheit, while there is often a bright sun at noon, and

frequent variations of temperature from the refreshing showers of two monsoons,

The climates of Bangalore, altogether, is described as excellent, conducive to rapid

convalescence after acute diseases, not liable to cause a tendency to pulmonary com=~

plaints ; and for the greater part of the year agreeable to the feelings of Europeans

—inviting them to use active habits, often inducing them to expose themselves

much in the sun. The station of Bangalore, in the province of Mysore, between

the eastern and western ghats, is described as a barren table land, at an elevation

of nearly three hundred feet above the level of the sea; and surrounded by luxuriant

vallies at a little distance. The prevailing diseases in the Regiment of European

Dragoons, above six hundred strong, stationed at Bangalore, are stated to be Fever,

Dysentery, Hepatitis, and Rheumatism. The causes of Hepatitis among Europeans

are considered to be stimulant food and drink, active exertions, and exposure to

the diurnal vicissitudes of temperature, &c.

Dr. Mouat concludes with observing, that Medical writers of repute have con-

sidered Hepatic diseases as endemial to certain parts of the Madras territories ; and-

others, particularly Dr. James Johnson, who is supported by Dr. Annesley, sup-

poses its frequency to be attributable to the nature of the soil and seasons, causing

the high medium annual average temperature which prevails in the Indian peninsula.

Dr. Annesley, besides enumerating a great variety of exciting causes, agrees

with the views of Dr. Johnson, and says, the greater prevalence of Hepatitis and

Dysentery amongst the European troops, on the Madras than the Bengal Presiden-

cy, seems in some degree to be owing to the greater warmth of the climate.

Dr. Mouat says, therefore, Europeans residing at Bangalore may be looked upon

as peculiarly subject to Hepatitis; nor can this be accounted for, on consideration ~

of the high prevailing temperature, since the medium range of the Thermometer,

as extracted from the records of the corps, would give but an annual average of

seventy-four degrees of Fabrenheit, for several years past. Dr. Mouat is therefore

of opinion, that the causes assigned by Dr. Johnson and Mr. Annesley for the pre-

1832. | Proceedings of Societies. 39

valence of Hepatitis, so far from being correct, are positively refuted as far as

regards high temperature at this station: (as Hepatitis much affects the natives,

and in a very small proportion the European women or children.) The author

Says, we must look to other sources for its frequency at Bangalore. The real cause

of the prevalence of Hepatitis, at particular stations, can only be ascertained by the

most careful comparison of correct data,

3.—SocIETE’ D’HistoiRE NATURELLE of the Mauritius,

January \\th, 1831.

Mr. C, Telfair, President, presented on the part of the Governor, Sir C. Colville,

the Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society, and several other valuable works; in

return for which the Society presented a copy of the Meteorological Observations

made in 1827-28-29-30, by their colleague Mr. L. Geoffroy.

Upon a communication from the Reverend J. Adamson, Secretary of the South

African Institution, it was mutually agreed, that a Member of one Society should

be admitted to an honorary seat in the other, during his residence at the place ; and

further, that copies of their proceedings should be interchanged.

Mr. R. Lyall presented a collection of 598 plants, made at Madagascar, with a

catalogue.

Mr. Barry addressed the Society in English, on the occasion of his admission :

he expatiated on the effects of terrestrial refraction, particularly on the pheno-

menon of nauscopie: MM. Geoffroy, Lyall, and Faraguet were nominated a

commission to examine his memoir. }

Mr. L. Bouton presented a specimen of eagle-wood (Aloexylon, Agallochum de

Loureiro).

Mr. Faraguet described several curious objects met with on his voyage of disco-

very in the Astrolabe.

Mr. Desjardins, Secretary, read a description of some Sumatra fish ; as well as of

two species prevalent in the Mauritius. Mr. Leguitte presented a preserved

specimen of a puppy, with six feet, which lived for several days.

Seeds of a tetile plant of Diego were forwarded by Mr. Hockyns, from which

excellent cordage was made by Captain Pole of the Maidstone.

Corresponding Members proposed. Mr. Priée, directeur du jardin botanique de

Pondicherry, and the Baron du Ferussac of Paris.

8th February. Mr. A. Lyall continued his verbal observations on the manu-

facture of sugar. He objected to the employment of the coral lime for the purifi-

cation of the syrup, and recommended the substitution of the Madagascar stone-

lime.

Mr. Telfair explained, that the stone-lime of Bristol had been used without much

difference of effect.

Mr. L. Bouton read a note upon the posthumous work of Mr. Thouin, entitled

“€ Cours de culture et de naturalization des vegetaux.”

The Secretary read a paper by Mr. G, Longmore, on the subject of the replacing

of one of the extreme points of the base laid dawn by Lacaille, in 1753, on the plain

of Fort Blanc.

Messrs. Delisse and Lyall were appointed a commission to examine some mine-

rals, received from Mr. Cameron of Madagascar.

Mr. J. Desjardins read a note on the zoological part of the voyage of the Uranie,

pointing out a few errors in the acconnt of the vertebral animals of the Mauritius,

The President presented Mr, Chaix’s work on artesian wells, &c.

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JOURNAL

THE ASIATIC SOCIETY.

No. 2.—February, 1832.

1— Account of the Honorable Company’s Botanic Garden at Seha-

ranptir. By J. ¥F. Royle, Esq. late Superintendent.

[Read before the Physical Class, 7th January, 1832.]

As vegetables contribute a great proportion of the food of man,

conduce much to his comfort, supply many of the most valuable medi-

cines, afford a variety of products useful in almost every ceconomical

art, and produce some of the most beautiful objects for the gratifica-

tion of the most elegant tastes; the study of plants becomes one

of the most extensive, and at the same time most interesting branches of

natural knowledge.

The first stage in this study is, the accurate discrimination of plants,

and this constitutes the science of Systematic Botany. The second is,

their naturalization in any particular situation ; for a successful reali-

zation of which, a knowledge of the Geography of plants is necessary,

or an acquaintance with the places where plants naturally grow, and

the causes which influence their distribution over the globe, and not a

dependence upon chance. Applied Botany forms the third stage,

for which the two others are preparatory, which consists in a knowledge of

the various products of plants, whether useful as articles of diet, or as

medicinal agents, or for their ceconomical properties.

For the promotion of the study of plants, gardens have been so gene-

rally established, that there are no capitals, and few great towns, of

civilized nations, which do not possess such institutions, frequently

maintained at a very considerable expence in the most unfavourable

situations, where the difficulties opposed by nature are overcome by

the ever-varying resources of art ; and the successful result is displayed,

in the productions of nature which luxuriate only under the heats of

42 Account of the Botanic Garden at Sehardnpir. [ Fes.

an equatorial sun, being seen in all their beauty alongside of plants

which would naturally languish if not braced by the cold of almost

polar winters.

A Government in forming an establishment for the naturalization of

plants, will only do so with the most expanded and philosophical views ;

and as climate is the great regulator in the distribution of vegetable forms,

it is obvious that as this is dependent chiefly upon latitude and elevation,

such institutions placed at the extreme and central points of an extended

territory, particularly if there should be any mountains in their vicini-

ty, would insure the most extensive success, and be enabled to distri-

bute to every part of the country the beneficial results of their experi-

ments.

The territories of the Indian empire, extending from 8° to 31° of

northern latitude, and including within their bounds the most stupen-

dous mountains of the world, afford a varied and magnificent field for

the naturalization of the valued productions of every region of the

globe.

The utility of such institutions, however, depends not only upon

their intrinsic merits, but also upon the inhahitants of a country being

sufficiently enlightened to profit by their advantages, In India, the

European residents are in general too unsettled to take much interest

in that which is intended for permanent advantage, while the natives

themselves are too well satisfied with the course followed by their fore-

fathers to think of adopting any practice which has not the sanction of

their experience. On such accounts, therefore, the benefits spread by

such institutions may be less rapid, but they will not be less certain.

For the enlightened policy which now sanctions the diffusion of Euro-

pean knowledge among the natives of India cannot fail to produce a

class, who will not only desire their existence, but contribute even to

their support ; and in proportion as they are able to appreciate their

tendency, so will they endeavour to benefit by their progress.

The most southern parts of the Indian peninsula afford a favourable

site for naturalizing all the tropical productions which grow within 15°

north and south of the line; while the Nilgheris, between 11° and ~

12° of latitude, with an elevation of from 8 to 9000 feet, afford

every variety of climate for the products of more northern climates.

Somewhere in their vicinity, I have no doubt, the Cinchona or Peru-

vian bark might be successfully cultivated.

The situation of Calcutta, nearly on the tropic of Cancer, affords an

admirable site for a great proportion of tropical plants, while its north-

ern situation enables it to support many of the products of the temperate

1832. ] Account of the Botanic Garden at Sehardnpir. 43

zone; though it is hardly to be hoped, that much success will attend

the attempt at naturalizing the plants of European climates. The

richness and variety of the Calcutta Botanic Garden are however a

sufficient indication of the eligibility of its situation.

It is singular, and at the same time most fortunate, that nearly at

the most northern limit of the British territories, and in one of the

most eligible situations for the purpose, a public garden should have

been established by the native Governments which preceded the

British. Zabita Khan first appropriated in 1779, the revenues of seven

villages, for the maintenance of this garden. Gholam Kadir, as well

as the Mahratta power after him, continued the same revenue until the

time of Bapti Scindia, who reduced the establishment, allowing only

the revenues of two villages, with that of a third held in mudut

mash. ‘The Marquis of Hastings, with the enlightened views of a

statesman, determined, on his visit to the Upper Provinces, that that

which was intended only for the gratification of an Asiatic sensualist,

should contribute to the advancement of science, at the same time that

it increased the comforts of the people, and administered to the tastes

of the most civilized European. The establishment was accordingly

ordered to be formed into a Botanic Garden.

The situation of Seharanpur, in point of latitude, elevation, vicinity to

the hills, the nearness of water to the surface, and now the facility of

irrigation from the Doab canal, makes it particularly eligible for the

purpose. ‘The parallel of latitude of 30°, or that which nearly passes

through the Seharanpur Garden, embraces in its course a greater

variety of interesting country than perhaps any other; and as tempe-

rature is dependent upon latitude, and may be deduced by a formula,

simple and sufficiently accurate for practical purposes, it follows that the

vegetable productions in the neighbourhood, at least of the above paral-

lel, will bear a considerable resemblance to one another; for it is well

known, that the vegetation of each country depends upon its climate ;

and that plants of one country will easily grow in another which

possesses a similar climate. Before proceeding, it may be useful

to indicate, that the above parallel, or that of 30°, leaving India, passes

through Persia, Arabia, and Egypt, and over the southern boundaries

of Lybia, Barbary and Morocco, across the Atlantic, through New

Orleans, between Old and New Mexico, and passing the Pacific

Ocean, crosses the very centre of China and Tibet.

An analogical comparison of the ‘climate and botany of these

various countries would lead into too much detail for the present

G 2

44 Account of the Botanic Garden at Seharanpir. [ Fes.

occasion ; but that the object is not visionary of introducing into one

country the useful productions of another which approximates in

climate, or possesses a similarity in vegetation, may be inferred not

only from the success which has already attended the efforts to intro-

duce the useful productions of other countries, but also from the fact

that the more valuable indigenous plants of India have already been

transferred to and cultivated in countries, which possess many valuable

productions peculiar to themselves.

As instances of the interchange, which has already taken place in

the useful productions of the old and new world, I have prepared the

following lists, to the second of which I have added a few plants

which have become so common as to be thought natives of India,

together with some others sent up from the Calcutta Botanic Garden,

which have become perfectly naturalized in that of Seharanpar.

PLANTS INTRODUCED.

From Asia, chiefly India, into From America into India.

America.

The Vine. The Potatoe.

Rice. Tobacco.

Ginger. Pine Apple.

Coffee. Guava.

Cinnamon. Capsicum.

Pomegranate. Carica Papaya.

Lime. ; Achras Sapota.

Citron. Annona Cherimolia.

Orange. Logwood.

Sesamum Orientale. Mahogany.

Cassia Fistula. Parkinsonia Aculeata.

Eleusine Indica. Argemone Mexicana.

Melia Azedirach. Cerbera Thevitia.

Cytisus Cajan. Allamanda Cathartica,

Coriaudrum Sativum. Asclepias Curassavica.

Martynia Diandra.

Canna Glauca.

Jatropha Multifida.

The Sugar-cane, Indigo, and Tamarind are supposed by many to

have been introduced from India into the new-world; but as the

subject is doubtful, I have preferred omitting them in the above com-

parison.

1832. | Account of the Botanic Garden at Seharanpir. 45

Besides the latitude and elevation, which is 1000 feet, the climate of

Seharanpir is particularly favourable for the introduction into India

of the plants of more temperate countries; as the temperature for

nearly six months in the year is sufficiently European, for the easy

cultivation of most of the annuals of that part of the globe, while the

cold is not sufficiently great or long enough continued to destroy the

plants of more southern countries, with the exception of only such tro-

pical ones as cannot bear any frost.

Though they may be sown earlier, the best crops of European

vegetable and medicinal plants are those obtained from seed sown in

November. After which, the weather becomes steadily colder until

Christmas, when some heavy rain usually occurs, but which is sometimes

deferred to a latter period. During this season, the growth of peren-

nials is stopped, as well as of the herbaceous plants of warm countries.

In March, a rapid rise takes place in the mean temperature of the

month, and the increase amounting to 12° is a sufficiently powerful

stimulus to rapidly accelerate the vegetation of the spring. About the

beginning or middle of April, the hot winds begin to blow, and continue

to do so until the middle of June, when the rainy season commences,

and according as it terminates towards the beginning or end of Septem-

ber, depends the late or early diminution of temperature which ushers

in the cold weather.

A general idea of the temperature of the different months at Seha-

ranpur may be obtained, by a reference to the following abstract of

the meteorological observations which I have made, and the results will

serve as points of comparison with the mean temperature of other coun-

tries of which we wish to acclimate the productions.

The mean temperature of the year at Seharanpur is about 73°, and

of the months of

Jan, Feb. Mar. April May June July Augt. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

Soa oom, 67° 78° 85° 90° 85° 83° 79° it) 748, GAS) 558

From the middle of October to the middle of April, the various

useful and ornamental plants of European climates may be successfully

cultivated ; while the temperature of the other half of the year is

suited for the cultivation of tropical products,

In introducing the productions of other, particularly temperate, cli-.

mates, considerable advantage has been derived from having at com-

mand the climate of the hills, of which the temperate months occur

at different seasons of the year from those in the plains ;: asis well known,

but may be exemplified in the following table.

46 Account of the Botanic Garden at Sehardnpir. { Fes.

The mean temperature of the year at Masiri is about 57°, and

of the months of

Jan. Feb. Mar. April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

AQ° A459 (S3P BO G6P 6 678). GF®, GP) 1 64a 57° 508." + 459

The season for cultivation in the Masiri climate is from March

to October. Hence by taking advantage of the different months

adapted for cultivation in the hills and in the plains, a complete year of

moderate climate may be obtained for the germination of the seeds, and

for the growth of the plants of the temperate climates of every part of

the globe. Thus

At Seharanpur in At Masiuri in

Nov. Dec. Jan, Feb. Mar. April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct,

G49 Ha 529) "55° * 57° BE iY 67 OS G72 66° 64° 57°

In this way, a year with a mean temperature of 60°, of which each of

the months is temperate, may be obtained, and seed sown at one or the

other, duringthe whole twelve months. Many plants have actually been

thus introduced and preserved, which if confined to either would, while

young, have been destroyed by the hot winds of the plains, or killed at

Masuri by the frosts of winter.

The garden having now been established for several years, during

which it has both advanced and retrograded, it may be useful to indi-

cate the progress it has actually made, both as a scientific and as an

useful institution. A few words may, therefore, be well devoted to an

account of its internal arrangement.

The garden contains 4( acres of ground ; a sum of 200 rupees is

allowed for its monthly expences. The establishment consists of 40

men, which, with the assistance of some convicts, carries on the several

duties of the institution. By comparing the plan of the garden, as it

was ‘in 1823, with that of its present state, it will be observed, that a

good deal of new ground has been enclosed, and many alterations made

in laying out the grounds. In these the English style of gardening

has been as much as possible adhered to; but previous to this being

effected, many preliminary labours were required.

In the first place, all the new and many of the old parts of the gar-

den were cleared of jungle, and every where thinned of exuberant

vegetation. The surface was levelled or sloped, as well to improve

the general effect as to prevent the lodgment of water, which was

conducted by drains into neighbouring rivulets. On either side of

the boundary ditch, a hedge was planted ; new gateways built, and

a free communication effected with every part of the garden by a se-

1832. ] Account of the Botanic Garden at Seharanpir. 47

ries of new roads; additional wells were sunk, and the Persian wheel

introduced; but the latter has, in a great measure, been superseded

Since the opening of the Doab canal, from which a cut runs through

the garden, and much facilitates the almost constant irrigation which in

some seasons of the year is indispensable to the existence even of her-

baceous vegetation in the Upper Provinces. A conservatory was built,

where the plants of warm countries might be placed, so as to be pro-

tected from the frosts of winter, and those introduced from the hills

equally saved from the scorching effects of solar radiation during the

months of hot weather. Two tanks, one rather a large piece of water,

have been formed, which, contributing to the picturesque beauty of

the garden, serve also for the introduction of aquatic plants. The

parts not in cultivation, after being ploughed and smoothed, were laid

in grass. The cultivated parts, as well as the borders of the roads,

were trenched to the depth of two feet, by which means the clayey

substratum became well mixed with the sandy surface, when the

whole was enriched with the addition of vegetable and animal ma-

nure. The borders of the roads were planted with different

varieties of trees, flowering shrubs, and herbaceous plants, the latter in

front and opposite to the vacancies of the rear lines, by which means

a view of the plants in the latter was not obstructed by those in front.

It may perhaps not be uninteresting to remark, that some English

tools were introduced, and the use of wheelbarrows made general.

In order to insure due attention being paid to the several objects

contemplated in the institution of the garden, it was divided into

several departments. In one, plants were arranged according to the

Linnean system of classification, though now it would be preferable

to change it for the natural method ; another was devoted to agricul-

tural experiments, and a third for horticultural purposes. Of the plants

introduced from the hills, some are planted in nurseries ; others in an

artificial rock-work; and some in flower-pots in the conservatory ;

but in all the soil requires to be enriched by the addition of decayed

vegetable matter. Nurseries were likewise formed for fruit and

ornamental trees and shrubs, for general distribution. A portion of the

garden was allotted for the experimental medicinal garden, and ano-

ther asa nursery of timber trees for the Dehli and Doab canals.

For a furtherance of the objects of the institution, as a scientific

one, pains were taken to obtain a knowledge of the Botany of the

surrounding country; a catalogue was made of the plants which the

garden contained, parties were sent out in every direction to bring

in such as the garden did not contain, and those extended their

48 Account of the Botanic Garden at Seharanpir. [ Fes.

labours from the neighbouring hills into the Dehra Dan, and from

that into the Himalayan mountains, and even into Kashmir.

The collection, as may be seen by the accompanying abstract of the

catalogues, consists of upwards of 4000 species, and probably amount

to about 30,000 specimens, independent of a complete set left with my

successor, Dr. Falconer, at Seharanpar.

These have been chiefly collected in the northern provinces of India,

but contain, of course, specimens of the plants which have been sent from

the Calcutta to the Seharanpur Botanic Garden.

In the northern provinces I include specimens of the plants indigen-

ous in the tract of country running along the Ganges and Jumna from

Allahabad up to the Satléj, with those growing on the low range of

hills which skirt the Himalaya, as well as those of the Dehra Dun.

Among those of the two latter tracts are many more of a European

than an Indian type. Another series consists of plants of that part

of the Himalayan range extending from the plain to the sources of

the Ganges and Jumna, and included between the former river to the

east and the Satléj to the west. A third series consist of plants from

Kanawar, or the tract of country lying along both sides of the Satléj

within the British territories, but beyond the snowy passes of the

Himalaya; but the most interesting collection is, perhaps, that which has

been obtained from the valley of Kashmir and the mountains in its

vicinity and on the road leading to it.

These collections have been formed since 1824, as previous to that

the garden itself required the labours of the whole establishment for its

internal improvement and management. In 1825, I first endeavoured

to get a collection of specimens from Kanawar, but the gardeners

whom I sent, unfortunately, ran away ; the late Lieutenant Maxwell,

of H. M.’s 11th Dragoons, who had promised to look after them, brought

down a collection of about 100 species, nearly the whole of which were

new. A much larger collection has been obtained in 1831.

The plants from Kashmir were first procured in 1828, by sending

two of the gardeners belonging to the Seharanpar establishment along

with the northern merchants who bring down fruit, &c. forsale. In

the following year or 1829, the merchants themselves brought me down’

a number of dried specimens in a book which I had given them for the

purpose, but these were generally duplicates of the former year. Last

year I again sent two of the establishment, but they brought an in-

different collection in point of numbers, though the specimens were

generally large and well dried. By these means I also obtained living

bulbs of the Saffron of commerce, as well as of the plant furnishing the

1832. ] Account of the Botanic Garden at Sehardnpiir. 49

true salep misri, and along with the former in 1828, living plants of

the fruit trees of Kashmir, most of which are now thriving in the garden

at Mastri. Among these are the apple, pear, peach, nectarine, plum,

cherry, walnut, and vine.

The whole of the plants of the herbarium have been arranged in two

catalogues, one according to the Linnean or artificial classification, and

the other according to the Jussieuan or natural method. To the bota-

nical names, the Hindustani ones are added, together with the place of

growth, time of flowering, of ripening of their seed, with notices respecting

such as are applied to any use. In an appendix, all the plants which

are known to be useful in agriculture or medicine, or which afford timber,

materials for rope-making, or the tanning principle, or resin, gum, oil, or

feecula, are enumerated in separate lists.

Of many of the new plants, drawings have been made by the paint-

ers attached temporarily to the garden.

As exemplifications of what has already been effected in the natu-

ralization of plants, and as guides in the course which it would appear

proper to follow, it may be useful to indicate some of the plants of the

different countries, which have already been naturalized in the open air,

in the Seharanpur garden.

Among the plants of more southern latitudes, for which the cold of

the Seharanpir climate is not too severe, may be enumerated, along

with such common fruits as plantain, shaddock, custard, apple, and

jack fruit, the cinnamon and sweet laurel, great dillenia, species of

anona, uvaria, and pterospermum.

Of those from more northern climates, such as Kabul and Kashmir,

which the parching heats of May and June, and the tepid moisture of

the rains have allowed to naturalize in the Seharanpar climate, may be

mentioned the almond, peach, nectarine, plum, pomegranate, walnut,

quince, saffron, henbane, atropa physalodes, clover, vine, apple, species

of sage, of pink, of centaurea, aster, balsam, rhubarb, iris, and pole-

monium.

But the greatest variety of plants which have been acclimated, are

those which have been procured from the hills: this does not proceed

from their more easy naturalization,.but from the greater facility of

communication ; for the difference between the climate of the hills,

- and that of the plains, is much greater than occurs in places differing

only in latitude; for not only the temperature of the atmosphere is

different, but also its pressure and density, as well as the radiation of

light, and the variations between dryness and moisture. But here the

50 Account of the Botanic Garden at Seharanpir. [ Fes.

success has been so complete in so many instances, that, within certain

bounds, hardly any difficulties appear insurmountable.

Trees. Flowers. Fruits.

fae = imi aes ioc co. rr So

Oak. Horse Chesnut Primula. Delphinium. Myrica Sapida. Cherry.

Fir. Blackthorn. Viola. Aconitum. ContariaNipaieaens, Apricot

Dogwood. Juniper. Clematis. Thyme. Berberis Bean Pear.

Maple. Yew and Box. Anemone. Gentian. -— Aristata. Apple.

Service tree. Buckthorn. Potentilla.s Hypericum. Juglans Regia.

Holly. Spindle tree. Geum. Spirza. Rubus, 3 sp.

As the climate of the hills bears the nearest resemblance to that of

European countries, the transition is easy, from a consideration of the

former to those of the latter; and the success would, I conceive, be

most extensive, but in this place so remote from the sea, the means of

obtaiming European plants are few, and seeds in a vegetative state

arrive but seldom: but the introduction of the various European

kitchen vegetables, the naturalization of many of the flowers, and the

suscessful cultivation of many medicinal plants, afford the most rational

prospect of the eventual success being only limited by the means

afforded of insuring it. The horticultural catalogue exhibits the names

of the several vegetables which are successfully cultivated in the Seha-

ranpur climate. The medicinal one will point out others, while among

flowers may be enumerated sweet-brier, wall flower, heart’s ease, several

snapdragons, mignionette, mallow, &c.

In proceeding westward, in the latitude of Seharanpur, the first

countries of which it would be desirable to acclimate the productions

are Persia, Arabia, and Egypt; and as there is considerable resem-

blance between their Botany and that of the Upper Provinces of India,

and as some of their fruits have already been introduced, while others,

as well as many of their vegetables and useful productions, are the same

as those of India, I have no doubt, that a considerable proportion of

their valuable products, as asafcetida, ammoniacum, myrrh, galbanum,,

&c. might be naturalized at Seharanpar, where the coffee tree flourishes,

and the senna is produced in the fullest perfection.

In examining the genera in Pursh’s Flora of North America, and

those of Mexico, in Humboldt’s Synopsis, a very considerable resem-

blance will be found to exist with those of the Sehardnpar catalogue,

of which the plants are chiefly such as are indigenous near Seharanpar,

or in the hills: hence it may reasonably be concluded from this Bota-

nical analogy, similarity of temperature, and in one case from identity

of latitude, that little difficulty will be experienced in cultivating the

useful productions of both countries, either in the Seharanpur or Mastri

1832. ] Account of the Botanic Garden at Seharanptr. 51

garden, particularly as such plants as have been hitherto introduced

have succeeded remarkably well. Among these may be enumerated

the mahogany logwood, sapota, cherimolia, ash-leaved maple, pimento,

dahlia purpurea.

The plants of China, which have succeded in the Seharanpir Gar-

den, and are now in a flourishing state, are the litchee, loquat, wampee,

longan, flat peach, and digitated citron, spiraa corymbosa, dianthus

chinensis, rosa chinensis, and althea rosea. The numbers are few, but

they are all that have been introduced, and now appear so perfectly

naturalized as to excite the wish to make a more extended trial, and

to attempt the cultivation of the tea plant, of which the geographical

distribution is extended, and the natural sites sufficiently varied to

warrant its being easily cultivated.

The countries in the southern hemisphere, which have the nearest

approximation in latitude and temperature to northern India, are the

Cape of Good Hope and New Holland: the most populous parts of

both are about the 34th parallel of latitude. Though the Botany of

each is distinguished from that of the other by possessing a number

of genera peculiar to itvelf, yet is there the closest affinity between that

of the two countries, and a marked difference from that of every other.

Though they possess but few plants in common, we must not from this

circumstance conclude that the plants of the Cape and New Holland

will not succeed in India; but rather take into consideration, that as

there is a similarity with its northern parts in point of latitude and

temperature, and as they have possessed themselves of every species of

vegetable and fruit tree known in other parts of the world, some of

which are natives of, and the greater number flourish in, India, so their

own peculiar or useful productions may no doubt be as easily trans-

ferred to the latter country. Of those which have been attempted, the

success has been complete, as of the aloes, pelongenium (geraniums),

slopelias, amaryllis, casuarina, and cajaputi.

A view having been given of what has been effected by the Seha-

ranpur garden in Systematic Botany, as well as for the naturalization

of plants, it remains to show, that the third branch, or that of Applied

Botany, has not been neglected.

In the agricultural department less has been done than might, perhaps,

have been effected; but here the difficulty to contend with is the

want of a population ready to take advantage of any novelties that

might be introduced ; still much good might be effected by introducing

improved kinds of the seed which the natives themselves are in the habit

of sowing. The agricultural division of the catalogue before alluded to

H 2

52 Account of the Botanic Garden at Seharanpir. [ Fes.

shows the number of plants from which the natives of India derive the

means of increasing the supply of food. The rabi crop is sown about

November, and reaped in April, while the kharéf crop is sown in

June, and cut in October.

As instances of what may be effected, it may be noticed, that the

barley of the hills called ooa, from an elevation of 10,000 feet, has

become naturalized in Seharanpur; and a singular species of wheat

from Kanawar, at an equal elevation, succeeds remarkably well. Of

plants affording fodder for cattle, which have been introduced, and are

in a thriving state, Guinea, and Fiorin grasses may be noticed, as

well as lucerne, soccory, andclover. All have become naturalized, and

the three latter are valuable as affording green food when there is little

or no grass in the country.

The Horticultural catalogue exhibits a large proportion of the plants

used as vegetables both in European and Indian climates. Of the

former most have been introduced since the British ieign, many by

means of the garden ; and of native vegetables, pains have been taken

to bring together those which are common in different parts of the

country. The list of fruit-trees displays, collected in one place and

naturalized in the open air, the various fruit-trees of very different

countries, as of India and China, Kabul, Europe, and America. A view

of the list of annuals and of flowering shrubs will prove the variety

which are always ready in the different nurseries for general distribu-

tion, and of which, as well as of fruit-trees, many thousands are yearly

distributed, together with packets of seeds, to all those who are inclined

to send for them. ‘

In the list of medicinal plants will be observed many which form the

most powerful articles of the European materia medica, while others,

perhaps not Jess valuable, are known only to native haktms. So much

time has been occupted in preliminary investigations, that it is not easy to

give an idea of the results that may finally be obtained. But it may

at present be stated in general terms, that the materia medica in use

among the natives of India, is very extensive in the number of its arti-

cles ; and which, according as they have derived their knowledge from

the Greeks through the Arabs and Persians, or from the Hindis, are

the produce of both European and Asiatic countries. To one unac-

quainted with the subject, it will appear surprising to be told, that the

natives are in the habit of administering, or rather of prescribing such

medicines as hemlock, hellebore, henbane, and colchicum.

Having derived much of their knowledge of medicine from the

Greeks, they are naturally anxious to prescribe that which they find

1832. | Account of the Botanic Garden at Sehardnpir. 53

praised in their works; but as most of the articles are of European

growth, the distance which they have to travel is great, and the adul-

terations proportionally numerous: the natives, both physicians and

patients, being too ignorant of the original article to be able to detect

the falsification. As considerable anxiety however is now displayed,

and expence incurred by the Government in the instruction of native

doctors for the public service, the benefit of which must eventually

extend to the class of practitioners who administer to the mass of the

population, it would appear the part of a wise and provident fore-

sight, that as a more correct knowledge of medicine is imparted, and

the art of detecting the impostures in drugs is acquired, means should

be adopted of more genuine articles being provided. This might be

effected by first investigating the true value of genuine Indian medicines,

and then naturalizing in the hills or plains such articles as they are

deficient in, or which are now of foreign growth.

That the success would be considerable, I feel warranted in as-

suming, from the results of the experiments I have already made, even in

introducing medicines for the use of the public service, which have

borne the test of comparative trials with the best from European depdts.

The difficulties to be surmounted may not be so obvious, except to

those who have made similar attempts; but if it be considered that

not only the seed or plant is first to be procured, then grown with all the

care of an exotic, extended into a crop, and converted into a form fit for

exhibition as a medicine, then proved equal in medical virtue and at

the same time cheaper than those already in use, the attempt will not

appear so easy ; particularly if it be remembered, that not an oil can

be distilled, without first making a still, nor an extract prepared with-

out first constructing an apparatus for expressing the juice, and then

evaporating it to a proper consistence in an apparatus of steam.

Among the articles which have been introduced and reported upon

by Mr. Twining*, after experiments made at the General Hospital, it

appears, that “ the cultivation of rhubarb at the Mastri Tabba,

is expected to afford a very valuable remedy, which is less disagreeable

to take than the best Turkey rhubarb, nearly equally efficacious as

a purge, and very superior in small doses as a tonic and astringent in

profluvia ;” and Mr. Twining concludes his report with saying, that“ the

acquisition of this remedy to the materia medica of this country will be

of the utmost importance.” The medicine has been introduced, and

* Mr. Twining’s experiments, on the Rhubarb of the Hills, and the Senna and

Henbane grown at Sehardnpir, are published in the 4th and 5th volumes of the

Transactions of the Medical Society of Calcutta.

54 Account of the Botanic Garden at Sehardanpir. [ Fes,

considerable quantities supplied to the depdts. The oil of turpentine

distilled from the turpentine of the common long-leaved fir is considered

in aletter from Mr. Hutchinson, to be of “ very superior quality.” The

extract of henbane has been pronounced by many, from its freshness,

to be superior to that imported from Europe, and by Mr. Twining to

be of “ most excellent quality.” It has been sent to Madras, and the

supply discontinued from Europe, regular supplies being annually

furnished to the depdts. Senna has only this year been introduced

into practice. The Medical Board, after the trials made at the

General Hospital, express their gratification at the result, and direct

that its cultivation be extended as much as possible for the public

service. Mr. Twining pronounces the senna cultivated at Seharanpir

very superior to that commonly supplied for Hospital use, possess-

ing in a high degree the peculiar aroma of the best senna, and after

45 trials, considers it equal to the best senna he has ever seen. The

other articles which have been cultivated or prepared for Hospital

use will be exhibited in the catalogue which forms an appendix to the

report*. :

In considering the cultivation of medicines in India in an economical

point of view, it may be safely assumed, that by cultivating a sufficient

number of articles to keep in full employment whatever establishment

may be entertained, a very considerable saviny will eventually be

effected ; for the cost of the production of medicines must, like every

other product of the soil in India, be less than can be produced in and

exported from Europe, particularly if some machinery be employed

for the grinding of powders and the expressing of oils and extracts,

and this might easily be done by the water-mill in the garden.

Though the subject would not be less interesting, it would lead into

much too extended detail to enter particularly into the economical

purposes to which the various products of plants are applied. But it

may be mentioned generally, that there are few of the principles of

plants which form the subject of vegetable chemistry, which are not

produced by the plants introduced into the Seharanpér garden, as_ will

be seen by the various lists which form the appendix.

Among the timber trees, the teak, saul, toon, sissoo, seriss, maple,

casuarina, bamboo, jamin, mulberry, may be mentioned ; as of these

many thousands are furnished annually, to be planted along the banks

of the Doab canal. One of the subjects, to which attention might be

beneficially turned, is that of finding efficient substitutes for, or actually

* The above account formed the substance of a report to the Right Honourable

the Governor General, on his Lordship’s visit to the garden in 1831.

1832.] Account of the Botanic Garden at Seharanpir. 55

cultivating, the hemp, as during the war, when the usual supplies were

cut off, it was proposed to grow it in large quantities in this coun-

try, and Dr. Roxburgh made numerous trials on the comparative

strength of the several articles employed by the natives in India, and

proposed that hemp should be cultivated in large quantities in the

Upper Provinces. This was before it was known, that some of the

finest hemp in the world is to be found in the hills, where it is already

employed by the natives for making ropes to cross their rivers, and for

the manufacture of a coarse cloth much valued in the plains. The most

beneficial results might also be obtained by the introduction of better

kinds of cotton seed for the cultivation of superior kinds of cotton.

Attempts have been made withtwo species. Samples of both were sent,

the one an American, and the other an indigenous perennial species,

to Mr. Saunders, who pronounced the staple of the former to be better

than that of specimens sent of cotton commonly cultivated in this

country, which he however considered of very excellent fabric; but

the cotton of the perennial species, or gossypium arboreum, he thought

the best description of cotton, the fabric and staple being both good.

As useful in the different arts, it may be mentioned that a very ex-

cellent rosin is produced by the saul tree; while a variety of gums»

which likewise form articles of commerce, are produced by several trees

from the lower hills now naturalized at Seharanptir. The fine sugar

for which the Seharanpar district is remarkable, is chiefly refined with

the mucilage of two plants, kydia calycina and hibiscus abel-moschus.

In the subjoined lists are shown the plants used as dyes, as well as those

which afford materials for the tanning of leather. Among those which

afford fixed oils are some of which advantage might be taken to supply

excellent substitutes for the olive oil now imported from Europe. The

apricot oil sent down to Calcutta was highly approved of. Of plants

affording saccharine matter, it is needless to speak, as sugar is so

abundant, and with very little trouble might be manufactured of

very superior quality. Fwcula or starch, besides forming a principal

part of the several grains, abounds in many tuberous roots, of which the

peculiarities have been hitherto uninvestigated: very excellent salep

has been made from some of the Orchis tribe, and jelly is afforded

by a variety of plants.

The unaccountably little attention which has hitherto been paid in

India to vegetable chemistry* must account for the want of precision

* The analysis by Mr. Piddington of the Rohana bark, Swietenia febrifuga,

published in the 5th volume of the Transactions of the Medical Society, is an useful

indication of what may be effected by attention being turned in this direction.

56 Account of the Botanic Garden at Seharanpitr. [ Fes.

in our knowledge respecting the vegetable products of India, as well as

our ignorance respecting the nature of the acids furnished by different

vegetables. I have no doubt that both Tartaric and Citric Acids might

be manufactured, while of Alkalies, both Potash and Soda exist in

every bazar, and require only purification to be fit for every purpose.

From the above enumeration, it is hoped it will appear that endea-

vours have been made to make the H. C.’s Botanic Garden contribute

to the progress of Botanical Science, at the same time that it has been

made practically useful in distributing to the surrounding provinces

plants both of a useful and ornamental nature.

As the situation was favourable, and little is known of the Natural

History in other departments of the northern provinces of India,

collections have been made of the skins and bones of mammalia;

of stuffed specimens of birds; of insects, as well as of other branches of

Natural History ; together with a collection of articles used as medicinal

agents in the north-western provinces, and a series of geological speci-

mens of the parts of the hills I had an opportunity of visiting.

Contents of the Herbarium, arranged according to the natural families.

1. VASCULARES. 1. Dicoryiepones. 1. Dichlamydee.

Thalamiflore,

1 Ranunculacee.......... 13 85{ 30 Temstremiacee......... Di. 32

2 Dilleniacee ...........- Voge [31 (uCameblliesxs):: cies. 2- eee ib aya!

3 Magnoliacer........... 3 32° Olacimer. so.56.3.c0 one ee

4 Anonacez...2c2/---+- >», 3. 7 | 33. Aurantiacer.... var. 31 i V9

5 Menispermacee......... 4 Il | 34, “Hypericines.. .2 3). 2c | Te

6 Berberider........... Te 54|) S5uy Guttiferaes. <1. ocletee cre 20.

7 Podephyllacee.......... 1 2'| 37° Hippocrateacer:. £32...) Pa 1

8 Nymphoacee.......... 3 8] 37§ Dipterocarper..........-- Inuit

9 Papaveracee...........- 3 8{| 39 Malpighiacee....... Bee cure,

10 Fumariacez............ 3 15] 40 Acerinee....~..-- 00. 2 25

11 Crucifere.............. 98| 41 Hippocastanee.......... 1 1

12 Capparidee............ 4 9] 43 Sapindacee............- 6.6 68

13 Flacourtianee .......... 1 31 44 Meliacez...... --sseeee ie 7,

1 Achy Bisxitiese erat escent "ket 1 1| 45 Ampelidee...... Var 28-23 18

16 Violarez:...9.. 7 ....caple 21-1. 1 6): 46 Genaniaces:......6....2 Bye P us:

17. Droserace®.....ee..-06 2 2] 47 Tropexolee.... ........ 1 1

17% Resedacew.......-.-- a 4.0 sds 2 Balsamine®. 2%... ccaens sa oo

18 Polygalez...... ....0.. Vee ZA9’ “Oxalidewte.s . cites +. cuee ee) amo mee

20 Pittosporer....... eer-ee 1 1] 50 Zygophyller.......... 3 4

22 Caryophyllee .......... ey a We RitEcrs ds ongog ceased | ss a

Dei tg 6 o068 SHae 6s 3056 1 5 | 52 Simaruber............. 1 sek

94 Malvacer.......--2+00- 11 59] 53 Ochmacez.. .. ...- core 1 ae |

25 Bombace®...........--. Be 2 RA COrlatiees:. <in' 000% cab seahs @ te ee

26 Buttneriacez............ 8 ll =a

OT TTACER Joists iets 0. 2 Siesold eye. By ey 566

18 Elzocarpez......... ee Te ee

1832. ]

RERNVMCCIASETINGSE sa viccu secs 0c

BEREICH ele as cc ee us

meeamryder. le ae

62 Terebinthaceex... .....

G3 /Leguminose...... 6.02.6

64 Rosacee......... var. 107

G6: Granates.. 6. '..0..¢ AS SHOR

68 Combretacex...........

CEs

75 Tamariscinee...........

76 Melastomacee...... Beis

78 Philadelphee............

79 ~Myrtacer....., Siticlaiviers ¢

80 Cucurbitacer...........

81 Passiflorer....... ....006

"83 Turneracéz...... ...0..

Bet BE GOTEBISCES: . .50. sccces

86 Paronychiee ..........

104 Symplocinez............

Ee MVFRINED...).% noise osc

EGS AP OLED: 0\0:0.0100.0 0 ecieved ele

MO7 Bbenacee. .. 2s cei. ecies

LUG! (QIGIT CE xen, ae

TOGWPASMINGR.. os eke ees

mi Sirychnez::....5... 500

BPE APOCTHCR., cnrcccccccece

U2 Asclepiader............

BS Gentianee:....sesce ees

114 Polemoniaceez.. ........

115 Didymocarpee..... ....

116 Bignoniacee .... ......

1164 Sesamee ....., MED OE OC

117 Hydroleacezy.... ......

135 Plumbagine®...........6

156. Plantagine. . \...tv fo evs «

io7 Nyctacines.. .. side sees

138 Amaranthacee...........

139 Chenopodez....,...6..5 0

140 Begoniacee......

141 Polygonez......

MAS IGHUTINDs. s0 «5 «se sislalce

N46 -Thymelete.. -..<.0ccs see

147 Eleagnee........-...

148 Santalacewz ......ccseee

149 Osyridez .occocvccrccese

eeotes

ereee

Account of the Botanic Garden at Seharanpir.

Calycifiore.

4 12 |87 Crassnlacesz...... a4) sie) ale

Ae Va "89), Cactear sr fs 3205 ones -

Tey 90" Grossulartaso dese cae ee

TS 29a SE Saxifragess! 23 57S

354 | 93 Umbellifere..... Aes :

90° 105) |. 94 . Araliacer?: 262273.) ac

he Sing Moranthess. eect cee re.

Bo 7 | 96 ‘Caprifoliacessy.i'..:..08 bs

Bo ga 1 OF Rubiaceae se. oct. 88

5 “yor oo | Malertanewtes csisdoye sa

1) Vo |) 99. 6 Dipsacedes acc sie Cees

b +2 || 99%. Cichoraces.: 5 <3 32 s%t00.'.

1 1 | 99% Cinarocephale.........-.

9 15 | 99$ Corymbifere .... 1...

12 509 | 100 Campanulacee......... A

Tyee eet | LOZRE ICE cee sa c/a; sole 3) stele were

nee |

Sie ks,

Corolliflore.

1 3.4118 Convolvulacee........

4 11] 119 Boraginee...... eueinirishele

3 5 | 120 Sebestinee.............

Beh) LQTS Olamese fefevsin, 10% nic cievelersjs

3 7 | 123 Scrophularinee ......-.

2 18 | 124 Orobanchee ..........

My ele Pedicularece: strerrere c! cise «

Rope om leg Wabratcet. sci. of s/s. 010s1sisc

35 | 130 Verbenacee ........« esis

oe?” 1) ISL Acanthacese .s..:c:ccic.c0n0

Masten ts2 Bentibularese. csc... «

ee og |) lao Primulacese’s were es ciciss'e

Oe wi)

| eee |

Monochlamydee.

Ws 1 )25) Euphorbiacez)..’........

T °9)| 152, Resedacewie.. 0 2. ae

Dns Sn) MUM LITTICE Dress sfc slerares. cleje'e oe

GO 3 LOG BIPENILCION. <1 ose + 0 0.0 sieisie

De 23n la APATLOCATPe®), .. cleieiai> vie ehece

1 31158 Ulmacee........ oe

AT 55°) 159. Platanides,.... «scileee

3) 4S 160" Amentaces= «6... seve et

Te Sa LGR Comitersey’, orcs s.ciseceveiele de

2 xf

ones Pe

1 |

ore tO >

OO me & WOOK HD we

58 Account of the Botanic Garden at Seharanpir. [ Fes.

2. MoNnocoTyLeDoneEs.

HG2Cycadee.. 2. 2. cess Seine ce.) Pe \ 280 Colchicares’s 22"... ,52.) be

163 Hydrocharidee......... oie SRS) Pontedereet tse.ccuc Sapemer le ae

1G4 Butomacesr.-.. <<jcrecleun by d.| 182 ‘Commeline yi. ne, lace ce Lo

165. Alismaceds::..\.ssictsomucsre-ae cen, (On | LSB. dunce.) jrcrcteeiet aes eee

167 Orchidee.. ... Netto atk A 82 | 184 Juncaginee.........0. em oh

168 Scitaminez......... soe LOD 2d0 185 Restiacee. a. cite - olsen ey

169 Musace®........000 stecee ACG Palmie.. os was cesar Le

17.0) Tider ey esas hoe oe RO SY AGraminesels os cis terse eee 356

172 Amaryllidez....... Sadies Gp AZ | 388 ‘Cy peracéae .s.s:0tes\es aie 149

173 Hypoxide.........s-200. 2 4 | 189 Typhacee ...... ... emi Ry. i

174 Liliaces..........eeee62 6 12 | 190 Pandanee ...... ...... 1 1

175, Hemerocallidess sc. ais.) ie) ) ee) 1] Ole bluviatilesss casement ache

176" Asphodelege:). ses sjeeisss 2) 42m) 1 POR Aroide’. 2s. 5 noe eee ot

1765 Bromeliacer........05. 2 3 | 193 Saururee.......sccceee 1 2

177 Dioscoring......00+2..06 1 - 5 | 194 Piperitee.....2..ovecmeu 2 24

178 Smilacee..... Spo0odoo4. =) AD —

BVO UDTINERCE Fi. sais.ve cecsine’ 2. 2 783

CELLULARES.

J. Foliacee. 2. Aphylle.

Go. Bilicesictes sc dcidesesccteiows MA MELT (Gr Mistiiscciee. lees > ane 84

2 Marsileacez.......0e..e BQ 4 Oe paticae scazis ciaarcius wpe Ore 2.=08

3 Equisetacer..........2.. 1 5 | 8 Lichenes.,..... 2\ a5 oelelete 52

4\ Characew ee. cies edie SOR ER | Q Faingis. weccastrsmmeae one 39

5 Lucopodines.....-ssccee i} te8

143

136

General Synopsis.

: Thalamiflore 563

(1. ogee ; Calyciflore 1243 I 2462

(1. Dicoty--} SS Corolliflore 656 |

LEDONES, 2791

VASCULARES. |

L2. [email protected] 329J

2. MONOCOTYLEDONES, sevccccccecccees oro leks 783

1. Folt 136 na

sy POMACEE. + 45 <iitalelsiee's\s\2 variotee 6

CELLULARES. 5 OA AO RE: cde MER, EO 8

Plants unadjusted, collected between Delhi and Allahabad .... .....2...... 250

Plants of which the natural families are unknown.......+eses+ ceesccccecee 61

Total number of species.... 4164

1832.] Further Ilustrations of the Antilope Hodgsonii. 59

I]— Further Illustrations of the Antilope Hodgsonii. By B. H,

Hodgson, Esq.

Having lately received two more stuffed specimens of the Chirt

Antilope, these being the fourth and fifth which I have obtained in

the last two seasons, I beg leave to send you the chief results of my

examination of them, in emendation of, and addition to, the account of

this animal with which I supplied you last year, and which you pub-

lished in the Greantines No. XXIII.

The average size of the mature male exceeds not 5 feet of length,

from the tip of the nose to the end of the tail; nor two feet ten inches

of height, at the shoulder. From the occiput to the insertion of the

tail, 34 feet. Length of the neck 12 to 14 inches: of the head, 10

to 11 inches: of the tail 5$ inches, without the hair ; 83, with it.

The nasal tumours are natural formations, and not the consequence

of disease, as had been suggested to me. I have lately examined

them with care, and find them to be composed of firm, elastic

skin and cartilage, like the nostrils, immediately behind the pos-

terior boundary of which they are placed, and into which they

open freely and obviously; being in fact a prolongation backwards,

and an accessary dilatation of that reflexion of the skin which lines

the nostrils. Externally, these peculiar formations present a round,

firm, elastic swelling on each lip, well defined, and covered with hair,

like the proximate parts. Internally, they constitute a sac of capacity

to hold a marble, lined with the same skin which lines the nostrils, and

not communicating with the interior of the nose, except by and through

the ordinary nostrils, into which the sacs open forwards by a slit that

will admit the finger to be passed into it, and thence all over the in-

terior of the sacs. These sacs or sinuses are usually defiled with

mucus, secreted from the nose ; and they seem to me (who am no ana-

-tomist) to be nothing more than accessary nostrils, designed to assist

this exceedingly fleet animal in breathing, when he is exerting all his

speed: for the expansion of the nostrils opens them also, and their

elasticity allows of their being dilated in the manner of the nostrils.

There is not the least appearance in the Chird, either external or in the

bones of the scull, of lachrymary sinuses: and the nose is ovine, that

is perfectly clad and dry, but with somewhat of the cervine breadth

and bluntness of termination. The Chirt is a very compactly formed

animal, standing high on the legs, and full of vigour, grace, and spirit.

60 Further Mlustrations of the Antilope Hodgsonii. [ Fes.

The body is rather short and full: the neck of medial length and

bowed in: the head, nor long nor short; of considerable vertical but

rather small transverse dimensions, except between the orbital ridges,

which being very prominent, give to the head, when measured between

them, a good breadth: the forehead sub-convex : the nose slightly

arched : the muzzle thick, dry, and hairy: the ears small, erect,

pointed, naked within, having a small quantity of longish soft hair

standing up around their orifices ; fully clad without, in close short

fur; no trace of strie on their interval surface: the tail shortish,

reaching to the buttocks only; rounded, tapered pretty fully, and

uniformly covered with hair, of which that at the tip is a little pro-

longed, but not tufted : the limbs clean, long, slender, sinewy, covered,

like the head and ears, with close fine fur of an ordinary stamp, and

having no brushes on the knees : the pasterns, long and inclined : the

hoofs finely formed, compressed and hard ; before rather spread, and

padded behind: the false hoofs, mere callosities, but large. The

withers are lower than the croup; the back nearly straight; the

hind limbs stooped; and the whole form, and accustensan attitudes

those of an extremely agile and swift animal.

The hair of the body in general is of exactly the same character

with that of the Tibetan musk and Himalaya wild sheep, but consi-

derably finer and shorter than the hair of the former, and rather finer

and shorter than that of the latter. All three animals are similarly

furnished with a sub-fleece of fine wool; which, however, is scanty in

all, and most so in the Chird.

The hair spoken of is harsh, but feeble and brittle ; erect from the

skin, very thickly set on, ofa hollow quill-like feel and look, undu-

lated throughout the greatest part, but the lips straight.

The wool is, in the main, closely applied to the skin. A small

portion of it, however, insinuating itself between the interstices of the

close set hair, passes up half way to its point. The wavy structure

of the hair not only tends to keep the wool in close adaptation to

the skin, but, by the manner in which the salient bends of one hair

fit into the resilient curves of another, prevents as far as possible

the access of cold air to the skin in all the various movements of the

body.

The peculiar clothing of these animals is, in all its characteristic

development at least, reserved for the cold season only ; the hair being,

in summer, of a nearly ordinary quantity and quality, and the wool

then scarcely discoverable.

1832, | Further Illustrations of the Antilope Hodgsonii. 61

I have now by me the skin of a Chiru, the covering of which is so

little peculiar that it might almost pass for that of any ordinarily

coated animal of the Antilopine, or Cervine family. The head,

ears, and limbs, are always dressed in fine close fur of a common

kind ; and the hair of the tail, though longer and looser, is of a like

ordinary description. The rufous tinge upon the superior surface of

the Chiru is apt to be superseded in age, by a hoary dull white, on the

crown of the head, neck, and buttocks. The dark marks on the face

and fronts of the limbs are not black, but dark brown; darkest in

the oldest animals. ‘The lower part of the forehead only, or more pro-

perly the face, is darkened, and not the forehead, at least never the

upper part of it; and the stripes down the limbs depend for their full

development on maturity, young animals wanting them more or less,

especially on the hind legs above the hocks. ‘The tail, on its upper

surface, is always coloured like the proximate part of the back.

The special habitat of the Chird is north-eastern Tibet, and he is

never seen, except casually, so far west as Ladakh. He inhabits Open

plains exclusively, never frequenting either mountains or woods ; or

associating with the musks or wild sheep.

If therefore the Kemas of At‘lian is justly characterised as having a

white tail, and residing in woods, the Kemasis not the Chird, as Major

H. Smith surmises it to be. The drawings and technical description

of the skull and horns of the Chird annexed (pl. IV.) will 1 think

suffice to prove that the Chirt’s horns are not set on “ parallel to the

plane of the face,” according to the same able author’s statement. Whe-

ther or not the horns rest on the “ crest of the frontals,” I cannot say ;

not precisely understanding the expression. But 1 fancy this must be

a mistake; since the horns quit the forehead between the orbits and

not behind them; and the frontal bones, continued behind the horns,

are considerably higher ¢here than where the horns rise from them.

I have taken peculiar pains in ascertaining the habitat of the Chiri,

and have no doubt, now, that the species frequent the open plains of

north-eastern Tibet, exclusively. Nor dolI see any reason to distrust

my present information, that the species is very gregarious, and that

the females have no horns.

By the sinuses within the osseous cores of his horns, and by the

signal compression of their bases, the Chird is related to the genus

Capra, as also, by the partial and peculiar development of the annuli.

We might add, as additional features of resemblance, the total

absence of the lachrymal sinuses and the dry muzzle. But here the

62 Further Illustrations of the Antilope Hodgsonii. (Fes.

slender analogy must be dropped: for, the Chiri kas the graceful

proportions proper to the Cervine race of Ruminants, and is not inferior

in speed and elegance to the finest of the Antilopes, to which last inter- .

mediate genus, half Cervine, half Caprine, he belongs.

After a careful comparison of the indicative characters of Major H.

Smith’s several groups of the Antilopidz, I am of opinion that the

Chirti ought to be referred to the Gazelline group. As already men-

tioned, I am now satisfied that the species is gregarious, inhabits open

plains, and has no horns in the females. Whether either sex has

inguinal pores, and the females 4 or 2 mamme, are points still

undetermined. This Chird must belong to one of the four following

groups of the able author just mentioned: The Orygine, the Redun-

cine, the Gazelline, or the Antilopine. By the want of the following

marks of the Orygine group, I presume it cannot be referred to that:

high shoulders ; large stature; long ears; a long tufted tail ; a mane;

horns parallel to the face; non-gregarions habits; horned females.

With respect to the Reduncine division, the Chiru has none of the

subjoined characters of it. Horns short, rounded, annulated less than

half way up, and set on behind the orbits; ears large and open; fur

long and loose ; tail with the hair directed towards the sides ; shortish

thick limbs ; residence on rocky mountains, or under cover of reeds or

bushes ; non-gregarious habits.

There remain only the Gazelline and Antilopine sections to choose

between; and the preference is perhaps due to the former, as having

more equivocal suborbital sinuses, and ovine nose. It must be con-

fessed, however, that the ¢ofa/ absence of lachrymal sinuses, united to

an ovine nose, and horns turned forwards, in the Reduncine group,

afford strong grounds for referring the Chir to it ; grounds which

would have decided me in favour of that group, had I not been in-

formed that such apparently permanent and immutable characters as

the two former, are nevertheless dependent on climate.

Upon the whole, I refer the Chiri to the Gazelline group, chiefly

because it is very gregarious, dwells in open plains, and has limbs of

the finest mould. I would observe by the way, that these long

slender limbs terminating in hoofs, the posterior part of which is some-

what dilated and padded, offer strong presumptive proof of the truth

of the asserted residence of the species in open bare plains with a

sandy soil, such as all the plains of Tibet have.

1832.] Further Illustrations of the Antilope Hodgsonii. 63

Dimensions and character of the Skull and Horns of the Antilope Hodgsonii.

The length of the skull, from the symphysis of the intermaxillary

bone, to the superior edge of the great occipital foramen, by a line

passing along the frontal and sagittal* sutures, and continued down the

middle of the occiput, is 1 foot 13 inches.

From the extremity of the nasal bones to the central point of their

insertion with the frontal, 3% in.; from the commencement of the

frontal suture to its junction with the coronal, 31 in.; thence to the

Jambdoidal suture 1% in.; thence to the transverse crista of the

occiput, 1 in.; thence to the edge of the foramen magnum, 1£ in.

The utmost height, or vertical dimensions of the skull, from the

ridge of the parietal to the lowest edge of the ramus of the jaw, 6£ in.

Utmost breadth of the skull, across the molars and before the orbital

ridges, 3 in.

The orbits are placed laterally, with a decided obliquity forwards and

outwards, and consists of very firm and complete bony circles, which are

open behind to-the temporal fosse, as usual. The nearest interval

between them measures 31 in. the widest and posterior interval 47 in.

The core or osseous nucleus of the horns has a large oval cavity,

communicating by one clear canal with the frontal sinus.

The cavity has nothing porous or cellular about it; but is a perfect,

smoothly-walled, sinus, partly excided from the frontal bones, and

partly from the pedicular or basal portion of the horn’s core.

It is Z of an inch broad and 1{ inch high ; and from the anterior

and inferior edge of it is opened the canal communicating forwards,

This canal, like the greater cavity, is smooth-walled, and free from

cellular partitions. It is of an uniform cylindrical shape, with the

diameter of a crow’s quill. At the forward end it throws off a duct

opening into the frontal sinus, and then proceeds to communicate with

the nose, by means of 3 or 4 cellular perforations in this the anterior

extremity of the canal or tube, and where alone there is the least

appearance of cellular formation, either in the canal, or in the great

cavity above it.

The bony nucleus extends about 3rds up the horns, or as far as the

annuli, and is of a remarkably compact and hard structure, towards

their bases ; more fibrous and soft, towards their tips.

As Ihave spoiled a beautiful skull to ascertain these facts, I must

crave permission to say, scepticism avaunt !

* i, e. by a line best so defined, for of course the Sagittal suture exists not.

64 Further Illustrations of the Antilope Hodgsonii. [ Fes.

There are two species of Antelope* at least, besides the Chiru,

wanting that solid character in the nuclei of the horns, which has

heretofore been held to be so essentially indicative of the genus.

The frontal processes take their origin from the frontal bone at

the distance of three quarters of an inch from the apices of the nasal

bones, anteriorly ; and half an inch from the proximate point of

junction of the frontal and parietal bones, posteriorly: laterally,

their distance from the orbital ridge of the temporal bone is Z of

an inch; and from the proximate point of the frontal suture 1iths

of an inch. The basal interval of the frontal processes, or

unsheathed pecicular portion of the long nuclei, is rather more

than 4 inch: their circumference, pretty close to the base, 42 inches ;

and their height, from the adjacent part of the orbital arch to the

commencement of the horny sheath, 4 an inch.

The frontal processes proceed from the forehead, above and

between the orbits, with a slight inclination outwards and backwards

—so slight, however, that the long horns which they support assume

very nearly anerect position in the natural state of the animal: and

it is the outward, not the backward inclination, which prevents one

from justly characterising the horns as vertical.

The occipital bone forms the posterior boundary of the skull,

with exception of the triangular portion, on which arises the crista

occipitalis ; and this portion is locked between the ends of the parietal

bones, and is situated superiorly. The occiput then proceeds almost

perpendicularly downwards, with an inclination backwards, in conse-

quence of which inclination the foramen magnum and its condyles

form the most posterior and inferior part of the skull. The opening of

the foramen is in the same parallel with the opening of the nasal

bones.

The relative shortness of the frontal and correlative elongation of

the parietal bones is worthy of remark ; as well as the development of

the entire longitudinal dimensions of the latter, upon the superior sur-

face of the cranium.

The forehead is rather convex, and is sloped without any sudden dip

to the nose, which latter is somewhat arched. A slight longitudinal

ridge extends from the lambdoidal suture down the centre of the

skull, a little beyond the anterior limits of the cores of the horns.

There is no symptom on the skull of lachrymary sinuses.

* A. Bubalis, the sinus discovered by Blumenbach and A. Thar ; the sinus

discovered here, by Dr. Bramley, from a skull in my possession.

1832 ] Further Illustrations of the Antilope Hodgsonii. 65

The molar teeth are only five in number, on each side of either

jaw*. The eight incisors of the lower jaw are unusually erect, close,

uniform, rounded, with broadish crowns.

The Horns.

feet. inch:

Length of the horns, in a straight line.......... 2.0.6... 2 0

Do. do. aléng the curve............. aiahbars op Bid < sla pats 2 12

Basal diameter, fore and aft, ) 0 1Z

Do. do. side to side, : between the two lowest rings, 0 1L

Basal interval....... Ua chal lal bilan Me) ates sts era h Ao teks 0) 02

Pema MCR Val Cie. iclielecgid aie Cea bal’ cietalane b dred) fol 2

The skull and horns above described are those of an old male, the

incisor teeth being long and full of marks, the sutures half obliterated,

and the criste prominent.

In regard to the precise form and curvature of the horns, I may ob-

serve, in addition to what was said in the Greanines No. XXIII. that

if you lay a horn, separated from the skull, on a table, with that side

downwards which in the natural state faces laterally outwards, and apply

your hand to the base of the horn, so as to make it rest fairly on the

table, you will find the horn touch the table at two points ; one, the

base merely, the other, the space of an inch situated within four inches

of the tip. In other words, these two points form the ends of a long,

gentle, lateral curvature, the bend of which is inwards, and its utmost

divergency from the chord of the bow, or plane of the table, barely

2 of an inch.

The tip of the horn you will observe to be elevated from the table

about 3 of an inch; which is caused by a pretty decided inflexure

of that part. In young animals, this lateral bend, with the incur-

vation of the points of the horns, is scarcely traceable: nor is it

other than trivial in the oldest. The great bend is the forward

one, which is so material, that if you lay the horn on the table

with that side downwards, which is the frontal surface in the

natural state of the animal, (the horn must be supported to make it

keep this position,) you will find the horn to touch the table only

at the very extremities, the whole of its length being carried off

the plane of the table in a bow, the most divergent point of which

rises nearly 3 inches from the table, and is situated about 2 of the

horn’s length from its base.

* Three skulls of old animals now by me exhibit uniformly this number of

molars.

66 Note on the Cervus Jardi. (Fes.

In size, the horns vary from 22 to 27 inches of straight mea-

surement, and are straighter in proportion as they are less fully

grown. The number of the annuli seems to depend on the size of the

horns ; their development, not so; for in the smallest that I possess

the rings are as strongly marked as in the largest. The rings are

round-edged, and very fully and uniformly displayed on the frontal

surface; much less fully or regularly on the dorsal* and lateral

surfaces ; round both which the annuli are apt to be continued

brokenly only and evanescently. As if, however, to prove that the

true character of these marks is annulation, you will sometimes find

a ring carried all round the horn in equal and full development. The

divergency of the horns at their tips is usually as half their length:

the interval at the bases so small, that the little finger can barely be

passed between the horns in that part.

The lateral compression is always strongly marked, and extends

evanescently to within about six inches of the tips of the horns.

The terminal portion is smooth and rounded, and the extreme points

sharp, and turned inwards as well as forwards.

Nipal, March 1, 1832.

lil—Note relative to the account of the Cervus Jardi, published

in the Gleanings, No. 34, by the same.

In my description of the Jarai, above alluded to, I observed that it

has “ no peculiar elongation of the hair on any part of the body.”

The materials of that description were chiefly derived from the

examination of a living animal ; which examination was conducted in

August, or at the height of the hot-weather, when, their being really

no signs of such elongation of the hair, I stated the fact accordingly.

Subsequently, it occurred to me, that the hairy covering of the

Ruminantia is apt to vary considerably in character with the seasons

as-well as with increasing years, and I therefore again visited and

examined the individual in question (a young male), in the beginning of

February ; when, somewhat to my surprise | confess, [ found the infe-

rior surface of his head, as far forwards as the gape, the whole of his

neck, and the top of his shoulders, invested with shaggy hair more

than twice the length of that of the body. So adorned, the animal is

readily assignable, (with the assistance of Griffith’s Cuvier, a copy

of which I have just received from my bookseller,) to the Rusa

group of Major H. Smith, and possibly to the species Equinus

of that able writer. Since my description of the Jarai was

composed, I have received some splendid spoils and important

1832.) Note on the Cervus Jara. 67

additional information relative to this animal, or rather group of ani-

mals; for, it would appear, by the testimony of some most respectable

Nipalese, supported by skins, horns, and skulls, in my possession, that

there are at least three distinct species (or most strongly marked

varieties) of the Jarai, inhabiting the Saul forest.

The Nipalese distinguish them, with reference to the different

shades of their in general uniform dark colour, by the epithets Phisro,

Rato, and Kalo, or gray, red, and black, Jarai. The Phasro is the

largest, being not less than a horse in size; and has his dark hide

copiously sprinkled with Phisro or hoary. The Rato is the next in

point of size; and is of a redder hue. The Kalo is the smallest, and

of a shining, clear black.

_ The horns of the Rato and Phiusro have a similar form and charac-

ter, the only invariable difference between them being, that those of

Rato are considerably less in proportion. The horns of the Kalo, on the

other hand, present a character, not merely alien to the two others,

but to the type and index of the group; for they have only one

antler on each beam, viz. a brow antler.

All three species have the forehead flat or sunk, with a strong ridge

down its centre; the nose straight; canines in the upper jaw, large

lachrymary sinuses; shoulders, whole neck, and jaws, shaggy; very

coarse, dark hair; longish tail; fan-like ears; massive rough horns,

inclined outwards and backwards, which are set on stout pedicles,

terminated by large granulated burrs. All, too, but the Kalo species

have a subterminal, as well as a brow antler.

The whole of the above characters are constant. But no reliance

can be placed on the circumstances of the superior antler being

thrown off near the top, or near the centre, anteriorly and externally ;

or, posterior!ly and internally : nor upon that of the inferior antler

being basal, or only'subbasal.

1 make these remarks, guided by Major H. Smith’s admirable work,

with ten good specimens before me; and [ feel pretty confident that,

that able author will find reason by and bye to abandon his present

distribution into species of this group of Deer. With the wish to be

of service to him, I subjoin drawings of the horns of the three pre-

sumed species of Nipal; but shall not attempt any further description

of them at present. I apprehend that the Nipalese Phasro Jarai is

identical with the great Rusa, or Hippelaphus, of Cuvier ; that Cervus

Equinus may be the Rato Jarai; and possibly, the Rusa Ilam of

Rafiles (which he says is smaller than Equinus and black-colouied)

the Kalo Jarai of Nipal.

k 2

68 On Modes of obtaining Important [ Fes.

1V.—On Modes of obtaining Important Results by Simple Means.

By Capt. G. Twemlow, Bomb. Arty.

1st.— Movement of heavy masses without expence of Machinery.

Most persons may some time or other have to raise heavy hodies,

or move ponderous masses, without having command of modern mecha-

nical means; a few retrospective glances to the probable modes prac-

tised in ancient times, by comparatively rude nations, may perhaps

elicit useful hints.

We know that in very remote times, enormous stones, such as no

modern machinery could be made to lift, were placed on the tops of

walls, or fixed over pillars to form gateways; for instance, ‘in the

ruins of Balbek, (the ancient Heliopolis of Syria,) there are three

stones lying end to end, in the same row, extending sixty-one yards.

One of them is sixty-three feet long, the other two sixty each; their

depth is twelve feet, and their breadth the same; and, what adds to

the wonder, they are raised up into the wall above twenty feet from

the ground*.” Were these stones swung up by machinery? Most

probably not; labour having been cheap, it is far more probable, that

as the masonry advanced, an inclined plane of earth would be pro-

gressed ; up which the common materials would be conveyed by donkey,

camels, and labourers, as we read of in the accounts of ancient works ;

and this in hot climates would admit of lime-cement binding well and

gradually. Having the inclined plane, there would be no difficulty in

rolling the sixty feet in length stones upon it, to their intended positions

on the top of the wall, there being an inclined plane on each side. When

the work was finished and the cement (if used) been allowed time to

bind, the earth would be removed, and be used in levelling the

grounds, forming terraces, or in other modes. It will be found that in

eastern climes the expence attending this mode of scaffolding is

much less than that of machinery, where very heavy masses have to be

raisedt. Let us take another instance.

Suppose you had to place on two erect pillars, or pointed rocks, an

enormous impost stone, similar to the egg-shaped stone said to be still

existing in the parish of Constantine, Cornwall, England. ‘ The longest

diameter of this stone is thirty-three feet, pointing due north and south,

* Extract from Maurice’s Indian Antiquities, vol. v’. page 142.

+ In throwing arches of small span, the cheapest plan for (or instead of) cen-

terings, where labour is cheap, is to erect two temporary walls ; and fill the space

between them with earth, or stones, bricks, &c.

1832. } Results by Simple Means. 69

end to end; it is fourteen feet six inches deep, and contains at least,

seven hundred and fifty tons of stones*.’’

Say the pillars are twenty feet in height, and firmly imbedded,

would you not be at a loss how to apply modern aids or obtain fulcra ?

Yet the thing is easy of accomplishment, if we would condescend to do

what the people of old would have done; that is to say, employ the

cheapest mode of imbedding the two pillars up to their tops in earth, so

as to form an inclined plane equally all round them. Now, suppose the

impost stone to be at the foot of the inclined plane, what would be the

least expensive mode of rolling it to the top? I will give one plan to

be followed, should there be no mechanical aid available other than

obtainable by levers and ropes—men however being plentiful. Having

* procured twenty stout timbers of twenty-five feet in length, to one end

of each I would attach a cable; the other ends I would insert

at equal distances apart, perpendicularly (or rather sloping back-

wards) along the upper surface of the mass to be moved; the ropes

being pulled on, by a sufficient number of men, the levers must

be brought down to the ground, making the mass of stone turn nearly

a quarter of its circumference: having people ready with earth and

stones to throw behind it, to prevent retrogression : the stone-cutters

will then cut out another set of lever-insertion holes, the levers be again

applied ; and the stone be turned over a second quarter turn; and so on,

until there are lever-insertion holes on the four sidest, so that it may

be turned over and over until it gets to the top, and is fixed on the pil-

lars: then remove the earth, and the task is accomplished. If it should

so happen, that the number of men are deficient to furnish power to

pull down the levers, the cables might in that case be made fast to

anchor stakes on the reverse inclined plane, taking a double turn of

each ; then by twisting the two ropes with hand levers inserted between

them, enormous power may be obtained : this in fact was the power of

the catapult and other ancient artillery. In the Dekhan, the power of

twisted ropes is to this day made much use of. A ki&bi (cultivator)

will pile up an enormous height of straw on his cart,and then throw over

the load several sets of simple ropes, with snatch-blocks of a simple

construction at each end of them fastened to the side of the cart ; then

by twisting the ropes he will compress his load to a surprising degree.

Now let us consider how to move by simple means, masses which

are nearly cylindrical, to considerable distances. For instance, ancient

* Maurice’s Indian Antiquities, vol. vi. page 140.

t+ Not however opposite each other, or so deep as to injure the stone.

70 Modes of obtaining important Results by simple Means. (Fes.

pillars or statues, or enormous guns, as trophies. If wood is cheap and

abundant, perhaps the easiest plan is, to fit beams of wood round the

mass, after the manner of staves, so as to barrel it up into the shape of a

cylindrical roller.—It has been practically proved, that an iron i8 pr.

siege gun, weighing forty-two hundred weight, barrelled up in this way,

the staves being about five inches thick, fitted exactly to the rings,

astragals, and fillets of the gun, will travel easily on good roads with

four gun bullocks, and over common roads with eight bullocks of

54-inches standard ; inequalities in the roads, or even heaps of stones

which would upset a gun carriage, are no obstruction to be barrelled

up gun; some part of the cylinder is sure to act as a wheel. Narrow

ravines or passes would be the only difficulty : the neck of the caseable

has a ring passed over it, and forms the axle at one end ; whilst an axle

arm inserted in wood is driven into the muzzle of the gun, to form the

opposite axle of the cylinder.

The Bijapor gun, which weighs about forty two tons, might be

moved to the coast in this way with forty pair of good gun bullocks. It

should be encircled with staves of tough wood, twelve inches in thick-

ness, closely fitted to the surface of the gun: the staves to be dove-tailed

and cross-pinned together, and then strongly hooped up; the centre of

the cylinder to be purposely made rather larger than the ends, to

admit of driving the hoops tight, and also to enable it to travel better :

it would then form a roller six feet in diameter and fifteen feet in

length, and might serve to roll a road tothe coast. A powerful capstan

(such as that described in the Memoires D’Artillerie, vol. ii. third

edition, page 156,) might be carried on a cart to aid in passing the

cylinder over mountains, and to drag it through rivers. It is believed that

this plan would be better than two or more broad girdles or wheels

round the gun. Let it not be supposed, however, that artillery officers

of the present day would have any difficulty in making a suitable

carriage for it: if it were desirable to go to that expense, a carriage

might easily be made. An Italian of Otranto, who served in the Moghul

armies, under the title of Rumi Khan, had this gun in his park, and

used it in several battles, occasionally firing sacks of copper coin out

of it.

(To be continued.)

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4832.) = Scientific Intelligence. 71

V.—Scientiric INTELLIGENCE.

1.—Progress of the Indian Trigonometrical Survey.

Puate I.

The measurement of the base line on the Barrackpér road was completed on

the 21st January, and it is difficult to imagine that any similar work was ever

brought to a more successful issue. Through the politeness of Captain Everest,

the Surveyor General and Superintendent of the Trigonometrical Survey, we enjoy-

ed the advantage of an invitation to witness the remeasurement of the first day’s

work, with the view of ascertaining what might be the probable amount of error: on

which occasion the President of the Physical Class of the Asiatic Society and many

distinguished officers of the Engineer department were present. An elegant break-

fast was laid out in tents after the ceremonies of the morning were concluded.

While contemplating with admiration the order and precision: with which the

whole process was conducted, we took an opportunity of sketching the apparatus

as it stood, that the readers of the Journal might be better able to comprehend

the nature of the operation of measurement, which was partially described in the

Gieanincs for November last.

Plate I. represents-the six sets of bars resting upon their tripods, levelled, and in

the act of adjustment, longitudinally, by means of the directing or boning telescope,

to the left hand. The boning telescope ought to have been considerably more dis-

tant from the bars, but it would then necessarily have been excluded from the

drawing. A movable covering of tent-frame work protects the bars from the in-

fluence of the morning sun ; at their left extremity is seen a cast-iron tripod, firm-

ly imbedded in the ground, bearing a brass vertical cylinder and plate, upon the

surface of which is the minute dot which marks the termination of the last, and

acts as the starting point of the present measurement: by the adjustment of the

cross wires of the end microscope in the true vertical line bisecting the dot. These

apparatus are represented on a larger scale in the foreground ; as also one of the

wooden boxes containing the compound bar, shewing the two projecting tubes,

within which lie the cross levers of the compound bars, upon which are engraved

the dots, or. marks-to be read off by the double microscopes interposed between

each box, as described on a former occasion, and as will be readily comprehended

by reference to the drawing. The right extremity of the line is seen to enter the

door of the tower, where it terminated in a coincidence with the original dot, en-

graved upon a metallic dise attached to a sunken stone pier.

As it had. been anticipated that the settling of the masonry of the tower ‘cutest

derange the terminal mark, precautions had been taken in the first instance to

sink into the ground another adjusting point at a short distance in advance of the

tower ; and it was in fact to this point that the remeasurement was referred, to

know the probable amount of error in measuring; as well as whether the tower

had altered its position in any perceptible degree.

From conversation with the officers on the ground we picked up the following

particulars regarding the Barrackpfr base. We must crave their indulgence if our

memory leads us into any mistake in detailing them.

The measurement commenced on the 23rd November 1831, and ended on the 21st

January 1832, an interval-of 58 days, of which 13 may be set down as holidays ;

so that the actual time employed was about 45 days. The length of the ground

measured upon an average was 750 feet, or 12 sets of bars: but towards the con-

clusion, so systematic had become the arrangements, that 18, 20, and once 24 sets

(that is 1512 feet) were measured in one day, which is double what was effected on

72 Scientific Intelligence. [ Fes.

the Irish survey : this was chiefly attributable to the number and experience of the

officers employed ; whose names we must be allowed to record, as we observed them

at their posts.

At the boning telescope,.. Lieut. Western, Engrs. with Lieut. Bridgman, Art.

First microscope,........ Mr. J. Taylor, astronomer at Madras.

(Mr. Logan.

| Mr. T. Oliver.

Central microscopes,.. < Mr. J. Peyton.

|. a. M. Torrick.

LMr. W. Rossenrode.

Last microscope,........ Lieut. R. Wilcox, Surveyor of the Brahmapitra River.

The length of the BASE between tower and tower was nearly 34,000 feet, or

6.4 miles, being 539 sets of bars. The whole of this extensive line came within

the limits of the Barrackpar road, falling about 30 feet to the eastward of its centre

at one place; and the greatest deviation from horizontality in the road was at

about amile from the south tower, to which point it sinks gradually about 53 feet.

At the north tower, it was found beforehand that there would be about 3 feet to

spare in excess of a certain number of bars. This, added to the possibility of the

dot on the centre stone moving during the settling of the tower, induced Captain

Everest to adopt the expedient of sinking a heavy stone of 33 feet cube, into the

ground, at the distance of one set of bars south of it : two brass plates were let into

this, one to receive a dot at the exact distance of a set of bars from the tower, and

one to receive the dot terminating the 538th set. By this arrangement the sur-

plus interval could be measured at leisure, with the same accuracy employed

throughout the remainder of the line.

The difference found on remeasuring eleven sets of bars was. 026, or one-fortieth

of aninch on 700 feet—a surprisingly small quantity, and only one-third of what

was experienced in the previous trial at Lord’s cricket ground. To form a tan-

gible idea of the error this might induce upon the result, it is sufficient to say, that

it would amount to about 12 feet between Calcutta and Delhi, or 125 feet in the

diameter of the great globe itself.

This, it must be remembered, is without applying any correction for tempera-

ture, though the two measures were taken in November and January : and it is a

convincing proof how well the compensation had been adjusted in England.

The southern tower was found to have moved one-thirteenth of an inch to the

south-east, which is not surprising, considering the light nature of the soil, and the

height, 80 feet, to which the building was forced to be raised to place the theodo-

lite within view of the other triangle stations.

Upon the conclusion of the great work, the bars were brought to Calcutta, to

be recompared with the standard at the Surveyor General’s office. But for the minute

particulars of this and all the other processes we must wait for the public account

that will doubtless be eventually given of the whole operation.

We hear that Lieutenant Western is now deputed to carry a meridional series

of triangles southwards from the Parisnath meridian on the longitudinal arc, to

Cuttack. After which the same meridian is to be prolonged northwards to the

limits of our frontier. We presume, that the bars will shortly be transferred to the

neighbourhood of Agra, where another base will be necessary for the primary

meridian. Should an intermediate line be required, none could be found better

suited to the purpose than the military road between Benares and Allahabad, witich

enjoys the same advantages of straightness, ¢€ven level, and hard materials, with

that of Barrackpar, added to much greater openness of country.

1832.] Scientific Intelligence. 73

2.—Climate of Vera Cruz.

Allusion was made in our last, to a meteorological register kept by Fray Juan,

at Vera Cruz; as the tables whence the notice was derived are in manuscript, we

think it will be interesting to publish the following abstract of them, drawn up for

the purpose of elucidating the subject of the barometric tide.

Table of Observations on the Barometer and Thermometer, at Vera Cruz, by Fr.

Juan, 1817, 1818.

Thermometer. Barometer at 32°.

Month. eS, EE eee

6 A.M Noon. |10 p.m. |6 a. m.| Noon 10 P.M

68.0 70.3 69.8 | 30.052 069 034

eosin 69.0 715 70.7 043 | 050 034

March Pager aresise 72.1 75.6 74.7 .000 002 .002

a ae 76.8 80.7 79.7 29.879 885 871

1 OE OC ae 79.2 84.1 83.1 860 866 855

ie 80.6 83.9 82.8 828 830 825

pai 79.8 83.4 82.2 955 954 .957

eh 79.9 83.6 82.6 890 .900 897

Se aoa TE ON We 82.3 82.3 897 .909 .909

Seber REE 78.6 81.0 80.4 .907 918 .928

a aad ES a7 76.7 965 .966 | 964

D Oa oa 69.7 72.6 71.6 | 30.025 044 048

OCMBET te no. oe, e005 Res

(oe 75.66 | 80.56 ‘056 | 78.05 29.941 | 950 943

3.—Range of the Barometer at Berhamptr.

We also alluded to the barometric observations made by the late Dr. Alexander

Russell, at Berhampfr, in 1820—21: of these too, we take this opportunity of

putting on record an useful summary made out bya friend, and reduced to the

temperature of 32°, by applying the correction calculated from the thermometric

be very great.

Maximum | Minimum Diurnal

Month. Sun-rise. | between 9 | between 4 Tide. 10 P. M. Rise fo

A.M. and | p.mM.and 6 Tignes

noon. P. M.

inches. inches. inches. dec. inches. dec.

January, .. 29.915 29.925 29.831 0.094 29.881 0.034

February, .. 850 874 766 | .108 824 026

March, .. .762 788 .699 119 .693 .069

PRINS .),\ >, « .669 .686 .570 116 .661 .008

SS ae Haas) 570 466 104 033 .020

June,.. .. .450 | 453 382 071 438 .012

Ouly i... .450 457 AOI .056 .450 -000

August, .. 494 501 .413 .088 .480 .014

September, 615 .620 063 063 604 O11

October, .. 783 .803 740 .063 774 -009

November, 837 861 781 0 0 .828 .009

December, 904 .922 -826 .096 877 .027

Means,....| 29.690 29.705 29.619 .086 29.670 .020

Range,.... 465 472 A59 443

}

74 Proceedings of Societies. [ Fes.

4.— Hourly Observations of the Barometer in the Fortress of Cavite.

The: following notice, extracted from the Royal Institution Journal, No. IV.

bears upon the same point; and from the blank left opposite to the second fall,

we may conjecture, that in fact. the existence of this fall or nocturnal tide was

hardly borne out by the observations when corrected for temperature, although

from being apparent before correction the words remained unerased.

These observations were made by the scientific men attached to Captain Kotze-

bue’s expedition in the year 1823—1826, on the Island of Luzon (14° 34’ north

lat. and 239° 9’ west of Greenwich), for ascertaining the periods of its regular

falling and rising during twenty-four hours. The barometer was kept in a room

six toises above the level of the sea, in which the temperature was nearly the same

day and night, (about 25° Centigrade, or 77 Fahr.) and the observations were

made on eleven different days between the 12th and 26th of December. The fol-

lowing are the general results deduced from the whole of the observations. The

barometer has a maximum ofheightat9° 1” 1” a. mM.

itthen fallstil .. . .. .. 4 28 6 Pp. M. om an average 1.04 line;

imines capa till || ed.) ease 9ySBS uP. ham. 0.687 ,,

and falls again till.. .. .. .. 4 30 0 a. M. —=

lastly, it rises againtill.. .. .. 9 1 1 a. M. onan average 0.445——

5.—Dr. Wise’s Ice Manufacture at Higlt.

Dr. Wise hopes to maintain a constant supply of ice, in Culcutta, for the next

two or three months. Last cold season, although apparently so favorable for its

production, did not afford more than 15 nights in which ice would form ; and of

these, only three or four were really good nights. In consequence of this, instead of

3,000 mdns, as expected, only 1,000 mdns were secured ; which, from the precautions

taken, will, perhaps, answer for several months. Dr. W. has devised the following

simple and effectual method of using the ice. The ice is contained in a stuffed bag,

having two, three, or four holes in its under-part, with padded flaps to close them.

The necks of the bottles to be cooled are thrust upwards through these holes ;

when not wanted, the bag is put into the upper part of a stuffed basket and wrap-

ped round with a blanket.

V1.— Proceedings of Societies.

1.—Asr1atic SocireTy.—Physical Class.

Wednesday Evening, 8th February, 1832.

The Honorable Sir Edward Ryan, President, in the Chair.

The following Donations to the Museum were presented :

1. Specimens of the Limestone of the Sylhet quarries, from William Cracroft,

Esq. ’

Impressions of nwmmulites abound in the limestone of the Chirra hill, west

of the Sanatarium. Twrrilites are less common, and impressions of bivalves,

resembling pectens, are still more rare. The interior of the shells is filled with

carbonate of lime, crystallized, of a brown colour.

No. 5. A granular limestone, stated, in Mr. Cracroft’s list, to be “‘ a poorer lime

than the others in the kiln,” proves to be a crystallized dolomite ; and this cir-

cumstance accounts for the occasional mixture of magnesia in the Sylhet lime of

the Calcutta market.

1832. | Proceedings of Societies. 75

There are also specimens of amygdaloid, (containing worn crystals of felspar,)

and of a fine plastic micacious clay, from below the sandstone of Chirra Piinji.

2. Astuffed specimen ofa species of Felis, native of the Midnaptr jungles,

from Dr. J. Pearson.

It is classed and described in the following manner, by Doctor Pearson:

“ TRis. Digitigrades. Cuv.

Fam. Feline.

GEN. Felis. Lin.

Sp. Kutas. Mihi.

Gen. Ch.—Incisors €; canines };; cheek teeth 43: the fourth in the upper

jaw transversely situated. Jaws short. Toes on the anterior extremities, five ;

on the posterior, four, armed with retractile claws.

Sp. Ch.—Ground colour, greyish brown, approaching to rufous at the sides of

the abdomen, and neck, where it unites with the white of those parts; and

marked with darker stripes and bands, which are more or less obscure. Inferior

surface, chin, and throat, white. Ears, white within; externally rufous; with

an irregular dark patch at their lower part, tipped with black, and slightly

pencilled at the tips. Labial whiskers, some entirely white, and a few all black ;

whilst others are black for a very small space at the base, the remainder being

white. Tail, short, grey, annulated with black, from the middle to the extremity.

Legs, greyish, rufous above, and rufous below; with bands of dark-grey, which

become on the inner side of the elbow and fore arm almost black. Tarsus, meta-

tarsus, and toes, rufous, darker behind, and almost black at the heels ; length from

the tip of the nose to the insertion of the tail, two feet two inches ; length of tail,

ten inches. Height, at the shoulders, one foot two inches; posteriorly, one foot

four inches. Caudal vertebre, twenty.

The size of the Kutas is that of a large Chacal, though not so robust as that ani-

mal. The darker shades on the sides appear as though they had been less obscure

in the youth of the animal, and gradually fading, become broken stripes and even

spots, in their progress to a total obliteration ; a circumstance which, as there is

reason to believe, occurs in more than one species of this family. My specimen is

a full grown, but notan old, male ; the female, and the young, I have never seen.

Ihave looked through a list of the species described in the Monograph of the

Feline, by Mr. Temminck, without being able to satisfy myself of that distinguish-

ed zoologist having met with the animal I now present to the notice of the Socie-

ty: nor can I discover it in the Synopsis, appended to Griffith’s translation of the

Régne Animal; and therefore I have ventured to designate it by the name which iS

given to it by the natives of Midnapar. The Felis Chaus, Bruce’s booted Lynx,

would appear to differ in colour, and length of tail ; and the Kutas is destitute of

the black at the hinder part of the leg, which forms so distinguished a feature in that

animal, having merely an approach to it, in a dark shade of rufous brown. The

Bengal Carocal, of Edwards, differs still more in colour and length of tail. Should,

however, the Kutas prove to be identical with any known species of Lynx, my

name can readily be dropped.”’

3. Aseries of the land and fresh water shells of the Doab, and of the Gangetic

provinces, presented by W. B. Benson, Esq., C, S.

E 2

76 Proceedings of Societies. [ Fes.

Lanp SHELLS.

1. Helix——, from banks of Ganges, in Behar, and of the Betwa, in Bundelkhand.

yD os , Lamarcke—Bundelkhand and Behar. The exuvize plentiful above

Hagli.

H.—Macrochlamys Indicus (Benson), separated from Helix, on account ofthe

difference of character in the animal.

3. Pupa—Bundelkhand and Doab.

4. Bulimus—allied to B. Bengalensis, Lam.—Buncelkhand and Doab.

5. Bulimulus—under stones and pots, and among grass—Doab and Bundel-

khand.

6. Succinea—sides of ravines—Etaweh.

7. Carocolla reversa—a variety from banks of Jellingi and Sikhrigali.

8. Cyclostoma Beharicum—Benson—Patharghata,

9. Ditto ditto, variety.

10. Ditto young of ditto.

11. Ditto granulata—Bundelkhand and Doab.

FRESH-WATER SHELLS.

12. Planorbis—Jhils in the Gangetic provinces.

13. Lymnea—Jdhils near the Sinde, Bundelkhand.

14. Ditto—Bhagea nala, near Kalinjar.

15. Melania—From the Gamti: observed the exuvie of this hillin Jellingi, at

Kishennagar.

16. Ditto—Ganges, its branches, and Salt-water lake near Calcutta.

17. Ditto—Gamti and Gogra.

18. Paludina Bengalensis—Jhils of Gangetic provinces.

19. Ditto ceramcopoma—ditto and adhering to rocks in the river Kén,

20. Ampullaria—from Jhils in Bundelkhand.

Fresh-water Bivalves.

21. Cyrena—Ganges and its branches.

22. Unio—Gimti and Gogra.

23. Ditto—Ganges and its branches.

24. Ditto—Jumna and Ganges.

25. Ditto—Ganges and branches.

26. Novaculina Gangetica—Benson—Jumna.

Mr. Benson has further obliged the Society by classifying the shells formerly

received from Dr. Pearson of Midnapar ; they consist of the following :

FRESH-WATER SHELLS. LAND SHELLS,

1. Planorbis. 5. Helix.

2. Melania. 6. Carocolla.

3. Paludina Bengalensis. 7. Bulimus Bengalensis,—a variety with

4, Ampullaria. three lower bands on the whorl.

8. Cyclostoma.

To these catalogues, for the sake of reference, the following list of American shells

presented in the name of Mr. Lea, at a former meeting, is subjoined.

24 varieties of the Unio, chiefly from the Ohio river.

1832. ] Proceedings ‘of Societies. 77

U. tuberculatus, Barnes. U. esopus, Green. U. perplexus, Lea.

U. ovatus, Say. U. metanever, Rafin. U. zigzag, ditto.

U. plicatus, Lesueur. U. ellipsis, Lea. U. undulatus, Barnes.

U. securis, Lea. U. pustulosus, ditto. U. foliatus, Hildreth.

U. nasutus, Say. Schuylkill.U. complanatus(purpureus.|U. gibbosus, Barnes.

U. torsus, Rafin. U. irroratus, Lea. U. cariosus, Say, Sch.

U. occidens, Lea. U. siliquideus, Barnes. U. rectus, Lane.

U. mytiloides, Rafin. U. cuneatus, ditto. U. circulus, Lea.

Venus, Mercatoria, N. Jersey. Melania Virginica, Say, Sch.

Symphynota alata, Lea, Ohio. conica, ditto, Ohio.

ochracea, Sch. canaliculata, ditto, ditto.

Solen ensis, Lam. N. Jersey. multilineata, ditto, Sch.

Achatine vexillum, do. Cuba. armigera, ditto, Ohio.

Alasmadonta undulata, Say, Sch. Helix, albolabris, Say, ditto.

Murex capillis, Massts. thyroides, ditto, ditto.

Spirula peronia, Florida. anculosa preciosa, ditto.

Petricola fornicata, Say, N. Jersey. Turbo, irroratus, New J ersey.

muricata, Cuba.

Mr. Benson, on departing for Europe, begged the Society’s acceptance of his

copy of Lamarcke’s ‘‘ Histoire Naturelle des Animaux sans vertébres,’’ the five first

volumes.

4. A letter was read from Dr. Royle, late Superintendent of the H. C. Botanical

Garden at SeharAnpir, presenting to the Society—

1. A plan and description of the Botanic Garden at Sehardnpir, with catalogues

of the contents of the Garden and of the Herbarium. [Printed in the present

number. ] ;

2. Drawing of the Alpine Hare, or Pika of Buffon, of the natural size, from the

Chir mountains, at eleven thousand five hundred feet of elevation.

3. Specimen of a rich iron ore, (Magnetic,) from the Phagini mine, on one of

the branches of the Char mountain.

4. Specimen of the Trap Rock, or Dyke, discovered near Masiri, by Lieutenant

Cautley, from Dr. Falconer.

5. Specimen of the Bijlt ke-har, alluded to in Captain Herbert’s paper.—

[Gueanines III. 269.]

A note by the Secretary pointed out, that the substance of these bones has not

undergone mineralization, as supposed by Captain Herbert, excepting in so far as

they are impregnated with iron. The animal matter of the bones takes fire at a red

heat, and the bone, on cooling, is of a fine blue colour, resembling the Odontolite,

or Bone Turquoise, of Johns. The composition, on a hasty analysis, was found

to be—

PITA ISMIAULED S) ohoin', ausha's oe clo 0 ot # eese.e' Ghee py

Phosphates of lime and magnesia, .......... 70.

Carbonate OF LIME, cycle siete Sah swe 3.0 0000 os 14,

ORT TOT, 8S. cre ie adele cis urete ofeiasslele'S wie vie. ys

The interior of the bones is filled with calcareous crystals.

Mr. B. H. Hodgson’s paper on the Mammalia of Nipdl was then read.

Also, Dr. Royle’s description of the Garden at Sehardnpar.

The thanks of the Society were voted for the above contributions.

738 Proceedings of Societies. [ Fes.

2.—MEDICAL AND Puysicau Socierry.

4th February, 1832.

Dr. Madden was elected a Member of the Society: and Dr. William Chalmers,

of Croydon; Mr. O. Walter, Surgeon, of Dover ; and Senor Don Francisco Xavier

Lazo, M. D. Secretary of the Medico-chirurgical Society of Cadiz ; were elected

corresponding Members. Hugh Guthrie, Esq. Assistant Surgeon, Bengal Service,

requested to return to the Society, and have his name replaced on the list of Mem-

bers, agreeable to the resolution passed on the 4th April, 1829, which was com-

plied with accordingly. Severalcommunications were then laid before the Society.

1.—A letter from Dr. J. N. Casanova, a corresponding member, stating that, as

he had resolved to reside permanently in Calcutta, he was desirous of being ad-

mitted a resident member of the Society, for the purpose of contributing his sub-

scriptions, and assisting at the meetings ; he was therefore proposed as a member of

the Society, by Mr. Egerton and Mr. Twining.

2.—A letter from Dr. Milne, of Bombay, enclosing his third communication on.

Dracunculus, with three reports, numbered 4, 5, and 6, in support of his opinions

on that subject.

3.—A communication from Brigadier O’ Halloran to the Secretary, accompanied

with the root of a plant similar to that presented at the last Meeting from Dr.

Robert Tytler, and said to possess the property of preventing the scorpion from

stinging.

4.—A statement from Mr. Boswell, relative to the benefits he had seen follow the

employment of venesection in the cold-stage of Intermittent Fevers, while he was

employed with the Artillery at Dum-Dum, where he had employed this treatment

in obstinate agues, with invariable success, and only in one instance was obliged to

repeat the bleeding in the cold stage.

5.—A letter from H. Guthrie, Esq. with remarks on a native prescription for

ring-worm.

6.—A letter from J. L. Geddes, Esq. Assistant Surgeon, Madras Service ; with

the statement of a case in which the Madar had proved remarkably successful in

the cure of an obstinate ulcer.

7.—A letter from Dr. D. Stewart, of Howrah, stating, that during an excursion

to Shikarpar, he had been consulted by a native young man, who had suffered for

five years from nasal polypi; whereby his health had become much impaired, and

in fact, the patient was reduced toa skeleton. The disease had acquired an enor-

mous bulk, pressing down into the posterior fauces and pharynx, so as to prevent

the deglutition of any solid food, and to embarrass the respiration exceedingly ; and

probably also to affect the circulation, as the patient suffered from distressing head-

aches. The disease was effectually removed by ligature and torsion.

Dr. Smyttan’s Treatise on the varieties of East Indian Opium was read and dis-

cussed by the Meeting. Dr. S. observes, that the varieties of East Indian Opium

seem to be little known or recognised in Europe, and that good Turkey Opium is

said to contain nearly three times the quantity of morphine, or narcotic principle,

that is found to be procurable from the product of the Bengal provinces. The best

produce of the Malwa districts is said to differ from Bengal Opium, both in appear-

ance and quality, quiteas much as the Turkey Opium does. Dr. Smyttan’s opi-

nions are formed from extensive observations made while he was Inspector of Opium

at Bombay, compared with the records of that office; and with the experiments

made at Calcutta by the late Dr. Jameison in 1821, which are given with a

1832. ] Proceedings of Societies. 79

table in the Appendix : to which is annexed a table of experiments made at Bombay

by Dr. Maxwell. The whole of these appear to have been conducted with great care

and attention. The general results of a series of experiments conducted by the

author are corroborative of the accuracy of the tables alluded to in this paper.

At the conclusion of the Meeting, some splendid drawings of Medicinal Plants

were placed on the table by Mr. Royle.

3.—SocieteE pb’ Htstorre NATURELLE of the Mauritius.

8th March and 12th April, 1831.

The Secretary presented to the Society, the Baron Cuvier’s Analyses des Travaux

de lV Académie des Sciences de Paris, for 1822, 25, 26, 27—in the name of the illus-

trious author.

M. Rob. Lyell, M. D. read a note on the subject of the astronomical observa-

tions madeby him at Tannanarivou, capital of the kingdom of the Ovas, in Mada-

gascar, whence the latitude of the place was found to be 18° 56’ 20” S. and the

longitude 47° 57’ 46” E. of Greenwich.

The same member also described two plants, met with in Madagascar by M. W.

Bojer. One is the Euphorbia splendens, Bos. now become common in the gardens

of the Mauritius, but of which Dr. L. made known a variety with a yellow flower.

The other is the Poinciana Regia, Bos. now also naturalized in the island. Both

are figured in the last numbers published by Professor Hooker of Glasgow, a cor-

responding member of the Society.

M. Liénard Pére read an account of a fish of this island, belonging to the genus

Pleuronecte, and remarkable for certain rays on the pectoral fins, extending the

whole length of the animal; a drawing accompanied. The islanders rank this fish

among the soles.

M. J. Desjardins continued his analysis of Zoologie du Voyage de I’ Uranie,

chiefly adverting to the Polypi, which play so important a part in the natural histo-

ry of the island.

The Secretary also described the hail, which fell in the storm of 8th February,

at the Camp de Masque, as of the size of small peas, proving destructive to

tender plants. :

Many letters of correspondents were communicated. One from M. Quoy, of

Paris, stated, that M. le Baron G. Cuvier had yielded to the desire of the Society,

to become possessed of his bust. The following paragraph added weight to M.

Desjardin’s observations. ‘‘ Detruisez done cette opinion populaire du corail qui

entre en fleur, vous insulaires, yous aurez pour cela plus de facilité et de prépon-

dérance que nous autres quine faisons que passer.”

A letter from Dr. Smith, of Algoa Bay, announced his intention of publishing

the Society’s proceedings in the South African Quarterly Journal.

M. Mn. Sauzier, of Bourbon, wrote that the volcano of that island had several

violent eruptions in November, December, and January, from two distinct craters.

There was no flow of lava, as had been reported at St. Dennis.

The president communicated the notes of M. J. Cameron, of Madagascar, rela-

tive to some minerals, particularly to an aerolite which fell on the Mozambique

coast. Mr. C. announced that the Queen of the Ovas, Ranavalon Manzaka, had

bestowed an annual donation of £60 towards the expence of a practical course of

chemical lectures, which many of her subjects are already sufficiently educated to

understand and appreciate.

M. Bernard, Proviseur du Collége Royal, and M. J. N. Casanova, D. C. M.

were admitted honorary members of the Society. The latter presented his work

entitled ‘‘ Examen de las Aguas minerals de San Pedro, &c. 1827.”

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JOURNAL

THE ASIATIC SOCTIRTY.

No. 3.—March, 1832.

1.—Analysis of the Purdnas. By H. H. Wilson, Sec. As. Soc.

[Read at the Meetings of the Asiatic Society.]

1.—The Agni Purana,

Tue Agni Purana, or more correctly, in a derivative form, the

Agneya Purdna, is one of the eighteen principal Purdnas. Although,

in common with the other compositions so termed, it is attributed to

Vyasa, it is narrated as usual by his disciple Sivita, and was received

by him from the Munz Vasishtha, to whom it was communicated by

Agni, whence its denomination.

According to the assertion of its own text, the Agneya Purdna con-

tains fourteen thousand stanzas; the Bhagavat and other authorities

give it 15,000 or 16,000. The copy to which this account refers,

has about the former number.

The text is divided into anumber of small sections, according to the

subject, but without any enumeration: the number of them in the

present instance amounted to 332. Colonel Wilford speaks of a

supplement, and of a chapter, apparently the same, which he calls —

the 63rd, or last. The supplement, however, from which he derives

his account of the modern princes of India up to the Mohammedan

invasion, is no part of the work to which the name of 4gneya Purdna

isapplied. Itisclearly a distinct and subsequent composition.

The Agneya Purana is interesting from the variety of the subjects of

which it treats, and in which it deviates very materially from the

definition given by its own reputed author of the contents of a Purdna.

These Agni declares to be five: primitive creation; subsequent

creations; the genealogies of demigods and kings; the reigns of

the Menus, and the histories of royal dynasties. These, however,

82 Analysis of the Puranas. [Marcn,

occur but imperfectly in the body of this work, and the far greater

portion of its contents is of a widely different character.

After the usual opening, the Agneya Purana describes the ten

Avataras, and in the relation of those of Ramachandra and Krishna,

follows avowedly the Ramayana and Mahdbharat, being consequently

posterior to those works.

The ensuing chapters relate to the worship of Krishna, as Narayana

or Vishni ; this Purdna being of the Vaishnava class: at the same

time it leans very favourably to the worship of Siva, as the Linga,

and is full of Tuntrika ceremonies in honor of that form of the deity.

It was compiled therefore probably anterior to any wide separation

between the Sativa and Vaishanava sects, and it was undoubtedly

prior to that modification of the Vaishnava faith, which pays such

infinite veneration to Krishna as Gopdla, or Govinda, or Bala Gopdla,

the cowherd or the infant god ; no allusion to whose worship has been

found, nor has the name of his favourite mistress Radha once been

encountered.

The ritual, including the ceremonies of the Homa, or burnt

offering ; the Mantras, or mystical formule; the Alandalas, or

mystical diagrams ; the Pavitra, or purificatory thread ; the erection

and consecration of temples, images, tanks, gardens, flags, jars,

&c. extends through a number of chapters ; it is in its general purport

Vaishnava, but the Linga and several of the Téntrika forms of

Durga are also especially reverenced ; Mantras are abundantly intro-

duced, as are the acts and gesticulations with which they are muttered

or recited. The style in which they are narrated is however abrupt and

obscure, and the ceremonial so confusedly and indistinctly laid down,

that the whole has the appearance of a string of garbled extracts, rather

than of asystematic detail. There is a general correspondence between

these chapters with those of the Sareda Tiluka and Mantra M ahodadhi,

but it does not appear that they are identically the same.

This chapter is followed by the Bhuvana Kosha, (the description

of the universe,) which corresponds generally with the same in other

Puranas, but is much less explicit than in some of them. This

chapter comprises the Turthas, or places of pilgrimage, of which how-

ever it enumerates very few, and those but briefly. It is worthy of

notice, that the Nermada and Sri Saila are especially noticed, whilst

the northern mountains are not mentioned, and also that Benares is

called Avimukta in its religious character ; whence it may be inferred,

that the chief shrine was that of Siva, as Avimukteswara, not Viswesara,

the form that has been most popular for some centuries at least. The

1832. | Analysis of the Puranas. 83

site of Benares was the same as at present, or between the Vurana and

the As? rivulets.

The Mdhdtmyas, or legends of the few Tirthas noticed, are very

brief, except that of Gayd, which is so very minute, that it may be

suspected to be an interpolation, as it is not in keeping with the

rest, nor with the manner in which all such subjects are usually dis-

posed of in a Puranic miscellany. Such interpolations or rather append-

ages are not at all uncommon, although the legends are more frequent-

ly attached to some of the other Purdnas, as the Brahmdanda and

Skanda. We have, however, a case in point with the Agni Purana;

there being current in the South of India a work called the Kaveré

Mahatmyam of the Agni Purana, which is never found in the copies

of the Purana itself, and which indeed is very nearly as extensive as

the whole work of which it is called a section,

The Tirthas are followed by the description of the Indian continent,

and other portions of the world; also the distances and dimensions of

the regions below and above it. The whole of this chapter has not

been compared with other works, but in some passages, particularly the

description of the sun’s car, it is word for word the same with the

text of the Vishna Purana: being in other respects, however, much

less full and satisfactory than that work.

The description of the sun and planets leads to the astidaatsiasl or

astrological section, and that to magical rites and formule ; from these

the work proceeds rather abruptly to the periods of the Manwantaras,

and then to the civil institutes of the Hindi caste, as birth, investiture,

marriage, death, &c. the duties of the religious orders, and the contem-

plation of the deity, conformably to the tenets of the Vedanta: a long

string of Vratas or religious obligations, both special and occasional,

follows. The next subject discussed is, that of gifts as religious duties,

and this branch of the work finally closes with the description of cor-

poreal austerities of a meritorious and pious complexion.

The next portion of the 4gneya Purdna treats at considerable length,

and with many interesting particulars, of the duties of princes, beginning

with the ceremonies of their coronation, and comprehending their civil

and military obligations; it forms what constituted the Nité of Hindi

writers, (Polity or the art of government,) and is of a character with

which Hindi ideas have long ceased to be familiar. Some of the details

correspond accurately enough with those that occur in a passage of the

Dasa Kumara, and both are probably indebted to a common source,

possibly the work ascribed to Chanakya, cited by the author of the

Désa Kumara. As the system is wholly unmixed with foreign notions,

M 2

84 Analysis of the Puranas. [ Marcu,

and is purely Hindu, it can only relate to a state of things anterior to

the Mohammedan invasion ; it is not a necessary consequence, itis true,

that the Agneya Purana should bear asimilar date, but it is anargument

rather in favour of such a belief, and contributes with other grounds to

authorize such a conclusion, if not for the whole work, for a very exten-

sive portion.

The like genuine Hindi character belongs to the sections that follow

on the shape of weapons and archery, the phraseology and practice of

which are no longer known. Thesesections ofthe Agneya Puranaare

indeed particularly valuable, as they preserve almost, if not quite,

singly, the memory of former regal and martial usages.

The chapters on the subject of judicature and law are so far curious,

that they are literally the same as the text of the Mitakshara, ascribed

to the Munt Yajnyawalkya. The antiquity of that text is, in the

estimation of the Hindiis, extravagantly remote; but without reference

to their belief, it is certainly not very modern, as passages have been

found on inscriptions in every part of India, dated in the tenth and

eleventh centuries. ‘To have been so widely diffused, and to have

then attained a general character as an authority, a considerable time

must have elapsed, and the work must date therefore long prior to those

inscriptions; at the same time, this throws little light on the period at

which the Purana was complied, the author of which might in any day

transcribe the code of Yajnyawalkya, although it is possible, that so

undisguised a transfer may have preceded the time at which the

legislative code was in general and extended circulation.

The chapters on law are followed by a rather miscellaneous series

regarding the perusal of the Vedas, the averting of threatened ill-

fortune, burnt-offerings, and the worship of various deities. We have

then a short but curious chapter on the branches of the Vedas, and

speaking of the Puranas, the following remarkable passage occurs:

‘6 six persons received the Puranas from Vydsa, and were his pupils ;

their names are Sita, Lomahersha, Sumati, Matreya, Sinsapayana,

and Suvarm.” ‘hese, therefore, are probably the real authors of most

if not of all the Puranas. It is said also, that Sinsapdyana and others

compiled a Sanhita, or epitome of all the Puranas.

The next chapter on gifts to be made, when the Puranas are read,

contains the list of the Puranas and the enumeration of the stanzas

they contain. In this respect many differences occur from similar

enumerations in other Puranas, and the Siva Purana is altogether

omitted. With regard to the narrators and the chief subjects at least, in

some cases, this detail varies from the text of the works as now found ;

1832. ] Analysis of the Purdnas. 85

these variations will be best noticed when we come to the respective

Puranas to which they relate.

The list of the Puranas is followed by the genealogical chapters

detailing the families of the Sun and Moon, but more particularly the

latter, and especially the houses of Yadu and Puru to the time of

Krishna and the Pandavas. , These chapters agree generally with the

dynasties usually detailed, but the lists are for the greater part very dry

and abrupt, whilst few of the ordinary legends are preserved, and those

so concisely as to be very obscure. There are some details relating

to Krishna of a rather remarkable character. The time at which these

chapters close leaves us no inference regarding the age of the compilation,

The next subject is medicine, taken avowedly from the instruction

given by Dhanwantarito Susruta, or from the medical work attributed

to the latter ; the extracts are, however, very injudiciously made, with

an utter disregard of method ; and with a perverse selection of every

thing least important : it also alludes to the classification of medicaments

as hot and cold, and although it does not attach the same importance to

the system as is given to it in Mohammedan medicine, yet its introduc-

tion at all, is rather in favour of its being derived from such a source,

for it is not certain that the ancient writers Charaka and Susruta laid

any greater stress upon these particular properties, than they are enti-

tled to, without reference to a theoretical system. The part of the

Purdna likewise includes much mystic medicine or curing by charms.

Another set of chapters on mystic rites and formule follows, and on

the worship of different forms of Sivaand Devi. The whole so incom-

patible with a Vaishnava work that it is difficult not to suppose them

additions by other and perhaps later hands.

Poetry and rhetoric form the next subjects, and conform to the

systems usually received : the authority of Pingula is specified. The

work concludes with a grammar, omitting the verbs: the system is

that of Panini and Katyayana : the commentator on Panintis cited by

name. The compilation is therefore posterior to the existence of the

great body of Hindu poetical compositions, and to the consummation

of the grammatical construction of the Sanscrit language.

From this general sketch of the Agneya Purana, it is evident that it

is a compilation from various works; that consequently it has no claim

in itself to any great antiquity, although from the absence of any |

exotic materials, it might be pronounced earlier, with perhaps a few

exceptions, than the Mohammedan invasion. From the absence also

of a controversial or sectarial spirit, it is probably anterior to the strug-

gles that took place in the 8th and 9th centuries of our era, between

86 On the Poetry of Madagascar. [ Marcu,

the followers of Siva and Vishnd. As amere compilation, however,

its date is of little importance, except as furnishing a testimony to that

of the materials of which it is composed. Many of these may pretend no

doubt to considerable antiquity, particularly the legendary accounts

of the Avataras, the section on regal polity and judicature, and the

genealogical chapters: how far the rest may be ancient, is perhaps

questionable, for there can be little doubt that the Purana as it now

exists, differing from its own definition of Purana, and comprehending

such incongruous admixtures, is not the entire work as it at first stood.

It is not unlikely that many chapters were arbitrarily supplied about

8 or 9 centuries ago, and a few perhaps even later ; to fill up the chasms

which time and accident had made in the orginal Agneya Purdna.

II.—On the Poetry of Madagascar. By the Rev. Mr. Baker.

[Communicated by C. Telfair, Esq. President of the Mauritius Nat. Hist. Soc.]

The most prominent characteristic of the Malagasy, language, in

reference to Poetry, is a total averseness to rhyme. Whilst it is ad-

mitted that the same identical sound is not legitimate rhyme, the

extreme paucity of the language in terminations will ever preclude the

introduction of rhyming verses. At least nineteen-twentieths of the

whole vocabulary of words terminate in a or y, and an immense pro-

portion of these in na and ny :—all other words terminate in e, or 0,

or the diphthongs ay and ao ; and even these are exceedingly mono-

tonous in the consonants of their penultimate and ultimate syllables.

The best couplet I recollect to have heard has the rhyme of hoe and

me, answering exactly to the English words, way and may, and the

jingle of such a rhyme has in the Malagasy language an unnatural and

harsh effect. In the genuime native verses I have not met with any

such instance as the one specified, but have observed that rhyme of

every description seems naturally from the true genius of the language,

and intentionally from the uncouthness of its effect, inadmissible.

So far I have ventured to assert with confidence, and without any

apprehension of future observation disproving my opinions :—but when

the question arises, what then constitutes poetry or versification in

Malagasy? I am conscious that uncertainty and error may very pos-

sibly attach to the opinions I shall present in reply. Future observa-

tion, combined with a more adequate knowledge of the subject, may

disprove my present opinion, and substantiate what I at present reject

1832. | On the Poetry of Madagascar. 87.

as destitute of proof. 1 make these remarks as introductory to the

opinion that quantity (except so far as quantity and the number of

syllables and accents may be regarded as necessarily synonimous)

furnishes no rule for measuring Malagasy verses. No examples have

come to my knowledge of lines having a credible claim to correctness,

in which two apparently short syllables of one line are put to corre-

spond with one long syllable of an equivalent line; but, where the

number of syllables in a line exceeds those of a corresponding line, the

metre is preserved by cutting off some syllables ; and thence gliding two

into one reading, and by lengthening the half syllables of verbal

terminations into perfect syllables.

Every. word in the language is strongly marked by one accent or

more, corresponding in this respect with English, But in English it

is observable, that the accent, falling on the vowel, leaves the syllable

always long, and falling on the consonant, leaves the syllable short.

I do not observe any similar distinction in Malagasy, excepting that

there are a few words terminating in e long, and thence carrying the

accent. Probably in Malagasy the accented syllable is universally long,

and the long syllable universally accented.

Granting the “Malagasy verses to be divisible into feet and capable

of being scanned, there is perhaps no instance to be found of a line

corresponding with a line in Latin. In Latin, the number of syllables

varies, and the last is deemed long; the reverse of these two cases is

the fact with regard to Malagasy. Moreover the feet, constituting a

line, seem to have no correspondence with the purest metres in Latin.

Thus the most harmonious lines in Malagasy coincide syllable for

syllable and accent for accent with the following :

« Tsy hita nado va ny maty Dost thou not see the dead

Maraina tsy mba mamindré.” Morning not warm at the fireside.

Consisting of an amphibrach, trochee, and amphibrach. These the

natives regard as the most harmonious lines; yet there are in the

same ode lines quite different in respect to the situation of the accented

syllables; as in the following couplet :

« Tsy mahalala havan ko tonga Not knowing what kindred shall come

Aiza ny olona irény.” Where are people as these ?

Lines which, notwithstanding their diversity, do not appear essentially

destitute of harmony.

These lines have more similarity to English, so far as that a certain

uniformity of syllables and accent is essential in both languages ; and

88 On the Poetry of Madagascar. [ Marcu,

the harmony of the verse arises from the accentuation and the czsura.

The latter seems plainly discernible in Malagasy, as in this line :

“Vavahady hidirana—misy hiany,”

( A door of entrance—that there is.)

Yet the verses are unlike to English in respect to their being desti-

tute of rhyme, unaccented on the last syllable of a line, and scarcely if

ever permitting one line to run on in a continuous sense into another.

The characters peculiarly essential to Malagasy versification seem to

be chiefly the following :

1. Harmony of syllables and accentuation ; a deviation from which

rule produces a precisely similar harsh discordant effect on the ear

asin English.

2. The expression must be diversified, and the words transposed, as

in other languages. :

3. Every line must be in some degree an independent sentiment ;

or at least a clause of a sentence, bearing a natural division in the

sense, and thence a pause of the voice in reading or singing. Hence

the sense is often strikingly abrupt and laconic, as will be seen in the

examples of literal translation.

The language abounds much in polysyllables ; there are exceed-

ingly few monosyllables, and perhaps the greatest proportion of the

words are of five syllables. Hence a line of eight syllables generally

contains from two to five words, and a line of twelve is frequently com-

prised in four words. On this account a sentiment is rarely attempted

to be set off with superfluous ornaments of language, but stands en-

tirely on the merit of the figure under which it is conveyed. OF poe-

tical adjectives, so often highly convenient in English for filling up the

metre or adorning a graceless noun, scarcely an instance occurs in an

entire song. Yet the language, thought, and style of the poetry is

quite of a different cast from prose. Abounding in the boldest figures,

and the sense left to connect itself by the chain of thought, it com-

mends itself to the mind as the rude and unpolished offspring of poeti-

cal genius.

It is evident, that in a language so exceedingly different from English,

combined with a state of society equally different, it is impossible, on

the one hand, to give an intelligible literal translation, leaving the rea-

der’s imagination to fill up the images; and on the other hand, it is

difficult to give a vivid imitation of the original. For myself, I pretend

not to any talent in poetical composition, and am induced to make the

attempt merely by the novelty of the subject, until some more able pen

shall display in language more worthy of its subject the gleannings of

1832. ] ~ On the Poetry of Madagascar. 89

orally preserved versification to be found in Madagascar. In the mean

time, I have only to plead for all deficiencies, that I am not setting

forth myself as an author, but only as a translator, and that from a

language wherein nothing can be looked for rising above mediocrity in

the estimation of cultivated minds. I shall be abundantly requited for

my trouble, should these contributions tend in any measure towards

evincing that the native inhabitants of Madagascar, degraded as they

actually appear, especially when contrasted with the enlightened popu-

lation of civilized Europe, are nevertheless not destitute of natural

genius, nor by any means insensible to the finer feelings and passions

of human nature.

I ought not to conclude without observing, that there is a kind of

composition very prevalent in the language which is neither perfect

prose or poetry, but seems to form a connecting link between the two,

being both in sentiment and expression more pithy, figurative, and

smart than the former, and yet destitute of the metre, cadence, &c. of

the latter. These pieces may be called poetical prose. A prose trans-

lation of such fugitive examples as have fallen into my hands would be

dull and unstriking, and a literal rhyming translation impossible; so I

have chosen in the accompanying example “on courtship,” a trans-

lation pretty free in expression, but I believe perfectly correct,

though somewhat paraphrased, in thought*.

It appears, as far as I have discovered, that all compositions, in Mala-

gasy, of a poetical turn of thought, are written in this style, except

songs ; the latter being the only compositions I have yet met with

evidently written in regular metre.

The following, as well as several suceeeding songs, are by a man

called Razafilahy, who happening to be a cripple, and unable to work,

turned his attention to song-making, by which it is said he obtains a

tolerable livelihood. He isastoutish man, rides out on the back ofa

male slave, and has as buxom and merry looking a face as any to be

seen in Madagascart.

* We are inclined to differ in opinion with our author on this subject, and to

think that a mere literal translation with explanatory notes, would have better

illustrated the peculiarities of thought and idiom in the Malagasy language, than

even the best versified imitation.

+ As more convenient for the generality of our readers, whom we may safely

presume to be unacquainted with the Malagasy language, we have arranged the ori-

ginal text at thefoot of the page, leaving the English version uninterrupted.—Ep,

90 On the Poetry of Madagascar.

I.—Literal translation of an Ode in praise of the Prince Rabédo.

Long, long, may live

Rabdédonandrianampéina :

To the South is Ambdtondrafandana*,

To the North Ambéhimitsimbina’*,

To the West Ambéhimidndra*,

To the East Ambéhijanahary* ;

[He is] The full moon shining in the west,

The rising sun rising in the east.

Long live Rabédo,

Yea Rambéasalama,

And Rakétosehéno na Radéma,

And his relations all,

Tnnumerable they ;

The portions of land shall then be dollars,

The corners of the houses guns ;

Endréhinantsiva is his portioned land,

Endréhinantsiva his house ;

Possessing much, yet not haughty.

Orphans shall then be plump [with health],

Their mother living, then they well fed.

Yonder is the defence of rock,

Yonder the clothing of wood,

A fence of spears, yea second fence of men,

Long live Rabodonandrianampéina.

A single tree in a lake—

It is not ‘‘ how many reign ?”’

For there is our only master.

[ Marcu,

By Razafilaby.

A SSE

I. Ode in praise of Prince Rabédo.

Hono re ny veloma Ny zoro n’trano dia basy

Rabodon and rianampoina Endréhinantsiva ny tokotany ny

Atsimo n’ Ambatondrafandana Endrehinantsiva ny trano ny

Avaratry ny Ambohimitsimbina Manambe tsy’mba miavona

Andrefana Ambohimiandra Kamboty, dia dongadonga

Atsinanana Ambohijanahary Velon’dreny dia botrabotra

Volana tsinana ny avy andrefana Ao ny miaketso vato

Feno manana ny avy atsinanana Ao ny miakanjo hazo

Veloma Rabodo Rova lefona ka temitr’ olona oindray

Sy Ramboasalama Veloma Rabodonandrianampoina

Sy Rakotoseheno na Radama Hazo tokana an-ory

Sy ny havany tontonlo Tsy firy no mandidy

Tsy tambo isaina, Ka tompo nay any ao,

Ny tokotany dia farantsa

* Name of a village, which like all others in Imerina, standing ona hill, isa

poetical object. ‘These villages being conspicuous objects, lying to the North,

South, &c. of Tananarivo, the prince’s residence.

1832.]

On the Poetry of Madagascar. 91

The following is the translation of another Ode by the same author.

Il. Zhe Great River.

Yonder Ambaniéla’s* streams go forth,

Amb6hidrapétot to the north extends,

To the northward also Ambéhitrimanjaka ;

t ‘* Guide well thy winding course,

Nor kill the people’s sons with heedless might.

Too full, thou’rt like an ill-cut cloak,

Smothering the head it should set off.

Dried up, thou’rt like an insufficient dress,

Leaving the breast and arms naked.

And thus from day to day

Thou rollest onwards continually.

Soon at Iki’opa are thy waters found ;

Tki’opa renowned through the world,

Devouring all, yet still unsatiated||,

Lab’ring ever, and still thy work unaccomplished ;

Ambohibodnjo from thy bank not far,

And southward Soavinimérina 3;

Behold Antanta abounding in eels,

§ From whence murmuring sounds are heard ;

The soldier here casts round his wandering eye

Thinking of distant friends.

Here thou art in jeopardy, new-wedded bride,

Should a dispute arise towards the evening ;

For caprice controls the unsettled heart.

Discarded, thou wilt soon retrace thy steps !

But we again pursue the river’s course

II. <Anonibe.

Indro ny rano Ambaniala Ikiopa rano malaza

Avaratr’ Ambohidrapeto Homambe fa tsy voky

Avatatr’ Ambohitrimanjaka Mivalambalan’ indray

Mahaiza mandeha Mivalana dia any Ambohiboanjo

Mabaiza mizotra Any atsimo ny Soavinimerina

Aza mamono zana’ bahoaka Indro koa re any Antonta

Tondraka, toa misaron’ doha Ka migodongodom’ piteny

Ritra, toa manao sikimbalaka Mahita anay lavi’kavana

Ka ny azy re toetr’ andro ny Miady, mena masoandro

Ka mivalambalan’ indray Ka tsy fantatr’ ompanavao

Koa man kany Ikiopa Tsy vatra n’olona tsy honina

* This and others are names of villages lying far above the banks of the river,

+ The whole beauty of the poem lies in a hidden allusion running through it to

the kingdom ; here perhaps is an admonition to the sovereign.

t All other streams run into Ikiopa.

§ That is, the sound of the distant waterfall, and by allusion, the repining of

the soldiers going to war.

n 2

92 On the Poetry of Madagascar. [ Marcu,

At Farahdntsana next abide :

The people there with noisy long guns fire,*

And cannons, longer, and still more noisy :

Spitting the frothy foam and rising phlegm

Writhing in restless agony and paint

Let each unwept forsake his best beloved!

For all partake the bitter curse.t

—p

Ill. Paraphrase of a poem called Ny Momba, or the Barren, By the same Author.

1 To thee who dost all childless live,

Thou barren, this advice I give;

“In place secure thy wealth with foresight lay ;’

For then a thousand tongues thou'lt find to say,

** Kind father, dearest mother, thou to me :””

No space their coming stays,

No rugged road delays.

But if thou pine in wretched poverty ;

Not thine gay robes to wear,

No flattery soothes thine ear,

No prattling babes entwine,

No equal portion thine.

ee ee A. EEL a a a eens ieceesereoegeee ea

Izahay re dia handeha Mitsipidrora mivalana

Ka tonga tany Ifarahantsana Mamoiza ny mana’ malala

Ka ny ao mepoa’ basy lava Fa samy efa nozoi’ny,

Ny ao mipoa’ tafondro lava

III. Ny Momba.

1 Izany Rakala momba, 2 Momla lany havena

Tehirizo trara ny harena ; Ny maso no apitrapitra :

Fa raha misy ireny, Tsy misy havan’ kamangy,

Atao ny hoe, ikiaky nao, ineny ; Tsy misy zaza hitomany.

Tsy mahalavitra ny tany, Noana, tsy manan’ kacigatahana’.

Tsy mahasasa’ mandeha, Voky, tsy manan’ kotolorana: ”

Fa raha tsy manana ireny, Marary, tsy manan’ ikiteatio

Lany haingio, Sasatra, tsy manan’ kitsetra,

any ne Eny Ramomba,

any zanaka. Maty, ts "ki

any Larae a cf ae

* Literally true of the Sakalava enemy, and figuratively of the water-fall,

Tfarahantsana.

+ Under the figure of the dashing of the water, alluding to the death of soldiers.

through war, fever, and famine.

t Every family has lost some relations in the deyastating wars, and all must

submit without repining,

1832.] . On the Poetry of Madagascar. 93

2 The barren destitute of wealthy store,

Extends her wandering eyes the wide world o’er.

No loving friend to visit her is found,

No children, prattling all their wants, surround.

If hungry, none a scanty dole shall mete ;

If satiate, none the falling crumbs shall eat 5

By none thy sufferings are allayed ;

If weary none shall give thee aid ;

And, hapless, even when thou’rt dead,

No tears shall weep o’er thy last bed.

3 Thy shroud not half a dollar buys,

Nor sixpence sheep for sacrifice,

A penny pays for grease to light

Instead of taper thy sad ghost ;

No friends shall watch the dreary night

To shallow grave shalt thou be hurried,

And with regardless haste be buried,

A farthing all thy funeral cost,

“ Ah! mother, life is misery.”

Yea barren, such thy fate must be.

Thou’lt fain the locust* catch, for whom ?—

For children of a luckier womb,

Yea such, ill-fated barren, is thy doom.

4 Now barren, view thy husband dead,

And thou from parent’s distant bed ;

From head to foot sorrow’s own image thou,

Unheard by all, thy sad bewailings now.

Ah! barren, thou in former days,

A father living,

A mother giving,

Couldst bathe in water fetch’d by slaves,

Caressed and blest in all thy ways.

Ah barren, now how chang’d thy state,

Thy father’s life-dream o’er,

Thy mother now no more,

To bathe in tears thy wretched fate,

All cloth’din rags, thou once mightst hate.

sa aerate ameter

3 Vitan’ damban’ doso, 4 Rakala momba, momba ka maty vady ;

ik: Vitan ondryn tsikiajy ; Ka lavi’ dray aman’ dreny ;

itan’ tsabora mila voamena, Sady an-doha no an-tongotra

Atao ny lavenan’ tandrevaka. Miantso ka tsy fanta’ ny ,

Tsy misy mpiaritory, Ray bado, ray bido;

Talany ny olo kajia ; Fahavelon’ dro ray ney

Maty re aho raneny; Fahavelon’ dro reny ; ;

Izany Rakala momba Mandro rano autsakaina 3

Misambo’ balala Raha mivoaka, tambatambazana ;

Ho an’ janak’ olona;

Eny Ramomba

* The poor among the people eat the locusts, and feed their children with them.

94 On the Poetry of Madagascar. [Marcn,

Link’d to some churl, I see in piteous plight

Thee pinch’d and waken’d at the morning light ;

Expelled the cheering hearth, thy wedded right,—

“* Ah, mother, life is misery ;

Would I had died in infancy !”

5 I travelled eastward succour to obtain;

My father’s kindred live hard by.

Alas! I’m chang’d; they know me not again;

Ah mother! like the dead am I.

Iturn’d my steps into the northern way ;

My mother’s kindred live hard by.

Alas! I’m chang’d ; thou’rt not the same, they say ;

Ah mother ! like the dead am I.

I turn’d me back again, and southward ranged ;

My father’s sister lives hard by.

But she like all my relatives is changed.

Ah mother ; worse than dead am I,

I turn’d again a westward course to tread ;

Tis there my mother’s sisters live.

Their dead relation’s awful blame they dread,

So careless pitch the boon they give !

——

IV. Paraphrase of an Eclogue in Poetical Frose.—Author unknown.

On Courtship,

She. Pray tell me, since you oft profess

Your fervent love to me;

To what, if we may give a guess,

Your love may liken’d be.

He. Rice which affords our daily food,

And constant life supplies,

Is the best emblem of my love,

Which never never dies.

She. Ah no! not so thy love to me,

For that, thou deemest sweet,

Only when hunger presses thee

To take the proffer’d meat.

Then tell me, since you oft profess

Your, &c. (as in the first verse.)

Ray bado, ray bado; Nony nankao avaratr’ aho ;

Raha maty ro ray ny, Havan’ dry neny no ao.

Raha maty ro reny ; Nova’ny ny olon’ kafa;

Mandro rano maso Maty aho rey neny

Mitafy lamba tseroka, Noney nankao atrimo aho ;

Mitoetra amy ny olona ny bado, Zanak’ olomianadahy no ao,

Mandry maraina, rongadrongati’ ny, Novany fahatelo be ;

Mamindro, atositosi’ ny ny sasany. Maty aho rey neny.

Maty aho ry neny, Nony nankao andrefan’ aho,

Tsy maty fony kely. Zanak’ olona mirahavavy no ao =

5 No ny nankaroa atrinanana aho ; Ny tao no manipy kely,

Havau’dry kiaky no ao. Fa matahotra ny tsiny ny maty.

_ Nodidny ny olona tsy fantatra aho,

Maty aho ry neny

1832. ] On the Poetry of Madagascar. 95

He. I love you as the fountain pure,

Which yields a sure supply

Of that, without whose aid secure

My frame would quickly die.

She. Ah no! not so thy love to me,

For that, when dirt adheres

Which others scornfully may see,

Desirable appears.

Then tell me, &c.

He. The lamba* which around I fold

To guard life’s vital flame,

Is that, which, next to thee I hold

Most needful to my frame.

She. Ahno! for that when older grown,

Disdain’d, thou wilt reject ;

And ne’er again willit be known,

But lie in long neglect.

Then tell me, &c.

He. I love thee like the luscious taste

Of anew honey-comb,

Whose precious fruit is seized with haste,

And borne in triumph home.

She. Ahno! for there amidst the sweets,

Though luscious they be found ;

The goodness not unmingled meets,

But dregs impure abound.

Then tell me, &c. .

He. I love thee as the sov’reign king

Of this our native land ;

Whose endless praises all can sing,

Whose word moves every hand.

She. To this, in truth, thy love compare,

Whose merely passing by,

Rebuking every vulgar stare,

Abashes every eye.

IV, On Courtship.

Tia nao tahaky n’inona angaha aho? Tia ko tahaky ny vany hianao.—Tsy

tia nao aho izany, fa atao nao famoujy fo raha noana. Tia nao tahaky n’inena

angaha aho ?—Tia ko talaky ny rano hianao.—Tsy tia nao izany aho fa atao nao

fitia momba tseroka, Tia nao tahaky n’inona ary aho? Tia ko tahaky ny lamba

hianao.—Tsy tia nao aho izany fa raha tonta afindra nao ka tsy tsaroa ’nao

intsony. Tia nao tahaky n’inona angaha aho? Tia ko tahaky ny tantely hianao.

Tsy nia nao aho izany, fa misy faikana. Tia nao tahaky n’inona angaha aho ?

Tia ko tahaky ny Andriamanjaka hianao. Tia nao tokoa aho izany, mandalo,

mahamena’ maso mijery, mahamenatra :—Tia nao takoa aho izany, fa tapi’java’

nirina aho, tapi’ java’ naleha.—Tia ko tahaky ny kiaky sy neny hianao: velena,

iray trano ;—maty, iray hazo,

* The garment which a Malagasy wraps round his body, and which constitutes

his only clothing, except what is wrapped round the loins; and without which he

is called naked, Z

96 On the Poetry of Madagascar. [ Marcu,

To him, indeed, thy love compare,

Whose briefest, transient gaze,

With shame o’erwhelms, and deep despair,—

Or drooping hearts can raise.

To this, indeed, thy love compare,

I, of desire the end

And goal ; wherever you repair,

Still towards me you tend.

And I, my love to thee will prove,

In all good faith and truth,

A filial daughter’s tender love

To parents of her youth.

Enjoying life, while life shall last

One house our common home ;

And when the mortal scene is past

United in one tomb !

IJI.— Extracts from Dr. Royle’s Explanatory Address on the

Exhibition of his Collections in Natural History, at the Meeting of

the Asiatic Society, on the 7th March.

Geology of the Dehra Din.

The low range of hills skirting the Himalaya has a strip of jungle

along its south-west base, and the valley of Dehra on the north-east.

The highest peaks of this range are probably 3000 feet above the level

of the sea, and its outline presents a serrated appearance. The lower

strata are composed of a loose-grained sandstone, above which are

layers of clay, and gravel-rolled stones are found on the highest peaks ;

the clay gravel and sandstones are all regularly stratified with the ~

strata dipping to the N. N. E. at an angle of about 30°. From many

of the rolled stones being found with their flat sides and long ends

parallel to each other, though in different strata, and yet inclined at a

considerable angle towards the horizon, it is evident, that they must

originally have been deposited in horizontal strata, whence they have

‘been raised into their present inclined position by some subsequent

convulsion of nature.

The whole of this range, like the greater part of the plains of India,

is impregnated with carbonate of lime ; for frequently where the water

percolates through the rock, and a favorable situation offers, stalactites

are formed, as wellas tufaceous limestone, and it is more than probable

that the kankar of the plains is similarly formed. Lignite was dis-

covered in this range by Captain Herbert, and by Lieutenant Cautley,

of which an account has been given by the above two gentlemen. A

1832. ] Extract from Dr. Royle’s Address. 97

writer in the Bulletin des Sciences Naturelles concluded, that this range

was analogous in formation to the Molasse of the Alps. My friend

and successor Dr. Falconer, without any knowledge of the opinions of

this author, determined on his first visit to the Kheré GAdé, that this

range was analogous tothe Nugelfluhe, or Molasse, which is equivalent

in age to the oldest of the tertiary series of English formations, or

plastic clay, together with the London and Paris basons.

The valley of Dehra is elevated 2000 feet above the level of the

‘sea, and is filled up with diluvial debris from at least 220 feet depth

below the surface, as is indicated in the particulars of the strata disco-

vered in the sinking of a well shaft by the Honourable Mr. Shore,

detailed in the Gteaninas or Science, I. 164.

Discovery of Fossil Bones.

Dr. Falconer, in a letter received only a few days since, informs me,

thathe accomplished the tour alone, which we projected to have made

together, for the purpose of visiting the place where the lignite is found

in largest quantities. He communicates the very interesting and

important discovery of fossil bones at that place :* I returned loaded,

not only with lignite, but with noble fossils of the monsters of the deep !

bones of crocodilide, fragments of the skull of large turtles, and a

fragment of a bivalve shell as large as an oyster.’ ‘The identification

of the range will therefore be certain, and we may expect an interesting

paper on the subject from Dr. Falconer. It will be most curious to

ascertain whether this deposit of organic remains is identical with the

sources of the bij/t ke hdr to the north of the great chain of mountains,

separated by the up-heaving of the latter ; and, moreover, whether both

formations are not connected with those of the Irawadi, so productive

in magnificent specimens of organic reliquiz.

Hour of Maximum Temperature in the Hills.

One peculiarity in the hill climate is the early period of the day

at which the maximum of heat is attained. In the plains we know,

that if horary observations are taken, we find the temperature of

the air goes on increasing until2 or3 p.m. In the hills, on the

contrary, if the same kind of hourly observations be taken, and a fine

clear day be chosen, the thermometer will be found to rise rapidly

from sun-rise until 10 a. m. when it nearly attains the maximum ; the

increase after that hour does not amount to more than a degree or

so. As the latitude is nearly the same as that of Seharanpur, the

power of the sun’s rays and the quantity of heat communicated ina

given time, must be nearly the same: but in the plains it is allowed to

98 Extract from Dr. Royle’s Address. [ Marcu,

accumulate; in the hills, on the contrary, some power must exist which

carries off a portion of the heat as rapidly as it is communicated : this

power is the breeze which is found daily toset in from the plains towards

the hills, which commences about 10 a. m., (the very time after which

so little increase takes place in the temperature,) and passing over

the top of the range prevents the accumulation of any heat. It

might appear, however, that as the atmosphere is heated to so high

a degree in the subjacent plains, the effect of a breeze setting in

that direction would be rather of a heating than that of a cooling

nature; and it would be so, but the air as it ascends becomes less

dense, and in proportion to this diminution of density is its capacity

for heat increased, so that it is enabled to absorb all that which was

sensible to the feelings, or was observed by a thermometer, in the

plains; and thus, when it arrives at the top of the range, it feels cool and

refreshing. At night a similar but more gentle breeze sets in from the

hills towards the plains, and the two may with the strictest justice be

compared to the land and sea breezes of the coast.

Vegetable Impressions of the Coal Strata,

Onmy way to Calcutta by dak, | visited the coal mines of China-

kiré and Rdniganj, and procured a large collection of vegetable im-

pressions, but I have not yet had time to ascertain whether there be any

thing new among the number, though I am inclined to think, that the

straight and striated unjointed reed was not among the specimens I saw

with Dr. Falconer or the Rev. Mr. Everest. In travelling along the

road after collecting these impressions, it struck me, that as the theory

of the formation of coal supposes the existence of vegetables in swamps

or jhils of a former period of the world, at which time many phenomena

indicate a high degree of temperature, considerable assistance might be

derived in confirmation or refutation of this theory, by examining the

plants which now exist in the jhils of India, and comparing them with

the vegetable impressions which distinguish the coal bason. The subject

would lead me into too much detail now, but I hope to be able to

follow it up at some future period. It may be cursorily remarked,

that all the peculiarities stated by Mr. Conybeare as marking the

vegetation of coal fields, may I think, be observed in the vegetation

which now floats on the surface of the shi/s round Calcutta. Their

peculiarities are, 1, great length of stem; 2, deficiency of bark; 3,

want of consistence in the woody fibre; 4, striated appearance of stem ;

5, its frequently jointed nature, with great inequality in the length of

the joints; and 6, the absence or smallness of roots. The Mentha

verticillata displays itself many of these peculiarities: a resemblance

1832. ] Extract from Dr. Royle’s Address. 99

to the vegetable impressions now on the table may be observed, in the

small collection of specimens of plants from the jhils of the neighbour-

hood, in my herbarium.

Contents of Natural History Collection.

The packages I am taking home, contain skins of most of the animals

of the Upper Provinces and of the hills. The Alpine hare, Pica of

Buffon, now formed into the sub-genus Lagomys, is perhaps the only

novelty, as I do not recollect its being enumerated as occurring in the

Himalaya in Griffith’s Animal Kingdom, the latest systematic work on

the subject. The hill fox is nearly twice as large as that of the plains,

and in colour and general appearance bears considerable resemblance

to the English fox. The drawings of the Rokar, or barking deers

and Didhi, as well as of the Cashmerian goat, may be interesting.

Of the specimens of birds, it may be sufficient to indicate the num-

ber of species comprized in the collection.

Of the Accipitrine tribe,......... es. 29 species.

IPaSSeVine;s .ae. ss . MA a eee Ae a 115

Scansores or climbers,..............7. 35

Gallinacéous birds, /...4.0.0..055.... 26

CS LLGES I a a ae 36

PRBBOREG I Sis 6 ahs iamo 6 0c iS ha ie me 3 21

In all 233 species.

The pheasants, wood-peckers, jays, shrikes, cuckoos, and the

falcon tribe, are most numerous in species ; the waders and anseres are

incomplete, from the difficulty of procuring specimens.

Among the insects of the hills, many genera correspond with those

of Europe. The species and genera of shells agree entirely with those

described by Mr. Benson, at a late meeting. The above are only a

few indications of the Natural History of the northern provinces of

India ; much remains to be done to get any thing approaching even to

a correct Natural History of any of the provinces of India, and it is to

be hoped, that many are employed in collecting materials towards the

completion of this very desirable object.

Vegetable Philology.

Lycium.—From the roots of different species of barberry, an extract

is prepared, which is well known throughout India by the name of

rasot. Inthe Persian works on materia medica, /iéfion is given as the

Greek name of raso¢t. This is no doubt intended for the avxioy of

Dioscorides, [. 133, as the Persian account is a pretty literal transla-

tion of the Greek one, and Dioscorides moreover describes the mode of

| o 2

100 On the Utility of Cess-pools in Calcutta. [Marcn,

making the extract and the plant from which the Indian avsioy ismanu-

factured. Sir J. Smith, in Rees’ Cyclopedia, mentions that Rhamnus

infectorius (Turkey-berry, Buckthorn) is justly considered by Dr.

Sibthorp, as the aviv, Lycium, of Dioscorides. Under thehead of dyctum

however he says, ‘ the description given by that author does not accord

entirely with any known species of /ycium :’ that it was not-always so,

I conclude from finding that Lycium Creticum of Prosper Alpinus is a

synonyme of Berberis Cretica, which is the Cretan or box-leaved Bar-

berry. Considering, therefore, thataspecies of barberry was formerly called

Lycium, and that an extract isnow prepared from a species of barberry,

to which the Greek name liifyon is applied by the Persian writers, and

that the Persian f (3) may with the greatest ease be substituted for k (3)

through the inadvertence of transcribers-in writing a foreign word, I

think it may safely be assumed that for este! lifyon, we should read

uses lukyon, and that consequently the avkwoy of Dioscorides is the

yasot of India, and that the extract was then, as it is now, prepared

from a species of barberry.

Peganum Harmala.—This plant is called hiirmal by the native

hakims, and commonly isband Lahoré, on account of its being brought

from Lahore. It is remarkable, that Dioscorides gives apuara, Harmala,

as one of the synonymes, and “oAv, Moly, as another. In the Persian

works, hurmal is said to be the Syrian name, and moly the Greek. The

plant is now common about Agra, having probably beenintroduced

from the northward.

IV.—On the Utility of Cess-pools in Calcutta.

The accompanying memoranda of observations have been made at

different towns and places, on experimental Cess-pools, or receptacles

for filth, in use since last hot-weather.

The subject is not one of an attractive nature ; there are, however,

some circumstances stated which may induce you to give the papers

a place in your journal.

The wells that are spoken of in the papers were of perfectly simple

and firm construction. They were dug to the greatest depth that

the common well-diggers of the country could easily reach, and gene-

rally of the greatest breadth, for which paats or earthen-ware hoops can

be made, viz. 4 feet 6 inches. A parapet of masonry was raised to the

height of 4 or more feet, having the same cylinder as the wells, to obviate

inconvenience from their overflowing. They have been dug either in

the godowns, where conveniences on the old plan already existed, or in

1832. ] On the Utility of Cess-pools in Calcutta. 101

_ open spots, where they have been properly inclosed and covered. The

average expense of constructing the largest sized wells is Rs. 50,

small ones can be completed for 15 or 20 Rs.

The well in No. 2, Hare-street, affords a good example of the utility

of the plan. It was constructed to receive the washings of the cook-

room. For 9 months it has perfectly succeeded, not the slightest smell

having ever been perceptible from it ; the water in it has stood a few

inches only above the water in a neighbouring well of pure water, and

the nuisance created by a stream of black fluid, that used to issue from

the aperture of the cook-room, and travel, or attempt to travel, some

hundred feet through the compound into the public surface drain, has

been completely removed.

This is an experiment which may perhaps attract attention; by the

same means the occupants of large premises may provide a remedy for

a serious inconvenience, that the best conceivable plan of general drain-

age would very imperfectly reach. The expense of the well was only

19 Rs. Besides the wells adverted to in the annexed papers, there are

many others that have long been used in private houses, both in the

town and suburbs, with advantage.

In Fort William, and at Chinsurah, they have been greatly approved

of, and are in constant use; the state of all has been carefully examined

from time to time.

There are in the House of Correction two wells, one used by about §

European prisoners, the other by about 100 natives. Not the slightest

smell is perceivable from either of the wells themselves. The native

one was also used as a receptacle for the filth accumulated in the pri-

soners’ cells at night. This was too much for it. About the end of the

rains it was nearly filled, and had to be shut up; the fluid in it gradually

decreased, and has fallen up to this time to a level of 5 feet below the

top; and about 34 feet higher than that used by the small number of

Europeans. A candle has been burnt im it without being in any manner

affected.

In the Police Office, there are three wells; these have never been in

any way offensive, and the light of a candle burnt in them has not been

affected. The following is a report on the subject from Mr. McCann.

“I examined the cess-pools in the Police compound yesterday. The

smell complained of, I found owing to an accumulation of filth in the

corner, between the raised cylinder of the well and the walls ofthe

godown, in which it (the large one) is placed. I found, on standing

over the well itself, that no smell whatever proceeded from it.

“ The depth of space free of water or filth in the well, No. 1, was

about 3 feet ; No. 2,4 feet ; and No. 3, 44 or 5 feet, on the above date.

102 On the Utility of Cess-pools in Calcutta. [ Marca,

“JT tried a candle in No. 1, it burned perfectly bright without any

explosion.”

In Mirjani Gali, there are three of the same nature; these have been

complained of by the division overseer, who thought they had not origi-

nally been dug of sufficient depth, but care must of course be taken

that the platforms are kept carefully cleaned and washed.

On the 26th of September, 1831, the well in the cook-room of

No. 2, Hare-street, raised 34 feet above the surface, and having a small

opening at top, for the passage of water, secured by a copper strainer,

and in use from April, was examined.

There was not the slightest smell to be perceived from it, a candle

was let down to the surface of the water without the flame being affected

in the slightest degree ; it burned as in a common atmosphere. The only

effect it seemed to produce was the forcing out by rarefaction of a small

quantity of the air in the well, which smelt offensively, but not very

much so. The height of the water or filth was precisely the same as

in another common well quite close to it.

The liquid at the surface of the water of the well appeared of the

blackest and most filthy description ; there were creatures like cock-

roaches seen swimming among the bubbles, when they were disturbed

by the iron to which the candle was affixed.

The following interesting account is given of certain phenomena ob-

served in a kitchen cess-pool at Bythakkhaneh.

Ignis Fatuus.—On the 3rd. of June, 1831, I caused a well to be dug

at my garden, at the Bythakkhaneh, for the purpose of receiving the

refuse water of my kitchen and bottlekhaneh, about twelve feet deep,

(at which depth water was discovered,) and three feet broad.

The well was surrounded with the circular earthen paats commonly

used in the construction of wells in Bengal, and a pucka circular wall

about two feet in height, built above the level of the earth, and the

mouth of the well covered in with tile work and khoah, the same asa

terrace, leaving an aperture to admit the refuse water about nine inches

in diameter, closed by a copper strainer, to prevent particles of meat,

rice, &c. falling into the well; but not fixed in the masonry, to allow

the well to be inspected at pleasure.

The well was in constant use, for the before specified purposes, and

the water in it has risen to nearly the level of the earth, in consequence

of the rainy season, (when most wells in the vicinity of the

Bythakkhaneh rise to within a few feet of that level,) and the quantity

of refuse daily thrown into it.

On Tuesday evening, the 30th August, a little before gun-fire, the

copper strainer of the well was blown off, and a blaze issued from the

1832. ] On the Utility of Cess-pools in Calcutta. 103

aperture, (which several of my servants who were close to the well de-

scribed as resembling flame produced by brimstone,) and covered both

sides of the wall which separates the cook-room premises from those

of the bottlekhaneh, and crosses with an arch over the well ; it rose up

in a sheet of flame to the top of the wall, and glided gently towards

the door of the cook-room, and there vanished.

The servants, filled with dismay, came running to me, and reported

- what they had seen, on which I ordered a light to be introduced into

the aperture of the well, which being done, it was instantly blown out,

and a small blaze observed in the wellnear the aperture ; but this effect

did not take place on applying the light a second time. Next morning,

on examining the well, it was found very offensive, in consequence,

I believe, of my servants having contrary to my orders occasionally

removed the strainer, and suffered rice and filth to enter the well, which

was then in a state of fermentation, with rice visible on the surface.

On examining the strainer, it had the appearance of having been

scorched by fire.

After the alarm had subsided, a chokidar came forward, and stated

that about fifteen nights previous to the event, he was on watch at the

door of the bottlekhaneh at about mid-night, when he was alarmed by

a similar appearance, which he did not mention, fearing he should not

be believed.

I have since procured five pounds of chloride of lime, and mixed it

with ten gallons of water, and poured the mixture into the well, which -

has nearly taken away every particle of offensive smell, and the well is

now used as a receptacle for the refuse water of the bottlekhaneh. _

A cess-pool in the yard of a very respectable coach building esta-

blishment in the town, seems to have shewn nearly similar pheno-

mena to those reportedl of the cook-room cess-pool at Bythakkhaneh.

It is of considerable depth, built in the form of a well, and continued

about 5 feet above the surface of the ground. One day a candle

was let down, to see what effect the foul air would have on the flame,

and whether it would continue to burn: it reached about 3 or 4 feet, be-

fore there was any perceptible change in the light; it was then with a

sort of flash surrounded with a blue flame about a foot in diameter, but

this rapidly diminished till it disappeared altogether. The candle was

now gradually lowered, and as it descended it burned more and more

feebly, and had it not been drawn rapidly up it would have been quite

extinguished. As the candle was drawn nearer the mouth of the cess-

pool, it again revived and burned perfectly bright, about 4 feet from

the top.

104 Temperature and Saltness of the River High. [Marcn,

The gas which had caused the blue flame seemed now all exhausted, .

as there was not the slightest appearance of the halo which surrounded

the candle on its being first let down. The candle was again lowered,

but had no sooner reached the surface of the soil below than it was

extinguished.

The appearances above described are readily explained from the

formation of carburetted and phosphuretted hydrogen from the decom-

position of the vegetable and animal matter deposited in the wells: the

heavy gas at the bottom was doubtless carbonic acid, formed by the

combustion of the inflammable gases. The object of bringing the above

facts to the notice of the public is to prove the great utility of the well

system in a town situated like Calcutta, on a flat, and necessarily un-

provided with common sewers. The experiment has been tried with

success also in the barracks at Chinsurah and in Fort William, and

in both the decomposition of the deposited matter is so rapid from the

combined influence of the temperature and water, and from the mul-

titude of living creatures which swarm within the wells, that there

would, in ordinary circumstances or where the number of people resort-

-ing to them is moderate, seldom if ever be occasion to clean them out.

V.—On the Temperature and Saltness of the River High, from

Calcutta to the Sea. By G. A. Prinsep, Esq.

Having had occasion to make frequent visits toSaugor Island, during

the last four years, I usually availed myself of thespring tides, for

greater expedition, and it was my practice to register the temperature

and specific gravity of the river surface (the latter tried with a very

sensible hydrometer) as I passed the Fort, Budge Budge, Fultah, and

other principal stations both in going and returning, and especially to

note the degree of saltness existing at the change of tide in whatever

part of the river I happened to be. In this manner I have accumulated

above 350 observations of temperature, and nearly as many of specific

gravity, embracing all seasons of the year, but least copious in the

rainy months. They may perhaps be worth recording, to assist the

researches of some speculator in meteorological subjects, and to facilitate

comparison with other rivers.

The following table contains a summary of the temperatures

observed: the blanks of July have been filled up by estimate, in order

to obtain a general mean.

105

Temperature and Saltness of the River Higl

1832.]

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106 Temperature and Saliness of the River High. [Marcu,

Hence it would seem that the mean temperature of the surface water

exceeds 81° Fahr. every where between Calcutta and the sea. The ab-

sence of observations during stormy weather, may have given some trifling

excess to the apparent result; but as the mean of each month is taken

from the extremes, and I was upon the river immediately after several

violent storms and during many north-westers, and registered the

temperature at sun-rise, as well as during the day, I do not think the

true mean temperature is lower than 81. Indeed I should rather

apprehend an error in the opposite direction ; for in tropical countries I

have remarked that the high temperatures, whether of the day, the month,

or the season, are of longer duration thanthe low. A violent storm from the

north has been known to depress the temperature to 50° Fahr.in January,

at Vera Cruz (Lat. 19°11); but in a few hours it rises again above 60:

whereas for months together the temperature there exceeds 80°; but,

except on very rare occasions, never passes 90°. The mean of the

extremes of the year would thus give a temperature of only 70° for Vera

Cruz, while the true mean, according to different observers, is between 79

and 81. In the climate of Calcutta, if we take the extremes at 50 and

100, we obtain a mean of 75 instead ofthe true mean 78 ; and in the

preceding table, the extremes of the year, (91 and 68) give a mean

79.5, two degrees lower than that of the months duly cast out. I

have observed also, that, although a thin surface of water may occa-

sionally be brought to the freezing point by radiation in the still clear

nights of winter, the hottest sun will not raise it to 110 ; which gives

a mean of only 71.

It may seem extraordinary, that the temperature of a river should

exceed that of the climate of the country through which it flows. I

believe the reverse is generally supposed, on account of the cooling

influence of evaporation, and I should take it to be so with the rivers

of England. In tropical rivers, however, especially the Ganges, there is

this peculiarity, that the whole, or nearly the whole supply is obtained

at that season when the power of the sun is the greatest, and when the

evaporation is very much reduced by the saturated state of the atmos-

phere. Hence the mass of waters has not time to cool very considerably,

before the short winter is over ; and when the sun begins again to act

with power, their depth is at its minimum, and the sun’s influence rapid

in proportion. This difference of 2 or 23 degrees is, however, not much

more than Humboldt remarked within the tropics upon the ocean, which,

except where influenced by currents, he always found to be warmer

than the air immediately above it. We have an example of the same

fact in the Bay of Bengal, which, at a short distance to the southward,

1832. | Temperature and Saltness of the River High. 107

‘preserves a temperature above 80° throughout the year, sometimes

reaching 85° and 86”. I found the surface of the sea off Point de Galle

83° on the 22nd December, and 90° in May ; the mean of these is far

above the medium temperature of the climate. Other examples I

could cite to the same purport. The rivers of Mexico and the Orinoco

reach the temperature of 90 when the temperature of the air is much

below that degree.

The second table exhibits the specific gravity of the river water

at four places, from actual observations made at different seasons.

There will appear some discordance among them, from the accident

of my passing places at different states of the tide, and consequently

not obtaining the maxima and minima at each place on the same

trip. To obtain any thing like exactness in ascertaining the saltness

of the river in each month of the year, it is obvious, that daily ob-

servations should be taken for a long period at many stations and

at every change of the tide. There is great inequality of season in this

particular: on the 31st October 1830, the specific gravity off Mud

Point was 1006.5 at high water spring tide ; whereas, in 1831, so late

as the 6th November, it was but 1001. at the top of the springs.

But, although the observations I have collected are not sufficiently

numerous to afford an accurate mean for each or perhaps any one point

on the river, they may be employed to form a table of the whole by

estimate. To ascertain the influence both of the tides and of the freshes,

—the latter at one season pushing the sea water quite out of the river

channel, upon which in the other season it constantly encroaches, until

the water at Mud Point becomes almost as briny as at the Sand

Heads, and a slight degree of saltness is perceptible even at Calcutta,—

I drew out a table of distances from Calcutta, and inserted in columns

forevery month (repeated foreach year of observation) all the observations

of high and low water, with a few others when those weredeficient. This

would be much too confused and voluminous for your pages ; but it has

enabled me to prepare the following (third) table, which, although

formed by estimate, and not by actual averages, is not likely to be very

wide of the truth : indeed, I scarcely think the errors exceed .001 in any

place. The zero, at the head of each column, represents the point at

which saltness ceases to be perceptible at high and low water spring-

tides. It will be seen, that the sea water gains a little in September

when the freshes are the strongest; this is owing to the great rise of

the equinoxial tides, which in the autumn are much higher than those

of March, the average level of the sea being 3 to 4 feet higher in

September, than it is at the end of the north-east monsoon.

[ Maren;

Temperature and Saltness:of the River Hugi.’

108

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1832.]

Tides.

ing

ty of the River High, from Calcutta to the Sea, through Channel Creek, at High and Low Water, Spri

3.—Estimated Specific Grav

TABL

/ =] . Plage

Temperature and Saltness of the River Higli.

5 exconossconsso

Fi = SHA AS HONS ST

L ————

Q = | IWDSSSs>OSCOSCSOOSSCS

| OsdagwesNraconagses

34 aS eS eS

= ex“sxcsesososo 8

5 5 SSH NNTINOS O

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ae] —

= Orne a Se

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Leal NINO oooos

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= | onsec

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= =

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5 esoesssesssssessseses =

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8 =) SS ease SAA =

S : =

5 ConsnoscooommoooNMosoooos

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= al OSSH A FEN SLAG ESR SSS

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SS ;

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= ‘ tonmnm =

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: = | NMWcsoonsooooonoonscs

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= =] SS Se

S Caer

= = “MONDO IRONSSSSSONSOSSCOSON

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5 Snooonconnmnoooscsososose

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ae SeeeoocoeceossossSoooce|esd

nt Re ee ne i ee ee ee ee el

CM ain it ge oa apie Nb piel) ae an oe ate le Oe

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2A ARES & SY Cesilet tet wel” (ly Bs 3

30 So aes wt Be co.; B tp. ee

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tog

press the specific gravity.

f the first column, are to be added to 1000 to ex

ter may be esteemed perfectly fresh.

iver wa

th the exception o

, Wi

int where the r

The numbers ir this Table

110 Scientific Intelligence. [ Marca,

VI—Screntiric INTELLIGENCE.

[Extracts from European correspondence, communicated

by G. Swinton, Esq. Calcutta.]

I.—Burmese Varnish.

“‘T have long been putting off writing to you in the hope of being able to give you

some intelligence regarding your black varnish, which I was in great hopes would

have been considered an important acquisition to the arts. Ihave however been

baffled in all my attempts to get what I should consider a fair trial made of

its merits. All the artists employed in the varnishing and japanning business are

so wedded to their common routine and to the manipulation of materials which are

familiar to them, that I have found great difficulty in getting trials made, and have

very little confidence in the statements made to me of the results. Iam not losing

sight of the matter, however, and have still hopes of getting a trial made on a

considerable scale by a great house at Birmingham. The managing partner of

this house honestly told me, that although a better varnish than that which they

now use were to be offered to them for nothing, they could hardly bring it into

use, if it presented any considerable difficulties in its application, as that which is

now prepared from Coal-tar, besides being so cheap (2s. per gallon), is easily

worked, and produces the most beautiful skin imaginable, The beauty of. the

higher kinds of papier-maché ware is now very remarkable, and except in

some of the gold ornaments, surpasses the best specimens of Chinese manufacture.

It has occurred to me that canvas prepared in this way with your varnish would

make indestructible grounds (as far as damp is concerned) for oil paintings,

A varnish has been discovered at Paris, which is used for preparing canvas and

oak for painting on ; it is of a most durable nature, and is sold in prepared squares

of any dimensions.

2.—Fishes of the Ganges.

“* T spent some time in Paris this summer, and saw a good deal of M. Cuvier.

{ used the freedom of mentioning your name to him, and your desire of taking

advantage of your position to forward the interests of science. I asked him if

there was any particular object in natural history which I might suggest to you

as adesideratum, which could be supplied from India. He immediately replied

emphatically, ‘‘ Ah certainement, les poissons d’eau douce ;”’ he added that some

gentlemen in Calcutta had already sent a good many of those of the lower rivers

and parts of the country, but that they had no accounts of those of the higher parts.

3.—Carton-pierre.

Along with this I shall send a packet containing some letters, which I have

received from persons with whom I had correspondence about your specimens.

I have added one which I got a few days ago from a civil engineer now in Paris.

It contains some account of a substance (Carton-pierre), which I think peculiarly

calculated for forming ceilings for Bangalos, and even for the best pucka houses in

India ; it forms pannels or compartments of any size, and could with great ease

be put up between the beams of the ceiling. The art of making the carton-pierre

was lost in France for 300 years: it is as white as marble, but much lighter : there

are some curious accounts of itin the Memoirs of the Academy of St. Peters-

burg. Its composition is kept a secret here. The following is extracted from a

French journal.

‘* L’art d’exécuter en carton des ornemens de cette substance florissait en France

au seiziéme siécle. La perfection a laquelle il était parvenu 4 cet époque est attestée

par les beaux plafonds qui décoraient au Louvre les appartemens du Roi Henri II.

1832. ] Scientific Intelligence. 111

Cet art se perdit ou du moins restait dans l’oubli pendant prés de trois siécles.

On en vit reparaitre, 4 l’exposition de 1806, quelques produits qui furent présentés

par M. Gardeur. Ils étaient exécutés avec une pate a laquelle ou donne le nom

de carton pierre: En 1819, M. Huseh recut une médaille de bronze pour de nou-

velles applications de cette substance ; mais jusque 14 tout ce borne encore ad’

heureux essais. II etait reservé aux artistes dont nous allons parler de relever com~

pletement cet art, et de Jui donner méme un nouvel éclat.

Ces artistes, qui se suivent de tres prés, malgré quelques légéres différences

dans la maniére de préparer le carton-pierre, parviennent 4 mouler cette substance

avec une telle perfection, qu’ils obtiennent de suite, et sans reparage, les contours

les plus nets et les surfaces les plus unies.

De belles épreuves de statues rappelant toute la grace, toute la pureté et tout

le’esprit des originaux, des ornemens du meilleur gout, offrant tout le relief et tout

Veffet pittoresque de la sculpture, des candelabras, des colonnes, des entablemens

profilés avec une grande pureté, prouvent que le carton-pierre est susceptible, entre

les mains des hommes habiles dont nous parlons, de reproduire fidélement les in-

spirations du statuaire, et de se préter, avec une facilité merveilleuse, 4 l’execution

des conceptions les plus délicates ou les plus grandioses de l’architecture, pour la

décoration des intérieurs.”’

4.—Progress of Improvement in France.

Statistics.—Since the peace, France has increased three millions ; she has now

about 33 millions of people, about 7,000,000 of families, and there are in

this population four millions of small proprietors residing on their properties.

France is improving rapidly. When the whole of the woodlands are converted into

arable, and coal used instead of wood, France may easily carry a population of

sixty millions of people.

The price of land carriage is about four pence per mile per ton; in America

about two shillings and one penny; in Ireland about four or five pence. Iron

sells in France for £18 per ton;—in London for £ 7—in Wales for £ 6—Raw

Sugar is raised here from Beetroot at 8 sous per lb. and it is considered that

it will be raised for 6 sous per lb. France has doubled her consumption of Iron

yearly within these few years.

4rts.—The instrument-maker, M. Gambey, has invented a new level, which Mr.

Arago praises extremely, and the great circle which he is now making for Brussels,

is a model of execution. You would have been astonished at the fine divisions cut

in the limbs of all his instruments, exceeding any thing of the kind to be seen in

London. I have been to see the sawing machine, which gives twenty-five cuts of

timber in one inch; and the snuff mill, which manufactures one ton of snuff in

an hour; it is driven by a thirty-six horse-power engine. The composition with

which they paint the names of the streets is volcanic and quite monumental, it

would be valuable for Edinburgh and other places in our country. The beautiful

ladies combs now so much in fashion are made of the prepared horn hoofs of oxen:

this manufacture is, I believe, hitherto unknown in England. The French are

Succeeding with the Cashmir Goats, they have now about two hundred or upwards

in excellent thriving condition.

5.—Mode of conducting the Meetings of the Academie.

A very interesting letter was read before the Institute by Gay-Lusac. It was

from Humboldt, and was addressed to Arago ;—the letter related to Humboldt’s

late journey into Siberia. Last Monday, a most important paper was read before

112 Stientific Intelligence. [ Marcu,

the Institute by Brongniart, on Geology, in which some new doctrines were advanced,

which were opposed by Cordier; the discussions on this subject became very

animated.—Cuvier read a paper on the objects of Natural History, which had

been collected by the naturalists who accompanied Captain Dumont d’Urville in

his late voyage round the world.—M. Mathieu read a small paper regarding

the invention of a new instrument for measuring distances on paper, and also

for protracting distances correctly on maps : the instrument is extremely simple,

and Ithink it will be of great use to the graphic art.—He also read a paper

lately, describing an Instrument for drawing parallel lines : I have not seen this

instrument. The Institute is the most interesting place I ever frequented, there

is always something new ; all the members are educated, scientific men, eminently

distinguished in their several departments, well qualified to judge of whatever

may come before them ; there is no dross or rubbish, the entire body is solid

and pure.’

: 6.— Caoutchouc.

[From the Journal of the Franklin Institute.]

We have received from the above-named gentleman some account of his experi-

ynents on the distension and inflation of Caoutchouc; he has also read a paper

upon the subject before the American Philosophical Society, and several notices

respecting them have likewise appeared in the daily journals. We may probably

hereafter lay some further details before our readers. The communication

referred to contains the following information :

| MODE OF MAKING GUM ELASTIC INTO BAGS, SHEETS, &c.

Soak the gum elastic in sulphuric ether until soft, and almost inelastic, which

in good ether will take from 10 to 24 hours. Then, if it is a plate, cut it with a

wet knife, or parallel knives, into such sections, or sheets, or shapes, as may

be desired, and suffer them to dry ; or if abag, apply a pipe or stop-cock, and inflate

with the mouth rapidly. Ifthe bag should expand equally, more slowly ; and with

occasional pauses, if unequally. By such means a bag may be made so thin

as to become transparent, and light enough to ascend when filled with hydrogen.

By graduating the extent of inflation, sheet caoutchouc of any given thickness is

produced. If for blow-pipes, or other purposes, for which it is desirable that

the bags should possess contractility, let them be inflated to the desired size and

after an hour let out the air. Ever afterwards they will suffer as great a degree

of extension, and again contract. If permanent sheets are wanted, the inflated

bags are to be hung up until dry, after which no sensible contraction will ensue.

Caoutchouc softened by ether may he readily stretched by hand, over lasts,

assume the shape desired, and may, therefore, be applied to a variety of useful

purposes. In the form of straps and twisted strings, its elasticity offers many usetul

applications. It may he made to assume the form of a tube, to connect parts of

chemical and other philosophical apparatus with each other; may be employed

as covers for bottles, corks, &c. and indeed wherever the passage of steam, or

air is to be prevented. It is also susceptible of numerous applications in

medicine and surgery.

Mr. Mitchill has extended a bag which was not above the size of askinned English

walnut, and which weighed three drachms and a half, until its diameters were 15

and 13% inches respectively. Larger bags have been made to attain a diameter

of six feet; one of these when filled with hydrogen, escaped, and was found at

the distance of 130 miles from the city. Balloons so formed have been exhibited

before the several classes attending chemical lectures in Philadelphia.

1832.] Scientific Intelligence. 113

The discovery, by the same gentleman, that essential oil of sassafras will

soften caoutchouc so that it may be applied to any surface with a brush, promises

also much utility. When dry it becomes again simple caoutchouc, with all its

original elasticity ; if it be applied ona plate of glass, dried, and then immersed

in cold water, the sheet may be peeled off. It has been spread upon paper, and

after becoming dry, the whole immersed in water, when on stretching it, the paper

would, of course, separate into fragments, between which the gum elastic might

he stretched, so as to separate them to the distance of a quarter of an inch without

itself giving way, notwithstanding its tenuity ; such a varnish will never crack,

one of its essential attributes being elasticity.

7.—Directions for collecting and preserving Plants in foreign Countries. By W. J.

Hooker, LL.D. Reg. Prof. Bot. at Glasgow.

ON PRESERVING PLANTs FoR A Hortus Siccus.

This is a much simpler process than is generally imagined by those unpractised

in it; and many travellers have been deterred from collecting specimens by the time

and trouble requisite for securing them in the way that has been generally recom-

mended.

The main circumstances to be attended to are, to preserve specimens of plants

in such a manner that the moisture may be quickly absorbed, the colours as much

as possible preserved, and such a degree of pressure given to them, as that they

may not curl up in the act of drying.

For this purpose, let a quantity of separate sheets of paper be obtained, of a

folio size; and of an absorbent nature. Common cartridge or gray paper is per-

haps the best. Brown paper does well enough for coarse plants, and blotting

paper for the more delicate kinds. Two boards should be provided, one for the

top and the other for the bottom of the mass of papers. For pressure at home, or

when stationary for any length of time in agiven spot, nothing serves better as a

press than a weight of any kind, a large stone, a great book, &c. put upon the

topmost board; and the great advantage in this is, that the weight follows the

shrinking of the plants beneath. Whilst travelling, nothing is so convenient as

three leathern straps with buckles—two to bind the boards transversely, and one

longitudinally. It will be farther desirable to have a number of pieces of pasteboard,

of the same size as the paper, to separate different portions of the collection, either

such as are ina different stateof dryness, or such as, by their hard or stout woody

nature, might otherwise press upon more delicate ones that are in papers adjoin-

ing, and be the means of injuring them.

Thus provided, gather your specimens: ifthe plants be small, root and stem ; if

large, cut off portions of the branches of a foot or a foot and a half long, selecting

always such as are in flower, and others in a more or less advanced state of fruit.

Place them side by side, but never one upon another, on the same sheet, and lay

upon them one, two, or three sheets, according to the thickness of your paper or

of your plants, and so on, layer above layer of paper and specimens, subjecting

them then to pressure. As soon as you find that the paper has absorbed a consider-

able portion of the moisture, (which will be according to the more or less succu-

lent nature of the plants, and the heat and dryness of the season or climate,)

remove the specimens into fresh papers; and let the old papers be dried for use

again, either in the open air and sun, or in a heated room, or before the fire.

As to the spreading out of the leaves and flowers with small weights, penny pieces,

&c. it is quite needless. The leaves and flowers are best displayed by nature in

114 Scientific Intelligence. [ Marcu,

the state in which you gather them; and they will require little or no assistance

with the hand, when laid out upon papers, to appear to the best advantage ;

especially if put in carefully on being fresh gathered. If the specimens cannot

be laid down immediately upon being collected, they should be preserved ina

tin box, where they will keep fresh for a day or two, if the atmosphere be not very

much heated.

Some. very succulent plants, such as Cacti, SEMPERVIVA, SEDA, ORCHIDEOUS

PianTs, &c., some plants with very fine but rigid leaves, such as the Fir tribe and the

HEATHS, and some with compound pinnated leaves, require to have the specimens

plunged into boiling water for afew seconds before they are pressed; this greatly

facilitates the operation, by destroying the vegetative principle and preventing the

Jeaves of many from falling off in the act of drying. In this case, the superabun-

dant moisture should be absorbed by a cloth, or by applying, temporarily, pieces

of blotting paper. :

In most parts of Europe, and in all countries not oppressively hot, it is a goo

plan, and saves much paper, to lay out the specimens on their respective sheets,

on the floor of a chamber during the night, or for five or six hours during the day,

putting them up again and submitting them to pressure, as before, on the same

papers. By this means, much humidity both from the plants and the paper is ab-

sorbed by the atmosphere, and the colour is better preserved. If, however, the

climate be hot, a much shorter time will suffice, or the leaves will shrivel.

When sufficiently dry*, which with the greater number of plants, and in warm

climates, will take place in the course ofa few days, (and with two, or at most

four shiftings of the specimens,) they should be placed between dry papers, one

sheet of folio between each layer of plants; and they are then ready for transpor-

tation, either packed up in boxes, or well secured as a parcel, covered with oil-cloth.

A great many specimens may thus be sent in a very small compass.

Pats having their fructification, and their leaves very large, are with difficulty

subjected to pressure. A few of their flowers should be pressed ; and the cluster of

fruit and aleaf may be simply dried in the air, and afterwards packed in boxes for

transportation.

Ferns and Mossgs, atid the larger proportion of CrypToGaMic PLANTs, may be

dried in the common way ; such Mosses as grow in tufts, being separated by the hand.

SEA-WEEDS should be immersed for some hours in fresh water before they are

dried ; and common blotting paper is the best for absorbiug the moisture from

these plants. :

Ifthe Fruits of plants are of a small size, soas to be preserved in a Herbarium,

they should be gathered with the leaves and branches, as are the flowers. Ifofa

large size, they should be Kept separate. Dry Fruits demand no care, except

those which split open by means oftheir valves. These require to be tied round

with a little packthread.

Putpy Fruits are only to be preserved in spirits of some kind, and they should

have a number attached to them, referring to the flowering specimens,

The best way to introduce plants from abroad into our country is by seeds.

These should be gathered when perfectly ripe; and if a number of each kind be

* The being sufficiently dry may be ascertained by the stiffness of the stems and

leaves, and the specimens not shrinking or curling on being removed.

IL KB Weld.

; 22D y 4))

See ) ile

Sy,

Wit, “eZ

ead iio

= TR Tasser Tth.

; ; 4 Aer ops

Horus of lhe lhree SCS of Fart ( Kusa) whabiling

the Tarai K Saul forest.

1832. } Scientific Intelligence. 115

folded in a separate piece of paper and kept dry ina box, they in general reach this

country in a good state for vegetation.

Oity SEEDs, such as those of the TEA, CoFFEE, most kinds of AcorRNs, &¢

soon lose their germinative property. For such, it is necessary to provide a box

and a quantity of loose sandy or peat mould. Put into the box a layer of this earth

and then a layer of seeds, and so on alternately till the box be full. ;

Buss of all kinds, and many Roots, not actually in a state of vegetation, cut-

tings of SUCCULENT PLanTs, ALogs, Cacti, and many other thick-leaved Parasi-

Tic ORCHIDEOUS PLANTs, called AIR PLANTS, may be put into abox with dry

sand, peat, or saw-dust; and these (as should the seeds and bulbs) must be kept

free from damp.

Plants that it is desirable to remove with the RooT, should be carefully ‘placed

together, but not too crowded, with common soil, in wooden boxes, the top of which

is formed with two sloping sides like the roof of a house ; one of these constitutes

alid that can be opened or shut at pleasure, so as to admit the air and water,

and especially so as to exclude the spray of the sea, which would be highly

prejudicial. The earth must be kept moderately moist, and the boxes always

placed either on an exposed part of the deck of the vessel, or slung from the tops,

In the latter situation they are liable to the least injury; only the person who

has the charge of them must not forget to supply them with fresh water when

they may require it.

With the plants and seeds, whether ina living or dry state, if they are not well

known to naturalists, there should be pieces of paper, .on which are to be indicat-

ed the uses of the kind as far as they have been ascertained, the particular

country whereit is gathered, the soil, the size, the elevation at which it grows

above the level of the sea, and the name it is generally known by.

As soon as a sufficieut number of plants are collected, no time should be lost:

in transporting them to their place of destination, since the dried specimens in

particular, and the seeds, are liahle to the attack of insects in warm climates ;

and the captain of the vessel should be particularly requested to keep them in a

dry and airy part of his vessel.

Specimens of the Woops are also highly desirable; of the Gums, REsINs, and

the various products of the trees, if employed in the arts or in medicine; and it

may here finally be remarked, that those plants which are employed as useful in

any way whatever by the natives, are what it is of most importance to possess in

our gardens : nevertheless, the more common kinds, the very weeds of foreign

countries, the Grasses, the Mosses, the Sea-weeds, and Lichens, will prove

extremely valuable to a scientific Botanist.

8.—Explanation of the Sketches of the Horns of the Jardi, Plate V. .

[Described in the last number, page 66. ]

1, 2, 3. The Phusro Jardi, mature. No. 1 has the upper antler or process,

posterior and internal; No. 2, the same antler, anterior and external; No. 35

shews it doubtful. In No.1, this same superior antler is remote from the end of

the beam; in Nos. 2 and 3, it is approximated.

4. The Rédto Jardi, mature. . 5. The Kélo Jardi, mature.

iimensions. Feet and inches,

b 2. 3. 4. 5.

Length along the curve, .......- «+sse..{ 210 | 2 63] 2 102/ 2 13] 9 gz

Utmost divergency, .......+2+ s+ eeeeeee-f 1 11 | 2 13/2 571 Bri 9 -

Divergency of tips, .......-s+eseeeeee--f 1 IE; 2 1] 1 113) 1 2] 2 in

Circumference of base above the burr,....{] 0 8 | 0 8310 83/0 73,0 62

Q 2

116 Proceedings of Societies. [ Marcu,

VII.— Proceedings of Societies.

1.—AsIATIC Society.

Wednesday, 7th March, 1832.

The Hon’ble Sir C. E. Grey, President, in the chair.

The President announced to the meeting the request of the Editor of the Gleanings

of Science to continue that publication under the designation of the Journal of the

Asiatic Society.

Resolved, that permission be granted, to be continued as long as the publication is

under the charge of one or both the Secretaries of the Society.

Read a letter from Mr. Goodhull, presenting drawing of a fossil shell,

Read a letter from Captain Mitchell, forwarding to the Museum a Bish Copra in

Spirits.

Read a note from Baboo Radhacant Deb, presenting a young Pigeon with two

heads, for the Museum.

The Meteorological Registers for November and December were presented by the

Surveyor General.

Mr. F. Royle displayed to the Society a portion of the collections made by

him while superintendent of the Sehdranpar Botanic Garden, in the various

branches of Natural History, and proceeded to illustrate the objects of his

“researches by a general review of the climate, the geology, the botany, and the

zoological productions of the part of the country he had just quitted,

Such of his remarks as had not solely referenee to the objects under inspection

by the Society, have been selected for publication in the present number: Upon

the termination of his interesting address the President rose, and moved the thanks

of the Society in the following words. |

“Tam sure that Ionly express what is felt by the Society, when I say that

we greatly regret we have nothing better to offer to Mr. Royle than a yote of

thanks in return for the gratification and instruction he has afforded us, or

whereby we can signify the opinion which we entertain of his meritorious ser-

vices in the cause of science. Other collections of greater magnitude have gone

home from India. In the department of botany we know how vast and precious

a freight was borne across the sea by our zealous and indefatigable friend Dr,

Wallich, and with how much admiration the display of it has. been hailed in

Europe. Other cabinets of great merit, and, perhaps, more complete than this

of Mr. Royle’s in single branches of Natural History, have been formed of late

years; but Iam not aware of any, certainly not of any which has been freely

submitted to the examination of our Society, which has been of equal variety,

curiosity, and interest with that which is now open before us. Here are new

acquisitions in the zoology, ornithology, entomology, and geology of northern

India and the Himalaya ; and in the scientific observations by which we have

heard them explained and illustrated this evening, we find an error of the learned

and celebrated founder of our Society corrected ; familiar and household words

of the existing races of India and Persia identified with the terms of the Materia

Medica of Dioscorides, and the first annunciation of important geological

discoveries by a friend of Mr. Royle’s in continuation of his own researches, which

promise to bring the fossils of India, so recently supposed to possess none of

those primeval records, into curions and interesting comparison with the vast

stores of Europe and America.

1832. ] Proceedings of Societies. 117

**It is peculiarly gratifying to myself to have had the duty of offering our thanks

on this occasion, upon account of my having before seen this museum in that

glorious region, to which it owes its existence, and having been indebted to Mr.

Royle both for his civility in permitting me to inspect it, and for the pleasure

and surprize of finding in the Botanic Garden, at Seharanp4Gr, the English daisy,

looking up from the plain of India to the lofty snows of the Himalaya.”

Resolved, upon the motion of the President, seconded by Dr. Carey, that the

Society, in tendering their thanks to Mr. Royle for the inspection of the extensive

and interesting collections submitted by him to the Meeting, and the remarks illus-

trative of them, feel it incumbent to express their regret that any acknowledgments

they can offer are an inadequate return for the gratification and instruction they

have received.

And further that the Committee of Papers be requested to consider whether a

letter may not be addressed to the Honorable the Court of Directors, introducing

to their notice the labours of Mr. Royle ; and if they deem it expedient, to prepare

a letter accordingly for Mr. Royle to carry with him,

2.—MEDICAL AND PHYSICAL SOCIETY.

3rd March, 1832.

The following gentlemen, formerly proposed, were elected Members of the

Society :—Messrs- Shirreff and Holmes, Assistant Surgeons, Bengal Service ; Mr.

Oxley, Assistant Surgeon, Sincapore ; Mr. Richards, Surgeon, 8th Madras Light

Cavalry, and Dr. J. N. Casanova. J.C. Boswell, Esq. Assistant Surgeon, at Pe-

nang, was proposed asa Member of the Society, by- Mr. Hutchinson and Mr.

Twining.

The following communications were then laid before the Society :

1.—A letter from Colonel Tod, presenting to the Medical Society, through Dr.

Craigie, various objects of Natural History, from Van Diemen’s Land. These

consisted of some Lignites, two specimens of Ornythorynchus Paradoxus, and a

variety of Birds. The thanks of the Society were voted to Colonel Tod, for his

valuable present.; and a Committee was requested to examine the several articles

carefully, for the purpose of selecting such specimens as cannot be preserved in this

country, and having them transmitted to England, whileinagood state of preser-

vation. .

2.—Additional communications from Dr. Mylne, of Bombay, relative to Dra-

cunculus, in confirmation of the opinions already advanced by him on that subject.

3.—A case of Disease of the Heart, drawn up by Mr. Spurgeon, and forwarded,

by Dr. Thomas, through the Medical Board.

4.—An Essay on Hospital Gangrene, by J. L. Geddes, Esq. of the Madras Medi-

cal service.

5.—Two cases, in each of which both the common Carotid Arteries were tied ;

by Mr. Preston of Cuddalore.

6.—An account of the Medical Topography of the Nielgherry Hills, and the in.

fluence of that climate on healthy and on impaired European constitutions, by Dr.

Baikie.

7.—Remarks on Dracunculus, by Dr. Smytten, of Bombay.

8.—A Medical Report relative to the station of Gowhattie, in Assam; and an

account of the diseases which have recently prevailed in that district, by G. Lamb,

Esq. of Dacca, presented by the Medical Board,

118 Proceedings of Societies. [ Marcu,

9.—A report by J. C. Boswell, Esq. on an Opiate recently used at Penang.

This medicine was made by digesting solution of tartaric acid in water on the

dregs remaining after the tincture of opium has been prepared. Only a small

quantity of this Penang Opiate was received, and it was tried by Mr, Twining, who

reported that it appeared to possess considerable efficacy ; its anodyne and soporific

properties being estimated at about half the strength of Vinum Opii.

10.—Mr. Royle’s paper, in pursuance of his proposal formerly laid before the

Society, with a view of promoting the collection of a complete cabinet of specimens

of the Materia Medica of Hindistan. The author considers his inquiries merely

as preparatory to a complete investigation of the Materia Medica of India ; which

investigation he would wish to comprise, not only an inquiry as to the plants which

produce each article; but would desire to see the real properties of the medicines

ascertained by the most careful experiments, which, of course, can only be accom-

plished by the united labours of the Members of the Society, at some remote period ;

for the present, Mr. R. brought for inspection of the Society arranged specimens

of nearly a thousand articles of Materia Medica, with an herbarium, containing the,

plants, from parts of which many of the articles are produced ; and for the pur-

pose of facilitating the labours of others, he stated the mode which he adopted to

procure the specimens now laid before the Society. In the first place, he collected

the various articles of Materia Medica procurable in the bazars, and then employed

Kubarees to bring in the plants which produced the respective medicines ; by this

means he was enabled to ascertain the Botanical names of many of the plants

indigenous at several stations.

In investigating the medicinal properties of the several articles, the author

observes, that we may be somewhat guided by the sensible properties of the

medicines: and no slight assistance may be obtained by reference to the natural

families to which the plants belong—for instance, the Convolvulacee afford the

Jalap, the Scammony, the Toorbud, (Convolvulus Turpethem) and several Indian

purgatives. The Asclepiade afford emetic medicine, as the Ipecacuanha of

America, and Asclepias Vomitoria, and Asclepias Asthmatica. ‘The Coniferz in

India, as in Europe, yield Turpentine. The Euphorbiacee yield Euphorbium,

and the Jatropha Curcas (Barbadoes Nut), and in India, the Castor Oil, and the

Croton Tiglium; the latter affording an acrid oil of highly active properties.

The Labiate in both countries possess aromatic and heating properties ; while

many of the Solanee are poisonous. The Gentianee being all bitter; the

Rubiaceez, mostly astringent, and the Umbellifere, aromatic. In fact, a very

extended accordance may be observed in the sensible and medicinal properties of

a large proportion of each of the natural families into which plants are divided.

In preparing his MSS. the author states that he commenced by adopting the

alphabetical arrangement of the Persian authors, inserting first the Asiatic names

and synonymes: then the Greek names, followed by the Botanical name, the class,

and order, according to the Linnean system, and the natural order of the plant ;

after which he notices the country whence the article is said to be procured, the

part of the plant which is used, and the medical properties ascribed to it by the

Hakims, or stated in their books, with some general remarks tending to identify”

the article. Separate lists contain the medicines belonging to the mineral and

animal kingdom.

The 100 specimens of Materia Medica promised formerly by Mr. Royle, are

deposited in the cabinet: and Members of the Society, at the different stations,

are invited to collect and contribute such articles as may be peculiar to that part

1832. ] Proceedings of Societies. 119

of the country where they are stationed. If each Member of the Society would

carefully make a series of experiments to ascertain the medicinal properties of

the drugs which he collected, when used by natives, as well as by Europeans,

and forward to the Society a concise account of the same, much useful informa-

tion would soon be obtained, which might be printed in an arranged series in the

Society’s Transactions.

Mr. J. C. Boswell’s medical report and cases were then read, and discussed by

the Meeting.

3.—NaTuRAL History SociETY OF THE MAURITIUS.

[Extracts from the Proceedings of the 17th May and lAth June, 1831.]

M. Lienard, Sen. read a description of two fishes of the island ; one, of which

a drawing was presented, known by the fishermen as the Battoir, not offering the

distinctive characters of any of the known genera of the family of Percoides, to

which it apparently belongs, has received provisionally the name of Platésome.

The second, commonly called Lion mde, is a Holocentre, but not the Holocentre

Samner of Cuv. and VAL. neither of these species are described in the tables,

Mr. J. Lienard presented an account of a crab of the genus Portune, accom-

panied by a drawing. Also a description and drawing of an dcanthure very rare

in those seas.

Mr. Faraguet presented and explained his table representing geometrically the

law of the temperature of the seas at different depths ; it is founded on the experi-

ments made on board the Astrolabe, the only ones of the kind upon which confidence

can be placed. It was found that at a depth of 820 brasses (fathoms) to which

the lead attained, the temperature was 6.4 Cent. (43° Fahr.) and that the curve

representing the results is a parabola of a high order, having for assymptote a

| vertical corresponding to a temperature of 4 or 5° centigrade, (40 Fahr.) At

the depth of 1000 brasses (fathoms) a brass cylinder of 3 lines thick (containing

the thermometer?) was broken, which is not surprising when the pressure is

calculated.

Mr. J. R. Barry communicated a note on the subject of the temperature of

mines of different depths. By observations made in Cornwall, in 1815, it was

ascertained that at 1400 ft. Eng. below the surface, the temperature of mines

exceeds that of the surface of the globe 28° Fahr. and that the heat augments

progressively in descending at the rate of 1° for 65 feet.

Mr. J. Desjardins, Sec. read some pages relative to certain races inhabiting

the Mauritius and Bourbon.

Also, conjointly with Mr. L. Bouton, Mr, J. D. read a notice of the Naturalist

Commerson, well known as the principal contributor to the knowledge of the

natural history of the island. Mr. J. D. treated of his zoological labours, while

Mr. L, B. gave details of his life and works in general.

Commerson came to the island in 1768, and remained with M. de Bougainville

to study its productions, He enjoyed greater means of research than any since his

-time. After a voyage to Bourbon and Madagascar, he returned to Mauritius,

where he died on the 3rd March, 1773, at a place known by the name of /a Retraite.

Mr. Ch. Telfair, president, presented 40 birds from Tasmania.

Mr. Lislet-Geoffroy offered for the library, the analyses of the Royal Academy’s

Proceedings from 1812 to 1829.

Mr. E, Baker, who had sent severak manuscripts from Madagascar, on different

subjects, was admitted a corresponding member of the Society,

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JOURNAL

THE ASIATIC SOCIETY.

No. 4.—April, 1832.

I—Geographical Notice of Tibet. By Mr. Alexander Csoma de

Koros.

The vast mountainous tract of country between about 73° and 98°

east longitude from London, and 27° and 38° north latitude, may

be called by the general name of “ Tibet,” since the Tibetan language

is understood every where from Beltistan (or Little Tibet) down

to the frontier of China, although there be several corrupt dialects of

it, and the inhabitants of these countries, in general, have the same

manners and customs, are addicted to the same faith, (to Buddhism,)

and have the same religious books written or printed in characters com-

mon to all the different provinces.

The native name of Tibet is “ Pot,” as it is pronounced com-

monly ; “* Bod,” more properly. It denotes both the nation, and the

country : for distinction’s sake the country is expressed by “* Bod-yul”

(Bod-land), a male native “ Bod-pa,” and a female one “ Bod-mo.”

The Indian name for Tibet is Bhot.

The natives of Tibet apply the name Pot, or Bod, especially to the

middle Tibet, or to the two provinces “ U” and “ Tsang” ¢ Dvus-

Qtsang, pronounced U-tsang), the capitals of which are Lhassa

and Zhikdtsé. Hence a native of those two provinces is called by

them especially Pot-pa. The eastern part of Tibet is called

“Kham” or “ K’ham-yul,” also “ Great Tibet.” The north-western

part towards Ladak is called “ Nari.” Bhutan is called by several

names by the Tibetans ; as, “¢ Lhopato,” “ Lho-mon-k’ha-zhi,” “ Lho-

bruk-pé-yul,” or simply “ Lho,”’ (the south.) According to these

divisions, the inhabitants of Tibet are distinguished thus: Pot-pa”

122 Geographical Notice of Tibet. [Aprir,

cor U-tsdng-pa), means a native of middle Tibet ; “ K’*ham-pa” (or

K’ham-ba), one of eastern Tibet ; “ Ndripa,” one of western Tibet ;

and “ Lho-pa,” a native of Bhutan.

The whole of Tibet occupies high ground, and lies among snowy

mountains. Hence it is called in Tibetan books, by several postical

names, expressive of snow, ice, or frozen snow, cold, and high elevation.

The highest ground in Tibet is in Niri, especially the peak called

Tisé or Tésé, in Tibetan, and Kailasa in Sanscrit, about 890° E.

longitude, and 34° North latitude. The sources of the Indus, Setledge,

Gogra, and the Brahmaputra rivers are in Nari (Miiahris).

There are several large lakes also. Tibetan writers, in describing the

situation of Tibet, have likened Ndri to a lake or watering pond ;

U-tsang to four channels ; and K’ham-yul to a field.

Tibet is bounded on the north by the countries of the Turks and

Mongols, whom the Tibetans call Hor, and Sok-po (Hor-sok). On

the east by China, (Gyanak in Tib.) On the south by India, (Gya-

_gar in Tib.) On the west by India, Cashmir, Afganistan, T'azik-yul,

and Turkistan.

The hill people of India, who dwell next to the Tibetans, are called

by them by the general name “ Mon,” their country Mon-yul, a

man Mon-pa or simply Mon, a female Mon-mo.

From the first range of the Himalaya mountains on the Indian side

to the plains of Tartary, the Tibetans count six chains of mountains

running in a north-western and south-eastern direction, when viewed from

Kangri in Nari(a lofty mountain running from south-west to north-west),

whence the ground commences to take on one side a north-western

and on the other side a south-eastern inclination. In the spacious

valley, which is between the third and fourth range of the before men-

tioned mountains, is the great road of communication between Ladak

and U-isang. The principal countries or districts in this direction,

from north-west, are as follows: Beltistan or Little Tibet, Ladak,

Teshigang, Gar or Garo (the lower and upper), Troshot, Tsang,

U, Bhrigang. Itis here likewise, that the two principal rivers, the

Sengé k’hd-bab, and the T'sdnpo take their course; that by Ladak

to the north-west, and may be taken for the principal branch of

the Indus; this to the south-east, and forms afterwards the Brah-

maputra.

The countries on the Indian side that lie next to Tibet, commencing

from Cashmir, are as follows: “ K’ha-cl’hé-yul” (or K’ha-cWhul),

Cashmir ; Varan, Mande, Palder or Chatirgerh, Pangé, Gar-zha or

Lahul, Nyungti or Kullu ; K’hunw or Knaor, and Bésahr ; Kyonam

1832.] Geographical Notice of Tibet. 123

and Shdk’hok, or Garhwal and Kamaon; Dsumlang ; Gorkha-yul ;

Pal-yul (Bal-yul) or Népal; Lhopato or Bhutan ; Ashong or Asam.

The names of the countries or districts in Tibet that lie next to

India, commencing from Cashmir, areas follows: Himbab (near to

Cashmir), Purtk, Zanskar, Spiti, Gugé, Purang, Kyirong, Lhoprak,

Mydnam, Lach’hi, Mon-ts’ho-sna. |

Beyond the fourth range of the Himalaya mountains, or in the next

valley to the north of Ladak, there are the following districts, count-

ing them eastward: Nubra, Rudok, Tso-tso, Bomba, Chang-ts’ha-

Wha, Chang-ra greng.

The three great divisions of Tibet are :

1. Tibet Proper, or U-tsding.2. K’ham-yul, or the eastern part of

Tibet, and 3. Mdri, or the north-western part of Tibet.

I. Tibet Proper or U-tsdng. It is that part of Tibet which lies next

_ to the north of Asam, Bhutan, and Nepal, that is called by this name,

This is the most considerable part of Tibet. The inhabitants of

this division are the most industrious, skilful, and polite of all the

‘Tibetan races. The number of the inhabitants in these two

provinces is said to be about one hundred and thirty thousand fami-

lies. Lhassa is the capital of the province U, as also of the whole of

Tibet. From the seventh till the tenth century it has been the resi-

dence of the kings of Tibet. Now it is the first place for commerce in

Tibet, the seat of government, and the residence of the Chinese

Ambans (or ministers). There are several religious establishments.

Near Lhassa is Potala, the residence of the great Lama, (styled

Gyel-vd-rin-po-cWhé,) the head of the sect called Géluk-pa or

Geldanpa. Other remarkable places, in the province U, are:

Yam-bu- Uhd-gdng, a fort or castle built in the fourth century, by

Thothori,a king. It has been the residence of the ancient kings. It

contains some antiquities, and plastic images of the ancient kings.

It is a few days’ journey to the south from Lhassa. Sam-yé

(Bsam-yas) a royal residence and a large monastery, one day’s

journey from Lhassa, built in the eighth century by K’hri-

srong-déhu-tsan, a celebrated king. There are deposited several

ancient books taken from India. In the province of U, among other

forts or castles, Dé-ch’hén-song and Haspori are the most consider-

able. In the province of T'sung, the following ones are of some re-

pute: Chang-nam-ring, Chang-Lha-tsé, Phun-tshok-ling, and Gy-

ang-tsé.

2. Kham-yul (Rhams-yul), called also Pot-ch’hen, or

Great Tibet, consists of the eastern part of Tibet, and is bounded

R 2

124 Geographical Notice of Tibet. [ApRit,

by China on the east. There are several small principalities; as,

K’ham-bo, Gaba, Li-thang, Dé-gé (or Der-ghé), Brag-yak, Dép-

ma, Go-jo, Gya-mo-rong, Jang-sa-tam, Amdo, K’hyamdo, &c. The

people of these parts differ very much from the rest of the Tibetans in

their stature, features, dress, customs, and in the manner of speaking

the Tibetan language. They are very robust, passionate, void of

artifice or cunning, not fond of ornaments on their dress. In

K’ham-yul, those called Pon or Bon, holding still the ancient religion

of Tibet, are very numerous. They have also their literature, religi-

ous order, several monasteries, and kill several animals, great and small

cattle, for sacrifice: they have many superstitious rites.

3. The north-western part of Tibet, from Tsang to Ladak, is called

Nari. This part is of very great extent, but the number of inha-

bitants is inconsiderable, not exceeding fifty thousand families together

with Ladak and Beltistan. There have been several small principa-

lities formerly in Nari, as, Gugé, Purdng, Kangri ; but all these belong

now to the great Lam4 at Lhassa, and are governed by K’harpons

(commanders of forts) sent from Lhassa. There are also in Nari

very extensive deserts. The inhabitants dwell in tents, made of hair

cloth ; exercise a pastoral life, without any agriculture. Their num-

ber is said to amount to ten thousand families, and they all are under

the sGar-pon or chief officer residing at sGdr or sGdro, whois sent

from U-tsang or Lhassa, and generally remains there for three years.

Gugé, part of Nari, lying to the north of Garhwal and Kamaon,

consists of two valleys, inhabited by somewhat more than two thou-

sand families. The principal places are Tsaprang and Tholing, not

far from each other. The first is the residence of the commanding

officer called the Kh’arpon of Tsaprang, and the second isa large

monastery and the seat of a Lama styled the K’hanpo of Tholing. He

resides during the summer at Teshigang, another large monastery,

a few days’ journey to the north from Tholing. These two places,

(Tsaprang and Tholing) have been the residence of the princes that

have reigned there from the 10th till the end of the 17th century.

Ladak, formerly called Mar-yul, still has its own prince, but he

must accommodate himself to the political views of the Chinese. San-

skar, Purik, Nubra, form part of the Ladak principality. In the

whole of Ladak the number of the inhabitants does not exceed twenty

thousand families. Nearly the half of them are Mohammedans, most-

ly of the Shia persuasion. Lé (s/é) is the capital of Ladak, the residence

of the prince, and the emporium of a considerable trade with

Turkistan, Lhassa, and the Panjab countries. It is about 15 to 20

1832. | Geographical Notice of Tibet. 125

days’ journey from Cashmir to the east, and nearly under the same

latitude, (i. e. 34° north lat.)

Little Tibet or Beltistan ( Belti-yul, in Tibetan), is the most north-

western part of Tibet. There are several chiefs. The chief residing

at Kdrdo is the most powerful among them; those of Kyeré and

Kuru, with some others, depend on the former. The chief of Shigdr

holds sometimes with the prince of Ladak and sometimes with the

chief of Kdardo. The chiefs of Minaro, Hasora, &c. are the heads

of some predatory tribes. In the several defiles to the south,

in the neighbourhood of Beltistan, there live some predatory tribes,

among whom the most notorious are the Dardu people. These

barbarous tribes are either of Afghan or Hindaé origin. The

inhabitants of Beltistan are Mahomedans of the Shia persuasiom

They speak a dialect of the Tibetan language, but have no-

thing of the Tibetan literature. They keep some books or frags

ments in Persian. The correspondence from Ladak with the chiefs

of those parts, is carried on in Persian, as also with Cashmir. The

people of Beltistan are very unhappy on account of their chiefs having

continual quarrels with each other, or with the prince of Ladak.

The climate iswarm. In the lower part of Beltistan, snow never falls.

The soil is good. There are several kinds of grain; they have two

crops. There are likewise several sorts of excellent fruits; as, of

apples, pears, peaches, plums, figs, grapes, mulberries, &c. &c. There

is a great want of salt and wool in those parts ; formerly there existed

a commercial route from Cashmir to Yarkand through Beltistan, (of 30

days journey ;) but that country being in an unsettled state, the Cash-

mirian merchants afterwards preferred that through Lé, in Ladak,

although it is very circuitous.

The people of Lhoputo or Bhutan, on account of their language,

religion, and political connexion, belong to Tibet. But in their customs

and manners they have adopted much from the Indians. They are

more clean in their dresses and houses than the other Tibetan races.

The men are of a martial spirit, like those of K’ham-yul, with whom

they aresaid tohave much resemblance in their character. The peo-

ple of Bhutan speak a corrupt dialect of the Tibetan language; but

there are several religious establishments, a great many books, and some

religious persons are well acquainted with the Tibetan language and

literature. They are Buddhists of the sect called in Tibet Brukpa

(vulg. Dukpa.) They adopted this kind of Buddhism in the 17th

century of our zra, when Ndk-Vdng Nam-gyel, a Lama of great

respectability, leaving Tsdng in middle Tibet, established himself in

126 ‘Geographical Notice of Tibet. [ Arriz,

Bhutan. There are counted now about forty thousand families. "The

whole province of Bhutan consists of four districts or valleys, which

if counted from east to west, are as follows: Thet-yul, Thim-yul,

Patro or Pato, and the middle district.» The principal place is Teshi-

ch’hos-dsong.

Laxes.—There are four principal lakes in Tibet. The Ma-pham

yu-ts’ho (Mansarovara), in Nari, is the most considerable, of a circum-

ference of about one and a half day’s journey. In U-tsang, the

Yarbrokyu-ts’ho, Mu-le-sgrum ts’ho, and Nam-ts’ho ch’hukmo are

likewise of great extent. ‘There are many others of inferior rank

or less compass; as, that of Ld-ndg to the west of Ma-pham.

From Rudok (near Ladak) to the east or south-east, there are many

salt lakes.

MepIcINAL OR MINERAL WATERS.—Between U and Ts’ang there are

some hot springs, used in curing cutaneous diseases and the gout. But

such hot springs are numerous in the mountains lying east from the

Ma-p’ham lake ; especially at one place there is a hole out of which

continually issues vapor, and at certain intervals, hot water is ejected

with great noise to the height of 12 feet.

Guacrers.—The summits of many of the Tibetan mountains remain

through the whole year covered with snow. But there are especially

four glaciers or mountains covered with ice or frozen snow ; as,

Tisé, Havo, Shampo, and Pule.

Minrs.—Mimes are rarely excavatedin Tibet. In the northern part

of Nari, and in Gugé, some gold dust is gathered, as also in Sanskar

and Beltistan it is washed from the river. If they knew how to

work mines, they might find in many places gold, copper, iron, and

lead.

Petrifactions are found at many places in Tibet, especially in Ward.

On the 2nd and 3rd range of the Himalaya mountains, there are several

sorts of them. Salgrams and shells are found most frequently, in

many places. All such petrifactions are denominated in Tibetan,

according to the resemblance they have to anything ; as, sheep-eye,

sheep-horn, sheep-brain, swine-head, bird-leg, cow-tongue, stone-

trumpet, &c. They are not objects of reverence in Tibet, neither of

curiosity. Some of them, after being burnt and reduced to powder,

are used as medicaments in certain diseases.

In the whole of Tibet, there is, in general, a deficiency of wood, both

for fuel and for building, or timber, especially in Vari and U-tsang.

In Bhutan and Beltistan there are many sorts of fruit trees. In

K’ham-yul there are some woods and forests. In the western part of

Ladak, and in Beltistan some vines are cultivated. In middle

1832. ]_ Geographical Notice of Tibet. 127

Tibet and Ladak the mountains are in general naked, destitute of herb,

grass, and every vegetable. In the valleys, where the fields can be

watered or irrigated, several kinds of corn are produced, especially

wheat, barley, buck-wheat, millet, pease, and some others. In Waré

and in the northern deserts of Tibet, there grow several kinds of medi-

cal herbs and plants, and there are likewise good pastures; but there’

arein the deserts no fields for producing corn, and what they want they

purchase from those who inhabit the southern parts of Nari, and give

them in exchange yaks, sheep, wool, woollen cloth, salt, borax, &c.

Rice is no where cultivated in Tibet. There are some kinds of

pulse ; as pease, bean, and lentils. Thereis no great variety of esculent

plants. They have some turnips, cabbages, carrots, onions, garlics, and

a few others ; but for potherbs they use in general such greens as grow

wild. In the western part of Ladak, in Purik, there is a certain plant,

(with bushy stalks) called Prangos, whichis a good remedy against the

rot in sheep, if given for food for a certain time, in autumn.

The daily food of the Tibetans consists, in general, of gruel, or thick

pottage prepared from the meal of parched barley (satu), several

kinds of flesh, bread, sour-milk, curds, potherbs, and of tea pre-

pared in a particular manner in a churn, with butter, salt, and with

some milk, or without this last ingredient.

The origin of the Tibetans is referred in their fabulous history to

the union of an ape with a she demon. Some derive them from India ;

some from China ; others from the Mongols, and others from the Turks.

Nothing can be certainly said in this respect. They have an original

language, which has little affinity to that of any of the nations

mentioned. It is probable, that the royal family who reigned in

middle Tibet from about 250 years before Jesus Christ till the 10th

century, was derived from India, from the Lichabyi race, and it is

certain that their religion and literature is of Indian origin. The

Tibetans are ignorant of their origin. They distinguish now five

sorts of people or races (or nations) among themselves; as 1. K’ham-

ba, one dwelling in K’ham-yul. 2. Pot-pa, one inhabiting U-tsang.

3. Brok-pa or Hor-pa, one living in the deserts to the north-west

of Lhassa. 4. Ndri-pa, one of Néri, Ladak and Beltistan, and

5. Lho-pa, one of Bhutan. All of whom have yet other subdivisions,

They differ much from each other in their stature, character, dress,

and in the accent with which they pronounce the Tibetan language.

But they can all understand each other. They all agree (with the

exception of the Mahommedans in Ladak and Beltistan) in having the

same religion, whose records are in the same language and character.

128 - Account of Barren Island [Aprit,

I.—Account of Barren Island, in the Bay of Bengal, drawn up by

the late Dr. J. Adam.

(Read at a meeting of the Asiatic Society.)

Barren Island, with its volcano, from which the accompanying

specimens were obtained*, has been described in the 4th vol. of the

Researcues by Lieutenant (now Colonel) Colebrooke. That gen-

tleman, however, did not visit it himself, but was indebted for his

description to Captain Blair, who appears to have surveyed the whole

cluster of the Andamans. The account is altogether very short,

and any further particulars regarding the island, I have conceived, may

not prove uninteresting. In this hope, I now beg leave to lay before

the Society the following narrative, communicated to me by the same

gentleman who has contributed the specimens. I shall give it in his

own words, and I trust need make no apology for so doing.

“ In the month of March last, in the passage from Carnicobar to

Rangcon, I had occasion to approach close to Barren Island. It was

first visible at daylight, and at 7 a.m. being within 10 or 12 miles

of it, I could plainly perceive with my glass, volumes of white smoke

issuing from the crater of the volcano. About 9 o’clock, we were very

close to it, and being attracted by the singular appearance presented

to us, and the wind at the time being adverse, I determined on visiting

the island. Accompanied by my chief officer, I pulled for a small bay

where, it was supposed, we should have no difficulty in landing. On

approaching however to within a hundred yards of the shore, we were

suddenly assailed by hot puffs of wind, and on dipping our fingers

into the water, were surprized to find it as hot almost as if it had been

boiling. The stones on shore, and the rocks exposed by the ebbing

of the tide, were smoking and hissing, and the water was bubbling

all round them. At this place we had a complete view of the cone,

which did not then appear a quarter of a mile distant. Being unable to

effect our object here, we pulled a little to the southward, and landed

ina cove. We now commenced ascending an almost perpendicular

precipice, holding on by the loose grass that grew out of the ashes

covering the rocks. With no small danger and difficulty we reached

the top of the cliff, and had before us a smooth surface of ashes, extend-

ing to what we supposed to be the summit of the island. There being

nothing to hold by, and the acclivity very abrupt, we all joined hands,

and in this way, at length, succeeded in gaining the top of aridge. Here

* These specimens are, or ought to be, in the cabinet of the Asiatic Society.

1832.]} the Bay of Bengal. 129

we found a small tree, or rather large shrub, and being much fa-

tigued with our previous exertions we sat down under its shade, and en-

joyed from thence a fine view of the volcano. It is an immense cone,

regularly sloping from the base to the summit, and in appearance and

color (to compare great things with small) resembling a heap of sifted

coal ashes, with cinders scattered over its surface. I cannot say exactly

what the diameter of the base may be, but should suppose it not less

than 800 or 1000 yards; at the top it may be about 30, and the whole

of this space seems occupied by the mouth. Even at this height I

could observe no flame, but large volumes of thin white smoke kept

continually issuing from it. This cone stands by itself in the centre

of an amphitheatre of hills, which nearly close around it; the only

opening to the sea being where we attempted to land. The summits

of the hills to the N. E. are completely smooth, and covered with ashes ;

those to the S. W. although partly covered with ashes also, have a

good many small shrubs scattered over them, with dry parched grass

growing on the surface. This appearance countenances a belief, that

it is only in the south-west monsoon, or rainy season, that eruptions

take place, at which time the S. W. wind would blow the dust and

ashes on the hills in the opposite direction, or N. E. ;

«“ Having dispatched a lascar from the spot where we sat down, to

ascertain if it was yet far from the summit of the Island, he returned and

stated, that we had apparently advanced a very little way compared

with what still lay before us; and that we could not accomplish our

object and be back before dusk. We therefore thought of descend-

ing, and as it would have been dangerous to do so the same way we

came up, we were obliged to go by the other side of the ridge, where

we had some grass, and occasionally a shrub or two to hold by.

« We now rowed to where we first endeavoured to land, and found

that the tide had flowed several feet, which enabled us to have the boat

close in, and step on shore on the rocks. Being desirous to examine

the crater, we had to walk about three quarters of a mile over immense

fragments of the specimen No. 1, which extended from near the sea

side to within a short distance of the volcano, and along the only

valley or outlet that the island presented. From whence this rock

was derived, I could not decidedly say. It was lying carelessly and

so loosely as hardly to afford asure footing in walking overit. Itis

indeed difficult to describe the form in which this was lying, for

were you to take any quantity of large and small pieces of No. 1.

and throw them down in the most random manner, you could not

make them assume the strange disordered appearance that nature

130 Account of Barren Island in [ APRIL,

here presents. I should not suppose that these masses were thrown

from the volcano; as in that case, it appeared to me they would

have been agglutinated together when in a state of fusion from intense

heat, and also fixed to the surface. The impression on my mind at

the time was, that some faint convulsion of the earth had elevated

them directly from below. Along this dark tract there was no ashes,

nor any thing indeed but the rock itself. On reaching the base of

the cone, I casually picked up the specimen No. 2. Here viewing

it, I judged the elevation to be half a mile to the top; but in my

estimation of distances I do not pretend to be even near the truth.

It sloped so suddenly from about halfway up to the top of the

cone, that I considered it next to impossible to climb to the mouth-

We ascended however 30 or 40 yards, sinking ancle-deep in ashes,

at each slip, and I here took upthe specimens Nos. 3 and 4, and

the other two smaller pieces. I did not bring away any specimen

of the ashes, but the color exactly resembles that of No. 3. In the

whole of our ramble, we did not meet with a spot capable of yielding

any vegetation, with exception of the withered grass formerly alluded

to: nor, although we looked anxiously for fresh water among

the rocks, could we perceive the smallest signs of it. The geogra-

phical site of the Island as given by Horsburgh seems perfectly

correct; at least it agreed with my observations. The shore is

extremely steep, and aship may almost rub her side against the rock.

Close in shore we could observe either tides or currents setting on

eddies round some of the points; and in pulling from where we first

endeavoured to land, to where we did land, we were in ripplings.”

On examining the specimen No. 1,it is evident that it must have

undergone the action of fire ; and notwithstanding the above opinion to

the contrary, it has in all probability been ejected from the crater of

the volcano. On this point indeed we have positive evidence, as Cap-

tain Blair, in Col. Colebrooke’s description, declares he saw these masses

thrown out from the volcano in a state of ignition, “ many of which

rolled down the cone, while they were close to it, and bounded a

considerable way beyond them.” The black scoria seems to derive

its color from an impregnating iron; it contains minute crystals and

grains of felspar. The specimen No. 2, resembles the former, but

has been thrown from the volcano at an earlier period, and exhibits

the contained crystals in a state of decomposition. No. 3 is a very

compact lava, containing embedded in its substance distinctly crystal-

lized basaltic hornblende. No. 4, though vesicular, is more compact

than the two first varieties. Besides the felspar, it contains some dark-

colored crystals, the nature of which I have not fully ascertained.

1832. | the Bay of Bengal 131

IT may add, that the conjecture, respecting the volcano’s being in

activity only during the S. W. monsoon, derived from the appearance

of the hills, is supported by analogy in similar cases, as it has been

frequently observed that volcanic eruptions are influenced by the

state of the atmosphere. In a late number of the Edinburgh Philo-

sophical Journal, I met with a notice on this subject, which I shall

here take the liberty of transcribing. Under the head of ‘ Detonations

in Mount Brazier,” it is stated, that M. Dubois Ayne examined in

1818, the structure of the mountain situated between Senes and Lee-

rogne in the Alps, which is known to emit flame, and produce deto-

nations, which are most frequent when the wind isin one direction. He

found that there were beds of pyritous chalk, marly schistus, radiated

sulphuret of iron, and bituminous substances, &c. in the strata of

limestone that formed its sides, and he supposes that the flames and

detonations are produced by the accidental inflammation of hydrogen

liberated by the action of water on the above substances.” As rain

generally accompanies the S. W. monsoonin the Bay of Bengal, may

we not reasonably infer, that the activity of the volcano on Barren Island

at that season also depends on the presence of water and its conse-

quent conversion into its gaseous elements ?

IiI.— Flora Indica, or Descriptions of Indian Plants. By the late

William Roxburgh, M. D. F. R.S. E. &c. &c. Vols. I. Il. and III.

Printed at Serampore, 1832.

[To be completed in four volumes.]

The appearance of the above work may well be considered as a

subject of congratulation, not only as a lasting tribute of justice

to the memory of one of our most distinguished men of science, but

also as affording our countrymen, in this country, the means of prose-

cuting a very pleasing branch of their studies in Natural History.

The length of time that the present work has remained in manu-

script, within the precincts of this metropolis, would argue either an

apathy on the subject, or that the work itself had not been considered

of sufficient value to risk the expences of publication. But that this

cannot have been the reason isevident from the fact, that the two first

volumes, which were published twelve and nine years since, had so

extensive a sale as to have been long out of print, while inquiries too

respecting it have continued as numerous as ever ; and there is no doubt

that, had this work been published many years ago, it would have had

not only an extensive circulation, but it would have been the means of

producing a considerable number of zealous botanists, who would have

132 Review of Indian Botany. [Aprin,

investigated what was described, and described what they found to be

new : for at present, though there are numbers well inclined to prosecute

the study of Indian Botany, of whom many are placed in the most fa-

vourable situations for obtaining a name, at the same time that they

might contribute to the progress of the science ; yet that the number of

actual cultivators have been so few, can only be ascribed to the difficulty

which each has had in prosecuting a subject on which no books were

procurable ; and without these, we are apt to fancy that wecan do no-

thing, or suppose that we can find nothing which has not beenalready dis-

covered. That nothing can be more erroneous is evident from the fact,

that even in well-explored countries, such as England, Scotland, and

France, many new plants have been found even in the most recent times.

The appearance of this work is to be considered an important cir-

cumstance, not only for the information itself communicated, but also

from its being in an English dress ; for the neophytes of science will be

more readily induced to enter a mansion of which the threshold is

made accessible. Nothing so much promotes the spreading of a

science as the publication of works of a popular nature and compendious

form, and the present will be the forerunner of many such. That

some attempts of this kind have not hitherto been made, can only be

accounted for, by the supposition, that those who have laboured to

acquire a knowledge of the science, surrounded as it is with great diffi-

culties, have rather employed themselves in exploring new fields, than

in endeavouring to assist others up the toilsome ascent, which they

had by dint of much labour themselves ascended.

That materials have not been wanting for giving a short though

imperfect view of Indian Botany, may be inferred from a view of the

numerous species and genera of Indian Plants which are enumerated

in the System ofe Wildenow and the Synopsis of Persoon. If the

Indian species in these works had been extracted and published in a

separate work in English, something might have been done towards in-

ducing a greater taste for Indian Botany. Butin justice, the want of

such works must, in a great measure, be ascribed to the want of en-

couragement, and the apathy with which all endeavours to prosecute

any of the branches of natural, or any other science, are viewed in

India, and most other English colonies ; where what is pleased to be

styled practical knowledge, is alone valued, and the inutility of scien-

tific acquirement dilated on with a degree of complacency which is

amusing, as chiefly indulged in by those who are totally unacquainted

with the nature and objects of the species of knowledge they affect to

despise, and the ultimate tendency of which they would perhaps be the

more surprised to find was to produce the most certain practical results.

1832. ] Review of Indian Botany. 133

That materials have not been wanting we repeat, is evident, if we call

to mind the authors who have expressly written on Indian Botany ; and

‘among these, it is lamentable to find, that until the time of the author of

the present work, none of our countrymen had distinguished themselves

in the field.

As not having written expressly on the subject, it is perhaps needless

to mention the names of Theophrastus, Dioscorides, and Pliny, though

in their works many plants are mentioned as being natives of India,

and these form very interesting subjects of research in the present

day, besides Galen, Oribasius, Paulus A%gineta, and among the

Arabians, Mesue, Serapion, Rhazes, Avicenna. By the latter authors

many plants are mentioned, as being the produce of India, of which

no attempt appears hitherto to have been made towards their identifica-

tion. Ibn-ul-Bakhtar is said to have traversed Africa, Arabia, and

India, for the prosecution of his favourite study of plants: his MSS,

in the Escurial, contain descriptions of several thousand species ; and

his work, which is frequently referred to by the Persian authors on

Materia Medica, was much consulted in the composition of the Geo-

graphia Sacra of the learned Bochart.

The earliest Europeans who seem to have paid any attention to the

useful plants of India, are the Portuguese physicians at Goa, Garcia

ab Horto and Christopher da Costa, whose observations, with those of

Belon, form the basis of the work of Ausius entitled Exoticorum libri

decem. Antwerp, 1563. Inthe works of Prosper Alpinus, though on

the plants and medicine of the Egyptians, many plants are men-

tioned of which the products are brought from India.

The first work, however, of any note on the plants of India is

that of Rheede, entitled Hortus Malabaricus, in 12 volumes, folio,

containing 794 plates, which, considering the tinie they were published,

are highly creditable productions. Rheede resided chiefly on the Mala-

bar coast, and was Governor of the Dutch settlements in the East

Indies ; he procured all the new and curious plants in his power, de-

scribed them, and had drawings made; the plates have in them the

native names, with the Arabic and Hindi characters. Plukenet

collected nearly 8000 plants, and his works give plates of nearly 3000

species, among which are several Indian plants.

Kempfer travelled in Persia, Arabia, and India on the Coromandel

coast and along the banks of the Ganges, Java, Japan, &c. and his work

Amenitates Exotice contains accounts of many, and plates of some,

plants of Japan, of which nearly allied species are found in the Hima-

layas. The sixth number of his work, which contained 600 figures

of scarce plants growing along the Ganges, has been entirely lost.

134 Review of Indian Botany. [ Apri,

Burmann, in his Thesaurus Zeylanicus, 1737, has given descrip-

tions and figures of many Asiatic and some Indian plants.

Rumph came as physician to the East Indies, and became Chief

Magistrate and President of the Mercantile Association of Amboyna;

he collected carefully all the productions of India, especially plants.

These are described and figured in his work, Herbarium Amboinense,

1750—1755, in six volumes, folio, with a supplementary or 7th volume

bound up with the 6th. The descriptions are in Latin and Dutch, in

separate columns, and the figures are extremely good.

N. J. Burmann, son of John Burmann, was Professor of Botany at

Amsterdam. In his Flora Indica, 1768, he has represented in 67 plates,

176 very scarce plants, which had been collected by his father.

Rottler, Professor of Botany, at Copenhagen, has given excellent

figures and descriptions of many of the Indian Cyperacee. This

work is in folio, published in 1773, with 21 plates.

Retzius, Professor of Botany at Lund in Sweden, published in six

Fascicuh, from 1779 to 1791, in folio, with 19 plates, many Indian

plants discovered by travellers, particularly Koenig, who visited both

the Coromandel and Malabar coasts, as well as Ceylon and Siam.

Thunberg, in his Flora Japanica, has given descriptions and figures

of many ofthe plants of Japan, several of which, or nearly allied

species, are to be found in the Himalayan mountains.

Though not strictly Indian botanists, it is sometimes useful to refer

to those who have written on the botany of neighbouring countries,

especially Asiatic; and among the most useful of them may be mentioned

the work of Forskal, on the plants which he found when travelling with

Niebuhr, in Arabia. The Indian reader will be surprised to find so

many names with which he is familiar : the Arabic names being given

both in the English and the Arabic character, and without doubt intro-

duced by the Mahomedan conquerors into India. Fr. Hosselquish

travelled as a botanist in Syria; Olivier and Michaux in Persia, and

Pallas in Siberia. Loureiro, a Portuguese, went as Missionary to

Cochin China, but as he could not without medicine succeed in his

plans, he studied the productions of the vegetable kingdom. The

Flora Cochin-chinensis, edited by Wildenow, contains descriptions and

plates of the plants he found in that country. Sonnerat died in 1813,

after having employed 20 years in his travels; he visited the isles of

France and Bourbon, Madagascar, the Phillipines, Moluccas, New

Guinea, the Coasts of Malabar and Coromandel in India, Ceylon and

China. Many of his plants are described by Lamarck in his invaluable

Encyclopedie de Botanique.

1932:} - Review of Indian Botany. 135

We now come to the time of the author of the present Flora Indica,

who independent of many contributions to the transactions of learned

societies, and to the periodicals of the day, was principally brought

to notice by his work entitled The Plants of the Coast of Coromandel,

which was published by the order, and at the expence of the

Honorable the Court of Directors, the selection being made from

five hundred drawings and descriptions presented by Dr. William

Roxburgh, then their Botanist in the Carnatic. With a more imme-

diate view to utility, preference was given to subjects connected with

“medicine, the arts, or manufactures ;” but new plants also were admit-

ted, or such as had hitherto been imperfectly described, although their

qualities and uses remained unexplored.

John Gerard Keenig, a native (itis believed) of Courland, came to

India in 1768, under the protection of the king of Denmark, chiefly for

the purpose of studying the natural history of the country: he was

prosecuting his botanical researches in the Carnatic, when Dr. Roxburgh,

who entered the service at Madras in 1766, became acquainted

with him. Dr. Roxburgh had applied to botany under Dr. Hope in the

University of Edinburgh, and bringing with him to India a love of the

study, he found in Dr. Koenig an experienced conductor through a

wilderness as yet unexplored by either.

On the death of Dr. Keenig, Dr. Russel was nominated his successor =

he contemplated the publication of a work on the useful plants of

Coromandel, which though perhaps less generally interesting to the

botanists in Europe, might prove of real service to India.

Circular letters, with a list of the plants proposed for the first pub-

lication, were sent by the Medical Board to the subordinate settlements,

requesting it might be favoured with any information respecting the

subjects in question, which the medical gentlemen might have it in

their power to communicate ; and in consequence several useful com-

munications were received. Dr. Russel however left India before the

proposal could be carried into execution. But as the object was

approved of by the Court of Directors, the directions their letter

contained fell fortunately into hands well qualified for carrying them

into execution.

Our author, now disengaged from the duties of his station, was pur-

suing his favourite study at Somalcottah, when he thus became perma~

nently attached to botanical pursuits. He had made experiments on the

cultivation of pepper and indigo; had written on qualities of the

Swietenia bark, and had communicated other discoveries, to the Philo-~

sophical Transactions, the Indian Repository, and the Asiatic Re-

136 Review of Indian Botany. [Aprit,

searches. He had made large collections of plants in the Carnatic,

and for several years previously to his appointment had retained a

painter constantly employed in drawing plants, which he accurately

described, adding such remarks on their uses as he had learned from

experience or collected from the natives.

The drawings and descriptions arrived in England in 1791 and

1794, when the number of 500 were completed. It was from these that

the first selection was made.

Sir Joseph Bankes undertook the superintendence of the engravings,

and Dr. Russel of the letter press, in consequence of Dr. Roxburgh’s

intended residence in India, as he was in 1793 selected to be superin-

tendent of the botanical garden at Calcutta. After many years of

laborious investigation he was compelled to visit his native country for

the recovery of his health; but he died, as we learn from his son, at

Edinburgh, in February, 1815.

The work now consists of 3 volumes, in large folio, with 300 plates

drawn in a very superior style. They are selected chiefly for their use-

ful properties, as may be observed in the long account given of the Ol-

denlandia umbellata, Chay root or East Indian madder ; the numerous

experiments shew the care that has been bestowed on the application of

botany: also in the account of the sandal-wood tree, the Catamaran

tree, nux vomica, cleaning nuts, the teak, several esculent species of

ceropagia, marking nut, Sapan-wood tree, Swietenia febrifuga : the

mehwah tree, the butea frondosa, with experiments on its gum;

embryopteris glutinifera, phenix farinofera, areca catechu, feronea

elephanta, Angle marmelos, mimosa Arabica, Rottlera tinctorea. Under

mimosa catechu, it is observed, “but the natives have no idea of ex-

tracting from it, or any other, the extract called catechu (terra

Japonica):” this is an inaccuracy, as large quantities of catechu are

made from it in the upper provinces of India. Terminalia chebula,

with directions for dyeing yellow : Shorea robusta, Dipterocarpus turbi=

natus, the Cardamum tree, Scirpus tuberosus, or water chesnut of the

Chinese, saccharum Sinense : the Sona tree, G'melina arborea, for fibres :

observations on the different kinds of cotton——The above list shews

the number of useful plants, described and figured in the great work of

Dr. Roxburgh, a work perhaps less known in India than in any other

part of the civilized world.

It may appear that much time has been unnecessarily employed in

noticing a work of Dr. Roxburgh’s, which has no immediate reference

to that now under consideration ; but the fact is, that the two works,

though published at such considerable intervals, are closely connected

1832.] Review of Indian Botany. 137

together, form one whole, interpret each other, and are well calculated

to give a correct view of his labors as an Indian botanist.

The present work, containing descriptions of all the new plants which

hehad discovered, as well as notices of those which, though previous] y de-

scribed, he had found in India, was completed many years ago, and the

manuscript deposited with Dr. Carey, the venerated Editor of the work.

‘An idea of the labours of Dr. Roxburgh may be formed by an inspection

of the catalogue published by Dr. Carey, called the Hortus Bengalensis,

and which may be considered an index to the present work. This

was published in 1814, at the time that Dr. Roxburgh was obliged

to make a voyage to sea for the benefit of his health, when Dr. Carey

embraced the opportunity of his absence to bear testimony to those

abilities, that zeal and success which had been so eminently displayed

in bringing the Botanic Garden to its then state of perfection. We quote

his words from the Government Gazette of August, 1831.

** The garden was begun by Colonel Kyd, in March, 1786, and collections of

plants from different parts of the east were soon introduced into it with such success,

that the number of plants brought into it in eight years amounted to more than three

hundred. Dr. Roxburgh joined it in autumn, 1798. His unremitted attention to

its improvement, and his eminent abilities asa botanist, are far more fully exhibited

in the following catalogues than they could possibly be by any eulogium from a

friend. The number of described species now in the garden amounts to 3500 ; for

the knowledge of no fewer than 1510, as named and described in this catalogue, we

are indebted to his indefatigahle and discriminating researches. Among these are a

great number of new genera, some of which have a considerable number of species

ascertained ; to these should be added those plants contained in the second catalogue

which, though not in the Botanical garden, have been described and many of them

accurately drawn by him: these amount to 453. The extensive correspondence

which he maintained, not only with gentlemen in all parts of India butin most parts

of the world, will be witnessed by the list of donors to the garden which he superin-

_ tended; and the liberality with which he always communicated to those who

applied to him, requires no other witness than the universal voice of the inhabitants

of India, and even of many in Europe and America, to whom he constantly sent

supplies. He waselected member of the following Societies: —Phil. Soc. and Linn.

Soc. of Philadelphia,—Soc. Encour. Arts,—Roy. Soc. Physicians, Edinburgh,—Linn.

Soc. London,—Roy. Soc. Edin.—Soc. Nat. Hist. at Berlin.”

The above extract gives a succinct view of the invaluable labours

of Dr. Roxburgh, and though his work cannot be considered as an en-

tire account of all the plants of India, yet it isa tolerably full one of

what is commonly considered India, that is of the peninsula and of the

plains of Hindasthan; for in Dr. Roxburgh’s time the north-western

and hill provinces were little known, and Silhet, Assam, and Ava, had

been, with the exception of the former, but little explored. It is stil]

therefore, though completed so many years ago, the best work we have

138 Review of Indian Botany. [ APRIL,

on Indian botany, and the two volumes now published, give a true

indication of the value of the two others, which are to follow immedi-

ately to complete the work. The Hortus Bengalensis, of which a re-

print appears to be imperiously called for, gives a list arranged according

to the Linnzan classification of all the plants which are described in

Dr. Roxburgh’s Flora. In this list, opposite the Botanic names, the

Indian ones are given, together with the places of growth, names of

donors, duration and habit, time of flowering and of seed, with fre-

quent reference to figures of the plants, in the works of Rheede and

Rumphius. A portion of this work, extending as far as nearly to the end

of Pentandria Monogynia, was formerly printed, with which the inva-

luable additions of Dr. Wallich were incorporated. But as this volume

of the work has been long out of print, and as the sons of Dr. Rox-

burgh were anxious that the Flora Indica, on which he bestowed so

many years’ unremitting labour, should be presented without any further

delay to the scientific world, Dr. Carey, at their request, has superin-

tended the progress of the present edition through the press: not

considering themselves however at liberty to make use of Dr. Wallich’s

invaluable notes and additions, Captains Roxburgh have omitted them

in reprinting the first part of the work. The present edition of the Flora,

therefore, to be completed in four volumes, will consist of the manu-

scripts left with Dr. Carey by Dr. Roxburgh, without any addition.

We therefore miss along with Dr. Wallich’s additions Dr. Carey’s

various Sanscrit Synonymes, which added so much value to the for-

mer edition.

The volumes under review extend to the end of Polyandria Poly-

gynia. From the nature of the work itis not easy to give an idea of

its contents, except by mentioning that it contains descriptionsin English

of most of the plants usually found in India, exclusive generally of

those of the hills, as far as the first thirteen classes. Dr. Roxburgh’s

high character as a botanist will be asufficient warrant for the cor-

rectness of the specific descriptions. Generic characters were not so

much or so accurately studied in Dr. Roxburgh’s time, as they are

now. ‘The general reader may obtain a tolerable idea of their value

by turning to the several articles where the useful properties of the

plants are particularly described. In the first volume, we would parti-

cularly refer to the valuable notices respecting the several useful species

of Curcuma, from one of which an excellent substitute for Arrow-root

is procured ;—the different kinds of ginger ;—of cardamum ;—the ob-

servations at p. 85, respecting the manufacture on the coast, of barilla ;

1832. ] Sketch of the Route and Progress, &c: 139°

—the superiority of the China sugar-cane, at p. 240, over that common-

ly cultivated in India ;—at p. 476, Convolvulus Turpethum used as a

purgative by the natives of India ;—the observations on Sapistanum,

at p. 589, and at 617, on Scopolia aculeata, as a cure for jungle fever.

In the second volume Nerium tinctorium is mentioned as producing a

kind of Indigo, and N. tomentosum, a yellow dye; Asclepias asthma-

tica is highly spoken of as a substitute for ipecacuanha ;—the Asclepias

tenacissima as yielding fine silky fibres, of which the mountaineers of

Rajmahl make their bow-strings ;—Asclepias tingens is mentioned as

yielding a green dye ;——Salsolanudiflora for the production of pearlash,

and Sanseviera zeylanica as affording what is called China grass. Most

of the Indian trees and plants, remarkable for any useful properties, are

always indicated, and the native names being mentioned under the

botanic ones, facility is afforded for obtaining any of the articles that

may be required for experiment.

In conclusion it may be useful to indicate, that if the generic

characters were all printed ina tabular form at the commencement of

each volume, considerable inconvenience would be saved in discover-

ing the genus of a plant with which we are unacquainted ; for instead.

of turning over to the generic characters throughout the volume, we

should have them presented to us within the compass of a few genera.

If the learned and highly venerated Editor should not consider it as

coming within his plan to embrace our suggestion, we will in a subse-

quent number of the Journal offer in a tabular form all the genera

contained in Dr. Roxburgh’s four volumes of the Flora Indica.

—$—$——__—<—$————

IV.—A Sketch of the Route and Progress of Lieutenant A. Burnes

and Dr. Gerard. By a recent Traveller.

[We have to thank our correspondent for the following sketch of. the proceedings

of two travellers, upon whose adventurous journey to explore the Oxus are

directed the eyes of all who are interested in geographical research. The infor-

mation is evidently drawn from private letters, but we trust, that the authors

will not deem the publication of the extracts to which we have confined ourselves,

premature, only because they were not expressly written for such an object.]

Before the travellers quitted the [ast civilized capital on the north-

west, the splendid city of Lahore, so much celebrated for its palaces,

gardens, and mosques, densely populated by an active and cheerful race,

Ranjit Sinh desired to leave an indelible impression on their minds of the

splendour of his court. Dr. Gerard writes :

140 Sketch of the Route and Progress of [ APRIL,

“ Our entertainment might be compared to those splendid feasts

“ described in the Arabian Nights; we were transported into a little

“ paradise of pleasure ; the Maharaj himself tasted, in more senses than

“ one, of the intoxication of the scene, and ere morning most of his

“ chieftains and guests were ‘ hors de combat.”

Having procured letters of introduction to the several chiefs who

occupy the west bank of the Indus, and provided themselves with

hindis to an ample amount on the kotés of Peshawur and Kabual,

the travellers left Lahore about the beginning of March. In their pro-

gress towards the Indus, they visited the great salt range which stretches

between the Indus to the Jelum, and made a considerable deviation

from the straight road to visit Dddan Khdn, where some of the chief

excavations of the article exist*.

While on the banks of the Jelum, they were much struck by the im-

mense size of the firs floated down the river ; the houses in all the towns

along its banks are roofed therewith. Immense cedar trees were seen

rolled down from the hills; it was these that supplied materials for Alex-

ander’s fleet: one tree measured thirteen feet in girth, which may

afford some idea of.their applicability to ship-building.

From Dadan Khan they went to Darapir on the Jelum, but not-

withstanding a very active search they failed to discover the remains or

site of the city of Bucephalus, founded by Alexander, in honor of his fa-

mous charger. The celebrated fortress of Rotas, is situated a short dis-

tance to the west of the town and river of Jelum, near a broad sandy

stream, which contains little water. This fortification was built by the

well known Patan emperor Shér Shah, who expelled Hamayun, the son

of Baber Shah, from the throne of Delhi.

Lieutenant Burnes and Dr. Gerard halted one day to look at this

noble fortress, but they deemit, “ with all its formidable extent, a

piece of stupendous folly.”

The next place of interest the travellers visited, was the tope of

Manikydla, the history of which ancient structure still remains a pro-

blem. They obtained many coins with devices apparently Grecian,

from the peasants of the neighbourhood+. Dr. Gerard observes, that

although the probable inference is, that from ‘ any of the memorials

which have been discovered, the tope marks the site of the town

of Taxilla, the appearance of the building does not accord with so great

* An account of thesemines by Lieut, Burnes will be found in the present number.

+ Three of these coins, and impressions of one more and of two ancient

gems, have reached us, which in addition to the coins discovered by Colonel Ven-

tura, are now under investigation.—ED,

1832. ] Lieut. A. Burnes and Dr. Gerard. 141

antiquity. Two thousand years make sad havoc in masonry ; it is more

likely that it belongs to the Bactrian dynasty.” The construction,

the figure, and isolated situation of the tope of Manikyala, is cer-

tainly of a singularity to attract the attention of all travellers ; but

there is nothing in the mere workmanship that would lead one to sup-

pose, that it may not have been executed by the inhabitants of the

neighbourhood. This is perhaps satisfactorily proved from the exist-

ence of several monuments of the same shape, on the west of the

Indus, and from a comparison with an ancient building in the

immediate vicinity. The building alluded to is a saint’s tomb, sur-

rounded by a stone wall, about a mile from the tope to the southward.

The building material is the same ; a porous limestone, which is dug

out within a short distance of the surface of the ground, in fact indu-

rated kankar: similar specimens of which are to be met with in

various places between the Jumna and Ganges. At the Khyber pass,

on the road from Peshawur to Kabal, another tope of much the same

construction is found ;as likewise at Balabagh beyond Jelalabad,

on the same road. Without comparing all these edifices together, we

cannot very well form a correct opinion ; but it may be doubted whether

either the Grecian or Roman edifices, which have survived the wreck

of time, can furnish an example at all corresponding to the tope

of Manikyala ; and if such a doubt proves to be true, we can scarcely

longer abstain from giving the people of the country credit for erecting

this mausoleum, for such we take it to be, as there is no evidence of

its utility to men who are alive. After leaving this place, they

visited Rawal Pindi, a large and well inhabited town; it was here

that Shah Sujah passed a considerable time after being expatriated ;

it is situated near the mountains, and the climate is excellent. There

are many pleasant vallies in the neighbourhood ; but what conveyed

most gratification to the travellers was the enchanting wild and

beautiful garden of Hosein Abdaleh, situated under the brow of a

mountain, copiously watered by streams of clear transparent water,

decorated with all sorts of exotic flowers, shrubs, and plants ; it was

here they reposed their weary limbs; they found rest and stillness

in this mansion of delight and tranquillity ; they remembered a pleas-

ing description of it in Lalla Rookh, but regretted they had not the

book to ascertain how far the picture corresponded with the original.

They were surprized with the variety and number of trees; the

romantic nature of the scenery ; the rich verdure and the tout ensemble

made them feel as if they stood on English ground : but desolation was

worn by every thing visible ; the garden mourned and had put on its

142 Sketch of the Route and Progress of [ Aprit,,

weeds of woe ; summer houses and once gay retreats were tumbled from

their exaltation; they were in heart-sickening ruin. Even the trees

suffered grief and vexation ; a violent tempest a few years before had

up-rooted some of the finest, and they now lay low with their drooping

heads in the water.” At the town of Hosein Abdali, is a saint’s tomb,

around which is a fine stream of water full of fish. One of the great

roads to Kashmir passes this place, and strikes into the hills, bringing

the traveller to Kashmir in seven days. After leaving Rawal Pindi,

a causeway cut through a hill is passed ; it is excellent of the kind, but

one does not exactly feel convinced of the important utility assigned it.

In the centre of it, on one of the walls, is a Persian inscription, denoting

that it had been constructed in the time of Shah Jehan ; but much of

the context was obliterated. From Hosein Abdali our travellers

made their way towards the Indus; here they were met by Hari

Sinh, who shewed. them every attention.

It is now necessary to advert to the nature of the country passed be-

tween Lahore and this river. Between Lahore and the hills, on which

stands Rofas, is an uninterrupted level plain, confined by the Himalayan

branches of hills on the north, and various checquered and intersected

plains on the south. They passed over the three principal streams of the

Panjab ; the Ravi, the Chinab, and the Jelum, and the most populous

and best cultivated part of the Panjab. The country, &c. as far as

Rotas, in appearance resembled Hindustan: the people, their cus-

toms, their houses, their crops and cultivation, their dress, alk

appeared but little modified. The flatness of the country, the

aspect of their towns and villages, surrounded by groups of trees, gave

little or no indication of change; but beyond Rotas, the country as-

sumed broken and highly contrasted features ; small ranges of hills met

them on the right and left; small streams were frequently passed.

The elevation of the country, according to Dr. Gerard’s barometric

observations, now became above two thousand feet above the level

of the sea. The climate was materially modified, and they even expe-

rienced hoar frost, and sand ice, as late as the 10th and 12th of

March. The climate was good, and the air temperate all day. With the

nature of the country, the inhabitants also seemed less polished, severer

in their manners, and less easy in their circumstances; the population

was also scantier, the villages fewer, and far between: the northern hills

now frowned more immediately upon their course, and tended to increase

the comparative desolation of the country ; the stories of the murderous

Gakers, the tales of the successful resistance or easy conquest of the

-strong places they passed, harmonized with the scenery. They now felt

1832. | Lieut. A. Burnes and Dr. Gerard. 143

that they were really beyond the boundary of Hindistan. Our travellers

prepared themselves now for the assumption of the native dress, and

began gradually to accustom themselves to the adoption of oriental

manners and customs. ‘This was done to secure them from attracting

notice, and thus ensuring their personal safety, and a free inter-

course with the people of the countries through which they might

pass. Dr. Gerard writes : “ After leaving Lahore, we began to assume

the native costume, and divest ourselves of the cumbrances and com-

forts of civilized life, and we are now (Atok, 16th March,) in every

respect in a suitable condition to mingle with the Afghans, and even to

encounter robbers. Our poverty will however protect us ; our beards are

growing, and our faces are getting black from the sun’s ardour. Our

habits cannot be too coarse to correspond with our vagrant character.

I wish other parts of us besides our face would change colour, as we are

liable to be betrayed by our awkward attitudes. Our shirts stick close

to our backs, as we cannot afford their renewal ; in fact our clothes are

still too good, and the sooner they become greasy the better. Two

mules carry all our baggage and servants : our beds are upon our horse

rolled up like a pedlar’s pack. By and bye we shall mess with our

servants, of whom we are already a counterpart ; and when we say our

prayers five times a day, and use our fingers for chopsticks, we shall

pass on unnoticed. We have parted with every superfluity ; it was

with regret however that I gave up two of my spare barometer

tubes :—the instrument still remains, and if I am so fortunate as to

get an observation on the Hindi kush, I shall be satisfied ; in case

of fracture, our thermometers will still give approximate altitudes.”

Having reached the Atok, they were welcomed by Hari

Sinh, whom they found encamped in the plain of the Indus; they

paid him a visit in his tents, which brought back the scenes

of Lahore grandeur. Hari Sinh having forded the river the pre-

vious day, they were determined to try the same experiment, and

accordingly proceeded on elephants with him; but the enterprize

cost them the sacrifice of a man and two horses ; the people strug-

gled, and losing the ford, were swept down by the rapid stream:

seven sawars lost their footing, but all were recovered, except one.

Their elephant rolled deeply, but never had occasion to swim; the

next branch of the river was more difficult, but they prevented

the horsemen following them; in recrossing, they kept in close order,

and repelled by this means the impetuosity of the current. This stream

has been frequently forded by the armies of the Sikhs in latter times

with little or no loss of lives. Our correspondent says, that “ Atok has

144 Sketch of the Route and Progress, &c. [ Apriz,’

lost much of its repute as a place of strength, since the fords have

become so greatly known. Elphinstone speaks of Shah Shujah’s

passage as a prodigy, and the first of the kind. The Sikhs who ac-

companied us in our passage, being predestinarians, undertook the

fording of the Indus without concern, saying they were accustomed

to it.”

Lieutenant Burnes writes, that the sand of the Indus, near Atok,

yields a small quantity of gold*: the process of extraction by repeated

washings is very tedious. Quicksilver is employed to take up the gold,

by amalgamation, from the coarser grains which remain on the sieves.

Some of the smaller rivers falling into the Indus are said to contain

more gold than the latter.

The same traveller also describes a curious phenomenon observed at

the confluence of the Indus and Kabil rivers, half a mile from Atok, (for

Macartney’s map is here in error,) in the following words : “ An ignis

fatuus constantly shews itself in this place; two, three, and even four

lights are visible at a time, and continue to shine through the night. It

appears at first sight to be the reflection of the water on the rock, well

smoothed by the current ; but then it only shews itself in one particular

spot, and though the whole banks are so smoothed, it is confined to a few

yards. There was and could be no deception : the natives cannot account

for it, and its continuance during the rainy season is the most inexplicable

part of the phenomenon in their estimation. The valiant Man Sinh,

who carried a war of revenge against the Mahomedans beyond the

Indus, fought a battle on this spot, and the lights are considered by

some as the departed spirits of the slain. For my own part I cannot

solve the mystery regarding this ‘Will 0’ the wisp,” which I only

credited after having seen it.” The water of the Indus has the repu-

tation of being specifically cold, but this is a vulgar error arising from

the relative difference of temperature between the river and atmosphere.

On the 18th March it was 22° Farh.

While at Atok, our travellers received friendly letters from the

chief of Peshawur, Sultan Mahomed Khan, and they were the more

acceptable as they had not sent information to him of their approach.

For this civility they believe they were indebted to Shah Shujah ; how-

ever they would have rather wished that it had been omitted, as it was

scarcely their intention that their progress should be made a matter

of notoriety. While on this subject, Dr. G. makes the following

remarks: ‘It is quite ridiculous to view ourselves as natives, while

every other person sees through the thin veil of dissimulation; we

* A specimen has reached us in safety.—Eb.

1832. | Account of the Salt Mines of the Panjab. 145

are however passing the best way for our safety and comfort, by appear-

ing in the dress and habits of the country, by which we shall avoid the

idle gaze and intrusions of the mob, the importunity of beggars, and

the reckless cupidity of robbers. It is impossible for one to assume dis~

guise who has been long at the court of Ranjit Sinh, and who continues

to be treated as a Sahib to the very limit of his authority; but it

never was our intention to mask ourselves. Sultan Mahomed Khan

is going to send horsemen to meet and escort us, which is rather too

much kindness, and he will only disgrace himself by caressing

such dirty disreputable fellows as we now appear.” Ranjit Sinh’s

troops stationed in this fort madesome opposition to the baggage of

the travellers being ferried across ; the fact was, they were in a state of

mutiny in consequence of large arrears being due to them. They

crossed shortly after to the opposite side of the river, on which is

situated the fort of Khyrabad. On the 10th, they were at Akora,

on the banks of the Kabul river, preparing for their onward journey to

Peshawar. 5S. E.

Allyghur, 11th April, 1832.

V.—Some account of the Salt Mines of the Panjab. By Lieut.

S. Burnes, Bombay Army.

Lecathty.

Tn the high lands of Kabiil, between the city of that name and Peshd-

war, a range of hills springing from the roots of the white mountain

(Suféd Koh), crosses the Indus at Hara-bagh, and terminates on the

right bank of the Je/um, or Hydaspes of the ancients. This range

formerly figured in our maps under the name of Jood, after it had

passed the river ; but it has been more appropriately denominated the

salt range, from the extensive deposits of rock salt which it contains.

An account of that part of it near Hara-bagh, where the Indus in its

course southward cuts this range and lays open its mineral treasures,

will be found in Mr. Elphinstone’s work. In the neighbourhood of

Pind-Dédan-Khan, a town about 100 miles N. W. of Lahore, the salt

mines which supply the northern provinces of India with that neces-

sary of life are excavated in the same range. The following particu-

lars pretend not to rank as a scientific account of these mines, my

only object being to convey that information which a journey to so

unfrequented a part of the Panjab has enabled me to collect.

146 Account of the Salt Mines of the Panjab. [ Apri,

Formation.

The salt range forms the southern boundary ofa plateau between

the Indus and Hydaspes, which rises about 800 feet from the plains of

the Panjab. ‘The hills rise to an actual height of about 1200 feet

from the valley of the Jelum, which gives them an elevation of about

2200 feet from the sea. They exceed five miles in breadth. The

formation is sandstone, occurring in vertical strata, with pebbles or

round stones imbedded in various parts of it. Vegetation is scanty, and

the bold and bare precipices, some of which rise at once from the plain,

present a frightful aspect of desolation. Hot springs are found in

various places. Alum, galena, and sulphur also occur ; but a red clay,

which is chiefly found in the valleys, is a sure indication of a salt de-

posit, and it is to be found at intervals throughout this range*. The

supply of the mineral is now drawn from Pind-Dddan-Khan, whence

it can be conveyed with facility both up and down a navigable river.

Mines.

At the village of Keoru, five miles from Pind-Dddan-Khan, we

examined one of the principal mines. It was situated in a valley near

the outside of the range, which was cut by a rivulet of salt-water. It

opened into the hill through the red clayey formation above mention-

ed, at a distance of about 200 feet from the base. We were conducted

by a narrow gallery, sufficient to admit of one person passing

another, for about 350 yards, of which fifty may be taken as actual

descent. Here we entered a cavern of irregular dimensions, and about

an hundred feet high, excavated entirely in salt. The mineral is de-

posited in strata of the utmost regularity, occurring like the external

rock in vertical layers. Some of them however subtend an angle

of from 20 to 30 degrees, and have the same appearance as bricks that

have been placed upon one another. None of the layers exceed a

foot and a half in thickness, and each is distinctly separated from its

neighbour by a deposit of argillaceous earth, about an eighth of an

inch thick, which lies like mortar between the strata. Some of the salt

occurs in hexagonal crystals, but oftener in masses ; the whole of it is

tinged with red, varying from the slightest shade to the deepest hue ;—

when pounded the salt is white. The temperature of the cavern ex-

ceeded that of the open air by 20 degrees, when the thermometer

stood at 64° (in February). The natives state that these mines aremuch

colder in the hot season, but this only shews that they undergo little or

no alteration, while the heat outside increases as the season advances.

* We have safely received the specimens of these minerals transmitted by Lieut+

Burnes.—Ep.

1832. ] Account of the Salt Mines of the Panjab. 147

Mode of working.

There were upwards of an hundred persons, men, women, and children,

at work in the mine, and their little dim burning lamps on the sides of

the cavern and its recesses shone with reflected lustre from the ruby crys-

tals of the rock. The cavity has been excavated fromthe roof downwards.

The salt is hard and brittle, sothat it splinters when struck with the

sledge-hammer and pick-axe. The rock is never blasted with gun-pow-

der, from fear of the roof falling in; and accidents of this kind sometimes

happen in the present simple mode of excavation. The mines are not

worked for two months during the rains for the same reason. The

miners live in villages among the hills. They have a most unhealthy

complexion, but do not appear to be subject to any particular disease.

They receive a rupee for every 20 maunds of salt brought to the surface ;

a task which may be performed by aman, his wife, and child, in two

days. In those mines, where the mineral is near the surface, it is hewn

into blocks of four maunds, two of which load a camel, but it is usually

broken in small pieces. This salt holds a high reputation throughout

India with native practitioners, from its medical virtues. It is not

pure, having a considerable mixture of some substance (probably mag-

nesia), which renders it unfit for curing meat. The natives of the

Panjab ascribe the prevalance of nazla to its effects. That disease is

said to consist of arunning at the nostrils, which wastes the brain and

stamina of the body ; with what truth I know not.

Supply.

As the salt range contains a supply which is inexhaustible, the mines

yield any quantity that may be desired. ‘Two thousand five hundred

maunds of Lahore, one of which is equal to one hundred pounds Eng-

lish, are extracted daily, which gives about eight lacs of maunds for the

year. A few years since this salt was sold at the mine for a half and

even a quarter of a rupee per maund, but its price has been now raised to

two rupees per maund, exclusive of duties. It is closely monopolized

by the Panjab Government, and Runjit Sinh hopes to derive an annual

revenue of sixteen lacs of rupees, with 24 additional for the duties. A

lac and ahalf of rupees however is expended in working the mineral.

The profits amount to about 1100 per cent. though the salt is sold for

one-third the price of that of Bengal, which averages 5 Rupees per

maund of 80lbs.* The Panjab salt is exported by the Jelum to Mul-

tan and Bhawalptr, where it meets that of the Sdmar lake. It finds its

way to the banks of the Jumna and to Kashmir, but it is not exported

* Vide Mr. Ramsay’s Evidence before the Committee of the Lords,

148 Mode of extracting Gold Dust. [ Apriz,

westward of the Indus. Runjit Sinh has prohibited the manufacture of

salt in all parts of his dominions, yet it is very questionable if he will ever

derive so large a revenue from it as he now expects. The farmer of the

monopoly, acruel and tyrannical man, is now mercilessly oppressing the

people to extract it. The natives do not know the period at which

these mines were first worked, but it must have been at an early date,

since the mineral is laid open by the Indus. They were used by the

Emperors of Hindustan, but the inquiring Baber does not mention them

in his Commentaries.

VI.—Mode of extracting the Gold Dustfrom the Sand of the Ningthee

River, on the frontier of Manipur.

(Extracted from Captain Grant’s Letter to Mr. G. Swinton, dated Manipar, Ist

March, 1832.]

Read 4th April, 1832.

I forward a specimen of the gold found in the sand of the Ningthee river,

and partly extracted in my presence. The process is very simple, as

is also the apparatus employed ; the latter consists of a plank four feet

in length, two and a half wide at the upper end, and tapering towards the

lower one, which is one and a half; it is hollowed out so as to leave anedge

of halfan inch round the sides and upper end, the under end being left open

for the water to run off ; the lower half of the plank is cut into a succession

of grooves half an inch deep and the same in width. This plank is placed

slightly sloping towards the lower end, and the sand washed through a

coarse sieve which frees it from the pebbles and gravel : the fine sand which

remains in the grooves of the plank is then placed in a wooden tren-

cher, polished on the inside with keoo*, and in shape and size resembling

a shield, with a very small receptacle in the centre: this is immersed

so as to leave its outer edge on a level with the surface of the water,

and by a rotary motion, the fine sand is washed off and the gold re-

mains in the small receptacle. The whole operation occupied about a

quarter ofan hour, and the quantity of gold found was about a grain

troy weight. Gold is found in greater abundance at most other

places, where searched for in the sands of the Ningthee, than at Helaoo,

where I witnessed the process ; it is also only found where the sand is

mixed with pebbles and gravel : the black sand, which accompanies it, is

invariably found with the gold ; its appearance, in fact, denotes the pre-

* The black varnish of the keoo tree, which grows in the Rutboo valley,

supposed by Dr, Wallich to be the same as the varnish tree of Ava. G. S.

1332. ] Note on Indian Saline Deposits. 149

sence of the latter. I also forward a specimen of an ore which is abun-

_ dant in the bed of the Maglung ; being no mineralist, I will not venture

to pronounce an opinion as to the nature of the metal it contains*.

I inquired of the kubas, who could give me no information on the subject.

I enjoyed a coal fire every evening during my progress up the Maylung ;

it burned well, but the smell was somewhat strong ; there are quantities of

it to be found in all parts of the bed of the nala, the kubas say it is

petrified teak charcoal : an opinion in which I am inclined to agree, as

I saw immense logs of that timber, which were undergoing the change to

petrifaction ; and parts which were partially burnt, were to all appear-

ance the same as the coal. I have got specimens of the coal and petri-

fied teak, but do not send them, having sent some four or five years ago,

to Mr. Tucker; I also perceived a notice on the subject by Dr. Ri-

chardson: should you wish it, I willsend them on hearing from you.

The kubas and nagas use the petrified teak for striking fire to tinder ;

there is one peculiarity respecting its locality which struck me, it is that

I have only observed it (in all places between Mulphoo and Sunayachil),

at about the same distance from the Ningthee, that is, at the foot of the

last range of the Augoching hills on their eastern side.

VII.— Note on Indian Saline Deposits. By the Reverend R. Everest.

{Read inthe Phys. Cl.on the 4th April, 1832.]

Some months ago I had the honour of laying before the Society

my views respecting the deposits of common salt in the soil of the

Bundelkhand country, as mentioned by Capt. Franklin, and also

those of the Bhartpur district, as mentioned by an anonymous

writer, in the Gueantnes. J then ventured an opinion, that these

deposits were not to be considered as characteristic of the new-red-

sandstone, partly because their chemical composition differed from

that of the rock-salt deposits in Europe: the Bhartpuir deposits

being stated to consist of muriate, with some sulphate and carbo-

nate of soda; the rock-salt of Cheshire, on the other hand, being

composed principally of muriate of soda, with some sulphate of

lime ; and partly, because it was in no wise proved that these depo-

sits were connected with the sandstone formation itself, further than

by their existence in the superincumbent soil. I now beg to call

your attention to the newly discovered saline deposit in the plain

* Tron pyrites.

150 Smelting of Iron in the Kasya Hills. [ Aprtt,

about a mile to the west of this, as confirmatory of my previous

epinion. The salt is principally composed of carbonate, with a

mixture of sulphate and muriate of soda. It effloresces on the sur-

face in the dry weather, and is scraped off by the natives. I had

the soil opened above a foot in depth, and it appeared to be equally

impregnated beneath.

This deposit is not connected with any sandstone, and is 35 miles

distant from the nearest point of the great sandstone formation of

Bundelkhand. ¥rom inquiries I have made, I am led to believe,

that similar saline deposits are not unfrequent in this district. Capt.

Franklin mentions salt in the valley of the Ganges beyond Wirza-

pur, and the salt of the Bhartpur district is not proved to be con-

nected with the sandstone; therefore we have no reason to believe

it peculiar to any formation. As the sulphate of soda is said to

be collected in large quantities from the soil of the basaltic districts

on the western side of India, itis not improbable that these saline

deposits are distributed over the peninsula of India co-extensively

with the nodules of kankar (carbonate of lime) and hydrated iron ore.

Ghazipur, March, 1832.

VIII.—Smelting of Iron in the Kasya Hills.

The following is the method pursued from time immemorial by

the natives of this part of the country in working down the ores of

iron so plentifully met with hereabouts.

There are large grass huts at least twenty-five feet high, the

thatch of which reaches down to the ground on all sides. The

interior, of an oval form, 15 by 30 feet, in the two diameters, is divid-

ed into three apartments ; the central one being the smelting room.

Two large double bellows, with the nozzles pointed downwards,

are set upon one side of the apartment, on the upper part of which

a man stands with one foot on each, his back supported by two

planks. He holds a stick in his left hand, which is suspended from

the roof, and has two strings attached to it below, connected with

the two bellows: these are worked quickly by a wriggling motion

of the loins, and the strength of the leg. .

The nozzles: of the bellows unite in a tube which leads under-

ground, from a sort of wind chest, to the hearth about four feet in

front of them. Over the hearth is a chimney of pipe-clay braced

with iron hoops, two feet in diameter at the bottom, and about six

feet high. The mouth at bottom is on the side away from the bel-

tat

Vol L Flue

A ey “f ! A /

/ | \\i\ fi

Ch ee Ta , pal ral

1 ae

Ay,

My]

TLIROM SMIGILLIIN G IF CIRNA CIE

of the ‘

KASYA HILLS

1832. | On Chinese Vermilion. 151

lows, and the chimney inclined from them to direct the heated air

from the smelter towards an opening in the roof. At the right side

ofthe bellows and even with the top of the chimney, is a trough

containing damp charcoal and iron-sand: at every motion of his body

the operator with a long spoon tumbles a piece of this charcoal with the

iron-sand adhering to it, down the funnel of the furnace, and when a

mass of melted or rather softened iron is formed on the hearth, itis

taken out with tongs, and beaten with a heavy wooden mallet on a

large stone by way of anvil. The iron in this state is sent down to the

plains for sale or barter, The smelters say that they procure their

fire-clay in large quantities from the vicinity of the limestone hill at

Chirra Ptinjz, whence on a former occasion I sent you a series of

geological specimens, among which, if | remember right, was some of

this clay, of a light straw colour and slaty texture, containing minute.

micaceous particles, W.C.

References to Plate V1.

1. The chimney of the furnace supported by stone pillars, so as not to touch

the hearth.

2. One pair of bellows open.

3. Ditto shut.

4, Frame on which the man rests.

5. A primitive ladder for mounting the bellows.

6. The wooden mallet.

7. The tongs.

8. The spoon.

9, The trough supported by a wooden fork.

VII.—On Chinese Vermilion.

[Translated into French from a Chinese Technologic Encyclopedia, entitled,

Thian-koung Kai-we, or Exposition of the Wonders of Nature and the Arts.

By M. Stanislas Julien*.] From the Nouveau Journal Asiatique.

Cinnabar, \iquid silver, the red of silver, are in reality one and the

same thing. What causes them to bear different names is that the

substance is either pure or coarse, or old or recently extracted.

Cinnabar, of the first quality, comes from Chinpé (now Mayang),

and from Sttchouan. It is found ina state of purity in the bosom of

the earth, and does not require purification by fire. This cinnabar,

which is used to polish the tips of arrows, metallic mirrors, &c. is

thrice as valuable as mercury: whence it is carefully picked and

sold under its native form, that is, in the state of sand or red powder.

If melted, it loses a great part of its value.

* The Chinese edition whence this article is extracted bears the date of 1637>

152 On Chinese Vermilion. [ Aprit,

The coarse cinnabar, of the second quality, needs to be purified

by the fire, when it forms mercury.

The cinnabar of the first quality is found by digging the ground at a

depth of 70 feet. The presence of the mineral is indicated by the ap-

pearance of small white granular stones. The largest pieces are of the

‘size of an egg. The second sort does not enter into any pharmaceutic

preparation. It is ground up and used by the painters and colorists

in the same manner as that whith is prepared directly from mercury.

Its matrix does not always appear under the form of white stones,

but has sometimes a mixture of blue and yellow. It is found about 20

feet below the other. Sometimes it is met with in a stratified sandy

soil, and then the stony and sandy gangue is easily separated. This

kind of cinnabaris found in abundance at Koucitchou Ssein, at Thoung-

Jin, &c. also in great quantities at Changtcheou and at Tsintcheou.

The cavities from which the second sort is collected, have a whitish

aspect. When recently extracted, it may be separated without the

necessity of previous pounding. This cinnabar, on first coming

from the mine, has a brilliant surface, which soon tarnishes on contact

with the air.

To prepare the vermilion, they take the cinnabar, and pound it

in an iron mortar shaped like a boat, with a stone pestle of a flat-

tened spherical form, and placed at the end of a vertical lever moved

by four men, by means ofa bar which passes through it. The powder

is thrown into clean water, and left to soak for three days and three

nights. One part falls to the bottom of the vessel, the other, light-

er, floats on the surface: this is removed with a skimming ladle and

placed in a second vessel. It is then called Eult chou, or second red.

The cinnabar which was deposited in the first vessel, is taken out,

dried in the sun, and is then called Theout chou or first red.

To obtain quicksilver from the ores, either the second quality, infe-

rior cinnabar, white and newly extracted, or the deposit, or the skum

separated on the surface of the water, are employed.

Thirty pounds of one of the above ores is put into an iron vessel,

with a convex head of the same metal, having a small opening in its

centre: the two are carefully luted together, and a curved iron tube

fitted hermetically into the aperture at top, with hemp and luting.

Thirty pounds of charcoal are necessary for the distillation : when

the retort becomes hot, one end of the iron tube is plunged into cold

water, so that the vapour which rises from the metal pot distils over

through the tube, and condenses in the water. In five hours the

whole of the cinnabar is transformed into mercury, which is taken

out of the water after having been suffered to repose for 24 hours.

1832. | On Chinese Vermilion. 153

Sometimes the mercury is treated afresh, to be converted into ver-

milion, which is then called Intchou, that is to say red of quicksilver.

A retort of porcelain, or a double vessel of metal, are employed in-.

differently for this purpose: to one pound of mercury two pounds

ofsulphur are added; the mixture is triturated until it forms a blackish

powder: it is then put into the crucible, which is covered with an

iron cover, held down by a bar of iron laid across the top of

it, and tied down on either side to the lower vessel by means of

a loop of brass wire made fast round the latter. All the openings are

then carefully closed with lute, and the pot is set upon an iron tri- °

pod, under which a fire of resinous faggots is maintained for a consi-

derable time; whilst the cover is kept cool with an old swab soaked

in water. The mercury then combines with the sulphur, and sub-

limes in avery fine powder, which adheres to the sides of the vessel.

The cinnabar which fixes on the inside of the cover is of the bright-

est colour. When the vessel is quite cold, the vermilion is taken out.

The excess of sulphur is found precipitated to the bottom, and may

be employed a second time. One pound of mercury gives 14 ounces

of cinnabar of the first quality, and 34 oz. of the second quality.

The cinnabar obtained by the action of fire, and that from the pulveriz-

ed native ore, have exactly the same appearance ; nevertheless the former

is never used in painting the houses of princes and persons of distinction:

the only sort employed for this purpose being the pure pulverized

mineral from Thoung chin and Pe-tchouan.

When intended to be used in writing, the vermilion is ground up

with gum and made into small cakes. Rubbed upon a stone palate

(encrier,) it presents a red of the richest brilliancy : if pounded on a tin

slab, it forms a black colour, and is then fit for the varnishers, and

gives to objects a glistening tint which enhances their price.

Mixed with the oil of the Thoung tree, it assumes a very bright appear-

ance: but if varnish be added to this, it loses its brilliancy and be-

comes of a deep black colour.

Thus we have described faithfully all that concerns the preparation

of native and artificial cinnabar, as well as that of mercury. All

that has been said about the sea of cinnabar aud the vegetable cinna-

bar rests on no foundation whatever: they are mere reveries fit to

amuse the credulous and lovers of the marvellous.

When mercury has been converted into vermilion, it has no longer

the power to return to its original state, because it has then arrived

at what may be called the final limit of transformation.

154 Meteorological Tables. [ APRIL

Xe—Abstract of Meteorological Tables, kept at Bancoora, by

Mr. J. MacRitchie, for 1830 and i831.

1830.

i, g

20/8 al §

alm eH o pL &0 * ®

Months, E Sle] 32 s a Occasional observations,

=|" = ie) =— Ts

.f #9 we) et

Basal Ea] 8 pe

a io | of a=

January,.162.8171 7'29.890 N. W

February,.| abls

March yore] 78.2|/85.1} .678| 0380] N.W. |4 Foggy mornings. Hailstorm on

26th, stones 9.in.in circum. To-

\ tal Eclipse of @.

April,ecce--|82 |88-4| .610| 2.370] S W

May, ~.--|84 |90.3] .479] 5 .627/W. N.W.|Very cloudy and rainy,

JUNE, veeel35 189.8] .331( 8.600 W. {Rains set in on the 6th, with severe

- thunder, lightning, and rain.

JULY, sovereceee]34 519.24 .425/15.500] W.

August, .....83 3|9. 4 62] 6.908] S.E. :

September,}35. 19.2 | 5 60] 4.784] N.W. |Total Eclipse of € visibleon 3rd.

October,....|33. 187.5] 6 37| 1.672 W. Stormy 2 days.

November, }73.1/81.6] 625] .963| N.W.

December, |61.6/70. 895 N. W.

eee

Yearly aver.|78.5 |84.7 |29.592 [46.804] N.W. |Onsurface generally variable,

1831.

PME ea aed See OM ACL UO SENG ER Lee Meter

January,..-|66.3|73. [29.871 W. |Adistant Comet visible for 10 days.

February, ~ 3.000 Partial Eclipse of moon on 26th,

March,..... 73.9\79.9| .748] 1.642| N. W.

April, .0--(83.1 |38.1 | .610] 4.397 W.

May, wo--eevee|87. |92.8| .510| 0.300 W. [Very hot and dry generally.

June, ~--2.-/86.5 |91.2 | .370|15.989 | N. W. [Rains set in heavily on the 9th.

July, ~.0/85.5 (89.7 | .385 10.987 W.

August, ...185. |87.5| .345/11.286| S.

September,|82.5 |87.5 | .538 |10.259 |E. S. E.

October,...|81.2 |87.2 | .600| 5.854] N.E. {Rains broke up on 3lst, with a vio-

November, |70. {78. -685 | 4.460 | N. W. lent hurricane, for 12 hours,

December, |69.5 73.5} .810} 1.438| N. W from 6 P. M.to 6 A. M. Ist Nov.

Bar. ranged from 29.5 to 28.8.

Torrents of rain. Trees torn up.

Extraordinary cloudy and rainy

month for the time of the year.

An, Mean,|79. 1/84.4 |29,588 [69.652 |W. N.W.|On surface generally variable.

Mean of 2

YCAIS, cearveee | 78.8 84.5 |29,590 [58,228 |W. N,W.|Range of Bar. from 29.920 to 28.800.

The Thermometer I observe by is a self-regulating one by Carey, and seems to

answer the purpose very well. The Barometer is one of Bate’s Marine ones, The

rain-gauge is made by Knight.

1832.] Miscellaneous Notices. 155

< XI.—Miscetzaneous Novices.

Extracts froma Native Receipt Book.

The following receipts may prove highly useful to such of your correspondents as

are engaged in Indian field sports, and can appreciate the advantageof being

their own elephant doctors when professional advice is not procurable ; they are

extracted from the nostrums of a first-rate Delhi mahout, and I have had an op-

portunity of trying most of them at different times in my sporting days, when

I made a point of attending personally to the comforts and welfare of my noble

Sporting companion. Should these receipts prove useful to fill a vacant sheet

occasionally, I shall be happy to continue the supply. Wes T.

Medicines, Sc. for Elephants.

1, When an elephant’s back is swollen, and it is necessary to cut it to let

out the matter, the wound is to be well cleansed with the following, previously

to filling it with No. 2. Make anextract from the root of the maddr, add thereto

1 chittak ofsalt and 1 cowrie weight of nila tutia, to be removed every evening

for about 8 days, to cleanse the inside well ; then fillit with No. 2 for about 16 days,

removed twice a day, at first for 8 days, and afterwards oncein 8 days, and the

upper part of the wound and swelling to be well anointed with the salve No.2. No.

3 to be then sprinkled well over the wound twice a day.

2. Salve for the sore back.

Musabbar, [aloes.].......... .- isa ok aliaenia'e's sine as'e've'e'siee sewn 4) OMittake

SindGr Guzarati, [red lead] ...- ++. ante ¥ fino s% wie's's Me cajeht wees 2 HCG

RIVE. waming ese ees Riera acm aaialcl se w's's dae «ica e els vinis seth Se OELG

Chota jewarkiatta, [flower of barley.]..........++-ecceeece cess 2 Seers

Reetele[mustardoil.| 2.0 se cene dee cess coe cve sine ovcciic oe 1 Seer

Nila tatia, [blue vitriol.J........ eo oc One pmcacate Pevsaye cleis siaisione Se CHbLakes

NE ea als cick seo ces 0.0 vipewaslns o% severe cenecccs eras 2 GIttO

REPO oe hae «ic ccceicia ct ee vie cv tseciecss adlesereecoee sevece LCOWre wt

3. To dry up the sore.

RAEI MER. Ginins <0) clnin siln’> wiv! dahore.\s/p/0 si o.cb Wajhyelp ofeie se Ka tye soem

Pe TC ACOGMMAUAS,\ 5, sini «a Scicnissls «Said -apapieeerdanesaes oe, | chittak

DEATRMEHVA Ts VCIUMAMION an toc cc es etic: ce ceils ee ceecececele ceetsiee. ab :CItto

Peaigal, [Purnta go. | foo cao nln sine sce ces eee dione stsonceceens 1 Chittack

Tukhm-Balangu, ( Dracosephalum Royleanum.)....+.+eeeeeeee+ 1 ditto

Sang jardhal, (alum ?).... .ceeeeee cece ceceerer ee eecceeeeee 1 ditto

Papri kat, (white catechi.) + sees seseeeee seeceee seeeeeeeeee 1 ditto

To be finely powdered and sifted through fine cloth, and to be applied to the

wound to dry it up.

4. Lotion for inflamed eyes, &c.

Rab-ul-sus or liquorice to be soaked in water in an earthen pot, and to be

beaten to a strong froth with the hand, and as it subsides is to be taken up and

thrown upon the elephant’s eyes ; this is very cooling.

5, Ditto another.

WD DYRICAGBig ess vin oslitws es. ee cess checcceetnteecev tee os ex 4 Chigtaie

Dhania, [coriander seed.].......¢.cccccecscce cossccrtoerscces 4 ditto

Sounph, [anethum.] ....cececcccccccseccsccsccacecgeovecsee 4 ditto

Nousddar, [sal ammoniac.]....... ‘seecseessocscscscccscnee 4 ditto

Salt, Bheri, [black salt.]......cccccvcccescecsscccveccsescvee 4 ditto

Salt, SAmar oe cesvcccccccssocccscccsevccnsccs ssaseneseave 4, ditto

To be steeped in water for 4 days in the shade in an earthen vessel.

156 Miscellaneous Notices. [Apriz,

6. Ointment for swollen and inflamed eyes.

Sabzi, [hemp leaves.Je e435 cs ooo ces a, Re a a 2 eis

Phitkari, [altm.]22 Ge Bete o's. Face ee eae ND cos ee

Opis «2.2 eis wine's isis Sa 208) odie cu «ieae's ¥le sips Hate pus, atgaiels 60 eis aie manne

Ountia, [antyrobalan weeds}. 300/05 :: 2 22222. Ga ae eee ee

Roast the alum and rub it well up with the sabzi ina little water, then with the

other ingredients apply all round the eye for 3 or 4 days.

7. Powder for ditto.

Bhimseni mriaee sane CHEAPNOL ges. s\o n'a 510 oles one» 0 ee eee pO

Fine sugar... saies(oveijeiShe,) Seles Mmereusle eed e tetanic Wace inde 20 (a(|evaietarere ee ane . | tola

Powder and sift very nie together, then tale a feather and introduce a little

into the eye for 4 or 5 days, when the eyes are very much swollen and inflamed.

8. For accidental bruises, or swollen back or feet from long journies, or hard

work, or from exposure to cold or water.

Nosddar, [sal ammoniac.]........ Byes iat 506, peo eel ua oh reece ok on eneae eG HIttaKs

S4mar salt...... Sean a ene Deon eon NoDneor sosicas soon ff THM@,

LS AMM bel Ans Baar Gocu go moodIns seldo Sosa ode Aco Ad) Layer

To be finely powdered, and beat up with the oil, and applied to the part affected,

at the same time to be fomented with cow-dung fuel (Gplah).

9. Cathartic foran Elephant when she eats earth, or shows other symptoms of a

foul stomach.

Musabbar Kamunvyari, [aloes ?]..°:< --:.. 0.66 sm seuss sae oe amlemenltialas

Coke. . ise veletess we sencececes eal cece) ot, siebsiagals wi Sota gies

Gandak valesnar, [SU pht | cones oyes +20 co ecmtctetater ayeicta erate pict eaters iy

ign | assatoctida| se. a4. cietek! eileen © erent weirs cic: 9 LTE,

Oi Cur: TMOLASSEG. cla 'secineeinant es se te aoe emeere tee Jo tet) Pe eeSEer.

To be made up into three balls, to be given at three different times. If however

the elephant will not take this, give

No. 10. The rootsof sarpat, 10 seers, to be made into an extract with water,

make up 5 seers atta into cakes with $ seer of salt, and the above extract :

having baked the cakes, make the elephant eat them.—Should this be too

violent, give }

No. 11. Rice, 5 seers, boiled, to which add 4 chittaks of dahye ; if not procu-

able, butter ; continue for a few days, after which the following cordial :

12; Shrab, [wime.]:.1%%. 2%." s's'os'eu'seie'cle o's os eealwl alstlhinle p's wi elialeiee amin eta

LAG Ra eo atherann uocapockediad Sideisia'e' ate’ 70's eless'ei) wie elctele sie wie ab sevedete mee mn CHa ICS

Gol mirich, [black pepper-]'s5)./00 cc We cine oc cate > ele'ais s olate siel afet ee mCLEO:

Anar kechilka, [rind of the pomegranate.],. .... ....e+ «+s. 4 ditto

To be boiled in water and then mixed with the shrab, and the cakes to be

broken up and mixed with these ingredients.

13. 4 salve foran Elephant’s back when nearly healed up.

Bara nim, (leaves of the.) .. ve te ee cece ceeeee seeeeeecee cess | chittak

Chotab nim, Ma.) 02 ss eetee ss a se se SIGS SOM OIA Soroce. tl. CUR)

Bylawe.. os. screccccccncecrcsececcs doeominb cuioouenuoudomcc) Gliilis,

Tutia, [blue vitriol.]:........-+:.: bes ‘ebleeecesccocccccceness | pysa bhur

To be filled into the wound, and a piece of rag stuffed gently in.

(To be continued.)

T 2

1832.] Proceedings of Societies. 157

XII.—Proceedings of Societies.

1.—AsiaTic SocteTy—PuysicaL CLass,

Wednesday Evening, the 4th April, 1832.

The Honorable Sir Edward Ryan in the Chair.

1, Mr. Kyd presented some specimens of Barnacles of an unusual size, taken

from a piece of timber found floating in the Bay of Bengal.

2. Mr. Calder presented, on the part of the Société d Histoire Naturelle de 0 Ile

Maurice, copies of the proceedings of that Society, and of the Aunual Reports de-

livered at the Anniversary Meetings of the 29th August, 1830—183].

There seems to have existed so far back as 1801, a Society of Emulation at

Port Louis, Mauritius, instituted by Messrs. Bory de St. Vincent and Lislet Geoffroy,

and several other naturalists who remained in the isle on the occasion of Gabarres

expedition. From time to time it published articles on Natural History and other

branches of knowledge—it held its last meeting to greet the arrival of Freycinet

in the French ship of discovery, Z’ Uranie, in 1818.

Under the French government, Genl. Decaen had intended to add a cabinet of

Natural History,with a library and collection of instruments,to the Lyceum found -

ed by him, but the project was, from some unknown cause, frustrated. Long pre-

vious to the thought of such an institution, however, most of the natural productions

of the isle had been brought to the knowledge of the world through the labours of

Aublet, Commerson, Sonnerat, Jossigny, the Viscount de Kerhoens, so often quoted

by Buffon, and even the celebrated St. Pierre, to whom imay be added De Cos-

signy, Beauvais, and Céré.

In 1826, two naturalists resident at Port Louis, in the most disinterested manner

Offered to contribute their own collections towards the formation of a Museum

connected with the College ; but circumstances changed with English rulers, and

no answer even was deigned by Sir G- Lowry Cole, or Genl. Darling.

The present Society owes its origin entirely to the private exertions of Mr. C,

Telfair, Mr. J. Desjardins, and their friends.—They first thought of calling it ‘‘ the

Asiatic Society,’ and connecting its labours with those of Calcutta and London,

but preference was at length given to the present designation of ‘the Natural His-

tory Society of the Mauritius.’ It opened its meetings on the 24th August 1829, the

anniversary of the birth of the Baron Cuvier, the most distinguished natural

philosopher of the present age; and the same auspicious day was fixed for the

subsequent annual festivals of the Society. ‘Two of these have since elapsed, and

on each occasion an able and copious analysis of the past year’s labours was read

by the secretary Monsieur Desjardins. The present Governor Sir Charles

Colville, at the earnest request of all the members, accepted the office of patron,

and granted an apartment of the government house for the meetings of the Society.

Reports of the proceedings of the Society will be published regularly in the Journal,

2. Read a letter from the Revd. R, Everest, addressed to the President, on

the subject of the Indian sandstone, and describing the extraction of carbo-

nate of soda and common salt from the soil in the neighbourhood of Ghazip4Gr.

3. Read a note on the geology of Elephant Hill on the Quedah Coast, by Dr,

Ward, Madras Medical Establishment, accompanied with specimens of the rock,

communicated by Sir Charles Grey.

The country north of Quedah beach is an immense plain nearly level with the

sea, and covered near the coast with mangrove, rising gently towards a

smallchain of hills to the east, 16 to 20 miles distant. The soil is a rich white

158 Proceedings of Societies. [ APRIL,

clay mixed with sand. From this plain, 6 miles inland, and quite insulated, rises

abruptly the Elephant rock. The ground around it is a complete swamp, and

the elephants in approaching were buried to the howdah in mud. The rock

is a close grained limestone of a grey colour: it is penetrated by a number

of caves of various dimensions : stalactites hang on the face of the rocks within and

from the roof :—the floor is leveled by a stalagmitic incrustation, covering loose

calcareous earth about 60 or 70 feet deep. In one of the caves, at an elevation

of 8 or 10 feet above the surrounding plain, an insulated mass of shells was found ;

cockles, oysters, and a larger kind of muscle, connected together by calcareous

matter : there was no appearance of shell strata in the rock.

The caves contain no sculpture. The natives assert that formerly the Elephant

rock was surrounded by the sea.

4, Aletter from Captain Grant, of Manipar, communicated by G. Swinton,

Esq. describing the process of extracting gold from the sand of the Ningthee ;

specimens of the gold dust and sand accompanied, and some crystallized py-

rites. [This paper is inserted in the present number.]

5. Some account of the Lacquered or Japanned Ware of Ava, communicated

by G. Swinton, Esq. on the part of Major H. Burney, Resident at Ava ; il-

lustrated by a complete series of specimens of the ware, as well as of the mate-

rials with which it is manufactured: also of the varnish and of the various

metallic dyes used to colour it, [This will be published in our next. ]

6. Description of a new species of Buceros of Nipdl, the Buceros Homrai,

by B.H. Hodgson, Esq., with remarks on its anatomical structure, by Dr. J.

Bramley, and with an accurate drawing of the animal.

7, Account of the Salt Mines of the Panjib, by Lieut. S. Burnes, Bombay

Army, enclosed in a letter from that officer, dated Rawil Pindi, 10th March, 1832,

with specimens ofthe native ore of lead, sulphur, alum, and red clay, from the

range in which the salt is found. [Published in the present number. ]

The thanks of the Society were voted for the contributions of the evening.

2.—MEDICAL AND PHYSICAL SOCIETY.

7th April, 1832.

J. C. Boswell, Esq. Assistant Surgeon, at Penang, was elected a Member of

the Society. The following communications were presented to the Meeting :

1, An Essay on Lepra Tuberculata, as it appears in Bengal, by Dr. T. A. Wise.

9. Remarks on Variola and some Varioloid Diseases, which have recently oc-

curred subsequently to Vaccination, by H. S. Mercer, Esq.

3. An additional communication on Dracunculus, with cases, by Dr. Mylne.

4. Proces verbal of the Proceedings of the Society of Natural History of the

Mauritius, at the Meetings of 25th October and 23rd November, 1831, transmit-

ted by Monsieur Desjardins. ;

5. Acase of Lithontrity Instruments, with a copy of Mr. Atkinson’s printed

letter, addressed to the Medical Board of Calcutta, describing the process of

Lithontrity. A letter from the Secretary of the Medical Board, states, that should

cases of Urinary Calculus occur in the practice of any of the medical men at the

Presidency, these instruments will be available for their use.

6. At the sametime, Dr. Casanova brought for inspection of the Society, a

complete set of instruments, made precisely after the model of those used by Mons.

Civiale, at Paris ; together with that author’s work on Lithontrity. Mons.

Civiale’s apparatus is peculiar in the lightness and firmness of its construction,

and in having a spiral spring toregulate the pressure of the borer against the stone 5

‘

1832. | Proceedings of Societies. 159

during the action of the drill; so that the aid of an assistant to the operator is not

required- Dr. Casanova stated to the Society, that he has now a case of Urinary

Calculus, under treatment by Civiale’s process, and he exhibited some portion of

the stone which had been reduced to a powder by the first operation, on this sub-

ject. A chemical examination made by the President, proved this to be composed

principally of carbonate of lime, with some phosphate of lime, and scarcely any

lithic acid : a very slight trace of iron was apparent, probably from attrition of

some particle of the Lithontriteur. Dr. Casanovaalso presented to the Society,

the fragments of a stone on which he had successfully operated at the-Mauritius ;

and he offered his apparatus, made after Civiale’s model, for the use of any of the

professional men at the Presidency, who might require it either for operation, or

to have a similar apparatus made here.

7. A letter from Mr. Royle, on his departure from Calcutta, presenting for

the Library six medical works, viz.

Dionis’s Surgery.

Le Dran’s Surgery.

Lommius de Febribus.

Sennertus, Epitome Institut. Mediciane, cum libro de Febribus.

Albertus Magnus de Morbis Mulier.

Michaeli’s Scotus, Opusculum de Secretis Nature.

The following papers were then read and discussed by the Meeting :

The case of disease of the heart formerly presented by the Medical Board,

Dr. Casanova’'s case of Elephantiasis.

Mr. Mercer on Small-pox after vaccination,

This paper commences with a few remarks on the occasional occurrence

of small-pox oftener than Once in the same person; the author, then observes,

that although the greatest benefits have been derived from vaccination, (the

efficacy of which generally as a preventive of variola he fully acknowledges,) still

it must be allowed, that sometimes a modified small-pox occurs after yvaccina-

tion ; and in few very rare instances, the severer forms of confluent small-pox hap-

pen. Seven cases of variolous and varioloid disease have recently fallen under

the author’s observation, the particulars of which he now placed before the Soe

ciety ; from consideration of these cases, he concludes, that the varioloid disease,

after vaccination, occurs in a great variety of forms, and with considerable diver-

sity in its eruptive symptoms, as well as in the degree of intensity of the attendant

pyrexia. He is also inclined to believe, that some individuals who have been for

a time protected against variola by vaccination, may become afterwards liable to

suffer from the former disease; although the present cases would not support

a conclusion that there was any particular period at which the prophylactic pro-

perty of vaccination ceased; as the patients he has lately treated, while suffer-

ing from varioloid diseases, were aged respectively, 29, 28, 22, 20, 19, 13) and

seven years ; they were vaccinated in infancy, and there is no evidence that any

of them hadin the interval been exposed to variolous contagion.

Mr. Hutchinson on the Proximate Cause of Cholera.

Mr. Hutchinson attempts to explain the mode in which the phenomena of

that disease are produced. The idea of its depending on inflammation in the in-

testinal canal, (even were it shewn that an affection of that nature is invariably

present, in the early stage of the disease, which it is not,) he considers totally

inadequate to account for the phenomena. Mr. H. conceives Cholera to depend

ona certain state of disorder of the functions of respiration, whereby the changes

160 Proceedings of Societies. [Aprit,

essential to life, effected in that process, are influenced ; perhaps principally the

consumption of oxygen and evolution of carbonic acid gas. This state of dis-

order, Mr. H. considers to be the consequence of certain noxious changes, either

in the electrical or gaseous constitution of the atmosphere; (most probably, by

the former remotely, and the latter more directly ;) by which the delicate nervous

tissue of the lungs becomes impaired in its energies, and oxygen ceases to be con-

sumed in the quantities essential to life.

3.—NaTuRAL History Society oF THE MaurRITIUs.

Tuesday, 20th July, 1831.

M. Delisse, sen. communicated a letter received by him from M. Cailand,

Conservateur-adjoint of the Museum of Natural History at Nantes, in which he

proposed to effect a mutual exchange of objects with such of the members as

might desire it.

The President read a letter from Sir Alexander Johnstone, to his excellency

the Governor Sir Ch. Colville, dated London, 26th Feb. begging him to apprize the

Society that H. R. H. the Duke of Sussex, now Pres. of the Royal Society of

London, would extend his patronage to all scientific or literary Societies which

might be formed at the Mauritius. The same letter mentioned the favorable

reception of Professor Dabadie’s observations on the comet of 1830, both by the

Royal and by the Royal Asiatic Society, of which he had been elected an hono-

rary member.

The Secretary was directed to acknowledge the honor of H. E.’s communication.

Mr. L. Bouton read an extract of a letter from Mr. Ad. Brongniart, inviting

the aidof the Society in aiding the objects of the new school of arts and manu-

factures of Paris (where.a new course of studies is recently opened,) by forwarding

specimens of all substances employed in the domestic arts and manufactures of

the island.

Mr. Lienard, sen. having proposed to write to the Governor, praying his

support of the classes of physic, chemistry, and natural history, which had lately

taken the place of the Botanical lectures at the Royal College,—Mr. Delisse, sen,

read awork he had drawn up on the subject, which met with approbation from all

the members present, and he was requested to undertake the drafting of the pre-

sent address.

Mr. Bojer gave verbally the description of two birds of Agaléga, (male and

female,) which he took to be the Ibis of the ancients : the specimens were

from M. Delisse’s collection.

The number of objects presented at this meeting was considerable.

A tiger skin, 12 feet long,—dy M. Wieké. .

A mummified head from New Zealand, of the chief Mallowolla, sent from

Sydney by Captain Foreman,—by Mr. C, Telfair.

The rib of awoman which fell to his share in a feast among the cannibals of

the same place,—by Captain Briggs.

Mr. Briggs saved and brought away a child of 7 or 8 years old, which was

about to be sacrificed; its features are those of the Malgaches, or Creoles of the

Isle of France.

The skins of two Maki, also some minerals and insects, with descriptions,—4y

Mr. Cameron.

Capt. Briggs, Mr. R. Campbell of Sydney, and Mr. S. Lair, of Paris, were elected

honorary members.

1832.] Catalogue, &c. 161

X1.— Catalogue of Mammalia observed in the Dakhan. By Major

W. H. Sykes.

[Reprinted from the Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London.]

Homo sapiens, L.—The people inhabiting the Dakhan have the Georgian form of

skull; their stature is low ; the colour of the skin brown, with shades running

into yellow white in the higher classes, and black in the lower, The females are

not distinguished for fertility, the average number of births to a marriage being

less than in Europe. More males are born than females, and in nearly four milli-

ons of people I found the proportions of females to males to range in different

districts from eighty to ninety females to one hundred males.

Semnopithecus Entellus, F. Cuv. Makar of the Mahrattas.—This species is

found in large troops in the woods of the Western Ghats. __ It is not venerated by

the Mahratta people, nor do they object to its being killed.

SEMN,? ALBOGULARIS, Sykes. Seman. ? supra flavo nigroque, infra albo nigroque,

trroratus ; gula alld ; artubus nigris : mistacibus latis aures pene obvelantibus ;

superciliorum pilis rigidis exstantibus.

Hab. in Madagascar ?

This species (a living individual of which is nowin the garden of the Society)

appears to be new to science. _It is only provisionally classed as a Semnopithecus,

pending our inability to examine its posterior molars, The animal was obtained at

Bombay, where it was believed to have been taken from Madagascar ; and as it has

some characters in common with the Cercopitheci (especially with the group of

which the Cere. Sabeus forms a part) and the Semnopitheci of India, it may ulti-

mately prove to be a connecting link between the African and Asiatic monkeys.

It wants the long limbs of the Semnopitheci : and although its tail is very long, it

is not particularly thin.

The following is the description of the animal—a male. Canines remarkably

long (nearly ? of an inch), slender, sharp ; incisors very short and even. Head

rounded and short. Ears very small, nearly rounded, and for the most part con-

cealed in the long hair about the head. Eyes deeply seated, and shaded by a con-

tinuous arch of long hairs directed forwards. Jrides broad ; of a brown ochre

colour: hair forming a bunch on each cheek and resembling whiskers : no beard.

Cheek pouches rudimentary only, not observable externally, even when filled, be-

ing concealed by the bushy hair of the cheeks, Thumbs of anterior hands short

and distant ; those of the posterior long. Whole of the upper surface of the ani-

mal of a mingled black and yellowish ochre colour, each hair being banded black

and ochre ; the black prevailing on the shoulders, the ochre on the back and flanks.

Under surface grizzled white and black. Anterior limbs uniform black ; poste-

rior black, witi a little of the dorsal colour. Chin and throat pure white. Tail

black, half as long again as the body.

The manners of this monkey are grave and sedate. Its disposition is gentle but

not affectionate: free from that capricious petulance nnd mischievous irascibility

characteristic of so many of the African species, but yet resenting being teased, and

evincing its resentment by very smart blows with its anterior hands. It never bit

any person on board ship, but so seriously lacerated three monkeys, its fellow pas-

sengers, that twoof them died from the wounds. It readily ate meat, and from choice

would pick a bone even when plentifully supplied with vegetables and dried fruits.

Macacus radiatus, Geoff. Wadnar of the Mahrattas.—This well known species

inhabits the woods of the Western Ghats in smal] troops. A female brought to

England by me and presented to the Society, was capricious and mischievous in

disposition, but of surprising courage and marked intelligence. It manifested con-

siderable attachment to myself, which was less transient than [had anticipated, as

it greeted me with evident demonstrations of joy on my visiting it in the gardens

after the lapse of a month without seeing me. The natives of Western India edn-

cate this monkey to perform certain tricks.

Pteropus medius, Temm. Warbagit/ of the Mahrattas,—This species is very nume-

yous in Western India. Such variations are found in the colouring of different

individuals in the same troop, that two or three species might be supposed to exist

in it; but the great mass so closely resembles the Péter, medius of M. Temminck,

that I do not consider myself justified in describing the Rossette of the Dakhan as

a distinct species, The only persons in Western India who eat these bats are the

native Portuguese, but 1 can personally testify that their flesh is delicate and

162 Catalogue of the [Aprit,

without any disagreeable flavour. I have measured individuals witha greater

length of body (143 inches) than is given to the Pter. Javanicus of Dr. Horsfield.

Nyctinomus plicatus, Geoff. (Vespertilio plicatas, Hamilton ?)

This bat bears a very close resemblance to Dr. Horsfield’s Nyct. tenuis.

RHINOLOFHUS DUKHUNENSIS, Sykes.—R hin. supra murinus, infra albido brun-

neus ; auribus capite longioribus : antibrachio corpus longitudine equante.

This bat belongs to the same section as Dr. Horsfield’s Ahin. insignis, but

differs from that species in being much smaller ; in having the ears larger and

more rounded ; the nose-leaf with the upper lobe concave, ridged beneath and re-

volute above ; and the front lobe oblong and notched in the centre. It differs

from the Rhin. crumeniferus, Pér. and Le Sueur, (which is the Rhin. marsupialis

ot M. Geoffroy’s lectures, and the Rhin Speoris of M. Desmarest,) in being much

smaller, this species having the fore arm nearly half as long again as the Dakhan

bat. ‘The upper nose-leaf also is much more produced, and finally the colour of

the fur in this species is reddish. The fore arm of the RAin. Speoris as figured,

is 2 inches 2 lines long, and the body and head 2 inches 2 lines. In the Dakhan

species the fore arm is only the length of the body. Expansion of its wings 10

inches.

Sorex Indicus, Geoff. Cheechondur of the Mahrattas.—These troublesome and dis-

agreeable animals are very numerous in the Dakhan, but much more so in Bom-

bay. They do considerable damage in cellars by tainting the wine ; and the pas-

sage of an individual over a vessel of water impregnates the whole mass with the

scent of musk. I have had occasion to remark that the sebaceous glands in an

old male were very large, and the odour of musk from them almost insuppor-

table ; while in an adult female the glands have been scarcely discoverable, and

the scent of musk very faint. The Indian Shrew is as much carnivorous as insec-

tivorous. Having killed the Sorea Iudicus and Sor. giganteus, in the same room,

and seen them frequently together, L look upon them as of the same species.

Ursus labiatus, Blainy. Aswailof the Mahrattas.—The system of dentition of

this well-known animal appears to be anomalous; for instead of six incisors in

each jaw, I have never seen more than four in the upper and six in the lower ; the

two centre teeth standing a little in front of the line of the rest. I have had op-

portunities of examining many skulls of animals of very different ages, and possess

specimens at the present moment, all of which agree in the number and position

of the incisor teeth. One of these individuals is so young that I do not con-

ceive that the deficient incisors can have fallen out; nor is there any appearance

of dentition having existed in the places which they should have occupied. It

might be deemed advisable therefore to remove this animal from the genus Ursus.

An Aswail brought to me from the woods when quite young, and which lived

some time in my possession, fed by choice almost exclusively upon roast mutton

and fowl; rejecting all fruits and vegetables. It ate, however, steeped grain

(Cicer arietinum), and was very fond of buttermilk. These animals when taken

young are readily instructed.

Lutra Nair, F. Cuv. Jahl Mérjar or Water Cat of the Mahrattas—The Ofter

of Dakhan differs only from the Nair in wanting the white spots over the eyes,

in having a white upper lip, and in being somewhat larger ; discrepancies which do

not justify its being separated as a species.

Canis DAKHANENSIS, Sykes.—Kolsan of the Mahrattas.

Can. rufus, subtus pallidior : caudd comasd pendente : pupilla rotundatd.

This is the Wild Dog of the Dakhan, and differs from any wild species hitherto

described. Its head is compressed and elongated ; its nose, not very sharp. The

eyes are oblique: the pupils round, irides light brown. The expression of the

countenance that of a coarse ill-natured Persian Greyhound, without any resem-

blance to the Jackal, the Fox, or the Wolf, and in consequence essentially distinct

from the Canis Quao or Sumatrensis of General Hardwicke. Ears long, erect,

somewhat rounded at the top, without any replication of the ¢ragus. Limbs re-

markably large and strong in relation to the bulk of the animal ; its size being in-

termediate between the Wolf and Jackal. Neck long. Body elongated. Be-

tween the eyesand nose, red brown : end of the tail blackish.

From the tip of the nose to the insertion of the tail, 33 inches in length : tail

84 inches. Height of the shoulders 16% inches.

These animals hunt in packs, and the specimen brought to me was found to

have the stomach distended with the remains of a nylgau.

1832. ] Mammalia observed in the Dakhan. 163

None of the domesticated Dogs of the Dakhan are common to Europe.

The first in strength and sizeis the Brinjart Dog, somewhat resembling the

Persian Greyhound, in possession of the Society, but much more powerful. It is

employed by the erratic people, the Brinjaris, in protecting their herds and in

hunting. Its strength enables it to pull down the largest animals of the chase.

It is courageous and intelligent.

The Pariah Dog is referable to M. Cuvier’s second section. These animals are

very numerous; they are not individual property, and breed in the towns and

villages unmolested. Many of these dogs hunt very well by scent.

Amongst the Pariahs is frequently found the Turnspit Dog, long backed, with

short crooked legs.

There is also a petted minute variety of the Pariah Dog, usually of a white co-

Jour and with long silky hair, corresponding to a common Lap-Dog of Europe;

this is taught to carry flambeaux and lanterns. %

The last variety noticed is the Dog with hair so short as to appear naked like

the Canis Egyptius. It is known to Europeans by the name of the Polygar Dog.

CANIS PALLIPES, Sykes.—Zandgah of the Mahrattas.

Can. sordidé rufescenti albidus ; dorso nigrescenti ferrugineoque vario ; pedibus

totis pallidé ferrugineis ; cauda sublongd pendente.

This is the Wolf of the Dakhan. Its head is elongated, and its muzzle acumina-

ted : a groove exists between the nostrils. Eyes oblique : trides yellowish bright

brown. Ears narrow, ovate, erect ; small for the length of the head. Tail pen-

dent, thin but bushy, extending below the os calcis. General colour of the fura

dirty reddish white or whited brown. Along the back and tail very many of the

hairs are tipyed black, mixed with others tipped ferruginous. The tailends ina

black tip. The inner surface of the limbs, the throat, breast, and belly, dirty white ;

legs pale. From the ears to the eyes reddish grey, with a great number of short

black hairs intermixed ; from the eyes to the nostrils, light ferruginous. The fur

from the occiput to the insertion of the tail is two or three inches long, gradu-

ally shortening as it approaches the sides ; hence all over the body very short and

lying close.

The description is taken from two three-parts grown animals, which I had alive

for a considerable time in my possession.

Length from tip of nose to insertion of tail 35 to 37 inches ; of the tail 11 to 12

inches ; the hair extending two inches beyond the measurement.

These animals are numerous in the open stony plains of the Dakhan ; but are

not met with in the woods of the Ghats.

Canis aureus, Linn. Kholah of the Mahrattas.—The Jackal of Dakhan appears

to be identical with the Lavantine and Persian Jackal, They are numerous in the

Dakhan, and are terrible depredators in the vineyards. They are easily domesti-

cated when taken young. Ihbad avery large wild male and a domesticated female

in my possession at the same time, ‘The odour of the wild animal was almost un-

bearable. That of the domesticated Jackal was scarcely perceptible.

Canis Koxkri, Sykes.—Aof&rt of the Mahrattas.

Can, supra rufescenti-griseus, infra sordidé albus ; caud@e comose apice nigro ;

pedibus rufescentibus ; pupilld elongata.

The Fox of the Dakhan appears to be new to science, although it much resembles

the descriptions of the Corsac. It is a very pretty animal, but much smaller than

the European Fox. Head short ; muzzle very sharp. Eyes oblique: irides nut-

brown. Legs very slender. Tail trailing on the ground; very bushy. Alone

the back and on the forehead fawn-colour, with hair having a white ring near to

its tip. Back, neck, between the eyes, along the sides and half way down the tail

reddish grey, each hair being banded black and reddish white. All the legs red-

dish outside, reddish white inside.

Chin and throat dirty white. Along the belly reddish white. . Ears externally.

dark brown, and with the fur so short as to be scarcely discoverable. Edges of

eyelids black, Muzzle red-brown.

Length 22 and 22 inches : of the tail 114 to 12 inches.

Viverra Indica, Geoff. (Viv. Rasse, Horsf.) Jawddt Mérjar, or Civet Cat of

the Mahrattas.—There are two varieties of this species of Viverra in the Dakhan -

one inhabiting the woods along the Ghats ; the other the country eastward of the

Ghats, The animal of the Ghats exactly resembles a specimen now in the

x 2

164 Catalogue of the [ Apri,

Museum, and formerly in the Menagerie of the Society ; the ground colour being

much grayer, and the lines more distinctly broken into spots. The other variety

resembles in its ferruginous tint the specimens of the Rasse presented to the Sacie-

ty by Major-General Hardwicke, but has the four black longitudinal lines or

stripes on the sides of the neck more marked, and is considerably larger : two of

my specimens from the Dakhan being 277 and 28% inches long.

The Dakhan variety exhales a very powerful odour of musk, and the organs for

the secretion of this drug are of considerable size.

The specimen presented by me tothe Society died on board ship; and some

hundreds ef capillary worms were found all over the body lying between the skin

and the flesh.

_ Herpestes griseus, Desm. Mangus of the Mahrattas.—-The Mangus of Dakhan

is no doubt the Herp. griseus of M. Desmarest, but very considerably exceeds in

size the published measurements of that species ; my specimens measuring from

19$ to 203 inches from the tip of the nose to the insertion of the tail, and the tail

15 to 16% inches. This animal is decidedly plantigrade. In movement it ap-

pears to slide along the ground, rather than trot or canter. It is believed by the

Mahratta people to have a natural antipathy to serpents, and in its contests with

them to be able to neutralize the poison from the bite of the serpent, by eating the

root of a plant called Mangius-wail; but no one has ever seen the plant, Proba-

bly they allude to the Ophiorhiza, Mungos.

Paradoxurus Typus, ¥. Cuy., Ud of the Mahrattas.—This animal, which is by no

means rare in the Dakhan, is always lively, and a specimen in my possession was

remarkable for the energy with which during the night time it chased round its

cage. Its carnivorous propensities were so strong that it snapped off and devour-

ed the heads of all fowls that incautiously approached its cage ; but on board

ship it was fed entirely on rice and clarified butter. In the stomachs of some in-

dividuals examined at Poona, I found fruit, vegetables, and Blatte.

Hyena vulgaris, Cuv. Tarras of the Mahratt&’s.—Hyenas are numerous in

Dakhan. They are susceptible of the same domestication as adog. The animal

given by me to the Society was allowed to run about my house at Poona ; and on

board ship it was in the hahit of gamboling like a dog. It allowed persons to put

their hands into its mouth without attempting to bite ill-naturedly. It was fed on

rice and clarified butter.

‘Felis Tigris, L. Pattite Wagh or Striped Tiger of the Mahrattas.—Royal tigers

are so numerous in the province of Khandesh, that 1032 were killed from the years

1825 to 1829 inclusive, as appears by the official returns handed to me. They

are much less numerous in the collectorates of Poona, Ahmednagar, and

Dharwar.

Fel. Leopardus. Chita of the Mahrattas.—This would appear to be the Leo-

pard of Mr. Temminck’s monograph of the genus Felis. It is a taller, longer,

and slighter built animal than the succeeding, which I consider the Panther. It dif-

fers also in more of the ground colour being seen, and in the rose spots being much

more broken: there are also other specific diffierences which the nature of this ca-

talogue does not admit of my entering into, The natives uf Dakhan consider the

Chita and succeeding Cat as distinct animals. The Chita is rare. The Panther

very abundant, Ido not possess a specimen of the Leopard; the only one I was

enabled to obtain having been given by me to the East India Company.

Fel. Pardus. Bibta Bagh of the Mahrattas.—This species is so abundant that

472 were killed from 1825 to 1829 inclusive, in the four collectorates of Dukhun.

It exactly resembles the animal] figured as the Panther of the ancients in Mr. Grif-

fith’s ‘ Translation of the Régne Animal.’ It differs from the preceding in its

smaller size, stouter make, darker ground colour, and in its crowded rose rings-

The Society is in possession of several of these Cats; amongst others a half-

grown animal from the Dakhan, which I presented to it in December last.

Fel, Jubata, L., and Fel. venatica, H. Smith. Chita of the Mahrattas.—These

presumed species appear to me to be identical, the specific differences deduced from

the hair originating in domestication. I have askin of the wild animal with a

rough coat, in which the mane is marked, while domesticated animals from the

same part of the country are destitute of a mane and have asmooth coat. They

are led about like greyhounds; but when carried out to hunt are placed upona

cart.

1832. | Mammulia observed in the Dakhan. 165

Fel. Chaus, Guld. Mota Rahn Manjur, or Larger Wild Cat of the Mahrattas.—

This species has a very extended geographical range, being found in Egypt, on the

Caspian, in Persia, at Bangalore, and in the Dakhan. It frequents | bushy moist

situations. The only additionI can give to the published descriptions of it, is

that the irides are of.a bright reddish light yellow.

Fel. torquatus, F. Cuv. Lhan Rahn Manjur, or Lesser Wild Cat of the Mahrat-

tas.—This animal is a pest, from the damage it does in poultry-yards in the Dakhan,

It inhabits the grass roofs of houses, and thick hedges, and obscure places of our

cantonments, shunning the face of man and the light, but is constantly on the alert

at night. My specimens differ only from the Fed. torquatus figured in the third vo-

lume of the Histoire Naturelle des Mammiféres, in the ears externally being tipped

dark-brown, and in having two narrow stripes behind the eyes instead of one. The

sexes resemble each other in colour, marks, and size.

Mus giganteus, Hardw. Ghis of the Mabhrattas.—This is the well-known Ban-

dikit Rat. In fully grown individuals, none of the teeth are tuberculous. Two

specimens in my possession exceed in size any yet described, measuring respec-

tively 16,% inches, and 14 2,5 inches on the body, Tail 11,5; and 11,4 inches.

Unlike the common Rat, these animals seem to be entirely granivorous. The

burrow under walls, and make such considerable excavations as to injure the founda-

tions of buildings.

Mus decumanus, Pall. Chia of the Mahrattas.—This species, the well known

Norway or Brown Rat, abounds in Dukhun. It has been seen to migrate in thou-

sands, destroying the crops in its march.

Mus Musculus, L.—This mouse is comparatively rare in the Dakhan.

Mus . Bright light chesnut above, reddish white below. Tail much

longer than the body: size of the common mouse. Found only in fields and gar-

dens. I believe this species to be new, but until I can recover the specimens which

I brought to England, Irefrain from naming it.

Sciurus ELPHINSTONU, Sykes.—Shekri, of the Mahrattas.

Se. supra nitidé castaneus, infra rufescenti-albidus; caude dimidio apicali pallidé

rufescente.

This very beautiful animal is found only in the lofty and dense woods of the

Western Ghats, and has rarely been seen by Europeans in the Dakhan. It is of the

size of the Sc. maximus, and the general arrangement of its colours is the same ;

and as the Sc, maximus passes through some gradations of colour, the Sc. Elphin-

stonii might be supposed by casual observers to be a variety of that species. Iam en-

abled to state, however, from personal observation, that the latter does not change

its colour at any period of its life ; specimens being in my possession of the most

tender and mature ages.

Ears and whole upper surface of the body, half way down the tail, outside of the

hind legs and half way down the fore legs outside, of a uniform, rich reddish ches-

nut. The whole under surface of the body, from the chin to the vent, inside of

limbs, and lower part of fore legs, crown of the head, cheeks and lower half of tail,

of a fine reddish white, the two colours being separated by a defined line and not

merging intoeach other. Feetofa light red. Forehead and down to the nose red-

dish brown, with white hairs intermixed. Jrides nut-brown. Ears tufted. Length

of a male in my possession fromthe tip of the nose to the insertion of the tail 20

inches. Length of tail 154 inches.

The cry of this animalis Chik, chk, chik; at first uttered slowly and then ra-

pidly, and it is so loud as to have a startling effect,

Ihave dedicated this Squirrel to a very distinguished person and a zealous pro-

moter of scientific research, the Hon. Mountstuart Elphinstone.

Sc, Palmarum, Briss. Kharri of the Mahrattas.—This well-known Squirrel is so

abundant in gardens in the Dakhan that [have repeatedly caught two or three at

once by simply planting out under a tree,acommon wire rat-trap, baited with a

little flour, Nothing can be more light and elegant than the movements of these

little creatures. I have witnessed some singular instances of affection for their

young in this species, which my limits do not permit me to detail.

HysTrix LEUCURUs, Sykes.—Sayal of the Mahrattas.

Hyst. caudé alba.

This animal appears to be distinct from the European species, which it closely

resembles in form and covering. It is nearly a third larger. All the spines and

tubes of the tail are entirely white, which is not the case in the Hyst, cristata. The

166 Catalogue of the | Aprit,

spines of the crest also are so long as to reach to the insertion of the tail. The

ears are much less rounded, and the nails are shorter, infinitely deeper and more

compressed, and with deep channels below. The white gular band is more mark-

ed; and, finally, the Asiatic species is totally destitute of hair, spines where want-

ing being replaced by strong bristles even down to the nails.

This species is abundant in the Dakhan and is very good eating. Like the African

Porcupine, when alarmed or irritated it shakes the tubes and spines of its tail vio-

lently, producing a startlingnoise. It stamps also with great energy with its hind

feet; and when it assaiis an adversary it runs obliquely backwards, transfixing the

foe with its spines.

Lepus nigricollis, F. Cuv. Sassah of the Mahrattas.—This species of Hare is so

common in the stony and bushy hills of the Dakhan that I have had nearly a

dozen brought to me, in the course of a few hours, by two or three men using nets

called waggurs.

Manis crassicaudata, Griff. Kuwlt Manjur, or Tiled Cat of the Mahrattas.—

This species is very common in the Dakhan. They are incapable of climbing trees,

and invariably move with the foreclaws doubled under the feet, so that they appear

to walk ontheir knuckles. They live on white ants, andlap water like adog; and

like a dog also they areinfested by the large blue tick. Their only defence is in

coiling themselves up, and so strong is the muscular power of the tail, that Ihave

lad two men attempt in vain to unroll an animal.

Sus Scrofa, L. Dikar of the Mahrattas.— Wild Hogs abound in the Dakhan, and

the males attain to avery greatsize. Iam not satisfied that there is any specific

difference between the European and Asiatic WildHog. Every village abounds

with Hogs, but any property in them is equally abjured by individuals and the

community. They live in the streets, are the public scavengers, and dispute with

the Pariah Dogs the possession of offal matters thrown out from the houses. They

are certainly of the same species asthe Wild Hog. ‘The flesh of the latter is eaten

by almost all castes of Hindus excepting the Brahmins and Banias; but the flesh

of the village Hog is not even touched by the carrion-devouring outcasts the Mahr.

The village Hog is of the same colour as the wild animal, mostly a rusty black, and

the only variations are slate black or slate intense brown ; but it is not above two-

thirds of the size of the latter. Tail never curled or spirally twisted.

Equus Caballus, L. Ghora of the Mahrattas.—A fine breed of Horses exists on the

banks of the Bima and Mann rivers in the Dakhan, supposed to have been improved

by the Arabian blood. I have been assured by a Brahmin that as much as 10,000

rupees (1,000Z,) has been paid by a native chief for an animal o/ this breed.

The variety of the horse called Pony by us, and Tattoo by the Mahrattas, is se-

dulously propagated in the Dakhan, on account of its great use in the transport of

baggage. The Zattoo is remarkable for its vicious propensities.

Equus Asinus, L. Gadha of the Mahrattas——The Ass of the Dakhan is very little

larger than a good mastiff or Newfoundland dog, but I have not remarked any other

difference between it andthe assof England. Wild asses do not exist there, but

they are said to be found in Katiwar.

Camelus Dromedarius, L. Unt of the Mahrattas.—The Dromedary is rarely bred

in the Dakhan, but is in very general use; indeed armies in India could scarcely

move without its aid. The two-humped Camel is not known.

Moschus Meminna, Erxl. Pisoreh of the Mahrattas.—This beautiful little ani-

mal is found in considerable numbers in the dense woods of the Western Ghats,

but never on theplains. It readily reconciles itself to confinement, and a friend of

mine had a pair that bred yearly. Its irides are of a deep brown. The flesh is ex-

cellent eating.

Carvus equinus, Cuv. Sambur of the Mahrattas.—This animal, which abounds

in the Ghats of the Dakhan andin Khandesh, is no doubt the same as the Malayan

Rusa figured in Griffith’s ‘ Translation of the Régne Animal.’ It wants the size of

the Cerv. Aristotelis of Bengal, also called Sambur (not Sambu), and is not so dark

in colour.

Cerv. Mantjak, Zimm. Baiker of the Mahrattas.—This beautiful species of Deer

is anative of the Western Ghats of the Dakhan, and is never seen on the plains.

An examination of the animal now in the Society’s gardens will afford satisfactory

evidence that those who have hitherto figured the animal, in works on Natural His-

tory, have been unhappy is not representing its true character. It always runs with

1832. | Mammalia observed in the Dakhan. 167

its head down and back arched. It is supplied with large suborbital sinuses, which

it uses in the manner of the dn¢, Cervicapra.

Antilope Cervicapra, Pall. Bahmant Hern of the Mahrattas.—This animal abounds

on the plains of the Dakhan in flocks of scores, but isnot met with in the

Ghats. The suborbital sinuses are capable of great dilatation, andthe animal

applies them to objects as if for the purpose of smelling,

AnT. BENNETTII, Sykes. Ant. cornubus nigris, lyratis, apicibus levibus leviter

introrsum antrorsumque versis, ad basin ultra medium annulatis (annulis 8-9) ;

rufescenti-brunneus, infra albus, fascid laterali haud conspicud; fascid medid

strigdque ab angulo oculi ad oris augulum extensd nigris ; caudd nigra,

Kalsipt or Black Tail of the Mahrattas. Goat Antelope of Europeans, ,

This Antelope is found on the rocky hills of the Dakhan, rarely exceeding three

or four in a group, and very frequently solitary. It belongs to the same section as the

nt. Dorcas. Horns erect, slightly diverging from each other, bending slightly

backwards, at first subsequently with their joints bending forward. Ringed for 3 of

their length. The whole upper surface and outside of the limbs rufous or red

brown. Under surface and inside of the limbs white. Tail black. A black patch

on the nose. A black narrow streak from the anterior corner of each eye towards

the angle of the mouth. Suborbital sinuses very small; in dried skins not observa-

ble; nor does the animal dilate them unless very much alarmed. Limbs long and

slender ; black tufts atthe knees. Body light. The female has horns, but tiey are

slender, cylindrical, and without rings. The buttocks present a heart shaped

patch of white. Unlike the dnt. Cervicapra it carries its tail erect when in rapid

motion. Itstands as high as the Batmant Hurn, but has less bulk.

Ant. Brown Antelope.

I possess the skin of a three-parts grown Antelope, a native of the Dakhan, which

lived for some months in my possession, but which its immature age prevents me

from identifying, It had much the air of the dnt. rufescens and Ant. silvicultrix,

It promised to have been a stouter animal than the dnt. Bennettii. Its habits were

quite different, and it was remarkable for the impunity with which it fed, like a

goat, upon the poisonous Euphorbia Tirucalli. The whole animal was brown above,

whited brown below. Horns cylindrical, pointed, without rings.

Capra. Hircus, Linn. Baki of the Mabrattas.

The goats in the Dakhan are gaunt, stand high on their legs, have the sides much

compressed, and are covered with long shaggy hair, which in most is black. Ears

nearly pendent. Jrides ochrey yellow or reddish yellow. Tail always carried erect

in movement.

Ovis Aries, Linn.— Sheep aremost extensively bred in the Dakhan, and as many as

20,000 or 30,000 sheep and goats may be seen together in the uncultivated tracts.

The Dakhan variety has short legs, short thickish body, and arched chaffron, The

woolis short, crisp, and coarse, and innine out of ten sheep is black. Coarse blan-

kets only are made of the wool. In most sheep there is a white streak or line from

the anterior angle of each eye towards the mouth, and a white patch on the crown

of the head. Away from our cantonments sheep are bought at 2s. per head.

Ant. picta. Pall. Damalis risea, H. Smite. Adi of the Mahrattas. Nylgat of

the Persians.

This animal is an inhabitant of the Western Ghats of the Dakhan. The female is

of amuch redder slate hue than the male, and the young are absolutely rufous,

changing and deepening to gray-slate with age.

Bos, Taurus, var. Indicus.( Bos. Indicus, Linn.) Pohl and Byl of the Mahrattas.

This animal, remarkable for its hump, is when early training to labour or tocar-

riage nearly destitute ofit. The Brakmant Bull, of which the Society has a fine

specimen, in its free state, is scarcely able to move from obesity ; but employed in

the yoke or in carrying loads it would hardly be recognized as belonging to the

same race. Park cattle are most extensively bred by the singular erratic jeople,

the Brinjarés, and an army rarely moves in the field without 15,000 or 20,000 vul-

locks to carry its grain. Dwarf cattle are not met with in the Dakhan.

Bos. Bubalus, Br. Male cailed Tondgah; Female, Mahis of the Mahrattas.

The Buffaloe of the Dakhan, which is the long- horned variety, is mostly bred in

the Mawals or hilly tracts along the Ghats. In those tracts much rice is planted,

and the male Buffaloe from his superior hardihood is much better suited to resist

the effects of the heavy rains, and the splashy cultivation of rice than the bullock.

The female is also infinitely more yaluable than the cow, from the very much

greater quantity of milk she yields.

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JOURNAL

THE ASIATIC SOCIETY.

No. 5.—May, 1832.

I.—Some Account of the Lacquered or Japanned Ware of Ava.

By Major H. Burney, Resident at the Burmese Court.

[Read at the meeting of the Phys. Cl. 4th March.]

This manufacture has been named lacquered ware from an idea,

I suppose, that lac forms a part of it; but thisis a mistake: no lac is

used, and the bright red colour is given by vermilion, which is made

by the Burmese from Cinnabar (a-yain), imported by the Chinese

caravans from Yunan.

The principal material is known to be the Burmese varnish, or theet-

tsee, which means literally “ wood oil.” There must be a great

abundance of it in the country, as the usual price at the capital is

only $ of a éécal per viss, or about 5 pence per lb.; but it is often

much adulterated, and requires to be strained through a piece of cloth

before being used. There are three descriptions of it at Ava. The

first and purest is called theet-tsee-ayoung-den, from ayoung colour,

forming of itself a beautiful black colour. The second is called theet-

tsee-anee-byau, from anee red, being that commonly used with ver-

milion or red colour.

This is said to have one-quarter of water

mixed with it.

The third and worst description is called theet-tsee

tha-yo-byau, from tha-yo, a paste, which will hereafter be described,

and to make which, this theet-tsee is generally used. This last kind

has no less than one-half of water mixed with it, and there is said to

be no difficulty in making water combine with the theet-tsee, by

rubbing the two well together in the sun. The price of the best

theet-tsee is just now at Ava 7 ticals for 10 viss.

a Z

170 Some Account of the Lacquered [May,

The Burmese workmen declare, that the varnish will not ait, sleep

or lie, or dry well, if collected from the tree when it is in fructification ;

which, they say, occurs during the three months of January, Feb-

ruary, and March. Nor will the lacquered ware, during the process

of manufacture, become soon and properly ma, or hard, in the dry hot

months before the rains set in, or at any time so well, as when it is

lodged, as Dr. Wallich understood, “ in dark and cool subterrane-

ous vaults.” The varnish is placed in the sun for a few minutes

before it is used, and being almost always applied with the hand, the

smallest grain of sand or other extraneous substance is immediately

detected and removed. When first applied, it looks of a light-brown

colour, but as the hand is rubbing on the varnish, it becomes darker,

until it attains a beautiful black colour. Sometimes, when the frame

work is of wood, a piece of tow is used for rubbing the theet-tsee on,

and generally, to save the hand, the first coat is applied with a rude

brush made of the husk of the cocoa-nut. After using the varnish,

the hand is cleaned with a little mustard-seed oil, and coarse cloth or

tow. Upon asking the workmen if they do not suffer any bad effects

from the varnish, as I recollect reading of some one at Edinburgh having

suffered severely, they admitted that they often, and particularly

when they first begin to work in it, find their hands blister and their

arms and faces swell, but that some people are.much more pre-dis-

posed to suffer in this manner than others. Hence, they have a kind

of proverb, theet-tsee thek-sé thee “ varnish is a witness ;” loo-ma-

then phyet-thee, “it affects a man not true ;” loo-then atwama-shee,

“to a true man it matters not.” About one in a hundred is said to be so

predisposed. Some of the workmen told me, that they always use

their left hands in taking their food, and that sometimes the delete-

rious effects of the varnish appear in blotches so much resembling

leprosy, that other Burmese refuse to hold intercourse with workmen

60 affected. These effects however are removed by applying to the

affected parts a lotion made of teak-wood rubbed on a stone

with a little water. Sometimes sandal-wood as well as teak is

used, but the latter is considered as the real specific. As a pre-

ventative, many workmen occasionally swallow a small quantity of the

varnish.

The theet-tsee itself forms a beautiful black colour, but to improve

its brilliancy and transparency, the article covered with it is often

polished in the same manner as the Burmese polish the fine marble,

with petrified wood powdered very fine, repeatedly washed, and then

dried ; and for this purpose, the petrified wood of a particular tree

[1832.] or Japanned Ware of Ava. 171

called En-gyen* is esteemed. A little of some scented wood is added,

but this, apparently, is not indispensable. This polishing powder is

called en-gyen-kyouk-tshowé amhoun.

There are few colours which will preserve their tint when mixed

with this varnish; vermilion answers best. The Burmese prefer a

vermilion, which they make themselves, to that brought from China,

and it is certainly of a much brighter scarlet. Only one man at the

capital, and he is attached to the palace, is said to know how to make

this vermilion, which is called hen-za-pa-da yowé, from the colour

resembling that of the little scarlet seed with a black spot named

glycine abrus or abrus maculatus in Marsden’s Sumatra, 3rd edi-

tion, p. 171. There are two other descriptions of vermilion made at

Ava, called respectively hen-za-pa-da Awaand hen-za-pa-dah Gouk,

which last seem more like our red lead. The vermilion brought

from China is called hen-za-pa-da atshoun, and the Burmese say

that it is the refuse or grounds of the finest kind, and that it does not

mix well with ¢heet-tsee. Red ochre or Indian red, called myé-nee,

red earth, gives a duller colour, and is used for lacquered ware of the

coarsest description. It is sometimes used also as a first coat, over

which the vermilion is applied. These paints, when used, are first

made liquid with a very small quantity of an oil brought from Laos,

called Shan-zee or Shan oil, and then mixed with theet-tsee, in the

proportion of three parts of the varnish to five of the vermilion. This

Shan-zee is said to be extracted from the fruit of the kuniyen tree,

(Dipterocarpus turbinatus,) the trunk of which yields the common

wood oil, used in the manufacture of torches at Tavoy and Mergui.

The Burmese however say, that the Shans conceal the manner of |

making this oil, because if it could be manufactured in Ava, there

would be no occasion for importing it from Laos, It sells at Ava for

4 ticals per viss. The kuniyen tree, which is so abundant to the

southward, and which affords the inhabitants there so cheap a substi-

tute for candles, cannot be very common near the capital, where I

have never seen a torch, the petroleum only being used by all classes

for lights. A mixture of this Shan oil and ¢heet-tsee, ten parts of

* The same tree is mentioned in the inscription on the Rangoon great bell ;

see Asiatic Researches, vol. xvi, p. 271 and 276.—Gaudama was born under this

tree, and died between two of the same species. He was perfected into a Boodh

under another tree, the Nioung or Baudi beng, the Ficus Religiosa. I have never

been able to get a specimen of this Engyen tree, although I am assured that it is

to be seen to the south-east of Ava, and even at Moulmien, and in a fossil state

portions of it are to be found all over the country between Prome and Ava,

172 Some Account of the Lacquered [May,

the latter to three of the former, is used as a semi-transparent varnish,

When put over any other than black it darkens the colour a little,

but adds much to its brilliancy and transparency. The Burmese

possess no really transparent varnish, and it would be satisfactory to

know, if any could be obtained from the theet-tsee, by distillation

or other means.

There are three descriptions of lacquered ware in Ava. The first,

and by far the best articles, are brought from the Shan countries—

Shan-pyee-ga; and Lé-gya, Dr. Buchanan’s Lekhia, a Shan

province, situate to the S. E. of Ava, is the principal place of manufac-

ture. The Shan ware may be distinguished by the lightness and ele-

gance of the manufactures, and the superior brilliancy of the varnish

and colors. The next are those manufactured at a place called Nyoung-

oo*, and its neighbourhood, near the ancient capital, Pugan. These are

generally distinguished by their being of yellow or green colours ; and

almost all the small betel boxes, kwon-cet, in use among the Burmese,

are of this kind. The best of this kind are made at Pugan itself, and

called after that town, but the larger proportion is named from Nyoung-

oo. ‘The last and worst description of articles is manufactured in the

city of Ava and its environs, and these are to be distinguished by the

coarseness of the work, its plain red colour, and the frame being gene-

rally of wood and not of basket-work. Most of the plain red large

boxes with high conical covers, thamen tsaouk-gyee, and other vessels

used by the Burmese for holding food, are of this description. The lac-

quered boxes from Laos have upon them tasteful figures and other orna-

ments of a beautiful black colour or of gold, and those from Nyoung-oo,

have them of yellow or green colours. Many of these boxes are so thin

that you may discern the basket work through the varnish. The best

ware is tried by seeing whether the edges of two sides can be made to

meet without cracking the colour or breaking the article. I believe

none but a few Shan boxes will bear this test.

The different figures and ornaments on the lacquered ware are ex

ecuted in the following manner, called Yowon-tho, or engraving after

the manner of Yowon, which was the general term formerly applied by

the Burmese to Northern Laos and Zenmay, but which, and some-

* Nyoung-oo means Fig-tree Point. The name of this place, where Lieut, John

North, one of our early envoys to Ava, died, and was buried on 30th August, 1755,

has been Strangely used. Capt. Baker writes it Young-owe and Pegang Young-ue ;

Symes, Nioun-doh ; Cox, Gneayan Gu-cayne and Gucayen ; Crawfurd Nyaung-ngu ;

and Wallich Gnaunee. The Burmese lower classes scarcely pronounce the nung

of Nyoung, which has led a friend of mine to write the name Gree-a-o0. :

1832. | or Japanned Ware of Ava. 173

times with gyee or great added, is the name now given to Cochin China

only. After the last coat of varnish has been applied, and it is tho-

roughly dry, figures, lines, &c. are described by the lacquered ware

being scooped or scratched, just deep enough to remove two or three

coats of the varnish, with rude steel tools, either sharp pointed or having

the point slightly divided. This last described instrument is called

- tsout: it is used like a gouge, and guided by the thumb of the left

hand whilst the right is scooping out the lines. The former instrument

called gouk, is often nothing more than a broken needle tied to the end

of a small piece of stick, and it is used to describe the circular lines ;

the lacquered ware being turned round with the help of the knees and

left hand against the instrument held steadily in the right hand. It is

surprizing how quickly the workmen use these rude gravers, which are

sharpened with a piece of slate usually brought from Shwe zettau on

the road to Arracan, and called Shweé-zet-tau-Kyouk. When being

sharpened, the instrument is held against the forefinger of the left hand,

and the slate, moistened with a little spittle, is rubbed against it. The

edge also of the slate on one side is made fine, for the purpose of being

rubbed within the divided point of the ¢sout. When the figures and

ornaments are furnished, a coat of vermilion and ¢heet-see is put over

the whole surface of the ware, and allowed some days to dry. The ware

is then placed on the lathe, and turned round against some wet bran

pressed down upon it with the left hand, and occasionally washed in

water. This process rubs off all the vermilion from those parts which

are in relief. A second and a third coat of vermilion is applied, and

partially removed in the same manner. It is then placed in the sun for

a few minutes, and when perfectly dry, a coat of the semi-transparent

mixture, before described, is put on, rubbed off with a piece of

cloth, and a second coat put on, which is allowed some days to dry,

for the Shan oil always takes a long time to dry. This kind of engray-

ing is the most tedious and expensive, and it is called Shan Yowon-tho,

the Shan Yowon engraving, from the circumstance of all Shan boxes

being so ornamented. The tsout or gouwk, somewhat in the manner of

our wood engraving, scoops or cuts all the surface except the figures

and ornaments required, which remain black, the colour of the original

ground, whilst those parts only where the gravers have made hollows

or incisions, are afterwards filled up with red. The Shan Yowon-tho

executed by Burmese workmen can never be made to look so well as

that done in the Shan countries, owing either to the theet-tsee not

being so fresh and pure, as the workmen allege ; or to the Shans making

use of some other materials unknown to the Burmese, which last Iam

174 Some Account of the Lacquered [ May,

inclined to think is the more probable cause. ‘The Burmese also state,

that the Shans allow their lacquered ware several months to dry between

each stage of the manufacture. Buta much more easy and expediti-

ous mode of engraving is the Burma-dho, or Burma Yowon-tho. It

is usually executed over a coat of vermilion, but it may be done before

that color is given, and upon a black ground. The figures and orna-

ments here are cut in the style of our line engraving, and when com-

pleted, some plain theet-tsee is rubbed over the whole, and immediately

wiped off with a piece of cloth. A little Shan-zee or oil is then rubbed

and wiped off in the same manner. Some yellow sulphuret of arsenic

or orpiment, called by the Burmese tshé-dan, and by natives of India

hartal, is powdered fine and rubbed dry over the surface of the lacquer-

ed ware. The mineral adheres only to the lines cut or scooped out»

and displays at once ina bright yellow colour the figures and orna-

ments designed. Nothing further is done unless a finer polish is re-

quired, in which case the polishing powder before described is used

some days after. Sometimes a little of the orpiment is mixed with

Shan oil and theet-tsee, and a coat of it put over the whole ware and

wiped off, and the powdered mineral then rubbed on. This process

seems to be the best, as the hollows and incisions of the gravers are more

filled upin this manner. The orpiment is powdered very fine, and large

quantities of it rubbed on the ware with the fingers. Green (atsein) is

put on in the same manner, the colour being previously made with the

tshée-dan, and either the juice from the leaf ofa plant called gwé-~

douk-beng or Indigo, ten parts of tshé-dan to one of Indigo. I have

tried to use some English lamp black, prussian blue, and chrome, as ~

this orpiment is used, but without success; probably other of our

paints, or even these with some addition, might be employed in this sim-

ple and expeditious style of ornamenting wood work or lacquered

ware with the aid of theef-tsee. The Burmese admire much these

kinds of engraving, although I think the plain scarlet or black surfaces

when polished look better. The different kinds of Japan work are

always distinguished, if engraved, with the epithet yowon-tho, yowon-

tho tha-men-tsa ouk-kyee, yowon-tho, kwon-eet, &c. &c.

As the best mode of ascertaining the manner in which this ware is ma-

nufactured, I engaged, at different times, two parties of Burmese work-

men, to attend at my house, and prepare some cups in my presence;

when I had an opportunity of daily watching their progress. The first

party consisted of rather rude workmen, but the second was sent to

me by the Burmese ministers, and some among this party prided them-

selves upon having made betel boxes for Her Majesty the Queen.

1832. | or Japanned Ware of Ava. 175

A frame of bamboo basket work, of the size and description required,

was first made over a wooden form or poun. The finer the basket

work, the lighter and finer will the lacquered ware appear when finished.

There are two kinds of bamboo used, one called myen-wa, for the coar-

ser kind of basket-work, and the other ¢en-wa ; and there are three

kinds of weaving or ayet of the basket-work required for lacquering,

The first and finest, and that of which all the smaller nyowng-oo boxes

and almost all Shan-boxes are made, is called kyoung-lein-yet. The

second, used chiefly for cups, except the rims, which are of the first

pattern, is called katem-gya-yet. The third is used for the large

round boxes, and for any coarse work ; and this is called powet-

kyoung-yet. The frame work of the lacquered boxes with high co-

nical tops is almost always of separate pieces of wood joined together.

Upon the outside only of this basket-work, with the wooden form

inserted, a thin coat of theet-tsee was applied with a brush made of a

piece of cocoanut husk. This was allowed three days to dry, not in

the sun, but ina cool sheltered part of the house, within an old wine

chest, which had a layer of earth at the bottom, and its inner sides co-

vered with mud. The box was shut up also, so as to prevent any dust

from falling upon the manufacture ; yet the workmen complained, that

the varnish did not dry so hard, or quickly, as it would have done in

a subterraneous vault. Every house in Ava, where this ware is

manufactured, has a deep cellar or vault, in which the ware is lodged

during the time the varnish is drying. In some Shan boxes parts of

the basket work are left plain, and are not covered with ¢heet-tsee, and

of these the basket-work is very fine and delicate.

At the end of three days a kind of paste was made and put over

the basket-work. ‘There are several kinds of this paste, which is call-

ed tha-yo, probably from tha-yowot, mortar. One kind is made of

bones calcined and pounded, sifted through a piece of cloth very finely,

and then mixed with the ¢heet-tsee into the consistence of paste. This

is called ngo-wa-yo-bya tha-yo, “ Cows’ bone ashes tha-yo,” or

simply ameé or ayo-bya tha-yo, * bone ashes tha-yo.” Another kind,

and which is most commonly used, is made of bran or husk of paddy,

burnt, and the ashes sifted and mixed as before described. This is

called phwe-bya tha-yo, “% bran ashes tha-yo.” A third kind is made

of the saw dust of teak wood mixed, without being burnt, with ¢heet-

tsee. This is called ky-won-theet-lhwa-za tha-yo, “ teak-wood

saw-dust tha-yo,” or simply lhwa-za tha-yo, “ saw-dust tha-yo ;”—

it is of a thicker consistence than the other two, more like mortar, and

moistened with a little spittle as it is being applied. This paste is

176 Some Account of the Lacquered [May,

used in filling up any little holes, and joining on the stands or different

pieces together, and the separate parts of the frame-work of the high

conical boxes are fixed together with this cement, which becomes as

hard as wood, and which would really assist the famous project of

converting saw-dust into deal boards. The ornaments like little rails,

fixed around the sides of some of the boxes, are made with this tha-yo,

pressed with little tinmoulds or stamps into the pattern required, and

then fastened on. A fourth kind of paste is made with the ashes of

cow-dung, ngowd-gyee-bya, sifted finely, and mixed with theet-tsee,

which has been put over fire until beginning to boil. The two are then

well mixed and beat together, whence this paste is called ¢é tha-yo, or

“ beaten thayo.” This looks like putty, and is used principally by

gilders in fixing flowers or other ornaments upon wood-work, to which

it adheres very tenaciously ; and before it hardens, it is so pliable and

elastic, that it may be drawn out into the finest lines and twisted into

any shape. But much of the cheapest and coarsest description of Ja-

panned ware manufactured at Nyoung-oo, is said to have the basket-

work covered with a paste of cow’s dung and mud only, over which one

or two coats of ¢theet-tsee are applied. This paste is always liable to

crack and chip off the basket work, and the Burmese consider this kind

of manufacture, in which very little theet-tsee is used, as an imposi-

tion.

All the above descriptions of paste form good cements for joining

wood-work. For this purpose, the best kind is a mixture of the bone

ashes ¢ha-yo witha little teak saw-dust ; and I have found it answer as

an excellent substitute for glue, not being so liable to be affected by

damp weather. It is only longer drying, as much as five or six days.

It answers very well also in filling up the cavities left in fine cabinet-

work, when the thin black edging has broken or fallen off. When

dry it must only be rubbed smooth and even with a stone, in the man-

ner hereafter described.

To return to the cups, which the Burmese workmen prepared under

my eye. On the second day, the rim of the cup was cut round smooth,

and the fine description of basket-work at the top was scraped and

thinned with a knife, so as to bringit more on a level with the other

part. The hole at the bottom, where it is fixed to the form when

being wove, was filled up witha little of the saw-dust tha-yo. The

whole inside and outside, was then covered over with a paste made of

theet-tsee, bone ashes, and saw-dust, three parts of bone ashes to one

of saw-dust. The workmen called this the tha-yo-gyan or “ coarse

tha-yo,” declaring that for this first coat of priming, this mixture of the

1832. ] or Japanned Ware of Ava. “177

two was best, as adhering most closely to the bamboo basket-work. It

was applied with the fingers.

At the end of three or four more days the rim of the cup was cut

still more even, and the cup was fastened to a lathe, called ¢set-kKhoun,

and the inside was ground perfectly smooth and even in the manner here-

after described. A coat of ayo-tha-yo, “ bone ashes tha-yo,” or tha-yo

akhy-au, “ fine tha-yo,” was then put on with the hand in the inside, and

laid smooth with the finger, occasionally dipped in water. At the lathe

the left hand is employed on the cup, whilst the machine is turned

with the right hand, which moves to and from the workman a long

stick tied to a leathern string, that has two turns around the lathe.

Forms or chucks of the size required, are fixed to the spindle of the

lathe with little pieces of bamboo; and when the outside of the cup is

to be turned, the cup is fitted to these chucks, which enter about an

inch and a half within it. But when the inside of the cup is to be

turned, a cylinder of coarse basket-work open at both ends, called

tsee, is fixed to the chucks, and within this cylinder, the whole of the

cup is lodged, and fastened, if necessary, with little slips of bamboo at

the sides. To make thecoat of coarse thayo perfectly smooth and

even, the cup is smeared over with a little water and a kind of red

earth, and is then turned against a piece of pumice stone, and occasi-

onally moistened with more water. The cup was placed in the sun to

become perfectly dry, before the éhayo was put on. ‘The large boxes

with high tops are fastened toa different kind of lathe, like our centre

lathes. The upper end is either inserted into one side of the lathe, or

fitted ona pin there; and to the bottom is fixed a piece of wood,

which revolves around another piece fastened to the other side of the

jathe. The two sides of the lathe may be made to approach or recede

as required, to hold the ware between them. The string is put round

the box, and the left hand usually moves the stick, whilst the right holds

the pumice stone. Usually, one coat only of thayo is put on the wood

work of these boxes; but they are rubbed smooth and even, three times,

with the different kinds of stone ; once after the thayo, once after the

first coat of varnish, and the last time, after a second coat of the

varnish. The thayo is put on at once over the wood, and there are

three coats of varnish before the vermilion is applied.

At the end of three more days the cup was again fixed to the lathe,

and the outside was treated in the same manner as the inside had been

before, the coat of coarse thayo on the outside being rubbed smooth

and even, and when perfectly dry, a coat of fine thayo puton. The

workmen said that it is better to do only one side at a time.

178 Some Account of the Lacquered [ May,

At the end of three more days the cup was fixed to the lathe, and

the inside made smooth and even with a kind of sandstone, called ky-

ouk-pyen-gwe, and a little water ; then with a rag, and a little fine pow-

dered charceal of teak-wood and water, and lastly with a moist piece

of cloth. When perfectly dry in the sun, a coat of plain theet-tsee of

the best kind, or theet-tsee ayoung-den, was put on in the inside with

the finger. This was done in the sun, to which the cup was afterwards

exposed for about a quarter of an hour. The workmen seem to prefer

always to use the varnish in the sun. LEesides the hyouk-pyen-gwe,

which is the same kind of stone as that on which the Burmese grind

sandal-wood to rubon their bodies, there is a stone ofa finer grain

sometimes used, called shwe gan-gyouk, from the circumstance, Iam

told, of gilders using it to polish the articles they desire to gild.

At the end of four more days, the cup was fixed to the lathe, and

the outside was treated in exactly the same manner as the inside had

been on the preceding day, ground smooth, and covered with a coat of

fine theet-tsee.

At the end of five or six more days, for the varnish did not dry suf-

ficiently before that time, a second coat of the fine varnish, or theet-tsee

ayoung-den, was put on the outside and inside of the cup.

Before applying a coat of vermilion the cup was fixed to the lathe,

and the polish of the two fine coats of theet-tsee was removed by turn-

ing the cup against the stone kyouk-pyen-gwé only, and afterwards

against some bran and water pressed upon it with the left hand. The

object of this operation, as well as that of grinding with some powdered

teak-wood charcoal and water with a rag, was to remove the transparent

effect of the fine theet-tsee before the polishing powder above describ-

ed, engyen kyouk-tshowé-amhoun, was used. In doing which, the

cup was turned against the palm of the left hand, smeared with a little

of the powder.

In gilding, the wood-work is primed two or three times with the

ayo-bya or phwe-bya thayo, and rubbed quite smooth and even with

the stone and water, before the gold leafis put on, which is done, as

Dr. Wallich describes, “ by besmearing the surface very thinly with the

varnish, and then immediately applying the gold leaf.” The prim-

ing is, of course, here necessary to fill up the cavities in the wood,

and produce an equal surface before the gold leaf is put on. A little

piece of cotton is dipped in the varnish, and before the surface is dry,

the gold leaf is put on with the thumb and finger, and gently

smoothed over with another clean piece of cotton. The gilders

also use a brush of the thickness of a man’s thumb, with which

1832.] or Japanned Ware of Ava. 179

small pieces of gold leaf are taken up and introduced into cavi-

ties or hollow ornamental parts of the wood-work, in the same manner

as our gilders use a squirrel’s tail. This brush is made of the hair

taken from the inside of cow’s ears; and the workmen declared, that

it requires an hundred cows to make one brush. I had a picture

frame gilt, and although the gilding has not the lustre of one of our’s, it

has the advantage of remaining with the frame ; for the Burmese prim-

ing does not break and chip off, as the coat of whiting over our picture-

frame does. The Burmese have no idea of burnishing their gilding ;

and if their priming would take the burnisher, their gilding would not

only equal our’s in lustre, but being more durable, would be pre-

ferable. The workmen could make nothing of a dog’s tooth, which I

pointed out to them asa burnisher ; but this was owing probably to our

not knowing the exact time of applying it. The priming on their wood-

work is about one-half the thickness of the coat of whiting on one of our

picture-frames ; but of course it could be made thicker if necessary, and

it would be useful to know, if the gilding over their priming could be bur-

nished. In Siam most of the gold leaf used for gilding is imported from

China, but the Burmese prefer to make their own, and they beat it far too

thin, for it is full of holes and so requires to be doubled in many places,

which not only leads to much loss, but prevents the gilding so smooth as

the Siamese gilding. They mix a great deal of alloy also with the gold

of which they manufacture the leaf, contrary to what Colonel Symes

was informed ; and hence the gilding of all Burmese pagodas and public

edifices soon looks dull and shabby, particularly where exposed to tie

weather. Few remains can be now traced of the gilded Kyoungs seen

by Colonel Symes at Amarapoora, nor is there any gilding now to be

seen on the great Arracan gun. The splendour of the king’s palace

at Ava, although the gilding has not been executed more than 8 or 9

years, is not so great as it must have been when Mr. Crawfurd visited

this capital; and the gilding of the Shivedagon pagoda, at Rangoon,

now looks very black and shabby ; whereas at Bang-kok, I recollect

the Portuguese consul pointing out to me the excellent state of preser-

vation of the external gilding of a pagoda, which was described to

have been gilded no less than sixty years before*.

All the different purposes to which the ¢heet-tsee is applied in this

country, can scarcely be enumerated. It is bot/ed, and used for writing

on polished tables of wood or ivory, particularly in the Pali character.

* Gold leaf is fixed on cloth or paper by the Burmese, in a very simple manner,

with only the milky juice of the country fig, Udambar of Hinddstan, (Ficus

racemosa or glomerata,) called by the Burmese Thaphanthee.

AA 2

180 Some Account of the Lacquered [ May,,

The umbrellas of all classes are made with paper and two or three

coats of varnish, over which, whenever required, gold leaf is easily put

on in the manner above described. Almost all domestic utensils are

made with this substance, and basket-work or wood. I should think

very light portmanteaus or pitarahs might be made, by applying over

a bamboo frame-work this varnish, and the ¢hayo, which would fill

up all the cavities, and render the articles impervious to water. Rat-

tan might be too heavy, and the priming might not adhere so well to

its polished surface. The theet-tsee would answer well as a preserva-

tive for the sides of ships and their standing rigging ; I applied a coat

of it, in the absence of paint, to the sides of some gun-boats, and

found the material cheaper and much more durable than paint. By

first applying a coat of the thayo or paste, the sides of a vessel

might be made perfectly smooth and even, and impervious to water ;

and in this manner the Burmese finish their best war boats, which are

afterwards gilded over if required*. It is necessary to mention, that

the surface of the theet-tsee, when kept, is always covered with 2 or

3 inches of water, to prevent the varnish from drying or becoming

hard.

Observing that Dr. Wallich had never seen the theet-tsee in

flower, I requested Dr. Richardson, during his verland journey last

year to the frontiers of Manipur, to bring me a specimen. He passed

through extensive forests of the tree, from a place called Mya-goo,

about 5 days journey from Ava, to the Manipur boundary. The

trees were very large, and had a beautiful appearance from being

covered with flowers so abundantly that the leaves were concealed, and

the trees looked one mass of white. The bark appeared quite dry,

and no juice was oozing at the little slips of bamboo which he saw

sticking in the trunks of the trees. The flower has a fragrant scent,

resembling that of apples, and the Burmese eat the young buds in

curries. The wood of the theet-tsee is of the colour and appearance

of the red wood of the Malay countries. It is much used, converted

into charcoal, by blacksmiths and others requiring a very hot and

quick fire ; and it is used also for such little articles of furniture as the

Burmese can boast of.

* Most of the lacquered ware is made round, in consequence of the convenience

of finding the surface smooth on a lathe, but I have lately induced Burmese

workmen ‘to prepare articles of other forms, and they have begun to make ladies’

square work boxes, and gentlemens’ hats ; which last will be useful in wet wea-

ther,

1832.] or Japanned Ware of Ava. 181.

The account given under the article Japanning in Rees’s Cyclopedia

of the varnish used in China and Japan, “composed of turpentine:

and a curious sort of oil,” and “ of the Jack, sap, or juice of a tree,

occasioning swellings in the hands and faces of the people who use it,”

answers a good deal to the Shan oil and theet-tsee, here described ;

yet the Burmese workmen, upon examining a piece of japanned-ware

of China, considered it to be made of a different material, unknown to

them.

I send with this paper, specimens of the lacquered ware, and the

different materials used in the manufacture.

For the convenience of reference, I have numbered the whole as

follows. ['The specimens are deposited in the Society’s museum. |

1.—Basket work of a cup completed.

2.—First coat of theet-tsee put on, rim cut, and fine basket-work on the top

scraped.

_ 3.—A coat of coarse thayo applied inside and outside.

4.—Inside and outside ground on the lathe.

5.—A coat of fine thayo applied inside and outside.

6.—Inside and ontside ground again on the lathe.

7.—Two coats of plain theet-tsee applied.

8.—A coat of Hen-za-pa-de Yowé, or fine vermilion applied.

9.—Polished with Engyen powder, after two coats of theet-tsee, and gilded at

the bottom, to shew the Burmese style of gilding.

10.—The Yowon 7,ho engraving, according to the Shan style.

11.—The Yowon T,ho engraving, filled up with Hen-za-pa-da Yowé—A coat of the

semi-transparent mixture applied, and the specimen of Shan ware completed. But

there was too much ffeet-tsee in the semi-transparent mixture, and hence the

colour is too dark. The circular lines are coloured with the worst sort of ver-

milion, or Hen-za-pa-da Gouk.

12.—The Burma D,ho or engraving, according to the Burmese style, upon

a coat of Hen-za-pa-da Yowé.

13.—The Burma D,ho, or engraving, filled up with yellow sulphuret of arsenic,

or tshé-dan, and the specimen of Burmese ware completed.

14.—The Burma D,ho, or engraving, after 3 coats of theet-tsee.

15.—The Burma D,ho, filled up with green, or atsein, a compound of

indigo and yellow sulphuret of arsenic.

16.—The first or finest kind of basket-work, called Kyoung-lein-yet.

17.—The third or coarsest kind of basket-work, called Powet-kyoung-yet.

18.—The second or middling kind of basket-work, with the form, or poun, on

which it is woven.

19.—A course Nyoung-oo made kwon-cet or beetle box, supposed to have a

priming of mud and cow-dung only.

20.—A fine Nyoung-oo made kwon-eet, or beetle box, such as is used by men

of rank.

21,.—An Ava-made ¢,hamen-tsa ouk galé, or small sized dinner-box, with conical

top, before any ¢heet-tsee is applied.

182 Account of the Lacquered Ware of Ava. [May,

213.—A ditto ditto, with a coat of thayo put over the wood, and ground

smooth on the lathe.

22.—A ditto ditto, after the thayo or paste has been apeted and ground smooth,

and a coat of theet-tsee over all.

23.—A ditto ditto, completed, with the Hen-za-pa-da or vermilion applied.

These small sized boxes, with conical covers, are used by the Burmese women

in carrying food to the pagodas on sabbaths and holidays.

24.—A Shan-made thamen-tsa ouk gyee, or large dinner box, with conical

cover, completed.

24% —A Nyoung-00 thamen-tsa ouk-gyee, or Nyoung-oo large dinner box,

showing the Burmese style of engraving.

25.—A bhee-eet or com) box, before any ¢theef-tsee is applied, being a Bur-

mese lady’s toilet box, to contain combs, oils, scents and false hair, sandal

wood, and Chinese white lead ; which last is used to put small round beauty

spots on the face, like patches of our court plaister.

26.—A tset-khoun or lathe, with a form or chuck fixed on it.

27.—A tsee or cylinder form, with a chuck joined to it.

28 and 29.—Two bottles of theet-tsee of the first kind, or Ayoung-den

Theet-tsee.

30 and 31.—Two bottles of the second quality, or Theet-tsee-Anee- byau.

32.—A bottle of Shan-Zee, or Shan Oil.

33.—A packet of Hen-za-pa-da Yowé.

34.—A ditto of Hen-2a-pa-da dwa.

35.—A ditto of Henza-pa-da Gouk.

36.—A piece of Shwé-gan-gouk, or stone.

37.—A ditto of Kyouk-pyen-gwé, or stone,

38.—A piece of Engyen-gyouk, or fossil Engyen wood, used as a polishing pow-

der.

39.—A piece of Teng-wa bamboo.

40.—A ditto of Myen-wa bamboo.

41.—A ditto of Shwé-zettau-gyouk, or stone.

42 and 43.—A TJsout and Gouk, engraving tools.

44.—A Shan-made kwon-ouk, or beetle box with high conical cover, such as

ministers and men of rank use at Ava.

45.—A fine Shan-made Eet-gyee, or large round box, shewing the Shan style of

engraving very perfectly.

46.—A common Nyoung-oo made Eet-gyee, or large round box.

47.—A parcel of Burmese gold leaf. The Burmese usually divide their gold

according to a decimal scale of moos—ten moo gold is supposed to be purest, and

the inferior qualities are termed 9, 8, 7, &c. moo, or this specimen is said to be 8

moo gold.

48.—A parcel of Phwé-bya, or paddy husk ashes.

49.—A parcel containing some hartal tshé-dan, or yellow sulphuret of arsenic.

50.—A piece of theet-tsee wood.

51.—An Ava-made khwet-gyee, or large cup, with a stand fixed to it.

52,—Pieces of bamboo, shewing how they are cut for weaving the basket-work,

1822. ] Analysis of the Chinese Varnish. 183

Il.—Analysis of the Chinese Varnish. By Mr. 1. Macaire Prinsep.

[From the Memoirs of the Society of Physics and Natural History at

Geneva, April, 1826.]

As a valuable appendix to Major Burney’s account, we insert in this

place, the translation ofa memoir by Mons. I. Macaire, on the chemi-

cal nature of the Chinese varnish, which, if not identical with, does

not much differ from that of Ava.

*< The name of varnish was formerly given in the arts, to solutions of divers

solid substances in appropriate liquids, susceptible of being spread easily over

the surface of bodies, and by evaporation of the liquid of leaving a film of solid

matter, more or less thick, to protect them from external influence. The essential

qualities of a good varnish are, the formation of a continuous and smooth coat,

not injurious to the texture or colour of a body; its rapidly drying and harden-

ing, and finally its mixing well with different coloring ingredients. To these

points artists have directed their attention ; but although they may have succeeded

well, their efforts have not yet surpassed nature, and the precious juice of which

Eastern Asia possesses an inexhaustible supply, is as yet superior to the best artifi-

cial varnish.

The Chinese and Japanese had long employed this varnish, before we had any

knowledge of it in Europe. The Missionaries sent to China, in the 15th century,

were the first to give some crude notions of the nature of the coating found

upon most of their works of art. In the 17th century, the Jesuits Martino, Martini

and Kircher having spoken of it in more detail, a French hermit of the order

of St. Augustin, father Jamart, found means to profit by the uncertainty of

knowledge about Chinese varnish, and sold under this name a composition

which he kept secret, and which, though certainly very different from the real

varnish, had very much the appearance of it, and acquired general reputation in

commerce. Many others sought to imitate or improve upon it, with combinations

of balsams, gums, resins, volatile oils, &c., until at,last father d’Incarville made

known to the world, that the famous varnish employed by the Chinese to cover

their furniture and utensils, was the natural product of a particular tree, which

they called 7si-chu, or varnish-tree,

Those who know with what vigilant jealousy the Chinese threw obstacles in

the way of all intercourse with the people of Europe, will not be surprised at the

uncertainty of data acquired by botanists, as to the name and locality of this

precious tree, which has never yet been seen in Europe. Loureiro, who deserved

the greatest confidence, because he alone had judged with his own eyes, inserted

it as a new genus in his Flora Cochin-Chinensis, under the name of dugia, from

avyn, splendor. The generic characters given were, a small calix of a single piece,

five oblong petals attached to the receptacle, a great number of stamina

attached to the same point, ovary terminated by a style and an obtuse drupe

flattened from the top, so as to resemble a lens, small, smooth, and enclosing

within a pulpy envelope a similar flattened nut, having but one cell. Lou-

reiro imagined there to be only one species, and that one the only tree which

produced varnish ; he called it A.Sinensis. It grows in Cochin-China, China,

184 Analysis of the Chinese Varnish. [May,.

Siam,—of a moderate height, its branches rise vertically andare furnished with

pennated leaves, consisting of five pair of folioles entire, placed along a common

petiole, terminated by a single one; the flowers are disposed on the summits of the

branches, where they form pannicule. To obtain the varnish, the bark is pierced,

and a thick resinous juice exudes from the wound: it is either used pure, or mixed

with different coloring substances. It is employed in India as a medicine, afte,

boiling to deprive it of a very acrid volatile principle.

The Cochin-Chinese medical men administer the resin in pills, as heating,

resolutive, emmenagogue and vermifuge. Upon this description, M. de Jussieu

classed the genus dugia among the Guttifere, but Professor De Candolle remark-

ed, that of that family there was not a single species with pennated leaves. The last

character classes it naturally with the Zerebinthacee, to which the chemical

qualities of its juice also assimilate it; but according to M. de Candolle, the

Terebinthacee never have the petals and stamina inserted in the receptacle-

Mr. Lamarck refers the varnish tree or Zsi-cuw to the Badamier, Verminalia

vernix, of the family of Myrobalans; its leaves oblong, linear and smooth,

deprived of hair, distinguish it from the other Badamiers. It grows in China and

the Moluccas, it contains in every part a milky juice, of so caustic a nature as to

render its exhalations dangerous, and contact with the plant more so. When

the trunk is of sufficient size, this juice exudes spontaneously, or through artificial

fissures ; it thickens and becomes brown and altogether black, when it has acquir-

ed its utmost consistence. While yet liquid, the natives apply it to the articles

known in Europe, as ‘‘ lacquered ware.’’ ‘The caustic principle volatilizes

while the varnish is drying ;so that the vessels coated with it may be used for

drinking with impunity. The seeds are even eaten, when roasted.

This description wlll not apply to the Chinese varnish, since this latter sub-

stance does not blacken in the air, and it is probable, that M. de Lamarck may

have confounded it with the varnish of Japan, which is produced (according to.

Adamson) froma species of the Sumach tree, Rhus vernix. ‘* This tree,” says

the naturalist, ‘‘ is poisonous, and produces on the skin, as does the R. Toxycoden-

dron, effects analogous to the symptoms of eresypelas. A white viscous liquor

runs down from incisions made in the tree, which is caught in wooden baskets,

and blackens in the air. It may be preserved in vessels covered over with an

oiled skin, but it is far from equalling the varnish of China*.

M. Perrotet, returning from a voyage round the world, in 1823, sent a speci-

men of the Chinese varnish to Professor de Candolle, who kindly favored me

with a portion for chemical examination.

The Chinese varnish is of a yellow colour, slightly brown, of a peculiar

aromatic smell, of a strong taste, slightly astringent, affecting the back of the

mouth, persistent ; nearly resembling that of the balsam of Mecca or Copahu :

* Dr. Wallich has raised the Burmese varnish tree into a new genus, Melanor-

rhea, and has pointed out the distinguishing characters of the several trees yield-

ing varnish, (Plante rariores 12.) The coincidence of the Chinese, Japanese, and

Burmese names 7¢,hé-tsi need be no criterion of their identity, since the words

merely signify varnish-tree, and would be applied to all that yield varnish. The

resemblance between the dngia of Loureiro, the Rhus Vernicifera and the Mela-

norrhea, are striking ; it can hardly be said that the Burmese varnish turns blaek,

it only appears so when very thick.—Eb.

1832. | Analysis of the Chinese Varnish. 185

its consistence is viscous, like thick turpentine. It orms, when spread, a brilliant

even surface, drying easily, and assuming a fine polish. It fixes well the colors

usually mixed with it, as minium, cinnabar, lamp-black ; and forms good

colored varnishes, which do not scale off when dry. To mark its difference from

turpentine, varnish, and balsam of copahu, whose physical and chemical properties

are Otherwise so analogous, I ground up with the latter some of the same colors,

but found that the varnishes thus made would not dry; and after three months’

exposure to the air, they still yielded to the finger, so as to be totally useless.

Poured into a vessel of distilled water, the varnish spreads upon its surface,

in the form of a yellowish film, which by degrees absorbs water in its pores, and

becomes white and completely transparent ; so that it may be said to be hydro-

phanous, like some particular minerals. Turpentine has not the same property,

but the balsam of copahu has it in some degree: on straining the varnish

it becomes opake, and soon grows yellow from the evaporation of the water

it had taken up: the water acquires a slightly bitter taste. The varnish

dissolves gently, in cold, and more rapidly in hot alcohol ; water precipitates

from it an abundant white resin. It is also soluble in ether and in cold spirits

of turpentine.

Digested in boiling water, the varnish whitens and resembles curdled

milk; its own peculiar odour is disengaged, and after long boiling, there

remains a white resin, solid, brittle when cold, softening and melting in hot

water, soluble in alcohol, in all proportions—whence water precipitates it ina

white powder—soluble in turpentine, caustic potash, &c. Heated in a tube gradu-

ally raised, the resin gives out much water which it had dissolved: this water is

strongly acid, and contains benzoic acid, as will be presently noticed. The resin

deprived thus of the water it had absorbed, remains transparent and yellowish :

when cold it is hard and brittle, softens and melts at the fire, and under a gradu-

ated heat gives out by sublimation white silky flexible crystalline needles of

benzoic acid. Soon after a very acid water is disengaged, (acetic acid,) the resin

blackens, and decomposition commences.

On examination of the water in which the varnish was boiled, we find that it

reddens litmus, and has a slightly sour taste. Evaporated, it leaves a light residue

soluble in alcohol, whence it is precipitable partly by water. This acid saturated

with ammonia, acts with re-agents like the benzoic ; it must have existed in the

varnish in a free state to be thus separated by simple boiling ; gum benjamin also

and balsam of Mecca, when boiled in water, impart a marked acidity and of the

same nature. To assure myself, that the acids so dissolved was positively the ben-

zoic, (for I remembered that the Italian chemists had proved the existence of succinic

acid in turpentines, and this might therefore be the case with the varnish) :—I

first sought to recognise the differences between the two, and was surprised

to find, that it was almost impossible to distinguish them. In fact they both melt

and volatilize, leaving a carbonaceous residue ; both sublime in white, flexible, silky

needles; the remarkable property enjoyed by the succinates of precipitating

iron of a yellow brown, and forming a soluble salt with manganese, which proves

so useful in analysis, belongs also to the benzoates. They precipitate in the

same manner the salts of lead, silver, tin, and neither of them affect antimonial

solutions. These two only, of all the vegetable acids, dissolve without decom-

position in nitric acid, and are recovered unaltered on evaporation. Sometimes, it

is true, a few red vapours arise, and when benzoic acid is so treated, oneyaporation

186 Analysis of the Chinese Varnish. [May,

of the nitric acid, a marked smell of bitter almonds is perceived, although

on saturation with potash, no trace of prussic acid is found.

Many chemists have inclined to believe in the identity of the two acids, and

have attributed the slight differences observable to the presence of foreign matter.

Nevertheless in seeking some method of discrimination, I have observed two

circumstances in which the benzoic and succinic acids behave in dissimilar ways.

1. With the salts of copper, a very neutral solution of benzoate of ammonia gives

a pale blue ashy precipitate, while the succinate furnishes an abundant curdled

deposit of a fine green ; neither of the acids alone precipitating copper. 2. With

the salts of cobalt, the succinate of ammonia hardly disturbs the liquid, and it is

only after a day that a rose coloured deposit is perceived, while the benzoate throws

down a copicus flocculent precipitate of a pale rose colour.

By employing these two tests, I ascertained that the acid extracted from the

varnish acted like the benzoic. Ishould add that, when I treated with nitric acid

the residue left by the evaporation of the water in which the varnish had been

boiled, I obtained, besides the unaltered benzoic acid, a small quantity of oxalic

avid, whichI attribute to the presence of the little gum which had rendered the

alcoholic solution opalescent, but which was in too small a proportion to be

separated. ,

If the varnish is distilled in a retort with water, there passes into the receiver

an essential oil, white, transparent, swimming on the water, of a strong’ scent,

similar to that of the varnish itself, of a very acrid taste, disagreeable and per-

sistent, having all the properties of other essential oils, without any apparent

peculiarity.

Boiled with dilute sulphuric acid, the pungent odour of the varnish disap-

pears, and an iridescent white pellicule forms on the surface of the liquid, giving

to the vessel and liquid, by reflection, a fine blood red or purple colour ; but on

removal fromthe fire, the liquid is seen to be colourless. The pellicule may be

skimmed off in scales: it is dry, insipid, soluble in turpentine, which it colours

yellow ; insoluble in caustic potash ; it becomes'brown in alcohol and ether, by

degrees losing this colour and imparting a milky tinge on solution: on the

addition of a few drops of water, the alcohol becomes sensibly acid; heated

per se the purple matter softens, melts, loses colour, turns black, and reddens

litmus strongly ; heated in boiling distilled water, itis also discoloured without

imparting any tint to the water, which becomes strongly acid; and the residue

dissolves entirely in alcohol with the aid of a gentle heat. Water renders this

solution milky, and this residue appears to be nothing but resin little altered,

The solution shewed indications of acid, which, saturated with potash, dried and

strongly heated, gave out an odour of sulphurous acid, one of the charac-

teristic marks of hyposulphuric acid ; the residue was merely sulphate of potash.

The purple matter therefore appears to be a compound of resin and sulphuric

acid modified in its composition, and to be nothing therefore but another form

‘of artificial tannin. This led me to imagine, that the artificial tannin produced

by the action of sulphuric acid on resin should give analogous results; and in

fact, sulphuric acid diluted with twice its weight of water having been mixed

with cclophony (resin) in powder, the liquid took a brown colour, and by the

gentle heat of the sun disengaged sulphurous acid: the filtered solution evapo-

rated and washed, presented all the characters of tannin, The excess of sulphu-

ric acid having been separated by barytes, the liquid was evaporated, and the

1836. ] Summation of Polynomial Co-e fficients. 187

salt disengaged by heat a smell of sulphurous acid, as an hyposulphate would

have done. It appears to me, therefore, that we should consider artificial tannin

as a combination of resin and hyposulphuric acid, which supposition is conform-

able enough with the facts that led to the discovery of this modification

of sulphuric acid. Pounded resin digested with heat in very dilute sulphuric

acid, does not however give rise to the purple matter: it merely takes a brown

colour. Gum benjamin and balsam of copahu do produce it: turpentine does

not: benzoic acid does not acquire a red colour under similar treatment.

It follows from the facts contained in this Memoir, that the Chinese varnish is

composed, Ist, of benzoic acid ; 2nd, of a resin ; and 3rd, of a peculiar essential

oil, and that it is only to the happy proportions of these three, and to the slight

differences between their properties and those of analogous resins, that the Chinese

varnish owes the superiority which renders it so precious in the arts.”’

IIlI.— Summation of Polynomial Co-e ficients. By Mr. W. Masters.

It is stated in most of the treatises on Algebra, that, if a binomial

be raised to any power, the sum of the numeral co-efficients of the

terms of that power is equal to 2 raised to the same power; but I

have no where met with even a most distant hint of the proposition

(which I am about to demonstrate) that, the sum of the numeral co-

efficients of any power of a polynomial is equal to the number of terms

in that polynomial raised to the same power. This is almost self-

evident ; for if a binomial (742) be raised to any power, it is plain

that the numeral co-efficients that appear in the developement originate

not from x or a which are heterogeneous, compared with abstract num-

bers, but from (1+1) the co-efficients of x and a; for while we deve-

lope (++) we at the same time develope (14-1), and the figures that

appear represent a certain power of (1+1).

(1) Let (2464 c+ &c.), (a4 b'+c'4 &e.), (a" 4+ b"4 c+ &e.),

be msets consisting of 7 things each. If one set be taken, and one letter

from it at a time, the number of combinations will be ; and as the

numeral co-efficient of each combination is 1, 2 likewise represents the

sum of the numeral co-efficients of the combinations. Next, if one

letter be taken at a time and two sets be used, the number of com-

- pinations = 2x; and since the co-efficient of each combination is 1,

2n also represents the,sum of their numeral co-efficients.

If one letter be taken and three sets used, Cns. = 3 =S. N. Cts.

If one letter be taken and m sets used, C.—=mn=S.N.C.

The co-eflicients of m form the following progression :

TZ, 35 45 ew ww oo, Ms

(2) Now take two sets, consisting each of m things ; combine them

by taking one letter at a time from each.

BB 2

188 Summation of Polynomial Co-e ficients. [May,

aa+a’b + ac + &c. (to the nth term) = 7 combinations.

Vat b+ Uc + &e. =n ditto. ©

ca +cb+cc+ &e. =n ditto.

that is, each of the 7 letters of one set forms m combinations with the

letters of the other set: the number of combinations is” x n= 77’.

Since the numeral co-efficient of each combination is 1, n* likewise

represents the sum of their numeral co-efficients.

Next, let there be three sets, each containing 7 letters, taking two

sets at a time, and one letter from each of those two sets at a time.

There are only three

possible ways of ar-

ranging three sets tak-

atb+4c&c. japtb se &e.|a+b'4 ce &e.

av 4.0 4c &e. |a+ bd &e- ja” 4b" 40"&e.

1. 2

i: two at a time

=r.

The first arrangement according to (2) produces n? combinations of

letters ; the second n* combinations also, and the third n’ combinations,

the total number of combinations = 3 n*, and for the same reason

specified above, 3*—= the sum of the numeral co-efficients of each

combination.

Next, let there be four sets, taking two at a time, and one letter from

each as before.

The number of possible arrangements of four sets taking two at a

time = a ae 6; according to (2), each of these six arrangements

produces n* combinations ; the total number = 6 n*=also the sum

of the numeral co-efficients.

5. 4

Next, let there be five sets ; then ito 10 arrangements ; each pro-

duces n* combinations, the total number of combinations = 10 n? =

also S. of N. C.

; 6.55

Next, let there be six sets, &c. &c. then Sony ae 15 = number of

arrangements ; each produces n? combinations, total number of com-

binations = 15 n? =S. of N. C.

Next, let there be m sets of m things: then m na = number of

(m—1)

n* = alsoS.

arrangements, the number of combinations = m

ot N.C.

1832. |] Summation of Polynomial Co-e ficients. 189

Obs. The co-efficients of 2? form the following progression :

Series..... Dee OnlOs Ly. es Seo. eee een

Difference . 2, 3, 4, 5, We Os

(3) Next, let three sets combine at a time, by taking one letter from

each ata time. This is equivalent to combining two sets together, as

was done in the preceding section, and then combining the result with

the third set, thus,

Ist set a+ 60+ c&c.

Qd set a + b' +c &e.

Result d’atadb+ac+-

the nth term) + Ca++ cb... (to the nth term), &c. = n*, combinations;

3d set, a” + b” +c” + &c.

aaa ta’ ab + &e.

ad’ forms with the result n? combinations ; so does each of the 7 letters

of the third set : therefore the total number of combinations formed

=n Xn? = n* = also sum of numeral co-efficients.

Next, let there be four sets ; combine three at a time, by taking one

letter from each of the three sets at a time.

a+b &c., a 40’ &., a’ 4 b” &c. the combinations to be

formed thus—a a’ a”, aa’ a”: since three sets out of four, are to be

arranged together at a time, all the possible ways of effecting this, are

2 Ie

1, 2. 3.

cording to (3) produces n* combinations: the total number of C. in

this case = 4n* = S. of N.C.

If m sets be taken, m. (m—1) (m—2)

= number of arrangements ;

- » (to the nth term) 4 d’a + 0b... (to

CRIES CHORE A = n* combinations ;

= four arrangements ; now each arrangement ac-

and number of combinations = m (m—1) (m—2) is

Ton Wa 2 Se

The co-efficients of n* form the following series:

Series 1, 4, 10, 20, 35, 56, . . . . . m(m—1) (m—2)

Linnie ye

=. of N..C..

Beg... lone en. meee)

Difference 1 2.

eee Ae Sore 5 rtetcas Oba ote,'si!* 2s

(5) Next, let four sets combine, taking one letter from each at a

time, and forming combinations consisting each of four letters. This

is equivalent to combining three sets, taking one letter from each at a

time; forming combinations of three letters each, (as in the last section,)

and then combining the result with the fourth set.

190 Summation of Polynomial Co-e ficients. [ May,

(ap bcp...) (a 4-0 e+...) (a +0" +c’ +...) 7 com-

binations of three letters each, by combining (a” + b” 4c’ +4...)

with the preceding

a’ will form n* combinations of four letters each,

6” willform n* ditto of ditto,.-. then terms of the fourth fac-

tor will form 2 & n? = n* combinations of four letters each = S, of N.

C. of these combinations.

Next, let there be five sets or factors, combining four at a time, and

taking four letters from each at a time, then

5. 4.3.2

fee.

upon the condition required: but by the preceding result, each is

capable of n* combinations of four letters each; the total number of

combinations = 5 n* —S. of N. C.

m (m—1) (m—2) (m—3)

= five arrangements of which the five sets are susceptible

Next combine m sets : then ries == number

a m(m—1) (m—2)

of arrangements ; total number of combinations = ees ‘

—3

a a ==", ol IN. C.

The co-efficients of n* form the following series :

Series 1 5 15 35 yf 0 apc eR Dos

Le Pees eS

Differences

e 1.102

Without going into any farther details, we may proceed to make

deductions : arranging the results already obtained, they will form the

following series : |

1 2 3 4

fa. m (m-—1) n, m (m—1) (m—2) | s m (m—1)(m—2)(m=-3n

LR c2 he 25S t, -2e oe 4

rth*

oe m (m—l1)(m—2)..... Mtl) oe

1. 2. 35 eur

The generating fraction is, for

* rth means the rth term, as 2, 2, &c. mean the Ist, 2nd term, &e.

1832. | Summation of Polynomial Co-efficients. 191

Term

fa Let N be the number of terms ;

Zewsesee ar the generating fraction of the

: ier i m— yN41)—1 ;

‘o.8 8 8 8 6 | nN * FV eee

3 N + 1th term = N

4 Wee 5. Since the N-+ith term = 9, the ge-

SS are nerating fraction must = 0,

eee) Therefore

m— {N+1)—1 = On N=;

That is, the number of terms is equal to the number of factors, or

sets employed or developed.

The index of therefore in the last term is m; i.e. in the last term

n is n™; as for the co-eflicient of n™, it is equal to the sum of the com-

binations that can be formed by combining m sets or factors, taking N

sets at a time.

This sum is equal to so oe edhe oc i Siete a Rass ti Nee) =

LEMS, FO CARI Pa CIOIOR COE ic. he pe

(because N = m)

RON. geo olmrsis snaps afore. 0) ¢ 3d’ weteeteeteeees 1:23 _ 4

MMe ere eka ais ti'eie! a ct Bysiaids, ood «vail nso a he (m—1) m

therefore the last term is nm = (S. of N. Co-efficients of all its combi-

nations. As the first term has m combinations and the last »™, the last

but one, or the N—1th term will have nm—', and its co-efficient will

be equal to the sum of the combinations of m sets or factors taken N— 1

2 ely

sets at a time==™ ("—1)....., Bie eed ee Pre iG eae ¢

aes (m—1 )

= = Care Nel Py et $= MH SN. C.theree

fete. 24,3. 2 4. (m--2 (m--1)

fore the oe itn term =m n™—! — §. N.C.

N—2 .... =™(™—1) po_* &e. &e.

=—S. N.C. Te-2

Since the foregoing formule for the number of combinations also

represent the sum of the numeral co-eflicients of each combination, these

formule, considered as representing the sum of the combinations, will

not at all be affected by the hypothesis that the 2 terms of each of

the m sets or factors is the same, viz. that a’, @” &c. =a; 0’, b” &e.

=b;¢,c’ =cand so on: the formule will, under this anima,

Ritone to represent the sum of the numeral co-eflicients.

192 Summation of Polynomial Co-e ficients. [May,

Now let it be required to develope m sets or factors, each consist-

ing of m things or terms; viz.

(xpatb4+ck&e)(xpa+b 4c + &c.) (x 4a +45" 4+ &c.)

(&c.) it is plain, that the developement will be

eS AS Bae iC an 4D ee ee ee

Yoa?'+YutZ. Here it is evident, that,

A=(a+tb+ &e. a+b’ + &c.+ a” + 6” + &c.) = the sum of

the combinations of m sets of n letters each, one set taken at a time,

and one letter from that set at a time ; = (as is shewn above) the sum

of mn combinations of one letter each.

B=(aad +.ab0'4 &.:) Ge”. ate &ew. eo ee 0 e:)

= S. of the combinations of m sets of n letters each, two sets taken at

a time, and one letter from each of these two sets taken at a time; =

S.0 m (™—1) 7»? combinations of two letters each.

Mes ee

—(ada’+abl'b’+&ebvaa+....aa’a” ..&c.)=S. of

i combinations of m sets of letters each ; three sets taken at a time,

and one letter from each of these three sets combined at a time) = S.

of m (m a) (m—2) n® combinations of three letters each.

I. 2; 3

pH sole @= (m—1) (m— (m—2) (m— —3)

ie WOK o) 3. 4

n* combinations of four letters

each. :

Z = S. of the combinations of m sets of n letters each, taken m sets

at a time, and one letter from each at a time =1 Xn" = m™ combina-

tions of m letters each.

Y =S. of the combinations of m sets of m letters; taken (m—1) sets

at a time, and one letter at a time = mn™—' combinations of (m—1)

letters each, &c.

Now, if we suppose a =a’ =a’ &.b =’ = 0b" &. c=e¢ =e”

&c. m n will represent the sum of the numeral co-efficients in A;

m (m—1

— : ) n* the sum of the numeral co-efficients in B; therefore

the sum of the numeral co-efficients is in

xX eeeee#e#*# e 1

A a! ole. mn

1262

Cmte ee ee)

Be 42S

1832.] Geological Sketch of Masiré and Landour. ' 193

* eee oeeee eee 8 ef Fo ® e ‘

Bo ys ojo b aiainls mnr—!

RARE n™

therefore the sum of the numeral co-efficients in the expansion

eae oe ee oe OY te Se ae eo aad) 2s

m(m—1)_. , m(m—1) (m—2) aa hy =

SN AE ae Samia faa Pa,

But this series is evidently the expansion of (1 + 2)™ = (number of

terms in each factor) ™: therefore the sum of the numeral co-efficients of

any power of a polynomial is equal to the number of terms in the

polynomial raised to the same power.

IV.— Geological Sketch of Mastirt and Landour in the Himalaya ;

together with an Abstract of the Thermometrical Register kept at

Landour during the year 1831. By F. H. Fisher, Assistant

Surgeon.

The characteristic features of the primitive clayslate formation at

Landour correspond so completely with those of similar districts in

Europe, and tend so decidedly to favour the received geognostical

arrangement of mountain rocks, that no one can survey them with-

out strong feelings of interest and surprise ; recognising at such remote

distances the objects of early research and attention, and confirming

as it were the result of former inquiry.

Viewing this mountain from the Dan, its general aspect at once

determines its internal composition ; the gentle acclivity, round-packed

summit, and plentiful vegetation, indicating clayslate; its height,

calculating above the level of the sea, is supposed to be about 7000

feet, and its length ranging from east to west may perhaps average a

mile ; seldom affording a breadth on cleared sites of more than 100 feet.

Throughout this range, instances of some of the accidental rocks,

peculiar to the primitive clayslate formation generally, occur.

Before describing these intruders, which appear to have thrust

themselves perversely across the regularly disposed strata of the

clayslate, it may not be foreign to note, as briefly as opportunity has

afforded, the rocks which appear in the hilly route from Rajpar

to the Landour bazart, assuming the site of the latter to be

somewhat above the acclivity of the mountain.

+ The convenience of geologists having been considered as little as others in the

plan and construction of this route, any attempt at systematic arrangement must

194 Geological Sketch of Masurt and Landour. [ May,

Ascending from Rajpur the road is cut through a bed of bituminous

slate, passing through alum slate of a bluish green colour, both of which

are much decayed, and then traverses clayslate of a faded red colour ;

black limestone next appears, frequently intersected by flinty slate

and Lydian stone : about a quarter of a mile below Jeripani large beds

of primitive gypsum* with earthy sulphate of lime occur, and this may

be considered the commencement of the Mastri limestone formation.

The road continues with slight variations in a westerly direction, and

displays huge beds of grey limestone with one remarkable tract of

calcareous tufa; after which clayslate re-appears, generally much

indurated, iron-shot, and containing beds of flinty slate, with irregular

nodules and schistose veins of brown clay iron ore. The colour of the

clayslate now passes into faded red, and running in a northerly direction

the road leads to Landour, leaving the Masari range to the westward.

The whole of this Mastiri rangeis composed of huge masses of

stratified limestone, inclining at a gentle angle to the east, presenting

occaionally considerable breadth of summit, but never approaching

the height of Landour. In colour it is of a bluish grey, passing

into black and white, highly crystallized, and well suited for

ornamental purposes ; it yields excellent lime, but the natives are

careless in the preparation of it.

The aspect of Mastri may still assert its claim to the picturesque,

notwithstanding the merciless ravages of the woodman’s axe amongst

its withering beauties; precipices abrupt and imposing, moss-

grown cliffs luxuriating in foliage, or nourishing creepers of the most

lovely hue, must ever arrest attention, and steal admiration from the

idlest observer. The simple minerals discoverable in this formation,

are calcareous tufa, frequently iron-shot ; calcareous sinter, white, brown,

and yellow ; calcareous spar in the primitive form; and sulphate of

barytes ; nodules of noble serpentine associated with hornblende slate,

glassy actynolite, and earthy gypsum.

Leaving Masari and passing through the Landour bazar by the road

necessarily be abandoned; mention therefore can be merely made of the various

rocks as they occur in succession, without reference to strict geognostical situation.

The distance included in the route is about five miles.

* I consider this to be-primitive from the considerable masses which occur ;

it varies in colour from brown to the purest white, the latter variety being highly

crystalline ; emits a strong smell of sulphuretted hydrogen when fractured; the

Same odour is perceptible in the water drawn from the stalactitic cave near Rajpur.

Tn large doses this water is but slightly cathartic,

1832. } Modes of obtaining Important Results, &c. 195

above alluded to, we ascend by a small patch of grey limestone, and

set foot on the clay slate of Landour*.

It-is of a faded red colour, frequently passing into black, bluish

black, greenish grey, and light brown, disposed in large slates, inclining

at a considerable angle in an easterly direction ; it is occasionally waved

in its structure, and in the red varieties cleaves easily in the parallel

of the stratum, presenting a glittering surface, owing to small particles

of imbedded mica. The black and bluish black varieties do not

yieldso readily tothe hammer ; they are tough, afford irregular frag-

ments, and cannot be adapted to the purposes of roofing. The accident-

al rocks which occur in this formation may be thus enumerated : granu-

lar quartz rockt ; felspar { ; flinty slate and limestone §.

They are all unconformable, crossing the clay slate at right angles,

and dipping to the north.

Abstract of « Thermometrical Register kept at Landour from the \st of January

to the 31st Dec. 1831. Thermometer kept in an open verandah facing the N.

Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. Jun. Jul. Aug. Sept. Oct. Noy. Dec.

Mies G49) 762. 85°. 86°. . 70% 72° 698 208 629"), 56"

Min. 31 931 40 44 60 60 6b 59 bE Dk 42 30

V.— On Modes of obtaining Important Results by Simple Means.

By Capt. G. Twemlow, Bombay Artillery.

[Continued from page 70.]

2.—Easy mode of casting masses of simple metals without the aid of furnaces,

The native mode is to surround the mould (sunk in the earth) by

a fire capable of keeping it hot, then to employ as many assistants with

their small earthen pans, and hand-bellows, as may be necessary to fuse

the requisite quantity of metal ; in this way it would not be difficult to

cast a pillar of large dimensions, taking the precaution to have the mould

strong, well bound and supported, the fire around it sufficiently intense,

although properly covered in, and the assistants in sufficient numbers

to melt the metal, and pour it into the mould, kept hot as long as requir-

* Landour is separated from the snowy range by intermediate zones ; they all

run parallel.

+ Concretions not exceeding the size of a pigeon’s egg, and of a milky hue,

as seen on the site of the new Hospital.

t~ Compact felspar of a greyish colour, distinctly stratified, slaty in the

small, and by the aid of aglass small acicular crystals of hornblende may be

sometimes discerned ;—cleared site near Mr. J. Lloyd’s grass hut.

§ But sparingly found of a pink colour, coarse in structure, and rather tough ;

—site of the tennis court.

G 6.2

196 Modes of obtaining Important Results [ May,

ed, toenable them to fillit. This mode it is evident would not answer well

for mixed metals, nor for metals difficult to fuse. The writer casts his

18 pr. brass naves in this mode, each man bringing his seer of molten

metal and pouring it out of earthen pans into the mould, kept surround-

ed by fire; and he has no doubt but a brass pillar or statue of one

thousand seers in weight, might be cast in the same simple mode, by a

series of circles of a thousand pans and a thousand bellows surrounding

the fire-embedded mould,—not that we would adopt the pans, having a

knowledge of furnaces.

3.—Strength of powder may be too great in mining.

A curious instance of simplicity on the part of natives, leading to use-

ful results, may be mentioned relative to the operation of blasting rocks :

the miners represented, that the government powder was not of the pro-

per kind ; that it blew out the tamping, without moving the rock, or if

a very small quantity were put in, no effect was produced ; whereas the

common country powder was excellent ; with it they could make great

progress, but not so with the government powder. On going to the

spot, this was speedily remedied by mixing one handful of saw-dust with

each charge or handful of powder, so as to decrease the velocity of

ignition, and to admit of the expansive fluid acting on greater space. It

is believed that in mining operations generally it would be well to

mix saw-dust with the powder, when a sufficient chamber can be formed,

or to adopt some other mode of producing gradual expansion and re-

iterated concussion.

4.—Mode of boucheing iron Guns, at a siege, or on emergency, without the aid of a

regular drill lathe.

Should the vent of an iron gun become so much enlarged as to be

unserviceable, before a siege has been brought to a favorable termina-

tion, a new vent may be applied on the spot, thus; let the gun be with-

drawn from the battery, and be thrown down close to the nearest con-

venient tree; and fixed on a block at the proper angle: insert a stout

trunk of another tree in the ground six feet apart from the standing

tree; pass a stout flat lever bar from one to the other, fixing one end to

the standing tree, but so as to move up and down on the smoothed front

of the other or inserted trunk: thus we have a simple boucheing machine

or drill lathe,

In the mean time, the train artificers will have bent an axletree, or

any other convenient piece of iron, into the shape and form of a brace,

whilst other smiths will have forged out a four-cornered square cutting

tap; with this square tap inserted in the brace, the artillery men may

be set to work to enlarge the injured vent. The smiths mean time are

1832. ] by Simple Means. 197

to be set to work to forge the screw tap for cutting out the female screw.

Others will beat out the cold iron rod for the male screw, which is to

form the vent.

When after successive enlargements of the female screw in the gun

metal, it is brought to fit exactly the male, the latter is to be turned in,

screws with the requisite force to make it amalgamate with the gun me-

tal, particularly in the lower two-tenths, which should purposely be

left rather tight.

It is believed, that the chief thing to be looked to in boucheing iron

guns, is to secure a very firm fixture below, by leaving the last two-

tenths of the female screw tighter rather than the rest, so that force

may be used to make the male screw bite into it.

We are told that guns have now spare screw vents for insertion on

demand ; but is it not probable that if the first screw is destroyed by

intense heat, that the gun metal around it will have run, proportion-

ately ? In fact itadmits of doubt, whether when a screw ventis de-

stroyed by hard firing, it can be extracted by other mode than boring it

out with taps and a brace.

5.—To make fuzes on emergency.

It has occurred that a bombardment has been stopped for want of

fuzes in the shells, and that have been sent for, express, from the near-

est magazine—the following plan of making fuzes on emergency might

be of use in such a dilemma.

Procure some battery planks or any thick wood of two or more inches

in thickness, according to the length of the fuze required ;—stretch a

carpenter’s marking line along the centre of the smooth plank, and mark

a line the whole length ; parallel to that line, and on each side of it,

draw other lines at the requisite distances for the thickness of the

fuzes—on those lines bore holes (with a brace, auger or burma) as

deep as the fuzes are required to be long; and having the fuze

composition ready, drive it into the holes; cut off the fuzes, wrasp

them, and send them into battery for use; there is no reason why they

should not be as good fuzes as need be, provided the composition

is properly prepared and driven.—Persons who have to blast rocks

may in this way make fuzes, wherewith to ignite their mines; for

composition they should use mealed powder and charcoal.

6.—Simple mode of quickly obtaining a light on service.

Tear off a bit of cloth, moisten it in your mouth, put it into a_pistol

over a small charge of loose powder, fire the cloth against a bank, or

ground, and the rag will give you a light.

198 State of Science in England. ; [Mays

7.—To set fire to combustibles with musketry.

Cast (in a greased piece of old musket barrel) solid cylinders of lead.

Cut them into lengths of oneinch ; bore a hole in each to within two-

tenths of an inch of the opposite end. Drive meal powder or other

composition (according as the burning is required to be quick or slow)

into the holes after the manner of fuzes, and when the composition has

been driven to within one-tenth of an inch of the top, pass a strand of

quick match transversely through the sides, as is done with fuzes.

These fire slugs fired horizontally will set fire to whatever retains

them ; or if fired at an angle will fall burning, if the composition is

appropriate.

In Europe, rifle shells and other inventions are under trial, for set-

ting fire to artillery ammunition waggons, and to other combustible

machines. It is probable that the above is as simple and effectual a

mode as could be managed with infantry; and in street combats might be

made very formidable. If such weapons come into general use,

artillery will be obliged to have their ammunition boxes made (as in

fact it might be well if they were now made) cellaret fashion*, to admit

of the interior tier or row of holes being filled with shot or other resist-

ing non-combustible material (even earth would do), to protect the

powder which would be placed in the centre.

8.—Simple Alarm bell for private treasure or plate chest ; or for pudlic treasure tum-

brils, to prevent the necessity for double sentries.

Sling a bell inside the chest, so attached to the lid that it cannot be

got at from the out-side, and may have room to swing free. An at-

tempt to force the chest or remove it will inevitably cause the bell to

sound an alarm, and if it does not deter the depredators will give

the master time to defend his property, or the guard to turn out.

VI.—State of Science in England.

To the Editor of the Journal of the Asiatic Society.

Sir,

Having felt much interested in the discussion which has for some

time been maintained in the scientific journals at home, respecting the

decline of science in England, I take the liberty of sending youa

few observations on the subject ; which, if they should not be deemed

too presumptuous, you would oblige me by inserting in your valuable

Journal.

* In making cellaret fashion ammunition boxes, the partitions should be put in

from below in grooves; the bottom of the box to be afterwards screwed over them

and well clamped—it is a safe mode of carrying fixed ammunition,

1832. | State of Science in England. 199

In Dr. Brewster’s Journal for October, which I have just received,

there is a somewhat tart critique upon a pamphlet written by a fo-

reigner, and prefaced by Mr. Faraday, on the subject I have mention-

ed ; and by it my attention has been particularly excited. This fo-

reigner comes forward in defence of the scientific men of England,

against the allegations of Sir H. Davy, Messrs. Babbage and Herschel,

Sir J. South, and others: and it seems sufficiently rash for a foreigner

to enter the lists with natives, or for any man to dispute the testimony

of witnesses so competent, upon such a subject. Indeed it appears

absurd to impugn their evidence upon any ground whatever, whether

of motive, capacity, or actual information. Yet there may be no ab-

surdity in inquiring, what the real amount of their testimony is. And I

cannot but think there is something radically delusive in the phrase,

“ Decline of Science in England,” which has been adopted to ex-

press the conclusion to which their depositions lead. For surely it

could not be’intended, that there is a literal decline of science in En-

gland, in such a manner that any thing previously known or acquired

has been lost, or is beyond the reach and attainment of the present

generation of our scientific men; or that the circle illuminated by

scientific information and accomplishments is contracted, and the vo-

taries of science in England are decreasing in numbers. No one would

credit such testimony, by whomsoever it was advanced. But in what

other sense can there be said to have been a decline of science in

England, unless it be that there is not the same progressive activity in

science which there was some little time ago? Now if this be the de-

cline of science meant, we may—nay, I suppose, we must—admit it. But

in what is it either wonderful or alarming? It is in strict analogy with

all other strenuous movements. They have their irresistible impulses

with succeeding pauses, in which strength is gathered for new and.

still stronger efforts. What have we lost that has brought us up to the

present point of scientific progression? The human mind in Great

Britain has not yet given any symptoms of dotage. Its powers

remain in their full strength. And there are now multitudes in their

cradles, and multitudes more unborn, who will bring to scientific inqui-

ry as acute penetration, as profound abstraction, and as inventive a

genius as any of their forefathers. The original faculties, by the

exercise of which science is to prosper, are unscathed ; and the facts

which we are now slumbering over, will, in due time, strike on the

minds of those who are to be our future Newtons, or Davys, or

Herschels, or Babbages, or Brewsters, and enkindle glorious concep-

tions to dazzle succeeding generations by their splendour and majesty.

200 State of Science in England. [ May,

When thought is free, these are things that will neither come nor go

at the bidding of state patronage.

TE would not question a single fact alleged by the eminent men who

originated this controversy. Nor can they be blamed for calling public

attention to the decline, (ifit must be called so,) which they deplore.

On the contrary, they are much to be praised, and some of the ad-

monitions they have given, deserve the most attentive consideration.

Yet the general scope of their remonstrances and their recommenda-

tions does appear nota little at variance with philosophical character.

“ Science languishes for want of royal patronage, rich emoluments, and

ribbons ; stars, garters, and noble titles: let it have these, and it will

be sure to prosper.”’ Such is, I think, no unfair representation of much

that they have advanced. Now these gentlemen are not of opinion,

that England is in a state of original ignorance and destitution of

science, but that it has merely sustained a relapse from allowed and

indubitable eminerice. They feel that but a short time ago, she pos-

sessed a galaxy of great men, which enabled her to enter into no disho-

norable or unequal competition with all the science of the world; and

their wish simply is to see her again invested with an equal glory.

Upon the principle, that like causes produce like effects, one would

have thought they would not have propounded the notions they have.

For, observe the names which are adduced as lately the glory of En-

gland, and the loss of which has been the “ death-blow to English

science.” They are “Sir H. Davy, Dr. Wollaston, Dr. Young,

Mr. Watt, Dr. Marcet, Mr. Gregor, Dr. John Murray, Mr. Chenevix,

and Mr. Smithson Tennant.” And which single individual of all these

was indebted in the slightest degree to royal patronage, or public

endowments, or the ambition of rank and titles, for one tittle of his fame

or usefulness ? Indeed the inquiry, applied to them singly, becomes abso-

lutely ludicrous.

We have had science then, by the safe and sure operation of know-

ledge gradually spreading over the minds of our countrymen, We

have already by experiment ascertained the natural history of

scientific discovery ; the causes and the developments of its growth.

We know it to be certain, that if the seeds of science be freely scatter-

ed by the winds, they will find their proper soils and localities, and

come forth in a rich and natural harvest.

Why then should we reject or despise what has been established by

such proof? and still more strange it is, to recommend the cultivation of

science, by means with which it has no affinity. What kind of genius

is it that is to be expanded by places, pensions, and titles? Are scientific

1832. ] State of Science in England. 201

men envious of the brilliancy of Poet Laureate rhymes? Or worse,

would they have science, too, oppressed with the administration of a

plethoric hierarchy ? Would they fatten it into indolence by inalienable

endowments? Or would they disturb its serene atmosphere by the

storms of rivalry and ambition after secular preferments and distinc-

tions ? It is most marvellous, that of the two noblest and purest things in

the earth, religion and science, we should be told, on such high authority

as Lord Plunkett in the one case, and Mr. Babbage in the other, that

they will not exist unless nourished with money—they will have no

brightness, unless tinselled with the gewgaws of a vain life. Such a sen-

timent ought to be scorned.

No civilized government can carry on its operations without patro-

nizing science, for the single reason that it needs both its men and its

materials. They are indispensable in innumerable ways for the effi-

ciency of its army and its navy, for its surveys at home and abroad, for

its mint, and for many other purposes: and in these things all kinds of

science are brought into requisition. This sort of patronage is whole-

some ; and we have only to wish that it were more wisely distributed.

But there appear to be some who would attach rather curious functions

to Government, as the great patrons of Science and Art ; functions

which would require a peculiar Board for the purpose of pensioning all

savans, painters, and poets, whose wits cannot keep them ; and investing

with baronetcies, or lordships, or earldoms, or dukedoms, men who ought

to thirst for such things as the glory of discovering thealcaline metals,

or shewing a list of 700 double or treble stars, or producing the calculat-

ing machine. As I have said, a civilized Government must of necessity

patronise science, and Governments must likewise be the greatest.

patrons of science ; but I cannot see that they are under any obligation

to dispense a gratuitous patronage, or that they would do any thing but

harm by such a thing. Because of their responsibility to those whose

money they spend, they are bound to require a quid pro quo in every

part of their expenditure. Government is the greatest individual pa-

tron of science, but if the community do their duty, their combined

patronage will throw that of the most liberal Government almost into

insignificance ; and it will flow through a thousand channels which no

state patronage could have reached, and where alone the coming Davys,

and Watts, and Murrays, and Tennants, are to be found and nourished.

Let scientific knowledge continue to be industriously diffused ; and

it will awaken the energies of such men as Sir James Hall and Sir

J. South, and many others who might be mentionedl, whose place it is

to patronize, not to ask patronage: or if it fails to do this generally,

203 Altitudes of the Sun [May,

it will at least produce in men of property that sympathy for the objects

of scientific men, which will ensure them the means of applying all their

faculties to the best advantage. All wealthy men are as much bound

to dispense a portion of their revenues in the promotion of science, and

in every other noble and generous enterprize, as the Government under

which they live. Let them therefore be called upon to rouse them-

selves for the more extended performance of this duty. And let those

who enjoy such honours and emoluments as science already possesses,

shew by their superior diligence and success, that there is some virtue

in the secular advantages which they possess, raising them as scientific

men above those who are destitute of them, before the dangerous experi-

ment be made of increasing such stalls and dormitories.

There appears to me something so portentous in this matter, that

I should like to see it fully discussed upon principles that approve

themselves to sound reason. But I must leave it to abler hands.

I am, Sir, &c. &e,

J. Mack.

[On this subject we refer our readers to the valuable remarks of M. Biot,

inserted among the Scientific Intelligence of the present number.—ED. ]

VII.— Memoranda regarding the Difference between Morning and

Evening Altitudes, for Ascertaining the Apparent Time on board

ship. By Captain D. Ross, Marine Surveyor General.

With most navigators, when quitting a port, it is usual to ascertain the

deviation of the chronometer from mean time by altitudes of the sun

taken either on shore with an artificial horizon, or by that of the sea

from on board ship. These altitudes are generally taken before noon, and

seldom, I believe,is the deviation of the chronometer ascertained by

altitudes taken in the afternoon; but from the long experience I have

had, I am led to believe, that to approximate to accuracy, it is right that

altitudes should be taken on each side of the meridian at: the place of

departure ; for it will be found that in cases where the difference of longi-

tude between it and a distant station is to be measured, ifthe result of

altitudes taken at the latter in the afternoon be compared with those

taken in the forenoon at the point of departure, they will frequently

give a longitude differing two or three miles from a deduction of the

Same measurement made by comparing two forenoon observations

together, and in such cases, there may be an uncertainty to thatamount,

in fixing the position of a rock or other danger. If at the point of

1832. | Taken at Sea. 203

departure the deviation of the chronometer is ascertained by both

morning and evening observations, and these be compared with alti-

tudes taken at the new station, corresponding as to the time of the

day, the results if not agreeing will differ but little.

On one occasion I found a difference of the nature alluded to above

amounting to eight miles ; for I anchored off one of the Piscadare Islands,

near Formosa, and at about 8 h. a. m. took several altitudes for the chro-

nometers, after which we proceeded nearly west from the anchorage, appa-

rently 16 miles both by log and by the distance of the Island from us ; we

then anchored, and at 3. 30 p. m. the result of several observations taken

and compared with those taken at 8 a. m. placed the ship but 8 miles west

of the anchorage, when it was quite evident we were at least double that

distance. Thinking these observations might be faulty, I took several

others, but at about 5 p. m. and the results of the latter corresponded so

nearly with those taken at 3h. 30m. p. m. as to satisfy me that the differ-

ence did not depend on error in the observations, and made me continue

at anchor until the next morning, when observations were again taken

and compared with those made the previous morning atthe anchorage

near the Island ; they gave our difference of longitude 16 miles, agreeing

with the log and apparent distance of the Island from us ; here was an

instance ii which had not the island been in sight, [should have laid down

a danger 8 miles short of what it should be, and should undoubtedly have

attributed the difference to the effect of a current setting against us.

It is well known that in straits or confined navigation, owing to the

changes whichtake place in the horizon, correctness is scarcely attain-

able in observations taken on board ship: [ have often found it so,

and am of opinion, that in the vicinity of shallow banks, the result of

observations taken on ship board will be also generally found much at

variance.

In the instance I have just stated, the bottom to the westward of the

ship was formed by several ridges of sand lying in a north and south

direction, having 7 or 8 fathoms water on them, with deeper channels

between.

The part of the horizon above which the sun’s altitude was measured

was remarkably bright, and I have thought that some unequal eva-

poration might have caused the horizon to appear higher in that quarter,

I have found that observations taken in the vicinity of Sagar were

not to be depended on, although there is apparently a clear horizon

before you.

Latitudes takenafloat with much care will never agree with those

taken on shore with an artificial horizon, and when the sun is to the

DD2

204 Scientific Intelligence. [ May,

southward, will always be found more southerly by a mile or perhaps

two.

I think there is little doubt, but that we need some correction for

the mutability of the horizon at sea, and that probably its amount might

be ascertained by aseries of observations with the dip sector, and a close

attention to the state of the atmosphere : my own experience leads me

to the conclusion, that equal altitudes observed by the horizon of the

sea without this check on board ship, are always subject to errors of an

irregular nature.

VIll—Scientiric INTELLIGENCE.

1.—Mr. Alexander Ksoma de Koros.

The Viceroy and several noblemen of the Hungarian dominions, having

learnt that Mr. de Kérés, their countryman, was travellingin the East for the

prosecution of researches connected principally with the origin of the lan-

guage and people of Hungary, voluntarily subscribed £140 for the furtherance

of his enterprising object. The money has just been received through a mercantile

house in Calcutta, along with a handsome letter from the Baron Niumann,

Secretary of the Austrian Legation at London. Mr. de Kérés however has declined

accepting it in the shape of pecuniary assistance to himself, and has been only

induced to retain it, on the persuasion of his friends, for the purchase of Oriental

manuscripts for the library of one of the principal universities of his native

country.

2.—Higli Ice Manufactory.

It may not perhaps be uninteresting to some of your readers to know the

result of the experiment for keeping ice, and the reason of the late sudden failure

of the supply. This is in part to be explained by the last having been an

unfavourable season for the manufacture, so that although great preparations

were made, the quantity obtained was by no means commensurate with the

money expended ; and so peculiar are the agents to be provided against, in this

hot climate, that in our present state of knowledge, experience alone can guard

against their influence, That experience in a certain degree may be supposed

to have now been obtained, and next year it is hoped, from additional preparations

for its production, and precautions for keeping it, a supply of ice may be expect.

ed during a much longer period than has hitherto been known in Calcutta-

The advantage that ice affords for cooling water, wine, &c. and the simplicity

of the means to be employed for obtaining its full effect, must be already known

to most of your readers ; but I suspect the cheapness of the luxury has not been

properly appreciated, from the ignorance or carelessness of servants to whom its

management is too often left. I have frequently had opportunities of observing

this, and even the possibility of its not always accomplishing the object becomes

apparent, whenI have found servants, who had observed that it ought to be kept

warm (surrounded with blankets), thrust it into warm water, the better to

insure the keeping of the precious deposit.. If care be taken to have it kept

in a hard lump, and surrounded with blankets, it keeps very well for 12 hours,

1832. | Scientific Intelligence. 205

during a hot day ; and when used skilfully, the following I find to be the lag

tity required for reducing the temperature.

Ice.

Claret, French bottle........eseeee:

APAC Ss «fe faye) ata IGhOs\«,erang. oe drevere eecee ~3 Chitaks. ....0e0. (as cold as can be

Soda Water, stone ditto. .......... drunk,

Sherry, in English ditto, .......... 4 chitaks, ...,....

Jelly, in a large wide mouthed ee

Rime hee gee oN sha Gittosse'eeees. hard.

tee h OMitike £04 OF DULLEK... ccc sccncescccceezeece Gitto.

3.—Mergui Dye Wood.

Several specimens of a red wood were lately sent to Mr. G. Swinton, by Mr.

Maingy, Commissioner on the Tenasserim coast, with a view to its examination

as adye wood. The Rebecca, on which the first samples of the plant were ship-

ped, having been burned, nothing was then known of the tree, It was stated by

Mr. Maingy, to differ from the Zheet-tsee or Burmese varnish tree, which is also

used in dying clothes of a red color. The effects of the juice of the red wood

tree were described as similar to those occasioned by the Theet-tsee. The Burmese

were said, when employed in collecting the wood, never to fell a tree for that pur-

pose, but to search for trees that have been blown down, and in which no

sap is to be found. It only bears seed once in 7 or 8 years: the. Burmese

do not extract the dye (probably from their having another tree which yields it in

great abundance). The same tree is said to abound in Penang, but there the

wood is red throughout, and is constantly employed as a dye by the acid

and Chinese.

A number of experiments made at the request of Mr. G. Swinton, by

Mr. Thomas Speir, upon the Mergui dye wood, prove that it affords, with

the mordants commonly used by dyers, colors equally bright and of a

more permanent nature than those of most other dye woods. On the other

hand, there seems a material objection to its success in the small quantity

of coloring principle it contains, as compared with the generality of other

woods and roots now in use: and it appears that the color is only found

in trees of full growth, and only in the heart of the wood; the young trees

are of a white or light straw color: indeed the branches of grown trees

are white and the stems also, until their size exceeds that of the human body.

The colors imparted to silk with different mordants were as follows :

1.—Muriate of tin, sp. gr. 1.185, with 5 parts water. Three shades of orange,

varying with the temperature of the bath and the time of immersion,

2.—Acetate of alumina, sp. gr. 12. of Twaddle’s Hydrom. Two shades of

flame color.

3.—Acetate of iron, 7% of ditto, Two shades of drab.

4.—Ditto, with a weak decoction of galls. A fine black, two shades.

5.—Mixed with manjit, a variety of red and pinks are obtained, but not

perhaps equal in intensity to those of the manjit alone, The chief attraction

of this wood as a dye, is the orange color which it yields with the aid of

muriate of tin and acetate of alumina, of a great variety of shades.

These results shew that the Mergui wood is deserving of further attention, and

that it may become eventually an important article of commerce with our posses-

{

206 Scientific Intelligence. [ May,

sions on the Tenasserim coast. A small quantity of the wood has, we understand,

been sent home to the Honorable the Court of Directors, for the purpose of

being examined as to its dying properties, compared with other known dye woods.

[From duplicate specimens of the wood, leaves, and seed just received, it turns out

that the tree in questionis the ¢hit-tst or varnish tree, melanorrhea usitata of Wal-

lich : the above notice of its properties as a dye forms however an addition to our

knowledge of the tree.—Ep. | '

4,—Decline of Science in France.

In the Journal des Savans, Jan. 1831, is a note by Professor Biot on the subject

of Mr. Babbage’s reflections on the supposed decline of science in Engjand. He

deprecates the fatal example which has been set by a man of such distinguished

talent, in decrying the institutions of his country, and introducing dissentions

among those who should be occupied in fortifying the bulwarks of science, while he

gives arms to her numerous enemies, always ready to ridicule and undermine her

jealous ascendancy. The example has already been followed by other illustrious

men, with the augmented bitterness of personal controversy ; and a torch of discord

is introduced among the combustible materials of our scientific bodies, which

neither the late distribution of titles and pensions by the Government, nor the

establishment of Associations for the promotion of science in different parts of

the kingdom, can now extinguish*.

M. Biot concurs in lamenting the neglect which such men as Dalton,

Ivory, Young, Brewster, and Herschell, have suffered from their country ; and

grants that the abstract sciences have with us been abandoned for the more

attractive paths of popular knowledge, the sure roads in England to preferment in

the church, the law, the shipping and manufacturing lines: but in drawing a

parallel between England and France, Mr. Babbage is thought to have laid too

much stress upon the political honors and distinctions lavished upon men of

science in the latter country. ‘It is,” says M. Biot, ‘a remarkable moral

effect of the distinction of ranks so strongly defined and so continually felt in

England, that an abstract philosopher like Mr. Babbage, should be brought to

confess honorary titles to be satisfactory and grateful to the intellectual class!

Doubtless when such distinctions are accorded to merit, the intention should

be duly appreciated, but the idea of any precedent or right should not for

a moment be entertained.’ M. Biot makes the following just reflections on the

French system of education.

“The immense development of the sciences in France, during the last 40

years, appears to us to have been produced by two causes very different from

those pointed out by M. Babbage: two potent causes, of which one exists still,

but the other has long ceased to act.

**The still existing cause is, the publicity of our higher grades of instruc-

tion, and its perfect independence of all pecuniary contributions paid by the

auditors. It is thus open to every intelligent mind in a state competent to

profit by it. The endowments, liberally assigned by the country, allow the

* We observe in the Philosophical Magazine, that at the grand scientific Reunion

at York, committees were established for the promotion of science, and that Major

Benson, (W. H. Benson, Esq. C. S. ?) Sir Edward Ryan, Mr. Calder, Mr. J. D..

Herbert, (Captain Herbert?) and Mr. J. Prinsep, were appointed a sub-com-

mittee for India. No diploma has however yet reached Calcutta, and we trust

that the increasing contributions to our Journal are the best guarantee of the non-

decline of science in this part of the world !—Ep.

1832. | Scientific Intelligence. 207

professors full liberty: to consult only the wants of science, in the tenor and

depth of their lectures.

“‘The lectures delivered at the College de France, the Jardin des Plantes, and

at the Bibliotheque Royale, have thus no need of a large audience ; and with most

of them, if a crowd were attracted, it would be the best proof that their object

was not attained. It is far otherwise in England, even in the most recent and

liberal institutions.. Take as an example the London University : its buildings

are superb ; its scale of studies is drawn out on the most elevated views ; the chairs

are occupied by very able men; the auditory is numerous ; but the emoluments

of the professors depend chiefly on the fees of the scholars, whom it becomes

necessary to please by suiting the grade of lectures to the capacity of the

majority, This system may be very well for the elementary courses, but it

interdicts all attempts at the more refined branches. A professor must be

warmed by super-natural zeal, or nobleness of mind, to work at once against his

popularity and his interest! and experience in fact shews that even the most dis-

tinguished men will rather condescend to lower their powers and become intelligible

to the multitude. This general want of elevated courses, accessible to the talented few,

and consecrated exclusively to the highest branches of abstract science, forms a

void in England, a sort of precipice which arrests the progress of the master

spirits by whom otherwise the sciences would be cultivated most successfully.

“The second cause which in ouropinion gavea stimulus to sciences among us, was

the political and moral state of the public mind at the renovation of order in 1794.

“A mad and atrocious revolution had destroyed our universities, academies, and

other establishments of instruction. When the reign of terror subsided, some men

devoted to science, and who had continued to cherish her in secret, Monge, Berthol-

let, Fourcroy, and Guyton, undertook to restore her temples, and they did it with a

grandeur of conception which some mav think gigantic, but which was admirably

fitted to produce a great excitation in men’s minds. A normal school was designed,

to which pupils should be sent from all parts of France; the professors named

were LaGrange and Laplace, who never would have been heard delivering their

thoughts in public, had it not been for this revolution; with them were associated

Berthollet, Haiiy, and Monge himself, whose zeal had kindled general enthusiasm.

In these unusual comitia of the sciences, philosophical discussions were opened on

certain days, and such pupils as Fourrier then started individual doubts to men

whose genius had hitherto but spoken in general terms to Europe at large : at the

same time Monge, the indefatigable Monge, set up a Polytechnic School, on an

extensive and liberal plan, where, animated by his presence and impulse, the

youth of France heard with an indescribable enthusiasm, lectures delivered on all parts

of the Physical, Mathematical, and Military Sciences, by the first men of those days.

“Moreover these fundamental institutions were followed up by a general sys-

tem of open public schools through the departments ; where professors, occupied

solely with such objects, spread around them the knowledge required by the ge-

nerality of the population. These appointments, paid but poorly, brought never-

theless a feeling of independence and consideration :—they were then honora-

ble; and this sentiment, joined to the complete liberty they enjoyed, fired the pro-

fessors with the ambition of distinguishing themselves by works of instruction

or research in the line of study they had embraced. Hence arose the multitude

of first-rate elementary books we now possess, to which is mainly owing the

renovation of scientific education among us,

208 Scientific Intelligence. [ May,

‘*' These, in our opinion, are the true causes which reanimated the sciences in

France after the storms of 1793, and which have contributed to raise them

to the eminence they now enjoy, much more than all the decorations, duchies,

ambassadorships, and marquisates ever lavished on their professors.’?

We must conclude our extracts with the professor’s mortifying picture of the

reverse now manifest in the state of French education.

“* The central schools exist no more: the hand of power has broken them up, as

too active instruments of intellectual development. From motives much the same,

the system of education at the Polytechnic School has become less elevated and less

general. These two blows at progressive improvement, have already enfeebled the

study of the higher mathematics, which now only languishes in a few chairs in the

College de France; so that unless measures be promptly applied, ina short time

hence English savans will no longer say that they have abandoned the field of

competition in the calcul without hope !”

5.—Letter from Abdul Mojld on the subject of the Arbelon Problem.

[Literally translated.]

‘* T have heard that a certain talented individual was attracted by my demon-

stration relative to the Arbelon, and approved the reasoning, but being anxious to

render it clearer, he came forward with amendments, and said out his say. I

shall therefore acquaint him with a piece of my condition; that from the commence-

ment of my youth, after picking up into my mantle the gleanings of dates and

grapes from the gardens of science, I became a lecturer on traditional and intellec-

tual sciences to the wits and the knowing ones of brilliant genius. I conversed

with the generous sages, and repulsed him who was destitute of steadiness, so that

it was my custom to move my tongue only when necessary, and to alter my

conversation according to the condition of him whom I addressed, agreeably to

the alteration of manner. Woe is me, then, that that knowing genius did not

direct his view to the qualities of him to whom I had addressed myself, whose

exalted name is indicated by this enigmatical symbol. He was satisfied without

my multiplying or amplifying words to his lofty dignity and his enlightened

sagacity; and this eloquent sage and perspicacious preceptor, through the

perfection of his genius, by a mere glance at my abbreviated paper, made himself

acquainted with its essence, and requited me above what I deserved. Now neces~

sity calls upon me to gallop the horse of my pen into the hippodrome of explana-

tion, as I before interpreted it to his excellency, the centre of the circle of science

and politeness, the circumference of the diameters of dignity and generosity, the

learned, the intelligent editor. I shall therefore first recite the enunciation of

this figure, and secondly the first abbreviated explanation, and thirdly its clear

and detailed explanation, and if (your correspondent) is satisfied with what I say,

shall have attained that which is the object of my hopes, and the end of my

labors. Deo adjectori gloria.

CoupLer.

Be gracious ; to the uninformed your pardon free present,

For clemency in mighty men is surely excellent.’

Note.— We thank the learned author for the above complimentary epistle, and for

his revised solution of the problem, which in its new shape is sufficiently clear for

the most rigid demonstrator ; but having published already a second version of the

problem, we trust our limited space may be pleaded as an excuse for omitting his

present demonstration.—ED. j

1832. ] Proceedings of Societies. 209

IX.—Proceedings of Societies.

1.—AsIATIC Society.

Wednesday, the 2nd May, 1832.

The How’ble Sir C. E. Grey, President, in the chair.

- aga Pearson was proposed as a member by Mr. J. Prinsep, seconded by Mr.

ilson.

2.—The secretary submitted Bills for Rs. 346. 1., the amount of sundry Books

purchased for the Society.—Ordered, that the amount be discharged.

3.—Read a letter from Dr. Royle, acknowledging the receipt of a letter addressed

to the Court of Directors by the President on the part of the Society.

4.—The Secretary reported that difficulties had arisen with regard to the pay-

ment of Mr, Bruce’s legacy, and recommended that the Treasurers, Messrs Mackin=

tosh and Co. be authorised to apply for and receive the sum, which was accord-

ingly resolved.

5.—Mr. Calder offered to the Society for purchase, a copy of the Baron Cuvier’s

last edition of the Regne Animal and Histoire des Poissons, at the invoice cost and

charges.— Resolved, that the offer be accepted.

6.—Submitted an estimate from Mr. J. Prinsep of the expence of relaying

the lower floor of the Society’s house.—Resolved, that the measure be carried

into effect under the supervision of a committee of the Society of the following

Gentlemen—Mr. Gordon, Captain Forbes, Captain Jenkins, and Mr. J. Prinsep.

7.—For the Library.—Extracts from the Proceedings of the Society of Natural

History in the Mauritius, presented through Dr. Casanova.

A copy of India’s Cries to British Humanity, presented by the author.

Meteorological Registers for the months of January, February, and March,

1832, presented by the Surveyor General.

Resolved, that the thanks of the Society be presented to the Donors of the

above.

8.—Literary.—A paper was read by the Secretary, entitled ‘‘ Notices of the

Life of Budd’ha.”

[We hope in asubsequent number to present our readers with this interesting pa-

per at length, and shall not therefore here attempt an analysis of its contents,—

Ep.]

2.—MEDICAL AND PHysiIcaL SocIETY.

The Sth May, 1832.

Assistant Surgeon J. T. Pearson, Bengal Service, stated his wish to return to

the Society, and have his name replaced in the List of Members, in conformi-

ty to the resolution passed on the 4th April, 1829, which was complied with

accordingly. D. McLeod, Esq. Deputy Inspector General of Hospitals of H.

M. Service at Bombay, and John Stokes, Esq. Surgeon in His Highness the

Nizam’s Service, were proposed as Members by Messrs. Wilson and Twining.

S. Ludlow, Esq. Superintending Surgeon, Bengal Service, was proposed by Messrs.

Hatchinson and Egerton, and O, Wray, Esq. Surgeon, Bengal Service, proposed

by Messrs. Garden and Tytler. Dr. W. C. Blest, President of the Medical Board

of Chili, and Dr. Joseph Passaman, of Chili, were proposed as Corresponding

Members, by Dr. Casanova and Mr. Twining.

The following communications were then laid before the Society.

1. Remarks on Cholera, by T. E. Baker, Esq.

2. A letter from Mons. Desjardins, Secretary tothe Society of Natural His-

tory of the Mauritius, inclosing the proceedings of that Society up to 23rd No-

vember, 1831.

3. Acommunication on Vaccination, from Dr. Casanova.

4. A second report on varioloid Diseases, by H. S. Mercer, Esq.

5. A letter from F, P. Strong, Esq. presenting a work, published in 1653, by

Dr. Hermannus Vander Heyden, of Ghent; containing an account of Cholera

Morbus, and several other diseases then prevalent in Holland.

6. Dr. Hennen’s Work on the Medical Topography of the Mediterranean ;

presented by Dr. Burke, for the Society’s Library.

7. Mr, Corbyn’s work on Cholera; presented by the author,

210 Proceedings of Societies. [May,

8. A short statement drawn up by a native, relative to an injury of the hip

joint, of 10 months duration; and the patient whose case was related, came

before the Society for examination.

y. A letter from M. Tierney, Esq. inclosing a copy of acommunication from

Sir M. Tierney, relative to the efficacy of Cajeputi Oil in Cholera; 50 drops are

recommended to be administered in half a wine-glass of tepid water, and repeated

every half-hour, until 250 or 300 drops have been taken. Sir M, Tierney states

this remedy to have been used successfully in the severest cases of Cholera 3; and

thattwo or three doses, if given early, are usually sufficient to arrest the disease.

The statements of the effects of Cajeputi Oil, in Cholera occurring in Calcutta, do

not correspond with the good effects, which by the above account appear to have

followed its use in England; that medicine having proved entirely inert when

administered under circumstances which authorised expectation of the patient’s

recovery by the uses of ordinary remedies ; as much as six drachms by measure

having been given to one patient in the course of five hours without the least effect.

By a report published at Madras, it appears that Cajeputi Oil has been recently

tried in H. M. 54th Reg. at Trichinopoly, during a severe epidemic visitation of

Cholera; the effects of that remedy are stated to be very temporary, and by no

means so beneficial as Mr. Hamiltom, the Surgeon of the Regiment, had been led

to expect.

The following papers were then read and discussed by the meeting.

Dr. Casanova’s replies to the questions proposed by the President at the last

meeting of the Society ; namely—I1st. Whether natural small-pox ever succeeds

to a vaccination, in which the specific characters of the vaccine disease have been

developed.—2nd. Whether a person having had the true vaccine disease, and

having been thereby protected from variola for a certain time, may become after-

wards liable to contract the natural small-pox.—3rd. Whether the true vaccine

disease, by transmission through numerousindividuals, be preserved unchanged, or

be capable of undergoing any particular alteration, whereby its prophylactie

properties are diminished ; or if the virus be deteriorated or capable of change

in different climates.

The author observes, ‘‘ This is the question which agitates the public mind ;

shall we be safe from small-pox, if we are vaccinated ?’’ He then offers the

following replies to the queries; Ist, he has sufficient reasons for asserting, that

in general the individuals reported to have had variola after vaccination, have in

fact either had spurious cow--pox ; or that the disease which has supervened after

vaccination, instead of being variola, was merely one of the numerous exanthe-

mata which resemble variola in some respects, but are exceedingly different in

many of the essential characters. He goes on to state, that vaccine lymph taken

from a perfect vesicle, and used at the same time in several subjects, is liable to

produce genuine vaccine in some, while an imperfect vaccine may be developed

in others ; and supports this statement by reference to printed reports of numerous

experiments made by Dr. Romay and himself at the Havannah, in 1825; which

authorise him to say, that spurious vaccine may repeatedly affect the same person,

but when the true vaccine has been developed and gone through its regular course,

the person is during the rest of his life insusceptible of either true or false vaccine

disease, or of the natural small-pox. He farther refers to experiments made in

various countries, which tend to confirm his opinions: the most remarkable state-

ment which he points out is the summary of observations made by 43 medical

men at Philadelphia in 1828, relative to a variolous epidemic, which raged in that

city ; where 80,000 vaccinated persons resided ; and it appeared that only one death

from yariola took place on that occasion, among the above number of vaccinated

persons.

With respect to the 2nd question, Dr, C. does not consider that his opportunities

for investigation authorise the expression of a positive opinion; but he has

never met with a single case that would support the conjecture of some physicians,

that the security afforded by vaccination against variola is liable to wear out.

He proposes that the subject should be submitted to the test of experiments ;

but as several years would be requisite to settle the question in this way, he

observes, that so many medical men must now exist, who having been vaccinated

formerly, and afterwards repeatedly exposed to variolous contagion annually, he

thinks an appeal to our professional brethren in this country may be at once

conclusive. With respect to Mr. Mercer’s seven cases reported at the former

mecting of the Society, he only acknowledges one to be variola (case 4), and that

1832. | | Proceedings of Societies. Qi

there is no evidence of the true vaccine having been previously developed in that

case: moreover, as there is no proof that any of the cases had ever been exposed

to variolous contagion, in the interval between their alleged vaccination and the

appearance of the eruptive disease which formed the subject of report at the last

meeting; there is no reason to believe, that those individuals were ever insuscep-

tible of suffering from variolous or varioloid contagion ; he contends that we

have no reason to believe, if susceptibility to variola be once destroyed by true

vaccination, that persons are ever afterwards liable to suffer from variola. Dr.

Casanova further says, that before we can acknowledge a renewed susceptibility

to variola, in a person who has been once protected, we should ask two questions ;

Ist, What reason have you for believing that this person has gone through the

regular course of true vaccination? 2nd, What reason have you for believing that

this person has subsequently to vaccination been exposed to variolous contagion,

without contracting small-pox ?

In reply to the 3rd question the author states, that either vaccine virus taken

from an unhealthy person ; or lymph from a perfect pustule used to vaccinate an

unhealthy person ; may certainly degenerate into an humor sui generis, and produce

a disease which affords no protection against small-pox. The particular disease

stated as likely to influence the character of the vaccine, and to impair its pro-

phylactic properties, are various cutaneous affections, which have been generally

acknowledged to be adverse to successful vaccination; and some disordered

conditions of the absorbent system, which do not appear to have been before

particularly alluded to; but which the author asserts, have an unfavorable

influence, in as much as we are protected against variola, only by the vaccine

producing a constitutional as well as a local affection, which specific constitutional

affection may be frustrated by a disordered condition of the absorbent system.

The author also states, that cases have occurred, which render it probable, that

the influence of vaccination is altered when several diseases of the mucous mem-

branes occur during its progress, namely, aphthe, chronic gastro-enteritis, and

gonorrhea. The author having, in concert with Dr. Romay, been engaged in

making numerous experiments relative to the vaccine disease, thinks he is autho-

rised to say, that he does not see any reason to acknowledge that vaccine matter

is capable of decomposition or change, except from the effects of exposure to air,

humidity, or light; and he considers that with due care in its transmission, the

specific properties of vaccine remain unaltered.

Mr. Mercer's paper is in continuation of his report read at the former Meeting,

He observes that small-pox has been frequent and fatal among both Europeans

and Natives ; anda large proportion of the mortality has occurred in persons

advanced in years, and comparatively few in children. The author alludes to the

frequency of rubeola and varicella, as well as of small-pox, this season, and gives

a sketch of the distinctive characters of the two latter diseases, according to the

best authors, which must be familiar to the profession. Three cases are there

detailed, which may be numbered in continuation from those stated in the last

month’s circular.

Case VIL[. A woman of European parents, 26 years of age, had fever on the

28th March ; vomiting took place, and the face was flushed. On the 30th an erup-

tion of numerous small pimples appeared ; on the 5th Aprilthe face was swollen,

and the pustules very numerous, and filled with a thick opaque fluid; many of

them coalesced : there was slight soreness of the throat, but no salivation, and no

fever after the eruption appeared. On the 10th day of the eruption and 12th of the

disease, the pustules were drying quickly on the face and some parts of the arms ;

and on the 19th day of the eruption a second set of crusts fell off. This persgn had

been vaccinated by Mr. Shoolbred when an infant ; one vaccine cicatrix is visible,

of the size of a garden pea, imperfectly marked with central depressions.

Case IX. An Indo-Briton, 26 years of age, had fever on the 4th April, which

increased till the 7th, unattended with vomiting, except when medicine was taken.

On the 7th April an eruption of numerous small papule appeared, some of

which on the 8th contained an opaque fluid, and on the 10th some of them on the

hands coalesced ; on the 12th desiccation commenced, and on the 14th the scabs

began to fall off. This person had been vaccinated at the age of 4 or 5 months

by Dr. Hare ; there is a small superficial cicatrix on the left arm slightly pitted.

EE2

212 Proceedings of Societies. [May,

Case X. An European man, 26 years of age, became feverish on the 8th April ; the

pyrexia increased, and on the 1]th, an eruption of small red pimples appeared and

the fever subsided. On the 12th there were about 160 small pustules over the body,

those on the face containing a yellow fluid. On the 17th April, some of the pus-

tules had dried, and on the 18th most of the scabs had fallen off from the face,

but some of the eruptions on the feet then contained a bluish-colored fluid, and

were surrounded by a light red circle about 4 of an inch broad. This person was

vaccinated in England when an infant, and has on his left arm an oblong cicatrix

% an inch in length, the surface of which is pitted. All the cases mentioned in Mr.

Mercer’s former report recovered.

The author is inclined to think from the cases he has met with, that the opi-

nions of some medical men may be in some degree confirmed, viz. ** that no

greater security is afforded against a 2nd attack of variolous disease by inoculation

of small-pox, than by vaccination; and that after a certain lapse of time, the

cow-pox loses its power as a preventive of small-pox ;”’ yet, he says, in the greater

number of instances of variola supervening on vaccination, the disease is much

modified and of amild character. The author mentions the experiments of Dr.

Wolde, reported in the 109th No. of the Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal

for 1831. Dr. W. had re-vaccinated 100 persons of various ages in Hanover, of

whom 20 are represented to have had a perfect vaccine vesicle. Mr. Mercer’s

report concludes with a very copious extract from the same Journal, relative to

the identity of Variola, and the Vaccine disease. The author of that article, Dr.

Sonderland, of Barmen, states that the Vaccine disease may be produced in the

cow, by covering the animal witha blanket that has been on the bed of a patient

who has suffered severely from small-pox, placing another blanket similarly

exposed tothe variolous contagion, in the stall, so that the animal shall breathe

the exhalation from the infected blanket. In afew days the animal is stated

to be seized with fever, and on the 4th or 5th day the udders and other parts

covered with a hard skin, are said to be affected with an eruption that assumes

the appearance of cow-pox, and becomes filled with ]ymph, which on being used

to inoculate the human subject, will produce the vaceine or protective pock. It is

but justice to this very interesting subject tostate, that Mr. Mercer has made

the experiment of covering two cows with cotton clothes that had been on the

persons of small-pox patients, but the animals have neither had fever, variola,

nor the vaccine disease. In this country it is of vast importance to have the

experiment repeated, to verify the fact, that we may always be able to produce

the Vaccine disease when it is most required.

A letter from Mr. Mercer, subsequent to this report, mentions two additional

cases of varioloid disease, viz. a man aged 27, and a woman aged 24, both born

of European parents. The man is stated to have a well-defined vaccine cicatriz

on each arm: the woman also bears an imperfect vaecine cicatrix on each arm,

both these patients having been vaccinated in infaney. They have a numerous

eruption, whichin some places is confluent ; but they are going through the disease

favorably.

Dr. Baikie’s observations on the climate of the Neelgherry Hills; and its

effects on the sound, and on the impaired European constitution, are prefaced by

an account of the weather at Ootacamund. The extreme annual range of the

thermometer in the shade is stated to be between 42° and 73® Fahrenheit, but

the diurnal range is rarely so much as 11° or 12°. The annual fall of rain does

not exceed 42% inches, and the Barometer’s annual range is not great. The

elevation of Ootacamund is stated to be 7,197 feet above the level of the sea, and

the highest summit of the Neelgherry range is 8,429, being not very different from

that of the convent of the Great St. Bernard, in the Alps, and the city of Quito, on

the Andes. The S. W. monsoon sets in about the end of May, and lasts till the

end of August. The N. E. monsoon begins late in October, and is usually attend-

ed with high wind and rain. The greatest heat is experienced in April and May,

when however the mean monthly temperature is from 60 to 63. The atmosphere

generally, is stated to beremarkably dry, elastic, and exhilarating ; highly favorable

to European constitutions ; consequently the station is deemed an excellent resi-

dence for invalids, from the plains of the Deckan, or from the damp hot climate

of Bengal. When invalids can choose the time they will proceed to the Neelgher-

1332.] Proceedings of Societies. 213

ries, April is considered the best month to arrive there ; as the transition of

temperature from that of the plains is then less than at other seasons of the

year. On first arrival at that temperate district, some persons experience slight

embarrassment of respiration, and occasional dyspeptic symptoms; which are

in some measure ascribed to the elevation of the station; but principally to a

slight degree of congestion of internal organs ; especially the luags and liver ;

arising from the abrupt change of temperature. The climate is stated to be

especially fayourable to children, who quickly acquire all that alertness, activity,

and rosy complexion, so remarkable in the most healthy parts of Europe.

The author next proceeds to specify in detail the effects of the climate on

convalescents, and those who were labouring under the chronic stages of several

of the more important diseases of India; numbers of whom have been sent to

that station. In convalescents from dysentery, and those who had long suffered

from the most obstinate chronic dysenteric affections ; the best effects were

experienced from a residence at Ootacamund : convalescents deriving early and

decided benefit from the change ; and many inveterate chronic affections which

could not be cured at other stations, were soon restored to health by the aid

of medicines. The treatment to which Dr, Baikie, from experience, gives a decided

preference, is the combination of Ipecacuanha and Extract of Gentian, sometimes

united with Blue Pill, and aided by application of leeches when any acute local

symptoms required their use; and a very careful attention to regulated diet, in smalk

quantity. By these means, the more distressing symptoms were often mitigated

after the second dose of medicine ; and a week’s perseverance in the same reme-

dies, generally sufficed to overcome the most obstinate attacks. Dr. B. has

nearly abandoned the exclusive use of Calomel, since this plan of treatment was

brought to his notice ; he states, that the treatment now followed is more effica-

cious, more speedy, and more certain than any other; the patients being less

liable to relapses than when the mercurial plan of treatment was trusted to. The

author mentions, particularly, an inveterate case of chronic dysentery, in which

repeated relapses had occurred ; and almost every article in the materia medica

used in such complaints had been employed in vain; at last, Ipecacuanha and

Extract of Gentian were tried, and quickly checked the disease. The patient, who

had been long in a most wretched condition, was soon restored to the state of a

healthy and robust man. In this case even the Blue Pill proved injurious,

Convalescents from fever derive benefit on arrival at that station almost equal

to that experienced by those who have suffered from dysentery. Those persons

who were attacked with fever and sufficiently near to be removed to Ootacamund

during the progress of the disease, or at its commencement, derived the utmost

benefit from the change of climate.

Pulmonary affections, when not so far advanced as to preclude reasonable hope

from change to any good climate, find great benefit from residence at this sta-

tion, And in fact, all cases where debility and exhaustion are the principal affections

to be removed: and an uniform elastic, cool, dry, and bracing atmosphere the

principal desideratum, the climate of the Neelgherries may be recommended with

the utmost confidence.

The diseases which derived comparatively less benefit from the climate of the

Neelgherries, are Intermittent Fevers and Hepatic diseases; in which a favorable

change is neither so certainly, nor so generally, to be expected; unless the pa-

tients be ina very advanced stage of convalescence, and in fact, suffering chiefly

from debility ; in such cases, and especially after a short sea voyage, these patients

recover rapidly : but if they arrive at the hills with much remains of active dis-

ease, they become the subjects of tedious medical treatment : the causes of which

are clearly shewn to be the internal congestion insepar gh from abrupt transition

to an elevated and cool climate.

Mercurial Rheumatism, after the treatment of various acute diseases by Calo-

mel, appears to have been a frequent ailment among the convalescents sent to the

station at Ootacamund. Dr. Baikie’s favorite prescription is Infusion of Sarsapa-

rilla in lime-water, as recommended by Mr. Brodie, according to the following

formula.

Sarsaparilla Root, bruised, Ziiss. Sassafras Root ; Guaiacum Wood, rasped,

each 3 ii. Liquorice Root 3i. Recent lime-water, 18 ounces, macerated for 24 hours,

O14 Proceedings of Societies. [May,

near the fire, and then strained. The whole of this infusion to be drank in the

course of the day, at three doses.

The Report concludes with a Table, shewing the ailments of 155 conyalescents

and sick, who had been under treatment at the Neelgherries ; viz. Hepatic dis-

eases 49—Dysentery 28—Fever 23—Mercurial Rheumatism 10—Cephalalgia 5—

Various other maladies 40. These had been under treatment between the Ist March,

and Ist December, and only six cases are reported “‘ not better ;’ these were lL

Dropsy—2 Hepatitis—1 Rheumatism—l1 Intermittent Fever, and 1 Cephalalgia.

Of the 155 cases, some of whom were in a most lamentable state from protract-

ed Chronic disease, 80 werecured, and 13 died. Among the deaths were six of

Hepatic disease.

3.—AGRICULTURAL AND HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY.

Meeting of the 3rd May, 1832, at the Townhall.

Sir Edward Ryan in the Chair.

Mr. John Willis Alexander was admitted a member of the Society.

The following letters and papers were read :

From Mr. Swinton, Chief Secretary to Government, forwarding another and

larger sample of the foreign or ship~borne cotton, found by Major Burney at

Yandaboo in Ava.

From Mr. Willis, reporting on this sampie. The thanks of the Society were

voted to Mr. Swinton, and the Secretary was requested to forward to him a

copy of Mr. Willis’ report.

The Secretary was also requested to have the cotton carefully separated from

the seed, and retained as a specimen, while the seed itself should be forwarded

to Mr. De Verine to be sown at Akra.

From Mr. Truscott, Officiating Commercial Resident, Culpee, requesting to be

supplied with foreign cotton seed for the purpose of introducing its cultivation

largely into Bundlecund.

From Dr. Carey, on the native method of manufacturing paper in India, as

requested by the last meeting of the Society.

Resolved, that so soon as Baboo Ram Comul Sen furnishes his paper on the

same subject, both essays be sent to Government, for the purpose of being trans-

mitted to Bombay.

From Captain Richmond, Secretary to the Garden Committee, on the cultiva-

tion of the Asparagus officinalis at Alipore.

The thanks of the meeting were offered to Captain Richmond.

From Mr. Calder, presenting to the Society an extensive collection of samples

of Mauritius sugar, collected by him while lately at that place, with accurate notes

of the estates where the sugar was produced, degree of refining, mode of

effecting it; and the market price of each, extending to. 35 samples, in glass and

tin.

The thanks of the meeting were offered to Mr. Calder for his valuable donation.

From Mr. Henly, presenting four samples of sugar manufactured by him at

Barripore.

The thanks of the neeting were offered to Mr. Henly.

The President, in the name of Colonel Bazetta, presented a packet of fresh

Manilla Tobacco seed, the first which had been received by the Society.

The thanks of the meeting were voted to Colonel Bazetta, for this valuable

present, and the packet was directed to be forwarded to Akra Farm, for the pur-

pose of immediate experiment, and also of retaining a’ portion in well secured

bottles, till a more favorable season for sowing it.

Mr. Ballard submitted on the part of Mr. D. W. H. Speed, a paper by that

gentleman on the culture of silkworms, manufacture of silk, and expense incur-

red therein, with the view of pointing out the inferiority and dearness of the

article at present, arising from the grower of the mulberry, rearer of the cocoons,

and reeling of the silk, being wholly distinct and independant individuals, And

presenting to the Society, four skeins or hanks of silk produced in his’ experi-<

mental factory, where the whole process, from the growing of the mulberry to

the reeling of the silk, was performed by himself.

The thanks of the meeting were voted to Mr. Speed.

1832. ] Proceedings of Societies. 215

Messrs Willis and Earl presented selected samples of all cottons in the Liverpool

market in December, 1831, with the prices of each correctly labelled thereon,

for reference by the Society.

The thanks of the meeting were offered to Messrs. Willis and Earl for this

very valuable present.

Mr. De Verine, superintendant fof the Society’s Experimental Farm, at Akra,

submitted various papers relative thereto; including a tabular statement of the

cotton cultivation there from its commencement to the present period, on whicla

to ground assurances of the best season for sowing, of the most suitable seed, soil,

and. mode of cultivation, with an account of the expense of raising three biggahs

of Maranta Arundinacea, (or West India Arrow-root,) and manufacturing the

same into farina; and also some observations on the storms of 31st October, and

26th March last.

Mr. De Verine also submitted several specimens of tobacco, cotton, and arrow-

root, all reared at the Farm. Mr. Piddington submitted the form of a circular,

which he thought if translated into the native languages would remove prejudices,

and encourage the ryots to undertake the cultivation of seeds distributed by the

Society.

Becoived: that Mr. Piddington be authorized to get his circular translated, and

printed on common paper, for distribution.

The Secretary informed the meeting, that he had received only four parcels of

silk, with corresponding sealed letters, as competing for the prizes of the Society ;

and that he had received no samples of sugar and cotton, nor any letters announ-

cing their being on the way.

Resolved, that as the reception of samples of silk, cotton, and sugar was limited

to Ist May last, no more samples of silk be now received ; and that the compe-

tition for the cotton and sugar prizes lie postponed to the season of 1833, it be-

ing understood that the prizes for silk and tobacco will be adjudged on the Ist

June next, as originally intended.

On the Burmese cotton, received by Mr. Swinton from Major Burney, Mr.

Willis reports that he considers it of the same description as that received under

Major Burney’s previous dispatch, and considered by the Burmese as of foreign

origin, with this difference that one-half of the seed when divested of the cotton

is quite bald, having a smooth black, or rather brownish coloured skin, while

the other half is furred all over witha green fur, very tenaciously adhering.

This diversity and peculiarity in the seed, Mr. Willis considers worthy of remark,

as it is not to be found in any of the North American kinds, nor in those of

Pernambuco, Bourbon, the Seyclielles, Tenasserim, or lower Bengal. The cotton

is however separated from the seed, both from the bald and furred parts of it,

with great and almost equal facility, The fibre is long, fine, and good in strength,

and exceedingly suitable for the machine spinner.

Founding his estimate of its English value by the current prices of such sort

of cotton in Liverpool in the month of December, 1831, Mr. Willis states this

cotton would be worth in England from seven to eight d. per lb., at which rate a

wide field would appear open to remunerate the cultivator, the merchant, and the

ship’s owner, if this description of cotton be found capable of having a successful

cultivation in this country.

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JOURNAL

THE ASIATIC SOCIETY.

Vo. 6.—June, 1832.

T.—Analysis of the Purinas. By H. 8. Wilson, Sec. As. Soc.

[Read at the Meetings of the Society.]

2. Tue Braumé Varverrra Purdsna.

The Brahma Vaivertta Purdna is perhaps the most decidedly sec-

tarian work of the whole collection, and has no other object than to

recommend faith in Krisuna and RApni : subservient to this purpose,

it records a great variety of legends, of which no traces can be found,

in any of the other Purdnas, and it deals but sparingly in those which

are common toall. It is of little value as a collateral authority,

therefore, and most of the stories, it contains, are too insipid and

absurd to deserve investigation. It contains, however, a few remark-

able passages, that bear an ancient character, and it throws more

light than any similar work upon the worship of the female principle

or Prakriti, as well as of Krisuna and R&pus.

The Brahma Vaivertta is supposed to be communicated by Sautt,

the son of Su’ra, the original narrator of the Purdnas, to SaunaKa,

a sage, at an assembly of similar characters, at the forest of Nuimisha,

whom he happens to visit, and who ask him to relate the work. This

commencement opens several of the Purdnas, and more especially the

Mdahdtmyas or chapters, descriptive of the virtues of some place or

person, said to be taken from some Purana. In this case, the Rishis

state, as the motive of their inquiry, their dread of the evil tendency

of the present age, and their desire for emancipation ; and their hope to

be secured in the one, and defended from the other, by being imbued

with Bhakti, or faith in Hart, through the medium of the Purana,

which they style the essence of the Purdnas, the source of faith, feli-

F F

218 Analysis of the Puranas. [ June,

city, and final liberation, and the dissipator of the errors of the Puranas,

and the Upapuranas, and even of the Vedas !

Sauti acquired his knowledge of this work from VyA4sa, by whom

it was arranged in its present form, to the extent of eighteen thousand

Slokas. VyAsa received the Sutra, the thread or outline of it, from

N&repa, who had learnt it from N&rdyana Rishi, the son of

D’/nerMa, to whom it had been communicated by his father. D’nerma

had been made acquainted with it by Brauma, who had been taught

it by Krisuwna himself, in his peculiar and deathless sphere, the celes-

tial Goloka :—a paradise, it may be observed, of which no trace occurs

in any other Purana. The Brahma Vaiverita is so named, because it

records the manifestations of the Supreme Being in worldly forms, by

the interposition of Krisuna, who is himself the Supreme Spirit, the

Parabrahma or Paramdtmd, from whom Prakriti, Braums, Visunu,

S’iva, and the rest proceeded.

The Brahma Vaivertta Purdna is divided into four books or

K’handas, the Brahma K’handa, the Prakriti K’handa, the Ganes’a

K’handa, and the Krishna Janma K’handa, treating separately of the

nature and acts of the supreme; of the female personification of mat-

ter ; of the birth and adventures of Ganes’a ; and of the birth and

actions of Krishna. We shall notice the principal subjects of each di-

Vision.

The Brahma K’handa begins with the creation of the universe, as

taking place after an interval of universal destruction. The world is

described as waste and void, but the Supreme Krisuna, the sole exis-

tent and eternal Being, is supposed to be present, in the centre ofa

luminous sphere of immeasurable extent, and inconceivable splendor.

From him the three qualities, crude matter, individuality, and the

elements proceed ; also N&rAyawna or the four-armed Visunv, in his

ordinary garb and decorations, and SAnKARA, smeared with ashes, and

armed with a trident. Narayana or Visunu comes from the right,

and Siva from the left side of the primeval Krisuna, and Branmx

springs from his navel: all the gods and goddesses in like manner

proceed from his person, and each upon his or her birth utters a short

prayer or hymn in honour of him: the following are the salutations of

the three principal persons of the Hindu pantheon.

N&r&yana’s address to KrisHna.

<< [ pay reverence to the cause of causes, to him whois at once the act

and the object, the superior boon, the giver and meriter, and source of bles-

sings ; who is religious austerity, and its everlasting fruit, and himself the

eternal ascetic; who is beautiful, blackas a new cloud ; delighted in his

1832.] Analysis of the Purédnas. 219

own spirit ; who is void of desire, who assumes forms at will, who annihi-

lates the five desires, and who is the cause of desire ; who is all things,

the lord of all things, and the unsurpassed form, which is the seed of

all things ; who is embodied in the Vedas, who is the seed of them, the

fruit of the Vedas, and its bestower ; who is learned in the Vedas, the

ritual they enjoin, and the best of all who are conversant with their

doctrines.”

Srva’s address.

“T adore him, the invincible, the giver, the lord and cause of

victory, the best of the bestowers of victory, and victory itself; who

is the lord and cause of all things, lord of the lord of all things, and

cause of the cause of all things ; who is present in all, who upholds all,

who destroys all, generates all, who is the cause of the preservation of

all, who is all things; who is the fruit, the giver of the fruit, its seed,

and its support ; who is ideniical with light, the irradiator of all, and

supreme of all those who shine with divine radiauce.”

Braumi’s address.

“ T adore Krisuna, who is free from the three qualities, the one im-=

perishable Govinpa, who is invisible and void of form, who is visible

and assumed the shape of a cowherd, who seems a youth in years, who

is of mild deportment, the beloved of the Gopis, of lovely aspect, black

as a new cloud, and beautiful as a myriad of Kanprrpas. Inhabiting

the place of the Rdsa in his sojourn in the groves of Vrindavan, the

lord of the mystic dance, and its performer, and the delighter in

the graces of its evolutions.”

The other divinities continue in the same strain, and the tendency

of the hymns furnishes a key to the whole work, the object of which

is to identify the cowherd of Vrindavan, with the supreme cause of

the world, or to claim for Krisuna a rank which the followers of

Visunu and Stva demand, exclusively, for the object of their respec-

tive adoration : with much more reason it must be confessed ; for

the actions of Krisuna are even still more preposterously incompatible

with a divine character than those of his competitors for pre-eminence.

After the several deities are produced from various parts of

‘Keis.tna’s person, he retires into the Rdsamandala, a chamber or

stage fcr the performance of a kind of dance, to which the followers of

this divinity attach much importance, although it seems to be no

more than a kind of dramatic representation of Krisuna’s dancing

and sporting with the Gopis. There, RApuc, his favourite mistress,

proceeds from his heart ; from the pores of her skin spring three

‘hundred millions of Gopis, or nymphs of Vrinddvan; and an equal

FF2

220 Analysis of the Puranas. [ Jone,

number of Gopas, the swains of the preceding, originate from the

pores of Krisuna’s skin; the herds they are to attend owe their

existence to the same inexhaustible source. The Risa and RApus,

and the origin of the kine, and their keepers, male or female, are

amongst the chief characteristic peculiarities of the Brahma Vai-

vertta Purana.

After Krisuna’s thus evolving the different orders of subordinate

deities, the work proceeds to describe the devotion of Siva towards

his creator, and takes this opportunity of expatiating upon the differ-

ent degrees of Bhakti, or faith, and the various kinds of Mukti, or sal-

vation.

The work of creation is then resumed by Braumd, who begets by

his wife SdAvirri’, a various and odd progeny, as, the science of logic,

the modes of music, days, years, and ages, religious rites, diseases,

time, and death. He has also an independent offspring of his own,

or ViswAKERMA, from his navel; the sage S&nanpa, and his three

brothers, from his heart ; the eleven Ru’dras from his forehead, and

sundry sages from his ears, mouth, &c.

The legends that follow relating to the daughters of Duarma, and

their marriages with various patriarchs, from whom terrestrial objects

proceeded, are told in the usual strain. In describing the origin of the

mixed classes of mankind, this work contains a peculiar legend, which

makes a certain number of them, the issue of the divine architect

ViswakermMA by Guritscni’, a nymph of heaven. The chapter

often occurs as a separate treatise under the title of Jati Nirnaya,

and is considered as an authority of some weight, with respect to the

descent of the mixed tribes, although of a purely legendary character.

The succeeding sections contain some legends of little importance,

until the 16th, which is occupied with a short, but curious list of

medical writers and writings. The first work on medical science

entitled the A’yur Veda was, like the other Vedas, the work of

Braumg, but he gave it to Sirya, the sun, who, like the Phebus of

the Greeks, is the fountain of medical knowledge amongst the Hindus.

He had sixteen scholars, to each of whoma Sanhitd or compen-

dium is ascribed : none of the works attributed to them are now to

be procured.

The chapters that next follow, relate a legendary story of the wife

of a Gandherva named M&uavatr’, the efficacy of various Mantras,

the story of NXrepa, the sage, and rules for the performance of daily

purificatory and religious rites. The 28th and 29th chapters, the

last of the book, are occupied with the description of Krisuna, of his

1832. ] Analysis of the Puranas, 221

peculiar heaven or Goloka, of the holy Rishi NXr&yana, and of his

residence. The style and purport of the whole are peculiar to this

Purana, and similar to the address of the deities, cited above.

Goloka is said to be situated 500 millions of Yojanas above the Lokas

of Srva and Visunvu. It isa sphere of light, tenanted by Gopas,

Gopis, and cows; the only human persons admissible to its delights

are pure Vaishnavas, the faithful votaries of Krisuna. It appears,

however, that the author of this Purana, who in all probability is the

inventor of Goloka, had no very precise notions of his own work, as

he calls it in one place square, and in another round; and whilst he

is content in one passage to give it the moderate diameter of 30 millions

of Yojanas, he extends its circumference in another toa thousand

millions.

The next section of this Purana, is also of a peculiar character.

It relates to Prakriti, the passive agent in creation, personified matter,

or the goddess nature. The Purdnas, in general, follow in regard to

their cosmogony the Sdnkhya school of philosophy, in which Pra-

kriti is thus described : Prakriti or Mila Prakriti is the root or

plastic origin of all, termed Pradhana, the chief one, the universal

material cause. It is eternal matter, undiscrete, undistinguishable as

destitute of parts, inferrible from its effects, being productive, but no

production.

According to the same system, the soul is termed Purush or Pu-

mdn, which means man or male; but the Sankhya doctrine is two-

fold, one atheistical, the other theistical. The former defines the

soul to be neither produced nor productive, not operating upon matter,

but independent and co-existent ; the latter identifies soul with Iswara,

or God, who is infinite and eternal, and who rules over the world:

and it is to this latter system, that the Puranas appertain, only in

this Iswara they recognise the peculiar object of their devotion, which-

ever of the Hindé triad that may be, or even asin the work before us,

superadding a fourth in Krisuna, who is every where else regarded

but as a manifestation of Visunvu, and in a remarkable passage of the

Mahabharat is said to be no more than an Avatar of a hair plucked

from the head of that divinity.

In the true spirit of mythology, which is fully as much poetical as

religious, the figure of prosopopeia is carried by the Hindus to its utmost

verge ; and we need not wonder therefore to find spirit and matter con-

verted by the Pauranic bards into male and female personifications, with

the attributes adapted to either sex, or derived from the original source

of either representation. Prakriti is consequently held to benot only the

222 Analysis of the Puranas. (J UNE,

productive agent in the creation of the world, but she is regarded as

Mayda, the goddess of delusion, the suggester of that mistaken esti-

mate of human existence, which is referable to the gross perceptions of

our elementary construction. With this character the Paurdnics

have combined another, and confounding the instrument with the action,

matter with the impulse by which it was animated, they have cho-

sen to consider Prakriti also as the embodied manifestation of the

divine will, as the act of creation, or the inherent power of creating,

co-existing with the supreme. ‘Thisseems to be the ruling idea in the

Brahma Vaivertta, in which the meaning of the word Prakriti, and

the origin of this agent in creation, are thus explained :—

“The prefix Pra means pre-eminent, Krifi means creating ; that

goddess who was pre-eminent in creation, is termed Prakriti: again,

Pra means best, or is equivalent to the term Safwa, the quality of

purity, Krz implies middling, the quality of passion, and 7% means,

worse or that of ignorance. She who is invested with all power is

identifiable with the three properties, and is the principal in creation, and

is therefore termed Prakriti. Pra also signifies first or foremost, and

Kriti creation ; she who was the beginning of creation, is called

Prakriti.”

“ The supreme spirit in the act of creation became by Yoga two-

fold, the right side was male, the left was Prakriti. She is of one form

with Brahme. She is Mayda, eternal and imperishable. Such as the

spirit, such is the inherent energy (the Sakéz), as the faculty of burning

is inherent in fire.”

The idea of personifying the divine agency, being once conceived,

was extended by an obvious analogy to similar cases, and the persons

of the Hindi triad, being equally susceptible of active energies, their

energies were embodied as their respective Prakritis, Saktis, or god-

desses. From them the like accompaniment was conferred upon the

whole pantheon, and finally upon man; women being regarded as

portions of the primeval Prakriti. The whole being evidently a

clumsy attempt to graft the distinction of the sexes as prevailing in

earth, hell, and heaven, upon a metaphysical theory of the origin of

the universe.

The primeval Prakriti, according to our authority, which now

becomes wholly mythological, resolved herself, by command of

Krisuna, into five primitive portions. These were Durcd, the Sakti

of Mandpeva ; Laxsumt, the Sakti of Visunu ; SAraswatr the god-

dess of language ; SXvirri, the mother of the Vedas, and RApu&, the

favourite of KrisHna.

1832. ] Analysis of the Puranas. 223

In the same manner as the primary creator of the world multiplies

his appearances, and without losing any of his individual substance,

occupies by various emanations from it different frames, so the radical

Prakriti exists in different shapes, and in various proportions, distin-

guished as Ansas, portions, Kalds, divisions, and Kaldnsas and

Ansdnsas, or subdivisions, or portions of portions. Thus Ganga,

Tulasi, Manasé, Shashthé, and Kali, are Ansaruépas, or forms

having a portion of the original Prakriti ; Swahd, Swadhd, Dakshi-

nd, Swasti, a host of virtues and vices, excellences and defects, and

all the wives of the inferior deities are Kaldripas, forms constituted

of a minor division of Prakriti ; whilst all the female race are animated

by her minuter portions, or subdivisions, and they are virtuous or

vicious, according as the quality of goodness, passion, or ignorance,

derived from their great original, predominates, in the portion of which

they are respectively constituted. Women who go astray, therefore,

have by this system, a better excuse than the stars.

The compiler of this Purdna is very little scrupulous as to the

consistency of his narrative, and assigns to the principal goddesses other

origins than that which he gives in the beginning of the Brahma

K’handa, or in the first chapter of this section, Thus Saraswati’, who

came out from the mouth of Krisuna in the former, and in the

latter, is said to be one of the five subdivisions of Prakriti, is now

described as proceeding from the tongue of RApu& ; and Laxusmr’, who

in one place is also a portion of Prakriti, and in another issues from

the mind of Krisuna, is described in this part of the work, as one

of two goddesses, into which the first Saraswati was divided ; the

two being Saraswat proper, and Kamat or Laxsumr. These

incoherencies are quite characterstic of this Purdna, which from

first to last is full of contradictory repetitions, as if the writer was

determined to make a large book out of a few ideas, the precise

nature of which he forgot as fast as he committed them to paper.

After this account of the origin of the principal female forms, the

third chapter contains a more particular description of the sphere of

Krisuna or Goloka. It then repeats an account of the creation of

the world, through the agency of Brauma ; and the following chapters

of the section, are devoted to legendary stories of the principal

Prakritis, or Saraswati’, Gancd, Tuvast, SXviret, Laxsumi, SwAHA,

Swapuds, Daxsuing, Suasnv’ut’, Mancars, Cuanpi', Manasi,

Surasat, RépurKs and Durcs. In the course of these narratives vari-

ous others are introduced, illustrative of the characters of gods, saints,

heroes, and heroines, all tending to show the fervour with which

2924 Analysis of the Purdnas. [ June,

they worshipped Krisuna. Accounts of Goloka, a description of hell,

and an explanation of the chronological system of the Puranas, are

interwoven ; besides other subjects of a peculiar and legendary nature,

conveying little information or amusement.

The third section of the Brahma Vaivertta Purana is the Ganes‘a

K’handa, giving an account of the birth and actions of that deity,

in a series of legends, which are not of frequent occurrence, and are

in a great degree, if not altogether, peculiar to the work.

Pxrvati after her marriage with Srva, being without a child, and

being desirous to obtain one, is desired by her husband to perform

the Punyaka Vrata. This is the worship of VisuNnu, to be begun

on the thirteenth day of the bright fortnight of Magha, and continued

for a year, on every day of which, flowers, fruits, cates, vessels,

gems, gold, &c. are to be presented, and a thousand Brdhmans fed,

and the performer of the rite is to observe most carefully a life

of outward and inward purity, and to fix his mind on Hart or

Visunu. P&rvari having with the aid of SanarKuMARA, as directing

priest, accomplished the ceremony on the banks of the Ganges, returns

after some interval, in which she sees KrisHna, first asa body of

light, and afterwards as an old Brdhmana, come to her dwelling.

The reward of her religious zeal being delayed, she is plunged in

grief, when a viewless voice tells her to go to her apartment where she

will find a son, who is the lord of Goloka, or Krisuna, that deity

having assumed the semblance of her son, in recompence of her

devotions.

In compliment to this occasion, all the gods came to congratulate

Srva and PXrvati, and were severally admitted to see the infant :

amidst the splendid cohort was Sant, the planet Saturn ; who although

anxious to pay his homage to the child, kept his eyes stedfastly fixed

on the ground. P&rvari asking him the cause of this, he told her,

that being immersed in meditation upon Visunu, he had disregarded

the caresses of his wife, and in resentment of his neglect, she had

denounced upon him the curse that whomever he gazed upon he

should destroy : to obviate the evil consequences of this imprecation

he avoided looking any one in the face. P&rvati having heard his

story paid no regard to it, but considering, that what must be, must be,

gave him permission to look at herson. Sanz calling Duerma to wit-

ness his having leave, took a peep at Ganx’sA, on which the child’s head

was severed from the body, and flew away to the heaven of KrisHna,

where it reunited with the substance of him, of whom it was part.

Durea’ taking the headless trunk in her arms, cast herself, weeping

1832. ] Analysis of the Puranas. 225

on the ground, and the gods thought it decent to imitate her example,

all except Visunu, who mounted Garura, and flew off to the river

Pushpabhadra’, where finding an elephant asleep he took off his head,

and flying back with it, clapped it on the body of Ganer’sa; hence

the body of that deity is crowned with its present uncouth capital.

On the restoration of Gane’sa to life, valuable gifts were made to the

gods and bra’hmans, by the parents, and by P&rvart’s father, the

personified Himalaya. The unfortunate SANI was again anathema-

tised, and in consequence of the curse of P&rvart, has limped ever

since.

These legends and others of minor importance, with the various

prayers and addresses of the deities, occupy the first 13 chapters. The

next five give an account of the birth of Karrixeya. In the 19th

and 21st chapters the reason why Ganer’sa’s head was lopped off is

given. Srv offended with Aprrya, the sun, slew him, and although

he restored him to life, incurred the wrath of the sage Ka’syapa, who

doomed his (Stva’s) son to lose his head. The elephant was [ypRa’s

elephant, and was decapitated because Inpra threw over hisneck the

garland of flowers, which the sage Durvadsas gave him, and the dis-

respect of which, with the consequent degradation of InpRa, is noticed

in various Purdnas, although in all other respects with different results.

Inpra was no loser of an elephant by his decapitation, as Visunu,

moved by the prayers of his mate, gave him another head in place of

that which he took away. The humiliation of InpRa, and his reco-

very of Laxsumr or glory, are the subjects of the next five chapters, and

the remaining half of this section is occupied with the story of Ganer’sa’s

losing one of his tusks. It was broken off by Parasurdma, and the

occurrence therefore involves his history, and that of his ancestor Buricu,

the possession of the all-bestowing cow by JAmADAGNI, the attempt tc

carry her off by the king K&rtavirya’rsuna; the conflict that en

sued, and the death of the sage; Parasurdma’s avenging his father’s

loss, by slaying KArraviryXrsuna ; his combats with the kings, who

eame to the aid of that prince; and the destruction of the military

race.

After this last exploit, Parasur&mA, who was a favourite disciple

of Stva, went to Kaila’sa to visit his master ; on arriving at the inner

apartments, his entrance was opposed by Gawnr’sa, as his father was

asleep. ParasurcXma nevertheless urged his way, and after a long

and absurd dialogue, in which devotion to Krisuna is most abruptly

and diffusely introduced, the parties came to blows. Gane’sa had at

first the advantage, seizing Parasura’ma in his trunk, and giving him

G G

226 Analysis of the Puranas. [ Jun,

a twirl that left him sick and senseless ; on recovering, R&ma threw his

axe at Gane’sa, who recognizing it as his father’s weapon (Siva having

given itto ParasuRAmA), received it with all humility upon one of hig

tusks, which it immediately severed, and hence Ganer’sa has but one

tusk , and is known by the names Ekadanta and Ekadantashira,

(the single-tusked.) Parvati was highly incensed with Parasurdma,and

was about to curse him, when Krisuna, of whom he was the worship-

per, appeared as a boy and appeased her indignation. This part of

the work ends witha recapitulation of the names of Ganr’sa, his quar-

rel with Tuxasi, in consequence of an imprecation from whom it

was, that he lost one of his tusks; Parasurdma’s adoration of him,

and retiring to lead an ascetic life.

The last section, the Krishna Janma K’handa, is very voluminous,

containing 132 chapters. It gives an account of Krisuna’s birth and

adventures, as narrated by NXrXyana to Nare’pa..

The narrative is introduced by a panegyric of the individual, who

is a real Vaishnava, or thoroughly devoted to Krisuna: and who

consequently becomes endowed with all knowledge and virtue, acquires

superhuman faculties on earth, is elevated to the region of Krisuna

after death, and liberates himself, and seven generations above and

below him, from the penalty of regeneration. All crimes avoid him,

or are consumed in his purity, like moths in a lamp; and any one

meeting him on the road, is thereby cleansed of the sins he may have

contracted for seven preceding lives; no course of religious practices,

or devout penances is necessary to the attainment of such miraculous

excellence, and the love of Harr or Krisuna is the only condition

required. He who has received the initiatory mantra, who repeats

the name of that divinity constantly, who transfers to him every

worldly desire and possession, whose thoughts ever dwell upon him in

prosperity or distress, and the hair of whose body stands erect with

rapture on his simply hearing any of the appellations of Krisuwa

articulated, has fulfilled every obligation, and merits the designation

of a Vaishnava.

According to this Purana, and this only, the original cause of

Krisuna’s incarnation, was his love of RapuHx. The RApua of the

Goloka had been compelled to assume a mortal body, by the impre-

cation of a Gopa of that region, Kripama, the minister of his master’s

. pleasures, and the object of R<pud’s anger. Him she condemned in a

fit of jealous indignation to become the Asura Sanxuscuu’ra, and he in

retaliation sentenced her to become a nymph of Vrindavan. To

console her in this condition Krisuna also came down to this world,

1832. | Analysis of the Puranas. 297

as her lover; at the same time, however, granting the prayers of

BraumX and the gods, who solicited his appearance to relieve the

earth from the burthen of the iniquities under which she laboured,

the legitimate purpose of every descent or Avatdra. In order to pro-

vide Krisnna and RApus with suitable associates, all the gods and

goddesses also assumed their respective characters as Gopas and

Gopis, or members of the family of Yapu, and the heroes of the

Mahabharat. Vasupeva, the father of KrisHna, was an incarnation

of Kasyapa, and Dr’vaxt, his mother, of Anitz. Nanpa was an

incarnation of one of the Vasus, and Yasop& of his spouse Duarg.

DureAd was incarnate as the daughter of the bear JAmpavin. Jam-

BAvaiTi one of Krisuna’s brides, and Laxsumr’, multiplied herself

into the sixteen thousand princesses, whom KrisHna enumerated

amongst his wives.

The story of Vasupeva and De’yAxz, and the birth of Krisuna are

narrated in the usual manner, which gives occasion to directions for

the celebration of the Janmdshthami, or festival in commemoration of

the birth-day of Krisuna on the 8th lunation of the month Srdavan,

and the Purana authorises its observance agreeably to the practice of

the Saktas, which allows it to be independent of the moon’s entering into

the asterism Rohinz, although should the position of the moon and

the lunation occur together, the festival is the more holy, and is termed

Jayanté or triumphant. The festival is on no account to commence

on that day, in which a part of the 7th lunation may occur. The

variety of doctrine and observance on this head is explained in the

Asiatic Researches (vol. xvi. page 92, note.) To omit the observance

altogether is a crime not to be expiated, and is equal in atrocity to

the murder of a hundred brahmans.

The infant exploits of Krisuna are next related, and require no

particular comment. Garaa, the Muni, points out Rapud, the

daughter of VrisHABHA’NU, as an eligible bride for the youth, and

acquaints Nanpa, Krisuna’s foster father, of the secret of her divinity,

in which he thus expounds her name.

“© The letter R preserves persons from sin, the vowel A obviates

regeneration, D’h shortens the period of mortal existence, and the

second long vowel sunders all worldly bonds.” The marriage was

accordingly celebrated with great rejoicing, and the distribution of

viands in large quantities, and the donation of immense treasures. The

incompatibility of such profusion, with the condition of Nanpa, the

cowherd, is of no consideration to the author of this work, although it

GG 2

228 Analysis of the Purdnas. [ June,

has saved the author of the Bha’gavat, the original of the greater part

of the story, from any such gross extravagancies.

The hero of the festivities, steals the curds in the next chapter, for

which he is tied to a tree, and gets a whipping from his foster mother

Yason4. After she leaves him, the tree falls, and from it emerges Nata-

KUVERA, the son of Kuvera, condemned to this metamorphosis, for

indecent behaviour in the presence of DevaLa* Muni.

A long chapter is next occupied with the praises of Ra’pua’ by

Krisuna and Brauma’, which inculcate her supremacy over all other

divinities, male or female, and her being inseparable from and one

with Krisuna. The sports of the juvenile god are then related, and

his destruction of the demons Vaka, Kest, and Pratamsa; the con-

struction of palaces at Gokula, for all its inhabitants, by ViswakERMA’,

the divine architect, of whose architectural exploits, the village of Gokula

now offers no vestiges. This part of the work comprises the history of

VrisHaByHANu, and his wife Kata’vatt, the parents of R&puX, and

who were rewarded by her birth, for the virtues of their former exis-

tence, as SucuanpRA, a king of the family of Menu, and Kata’vatt,

a will-born daughter of the Pztris or progenitors of mankind. This

story includes a dissertation upon the virtues of women.

Several chapters follow, partly describing the actions of KrisHna,

and partly expatiating upon his excellencies and those of RApH&.

A legend of S£uasixa, the son of the son of Batt, follows, who was

turned ‘into an ass, by the curse of Durv&sas, for having disturbed the

meditation of that sage, in the prosecution of his amours with Ti1ot-

TaMA, a nymph of heaven. On the penitence of the couple, Durvdsas

announced to them, that the ass should be destroyed by the discus of

KrisHna, in consequence of which, the spirit of S{mastKa should

receive final emancipation, and that Trrotram& should be born the

daughter of BANAsura, in which capacity, she should become the

bride of ANriRUDDHA, the grandson of KrisHna.

The marriage of DurvAsas with KapXut, the daughter of Aurva

Muni, is the next legend ; in this, the violent temper of his wife excites

the sage’s wrath, and he reduces her to ashes. Repenting subsequently

of his anger, and soothed by the appearance of Braumd, he changes

the remains of his wife into a plantain tree. The same sage is the sub-

ject of another legend of great celebrity amongst the Vaishnavas, as

illustrating Krisuna’s superiority over Stva. DurvAsas, a votary of

that deity, being offended with AmBari/sHa a devout worshipper of

VisHNu, attempted to destroy him, but was repelled, and narrowly

* One place has Galava.

1832. | Analysis of the Purdnas. 229

escaped destruction himself by the Chakra or discus of Visunu,

which came to the assistance of the king. The merits of fasting on

the eleventh day of the fortnight, are the subject of the next chapter,

and they are followed by an explanation of the eight names of Dures,

which again is relieved by a story of KrisuNna, carrying away and

hiding the clothes of the nymphs of Goku/a, whilst they were bathing in

the Jumna. He gives up his booty upon being prayed to by RApua,

in the usual strain, eulogising his divine supremacy, and identification

with all things known or unknown. Several legends of minor importance

follow, to the 32nd chapter, when that, and the two following, are occu-

pied with the advances made by Mourn, a heavenly nymph to Brauma,

and his insensibility,in resentment of which she curses him, that he

shall not receive any adoration from mankind; the effects of which

malediction are said to be evinced in the neglect which Braum&

experienced from the professors of the Hindi faith.

The attention of the work is next directed, through a series of chapters,

to the legends of the Satva faith, or Brauma’s discomfiture by Siva,

the asceticism of the latter, his marriage with Sari, the daughter of

Daxsua, her burning herself, and Si1va’s second marriage with PArvat1

the daughter of HimAtaya. Stories of Vrisuaspati, INpRa, VAuNI,

Dorvdsas, and Duanwanvrarr then follow. All these legends are

supposed to be narrated by Krisuna to RApuA&, for her entertainment;

and their general purport is to shew, that the personages to whom they

refer, are immeasurably inferior to Krisuna, and his votaries.

Some cases are then recorded of the humiliation of the leading perso-

nages of the Hindi Pantheon, in consequence of their incurring the

displeasure of Krisuna or some of his followers. Visunu, whilst boast-

ing himself the god of all, was swallowed by Krisuna in the form of

a Bhairava, all but his head, and was restored to his form, on recovering

his senses. Brana, whilst making a similar vaunt, was surprised to

behold multitudes of Brahmas and Brahmdandas, or creations distinct

from himself and his works; and Siva was condemned to pay the penal-

ty of his pride, by his marriage with Sati, and distraction for her loss,

which were the delusions of Krisuna.

The 62nd chapter contains a summary account of R&macHaNpRa,

and the next ten proceed with an account of the transactions that imme-

diately preceded Krisuna’s departure from Vrindavan for Mathura’,

whether he was attracted, with his supposed father Nanpa, by a spe-

cial invitation from Kawnss, his uncle, witha view to his destruction, at

a sacrifice offered to Siva. The result of this visit is the death of

Kans4, as described in other Puranas ; but there is no detail of the

230 Analysis of the Puranas. [ June,

previous wrestling, which occurs in the Bhdgavat. On taking final

leave of his foster father Nanna, Krisuna favours him with a code of

regulations, for his moral and religious conduct: he is not tolook at a sin-

gle star, nor the setting sun or moon; not to keep company with the:

wicked, nor to injure or insult Brahmans, cows, and Vaishnavas ; not

to delay payment of the due fees to the priest who officiates at a cere-

mony ; not to eat flesh or fish; not to vilify Stva, Durcd, or GaNavatt;

and on no account to omit every possible demonstration of his love for

Hart. These injunctions extend to a great length, and are all of as

little importance as the above. There are some curious denunciations,

however, against acts which are lawful in the institutes of Menu; and

no distinction is here made between a Brahman who follows the pro-

fession of arms, and one who marries a woman of the Sudra caste.

There is also a singular leaning shown to the Sava faith, and

the man who forms a single Stva-linga of clay, is said to reside in

heaven for 100 Kalpas. The following scale is given of Krisuna’s

affections: “ Of all tribes the Brahman is most esteemed by me,

Laxsumr is still more beloved than a Brahman, RApu< is dearer to

me than Laxsumr’, a faithful worshipper is dearer than Rapu4, and

Sankara is the best beloved of all.” The instructions to Nanpa

comprise also a dissertation upon dreams, upon knowledge of the

divine nature, and on the duties of the different castes and orders

of the Hindus, on the duties of women, and the expiation of

offences. This division of the work extends from the 75th to the 85th

chapter.

A legend of the birth of Vrinp&s, the daughter of Kendra, next

follows: from her, Vrindavan, or as usually termed Bindraban, derives

its appellation, she being identified with RAp#& in her birth at that

place. This chapter is followed by several others of a very miscellane-

ous character, in which Braud, Siva, and the Munis eulogise

Krisuna’s power. The next sections are occupied with the mission of

Uppuava from Krisuna to Gokula, to bear intelligence of the latter

to his parents and his mistresses ; and we have then a short detail of the

usual Pauranik chronology : Uppxava returns to KrisuNna, and we

have then a narrative of Krisuna’s being invested with the thread of

his tribe ; he then prosecutes his studies under Sanp1/pani Muni, and

at their close relinquishes the garb of a cowherd for the robes of a.

king, presenting to his Guru four lacs of diamonds, an equal number

of other sorts of gems, five lacs of pearls, a necklace worn by Durea,

dresses worth all the treasures of the world, and ten crores of Suvarnds,

or certain measures of gold :—puerile exaggerations, which although not

.1832.] Analysis of the Purdnas. 231

unknown to the other Puranas, are most lavishly multiplied in the

work under review.

Although assuming a royal character, this work describes KrisHna

as resigning the supremacy to Ucrase’Nna, and directing Dwdrakd to

be built for him, by the divine architect Viswast’na—a wide departure

from the account every where else given of the circumstances, under

which Dwdrakad became the capital of Krisuna. He having been

driven from Mathura by JarAsanpua, the father-in-law of Kansa,

whom Krisuna had deposed and slain; Krisnna and his tribe, on their

expulsion from Mathura, fled to the west coast of the peninsula, and

there founded anew city. No notice whatever is taken of these revo-

lutions in this work, although they are told at some length, in the

Mahabharat, Vishnu Purana, and Bhagavat. Ina subsequent chapter

indeed, this Purdna refers to the same events, although it does not

particularise them; and Rux«mtr the brother of Ruxmini’ reproaches

Krisuna with having fled to Dwarakad through fear of Jardsan-

DHA.

Krisuna’s marriage with Ruxmrnr’ is next narrated, but he does

not carry her off, as in other authorities. Her brother opposes his

entrance into the city, but is defeated by BaLapeva, and then KrisHna

enters, and is duly married to the princess in her father’s presence.

Every where else, he runs away with her before the marriage, and

Bataveva checks the pursuit.

In the next chapters, a conversation between RApu& and Y asop4,ex-

pounds the purport of eleven names of Krisuna, and these are succeeded

by an account of the birth of Ruxminr’s son Prapyumna, his being car-

ried off by a demon, and his recovery, the birth of other sonsof Kxisuna,

and marriage of the sage Durvsas to a daughter of Uarase’Na.

Krisuna’s share in the war of the Mahabharat is very briefly dispatched,

except a long hymn to him by SisurXra, whomhe slew. The

intrigue of AniRuppHA, Krisuna’s grandson, with Usus, the daugh-

ter of V<NA, is narrated at some length, in the usual style, and the

unsuccessful contest waged by that prince against KristNa is pro-

tracted by the episodical insertion of a variety of stale legends, toa

disproportionate extent; these stories are related alternately by

Aniruppua and V<na,as they stand prepared to engage in single

combat for the purpose of proclaiming the respective might of

Krisuna and Siva, VANA being devoted to the worship of the latter

divinity. Srv however, after vainly attempting to dissuade him from the

conflict, is obliged to witness his votary’s defeat, with that of Skanpa

232 Analysis of the Puranas. [ Junx,

and BuapRAKALt, who had gone to his succour ; and VAna becoming

sensible of Krisuna’s supremacy, consents to his daughter’s union with

ANIRUDDHA.

The next chapters relate to the origin of the Bindusdra Tirtha,

from the tears of Krisuna ; the reason why it is sinful to look at the

moon on the 4th day of Bhddra, and Satrasiv’s obtaining that gem,

whose presence in a country insures iis fertility. The adoration of

Ganr’sa by RApad, in the presence of the assembled deities, is the sub-

ject of the 122nd and 123rd chapters, and as acknowledged in the text,

is one rarely treated of in other Puranas. Ganer’sa, not to be outdone,

eulogises RADHA in his turn, and is followed by Braumd and ANANTA.

The worship of Gane’sa by Rapuc marked the termination of the

curse, which had sentenced her to a mortal existence ; and she was then

restored to her celestial nature, in which DurcGd is made to declare

that there is no difference between RAvua and herself, and whoever

speaks in a depreciating manner of either, is equally punished in

hell.

Krisuna, having also offered worship to Ganr’sa, returns to

Dwdaraka, and resumes his lessons to Nanpa and his family ; he also

prophesies the depravity of the world in the succeeding or Kali age, in

which men wiil abstain from venerating Sd/agrdm stones and Tulasi

plants, and attach themselves assiduously to the service of Milechhas,

barbarians and outcastes, who it is said also, shall become the rulers of

the country :—expressions indicative of the prevalence of the Moham-

medan authority, when the Purdna was compiled.

RdpuX after this returns to Goloka, with all the Gopas and Gopis

of divine origin, Krisuna creating others to supply their place at

Vrindavan. The circumstances of Krisana’s death, by a wound from

a hunter, the destruction of his tribe, and the submersion of Dwaraka

by the sea, are next alluded to, inso brief and obscure a manner, that

without a previous knowledge of what is intended the notice would be

quite unintelligible ; and these events are lost sight of amidst the much

more detailed addresses of the gods and goddesses, the ocean, the rivers,

and particularly the Ganges, in which the sufferings of the earth, in con-

sequence of Krisana’s departure, are most pathetically lamented. After

Krissna’s death, the form that proceeded from his person, went to the

Sweta Dwipa, where it became two: one-half was N&rdyana, the

lord of Vaikuntha ; the other was Krisuna, the deity of Goloka, the

supreme indescribable source of all, who ascended to his original seat,

and was reunited to RApui.

1832. | Analysis of the Purdnas. 233

The Purana properly closes here, at the end of the 128th chapter ;

but NArepa, who has been its auditor, now hears from the narrator

N&riyana, that he, NAnepa, was in his former life, a Gandharva, the

husband of 50 wives, one of whom is reborn, as well as himself, and by

the boon of Siva, is to be once more his bride. N<«repa submits rather

reluctantly, and shortly after his marriage with the daughter of Sringaya,

who is declared to be one with M&ya,run away from his wife to per-

form penance, through which he is united with Hart.

A supplementary chapter, the 130th, follows, in which Su’ra, the

ordinary narrator or recapitulator of the Pwrdnas, relates two legends,

explaining the birth of Fire from Braamdé, and of gold from Fire. Chap-

ter 131 is a short index to the Pwrdnas. The last chapter, 132,

enumerates the diiferent Paranas and Upapuranas, the five works called

Pancharatra, and the five Sanhitas or compendia of the Vaishnava

faith. Itisalso remarkable for its definition of the Mahabharat, aud the

Ramayana, the former of which it terms a Itéhasa, or history, and the

Jatter a Kavya, or poem : the work terminates with a eulogium on itself ;

the attentively hearing of one quarter of a verse of which, is equal in

merit to the gift of the heaven of Krisuwa.

The preceding sketch of the contents and character of this work

will probably have furnished sufficient evidence of its modern origin.

It is clearly subsequent to the great body of Mindz literature, not only

by the enumerationjust noticed, but by reference to the several phi-

losophical systems, the Terka, Vaisheshika, Sankhya, Patanjala,

Memansa, and Vedanta, which occurs in a preceding passage. Its being

the latest of the Purdnas is also apparent from its own avowal of its be-

ing intended to clear up the discrepancies observable in those works, and

by the frequent assertion, that the legends it gives, particularly

those respecting Ganr'sa, are not to be met with in the other Puranas.

_ That it was compiled subsequent to the Mohammedan invasion, is very

probable, from the allusions it contains to the supremacy of Milechha

rulers ; and the particular branch of the Hindi system which it ad-

vocates, renders it likely to have emanated from a sect, which there

is reason to imagine originated about four centuries ago with Vatia-

pHscudrya and the Gosains of Gokula.

238 Observations on the Earthy Matter [ June,

II.—Some observations on the Quantity of Earthy Matter brought

down by the Ganges River. By the Rev. R, Everest.

[Read before the Physical Class, 13th June, 1832.]

In the course of last summer, I made some attempts to ascertain the

weight of solid matter contained in a given quantity of Ganges water,

both in the dry and rainy season, but I found the weight so variable

on different days (when little difference might have been expected)

that I can hardly consider the observations numerous enough to give

a correct average. Such as they are, however, they may not be with-

out interest in the absence of other information on the subject. I there-

fore take the liberty of laying them before the Society, and shall, if

opportunity offers, endeavour to add some further data, both for the

weight of solid matter, and also for the rise and velocity of the river.

1, A quantity of Ganges’ water taken 27th May, 1831, gave when

evaporated, a solid residuum of 1.084 grains per wine quart.

2. July 2ist. There had been little rain for some days, and

the river was low for the season: a wine quart contained of soluble

matter 2.0 grains; of insoluble, 16.2;—total 18.2.

3. August 2nd. Theriver being much higher, the same quantity of

water gave insoluble matter 28.7, soluble 3. O ;—total 31.7.

4. August. 13th. The river had reached its maximum, and gave

from the same quantity of water, insoluble matter 73.5 grains; soluble

2.7 :—total 76.2,

5. August 20th. The water had hitherto been taken from the side,

but as itwas evident that the quantity of matter held in suspension in the

middle of the current was much greater than towards the bank, where

the water was nearly still, I took two separate portions as before, and

obtained, from the middle, 40 grs. of insoluble residuum ; from the side

20 grains ditto: add for soluble matter, suppose two grains to each, the

middle gives 42, the side 22 grs. The river to-day was at the same height

as on the 13th.

6. Sept. 7th. Two portions taken thisday, as before, gave for the

middle 19, the side 15.

7. Sept: 2ist. The middle gave 22, the side 20:

The different proportion in this case was occasioned by a strong east

wind agitating the water near the shore.

8. Oct. 4th. The middle gave 9.6, the side 5.1.

The numbers therefore stand thus :

1832. | brought down by the Ganges River. 239

Middle. Side.

20th Awash, |e.) SIMMS se ahs o silva vows 22

7th Sept........ | a ET 15

SEESES sw en0's < a'es Peete a aie) Macaas Ges pin: Rains ie 20

(hie SS ai ee RPO cle teiekctsic «ik nie | ol ahein = fe 5.1

Average 23.1 15.5

These numbers are to each other nearly as 3 to 2, so that we

may correct the previous observations as follows :

DL StI ly, < <b: miei Bho

2nd August.... 47.5

13th . 114.3

The first rain fell on the afternoon of the 14th June, and we have

unfortunately no observation for the first month of their duration, but I

think 27.3, the quantity on the 21st July, would be rather a low than

a high average for it. For the second month, viz. from the 15th July

to the 15th August, we have three observations, which give an average of

63 grs. For thethird month, we have two, with an average of 30.5 grs.

For the fourth month we have two, giving an average of 15.8. So that

the average for the whole period, from the 15th June to the 15th

October, would be 34 grs. On the 15th March, 1832, a quantity of

water taken in the middle of the stream gave 6 grains per quart: a

mean between this and 9.6 (the weight obtained on the 4th October),

or 7.8 grs., may be taken as the average from the 15th October to the

15th March, or for five months.

1.084 per quart was the weight obtained on the 27th May, from

water taken at the side. If we correct this as before, it gives 1.63,

and the mean between this and 6, or 3.8 will be the average for the

remaining three months, from the 15th March to the 15th Jane.

I will here add such data as I possess respecting the breadth, depth,

and velocity of the stream.

I found the breadth on the 15th March 1832, to be 660 yards.

The distance up the bank to the maximum height of the rains was

158 yards more on the southern shore, and 38 yards on the northern ;

which reduced to a level, would give a total breadth of 2563 feet, for

the maximum breadth of the rains; 1980 feet, being the least breadth

in the dry weather.

On the same day, the total perpendicular fall from the maximum

height of the rains was 28 feet. The whole breadth of 1980 feet,

sounded at intervals of 300 feet, gave an average of 17 feet 8 inches,

which added to 28, gives 45 feet 8 inches for the maximum depth in the .

HH 2

240 Observations on the Earthy Matter [Jounz,

vains. The river had reached this maximum on the 13th August,

and continued at the same until the 20th. After that it subsided as

follows: 7

ft. in

On the 26th August the fall Was.............008 Te

ELISE Pte coment Chm am & 5 sige Saye aly a a eG DL £m

SONS ES NO Ce SP cae Aa Popo BS 5° '6

Oth Sept vs <' sae wee eee. aes (a, 6

Atty HCE. ss) cca y tie Vl el alacae Mtoe 2 ate 15 4

Dt OCH sas te cinco! «+ eee reagan nee 22 10

So that we may call the average depth for the third month of the

rains 4 feet 3 inches below maximum, or in round numbers 41 feet. For

the fourth month, viz. from the 15th Sept. to 15th Oct. the average

depth would be 11 feet 3 inches below maximum, or 34 feet. For the first

two months of the rains, the rise of the river was not measured, but from

the quantity of rain that fell and the apparent increase, I cannot believe

that the average depth would be less than the average for the fourth

month, viz. 34 feet. Ifthen we assume this number for the first two

months, we have an average depth of 36 feet for the four months of

the rains. A mean between 22 feet 10 inches (the fall measured on

the 25th Oct.), and 28 feet (the fall measured on the 15th March),

gives 24 feet 11 inches for the fall below the maximum in the intervening

period, or in round numbers 20 feet for the actual depth during that

period. For the three months of dry weather ensuing, 17 feet 8

inches may be taken as the depth.—We have seen that the least

breadth in the dry weather was 1980 feet, and the greatest in the

rains 2563 feet ; leaving a difference of 583 feet. So that while the

depth diminished 28 feet, the breadth diminished 583 feet, or 21 feet

of breadth nearly for one of level. This proportion gives us 2383 feet

for the average breadth during the four rainy months. Owing to the

diminished velocity near the bank, and the diminished quantity of

matter held in suspension there, this excess must be again reduced.

Probably 2080 feet may be reckoned as the fair average breadth for

the rainy months, 1780 for the winter, and 1730 for the hot months.

The velocity, by the mean of two measurements on the 2nd and 14th

April, 1832, at the surface, was 4425 feet per hour. I have no similar

measurement for the maximum velocity in the rains, but while the

river was at its greatest height I came a computed distance of 10

miles in an hour anda half, and from other observations of the same

kind, both by myself and others, I am induced to estimate the maximum

velocity at 64 miles,or 34320 feet per hour, Assuming that the

1832. ] brought down by the Ganges River. 241

velocity varies as the depth, we have 23,800 feet for the average velocity

during the rains, 7435 feet for the winter, and 4425 feet for the hot

months. I make no allowance for the decreased velocity of the stream

near the bottom, because it is in all probability compensated by the

increased weight of matter held in suspension there ; for the decreased

velocity at the sides I have allowed by reducing the breadth. Our

whole data therefore stands thus :

Cubic feet

Average

Season. Depth. breadth as Velocity. discharged

ft: reduced. ft. per hour. | per second.

Rains, 4 montis,.. 36 2080 23800 | 494,208

Winter, 5 months, .. .. 20 1780 | 7435 71,200

Hot weather, 3 months,.. 176 1730 4445 | 36,330

34 grains per wine quart was found to be the average for the rains.

Now as a wine quart of water weighs 14544 grains, we have about

zzath part of solid matter by weight. But as the specific gravity

of this cannot be stated at less than 2, we have ;};th part in bulk for

the solid matter discharged, or 577 cubic feet per second. This gives

a total of 6,082,041,600 cubic feet for the discharge in the 122 days

of the rains :—7.8 grains per wine quart was the weight determined for

the five winter months or ,3;,zth part in weight, and ;,;th part in bulk,

which gives 19 cubic feet per second, or a total of 247,381,600 cubic

feet for the whole 151 days of that period :—3.8 grains per wine quart

was the weight allowed for the threehot months, which gives a 333;th

part by weight, and a ;3;;th part by bulk, or about 4.8 cubic feet per

Second for the discharge of solid matter, and a total of 38,154,240

cubic feet for the discharge during the 92 days. The total annual

discharge then would be 6,368,077,440 cubic feet.

In comparing these observations with some previous ones, I was glad

to find that my average for the rains of ,3;th part in bulk is nearly the

same as that obtained by Captain Forbes, viz. 2 cubic inches in 1728,

or 1 cubic foot.

I have stated the discharge for the hot months at 36,330 c.f. It is

stated inthe Gieantnes at 20,000 at Benares. On looking over the

data from which the estimates are drawn, I see that the product of the

breadth and depth there given is greater than my own, the two products

being to each other nearly as 5 to 8, but that the velocity I have found is

to what is there given, nearly as 15to 5. My measurements were made

with care, and as I have been unable to detect any mistake in them,

I have given the result of them in the hope that some one may be indu-

ced either to verify or contradict them. Again, there is a great difference

between the discharge there estimated for the rains and my own results.

242 Note on the Magic Mirrors of Japan. [ June,

The former amounts to 1,372,500, or nearly three times mine, which is

only 494,208. Had I made the estimate for three months of rain instead

of four, my average of course would have been larger. There is too

another reason why my estimate may be considered as lower than the

truth. There is in the rains a small back stream, which forms anisland of

the opposite shore here. I examined this in the rains, but found the velo-

city of it so trifling, that I was induced to pass it over. Neither of these

causes could raise mine to within one half of the Benares estimate.

III. Note on the Magic Mirrors of Japan. By James Prinsep,

Sec. Ph. Cl. As. Soc.

[Read before the Physical Class, 13th June.]

The Japanese have long been celebrated for the manufactory of

metallic mirrors, in which they carry on a considerable trade with

China. They are ornamented with different devices on the back, and

are well polished on the reflecting surface; but what constitutes their chief

interest among Europeans is an adventitious property possessed by them,

which must have originally been discovered by chance, although it is not

certain at what period it became known, or whether the manufacturers,

once apprized of the secret, have purposely cultivated its principle in the

fabrication of their mirrors to give them an additional value in the

market: the fact is known in China and among the English, but I be-

lieve no explanation has hitherto been suggested.

One of these mirrors was lately brought to Calcutta, and most of

those whom I have the honor to address have had an opportunity of

witnessing itseffects ; I have therefore theless cause to regret that its trans-

mission to England has prevented my exhibiting it this evening. It has

been sent home to a gentleman with whom its mysterious qualities will

soon cease to be an enigma, if indeed they excite a moment’s curiosity in

his mind ; but we have been surely a little hasty in allowing it to go

from among ourselves, before we have attempted an explanation of the

phenomenon it exhibited, as though we feared to hazard the investigation

of so very simple a problem in optics, or have failed to discover its solu-

tion. To avert a suspicion of so derogatory a nature either to our zeal

or to our optical acumen, I beg leave to offer the following explanation

of the phenomenon to the consideration of the Society :

The Japanese mirroris aslightly convex disc of bell-metal, about

six inches in diameter, and a quarter of an inch in thickness on the

edge, ground and polished on the convex face, and covered with a

1832. | Note on the Magic Mirrors of Japan. 243

thin coating of silver to give it a white colour. The back of

the mirror is deeply carved or indented with ornamental work in cir-

cles and festoons, and it bears an inscription in the Japanese character in

high relief upon what may be termed the tympanum of the disc : in the

centre there isa projecting knob perforated laterally to receive a string

for suspending the mirror : the metal is highly sonorous when struck

asa bell, and is so soft as easily to be indented or scratched on con-

tact with any hard substance. I found its composition to be

Copper.. 80

MEME eocei sa OU

100

with no traces of silver or arsenic, and a very slight indication of zinc.

When a strong ray of light, as from the sun, is reflected from the po-

lished surface of the mirror upon a screen, instead of a clear bright disc,

as would naturally be expected, the spectrum is found to exhibit a to-

lerably clear delineation of the ornamental pattern on the back of the

mirror: the outer circles; the festooned ring ; the magical inscription,

are all seen depicted with fidelity ; and it certainly does stagger an ob-

server for the first time to witness an image shadowed forth, without any

visible origin ; for the back of the mirror may be covered or concealed

in any way without diminishing the effect.

Noirregularity of surface was perceptible on the face of the mirror.

It had been scratched in one or two places, and [ put it into the hands of

a silversmith to be repolished : in effecting this he rubbed off the plating

in several places, and exposed the surface of the bell-metal : this, although

in some respects a blemish, was one stepina negative investigation of

the cause of the phenomenon, for the reflected image continued just as

marked as before, merely being of a red colour where the silvering was

removed ; thus showing that the cause was unconnected with the nature

of the reflecting surface.

As it was seen that the thick parts, the rim, the festoon, and the let-

ters, were those which appeared most illuminated in the spectrum,

an obvious explanation occurred, that the light was more per-

fectly reflected from thick surfaces than from thin ones, however such

an assertion might militate against the known laws of metallic reflection,

which all experiments have proved to be purely superficial or confined to

an infinitely small depth below the surface: this hypothesis was easily

put to the test of experiment, by casting some specula of very unequal

thickness, and then grinding and polishing the upper surface : but when

the mirrors were thus made, the image reflected from them was found to

244 Note on the Magic Mirrors of Japan. [June

be altogether smooth and natural, and the first supposition of course was

no longer tenable. It then occurred, that the various parts of the

Japan mirror might be of different density. supposing the pattern to be

made by stamping, and that either the rays of light might be more

forcibly repelled by the denser metal than by the lighter, or that

parts of the surface would acquire different degrees of polish,

sufficient to cause the illusion, although imperceptible to the eye. But

in such case the thin parts, from being the hardest, should give the

stronger reflection. This supposition was also overthrown by experi-

ment. A disc of silver having been annealed at a red heat, so as to

be quite soft, was stamped on the back with a circular ring, deeply

indented, so as_to harden the silver in that part only. The opposite

surface was then ground and polished, when it was found to give a clear

and uniformly reflected spectrum.

The third and, I believe, the true explanation was suggested by the

well known phenomenon of the reflection from a brass button, which

every school boy has remarked when sporting his Sunday ‘* blue coat

with metal buttons” in the sunshine of his tutor’s parlour window. The

button throws a radiated irregular image on the wall, exhibiting two

bright concentric circles, one on the edge, and another about one-third

within it : and there is generally a bright spot in the centre ; all of this

seems but the picture of the stamp on the back of the button: the radii

resemble, and indeed coincide with the letters of “ superfine” or “ trebly

gilt” inscribed within a double circle, and the central spot represents the

shank: there can be little doubt, that the principle is in this case precise-

ly that of the Japan mirror, and on cursory view, the surface looks

equally smooth and unsuspicious. On minute examination, however,

of several buttons, I found them to be by no means plane ; their

general surface is slightly convex ; there isa hollow in the centre, and

a projection in the position of the inscription behind, caused no doubt

by the blow necessary in stamping it—the polish is probably given by a

rotatory motion, and consequently does not remove these very small

irregularities. To follow up the experimental investigation, I selected

one of the buttons, which gave a good image ; ground it ona flat hone,

and polished it: all of the magical figures vanished ina moment, and a

plain bright disc appeared in their stead! Here then may be a key to the

mystery of the mirror: the deception is entirely produced by irregu-

larities on the surface, which are rendered the less perceptible to the eye, _

because the surface is convex instead of being plane.

But it may be objected, that the two circles which appear bright in

the reflected spectrum of the button, represent the indented or thin parts

» ;

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PR ket nwie enn ae s _ cau whe, ie »

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Japanese Merror

Chirra Puryt Coal Strata. Fig. 5.

Section near Sanatarium

FS Vndstone

Coal

& Friable do Se

B bituminous Coatl..2

C slaty coak......... 2

D ockreows do..........2

E floor, Sandstone 6.6

eon ane G Sulphate line & Coal

K Limestone Strata G

natural

Sand

J Brinsep del ; Masinath Scujpe

1832.] Native Manufacture of Steel in Southern India, 245

of the'metal, whereas the thick parts of the Japan mirror are those

which appear illuminated. A short analysis of the facts in either

case will readily explain to what these discrepancies are attributable,

but it will be necessary to have recourse to a diagram.

Let AB PI.VI. fig. 1, bea plane mirror, upon which the rays of light

R impinge : they will be reflected uniformly in R’ forming a clear image.

Now let A BCD EF G be another reflecting surface, having two

conyexities, B C, E F; and one concavity in the centre, D ; (the condi-

tions nearly of the brass button.) In this case the light R “R. reflected

from the outer concave flexures of the protruding portions of the surfaces

BC,E F, will converge in the foci b,c,and e, f, respectively, at

distances corresponding to the radius of their curvature: the effect

will of course be visible within wide limits of the actual focus... In

most of the buttons however the central depression is so great, that it

‘collects the rays ina focus d, a few inches only in front of the surface ;

and when the spectrum is thrown farther off, the rays, crossing, form

two less distinct luminous foci at d’ d

It follows from analogy that the thin parts, or tympanum, of the

Japanese mirror, are slightly convex with reference to the rest of the

reflecting surface, which may have been caused either by the ornamental

work having been stamped, or partially carved with the hammer and chisel

on its back ; or, which is more probable, that part of the metal was by

this stamping rendered in a degree harder than the rest, so that in polish-

ing it was not worn away to the same extent. That the curvature is ex-

tremely small, is proved by the circumstance of the image being nearly

equally well defined at the distance of two or twenty feet, or within

all the limits at which [ had an opportunity of trying it.

Advantage might be taken of this exceedingly simple principle, to

produce a multitude of curious effects ; and I have little doubt that, in

the skilful hands of an English artist, it will be converted into a phi-

losophical toy, as amusing as the optical paradox, or even the far-famed

kaleidoscope itself.

1V.— Description of the Native Manufacture of Steelin Southern India.

~ [Extracted from the manuscript journals of the late Dr. Voysey.]

Kona samundram, (corner of the sea,) situated about 12 miles south

of the Godaveri, and 25 from Nirmul, is celebrated for its manufacture.

of steel, the chief part of which goes to Persia ; the following are the

chief details of this manufacture, collected by repeated visits to the

place, and personal inspection of the process.

246 Native Manufacture of Steel in Southern India. (June,

The furnace is a temporary circular structure of clay, from four to

five feet in height, and five feet indiameter. It is sunk two feet below

the surface of the ground. The fuel is charcoal, and the fire is kept up by

a blast from four bullock skins, placed at right angles to each other :

the muzzles resting on the upper edge of the furnace, so as to force

the blast downwards. The granitic clay of the furnace is highly

infusible ; it is found in the neighbourhood, and is formed of the

decomposition of granite rock with small pieces of quartz and

felspar, and is so valued for its refractory qualities, that it is exported

for the manufacture of crucibles, &c. After some days, however, if

a considerable heat has been maintained, the furnace becomes semi-

vitrified, and requires renewal; the costofa furnace is from two to

three rupees. |

The bellows are plied incessantly day and night: during the

operation, the men are relieved every four hours, each being engaged

to work 12 out of the 24. They are partly protected by a screen

of mud placed between them and the furnace, but the heat and ex-

ertion render their task sufficiently laborious.

The iron is converted into steel in pine-shaped crucibles, made of

the same clay asthe furnace, and of various sizes, according to the

purpose for which the steel is to be applied, whether for the fabrication

of swords, or knives, or other articles.

In making the crucibles, the granitic clay above described is ground

toa fine powder along with the fragments of old furnaces and cruci-

bles, and the whole kneaded together with the chaff of rice and oil.

The vessels are defended by a luting of the same, they are covered

with a similar top, but a perforation is made in the latter. No char-

coal is put into the crucible, but small pieces of kanch, or the glass

formed in the process, are put at the bottom of them along with the

ore, and serve of course as a flux. The crucibles are arranged and

steadied in the furnace occasionally by the superintendent, with a long

and stout rod of iron.

The materials used in the preparation ofthe steel are two different

kinds of iron ; one from Miértpalli—the other from Kondapur, in the

proportion of three parts of the former to two of the latter. The

Mirtpalli iron is derived originally from the iron sand already notic-

ed, and is sent in the state of large amorphous masses of a red-

dish grey color, and of an extremely porous texture. The internal

fracture is often iridescent. The Aondapur iron is procured from an

ore found amongst the iron clay, at a place about 20 miles distant.

It is said to be of adirty brown colour, and very frangible. The iron

1832. | Native Manufacture of Steel in Southern India. 247

however, is moderately compact and of a brilliant white fracture.

Occasionally it contains some ingredient which spoils the steel, render-

ing it excessively brittle: the natives assert that the adulteration

is copper, but it is more probably arsenic. The mixture being put into

the crucible, the fire isexcited and kept up for 24hours. Itis then allowed

to subside, and the crucible is taken out and placed on the ground to

cool. When quite cold it is opened, and a cake of steel of great hardness

is found, weighing on an average about a pound and a half. The cake

is covered with clay, and annealed in the furnace for 12 or 16 hours.

It is then taken out and cooled, and again annealed, and this may be

repeated a third or fourth time until the metal is rendered sufficient-

ly soft to be worked. The steel is known by the name of Wootzin

Telinga, anda Kurs, a cake of about 110 rupees weight, is sold on the

spot for 8 annas. The daily produce of a furnace is about 50 seers, or in

value 37 rupees. The cost of this steelis much enhanced by the exaction

of the jaghirdar, who not unfrequently appropriates the advance to

himself, and leaves the purchaser still to incur the whole expence.

The export, however, of the metal to Persia must be profitable, as it is

sufficient to bring dealers from that country and to defray the cost and

risk of travelling. We found at the village, in 1820, Haji Hosyn, from

Ispahan, engaged in the speculation; and it must have answered his

purpose, as he was here again in 1823, having returned in the interval

to Persia and disposed of the venture. He informed us that the place

and the process are both familiar to the Persians, and that they have

attempted to imitate the latter without success. Besides residing at the

village, whilst making his purchases, he bore a personal part in the

operation, weighing the proportions of the iron, and testing the

toughness of the steel himself.

The following experiments may convey some notion of the degree of

heat to which these furnaces can be raised, and which may be reckon-

ed at 130° of Wedgwood. 25 rupees weight of steel, which had not

been submitted to the last operation, with ;+,th of a silver rupee,

was fused in three hours into a button of hard steel. A piece of

shelly stratum from Jhirpa fusedinto a sort of porcelain. A piece of

hornblende schist was fused into a glass, with many ‘globules of iron

and manganese floating on thesurface. The granite from the bed of

the Godaveri yielded a green glass. Belkonda granite was partly run

into a green glass with pieces of quartz little altered, floating on the

mass. S%tabaldé basalt was melted into a yellowish green, and Jhirpa

wacken into a very perfect opaque black glass.

248 Proceedings of Societies. [ June,

V.—Proceedings of Societies.

1,—AsiaTic Society—Physical Class.

Wednesday, 13th June, 1831.

James Calder, Esq. in the chair.

The chairman communicated the offer of Dr. H. H. Spry of Sagar,

to correspond with the Physical Class, on Geological subjects, which was

accepted with thanks.

Correspondence.

1. The following letter was read from Mr. J. D. C. Sowerby, acknow~

ledging the receipt of the Himalayan Fossil Shells sent to him for exami-

nation, at the suggestion of the Rev. R. Everest, in 1831.

To James Prinsep, Esg. Sec. Ph. Cl. As. Soc.

Sir,

I feel highly honoured by the resolution of the Physical Class of the Asiatic

Society, forwarded to mein your letter, dated the 26th of January, and request

you to present my thanks to the Society for the series of specimens which I have

lately received.

I had before seen some specimens from the same mountains, in the possession

of Mr. Stokes and Dr. Buckland, among which were several ammonites that are

as yet unnamed, The Rev. Mr. Everest’s deductions are correct, as far as they

relate to the formations the fossils belong to, as you will see by the accompa-

nying list of names, to each of which I have added the formation in which that

species occurs, in England.

In the genus Terebratula, there are many species that cannot be depended upon

as indicating particular formations, because very similar ones are found in several

beds, and the species are difficult to determine, especially if not quite perfect.

You speak of a Pecten, which Mr. Everest thinks does not differ from the common

Scallop, it is very probably P. equivalvis, which is characteristic of the inferior

Oolite ; both of its valves bear a strong resemblance to the convex valve of

Pecten maximus. The Helix you speak of may possibly be Ampullaria nobilis,

which accompanies the Cirrus in the lower beds of the mountain limestone of

England and Ireland.

Allow me to repeat, that I am sensible of the honour conferred upon me by the

Asiatic Society, and shall always take a pleasure in replying to similar communi-

cations, or in being in any way serviceable to science.

I remain,

5, Camden Terrace, ~ Dear Sir,

West Camden Town, Your faithful servant,

London, Oct. 14, 1831. J. D. C. SowersBy,

List of Fossil Shells, from the Himalaya.

Fig. 1. (See GLEANINGSIIT. Plate XVII.) dvicula (rather than Pecten), species

new.

2. Spirifer striatus, [Min, Con. tab. cclxx.] Mountain Limestone.

? Cast of the interior of Spirifer siriatus, Mountain Lime.

3. Producta scabricula, [Min. Con. t. lxix. fig. 1.]

» hew species.

1832. | Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. 249

These two and the Spirifer stréatus are in a stone strongly resembling some of

the Transition Slate of England, which contains similar shells.

4, dstarte planata, var. [Min. Con. tab. cclvii.] Inferior Oolite.

A variety of this shell is found at Bayeux in Normandy, and is called Crassi-

na modiolaris. Also an unnamed large bivalve.

5. Nucula, an unnamed species ; similar fossils occur in the Mountain Lime

and Lias.

7. Strongly resembles a portion of some large Jnoceramus, but it is not

perfect enough to determine.

12, 13. Ammonites annulatus Anguinus, of Schlotheim, Zeiten, Versteinerun-

genWiirttembergs, t. ix. f.2. Min. Con. tab. ccxxii. fig. 5, is the same shell.

Lias formation. “The large specimen is filled with sulphate of barytes, not

carbonate of lime.

No. 24. Belemnites sulcatus, Sillot, Miller, Trans. Geol. Soc. 2nd series, vol. If.

pt. 1, pl. 8, fig. 3,4, and5. Bel. apiciconus, Blainville’s Memoire. Lias, inferior

Oolite.

23. Alveolus of a Belemnite, perhaps of B. sulcatus, Orthocera conica of

Min. Con, tab. lx. although called an orthocera, is only an alveolus similar to this.

2. The following letter from Dr. Falconer, Superintendent of the Hon.

Company's Botanic Garden at Seharanpur, was read.

Dehra Din Fossil Remains.

To the Editor of the Journal of the Asiatic Society.

Sir,

In No. 3 of the Journal of the Asiatic Society, p. 97, Mr. Royle has

announced the discovery by me of the fossil bones in the range of hills which

skirts the Valley of Debra on the south-west. I regret that Mr, Royle

did not confine himself to a simple announcement of the fact, without giving an

extract from the letter in which it is mentioned. The communication was made

immediately after I had met with the fossils, and was an unguarded expression to

an intimate friend, of what I imagined them to be, and not an opinion intended

for a public Journal in the ipsissima verba of the letter. Beyond, therefore, the

fact of fossil bones occurring in these hills, I do not wish to stand responsible for

any opinion regarding their specific determination, in the present imperfect state

of the inquiry. As yet they have been found in a small quantity only, and consist

of a few fragmented portions of bones. The Lignite occurs in great abundance.

The ‘‘fragmeuts of the shells’? (not the skud/ as stated in the Journal) of Tor-

toises resemble those found by Mr. Crawford and Dr. Wallich on the banks of

the Irawadi, and others contained in the museum of the Asiatic Society. The

“fragment of a bivalve shell’”’ is very imperfect, and therefore very questionable.

I conceive it necessary to state that Lieut. Cautley, Superintendent of the Doab

Canal, is the original discoverer of fossils in these hills. The most perfect por-

tion I have yet seen of these fossil bones, has been in his possession several

years, without however, his being aware of its nature.

H. FALCONER.

Scharanptir, May 28.

250 Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. (June,

Museum.

3. Specimens of the coal strata lately discovered at Sandrim, and near

the Sanatarium in the Kasya Hills, were presented by the President in the

name of Mr. W. Cracroft, with explanatory extracts from his letters.

The quality of the best specimens or middle stratum of this coal differs

considerably from that of the Burdwan coal ; it contains very little earthy

matter ; it burns with much flame, but does not form coke; spec. grav.

1.230, colour brown black : composition,

Volatile matter (of which aqueous, 7.5)......-.. 45

Carbon, i5c...: Se wn sing vs OB

Earthy residue, a ae is senile

100

4. Specimens of iron ore (red clay iron), from Sambhalpiir, pre-

sented by Capt. Jenkins, on the part of Mr. Babington : also a box of Hima-

layan minerals, found at the Adjt. Gen.’s office, by Capt. Jenkins.

5. The following specimens of the iron ores of the Salem Hills, South-

ern India, and of the iron and steel in the various stages of its manufac-

ture, according to the native processes, by Mr. Heath, M. C. S.

I. Magnetic Iron ore from Salem, in its natural state, mixed with quartz.

II. The same ore cleaned by stamping and separating the quartz.

III. The same ore crystallized in octohedrons. ‘This state of the mineral is

rather rare.

IV. Some specimens of cast steel made from this ore by the native process, toge-

ther with the crucibles in which the steel is meited. Some of these are left open

to shew the manner of charging them; others are stopped up ready to be put intg

the furnace.

V. Some specimens of chromate of iron from a mine lately discovered, and of

Bichromate of Potash made from it.

Papers communicated.

6. Observations on the quantity of earthy matter brought down in the

river Ganges, by the Rev. R. Everest.

[Printed in the present number, page 238.]

7. Report on the progress of the boring experiment, by Dr. Strong.

Since the last report considerable delays have taken place by the sickness

of the superintendent. The boring No. 1, near the church in the fort was

found so much injured by the searching after and extraction of the 100

feet of broken rods, that further operation in that quarter was abandoned

after tubing the hole to the depth of 100 feet, and building over it a pump.

There the depth obtained was 175 feet, and the water, which is sweet tasted,

but muddy and ferruginous from the tubes, continues to stand at a level

of 7 feet from the surface of the ground.

A second operation was commenced not long ago on the south end of the

glass plot behind the Government house in the fort. Here the conductors

of the experiment have adopted the use of a borer double the former size,

and have in consequence easily forced down a strong sheet iron tube seven

inches in diameter to the depth of 70 feet. Thence with a 6-inch auger

1832. ] Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. 251

the perforation has been carried down to the depth of 130 feet, without

much difficulty, and a 6-inch tube has been already sunk into it to a depth

of 117 feet. Thus far the progress has been very satisfactory, and with the

assurance of an iron shaft through the two strata of sand connected with the

river at 30 and 70 feet beneath the surface, the experiment promises fair to

make us acquainted with the nature and quality of the water at greater

depths, whether it may be entitled to the name of an artesian spring or not.

8. Note on the Japanese Mirror, by the Secretary.

, [Printed in the present number, page 242.]

9. Mr. B. H. Hodgson’s paper on the Buceros Homrdi of Nipal, and Dr.

Bramley’s remarks on the skeleton of the same bird, were then read.

The B. Homrdai is the largest species yet discovered of the singular genus,

measuring 43 feet from the bill to the tail, and 6 feet in expanse of wings.

It tenants the lower range of hills from Haridwar to Assam, and is not

truly migratory, though it retires to the neighbouring mountains during

the breeding season. It has been a prevalent opinion that the Buceros is

carnivorous, but Mr. H. has on shooting two species out of four, found

their stomachs filled exclusively with fruit, and the other two in domestic

confinement shewed always a great aversion to frogs and lizards, and refused

to touch rats, mice, and birds ; they were fed entirely on fruits and boiled rice :

both would however eat fresh meat, when vegetable diet was out of their

reach,

The Homrdi reaches its full size in four and five years; it is gregarious and

sedate; seldom alights on the ground ; its ordinary voice resembles the

croaking of a bull-frog, but when excited, it vociferates vehemently like the

braying of an ass. The bill is nearly a foot long, very large, cleft to the eye,

and strongly arched: the cutting edges brittle and broken in the centre:

the casque, about 8 inches long, broad, flat at top; front in young birds

pointed and continuous, becoming crescented and separated from bill in

maturity and colour of casque ; upper mandible, deep waxen yellow, passing

into orange red; lower mandible, white ; base of both, anterior of casque,

inner surface of bill, &c. black ; iris, crimson ; legs, green grey ; skin round

the eye, black ; body and wings, chin and junction of the head and neck, black ;

neck yellowish white ; tail pure white with a broad black bar; all but the

two first quill feathers of the wings broadly whitened at either extremity.

Tips of the long coverts also white. The female and young are marked

like the male.

The anatomy of the skeleton is minutely described by Dr. Bramley, par.

ticularly the connection of the horny and bony substance of the mandibles,

The tongue is fixed to the lower mandible, small, and triangular, with

out papille.

The cervical vertebre are only 12 innumber ; the dorsal, seven, and capable

of motion, whence he infers a limited power on the wing.

The os hyoides consists of five bony portions ; the superior Jarynz is

formed anteriorly and laterally of bone, and the annuli of the trachea are all

more or less ossified.

252 Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. | June,

The thanks of the Society were voted for the several communications of

the evening.

Kasya Coal.

Mr. W. Cracroft’s information respecting two new localities of the Kasya

Coalis contained in his letters addressed to the Honorable Sir Edward Ryan,

dated May, 1832, from which the following are extracts.

‘IT hasten to give you a piece of information, which will interest you. I have

just returned from Sandrim, where Mr. Furnell discovered a stratum of Coal

cropping out on the side of a hill. I went down to examine it instantly, and found

it with its cieling. of new sandstone of an ochry color; below that a stratum of

six inches light bituminous coal, a little tinged with ochre: next a stratum of 18

inches fine bituminous coal ; under this, slate very bituminous, about six inches,

and a floor of bituminous sandstone, to what depth I know not; it extended right

and left as far as the jangal would permit us to see, and had little or no dip in

any direction. The accompanying sketch (Plate VI. fig. 4) will give you a better

idea of it than my verbal description. I send you specimens of all but the

sandstone, which was lost on the road.

23rd.—“‘ In consequence of our desire for coal becoming known at Chirra

Panji, two specimens were brought me yesterday, one of which resembled the

Sanarim bituminous coal, the other the slate, I therefore inquired for some one

to. shew me whence they came. ‘To-day we mounted our horses, Col. Watson, Mr.

Rhodes, Mr. Furnell, and myself, accompanied by nine coolies with pickaxes, &c,

and were conducted to the foot of the limestone hill, west of the Sanatarium.

After passing the stratum of limestone, we came to sandstone, and were shown

a stratum of coal, (specimen No.1,) two feet eight inches thick, with a roof

(No. 2) ; below the coal, was No. 3, but we could see no further. This was

satisfactory enough, so we left our ooolies to load themselves with coal, and Mr. F.

and myself mounted still higher to see if there might not be another stratum.

We passed various sorts of sandstone, climbing nearly perpendicularly about

sixty feet, where we found lumps of fine coal bedded in clay ; and proceeding at

an angle of about 35 degrees, perceived evidently another stratum cropping out,

but buried in the clay. Leaving this we reached the top of the hill, whence we

enjoyed a beautiful view of the Sanatarium, Our guide brought us back by an

easier road ; but imagine our delight, at finding in our descent the continuation of -

the lower stratum of coal perfectly bared, perpendicular from top to bottom ;

here I of course took new measurements and specimens, of which

A is the roof.

B bituminous coal, 2 feet.

C slaty coal of various consistence, 2 feet 4 in.

D coal tinged with other joints nearly perpendicular, 2 feet 14 inch.

Depth of the coal stratum 6 feet 53 in.

E isa specimen of the floor.

_F found at top.

The rock being nearly perpendicular enabled me to come to pretty accurate

measurement, and I found the shell limestone between 40 and 50 feet below

the coal. I measured more than 39 feet of the stratum of limestone, and estimated

about twice as much more below that, but the quality and texture are not quite

the same, (but of this hereafter.) Iconsider the highest point we reached, to be

1832. ] Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. 253

about 100 feet above the place where we left our horses. The accompanying

sketch, Plate VI. fig. 5. exhibits a section of the hill.

The stratum sinks about half an inch in a foot toward the south, but the roof,

where we found it projecting, bassets nearly horizontally, and the face of the

rock bears about N. E. This stratum of coal will be invaluable to the station. I

shall forward a bag, by the first opportunity, for your inspection ; it can be sup-

plied at Chattak at 6 annas per maund, with good profit to the supplier, and the

quantity is, I imagine, inexhaustible. I have no doubt it will be followed up, and

found nearer the head of the pass, i.e. at Masmye, A box of specimens will reach

you by Dak bangy : they will I hope enable you to judge fully of the value of

the discovery. 1 amcertain that these mountains, the aptitude of which to sup-

port colonists will inevitably lead to their colonization, contain resources far

beyond our present estimation of them. Mr. Furnell discovered a large cavern,

from whence he brought away a specimen of sulphate of lime in silky crystals.

We also found an extraordinary natural well: a stone thrown into which fell |

into water at the end of about three seconds from dropping it.”

Salem Iron Works.

The following memoranda on the subject of the Salem works, calculated

soon to become important from their magnitude and from the well known

zeal of their founder, are gleaned from private documents, with the perusal

of which we were favored by the Agents of Mr. Heath, in Calcutta, who

also presented his specimens to the Society :

The mine from which Mr. Heath draws his supply of ore is situated in the Sa-

lem district, close to a place noted on Arrowsmith’s large map of India as Shenda-

mangalam, in lat. 11° 21' 30” and long. 78° 17’ 30”.

There is abundance of fuel in the neighbourhood : it is within 20 miles of the

river Kavari, which is navigable to the coast in the country boats.

The iron ore, a magnetic oxide of great purity, is stated by Mr. Heath to

form hills of considerable size; it is in Small grains, interstratified with quartz,

and occasionally in regular octohedrons. This crystallized oxide is one of the richest

ores of iron known ; it consists according to Berzelius of 72 parts of peroxide and

28 of protoxide of iron. Some of thé crystals sent are covered with a white

micaceous coat, which is esteemed a sign of superiority by the natives: the

specific gravity of the octohedral crystals was found to be on an average 5.136 at 60°,

which is rather more than is allowed in mineralogical works. Mohs, the most accu-

rate physiographist, calls it 5.096—Phillips, only 4.4.

. On reference to the manuscript journals of the late Doctor Voysey, (from which

an extract is given in the foregoing pages,) it appears that in the Godaveri iron

works, ores of iron sand, and iron clay are used, which are more easy to reduce

than the pure magnetic oxide, although far less rich in metal.

Mr. Heath has hitherto confined his attention to the manufacturing of bar iron,

for which purpose he has set up blast and puddling furnaces, with blowing engines,

fineries, and machinery for working the iron into bars commissioned from Eng-

land, capable of giving a monthly return of from thirty to forty tons. We know

not precisely whether Mr. Heath has as yet matured his substitution of the

methods of our own country in the place of those which have from time immemorial

prevailed among the natives of the place : the specimens at present under examin-

ation, are evidently intended to illustrate the native operations. We should

K K

254 Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. [ Jun,

imagine the greatest drawbacks to the success of the new method must be in the

want of coal fuel, and of ready access to a market of sufficient consumption.

Mr. Heath’s specimens of the native process of making steel are interesting, on

account of the ignorance which still prevails in Europe on this subject.

According to the author of the Treatise on Manufacturing Iron and Steel in Lard-

ner’s ‘ Cabinet Encyclopedia,’ our latest authority on such subjects, the right nature

of Indian steel seems to be still as much an enigma as ever: nothing having been

added to our knowledge since Dr. Pearson’s paper on the Wootz steel, in the Phi-

losophical Transactions, Vol. XVI1. There it is asserted that the steel is made

directly from the ore by fusion,’ and that it has never been in the state of

wrought iron. ‘‘ The mass has evidently been fused,’ says Dr. Pearson, ‘‘ but

the grain of the fracture is such asI have never seen in cement-steel before it

has been hammered or melted ;”’ and he suggests, that the variegated appearance

of articles manufactured from it, is owing to portions of the oxide of iron hay-

ing escaped metallization when melted up with the rest of the matter,

Dr. Voysey however expressly describes the compact texture and brilliant

white colour of the iron used for conversion into steel ; and in confirmation we have

now from Mr. Heath, ‘‘ the actual crucibles with broken fragments of iron bars,

(about one lb. in weight each) charged ready for fusion, along with uncharred wood

and green leaves ;’”’ the wood used for the purpose is that of the cassia auriculata,

and the green leaves are those of the asclepias gizantea.’’ The cementation takes

24 hours, and the fire is then urged so as to fuse the steel. On breaking the cru-

cible it is found in a hemispherical button, radiated on the surface as from crystal-

lization. It has gained somewhat in weight ; it is very hard, and requires to he an-

nealed three or four times, covered with clay, and exposed to a red heat for 12 or 16

hours. This would be an argument that too great an absorption of carbon had tak-

ex place, and that the metal was in fact cast iron. 100 grs. of Mr. Heath’s wootz,

however, when dissolved in sulphuric acid, left but ,'5 grain of carbonaceous matter,

which is less than the usual proportion,

The brittleness of the wootz steel has been notorious ever since Damascus blades

have been known in Europe and Asia. Tavernier describes the difficulty of working

up the metalin his day as precisely what is experienced in the specimens be-

fore us. ‘“‘ The steel susceptible of being damasked comes from the kingdom of

Golconda ; it is met within commerce in lumps about the size of a half-penny cake :

they are cut in two, in order to see whether they are of good quality, and each

makes half the blade of a sabre.’’ He adds, that if the European methods of har~

dening this steel were followed, it would break like glass. Reaumur and others

have always alluded to the same difficulty of forging it.

The cause of the brittleness may bein the over-carbonization, alluded to above ;

otherwise it must be sought in the wood used for the purpose ; this point has not

yet received elucidation, &c. nor from the unsatisfactory nature of all chemical

analyses of iron is it likely to be soon explained.

Mr. Heath’s chromate of iron ore seems to be of a very good quality, containing

little or no foreign matter. Itis of adark greenish-grey or nearly black color,

granular texture, in massive lumps, inclining to a octohedral form: not magnetic,

infusible, insoluble in acids : specific gravity 4.545 at 90°.

Nitrate of potash requires more than a red heat to effect its decomposition: by

caustic potash it is more readily acted on, and discharges copious fumes of a green-

ish, yellow colour, found to consist of sublimed chromate of potash soluble in

1832. ] Proceedings of Societies. 235

water. The fused mass in the crucible, also, on solution yields a copious yellow

precipitate with acetate of lead ; but the operation requires to be repeated several

times before complete decomposition of the ore takes place.

The crystallized bichromate of potash, made by Mr. Heath, appears to be per-

fectly pure, and would be sure of a market in Europe. It is this substance which

is used for dyeing. A short description of the process is given in Ure’s translation

of ‘‘ Berthollet’s Arts of Dyeing.’ All shades of orange and yellow may be produ~

ced by adding to the solution of the salt, acids or alkalies ; the acids rendering the

color deeper, and the alkalies, lighter. The mordant generally used is sugar of

lead. The salts of mercury may also be employed, but they are more expensive.”

Mr. Heath recommends the bichromate as suitable for the dyeing of Choppahs, Ban-

dannoes, &c. Cotton twist however would be dyed much cheaper at the place

where the dye was extracted from the chromate of iron, as in this way the process

of crystallization would be rendered unnecessary. Mr, Heath has, in anticipation of

a demand for this new product, established an extensive apparatus for its manu-

facture, and another for the manufacture of acetic acid, so as to enable him to

supply the sugar of lead at the cheapest rate.

Chrome yellow, or chromate of lead, is much used as a pigment, but it has

hitherto borne a very high price. America and Russia have furnished the

greater part of the European supply: the Americans prepare it with saltpetre

taken from this country, and chromate of iron from Baltimore and New Jerseys

an ore by no means so pure as that discovered in Salem. It is natural to expect

therefore that all the preparations of chrome will soon be advantageously export-

ed from India.

The chrome yellow might find a market in China and the Burmese empire, as

a substitute for the yellow sulphuret of arsenic, now extensively employed in the

ornamental work of the lacquered-ware.

2.—MEDICAL AND PHYSICAL SocIETY,

2nd June, 1832.

Messrs. D. McLeod, J. Stokes, S. Ludlow and O. Wray, proposed at the last

Meeting, were elected Members of the Society ; and Drs. Blest and Passaman,

of Chili, were elected Corresponding Members.

Cloquet’s Quarto Work on Anatomy, and Manec’s Plate of the Cerebro-Spinal

Nerves recently received, were placed on the table ; also Specimens of Chulchulera,

(lichen,) forwarded by Dr. Falconer.

The following communications were then laid before the Society :

1. A letter from Mr. Cope, stating, that in proceeding up the Ganges to

Dinapore, he had met with a species of Argemone; the 4. Mexicana, the seeds

of which contain a large proportion of fixed oil ; and he observes, that prior to

his leaving England, a quantity of oilof the 4. Mexicana, the produce of the

West Indies, had been used in London as a mild purgative. Mr. Cope wishes to

bring this subject before the notice of the Society, in hopes that the plant may

afford an useful addition to the Materia Medica of India.

2. A letter from Superintending Surgeon G. Playfair, to the Medical Board,

containing a brief notice of an Epidemic Influenza that had appeared at Merut, on

the 7th April; and in the course of 10 days, affected above 200 men of H. M,

26th Foot. The disease was marked by violent catarrhal symptoms, and pains in

the back and limbs. The Epidemic appeared at Bareilly early in April, but no

instance of a fatal termination was known.

256 Proceedings of Societies. [ June,

3. A letter from Mons. Desjardins, containing the procés-verbal of the Meet-

ings of the Society of Natural History of the Mauritius, from the 20th December,

1831, to the 17th January, 1832.

4. Dr. Casanova’s account of the Medical properties of the Mineral Waters

of San Pedro, in the Havanna ; being the result of an examination of those wa-

ters, and a topographical account of the district, undertaken by order of the

Colonial Government. The springs alluded to are thermal sulphureous; and

their medical properties were found to be diuretic, aperient, and tonic. The

treatise embraces an account of the diseases in which these waters have been

found useful, as well as instructions for their employment.

5. Dr. Woodburn’s account of Cholera, in the district of Sherghati, present-

ed by the Medical Board.

6. Mr. A. K. Lindesay’s case of complicated Visceral disease, in which

urinary calculi were found on dissection, presented by the Medical Board.

7. Observations on Hepatic Abscess, by W. Geddes, Esq. Surgeon of the

Madras European Regiment.

8. Mr. Hutchinson’s letter proposing the publication of a Quarterly Medical

Journal ;—to consist of a selection from the best medical publications; with an

appendix to contain any papers of minor importance, or ephemeral interest, that

might have been laid before the Society in the interval ; and a precis of the latest

medical intelligence, as well as an account of the proceedings of the various

scientific bodies at the Presidency. The work to be supplied to the members of

the Society at prime cost, or even gratuitously ; and a small profit realized by

the sale of extra copies at a higher price.

The expediency of making some of the Society’s publications convey early

intelligence of important discoveries in medicine, and of the progress of

medical science in general, without any expence to the members, has been al-

ready twice brought to the notice of the Society, and some steps taken with a

view of altering the form, and very much increasing the size of the Monthly

Circular; for the purpose of comprehending an account of the progress of medi-

cal science in other parts of the world, so arranged as to admit of being bound

up ina volume at the end of each year. The Society’s annual publications

would thus comprise one volume, principally composed of the discoveries in

every branch of the profession in other parts of the world :—besides the volume of

Transactions, as heretofore published.

9. Mr. Raleigh’s remarks on an instrument for depressing the Cataract, by

which he hopes to secure all advantages belonging to the native mode of operat-

ing, when performed in the best and most successful manner ; at the same time,

that many of the dangerous consequences frequently attendant on their mode of

Operating, may be avoided. A specimen of the instrument devised by the author,

was sent for the inspection of the Society ; its shape somewhat resembles one

blade of a midwifery forceps on a very minute scale. It is fixed in a handle like

the common couching-needle: the blade is about an inch in length; the two-

thirds next to the handle being round, the remaining third spreads, so as to form

an oblong oval shallow spoon, the centre of which being cut out leaves an oval

ring ; and its extremity is bent slightly forward; the widest part of the oval

measures about the tenth of an inch, but the thickness does not exceed that of a

couching-needle. The mode of operating is a3 follows :—with a lancet-shaped

knife, a vertical puncture is made the eighth of an inch in length through the

, 1832.] Proceedings of Societies. 257

-coats of the eye, three lines behind the junction of the cornea and sclerotic ; and

the new instrument is introduced with its concavity forwards and edges verti-

cal; it is carried behind the lens, over the upper edge of which the concavity

of the instrument is placed, and depression effected in such a way as to separate

all the attachments of the capsule, and to lodge the lens and its capsule at once

below and behind the pupil ; the handle of the instrument may then be rolled

between the finger and thumb, so as to disengage its blade from the lens ; and

the instrument is to be withdrawn. The author considers Mr. Breton’s estimate

of the failure of couching inthe hands of the natives, (taken probably from

their own operators’ representations,) to be erroneous ; and that instead of

10 per cent. of failures, 40 or 50 per cent. might be a more correct average.

He says, from having seen the native oculist mentioned by Mr. Breton, put out

four eyes in succession on the same morning, in two of which cases the lens was

pushed into the anterior chamber, and in one the iris torn in half; and from

having constantly patients brought to him whose eyes were destroyed in con-

sequence of the native operation: he is inclined to consider couching as per-

formed by the native oculists, barbarous and unscientific. He altogether dis-

credits the account of the native operation having been performed seven times on

one eye, with ultimate success. The author states, that in a fair proportion of

cases in which the new instrument has been used, the operation has been

successful; but he cannot yet decide whether the subsequent inflammation,

generally speaking, is greater than after the European mode of couching. In

several cases, however, it has been severe; and he thinks constitutes the

principal, and, perhaps, the only solid objection to the operation performed in the

manner he has now advised.

Mr. Mercer’s paper relative to vaccination and varioloid diseases was then read

and discussed by the Meeting.

3,—AGRICULTURAL AND HoRTICULTURAL SOCIETY,

The \4th June, 1832.

Sir Edward Ryan, President, in the Chair.

The following Gentlemen were admitted Members of the Society, viz.

1.—Lieut. Colonel Thomas C. Watson, European Regiment.

2.—Mr. Richard Hunter, C. S., now of Cuttack.

3.—Captain W. Badenach, 57th N. I.

4.—Mr. George T. Lushington, C. S.

The following letters were read :

1. From the Secretary of the South Carolina Agricultural Society, to Mr. Pid-

dington, Foreign Secretary, dated 31st October last, acknowledging receipt of

this Society’s circular letter of the lst of the preceding March : offering to sup-

ply any indigenous plants and seeds that may be required ; and presenting some

publications of the South Carolina Agricultural Society,

2.—Mr. Piddington was requested to acknowledge the receipt of these publica-

tions, and to procure a parcel of seeds for the South Carolina Society.

3.—From Captain Cowles, two letters, dated Diamond Harbour, 8th and 24th

ultimo, presenting two samples of Sugar, of his manufacture, and furnishing some

particulars of the proofs, &c.—The thanks of the Meeting were voted to Cap-

tain Cowles.

4.—From Mr. Kyd, dated 9th ult. presenting some China Potatoes for seed,

The Secretary stated that he had forwarded the Potatoes to the Allipore Garden,

258 Proceedings of Societies. [June,

5.—From Mr. Willis, dated 9th ultimo, recommending that Government

should be requested to require from Major Burney, the Resident at Ava, as

large a quantity as possible of the long staple Pernambuco and other good de-

scriptions of Cotton Seed, grown in that country, and that he be furnished with

Awmerican Cotton and Tobacco Seeds for introduction there.

The Secretary informed the Meeting, that he had forwarded a copy of Mr.

Willis’ letter to Government, and had offered, with reference to the suggestion

in the latter part of it, to supply any quantity of Seeds that might be required.

6.—From Messrs. T. A. Pitkin and T. C. Robson, dated 22nd ultimo, presenting

specimens of American Flax and Tobacco, grown on their lands in the Soonder-

bunds, from seeds furnished oy the Society, and requesting instructions as to the

manner of curing the latter.

The Secretary was requested to furnish these gentlemen with copies of the

methods followed by Mr. Deverine, the Society’s Superintendent at Akra.

7.—From Mr. Pattle, with a Mangoe of uncommon size, grown in his own

garden, and which Mr. Pattle considers the result of care and cultivation. It was

found to weigh 145 Sa. wt. and to be 20. 4 by 17. 4 inches in circumference.

8.—Mr. Richard Hunter presented a specimen of Pernambuco Cotton, found

by him in Cuttack, which appeared to be of good quality, and to thrive well,

but he had not been able to obtain any information as to how it had been intro-

duced there: the specimen was approved of.

9,—Mr. Robison presented a specimen of Seychelles Cotton, grown in his gar-

den, from seed furnished by Mr. Palmer, to the Society, in 1830.

10.—Dr. Carey presented some Nankeen Cotton and Cotton Seed, grown in

his garden at Serampore.

11.—Mr. Dobbs presented some Havannah Tobacco Seed, also some

Chirimoya Seeds, in the name of Colonel Hezeta.—The thanks of the Meeting

were offered to Col. Hezeta.

12.—Mr. Strong presented some Sea Island Cotton grown in Intally.

13.—Mr. McKean forwarded a quantity of Pernambuco Cotton grown at

Duckinsore, near Calcutta, by Mr. Hastie, from seed furnished to the latter

Gentleman by the Society.

The Secretary reported, that he received seven parcels of Silk, and twelve of

Tobacco, from competitors ; and an early day was therefore fixed, for a Meeting

of the Committee of Prizes, and awarding the premium offered by Government.

4.—NATURAL History SociETY oF THE MAuRITIUS.

Tuesday, 25th October, 1831.

Mr. L. Bouton read a letter from M. J. Desjardins, addressed to the President,

proposing that a request should be made to M. Lyall for the portrait of his

father, their late colleague, Dr. R. Lyall: whereupon Mr. Charles Telfair, Presi-

dent, who was in possession of this picture, immediately tendering it as a boon,

the Society accepted it with the liveliest acknowledgments.

The same party read also the Secretary’s reply to the Baron G. Cuvier,

expressive of the honor felt by the Society on the possession of his bust.

M. J. P. Goudot, cor. mem. Mus. Roy. of Paris, and travelling naturalist,

was introduced by M. Faraguat, on the occasion of his arrival ona projected

excursion to the isle of Madagascar. He offered to the Society a collection of

the land shells of France, and of the environs of Palermo, in Sicily.

-1832.] Proceedings of Societies. 259

M. Leinard, sen. read the description of a new species of fish of the genus

epphreus COV. which he names 4. capuchonné, This is the third of the species

existing in our seas. Commerson was the first to make it known in 1770. Upon

the mention of this indefatigable naturalist several members again agitated the

proposition of erecting a monument to his memory, and a subscription was

instantly set on foot among the members present.

M. Lislet Geoffroy presented two Nos. of the Journal des tiles de France et de

Bourbon, 1786, containing remarks on Nauscopie,

The Society noted the publication of some of the papers read at its meetings,

in the Revue des annales des sciences naturelles of December 183%. Also the

abstract of their zoological researches in the Jour. Zool. Soc. of London.

Wednesday, 23d November, 1831.

M. Dalmas, of Bordeaux, Mr. James Calder, and Mr. James Irving, of Calcut-

ta, were elected corresponding members,

The Secretary announced the death of three individuals in a way connected

with the Society ; Will. Roscoe, Esq. the Botanist: the Chevalier Aubert Du

Petit Thouars, author of Flore des iles australes de Vafrique: and M. Auguste

Céré, native of the Mauritius, formerly Director of the Botanic Garden of

Pamplemousses.

The Secretary read letters from Professor Quoy and the Baron de Ferussac,

thanking the Society for the diplomas awarded them.

Also from M. Marcelin Sauzier, describing the eruptions of lava in Bourbon

last July, and forwarding specimens.

Dr. Casanova announces that he is forwarding the Society’s interests at

Calcutta. Mr. Jules Verreau, member of the Cape of Good Hope Institution,

offers his services as taxidermist.

Mr. V. J. Sganzin, Capt. Art. St. Marie, Madagascar, was elected a corres-

ponding member at Lorient. A collection of butterflies was presented in his

name, containing particularly fine specimens of the Uranie Riphée.

M. Dalmas presented for the museum several Jusus nature ; weapons of the

savages ; and the skin of a lioness which died on the island.

M. Rob. de Chazal presented the model of an ancient monument at Rome,

supposed to be the Sybil’s temple.

The President presented two American serpents preserved in spirits, and Mr.

B. Telfair a thick bamboo, the joints of which which were covered with anatiffes,

from the Savannah.

The following acquisitions to the library were announced.

Hortus Indicus Malabaricus of Von Rheed, 12 vols. fol.

Herbarium Amboinense of Rumphius, 6 vols. fol.

Hooker’s Botanical Miscellany, one chapter.

A member read the description of two fish of the Fi/ous genus, one of a reddish

green, the other clear yellow, in other respects agreeing.

Another member read also the description of a fish which he believed to bea

new species.

Mr. J. Desjardins read two short notices on the libellule bordée and the libellule

demi-transparente, which are not found in the Encyclopedie Methodique, and

are thought to be new,

260 European Intelligence. [ June,

VI.— European Intelligence.

Results obtained from the Seed of the Mango.

The mango tree, Mangifera Indica, L. has been transported from the East

Indies to St. Domingo, and the other neighbouring islands, where it is now

exceedingly abundant. In consequence of which, its products may now find useful

applications; to forward which purpose, M. Arequin has devoted his attention

to the analysis of the seed. The fruit is a fine mass of pulp, very agreeable in the

estimation of some, and the seed or grain lies in the middle, having the form of

a kidney, and inclosed in a parchment-like integument.

The mango pulp contains much crystallizable sugar, and also citric acid and gum,

The mango seed is remarkable for the large quantity of gallic acid present, and

for the presence also of stearic acid, and for the useful state of its starch, When

aseed is cut with a knife, it gives a deep blue color to the latter ; when touched

with persulphate of iron, it acquires a fine blue color, both effects due to gallic acid

present.

Five pounds and a half of the seeds being worked upon, by varions digestions

in water, alcohol, &c. and subsequent evaporations, gave about eight ounces and

a half of crystallized gallic acid.

When the pulp of the seeds had been exhausted by water, it was acted upon

by alcohol, and a substance obtained by evaporation from the alcoholic solutions

which crystallized, and had the following properties ; it was perfectly white ;

was insipid and inodorous: if fused at 70° C. (158° Farht.), on cooling, it crys-

tallized in mingling long acicular forms; it is insoluble in water ; it reddens moist-

ened litmus paper; its solution in weak alcohol reddens infusion of litmus; it

is quite soluble in oils and fatty bodies ; it unites to salifiable bases, forming

well characterized salts (soaps) ; when made into a taper, it burns like wax, with

a fine white flame. This substance has all the physical and chemical charac-

ters of stearic acid, which therefore exists, ready formed, in the vegetable king-

dom. Its quantity was rather more than two ounces.

When the pulp, thus far exhausted, was treated with ether, a fatty matter was

obtained from it ; fusing at 30° C. (86° Farht.) ; soluble in hot ether to any

extent ; insoluble in rectified alcohol; liquifying in the mouth like cocoa butter ;

when formed into acandle, burning like tallow ; having the consistence of tallow,

and being of the same nature as the butter of cocoa. The powdered grain treated

with water yields a small portion of this butterin a very pure and fresh state.

The quantity obtained from the original quantity of seed was one ounce and a half.

After all these operations, the starch was separated by washing in water; its

quantity amounted to 32% oz. or rather more than half the weight of the dried

seeds. When the recent seeds were worked with for starch, 1 lb. always yielded

about 6 oz. of starch, and by drying lost about 6 oz. of water.

Besides these substances the following were also obtained ; lignine, about 5 oz.

gum, 24 0z.; tannin, 200 grs. nearly ; brown resin, 200 grs. ; green resin, 144 grs.

and a little vegetable albumen.

M. Arequin then describes processes for obtaining gallic acid from the mango

seed, either with or without the use of alcohol, and for the preparation of ink

with this substance instead of galls. If obtained in abundance, the seeds may be

very useful for these and analogous purposes.—Journal de Pharmacie, 1831, p. 421.

1832.] Catalogue of Indian Birds. 261

Catalogue of Indian Birds.

The following catalogue comprises, first, the collection taken home

by Major James Franklin, r, r. s. &c. made during his tour up

the Ganges between Calcutta and Benares, and in the Vindhyan range

of hills between the latter place and Garra Mandela on the Nerbada :

these are all numbered in the order of their systematical arrangement by

the Secretary of the Zoological Society, as published in the proceedings

of that body :—and, secondly, the collection of rare birds from the Hima-

layan mountains, presented to the Zool. Soc. by Mr. John Gould,

A. L. S. most of them before undescribed. In characterizing the latter,

Mr. Vigors points out the identity of a large proportion of their forms

with those of northern Europe, observing that the elevation of their

native mountains places them on an equality in point of climate with

the birds of more northern latitudes. At the same time, he adds

that many of the forms peculiar to southern Asia and the Indian Ar-

chipelago are found intermingled with those of the northern regions.

Mr. Gould’s birds will be recognized in the catalogue by their being

unnumbered. A few Chinese birds will also be-found classified with

the rest, and indicated by the letter C. They were presented to the

Zool. Soc. by H. H. Lindsay, Esq. of Canton, who procured them

during the summer of 1830, in the neighbourhood of Manilla; Mr,

Vigors points out fifty new species, of which he has as yet only charac-

terized a few. It must bea subject of regret that the native names were

not inserted where it was possible to ascertain them, as that would

have much enhanced the value of the catalogue to Indian naturalists.

We are indebted to Dr. Warlow’s kindness and industry for arranging

the valuable materials in their present state, gleaned from the Journal

of the Zoological Society’s proceedings.

Orpdo J, RAPTORES.

Fam. FALCoNIDE.

Sub-Fam. <quilina.—Genus Aquila.

1. AouILa VINDHIANA. 4q. pallidé brunneo variegata; capite, pectore, remigi-

bus secundariis, cauddque saturatioribus, hujus apice albido gractliter margi-

nato ; remigibus primariis nigris ; capitis collique plumis pallido-rufo lanceo=

latis.

Longitudo 26 une.

Cawnpoor Eagle, Lath. ?

Sub-Fam, Falconina.—Genus Hierar,

HibRAX ERYTHROGENYS, Hier. capite et corpore supra, caudd Semoribusque

intense atris; guld, collo in fronte, corporeque subtus albis 3 strigd a rictu ad

aures extendente rufa; rostro albo, pedibus nigris,

Statura Hier. cerulescentis,

262 Catalogue of Indian Birds. [ June,

Genus Falco.

2. Falco Subbuteo, Linn. Hobby, Penn. Le Hobereau, Buff.

3. Falco Chicquera, Daud. Chicquera Falcon, Lath. Le Chicquera, Le Vaill.

4, Falco Tianunculus, Linn, Kestril, Penn. La Cresserelle, Buff.

Sub-Fam. Buteonina.—Genus Buteo. :

5, Buteo Bacha. Falco Bacha, Daud. Bacha Falcon, Lath. Le Bacha, Le

Vaill.

BuTEO HOLosPILus. But. superné brunneus, subtus brunnescentirufus; capite,

Sascrisque duabus remigum rectricumque fuscoatris; nuchd et dorso, collo in

Sronte, pectore abdomineque toto, tectricibusque alarum maculis albis ocellatis,

harum maculis diminutioribus.

Staturd tertid parte minor quam Buteo Bacha; ei speciei simillima, differt tamen

capite levi, corporeque toto maculato.

Genus Circus.

6. Circus TEESA. Circ. capite corporeque rufo-brunneis, plumarum rhachibus

fuscis ; dorso imo, rectricibusque ferrugineis, his fasciis subobsoletis fuscis sep-

tem circiter notatis; remigum tectricibus abdomineque albescenti notatis ;

femorum tectricibus crissoque rufescenti-albis fronte, guld, nucheque fascia

gracili albis; rostro pedibusque flavis, illius apice nigro.

Longitudo 173.

Zuggun Falcon, Lath. ?

7. Circus cyaneus. Falco cyaneus, Linn. Hen Harrier, Penn.

8. Circus melanoleucus. Falco melanoleucus, Gmel. Black and white Indian

Falcon, Penn. Le Tchoug, Le Vaill.

9. Circus rufus, Briss. Moor Buzzard, Penn, Le Busard, Buff.

Sub-Fam. Milina.—Genus Elanus, Savigny.

10. Elanus Melanopterus, Leach. Ze Blac, Le Vaill.

Fam. Strigide.—Genus Otus.

1]. Orus BENGALENSIS. O¢, pallidé rufescens, fusco alboque undulatim variega-

tus; nuche pectorisque plumis in medio strigd latd brunneo-nigrd notatis ;

abdomine fusco graciliter fasciato ; remigibus rectricibusque lateralibus prope

apicem brunneo fasciatis, his mediis per totum longitudinem similiter notatis.

Longitudo 20.

Dr, Latham alludes to this as a variety of the great-eared Owl.

Genus Noctua.

12. NoctuaInpica. oct. cinereo-brunnea ; capite guttis parvis albis, alis gran-

dioribus notatis; abdomine albo, macuiis brunneis linulaties notato ; remigibus

rectricibusque albo fasciatis ; regione circumoculari, guld, fascidque subgulari,

ad aures extendente albis.

Fem. magis rufescens, abdomine magis fasciatim maculato,

Longitudo 9.

Indian Spotted Owl, Lath. ?

Noctua CucuLoipes. Noct. brunneo-fusca; capite, dorso, tectricibus alarum,

corporeque subtus albo graciliter fasciatis ; remigibus externe albo maculatis ;

rectricibus utringue fasciis albis quique notatis ; guld albd,

1832. | Catalogue of Indian Birds. 263

Orpvo II. INSESSORES.

Tribus FisstROSTRES.

Fam. Meropide.—Genus Merops.

13. Merops Philippinus, Linn. Philippine Bee-eater, Lath. Grand Guépier des

Philippines, Buff.

14. Merops viridis, Linn. Indian Bee-eater, Lath. Guépier & collier de Madagas-

car, Buff.

Fam. Hirundinide.—Genus Hirundo,

15. Hirundo Klecho, Horsf. Klecho Swallow, Lath. Hirondelle longipenne, Temm.

16, HiRUNDO FiLICAUDATA. Hir. supra purpurascenti-atra, remigibus fuscis 5

corpore subtts maculisque rectricum omnium lateralium albis ; capitis vertice

rufo ; rectrice utrinque laterali elongato, ad apicem gracillimo,

Statura Hir. riparie.

Wire-tailed Swallow, Lath.

17. Hirundo riparia, Linn, Sand Martin, Penn. L’Hirondelle de rivage, Buff.

Genus Cypselus.

18. Cypselus affinis, Hardw. Allied Swift, Hardw.

19. Cypselus Palmarum, Hardw. Balassian Swift, Lath.

Fam. Caprimulgide.—Genus Caprimulgus.

20. CAPRIMULGUS MONTICOLUS. Cap. pallidé cinereo-brunneo, rufo, fuscoque

sparsim variegatus ; abdomine rufescenti-fusco fasciato ; remigibus secundariis

rufo nigroque fasciatis, primariis brunnescenti-nigris, quatuor externis fascid

latd albé in medio notatis ; rectricibus sex mediis faciis gracilibus nigris un-

dulatis, duabus utrinque lateralibus albis apicibus brunneis,

Fem. fascidé alarum rufé ; caudé concolori (sine albo).

Longitudo 10.

Great Bombay Goatsucker, Lath. ?

21. Caprimulgus Asiaticus, Lath., Ind. Orn. Bombay Goatsucker, Lath.

C. CAPRIMULGUS MACROTIS. Cap. intensé brunneus, rufo undulatus, corpore sub-

tus cauddque rufo fasciatis ; capite aurito scapularibusque rufo-brunneis, fusco

undulatim punctulatis nigroque notatis; torque jugulari albo ad nucham exten-

dente rufo.

Longitudo corporis, 15; rostri ad frontem 3, ad rictum, 14; ale acarpo ad

apicem remigis 2de, 103; caude, 7 3 tarsi, 4.

Fam. Halcyonide.—Genus Alcedo.

22. Alcedo Bengalensis, Gmel. Little Indian Kingsfisher, Edw.

23. Alcedo rudis, Linn. Black and white Kingsfisher, Edw.

ALCEDO GUTTATUS. Alc, cristatus, supra ater, maculis rotundis albis guttatim

notatus; subtus albus ; colli lateribus pectoreque atro maculatis.

Statura dle. mazimi,

Genus Dacelo.

Dac. corpore supra brunneo, olivaceo et viridi nitente,

guttis rufo-albidis notato, pectore abdomine crissoque albis, illorum plumis,

medii abdominis exceptis, olivascenti-viridi marginatis ;

C. DAcELo LinpDsayI,

capitis pileo saturate

olivascenti-viridi, vittd-superciliari lazulind circumdato, deinde vittd per ocu-

los nigra, alterdque suboculart ferrugined marginato ; guld juguloque ferru~

gineis; strigé utrinque mazillari lazulind; remigibus fuscis; rectricibus om-

nibus ad apicem, duabus utrinque externis ad latera, ferrugineo notatis; rostre

subbrevi,

264 Catalogue of Indian Birds. [ June,

Longitudo corporis, 103 $ rostri, 133 ale a carpo ad apicem remigis 3tiz, 4% ;

caud@, 4% 3 tarsi, 3.

C. DaceLo Lessonu. Dac. corpore supra brunneo, olivaceo et viridi nitente,

albido guttato; capitis pileo saturaté olivaceo-viridi, vittd superciliari

ceruleo-viridi circumdato, deinde vittd alterd nigrd marginato; collo

in fronte corporeque subtts albo, pectoris abdominisque plumis viridi-brunneo

marginatis ; strigd utrinque maxillari viridi ; remigibus Juscis ; rectricibus

omnibus ad apicem, tribus utrinque externis ad latera, ferrugineo notatis 3 ros~

tro sublongo.

Longitudo corporis, 1133; rostri, 1%; ale acarpo ad apicem remigis 3tiz, 47;

caude, 445 tarsi, %.

Genus Halcyon.

24. Halcyon Smyrnensis. Alcedo Smyrnensis, Linn. Smyrna Kingsfisher, Lath.

Martin pécheur de la céte de Malabar, Buff,

Tribus DENTIROSTRES.

Fam. Muscicapide— Genus Muscicapa.

25. Muscicapa Banyumas, Horst. Banyumas -Flycatcher, Lath. Gobemouche

Chantuer, Temm,

26. Muscicapa nitida, Lath., Ind. Orn. Nitid Flycatcher, Lath.

C, Muscicapa OCCIPITALIS. Musc. corpore supra pallidé lazulino, capite colloque

splendidioribus 3; abdomine lazulino-albido ; maculd occipitali grandi, torque-

que gracilt jugulari, sericeo-atris,

Longitudo corporis, 65.

Genus Muscipeta.

27. Muscipeta Paradisi. Muscicapa Paradist, Linn. Paradise Flycatcher, Lath.

Gobe-mouche T'chitrec-be, roux et blanc, Le Vaill.

28. Muscipeta peregrina, Parus peregrinus, Gmel. Crimson-rumped Flycatcher,

Lath. Gobe-mouche Oranor, Le Vaill.

MUSCIPETA BREVIROSTRIS. Mas, Musc. capite, collo, nuchd, dorso superiori, alis,

rectricibusque mediis splendenti-nigris; corpore infra, dorso imo, pteromatum

apicibus, fascid remigum, rectricibusque lateralibus splendidé coccineis; rostro

brevi, subdebilt.

MUSCIPETA PRINCEPS. Musc. capite, collo, dorso summo, alis, rectricibusque duabus

mediis nigris ; corpore inferiort, dorso imo, fascid lati alarum, maculis paucis

remigum secundariarum, rectricibusque laicralibus aurantio-coccineis; rostro

fortiori.

Longitudo circiter 9 uncias.

Genus Rhipidura.

29. RHIPIDURA ALBOFRONTATA, Rhip. capite colloque nigris 3 dorso cinereo-nigro ;

alis cauddque fusco-nigris ; fascié subgracili frontali super oculos ad nucham

extendente, pectore, abdomine, magulis tectricum alarum, apicibusque rectricum,

duabus mediis exceptis, albis.

Longitudo 6.

White-browed Flycatcher, Lath. ?

50. RHIPIDURA FUSCOVENTRIS. hip. capite nigro; dorso abdomineque cinereo-

nigris; alis cuuddque fusco-nigris; strigd brevi superciliari colloque in fronte

albis ; vectricum trium lateralium apicibus albescentibus,

Longitudo 7%,

Broad-tailed Flycatcher, Lath, ?

1832.] Catalogue of Indian Birds. 265

RHIPIDURA NIGRITOROQUIS. Rhip. cinereo-grisea; corpore sublus, rectricumque,

duabus mediis exceptis, apicibus albis ; fronte, torqueque jugulari nigris ; remi-

gibus rectricibusque fuscis.

Longitudo corporis, 7.

Fam. Laniade.—Genus Ocypterus.

31. Ocypterus lencorhynchus. Lanius leucorhynchus, Linn. White-billed Shrike,

Lath. Pie-griéche de Manille, Buff.

Genus Edolius.

32. Evdiolius cwerulescens. Lanius caerulescens, Linn. Fork-tailed Indizn Butcher-

bird, Edw. ’

Genus Jrena.

C. IRENA CYANOGASTRA. Ir. nigrescenti-cyanea ; capite supra, fascid tectricum

alarum, uropygio, crissoque splendenti-cyaneis; collo in fronte, genis remigi-

busque atris.

Statura Drene Puelle, et simillimas; differt abdomine caudaque cyaneis,

haud nigris, dorso cyaneo haud lazulino, et rostri culmine plus elevato.

Genus Hypsipetes.

HypsipETEes Psaroiprs, Hyps. capite supra subcristato, remigum apicibus,

rectricibusgue nigris ; corpore alisque cineraceo-griseis ; abdomine imo crissoque

pallidioribus.

Rostrum pedesque flavi. Tectricum alarum remigumque pogonia interna

fusca. Tectrices alarum inferiores cineraceo grisex. Longitudo corporis, 113 ;

ale acarpo ad apicem remigis 3tiz, 5 ; rostril; tarsi, 3 ; caude, 43.

Genus Lanius.

33. Lantus muscicapoipEes. Lan. brunnescenti-cinereus subtus albescens ; strigd

superciliari rufescenti-albd; alis rectricibusque fusco-brunneis, his duabus

lateralibus albis basi notdque ad apicem fusco-brunneis.

Foem. aut Mas. jun. capite corporeque supra albido maculatis. Longitudo 64

Keroula Shrike, Lath. ? :

LANIUS ERYTHROPTERUS. Mas. Lan. nuchd dorsoque griseis ; capite supra,

alis, canddque atris ; corpore subtus, strigd superciliari, remigumque apicibus

albis ; alis macula latd rubrdnotatis. Foem. Cupite griseo ; dorso, alis, rectrici-

busque virescenti-olivaceo notatis; harum apicibus flavis.

Statura Lan. Collurionis.

Genus Collurio.

34, Collurio Excubitor. Lanius Excubitor, var. Linn. Cinereous Shrike, var,

C. Lath.

35. Collurio erythronotus, Proceed. Zool. Soc. p. 42. Grey-backed Shrike, Lath. ?

36. CULLURIO NIGRICEPS. Col. capite supra, nuchd, alis, cauddque nigris; guld,

pectore, abdomine medio, maculdque in medio alarum, albis; dorso cinereo

scapularibus, uropygio, abdominis lateribus, crissoque rufis. Longitudo 84

Indian Shrike, Wath. ? :

37. Collurio Hardwickii, Proceed. Zool. Soc. p. 42. Bay-backed Shrike, Lath. ?

Cotturio Harpwickil. Coll. capitis parte anteriore, strigd per oculos ad

collum extendente, alis, cauddque nigris ; capitis vertice, corpore infra, maculd

media alarum, caude tectricibus, rectricibus duabus lateralibus, ceterarumque,

guatuor mediis exceptis, bast apiceque albis; occipite, nuchd, dorsoque imo

albescenti-griseis ; dorso medio lateribusque abdominis ferrugineis.

266 Catalogue of Indian Birds. [Junr,

Rostrum pedesque nigri. Caput superné albo nigroque colore in duas feré partes

transversim divisum. Longitudo corporis, 8; ale a carpo ad remigem 3tiam,

343 3 rostri, 3; tarsi, % 3 caude, 34.

Bay-backed Shrike, Lath. ? Gen. Hist. vol. 11. p. 13. sp. 6.

This bird appears to be the same as_ thatreferred to in Dr. Latham’s work,

the description of which is taken from one of the drawings of General Hard-

wicke, to whoni the species is inscribed.

CoLLURIO ERYTHRONOTUS. Coll. strigd frontali per oculos ad medium colli ex-

tendente, alis, rectric'busqgue quatuor mediis nigris ; capite supra, nuchd, dorso

superiori, rectricibusque lateralibus pallidé cinereis; corpore infra, alarum

maculd medid, remigum interiorum apicibus, rectricum lateralium margini-

bus omniumque apicibus, albis; scapularibus, dorso imo, abdominisque

lateribus ferrugineis.

Rostrum pedesque nigri, illius mandibul4é inferiori ad basin flavescenti

Striga per oculos nigra, supra graciliter albo marginata. Tectrices alarum

inferiores albe. Longitudo corporis, 103; ale a carpo ad apicem remigis 3tie,

33; rostri % ; tarsi, 14; cauda@, 44.

This bird was observed to bear a great resemblance to the description of the

grey-backed Shrike of Dr. Latham, (Gen. Hist. vol. ii. p. 9. sp. 3.) but to differ

from it in the colours of the lesser wing-coverts and tail ; the former being all

black in the Himalayan species, and blue grey, ending in pale rufous in Dr.

Latham’s ; while the tail in the former species had four black middle feathers

and the rest cinereous, but in the latter had the two middle ones only

black, the rest being white. In a group exhibiting so much similarity in

the disposition of the colours as the present, such differences are material as

distinguishing species.

CoLLuRIO TEPHRONOTUS. Col. fascid frontal pergracili ad medium colli per

oculos latius extendente nigrd; capite, nuchd, scapularibus, dorsoque satura-~

tits cinereis; collo anteriori pectoreque albescentibus, hoc fusco graciliter

fasciato ; abdomine crissoque ferrugineis 3 alis cauddque brunneo-fuscis, apicibus

pallidioribus ; dorso imo tectricibusque caude superioribus subrufescentibus.

Tectrices alarum inferiores ferrugineo fuscoque notate. Statura paullo

minor quam in specie precedenti.

This bird also was observed to be closely allied to the last, and to differ from

it probably only in sex or age. Until such points however could be ascer-

tained, it was considered advisable to regard it as specifically distinct.

Genus Graucalus.

38. Graucalus Papuensis, Cuv. Corvus Papuensis, Gmel. Papuan Crow, Lath,

Genus Ceblepyris.

39. Ceblepyris cana, Temm. Muscicapa cana,Gmel. Ash-coloured Flycatcher,

Lath.

40. Ceblepyris fimbriatus, Temm. Lchenilleur frangé, Temm.

Fam. Merulide.—Genus Pitta.

4). Fitta brachyura. Corvus brachyurus, Linn. Short-tailed Crow, var. B. Lath.

Short-tailed Pie, Edw.

LAMPROTORNIS SPILOPTERUS. Mas. Lamp. supra plumbeo-canus, plumis ad

apicem fusco marginatis ; subtus albus, rufo tinctus 5 uropygio rufescenti ;

remigibus atris viridi splendentibus, maculd alba; caudé brunned 5 guild

intense rufa.

1832. ] Catalogue of Indian Birds. 267

Fem. Supra pallid? brunnea, subtus albescens, brunneo tincta.

Statura Lamp. cantoris.

Myopuonus HorsFiELpDil. Myoph. cerulescenti-ater, fronte, humeris, margini-

busque plumarum pectoris splendidé ceruleis.

Statura Myoph. cyanei, Horsf.

Cincius Pattasiit, Temm. Cincl. unicolor, intense brunneus, rostro pedibusque

Suscis.

Statura Cincli aquatici, Bechst.

Genus Oriolus.

42. Oriolus Galbula, Linn, Golden Oriole, Lath. Ze Loriot, Buff,

43. Oriolus melanocephalus, Linn. Black-headed Oriole, Lath. Loriot de la

Chine, Buff.

44, OrioLus MADERASPATANUS. Or. fronte, corpore supra, tectricibus alarum

abdomineque luteis; capite supra, genis, remigibus, notdque mediant rectricum

fusco-atris ; guld alba striis fusco-atris. Longitudo 9.

Oriolus Galbula, var, y. Lath. Yellow Indian Starling, Edw. Yellow Star-

ling from Bengal, Albin.

C. Oriotus AcRorRHYNCHUS. Or, aureo-flavus ; vittd a tictu per oculos extend-

ente sinciputque obtegente lata, remigibus totis, rectricumque basibus nigris ;

vostro flavo, bulmine elevato.

Longitudo corporis, 12 ; ale a carpo ad apicem remigis 4tx, 6; caude, 43 ;

tarsi, 1 ; rostri, 1%.

Genus Turdus.

45. Turdus macrourus, Gmel. Long-tailed Thrush, Lath.

46. Turdus Sanlaris, Gracula Saularis, Linn. Pastor Saularis, Temm. Little

Indian Pie, Edw.

TuRDUs PECILOPTERUS. Mas. Turd. corpore nizro, abdomine imo subcineras-

centi-fusco 3 remigum mediarum pogoniis externis pteromatibusque cineraceo-

griscis, his apice albis ; rostro pedibusque flavis.

Foem.? Corpore supra brunnescenti-griseo, subtus pallidiori ; pteromatibus remi-=

gumque mediarum pogoniis externis ut in mari notatis, sed colore subrufescenti

tinctis.

Statura feré Turdi Merule, Linn.

A new species closely allied to the common European Blackbird, exhibiting the

yellow bill and general black plumage of that bird, but differing from it in

the varied markings of the wing.

CINCLOSOMA OCELLATUM,. Cinclos. capitis fronte et lateribus, corporeque supra

rufo-brunneis 3 vertice, colloque in fronte nigro-brunneis ; pectore albescenti-

rufo nigro fasciato 5 abdomine pallidé rufo, nuchd, dorso, alis, caudeque tectri-

cibus ocellis anticé atris posticé albis, notatis 3 remigibus et rectricibus latera»

libus griseo-fuscis, apicibus albis.

Rostrum pedis que flavescentes, illius culmine fusco. Remigum mediarum

pogonia externa grisea, strigam griseam alarem exhibentes. Tectrices alarum

inferiores rufo nigro albescentique variegate. Longitudo corporis, 14; ale

a carpo ad remigis 6te# apicem, 5; rostri, °, ; tarsi, 1 ,7,; caude, 7.

[Zo be Continued]

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JOURNAL

THE ASIATIC SOCIETY.

No. 7.—July, 1852.

I1—Translation of a Tibetan Fragment, by Mr. Csoma de Korés,

with remarks by H. H. Wilson, Secy.

(Read, July 4th.)

In the 9th volume of the Gyut class of the Kahgyur occurs the

original of a Tibetan fragment, which created in the beginning of the

last century a lively sensation amongst the learned men of Europe, and

the history of which furnishes an amusing instance of the vanity of li-

terary pretensions, and of the patience and pain with which men of

talent and erudition have imposed upon themselves and upon the

world.

In the end of the 17th and beginning of the 18th century, the Rus-

sians in their incursions into Siberia came upon various deserted temples

and monasteries, in some of which considerable collections of books

were deposited. These were in general destroyed or mutilated by the

ignorant rapacity of the soldiery, but fragments of them were preserved,

and found their way as curiosities to Europe.

Amongst these, some loose leaves, supposed to have been obtained at

the ruins of Ablaikit, a monastery near the source of the Irtish, were

presented to the emperor Peter the Great. Literature being then at a

low ebb in Russia, no attempt was made to decypher these frag-

ments, and they were sent by the Czar to the French Academy, whose

sittings he had attended when at Paris, and who deservedly enjoyed

the reputation of being the most learned body in Europe. In 1723, the

Abbe de Bignon, on the part of the Academy, communicated to the

Czar the result of their labour, apprising him, that the fragments sent

were portions of a work in the Tibetan language, and sending a trans-

lation of one page made by the Abbé Fourmont with thehelp of a Latin

270 Translation of a Tibetan Fragment. [ Jury,

and Tibetan Dictionary in the Royal Library. The letter was pub-

lished in the Transactions of the Academy of St. Petersburgh, and the

text and translation reprinted by Bayer in his Museum Sinicum. Miller

in his Commentatio de Scriptis Tanguticis in Siberia repertis—Petro-

poli, 1747, criticised Fourmont’s translation, and gave a new one of the

first lines, prepared with the double aid of a Tangutan priest, or Gelong,

who rendered it into Mongol, and a Mongol student of the Imperial

College, who interpreted that version to Miler. The original-was also

engraved in the Transactions of the Leipsic Academy. Itwas reprinted

with corrections and additions and a new translation by Giorgi in his

Alphabetum Tibetanum, and has recently been made the subject of

animadversion by Mons. Remusat, in his Recherches sur les Langues

Tartares. Of the previous performances, M. Remusat thus speaks :

“ On avoit d’abord admiré la profonde erudition qui avoit permis 4

Fourmont de reconnoitre seulement la langue dans laquelle le volume

etoit ecrit: on a vanté depuis celle de Giorgi, qui avoit rectifie et le texte

et la traduction. Je ne sais comment on peut traduire ou corriger un

texte qu’on n’est pas méme capable de lire. I] n’y avoit rien d’admirer

dans tout cela: interprétes et commentateurs, panegyristes et critiques

tous etoient presqué egalement hors d’etat, je ne dis pas d’entendre une

ligne, mais d’epéler une syllabe du passage sur lequel ils disertoient.

The consequence was what might have been expected, and the at-

tempts at translation and correction were most ludicrously erroneous.

The greatest liberties possible were taken with the words, and letters

were inserted or omitted at pleasure, in order to make them approxi-

mate to those terms which appeared most like them in the imperfect

dictionaries possessed by the translators. After all, the translation was

not only unlike the original, but unlike common sense ; and as was remar-

ked of Fourmont’s version by the President de Brosses, the Latin was

quite as unintelligible as the Tangutan. The following specimens of the

first lines of the different versions will show that the remark was applica-

ble to all as well as to the first.

Fourmont’s Translation.

“ Attrita fortitudine quisnam brevis equus frigoris vita destruatur

(pro) spiritu inest putredo. Contritus oratne? hoc est irrisio omnes

vident : orat avis contrita? morbida? non scit (non potest amplius) os

aperire legis (ratiocinationis).”

This must have puzzled the Czar and his academy quite as much as

the original; and as Remusat observes, the Latin was of marvellous

use to the translator. Fourmont would not have dared to write a

syllable of such nonsense in French.

1832.] Translation of a Tibetan Fragment. 971

The manner in which Fourmont was led to such a strange misrepre-

sentation of the original is explained by Mons. Remusat, from whom we

may take one instance as a specimen—Thus of the word brevis equus.

The MS., M. Remusat says, was read by Fourmont 7'sru pa té, (Mr.

Csoma has ch’hud-pd-des.) He found in the Dictionary chung-pd sig-

nifying ¢ short’ and r-¢a meaning “a horse’, and these being the nearest

approach to the syllables before him, he adopted as essentially the same,

and rendered them accordingly.

Miiller’s Translation.

« Firma conscientia mediante omnia parvi pendendo in principio

vivente cuicumque auxilium oritur inde. Quibus consummatis futurum

quid nemini notum est. Religio tota namque religionis explicatio.

Magnates autem intellectu (suo) ea non comprehendunt.”

The matter has not been made much more distinct by the aid of

the Tangutan monk and Mongolian student.

Giorgi’s Translation.

& Misericordia recreat et a cruciatibus absolvit Summus protector

viventes omnes qui eam adoratoribus suis revelat. Benefici largitoris

virtutem sciunt omnes, sed orationis invocationisque vim et efficaciam

exponere et aperire nesciunt : nomen ea exprimit arcanum illius legis

que lex est spirituum, &c.”

How far either of these expresses the sense of the opening of this

fragment, may now be duly appreciated by the perusal of the following.

Mr. Csoma’s Translation.

[ Chom dan das] “ addressed his mind to meditation upon the affairs of

animate existences. The ignorant do not perceive the moral significa-

tion of moral things.”

Not a word of this appears in the preceding versions. Its accuracy

speaks for itself; but in confirmation of its correctness, the original

Tibetan, both in Tibetan and Roman characters, is here reprinted, as

well as the translation of the entire passage. Those to whom the pro-

secution of the subject is of interest may readily estimate for themselves

the superiority of Mr. Csoma’s labours, by comparing them at length

with the text and translations of Fourmont and Giorgi in the Alpha-

betum Tibetanum.

Before proceeding to the new translation, however, a few further re-

marks upon the subject of the old are necessary.

The Society is apprised of the general character of the contents of

the Gyut portion of the Kahgyur, to which our original belongs, and

will not be surprised, therefore, to learn that a great part of the extract

consists of Mantras, or mystical formul#, or invocations, and these not

M 2

272 Translation of a Tibetan Fragment. [ Jury,

in Tibetan but in Sanscrit. Now, neither of the former translators had

any knowledge of Sanscrit, nor was aware that these passages were in

that language. Fourmont considered them to be Tibetan, as well as

the rest, and very deliberately translated the Sanscrit words with the

help of his Tibetan Dictionary. As he could not find the exact words,

however, he was content to take those most like them ; and at the ex-

pence of a few letters omitted or inserted, he contrived equivalents for

the mantras equally satisfactory with those he had devised for the

other sentences of his text. Thus he converts the Mantra Nama

Samanta Buddhanam,Samantanugate, varaja, Dhermannirgata, Maha

Maha Swaha, into Na-ma Sam-tam Pou-tra Nan-hi-tst cha-ya r-pa

sa-n-ha, which he translates, “‘ Augrotavit (restitit morbo) Samtam pou-

tra per annum dum hujus mundi evanesceret, &c.” The same import-

ing, as far as such things admit of being translated, “ Salutation to

the chief Buddhas. Obtainer of pre-eminence ; best born ; who proc

eeded from virtue. Great great adoration.”

Giorgi is more upon his guard, and discovers that the mantras are

not in ordinary Tibetan. He has no suspicion however of their real

character, and calls them magical expressions. He prints them there-

fore without any translation, but nevertheless pretends to explain their

purpose in his notes on the text, in which he assembles a crude mass of

extravagancies from Hebrew, Chaldaic,Coptic, and Syriac, and compares

these Tibetan characters to the mystic numbers and letters of the an-

cient Scythians and Egyptians, and of some of the early Sectarians

and Heretics of the Christian Church. This display of unprofitable

erudition is in fact only a shelter for his ignorance, and he knows no

more about the matter than did Fourmont, without having the merit

of his blundering simplicity.

We shall now proceed to the translation.

Translation of an Extract from the T. or 9th volume r,Gyut class

of the Kah-gyur, the 337—339 leaves.

Ignorant men do not know that all these (doctrines) have been

thus explained by Chom dan dds (the Supreme), the knower of all

and possessor of all, who in remote ages, through compassion for all

living beings, addressed his mind to meditation upon the affairs of ani-

mate existences. (a Stanza) The ignorant do not perceive the moral.

signification of moral things. It has been distinctly taught (by Buddha),

that the essential principle of morality is the non-entity of matter.

The performer of mystic rites must always dwell upon that idea, and

discharge his duty accordingly.

1832. ] Translation of a Tibetan Fragment. 273

This was a gradual and comprehensive explanation of the means by

which noxious things (or evil spirits) may be appeased.

Then Cuaxna Dorset (S. Vasrapdnt) and other Dor,je bearers,

(Vajradharas, bearers of thunderbolts), Kuntru-zanero (SAMANTA

BHADRA), and other Chang chub sempds (Bodhisatwas) having adored

Chom dan das, Nam ParR-sNANG-psaT (the Bhagavan or Lord Varro-

CHANA), being desirous to express each in his own mantra or invocation,

his mystic praise, and how they judged in this great circle the source

of infinite mercy, of the pure way of access to the root of all things, re-

quested permission from Cuom DAN Das.

Then Cuom pan Das having granted them permission, and bestowed

his benediction upon them, thus spake, “ Illustrious children, according-

ly as you judge of the root of things (the first moral being), utter your

mystic sentences for the purification of all animate existence.”

Then the Bodhisatwa Kuntu Zanepo, being immersed in that pro-

found meditation, which is called the region of the ornamental (charac-

teristic) of a Buddha, uttered this mystical sentence (mantra) of irre-

sistible efficacy.

Nama Simanta Buddhinam, &c. Glory to the exalted Buddhas !

obtainer of eminence; best born ; who proceedest from virtue—great,

great adoration. This is the mantra of Kuntu Zanero.

[For the rest of this, and for the Sanscrit of the other Mantras, see the passages in

Italics in the Tibetan extract in Roman character. ]

Then the Bodhisatwa Cuampa (MAITREYA) after being immersed in

the profound meditation called “ the universally manifested bene-

ficence,” thus uttered his own radical prayer (vija mantra), Nama

Samanta Buddhdnam, &c. Glory to the exalted Buddhas ; conqueror

of the invincible ; possessor of the fame of all purity—adoration. This

is the prayer of Cuampa.

Then the Bodhisatwa NaM-KHE NYING PO (AKASA GERBHA) being

immersed inthe profound meditation called “ the purest region,” uttered

through mystery, Glory to all the Buddhas; wonderful holder of bless-

ings; who art possessed of equal elevation with the heavens—sulutation.

This is the prayer of NamM-KHE NYING Po.

Then the Bodhisatwa Grippa THAM CHET NAM-PAR sELva (S. Sarva

Anayarana Vishkambhi) being immersed in the meditation, called “ the

power of great mercy,” uttered his mystery, Glory to the exalted

Buddhas; thou who art not separated; connected with the As-

wattha tree. Trdm Tram, Ram Ram—salutation.

[This is one of the Mantras, of which there is no making any sense ; Some allu-

Sion is implied probably, a knowledge of which is necessary to explain the words:

The concluding syllables are merely ejaculatory monosyllables.]

974 Translation of a Tibetan Fragment. (Jury;

Then the Bodhisatwa Kuntu Cuenresix VaNnecuuk (S. AVALOKITES

wara) being immersed in the meditation called (after him) Kuntu Cuen-

RESIK, or “ looking every where with clear vision,” thus together with

his followers uttered his own radical mystery, Glory to the exalted

Buddhas: universal T'athdagata, AVALOKITA; abounding with clemency

—Ra-ra-ra-hum-jah—salutation. This is the mantra of CHENRESIK.

Glory to the exalted Buddhas, Jang-jang sa,—salutation. This is the

mantra of Tuu-cu HEN T’HoP (S. Mana St wana Pri&pra).

Glory to the exalted Buddhas ; offspring of clemency, TArs, by

whom existence is traversed—salutation. This is the Mantra of the

Luamo Grot ma, (the goddess TAR.)

Glory to the exalted Buddhas: frightener of every fear. Hum, Sphot-

aya—salutation. This is the mantra of Kronyer Chen Ma (S,

Bhrikuti.)

Glory to the exalted Buddhas: born from all the Tathdgatas ; de-

corated with a chaplet of Lotus flowers—salutation. This isthe Mantra

of Kos Kar Chen (S. P&npura vAstnf), the goddess clothed in white

garments.

Glory to the exalted Buddhas: Hum-Eat-bind-Sphotaya. This is the

Mantra ofa Ta-grin. (S. Kinnara).

Then the Bodhisatwa Sanur nyine po (S. Ksuitr cersa)being im-

mersed in the meditation called “ the region of reasoning,” uttered this

mystery, Glory to the exalted Buddhas, Ha ha-ha Putanu—salutation.

This is the mantra of SAHI NYING Po.

Then the Bodhisatwa JAmM-pat Zuon NuR GyuRzuH Pa (S. Manju Sri

KuMARa BHATTA BHUTA) being immersed in the deep meditation called

“the miraculous transformation by the blessings of Buddha,” thus

uttered his own radical mystery,Glory to the exalted Buddhas. He-he-

he, the young prince, Liberation. Communion.—Remember, remem-

ber, resist. Swaha. This is the Mantra of Jam-pal.

Then Cuaxna Dorsx(S. Vasrapdnt), the lord of those who deal with

mysteries, being immersed in the deep meditation called “ the invin-

eible,” thus uttered together with his followers his own radical mystery,

Glory to the exalted Vajras, fierce and greatly wrathful. Hum. This

is the mantra of Cuaxna Dorgt.

(Similar mantras by the goddess M<max¢f and five others follow,

occupying three lines).

Then the Lord Saxya Tuup-pa(Munr) being immersed in the deep

meditation called ‘¢ the mine of precious things,” thus with his attend-

ants uttered his own mystery, Glory to the exalted Buddhas ; reliever

1832. ] Translation of a Tibetan Fragment. 275

of all distress ; master of all virtue. Equal, equal to the heayens—salu-

tation. This is the Mantra of SaxyaTuup-pa).

(Similar mantras are continued through the following page of the

same leaf.)

The Tibetan Text in Roman Character.

Note.—The letters in italics at the commencement of any syllable, are omitted

in the pronounciation. The Sanskrit passages or mantras are printed in italics.

Mi dlun po dé dag gis Adi ltar bchom-/dan-hdas thams chad

mkhyen pa chhos thams chad la mii ah brn yes pa Sems chan gyi don

thogs “‘*par thugs su chhud pa dés siion sems chan rnams la phan par

Bzhed nas hdi dag thams chad dshad do zhes bya var ni mishes so.

Chhos rnams kyi ni chhos kyi mts’han bLun po dés ni dé mi shes ;

Chhos rnams kun gyi mis’han nyid ni, stong pa nyid du yang dag

gsungs slags pa rtag tu der gnas nas, rab tu ites par las byaho.

Bgegs zhi var bya va rim par phyé va sté rgyas paho.

Dé-nas phyag na rdo 7jé la sogs pa rdo rjé hdsin pa dé dag dang

Kun tu dzang po la sogs pa byang chhub sems Dpah di rnams kyis

bchom-/dan-hdas rnam-par-snang-mdsad la phyag Ats’hal nas snying

vjé chhen po hbyung vahi dkyil Akhor chhen po hdir chhos kyi

dyyings rnam par dag pahi Sgo ji /tar rtogs pa rang rang gi ts’hig

tu brjod pahi tshig gis gsang siiags rnams smra var hdod nas bchom-

Idan-hdas la gsol va btab po dé nas bchom-/dan-hdas rnam par shang

mdsad kyis byang chhub sems dpah dé dag dang rdo rjé hdsin dé dag

la mi nyams pahi chhos nyid du byin gyis drlabs nas bkah stsal pa:

Rigs kyi bu dag chhos kyi vyings ji /tar rtogs pa bzhin sems chan gyi

khams rnam par sbyang vahi gsang sfiags kyi ts’hig rnams smros-shig.

Dé-nas dé-hi ts’hé byang chhub sems Dpah Kun tu dzang pos sangs

rgyas kyi yul zhes bya vahi ting gé hds’in la snyoms par zhugs nas

Stobs thogs pa med pahi gsang sfiags smras pa: Namah Sdmanta

Baddhinim ; Samantanugati Varqja, Dhermanirgata, Maha Maha.

Swahd. Kun tu bzang po hiho.

Dé-nas byang chhub sems dpah byams pas byamspa chhen po

kun tu miion par hbyung va zhes bya vahi ting gé Adsin la snyoms par

zhugs nas rang gi snying po smras pa: Namah Samanta Buddhdném,

Ajitanajaya, Sarova Satwayashaydnugata, Swaha. Byams pahi ho.

Dé-nas byang chhub sems dpah nam mkhahi snying po rnam par

dag pahi yul zhes-bya vabi ting gé Adsin la snyoms par zhugs nas gsang

shags smras pa: Namah Samanta Buddhdnam, A’ kasha somatanugata

Vichittram Varadhara, Swahd, Nam mkhahi snying pohi ho.

* The Tibetan fragment of Giorgi commences here.

276 Translation of a Tibetan Fragment. [ Jury,

Dé-nas byang-chhub sems dpah sgrib pa thams chad ynam par sel va

Snying rjé chhen pohi Stobs zhes bya vahi ting gé hdsin la snyoms par

zhugs- nas g,sang siiags smras pa: Nama Samanta Buddhanam,

A’swaata hrita, Avyudgata, Tram Tram, Ram, Ram, Swaha. Sgrib

ba thams chad rnampar sel vahi ho.

Dé nas byang chhub sems dpah kun tu spyan ras gzigs dvang phyug

spyan ras gzigs zhes bya vahi ting gi Adsin-la snyoms par zhugs nas

rang gi snying po hkhor dang bchas par smras pa: Namah Samanta

Buddhanén, Sarvva Tathagata, Avalokita, Karand, Mayd, Ra Ra

Ra, Hum jah, Swaha. Spyan ras gzigs dvang phyug gi ho.

Namah Samanta Buddhanam, jang jangsa,Swaha. Mthu-chhen-

thob pahi ho.

Namah Samanta Buddhdnam, Karnnodbhavé Tart Tarani, Swahda.

Lha mo sgrol mahi ho.

Namah Samanta Buddhanam,Sarvva Bhaya Trasadi Hum spho’-

taya, swahd. Khro G,nyer chan mahi ho.

Namah Samanta Buddhanam, Tathagata Vishwayd, Sambavé,

Padma malini, Swahd.

Gos dkar-chan gyi-ho, Namah Samanta Buddhandém, Hum khada

bandha spho’taya, Swahad. RTa Negrin gyi ho.

Dé-nas byang chhub sems dpah-sahi snying po rdo rje mishigs pa

r,tog pahi yul zhes bya vahi ting gé Adsin las snyoms par shugs nas

gsang shiags smras pa: ~Namah Samanta Buddhandm Ha Ha Ha,

Putaénu, Swéha. Sahi snying pahi ho.

Dé-nas byang chhub sems Dpah hjam dpal gzhon nur gyur pas

sangs rgyas kyi byin gyis brlabs ynam par Aphrul pa zhes bya vahi

ting gé Adsin la snyoms par zhugs nas rang gi snying po smras-pa ;

Namah Samanta Budhdénam, Hé Hé Hé, Kumaraka, Vimukti,

Sathirthati,S mara smara, Prathihana, Swahd. Hjam dpal gyi ho.

Dé nas gsang va pahi bdag po Phyag na rdo rjé mi Apham pazhes

bya vahi ting gé hdsin la snyoms par zhugs nas rang gi snying po

hkhor dang dchas pa smras pa: Namah Samanta Vaj’rdndn,

Chanda Méha*” Ros’*hana Hum. Phyakna rdo rjéhi ho.

* * * *

Dé-nas dehi ts’hé. Chom-/dan-hdas Shakya Thub pas rin po chhehi

hbyung gnas zhes bya vahi ting gé Adsin la snyoms par zhugs nas

nyid kyi snying po hkhor dang bchas pa gsungs pa: Namah Samanta

Buddhanam,Sarvva klésha nishuddhana, Sarova Dherma vahi prapta,

Gagana sama sama, swahd. Shakya Thub pahi ho.

* Giorgi’s fragment ends here in the middle of the word mahd, the remaining

passage is added to complete the sense.

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1832. | Estimate of the Risk of Life, &c. 277

Il.— Estimate of the Risk of Life to Civil Servants of the Bengal

Presidency in each year of their Residence in India. By H. T.

Prinsep, Esq. Secretary to Government, &c. &c.

The Number of the Greantnes in Science for September, 1831,

contained an article “« On the Duration of Life in the Bengal Civil Ser-

vice” with several tables, exhibiting the results at which the author

had arrived by various processes of calculation. The subject is of

first-rate interest to all residents in India, and the manner in

which these tables have been given forth is likely to lead to

their being taken upon trust as of full authority. The results

however are too startling to be admitted without a strict exami-

nation of the data, which are the basis of calculation ; and as the regis-

ters and statements from which these profess to be taken were compiled

principally in my office, and have recently been brought to more, accu--

racy than they possessed when first prepared and furnished to the

Finance Committee, and to other departments and public officers,

I have thought it my duty to recast them myself into a tabular

form, so as to allow the results afforded by them to be compared with

those asssumed in the article in question. Iam sorry to say, that they

differ too widely to be adjusted by any compendious explanation of

discrepancies ; and, as I have found reason moreover to doubt whether

any accurate conclusions can be drawn from the specific results which

are there exhibited as the basis of calculation, I am compelled to adopt

somewhat different forms. For these reasons, no less than for assurance,

that the data have not been lightly assumed, my first table has extend-

ed to a size and contains a quantity of detail which may prove

inconvenient.

It is necessary to premise that the materials we possess are: first, the

appointments made in each year by the Honorable Court of Directors.

Secondly, the arrivals in India under these appointments; which are

necessarily irregular in date, and not equal in number with the nomina-

tions. Thirdly, the retirements ; which is rather a wide class, including

as well those who absolutely resign, as those who leave the country upon

temporary leave, and overstay the period of five years fixed by Act of

Parliament as the limit for absence from India without loss of the service.

Civil Servants on Furlough, or in Europe, under temporary leave, being

still borne on the registers, and their deaths being reported, are consi-

dered as still in the service, and though dying perhaps in Europe or

on shipboard would be entered amongst the deaths. The dismissals

from service are included in the head of Retirements. Fourthly,

Deaths ; the reports of which, with the dates, are ordinarily on record ;

278 Estimate of the Risk of Life [Jury

or, if not so, the time can be ascertained with sufficient accuracy by a

reference to the books of the General Treasury, which show up to what

date salary has been drawn and arrears adjusted with executors. Deaths

on shipboard, when not reported, are considered as of the year in which

the ship left India.

From the above materials, the Court’s annual list of appointments be-

ing taken as a ground-work, every individual name has been traced, and

the fate of the person who bore it, ascertained to the time of his death,

or of his quitting the service. ‘The following statement exhibits the

result in one view with the date by the calendar year of each death or

retirement. If any one should desire to know the names of the

individuals represented by the figures of this table, that information

also is at his service in the registers that have been compiled, toge-

ther with the specific ground of placing in each instance. Our pre- .

sent business however is with the results in abstract.

This table corresponds with that of page 273 in the article of the

Gueanines referred to, only so far as that the number of appointments

between 170 and 1828 will be found to be the same. The number

here is 842, to which add 11 for those who never came to India under

their appointments, as noted at the foot of the table. The writer of the

article assumes 852*, showing that he has followed the same registers

without rejecting the non-arrivals, which, for the correct ascertainment of -

the proportion of deaths, should evidently have been done. The table

requires to be well studied and examined, before we proceed to make

deductions from the data it contains. The test or verification of its ac-

curacy will be found in the last column, which gives the remaining ser-

vants of each year, that is, those still in the service, after deducting the

deaths and retirements, up to the date of compilation, from the number

of original appointments. See Table No. I. |

Now, the first thing to be remarked in this table is, that the appoint-

ments being taken from the date of the dispatch of the Court of Direc-

tors, which date is not invariably the 31st December or Ist January,

the period comprised in the year of appointment is not a complete year-

Of the 19 men appointed in 1790, 15 only arrived in India in that

year ; the remainder came in 1791. But whether they arrived or not

would not very much signify, if we had their life to reckon for a com-

plete year. Tue material circumstance is, that the appointments were

made at different dates, mostly, indeed, in the first half of the year before

May; but one gentleman (Mr. Leycester) was appointed in December,

1790, and yet reckons high on the list of the year. For this last reason,

added to the difficulty created by the non-arrivals, it has been deemed

* This number is one short of the true, because there were two Robert Grahams

appointed in the same year, and they were supposed to be the same person.

{ Taste I.

Shewing the Appointments, Heatly and Retirements for each year, from 1790 to 1832.

The figures towards the right hand of each column denote Deaths: those on the left hand, Retirements.

cma

Ss Es 2\5

E ale EBS

1 hr nll |

: eft [1 2

y) 21. 2

lh alulin

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Le t s

ai sy

4/1

2} 2

ai) 2

| 2

9| 2

8| 1

nj 3

9} 2

Ttal_ 940 ‘Total remaining in the Service on the 1st July, 1832, 513

i ibi a iI uch}

* We have been compelled to omit the surviving residents of each ealendar year from this Tuble, from the {mposiility of compressing so much

into the space allowed. The omission is immaterial, as the same numbers gre given in Table II. For the sume CE eat

the deaths and retirements in juxtaposition in the same column, but os the numbers are in every case units, there ca

Taste IT.

commencing with the 1st Jan, following the date of nomination.

Survivors of each year of service,

ryote [oye

18 " 20 j21 24 |25 26 |27 |28:29130|31\32\33

Nomina

tions,

SERSEERB

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850,792 735 669) 5 Pare 9)

* N, B.—From the nominations are excluded 1] cases, in which the persons nominated never came to India,

1832.] to Civil Servants in Bengal. 281

necessary to reject the year of appointment entirely from the calcula-

tions, and to assume the first year for the men appointed in 1790, as

commencing from the 1st January, 1791, and so with all following years.

The compiler of the tables, inthe article of the Greanines before

referred to, has included this year in the computation of 852 as the num-

ber of appointments up to 1828, for he would otherwise have rejected

the nominations of the last year of the series, His first year being, as

is evident from this circumstance, that of nomination, he sets down the

deaths upon the complete number of persons nominated as being, in the

year of their appointment, only 2. ‘The above table, however, shows

six deaths in the year of appointment, or five, if the years subsequent to

1828 be thrown out; and this, without making any allowance for the

eleven cases of appointed servants who never came to India, several of

whom may have been prevented by death from availing themselves of

their appointments. Whence the author of that article took his numbers,

itis beyond me to guess; but it will stand to reason, that two deaths upon

850 appointments made in the course of 40 years, mostly a period of

war, can be no near approximation to the risks of the voyage out,

and the numberless accidents to which headstrong youth is liable.

Six deaths, in the year of actual appointment, have been traced ;

but, as there is reason to doubt, whether this even can be the

whole number, while, as above remarked, the period is never a complete

year, it has been deemed better to take, as the first year for calculation

of the value of life, that dating from the Ist January after appointment.

The deaths of our next year are 17, which I confess my inability to

reconcile in any way with the number of the Gueanines, which is 9

only for the two years’ risk of life upon 809 appointments. It is not my

business, however, to point out these discrepancies. The essential

thing is to make out a statement that shall be free from error, or as

nearly so as the case will admit ; and that given above is offered as the

best which our present materials afford the means of framing. Inthe table

which follows, No. III, the ratio of deaths tosurvivors, in each year

of residence, is attempted to be exhibited, thedeaths being taken from

the table above, and the number of persons whose life was at risk be-

ing thus computed: the total appointments between 1790 and 1831,

were 951, of whom 11 died in England, or changed their mind, or from

other cause never came to India. There remain 940, from which

number must be deducted the ascertained deaths (5)*, and retirements

‘ * The deaths upon 940 in the year of appointment were 6 by our table, but one

of these belonged to the 29 nominations of 1831, all which being rejected from the

calculation for the first year after appointment, and being deducted separately,

this death must not be subtracted again. The deaths upon 940—29 or 91R

were only 5,

282 Estimate of the Risk of Life [Jury,

(1),in the first year, being together 6; also the appointments of the year

1831 (29), which could not be included in the computation, unless the

year 1832 were brought in. The number, therefore, of Civil Servants ap-

pointed between 1790 and 1831, who were in the condition to abide the

chance of life for a first year, commencing from the 1st January after their

appointment, was 905. Our table assumes 904, because there was one

retirement in the year we are reviewing ; and, as those who retire give

the risk of their lives only for the broken period before their departure,

the number of persons on the register on the 1st January requires cor-

rection on their account. It is assumed, that retiring servants give,

on the average, the risk of their lives for half the year in which they

retire; accordingly deduction is made, from the registered numbers on

the 1st January, of half the number of the retirements between that

date and the 31st December following. Where thenumberis uneven, as

in this case being one, the deduction is made alternately to include or

reject the unit. We thus begin with 904 lives, of which the proportion

of deaths in the first year was 17, being in the ratio of 188 out of 10,000.

For the computation of the ratio inthe second year, wehave the 905 men

of the first year, minus the whole number ofretirements (1), and deaths

(17), in the course of that year, and minus also the appointments of 1830,

which were 25, that is, 905—43 or 862. Of this number of registered

servants on the Ist January of the second year, four retired in the course

of the year: deducting two, therefore, for the diminished risk upon their

lives, the number 862 stands corrected to 860, of which number 21 died

in the year, being in the ratio of 244 out of 10,000. A separate value

has thus been computed for each year of life in India, from the first to

the thirtieth inclusive; after which the number of registered servants be-

comes toosmall to afford results at all trust-worthy. Before we proceed to

the tables exhibiting the estimate of the value of life for each year, form~

ed on this principle, it will be proper to exhibit separately the precise

number of survivors in India, on the first of January of each year of

their service ; it being my purpose, as above explained, to compare these

numbers, not with the original appointments as in the table of the

GLEANINGs, but with the deaths of the year then commencing. I shall

presently explain why no correct result could be extracted, from a

comparison of the survivors with the number of original appointments,

or even with that of arrivals in India. See Table, No. II.

Taking the table of survivors as the material for calculation, the

ratio of deaths is exhibited for each year in the table which follows,

No. III. The same ratiois reduced to a decimal proportion upon 10,000,

for more ready deduction of the average of each five years, and for

comparison with the tables of Europe. The number of deaths assum~

1832.] to Civil Servants in Bengal. 283

ed, and the moiety of retirements deducted in Table II, may be tested

by comparison with Table I, in which all the appointments, deaths, and

resignations are separately entered, according tothe calendar year in

which they occurred.

Taste IIT.

Showing the Ratio of Annual Deaths.

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g Ste 4s lan Lies ads) e268.

ee T =} oS =) SS oetlWeSs pasty

= ss ac, Sahl outtl se ald

SS = aul eo | o PS el) ab! SFR D

a i 2a|s eg | #2 |Z&" 8/25 Zaps

$s |% | £2] €2| 8] 28 |FSoulfes| S8eu

mT le “odie i= eran Aa a cial (baad Mo

1 20 | 904] 17 188 } 188

2 | 211! 860 1 244 | 207

3 | 221 792| 15 189 S$] 203 | 128 963 203

4 23 | 735] 18 245 | 489

5 24 | 669 | 10 150 J 191

6 25 | 684 8 117) 199

7 26 593 15 953 211

8 | 27] 567 | 13 233 209 | 162 133 209

9 98 | 532] 16 ot 210

10 29 | 503 7 139 216

11 30 | 479 6 | 207

12 | 31| 460] 13 283 71

13 32] 431 8 186 $} 179] 165 155 179

14 | 33 | 408 5 a 177

15 34 | 386 7 181 175

16 35 | 356 4 112 181

17 36} 343 6 ae 206

18 s7{ 315 | 10 at 2143) 205 170 2143

19 38 | 287 7 244 268

20 39 | 266 6 225 31728

21 40 238 9 378 | 3494

22 | 41]| 212 9 424 | 391

23 42] 189 9 476 \{| 3703) 411 } 203 3702

24 | 431 165{ 5 | 303 g7at

25 44} 147 4, poll 421

26 45 129 5 388 | 348

27 46 | 105 7 666 394

28 47 90 1 111 $} 403] 811 Qa7 403

29 48 75 4, 533 | 407

30 49 63 ) 317 J 407

31 50 51 0 0}

32 51 42 0 0

33 52 36 3 833

34 53 Q7 7) 741

35 54 22 0 0

36 55 17 1 588 S| 582 326

37 56 11 1 909

38 57 8 0 0

39 58 6 ) 0

40 59 5 0 0

41 4 60 3 1 13,333

284 Estimate of the Risk of Life [Juny,

Tasre IV.

Showing the Annual Decrement of life, according to the adjusted an-

nual value of Life in India, as compared with the latest Tables Sor

England, and with the rate of Decrement inthe Gleanings for Sep-

tember, 1881.

Dr. Young’s general mean offDecrement in India upon|Decrement upon the num-

decrement for England, cal-[ the same number, ealceu-| ber of survivors at the

culated upon 100,000 Births,} lated for each year at] age of 20 ont of 10.000

and commencing with survi-| theadjnsted annual ratio} births, according to the

vors at 20 years of age. of Deaths of Table I1I.| Northampton Tables as

last column. given for India in the

Gleanings,

Age. Survivors.) Deaths | Survivors. Deaths. | Survivors. Dees. <>

SS Olle [Ls | ey a = Sol

20 52221 452 52291 981 5132 63

Q1 $1748 A473 51240 _ 1061 5069 64

22 51259 409 50179 1019 5005 65

23 50737 557 49160 929 4940 66

24 50180 610 48231 921 4874 67

25 49570 652 47310 941 4307 68

26 48918 655 46369 978 4739 69

27 48263 | 664 45391 949 4670 69

28 A7599 682 444.49 933 4601 70

29 46917 704 43509 940 4531 V1

30 46213 709 42559 981 4460 72

31 45504 711 41578 711 4388 73

32 44793 710 40867 732 4315 5

33 44083 708 40135 710 4240 17

34 43375 710 39425 690 4163 79

35 42665 712 38735 703 4084 81

36 41953 718 38032 783 4003 83

37 41235 723 37249 799 3920 85

33 40512 728 36450 977 3835 87

39 39784 740 35473 1126 3748 89

40 39044 762 33147 1158 3659 96

41 38282 780 31989 1155 3563 110

42 37502 796 30834 1142 3453 130

43 ‘36706 803 29692 1105 3323 150

44 35903 808 28587 1203 3173 175

45 35095 830 27384 953 2998 198

46 34265 850 26431 1041 2800 198

47 33415 867 25390 1023 2602 198

48 32548 880 24367 992 2404 198

49 31668 900 233765 951 2206. 198

50 89L06 22494 2080

The results of the first of these tables by no means correspond

with those given in the Gueanines, and will not admit of very ready

comparison. The ratio of deaths, however, to the number of survivors

set down for each year in that article, has been calculated in order that

the extent of discrepance may be seen. But it strikes me, that there is

a fallacy in the GLEANrNGs’ Table, which, besides that there are errors in

the numbersassumed as above pointed out, must make it valueless for any

to Civil Servants in Bengal. 285

computation oftherisk of life in India. The basis of calculation for each

period there taken is the following. The number of appointments

made between 1790 and 1819, (I take this year at random.) is stated at.

603. By the end of 1828, the last year’s servants will have been 10,

years in India, or at least on the register ; and computing the results of

all these appointments for 10 years, it is found that there were 39 re-

tirements and 77 deaths amongst them in that period. It is hence as-

sumed, that in 10 years 77 deaths take place in 603, minus 39, or 564

cases of persons resident in India between the ages of 20 and 30, leaving

487 survivors. But how can this be a true ratio, when the risk of life

upon the 39 cases of retirement, while they remainedin India, is lost to

the calculation. This number should not have been deducted from

the 603 appointments as consisting of cases taken out of the life risk alto-

gether ; but if any correction were attempted, it should have been made

by deducting only half the number, on the principle that the country had.

the risk of their life while they staid in it, which may be computed

on the average at a half risk. The number of deaths would then per-

haps have borne a pretty correct proportion to the appointments, but the

number of surviving residents would have needed a like correction.

The omission to note this makes but little difference, perhaps in the earlier

years, wherein there are comparatively few retirements, but it has won-

derful effect on the ratios of the later. Take for stance the 25th year,

of which the data are as follows: appointments from 1790 to 1804, 341;

resignations out of these in 25 years, 93; deaths, 105. Now, it makes,

a very material difference whether these 105 deaths are to be taken as,

105 out of 341, minus 93, i. e. out of 248, giving 143 survivors, as in

table the second, page 274, or 105 out of 341 minus % or 46 being 295,

leaving 190 survivors. The number of survivors in India is however

the actual number found in the registers that cannot be changed,

and the calculations of the GLEANINGs’ article are made on this number,

The question therefore is presented in a different shape, and if this

number be made the basis of any estimate or calculation, there must

be corrections applied to settle out of how many these are the

remnant from the effect of mortality only. _For the fact, that many

servants, afier abiding the risk of life for 20 years, have at last with-

drawn themselves while still living from both the survivors’ list and

from the original number, must leave the deaths upon the remaining

appointments to bear a much higher ratio than they ought to do.

Suppose, for instance, out of 100 arriving in a given year, 40 die in.

the course of 25 years, and 40 more having giveu the risis of their lives

286: Estimate of the risk of Life,

for 20 years, retire living between the 20th and 25th, then, by the

table at page 274 in the Greanines, these 40 being deducted from

the 100, the deaths would be stated at 40, out of 60, and the survivors

only 20 of that number. This circumstance, viz. the fact that the re-

tirements come mostly in the later years of service, will of itself explain

the wide difference apparent in the value of life in the later years, com-

pared with the earlier as exhibited in the article in question, and

remarked upon there as if fully established. The table at page 274

shows a decrement of very nearly 1-12th of the number living, for each

year, from the age of 45 to 50, which is out of all reason: one in 41 to 1

in 37 is the ratio of the Northampton tables quoted for the same age,

and the difference of climate cannot surely triple and quadruple this

mortality at that period of life*. “

Looking upon all computation from the number of survivors after

a given period as impossible, in consequence of the large proportion of

retirements in the advanced years of service, I am compelled to reject

the tables of the Gieanincs altogether, and offer instead those given

above, which are based, as already explained, upon a comparison of the

number of deaths in each year of service, with the number living, and

in India on the first day of the year. This reduced to a decimal pro-

portion will allow a comparison to be made of the value of life in each

year, with the value assumed in the best approved tables of Europe.

The retirements will not much affect a calculation made on this prin-

ciple, and unless error can be detected in the numbers assumed for the

deaths on one hand, or for the total of risks on the other, I amnot aware

of any ground on which the comparison can be impugned. Proceed

we therefore to this part of the subject, and first for the age of appoint-

ment. In the article of the GLEeanines this is taken at 20 years. N ow,

considering that 15 years was heretofore the age of earliest appointment,

and 22 years the latest permitted by Act of Parliament; considering too

that until 1806-7, there was no detention at the Hertford or Hayleybury

College, but those appointed were at once shipped to their destination ;

so that many actually reached India before they were 16: this assumed

age appears too high, 17 years for the age of arrival before the establish-

* Per Table in the Gleanings. Per Northampton ditto.

Age. Deaths.

2p) fearing 1 in 41

AG! 7 MalstoOl) A SLAL JES casts ie Ate -- 1in40

Af Pic sctess PAGINA Meditaotats alere fe eeve ea ss, Jin. 39

4B ves tees MANINWAT ns lor oie Sis ors abiuare mie 1 in 38

49 es -- Lin ll e@oceereeee este Oe lin 37°

1832. | 40 Civil Servants in Bengal. 987°

ment of the College in England, and 19 for the average subsequently, or

for the general average 18 years would seem to bea fairer estimate; but

we ‘will allow 19, for the convenience of assuming the same period

of life for our results, as the article in the Gueanines ; for as in the

above tables the first year is reckoned from the Ist January following

the appointment, we have then 20 years for the age of those whose risk

of life is computed for that year. In Tables III. and IV. I have

attempted a comparison of the value of life in India, from the age of 20

to 50, as afforded by the above tables for the Civil Service on one hand,

and as given in the most approved tables for the same age in Europe on

the other.

It will be seen, that for the value of life in Europe, I have taken the

general mean prepared by Dr. Young, by compounding the North-

_ ampton and Carlisle tables with the London Bills of Mortality, and

with the rates of the Equitable Life Insurance. This I believe to be the

latest estimate of the kind that has been published. It willbe found in

the volume of the Philosophical Transactions for 1826, and Dr. Young’s

celebrity as acalculator entitles it to be received as of first rate authority.

In Table ITI. in which the annual deaths are given as they occurred,

with the ratio calculated to a decimal proportion for each year, there

will be found an average of the same decimal ratio for each five years of

the period embraced in the calculation. In order to afford the means of

ready comparison, I have also computed the ratio of deaths to the an-

nual survivors, as given in the table in the Gueanines, and in Dr.

Young’s table of the decrement of life, and have reduced both to a de-

cimal proportion to 10,000. It will be seen, that my result is for the

first five years of residence in India, commencing at the age of 20, a

risk for each year of 203in 10,000. The tables of Europe make the

risk at the same period of life only 964 in 10,000, while the table in the

Guxranines, professing to be based on the same materials with my own,

but calculating from the number of survivors upon a total of appoint-

ments, from which retirements have been deducted, gives 128. There

are errors in the number of deaths, which account for much of this

latter difference ; for if a due number of deaths had been taken for the

first two years, there is no reason why in this part of the table there

should be much variation. The result of the comparison with England

is, that the chance ofdeath between the ages of 20 and 25 is to Kuropeans

residing in India under the most favorable circumstances, more than

double what it is in England ; and this may well be imagined to be the

case under the risks from Fever and exposure to the climate, indepen-~

dently of other causes.

988: Estimate of the risk of Life, §c. [Jurys

In the second five years our proportion is 209 out of 10,000 for

each year’s deaths, whereas in England it is only 133; but this differ-

ence is no longer double, it is only a little more than 3 to2. The

Guranines’ table gives 162.

The third lustrum of residence is the most healthy period, accord-

ing to our table, and experience is in favor of the same conclusion.

The constitution is now adapted to the climate, and the seeds of pre-.

mature decay, though they may have been sown, have not had time

to produce their effect. For this period of life India is nearly as safe

a place of residence as England, and it is the only period during which

there is any proximity at all in theratios. From this time forward the

yearly value of life progressively and regularly decreasesas age advances,

and it will be observed to do so much more rapidly in India than in

England. The error of principle in the calculations of the Greanines

begins to be particularly observable in the ratios for the two periods

following the fourth. From 205 in 10,000, the rate of the third period,

the deaths according to that table advance to 411 for each year, after

a residence of 20 years, and to 811 for the years between 25 and 30

of residence. Our result, though as compared with the general mean

for England, worse for Indian residents of this standing, in the propor-

tion of 5 to 3, is nevertheless much less unfavorable than the rate above

quoted ; indeed, for the last period our rate is less than half that of the

GLEANINGS.

The results for the years after the 30th of residence, are founded on

too low numbers to be built upon, and yet the average on the totals to

the 41st year comes pretty nearly to the rate one might have expected.

The further deterioration of value corresponds with that afforded by

the mean tables of Dr. Young for the same period of life, and may

be noted as a curious result, though the ratio cannot be looked upon

as established.

In Table IV. I have thrown the results of Table III. into a form

to shew the decrement of life according to my computation of its value

for each separate year. This has heen done merely to satisfy the

curiosity of those who delight in seeing the same results in different

shapes ; and because the published tables being ordinarily in this form,

it is convenient to present the means of ready comparison by giving

one to correspond. For any purposes of calculation, the separate value

ascertained for each year of Indian life, from the age of 20 to 50, seems

the more useful result to depend upon.

1832.] On the Gypsum of the Himalaya. 289

TIL—On the Gypsum of the Himalaya. By Capt. P. T. Cautley,

Ben. Arty.

While there appears to be a general unwillingness on the part of

geologists to admit the gypsum of the Alps asa recent formation, the

leading authorities in that science are divided whether to consider it as

primitive, or to class it among the indefinite transition formations.

M. Brochant has reviewed the gypsum formations of the Alps, and

given his opinion on their relative antiquity : we have also accounts of

other countries, betraying the same uncertainty with reference to the

point at question: and perhaps we may not be far wrong in attributing

many of the doubts in the classification of gypsum and other similar

minerals, to the very interpolation of the order Transition, an ar-

rangement convenient enough as offering a resting place for every va-

riety not stamped with the decided mark of primary or secondary,

but to the scientific inquirer a most deplorable bar to precision, a

term not inapplicable altogether to the science, as we may hope to

find it under a revised, well arranged, and permanent nomneclature.

The gypsum of the Paris basin, that accompanying the red marle

of England, and that of other similar localities; have been acceded to

as secondary formations by all geologists ; while those found in the

higher mountain ranges of the globe have from their singular and gene-

rally ill-defined position, placed authorsin doubts as to their classifica-

tion. M. Brochant argues, that from the similarity of appearance in

Gypsum rocks, he should be led to ascribe them all to the same era ;

and from his own observation decides, that they all belong to the

transition series, with this difference, which he deems important, that

the ancient secondary gypsum of Bavaria, Saltzburg, &c. &c. reposes

on strata essentially posterior to the transition class ; an objection, as

De la Beche observes, nugatory from the frequent conjunction of the

primary and secondary strata, exemplified by the oolite of the Jura

resting on gneiss in the Rhine, &c. But although we find the superior

classes of the secondary rocks in conjunction with the higher classes. of

the primary, the latter order is never found reposing on the newer

formations; indeed the only example given of an occurrence of

this sort is by McCulloch, of gneiss ona secondary rock, which is

noticed in the preface to Conybeare’s work, and exemplified by a

drawing, most satisfactorily explaining the deception.

:, The term secondary, as here used, includes what is generally called ¢ertiarys.

— D,

290 On the Gypsum of the Himalaya. [Juty,

Saussure, Daubuisson, and others, have conceived some of the Alpine

gypsum to be primary ; that of Cogne, mentioned by Brochant, as dis-

covered and considered primitive by Daubuisson, obtaiming the dis-

tinction from a superincumbent stratum of lime-stone “a little crys-

talline, blueish grey, and very schistose from a mixture of talc ;”

the gypsum having no outcrop whatever, and consequently being im-

bedded in the above rock; and, as M. Brochant says there is every

reason to suppose that the schistose limestone of the roof contains

quartzose veins, as also happens in transition limestone, he, rather

gratuitously, concludes that the formation is contemporaneous.

The presence of these quartzose veins, which is the type of tran-

sition, and the absence of outcrop, rest on the mere ipse dixit

of the villagers, and can hardly be received as proofs in a matter

where direct geological accuracy is concerned. The deposit also of

Val Canaria isa very doubtful proof of the existence of gypsum pri-

marily. The fact of its underlying mica slate is contradicted by

Brochant, who thinks the same of his transition variety. The proof

of its being primitive is therefore still far from being ascertained, and

I propose in a future part of this paper to suggest causes that might

place in doubt, even the superincumbence of mica slate as a proof

of its antiquity. ‘The general description given by writers on the

subject of Alpine gypsum, so closely applies itself to the mineral

‘ately found in the line of mountains north of the Dehra Dim, both

in regard to its position and its attendant rocks, that a comparison

becomes exceedingly interesting, as illustrative of the difference, if

there be any, of the gypsum decidedly secondary, and that which is

accompanied by rocks of evidently a more ancient formation.

The localities which have come under my immediate observation are

two of those adverted to by Captain Herbert, in his communication

to the Society. The first near Sansardhara, immediately on the skirts

of the mountains bounding the valley of Dehra, on the north: the

second about four miles further north, near the village of Salkoth,

differig in position most essentially from the former, though resem-

bling it in character ; to enter into a detail of each, with its respective

peculiarities will be necessary in furtherance of the history of the

rock in question,

Gypsum opposite Sansardhara.

Immediately opposite the stalactitic caves, and beyond the rapid

stream that runs towards the village of Nagul, a passage into the

‘mountains is effected up the course of one of its tributaries, which

branching off to the left, leads you at once to the gypsum, the prox-

1832.] On the Gypsum of the Himalaya. 291

imity of which becomes apparent from the masses and broken pieces

in the bed of the stream. <A considerable slip in the mountain, of a

very recent date, displays the position of the rock, which would

doubtless otherwise have remained concealed, as no vestige whatever

can be found on the unbroken surface of the mountain. To give

therefore an explicit account of its actual dimensions, or even to

describe the locality, is perfectly impossible, further than what is exhi-

bited to the eye: from the confusion attending on these fractures,

and the precipitous and irregular structure of the mountain, covered with

vegetation and an impervious wood. The gypsum is apparent here

in two beds or strata, separated by a reddish argillaceous schist, and

reposing upon a blueish limestone, in contact with which there are

evident signs of passing one into the other. Independent of these beds

or strata, unconnected and insulated masses of gypsum appear through-

out the schist, the whole lying horizontal without any appa-

rent dip or inclination. Beneath the blueish limestone, on which

the lowest stratum rests, are varieties of a lime rock,of a darker

color, reticulated with veins of calcareous spar, large rhomboidal crystals

of the latter being found of considerable size, and ina much greater

proportion than in the neighbouring mountains: indeed, the debris

formed by the slipping of this face of mountain is altogether composed

of these varieties of limestone, fragments of calcareous spar, and the

pieces of broken gypsum and schist. The quality of this gypsum

varies as much as its color; the former from a compact crystalline

mass, to aloose, powdery, and arenaceous soil, hardly to be termed

rock ; the latter from a pure white, slightly translucent at the edges,

to a dirty grey, particularly in its passage into the limestone. The

colors however are exceedingly various: a brilliant yellow variety was

discovered in great abundance. The height of this deposit from the bed

of the stream is about 1000 or 1200 feet. The mountain series de

cidedly calcareous.

Gypsum at Salkot’h.

The former gypsum I have explained as alternating to all appear-

ance with argillaceous schist, and forming a series with rocks, the

antiquity of which may be a matter of remark hereafter. This gyp-

sum is apparently superfitial, and entering into the series. more as an

independent formation, than as a feature expressive of the general

structure of the mountain. It shows itself opposite that village, about

four miles north of Sansadhara, jutting from the face of the mountain

‘in a bold and irregular outline, to the-height of about 200 feet from

992 On the Gypsum of the Himalaya. [Jury,

the bed of a tributary that joins the Nagul stream, opposite the

village of Salko?h. ‘The whole mass is composed of gypsum,

without the intervention of any alternating rocks ; and a conclusion

may naturally be drawn from the absence of the mineral in its

vicinity, that this deposit is insulated, or simply an enormous nodule,

resembling those of calcareous tufa so frequently met with, in de-

tached and unconnected masses. The falling down of large masses of

the upper part of the rock has caused such confusion and irregularity

below, that it would be even doubtful whether the deposit actually

extends to the bed of the stream, or whether its limits might not

properly be curtailed toa depth of at least one-half, a circumstance

moreover that precludes the possibility of discovering the rock on

which it lies, or of satisfactorily describing the concomitant forma-

tions. The same difficulty generally occurs with these rocks; their

decomposition is universally great, and the extreme variableness

in texture so open to the attacks of weather, that externally, with-

out the aid of slips and fractures, it is almost impossible to detect

any regularity in stratification, or in fact any clue wherefrom to

form an idea of their general character. The tendency that this

rock has to form itself into peaks and protruding points is well

preserved here, and deserves mention from a peculiarity for which it is

distinguished in the Alps; resting solely however uponthe decomposing

character of the rock, and from no material form of composition.

The mountain itself is formed entirely of the blueish limestone former-

ly mentioned, into which the gypsum decidedly passes, modifying

itself into a blueish variety, effervescent, and differing only in ap-

pearance from the limestone itself, by its want of compactness, and

loose and friable quality: a black fragmentary and argillaceous lime

rock is also in abundant dissemination throughout the lower part of

the deposit, and singularly attached to those parts where the gypsum

appears to be of a purer quality than at others ; indeed it generally

appears that by the presence of the rock in question, the mineral ac-

quires a purity both in color and texture, unobtainable in those parts in

contact with the blue limestone or at a distance from the black

rock. It would be endless to enumerate the colors that appear

throughout this formation ; from the purest white crystalline, it

passes through dirty grey pink, until it arrives at the blue limestone,

when it obtains a tinge of that color. The texture is also as variable,

and I may say, that throughout the whole deposit a very small propor-

tion is of that variety generally known by the name of alabaster ; and

1832. | On the Gypsum of the Himalaya. 293

even those parts so fragmentary, and so interspersed with the

coarser varieties, that any attempt at converting it into ornamen-

tal uses would, I fear, be out of the question. The specimens that I

have seen in cups and small vases fully authorize this conclusion >

their appearance being more of a white earth, or chalky limestone,

than of a gypsum, or to speak in plain terms, of an alabaster. The

varieties of Himalayan gypsum’as yet discovered are certainly deficient

both in beauty and value as an: article of use, though interesting’

for comparison with other formations.

Selenite, in small tabular crystals, is disseminated throughout this

gypsum, though in hardly sufficient abundance’ to give any peculiar

character to the formation.

A question of considerable interest arises from the appearance and

position of the above-mentioned deposits, which, as mentioned in a

former part of this paper, from their position under rocks of the prima-

ry and secondary classes, acquire an appearance of antiquity, not

borne out by the generalhistory of the mineral; namely, that the

gypsum throughout the globe is simply an infiltration analogous

to’ the tufa and calcareous deposits, and depending on’ causes’

chemically similar; the sulphuric acid being the active generator

instead of the carbonic. If in the proximity of sulphur an excess’

of oxygen would produce sulphuric acid, a difficulty is remov-

ed, and the contact with lime-rock or carbonate of lime would,

it may be supposed, produce its: sulphate, or gypsum; and I cannot

perceive the improbability of sucha process having been or being still

in force; or that nature’s laboratory might not have been as active’

in the dissemination of gypsum, as it isin the present day, of the

calcareous tufa.

The argument obtains considerable weight from a most material

circumstance, which almost makes it a matter of certainty that the origin

of all gypsums is contemporaneous; this is, the exact resemblance

both in texture and crystallisation that they all bear, whether Alpine,

or those varieties found with the secondary rocks: a similarity that

does not exist in any of the lime-stones formed at different periods, nor

in other rocks: the primary and secondary varieties shewing the

most decided dissimilitude both in texture, quality, and position.

The term infiltration must be received, as implying the simple power

of a mineral in solution to insinuate itself into cracks and fissures, or to.

fill hollows and cavities, without any reference toa gradual process, as

it is possible that the mineral im question might in many instances (partis

294 On the Gypsum of the Himalaya. [Jury

cularly in those deposits where an appearance of stratification or alter--

nation with other rocks is apparent) have undergone a change, more

sudden, and more general, than what we understand by the term

“ infiltration,” as applies to the formation of calcareous tufa.

A question may be put, as to the absence of any impres-

sions of vegetable remains,—as to the want of the cylindrical

and radiated texture, which so peculiarly marks the tufa in

formation: It must be confessed, that on comparing the minerals,

and supposing the process under which they are found to be si-

milar ; difficulties, though not irreconcilable to the above supposition,

present themselves. In the first place, the action of sulphuric acid

would tend in a much more rapid degree to the formation of gypsum,

than does the presence of carbonic acid and lime to produce tufa.

The same rapid action would create a texture ofa totally different

quality, and the ingredients themselves would destroy any vegetable

remains that might be enveloped in the mass: had the same gradual

and slow process that forms the tufa been also exerted in forming

gypsum, similar texture would have been the consequence ; and the

deposit of the latter would shew at least marks of stalactites, &c.;

but though infiltration is granted.as a solution of the problem, the action

of time and other causes may have removed those outward and visible

marks that might have tended at once to a direct conclusion. Age,

pressure, and other causes, are well known as the means of producing

most extraordinary changes in the system, and also in the texture

and quality of the rocks themselves. The above causes, ina greater

or less degree, may have equally exerted their effects on gypsum.

The obvious transition of the blue limestone into the gypsum at

the deposit at Salkot’h ; and the extreme purity of the gypsum when

in contact with the black fragmentary rock, which scarcely effervesces

with acids, leads me to the idea that all these varieties of lime-rock in

the proximity of the mineral are simply modifications, caused by the

action of the sulphuric acid in a greater or less degree. The springs

and rivers in the vicinity of all these formations abound in carbonic

acid, as is evident from innumerable deposits of tufa, and stalactitic forma-

tions ;—whilethe rocks themselves are of limestone:—near Sansadhard,

sulphur and sulphuretted hydrogen impregnate the waters, and it is at

least plausible to suppose from the occurrence of gypsum, that the

presence of sulphuric acid is one, if not the main cause of the super-

abundance of carbonic acid diffused through all the springs, and leading

$o the tufaceous and stalactitic deposits of lime that not only appear

1832.] On the Gypsum of the Himalaya. 295

in such magnificence at the caves of Sansardhard, but actually givea

coating to the bed of the streams, and are the cause, I conclude, of the

enormous excess of local conglomerate that appears throughout the whole

of the ranges, of which MastértTiba and Bhadraj form such promi-

nent features ; the latter mountain terminating the range towards the

Jumna, whilst the eastern or opposite extremity, under the name of Skanda

Déhé, is washed by the Ganges. The yellow color of some varie-

ties of the gypsum may depend on the contact with sulphur*, the

abundance of which mineral may be concluded from the sulphuret-

ted waters above alluded to :—that it was so in former times, is suffici-

ently shewn by the existence of the gypsum itself. Whether it is not daily

forming may be a matter of doubt, at least in the above localities: we

find independent masses of tufa apart from the proximity of springs and

water, the course of the latter having changed or dried up; at least

the argument would stand thus on the discovery of a mass of calca-

reous tufa similarly situated to the gypsum deposit of Salkot’h,

or that of other countries, not forgetting the primary deposit of Dau-

buisson at Cogne!

If therefore where carbonate of lime, sulphur, and water are

abundant, the chemical change above mentioned, is allowed, or is

supposed from analogy to be a probable consequence, gypsum can no

longer be entitled to a place in either primary transition or secondary

classes ; but must be considered as an adventitious formation common

to all ages, and produced by causes analogous to the present rapid

formation of calcareous tufa. Amongst our primary and transition

rocks, none can be assimilated to the stalactitic carbonate of lime ;

amongst our secondary or latest class of general rocks, there is

none like the gypsum, that is to say, we know of none actually

forming at this day. Causes that led to the formations of such

abundance of gypsum formerly, may from unassignable reasons, no

longer exist; and those which produce the tufaceous carbonates,

then at rest, may now be in full vigor.

The above reasoning is not affected by any account of a gypsum

deposit that I have met with, and although the regular strati-

fication or alternation of gypsum with clay slate, as above alluded

to, may at first bea startling objection to the proposed theory, it

will on examination be easily accounted for. The above discovered

deposit of gypsum was assumed actually to consist of strata, but this

is somewhat doubtful.

* Ts not the yellow color due to the presence of oxide of iron ?—Ep.

296 On the Gypsum of the Himalaya. [Juty,

To those who may differ with me on the subject, 1 must observe in

conclusion, that gypsum hasnever been found in a country or district

where the presence of the lime carbonate has been wanting ; but mostly

ina position surrounded by vast tracts of that mineral, rising in successive

ranges in the vicinity of springs and running streams, whose courses

are marked by their deposit of lime, in the presence of springs impregnated

with sulphur and sulphuretted hydrogen. When the very ingredients

are at active work at the present day in the manufactory of sta-

lactite, may we not with circumstantial evidence at least, convict them

of pursuing a different course, and under different times and circum-

stances of forming gypsum!

P. S. I may mention another deposit of the mineral on the Mastrz

range, on the descent from the ridge or spur upon which Capt. Brooke

has fixed his residence, to the valley of the Aglar river. There are also

appearances of it onthe ascent from Rajpur via Jaraipani to Ma-

surz, in the black fragmentary rock interspersed with minute threads

of the gypsum, although, as far as my observation has been directed, the

mineral at this point does not appear in mass: at the former deposit

however, on the slope to the Aglar river, we find it in great abundance,

though in quality by no means superiorto the Sa/kot’h variety ; the situa-

ton is partly to the right and left of the foot-path on the ascent, in large

nodular masses, or independent rocks, whose outer surface exhibits

the usual sharp angular and pointed features, and partly in irregular

lumps imbedded in the debris of a hugeslip of the mountain, which must

have fallen within the last few years, as it bears every appearance of

freshness. Unless we are to suppose that the mountain from which

this slip has taken place wasin itself formed of debris, and the rounded

boulders of water-worn rock, which I may safely assume not to be

the case, the appearance of these detached masses of gypsum is very

unusual; they neither look like pieces broken off from a large

mass in the fall of the mountain, nor have they the least resemblance to

boulders; but from their uneven honey-combed surfaces, I could almost

bring myself to imagine, that they had been formed by infiltration into

holes and fissures in the rock or soil ; the outer surface decidedly having

the appearance of being formed in a mould which the irregular internal

surface of a natural cavity would exhibit. These pieces vary in size,

but do not exceed in dimensions a cubic foot or thereabouts.

1832. ] Climate of Chirra Punji. 297

IV.—Clhimate of Chirra Punji.

(Extract from a letter to the Surveyor General of India, from Dr. W. Rhodes.)

The remark in the Hurkaru, “that the rains had set in with great

violence at Chirra,” is incorrect. By a reference to the accompanying

Table it will be observed that, for the last 20 days of the month,

the weather has been remarkably fine and almost free from rain.

By a self-registering thermometer set at the beginning of the

month, I find that the temperature during the day has been as high as

76, and at night as low as 56. The climate now is very delightful,

and surpasses the finest summer months in England.

Chirra Punji, 3rd June, 1832. W. R.

Meteorological Register kept at Chirra Punji, for May, 1832.

OBSERVED AT 10 A. M.

OBSERVED AT 4 P. M.

—_—————] -

Ee 5 Be [ie Ollians rast

ala ils Slee es Ys ea otis eh | otis PRs

1) 25,780) 64 Rain. [25,740| 67 | 67 \S.W|Var.|Cy. Rain,

2| 766) 63 do. 760} 63 | 62 | do. | do. do

3 850) 64 do. 764) 63 | 63 | do. | do. do

4 800| 62 do. 788| 63 | 63 | do. | do. do

5} 790) 62 do. 696) 61 | 59 | E. | Lt. | Cloudy.

6} 786] 63 do. 710} 63 | 62 | W. \Var.|Cy. Rain,

7| 784) 63 Cloudy 690) 62 | 62 | do.| Lt.| do

8! 730} 59 Rain. 700| 62 | 61 |S.W|Var.| Cloudy

9} 736) 61 do. 795) 63 | 62 | W. | Lt. |Cy. Rain.

10 850) 65 Cum. 780; 70 | 65 | do. |Var.| Clear

11} 860| 67 Cloudy 720) 69 | 653|S.W| do. | Cloudy.

12} 836] 69 Clear 700\ 68 | 65 | do. | do. do.

13} 700; 64 Cloudy 700) 68 | 66 | do. | do.} Clear,

14, 750} 62 do. were] 67 | 65 | do. | do. | Cloudy.

15 800] 65 Clear 750) 69 | 65 | W. | do. do

16 818] 67 do. 750} 64 | 63 | do.| do. } Clear,

17| = 820) 67 do. 760] 69 | 65 | do. | Lt. do.

18} 830) 70 do. 770) 713| 70 | do. | do. do.

19} 854) 64 do. 800} 67 | 66 | do. |Var,} Cloudy,

20 800| 66 do. 784| 68 | 64 |S.W| do. |] Clear

i 820} 67 do. 750} 70 | 66 | W.| Lt, do.

22| 804) 67 do. 760) 69 |63 | do. | do. do.

27 732) FA do. 700) 73 | 64 |S,W| do do.

28] 750} 72 Cloudy 684} 73 | 69 |Cm do.

29) 760) 704 Clear 680} 713) 68 |S.W| Lt. | Cloudy,

30 766) 71 do. 698) 71 | 65 jdo. | do.| Clear

31 750) 71 Cloudy. 200] 72 | 68 | do. | do. | Cloudy,

Mans|25,790| 66,21 63,5 25,736| 672| 64,5

298 Proceedings of Societies. (Jury,

V.— Proceedings of the Asiatic Society.

Wednesday, the 4th July, 1832.

The Hon’ble Sir C. E. Grey, President, in the chair.

1.. Mr. J. Pearson was elected a Member of the Society,

2. The Acting Secretary reported, that the amount of the late Dr. Bruce’s

legacy had been received and invested in Government Securities.

3. Upon the motion of Mr. F. C. Strong, seconded by Mr. D. Ross, the

following resolution was passed unanimously :

<< A Report upon the progress of the boring experiment having been sub-

mitted at the last meeting of the Physical Class, 13th June, from which it

appears, that a second perforation has been commenced upon and carried

down to the depth of 160 feet successfully, having been already tubed to the

depth of 120 feet: and further, the Government having expressed great in-

terest in the result of the experiment, and having through Colonel Case~

ment, Military Secretary, placed at the disposal of the Physical Class the ser-

vices of three European soldiers of the Sapper and Miner Corps, lately ar-

rived from England, who have been regularly instructed in the art of boring

for water,—

Resolved, that a sum of Rs. 500, in addition to the 2000 already expend-

ed, be placed at the disposal of the Committee, for the further prosecution

of the boring experiment.”

4. For the Museum.—Mr. F. P. Strong presented a flying fish,

Mr. J. F. Cathcart presented a specimen of a Cape fish, called there “* Sea«

horse fish ;” also a pair of Cape pheasants.

Captain Sanders, Engineers, presented an ancient coin recently procured

at Kanouj, by Mr. E. V. Irwin, C. S.

5. For the Library.—The following rare and valuable works were pre<

sented by the Hon’ble Sir C. E. Grey, President.

Lexicon Greco-Latinum Constantini, 1592.

Platonis Opera Omnia, 3 vols. folio, 1578.

Aristotelis Opera Omnia, 11 vols. 4to. in 6, 1587.

Ciceronis Opera Omnia, 10 vols. 4to. 1783.

The works of Dugald Stewart, 5 vols. 4to. London.

Histoire de la Philosophie Moderne, par Jean Gottlieb Buhle, 6 vols. 8vo.

The following works were also laid on the table:

Lament on the capture and destruction of Edessa, an Armenian Poem, writ-

ten in the middle of the twelfth century, by Nierses Shinorbali, published in

Calcutta, in 1832 ; presented by the Editor Mr. Jolty Avdall.

Dictionary of the Tamul and French Languages, presented by Lieut. A. Blin,

Mem. As. Soc. Paris, who announces his intention of publishing a French trans-

lation of Shakespear’s Hindustani Grammar, printed ‘‘ par le procédé autogra-

phique.’’

Meteorological Register for April—from the Surveyor General.

1832. ] Proceedings of the Asiutic Society. 299

From the Translation Committce of From the Secretary to the Societé

the Royal Asiatic Society. de Caen.

Subscription copies of Essai sur les Combustions hu-

No. 1. Translations from the Chinese maines, Rapport fait par M. P.

andArmenian,byC.F. Neumann, 1 A. Lair, 4 la Societé Linnéenne

2. Lite of Sheikh Mohammed Ali de Normandie, &C. snmannnncencne 7

EVEN eeenteeescersenncnron wo 1 Rapport fait 4 la Societé sur V’uti-

3. Miscellaneous translations from lite de la culture des Pommes de

Oriental languages, vol. Ist, w.. 1 Terre dans le Calvados, wwwsnmen 2

4, The Algebra of Mohammed Ben Rapport fait a la Societé Royale

Musa, 20+ Paper eS ae | D’ Agriculture et de Commerce de

5. Life of Hafiz-ool-Moolk, Hafiz Caen, sur les Troupeaux, &c... $8

Rehmut Khan, wvacaccvnveecvee 1 ExposéHistorique, &c. Monsr. Lair, 2%

6. Travels of Macarius, ~~... 1 De la Peche, du Parcage et du Com-

7. History of the Maritime Wars merce des Huitres en France, .. 2

of the Turks, ~. worrererserecern 1 Catalogue dela Bibliothéque de la

Annual List of Donations and Societé Royale D’Agriculture et

Bequests to the Trustees of the de Commerce de Caen, .. wevernnne 2

British Museum, 1830 ; from the INotices*Historiquesy 2 stron casnronenvions 2

TIUSCCES, cevesrecceseveccscccserererrvceceee 1 Annuaire du Calvados, 1829, 30,31, 3

Journal Asiatique, Nos. 44, 46, and Memoires de la Societé Linnéenne

47. From the Asiat. Soc. Paris, 3 du Calvados, 1824, and 25, ww... 3

Considerations sur les Alpha- Compte rendu et Rapports des Tra-

bets des Philippines. By Monsr,. vaux de la Societé Philharmo-

Jacquet, Paris,—the author, soon 1 nique du Calvados de 1827 et 28, 3

The Christian’s Magazine, No. 1 to Discours sur la seconde exposi-

10, Pampt.—wnknown, concn sovorece 10 tion des Produits des Arts du Des

List of the Geographical Soci- partement du Calvados, wrrmnnsce 6

ety of London, January 1, 1832.

Pamphlet,—zhe Society, corre 1

Proceedings of Do. Do. Nos. 22

and 23,—the Society, semernsercccne 2

Observations sur quelques points

Sur le Pommier, et sur une Nou-

velle varieté de Pomme, decou-

verte in 1820, dans le Departe-

ment du Calvados, wrwwenrenrrrnnnn 9

Rapport sur les Voyages de M.

dela Doctrine Samaneenne, et d’ Urville, &c. by Monsr. Lair, . 2

en particulier sur les Noms de A. M. Dumont-D’urville sur le Re-

la Triade Supreme, par Monsr. tourde Tl Astrolabeor ese IS

M. Abel Remusat,—the author, 1 Feéte Pastorale de Blainville, s.uove 2

Papers read.

1. Answer to Dr. Milman’s questions respecting the Indian Jews, by

Daood, a respectable Jew residing in Calcutta. Communicated by Dr. J.

Tytler,

These answers refer only to the recent establishment of Jews in Calcutta itself,

not to those who have become naturalized on the Malabar Coast,

2. A descriptive Catalogue of the ancient Roman Coins in the Society’s

Cabinet. By Mr. J. Prinsep.

3. Translation of a fragment in the Tibetan language, by Mr. Csoma

de Kérés, with remarks by Mr. H. H. Wilson, Sec.

300 Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. [Juy,

4. An Analysis of the remainder of the Kahgyur, by Mr. Wilson, was

also laid on the table.

On the conclusion of the business of the evening the President rose, and

addressed the meeting (which was unusually numerous), in the following

words :—

“‘ Gentlemen,—The pleasure of meeting a more numerous body of the

Society than is usual, makes it impossible that I should find fault with my

friend Mr. James Prinsep, for having added to the notices of the meeting

an intimation that I should take my leave of you this evening. I regret

only that it may have caused an expectation that I should offer a more

complete tribute of gratitude than Iam capable of expressing, or that

I should have prepared for the Society one of those comprehensive views

of the fields of literature, science, and art, which have been usual on simi«

Jar occasions, and which generally are well adapted to them, but which I

‘do not think would be suited to that of my own departure. Having

never entered the vineyard as your fellow-labourer, I will not cull the fruits

produced by the labour of others, that I may claim a merit for merely laying

them before you, and arranging them. I feel, that there is little which it

‘would become me to say on this occasion, but to excuse myself for what

I have omitted todo. But it has always been known to you, that I neither

have nor ever pretended to have any acquirements in Oriental Literature:

and I should have almost thought it incumbent on me to decline even

the gratification of being elected your President, if I had not regarded it

as an honorary appointment, and known at the same time that as long as

Mr. Wilson continued to be your principal Secretary, the Society could

not suffer from any deficiencies of mine.—Gentlemen, he has really been

your President: and I rejoice, that his absence from Calcutta affords me the

opportunity of saying whatI could not so well have said of him in his

presence. Whether you consider his unrivalled attainments in Sanscrit

Literature, or the many valuable works with which he has enriched your

Transactions, or which he has otherwise given to the world, or his indefati-

gable and most meritorious devotion of his time and talents to the establish-

ment of an extensive system of education for the native youth, or the many

amiable qualities which distinguish him in private life, you must all feel

that if you should lose him, of which there is at present some likelihood, you

will indeed sustain an irreparable loss:—yet aloss not to be deplored

by his friends, and least of all by me; for it might afford me the hope of

meeting him soon amid other scenes, where the ‘happiest portion of my youth

was passed, and which, now that i am turning homewards, rise upon my

waking memory with the vividness and imaginary beauty ofa dream. This

would indeed be to me a source of infinite pleasure, if it was not qualified,

and if my mind was not divided, if I may use the expression, by the reflec~

tion that the event which would take Mr. Wilson to Oxford would leave in

India another distinguished member of your Society, my excellent friend Dr.

Mill, whose presence alone prevents me from expressing of himself praise as

1832. ] Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. 301

fervent and sincere as that which with a willing ear he has heard of his rival

in agenerous contest. Gentlemen, though I have disclaimed, as I was bound

to do, all acquirement or ability in the department of Oriental Literature, J

will not pretend to entertain so humble an opinion of the results of a life

which has at least been a studious and thoughtful one, as that there is no

province of study in which I might have hoped to gather offerings which I

should not have been ashamed to present to you. But here in vindication

of my own consistency, and to shew at least that I dealt fairly by you im

accepting the office of your President, I beg leave to recall what none of you

are likely to recollect, that seven years ago, upon another public occasion;

in taking leave of a Society at Madras, of which also I was President, I bade

adieu at the same time to all literary employment, so long as I should

fill the station to which I was called in Bengal. I foresaw that it would)

impose upon mea predominant duty, and one of which the most peculiar

features are not perhaps the most obvious, and to which I knew my own

mind too well to think I could give a divided attention. How I have

performed that duty, this is not the place, neither is it for me, to

say: but I willsay, that to performit aright, in its most important and

essential particulars, has been the earnest and engrossing purpose of my

soul. I do not look for a fair estimatein the present day. I have never

weighed appearances against realities in the scale of popular applausei

But time will declare it ; and I am willing to abide the judgment of time.

All that I desire at present is to offer the duties of my station to

your consideration, as some apology for what might otherwise appear a

neglect of what you had a right to have expected of me. From that

station and those duties I have now retired, and I have to regret, that the

leisure which I thus obtain can no longer be employed either in your ser

Vice or your company. But in that studious retirement, which, I devoutly

hope, awaits the latter portion of my life, I shall to the end of that life be

proud that I have borne the name of your President, and I shall recollect

with gratitude both the favor which conferred on me that honor, and the

indulgence which has been attendant on my tenure of it.”

The President sat down amidst a general demonstration of feeling on the

part of the members, to which Sir Edward Ryan gave expression in the

following reply:

“* Sir,—I am requested by the members who are present, to express to you

their feelings on this, I may truly say, sorrowful occasion. I wish they had

selected some one more competent to be the organ of their thoughts and

wishes, but at the risk, nay with the certainty of being unable adequately

to express the feelings which your eloquent address has excited in their

minds, I cannot decline the honor, for so indeed I consider it, which they

have conferred upon me.

** For more than five years, Sir, you have filled that chair, and during the

whole of that period, I repeat with confidence, you have evinced the deepest

interest in the welfare of our Society—you have never willingly absented

302 Proceedings of Societies. [ Jury,

your self from our meetings—and you have taken an active and diligent part

in the duties which devolve on your stationamongst us. During this period,

we have been indebted to your munificence, for a splendid addition to our

Museum, of an extensive cabinet of minerals and geological specimens ; and

this night you have made a valuable addition to our Library, by the Books

which are now before us. You have never lost sight of us in your occasional

visits to different parts of India, andfrom the Himalaya and Penang you have

added to the valuable collection, which we had received from you, specimens

collected with your own hands. By your kindness, courtesy, and hospitality

to those strangers whom science or literature may have guided to the shores

pf India you have shewn the respect we bear to their attainments.

** Sir, half a century has nearly elapsed since this Society was founded by

one who was then a Judge of the Court in which you so recently presided.

{mean of course that great and good man Sir William Jones, to whose mes

mory we cannot revert without the deepest sentiments of veneration and

esteem. Many distinguished persons have since filled that chair, a proud

distinction to any man: but I speak with sincerity my own feelings, and

those I believe of the gentlemen around me, when I say, that, great as were

the acquirements of many of your predecessors in their various paths of

knowledge, the lustre which they have thrown over that chair has been

brightened and enhanced by you.

( “I must no longer trespass on your time, but permit me to hope, that on

our return to your native country, it may be some satisfaction for you to

Ne that you bear with you the respect, the esteem, and the regard of this

body, over whom you have so long presided.”

( The Acting Secretary was directed to take the usual steps for bringing

before the Society, as soon as possible, the subject of the election of a Presi<

dent to fill the vacant chair.

2.—NATURAL History SOCIETY OF THE MAURITIUs.

Tuesday, 20th December.

M. J. V. Sganzin forwarded 17 stuffed birds from Ste. Maria Madagascar.

Letters from the following parties, acknowledged the receipt of honorary

diplomas : the Rev. J. Adamson, D.D. Cape ; Sir W. E. Parry, R.N. F. R. S.

New Holland; Sir John Jamison, k. c. v. Sydney ; Andrew Smith, Esq. M. D.

mM. N. Ss. Algoa Bay; Le fébure Marcy, Mahé, Seychelles Islands.

Other letters were submitted.

The following works were added to the Library—Annual Report of the Agr. and

Hort. Soc. of Sydney; Journal des {les de France et de Bourbon, 1786-91.

M. Lislet Geoffroy presented a specimen of Bark obtained from a native

chief in Madagascar, in 1815.

M. C. Telfair, Pres. offered in the name of Capt. Trotter, of the Corvette

Curlew, a black Ibis of Agaléga; also some sea Cocos from the Praslin Isle, which

he was desirous to introduce in the colony. Also, for the Library, a description

of the Isle of St, Paul, with two views by Mr. Pollock.

1832.] Scientific Intelligence. 303

The President announced that Mr. Hampton had commissioned from Mada-

gascar two pair of crows, to attempt their multiplication on the Island.

Mr. W. Boyer presented a list of objects collected and lodged in the Museum by

15 of his pupils since the Ist August,

Mr. Lienard, sen. read a note on a new species of zanclus, differing from that

delineated in Cuvier, having one filament less in the dorsal fin, and one thorny ray

in the pectoral fin.

Mr. J. Desjardins read the description of two new species of chétodons, a fish

vulgarly called pavillons in the Island, as is the zancius mentioned above, He

gives them the names of chetodon queue d’or, [chétodon chagsuries,—J. DESJ.] and

le C. Joyeux [chét. festivus, J. DESJ.]

_ The following gentlemen were proposed as honorary members—MM, Ivoneff

Dupont, (resident,) F. Eydoux, J. Baume, J. O. Westwood, W. Twining, J.

Verreaux, Richard, Dir. Bot. Gard. Bourbon, and J. Goudot, nat. Madagascar.

Vi.—Screntiric INTELLIGENCE.

1.—Boring for water in France.

In Mr. Hericart de Thury’s recent work on Artesian springs, the following

curious fact is noticed relative to the distance to which subterranean currents

percolate, A perforation made at Tours, brought up from a depth of 363 feet

a quantity of fine sand, and the remains of vegetables and shells. Branches of the

thorn were recognized, some inches in length, blackened by their long exposure

to the water ; also the stalks and roots, still white, of many marsh plants, and the

seeds of many plants in a state of preservation, particularly of a species or variety

of Gallium ; fresh water shells were also discovered. It was supposed that the water

of this well could not have taken more than four months to traverse its subter-

raneous course, because the seeds from their fresh state must have fallen on

the preceding autumn; and that the supply came from some valley in Auvergne,

or Vivarais, which is not so easily proved; but the fact is not the less curious.

In many of the departments of France, funds have been publicly subscribed for

the purchase of a set of boring rods : insome, associations have been formed to use

them, and great attention is paid to the enumeration of the strata pierced through

by the instrument, At a shaft sunk at the Saint Oven gate, near St. Denis, in

January 1829, no less than six springs of water were cut through, one stationary,

and the five others ascending to different heights.—Journ. des Savans, 1831.

2.— Meteorological Averages at Canton and Macao.

Thermometer at Canton, Lat. 23° 12'. Ny

Annual

Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June, July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Mean.

° e ° o 0 1) ° ° 3° ° fn} t)) °

ae ge ae ve.) 77)~— 7k 85, “85 85° 83 77 67 es eta

Night,.. 50 49 60 68 72 70 81 78 76 69 57° 52 65.1

Highest, 74 78 82 86 88 90 94 80 88 85 80 70 929

Lowest,. 29 38 40 55 -64 74 79 75 70 57 40 45 55.5

———wa

Mean temperature of Canton, 69.5

304 Scientific Intelligence. [ Juty,

Thermometer at Macao, Lat. 22° 16’.

Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Mean.

Cy) 0 Cy) ) 0 0 Cy) 0 0) 0 ° ° 0

Morning, 62 59 66 73 77 82 84 82 81 75 65 62 723

Aften, 65 59 69 75 78 84 88 85 84 78 68 65 74:8

Highest, 72 71 77 83 85 89 92 90 88 86 80 70 81.9

Lowest, 53 49 55 66 71 74 81 79 76 61 57 57 64.9

Mean temperature of Macao, 73.5

Fall of Rain at Macao, from 1812 to 1831, tn inches.

1812 10 26 54 6.1 19.8 160 12.2 14.1 17.6 6:0. 4.3 oe2iet0 7.3

1813 0.8 1.6 1.0 4.2 94.8. 13.0P*aiBies.7 o 5.1 2.2 0.5 54.5

1814 3.1 2.8 54 18.6 29.0 11.9 0)720 44 )4.5eeee 95.7

1815 From Ist January to 3lst December, 64.5

1816 Ditto ditto, 48.8

1819 25 38 27 20 80 42 43 185 60 46 18 le 5900

182015 03 1.7.3.5 (5.0 50 7.5 15.8) 20:8 13.00 10emSem G59

1821 1.0 3.6 24 5.0 9.2 102 80 115 2.7105 2.5 2.0 68.6

1922).0.5).0.3 12 3.8 178 91. 3.2. 7.0. 12.642.0 -emgeeenaG

1823 0.1 0.65.6, ,1.0, 12.8 911.6: ):7-0). 6.0) Tian 55.7

1824 0.8.3.0 6.2 179 47 43 16.7 64” 7.0) 6m 68.6

1825 03.40.35 85 134 7.0 13.6 82 38) Gea omen

qs06 4.1. 24 2.8.18.6. 5.8 4:4 GELS. 16 oo ora 79.8

1827 2. 9.9 8.7 9.2. 16.) Si o hs iene se

1928 .1 14 3.6 11.1 22.8 174 10.9 100 162 59 0.2 46 104.6

qeggh aed SA VA LOR. 12.0 22) 4.0 oes eae aen 0.8 59.3

1830 05 10 04 44 #46 7.1 103 194 5.3 10 52.9

1831 12. 0-9.6.6 25.6 Jw 45, 7.0 Thy oo some 75.3

a ee,

Mean 0.68 1.67 2.15 5.5611.85 11.10 7.75 9.90 10.92 5.50 2.47 0.99

Mean annual rain, inches, 70.0

—

Rainy

days, 35 7 6 10.15% 9 10 12% 10 5. 3. 3%

The averages at Canton are taken from the Meteorological Diary of the Canton

during the same year.— Companion to the Ang lo-Chinese Kalendar of 1832.

3.—Polyzonal Lens.

We are grieved to learn bya letter from Sir David Brewster to Mr. George

Swinton, that there are at present little hopes of the accomplishment of the

grand object, towards which the liberality of the lovers of science in India

contributed so meritoriously afew years since. The failure of Messrs. Gilbert

and Co. Opticians, who had already, it seems, executedone Lens on the Polyzo-

nal principle for the Light-house Board, under the Dr.’s directions, had delayed

further proceedings: and although the Firm was again established, the loss of

all their tools and apparatus rendered it impossible for them to undertake the

job at the price before settled, namely £80. Dollond and Co. would not

attempt it under £400. Having experienced in these disastrous times the

greatest difficulty in getting subscriptions from scientific men, Sir David had

made a formal application to Lord Althorpe for some public aid, but this

1832.] Scientific Intelligence. 305

also was refused from the state of the revenue. Sir David fears therefore

that he shall be obliged to re-transmit the sum subscribed towards the Lens in

India. This would indeed be a mortification, and we cannot help thinking,

that if the'grand Polyzonal Lens can really be completed at an expence of £120,

the patrons of science in India would rather make up the whole sum required

than abandon, on such an unworthy consideration, an experiment of national and

universal interest.

4.—Litharge of Ava.

In the examination of Ava minerals, printed in No, I. of this Journal, I expressed

some doubt as to whether a specimen of crystallized litharge there described was a

natural ore or an artificial product: the following passage in a letter from Major

H. Burney sets the matter at rest. P,

“¢ Mr. Lane, upon furtherinquiry, ascertained that the litharge was not a natural

but an artificial production. It was brought however from the Shan territory,

and there is always much difficulty in obtaining correct information regarding

the productions or proceedings of the Shan race.”’—Rangoon, 4th June, 1832.

5.—Timber Trade in Cachar.

Timbers sold in Cachar are divided into three kinds, called Gindah, Dim, and

Kari. Giindahs consists of Jarul only, and are used chiefly in Sylhet for boat

building. They are sold at two rates, according to their size. Those timbers

which are less than ten Aaths in length and six mits in circumference are called

Pyah, and are worth about 27% Rupees each on an average; but those above that

size are sold by the Ad/i, which is a measure derived from a rude and inaccu-

rate mode of estimating the cubic contents of the timbers, in which they are

assumed to be regular parallelopipedons, thus: 10 haths X 6 mats xX 6 mits,

360 parts, of which 250 make a khali; the value at present of which is about

3 Rs.6annas. Six mits make a hath, and the hath is equal to 20 inches.

The following table includes various kinds of timbers used chiefly for posts,

beams, and small boats. The prices of these are in proportion to their size, but

may be stated just now as here given :-— p

Nagisar,

Cham, _ }25 haths by 33 haths in cir. from 10 to 12 Rupees each.

Awal,

Teylo, °)

Sanid,

Morye, > 25 hauts by 33 hauts in cir. from 9 to 11 Rupees.

Gandra, |

Gamér,

Silratta, ]

Sepai,

Gandi, 25 hauts by 34 hauts in cir. from 8 to 10 Rupees each.

Jam,

Chika,

Kari, consists of smaller trees running from 9 to 12 haths in length, which

are sold in lots at from 1 to 14 cawns per hath measured on the girth. The

following are included in this class :

Ratta, Pumar, Karil, Kurta, Joki, Singra, Chatni, Singtajah, Singdrine,

Haris, Puari, and many others.

306 Scientific Intelligence. [ Jury,

Ratans, Jali Bét, 7 Rs. pr. 100 muras (of 75 béts each). Sandi Do. one

quarter higher.

Gala ditto, the large kind running from 80 to 120 feet in length, is unsaleable,

and therefore only cut to order.

The prices above-mentioned are now current in Kachar; in addition to which

the following duties are charged on the transit of the different articles to Sylhet.

Rs. a. py

On Gandahs, 0 6 6

On Dims and Karis, from 0 6 O to106 each.

Ratans, from 2 to 3 rupees per 100 murahs.

The expence of floating the timbers from the forest to Banga is abont 1 R.

4 as. per score, and about the same sum is charged for conveying them to

Sylhet ; but this expence is more than compensated by the sale of the bambus

given gratis by the wood-cutters to form the rafts.

As Jarul is used only in Sylhet, for the construction of large chunam boats,

the trade in that article has fallen off greatly of late, in consequence of the

stagnation in the lime business, and the annual demand therefore does not now

exceed two thousand timbers, which is about one-half the number formerly

exported.

From 1500 to 2000 Dams and Kéris form the amount exported - of those

classes.

Jarul is seldom carried beyond the district of Sylhet in logs, in consequence

of the difficulty of floating the timbers across so large a river as the Megna ;

itis sometimes exported in planks, but more commonly is worked up at Azme-

ri-ganj, Chattak, and Sanam-ganj into boats, for which, on account of its

buoyancy, it is eminently fitted.

A Jarul boat well smeared with bélah will last with occasional repairs about

10 or 12 years, and one of twelve hundred maunds burthen may be built in

Kachar for about 350 Rupees. Of the trees sold as Déms and Karis, there are

many which are very strong and durable woods, fit for building and furniture,

but which have not yet been introduced to a fair market in consequence of

the want of enterprize and capital of the traders.

It is further probable, that as the forests have never been thoroughly examined

by any intelligent European, we are still ignorant of many valuable productions

which they contain. Besides the Oak and Tan, Chumal, (well fitted for

furniture,) Wild Nutmeg, Cinnamon, and Clove trees have, it is said, been seen

in them. T. PF.

VII.— Recommendations of the Sub-Committees of the British Asso-

ciation for the advancement of Science.

An abstract of the Proceedings, and a first Report, of the grand Association

convened at York in the autumn of 1831, has been published in the

Philosophical Magazine of last March. As the suggestions drawn up

are of general application, we lose no time in giving them circulation in

1832. ] | British Association. 307

India. From an observation under the head of Hygrometry we are elad

to find, that Indian labours receive their full share of consideration.

There are many points among the desiderata, such as the gradation of tem-

perature with altitude, the diurnal oscillations of the barometer, &c., which

are peculiarly easy of elucidation in this climate; and we trust that they

will be taken up by some of our friends at Dehra Din, Chirra Punji, Se.

The Association proposes to supply delicate instruments for these obser-

vations, and in this respect it might certainly render us eminent service ; for

it may safely be stated that there is not a standard thermometer or thine

meter ip the country, which can be trusted to reduce our results to terms

ofa known instrument at home.

it must be confessed, that at first sight the manner in which this new

Society proposes to promote the cultivation of the sciences does not appear

commensurate with the eclat and grandeur of its foundation ; it exerts its

persuasion on men eminent in various sciences, to perfect essays and experi-

ments upon which in many cases they state themselves to be already engag~

ed; it invites reports upon the recent progress of every branch of science,

but these surely would have been furnished without any such recommen«

dation, and publication would have been ensured free of expence to the

authors through the numerous Societies and Periodical Journals already

devoted to each division of knowledge. ‘The reports are. stated to be only

preliminary to measures hereafter to be adopted for advancing and directing

future investigations: but the members of such an association composed,

as it must be, chiefly of scientific men, are surely aware whither to direct

their researches, and unless substantial prizes and rewards are offered, who

-among them will readily quit the train into which he may have been drawn

by taste or circumstances, to pursue a new course of study? A wide class

of observers of what is called “ the lower order of facts,” in Meteorology,

Botany, and Zoology may be created, and if well directed, their efforts may

_certainly prove of great utility ; but for the refined examination of the first

data of chemistry, of the abstruse questions of mathematical analysis, of

astronomical problems, &c. the spontaneous labours of the habitual and se-

cluded deyotee will ever command more reliance than the hurried and osten-

tatious productions of commissioned students and experimenters. We oba

serve that most of the general recommendations of the Society have been

zealously taken up by the parties invited to prepare reports for the next

meeting ; we shall thus have a series of elegant essays, without perhaps

much of real novelty, that would not have seen the light as soon in the ordi«

nary way. But although we are not sanguine in our hopes of any brilliant

achievement of invention by an association of such a nature, it would be

unfair to suppose that it will produce no good results :—* it will cement

a general co-operative union of the Philosophical Societies of the country ;

its publications will form a national catalogue of the scattered particulars of

308 Recommendations of the [ Jury,

each science accurately detailed—and if Socrer1xs shall concur in thus meet-«

ing each other—in proposing certain common objects—in communicating

from year to year the means which they are employing, and the progress

which they are making, it seems impossible that this should be done in the

presence of an assembly concentrating a great part of the scientific talent of

the nation, without kindling an increased ardour of emulous activity ; it

seems impossible, that the deputies of any Society should attend such meetings

without bringing back into its bosom an enlargement of views, and com-

municating to its members new lights of knowledge, new motives for inquiry,

and new encouragement to perseverance.”

The following are the recommendations of the Sub-Committees, drawn

up and circulated after the first meeting.

Committee of Mathematical and Fhysical Science.

Mathematics.—The Committee recommend that the Vice-President of the Asso-

ciation residing at Cambridge be requested to use his utmost efforts to procure

from some competent individual, a report to the next Meeting on the progress

of Mathematical Science.

Astronomy.—That Professor Airy be requested to favour the Association with

a report on the state and progress of Physical Astronomy, together with such

remarks on the improvements of Practical Astronomy as he may deem it

useful to add.

Theory of Tides.—That J. W. Lubbock, Esq. be requested to furnish a state-

ment of the means which we possess, or which we want, for forming accurate

tables for calculating the time and height of High-water at a given place.

Meteorology.—That James D. Forbes, Esq. be requested to draw up a report

for the next meeting, on the present state of Meteorological Science.

The Committee, considering that the science of Meteorology is in more want

than. perhaps any other of that systematic direction which it is one great object

of the Association to give, has thought it advisable to propose the following

points for investigation.

I. That the Association should employ all the means in its power to procure

a Register of the Thermometer during every hour of the day and night, to

be kept at some military or naval station in the south of England..

Note*.—Until the phenomena and distribution of diurnal temperature are

more thoroughly understood than at present, we can hardly hope that any

very sure footing has been obtained in the study of Meteorology. The hourly

has shown that we want nothing but the combination of a sufficient number

of trust-worthy observations, in order to obtain results of primary importance

to thescience, and which may one day enable usto arrive at the true form of

the daily and annual curves of mean temperature, with a precision almost mathe-

matical. In order, however, to extend the benefit of such investigations, it is

* The notes appended to the Recommendations have been drawn up by some of the

members of the Committees since the meeting.

1832. | British Scientific Association. 309

absolutely necessary that they should be pursued in different latitudes. The

mode of rendering available registers, otherwise almost without value from not

being made at the proper hours, will be best illustrated by a reference to the

account of the Leith observations,x—7Zransactions of the Royal Society of Edin-

burgh, Vol. X.

Il. That the establishment of such an hourly Meteorological Register be

pointed out as a highly interesting object, in reference especially to the impor-

tant point of intertropical climate, to the Committee of the Association in

India.

‘Ill. That the Committee in India be requested to endeavour to institute

such observations as may throw light on the phenomena of the horary oscil-

lations of the barometer, near the equator. Should the concurrence of the

Committee on these points be obtained, it would probably be desirable that

the Association should take measures for sending out delicate and accurate

instruments. .

IV. That Mr. Phillips and Mr. William Gray, jun. of York, be requested to

undertake a series of experiments on the comparative quantities of rain falling

on the top of the great tower of York Minster, and onthe ground near its

base. The Committee has been induced to propose this specific question in

consequence of the local fitness of the situation, and the facilities offered for

its solution by the authorities; but it is to be wished that similar experiments

should be made elsewhere, that, by an extended comparison of observations,

light may be thrown upon the anomalies which have been observed at Paris

and in other places*.

V. That the Association should express its desire to receive a satisfactory

exposition of the theory of the moistened bulb hygrometer, and that observers

be also invited to institute series of comparative experiments on the indications

of the moistened thermometer and the temperature of the dew point.

Note.—These indications may be ascertained by Mr. Dalton’s process, or by

Mr. Daniell’s hygrometer, or by both. Notwithstanding the ingenious and

laborious researches of Hutton, De Saussure, Leslie, Anderson, and Gay Lussac

upon this subject, scientific deductions drawn from more extended experiments

are greatly wanted. The simplicity and certainty of the experiment by which

the cold produced by the evaporation of water is measured, renders an accurate

theory of the result peculiarly desirable. The experimenter would do well to

consult Mr. Dalton’s views on the theory of hygrometry, contained in his Meteo-

rological Essays, and in the Manchester Transactions ; and to examine the inves-

tigations of Professor Leslie, (Relations of Heat and Moisture, and Supple-

ment to the Encyclopedia Britannica, article Meteorology ;) of Dr. Anderson,

(Edinburgh Encyclopedia, article Hygrometer,) and of M. Gay Lussac, (Biot,

Traité de Physique, Tom. II.) A good series of observations at high tempera-

tures will be found recorded in Nos. II. and IIE, of a Calcutta Journal, entitled

Gleanings in Sciencet,

* The Ochterlony monument would be a favorable position fora peculiar series a

experiments in Calcutta.

+ Vide also Observations in the Grganincs, No. VI. page 47 and 189.

310 European Intelligence. [ Jury,

VI. That experiments on the decrease of temperature at increasing heights

in the atmosphere be recommended as an important subject for the contribu-

tions of observers.

Note.—Series of observations for considerable periods of timeon the mean tem-

perature of the air at fixed hours, and at stations of whichthe difference of height

has been accurately measured, are the most valuable. The best hours for observa-

tions are those which give most accurately the mean temperature of the period of

observation. The hourly observations at Leith Fort have determined the hours

which give the annual mean temperature in this country to be about 93 a. M. and 8§

p.™. Experimental balloons have lately been employed by the Earl of Minto,

to assist the solution of this problem, which is one of the most interesting in

Meteorology : but the investigation of it is nearly brought to a stand for want

of sufficiently numerous observations. The observer may be referred for infor-

mation to Ramond’s Mémories surla Formule Barométrique de la Mecanique Céleste;

to the researches of Humboldt ; to Professor Leslie, Supplement to the Eneyclope-

dia Britannica, Article Climate; to Pouillet, Elemens de Physique; to Mr. Atkin-

son’s paper on Refractions, in the Memoirs of the Astronomical Society : and to

Mr. Ivory’s Memoir on the same subject in the Philosophical Transactions, and

his papers in the Annals of Philosophy.

VII. That the observation of the temperature of springs at different heights

and depths should be pointed out as an object of great interest, in prosecuting

which insulated inquirers may render essential aid to science.

Note.—When springs are copious, a few observations in the course of the year

suffice to give with great accuracy their mean temperature. The height of the

springs above the mean level of the sea, and the depth of Artesian wells, should be

carefully observed ; and where the corresponding mean temperature of the air can

be obtained, it should be stated. In two points of view these observations are

important, independently of the inference which they may furnish as to the de-

erease of heat in the atmosphere. The great interest attached to the phe-

nomenon of the progressive increase of temperature of the globe, as we descend

through the strata, renders of value observations on the temperature of springs at

considerable heights, of springs in mines, and of those brought to the surface from

some depths by the process of boring. This question has been treated with great

success by M, Cordier in several memoirs, some of which have been translated

into English. Again, the researches of Humboldt, Buch, Wahlenberg, and more

recently Kupffer, in a Memoir on Isogeothermal Lines, read before the Academy

of St. Petersburg in 1829, have shown that the temperature of the earth differs

in many parts of the globe from that of the air, being generally in defect below

lat. 56°, and in excess beyond it. Artesian wells, and the deviation of the mean

temperature of the earth from that of the air in different latitudes, have opened

new fields for discussion ; and by the zealous co-operation Cy observers cannot

fail to present results, of which at present we can form but an imperfect idea.

Magnetism.—I\t appears to the Committee highly desirable, fie a series of

observations upon the intensity of terrestrial magnetism in various paris of

England be made by some competent individual, similar to those which have

recently been carried on in Scotland, by Mr. Dunlop.

¥832.] Scientific Intelligence. 311

Should the Committee succeed in finding some individual ready to undertake

the task, they propose that an application should be made to the Royal Society

of Edinburgh, for permission to make use of the standard needle belonging to

them, and constructed under the direction of Professor Hansteen of Christiana.

It appears to the Committee of considerable importance that a certain number

of observations should be made throughout Britain with the dipping needle, in

order toreduce the horizontal to the true magnetic intensity.

Note.—The time of three hundred vibrations should be observed, and the

methods of observation and reduction should be the same as have been employed

and described by Humboldt, Hansteen, and others.

Electro-Magnetism.—The Committee recommend as an important subject for

further prosecution, the examination of the electro-magnetic condition of

metalliferous veins. The Committee would refer for the details of what has

been already done upon this subject, to the paper of Mr. Fox in the Philosophical

Transactions for 1830, and would propose that the experiments should be ex-

tended to veins which traverse, as in some of our mines, horizontal and dis-

similar strata.

Optics.—That Dr. Brewster be requested to prepare for the next meeting a re-

port on the progress of optical science.

Acoustics.—That the Rev. Robert Willis be requested to prepare for the next

meeting a report on the state of our knowledge concerning the phanomena of

sound, and the additions which have been recently made to it.

Heat.—That Professor Powell be requested to prepare for the next meeting a

similar report respecting heat,

Electricity.—That Professor Cumming be requested to prepare for the next

meeting a similar report on thermo-electricity, and the allied subjects, in which

recent discoveries have been made.

Chenucal Commitee.

It appears to the Committee of supreme importance, that chemists should be

enabled, by the most accurate experiments, to agree in the relative weights of

the several elements, hydrogen, oxygen, and azote, or, which amounts to the

same thing, that the specific gravity of the three gases should be ascertained in

such 4 way as would insure the reasonable assent of all competent and unpre-

judiced judges.

They think it highly desirable, that the doubts which remain respecting the

‘proportions of azote, oxygen, &c. in the atmosphere should be removed ; that

the proportions of azote and oxygen in nitrous gas and nitrous oxide should be

strictly determined ; and that the specific gravities of the compound gases in

general should be more accurately investigated.

They recommend that the members of this Committee, and British chemists in

-general, be invited to make experiments on these subjects, and communicate

_their results to the next meeting at Oxford,

That Mr. Johnston be requested to present to the next meeting a view of the

recent progress of chemical science, especially in foreign countries.

_ That Dr. Daubeny be requested to undertake an investigation into the sources

from which organic bodies derive their fixed principles.

That Mr. Johnston be requested to undertake the inquiries which have been

Suggested to the Committee, into the comparative analysis of iron in the different

Stages of its manufacture.

$12 Scientific Intelligence. [Juy;

That Mr. West be requested to pursue the experiments contemplated by him

into the conbinations of gaseous bodies when passed through heated tubes.

That the Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt be requested to prosecute the inquiries

contemplated by him into the chemical phenomena from which the materiality of

what are sometimes called ethereal substances has been inferred.

Mineralogical Committee.

The Committee recommend, that the Rev. Professor Whewell be requested to

present to the next meeting a report on the state and progress of Mineralogy.

Geological and Geographical Commitice.

The Committee recommend, that geologists be requested to examine strictly

into the truth of that part of the theory of M. Elie de Beaumont, in its application

to England, Scotland, and Ireland, which asserts that the lines of disturbance of the

strata assignable to the same age are parallel, and that a report to the next meeting

on this subject should be procured.

That Mr. Phillips be requested to draw up, with such co-operation as he may

procure, a systematic catalogue of all the organized fossils of Great Britain and

Ireland, hitherto described, with such new species as he may have an opportunity of

accurately examining, with notices of their localities and geological relations.

The Committee propose, that Mr. Robert Stevenson, civil engineer, be requested

to prepare a report upon the waste and extension of the land on the east coast of

Britain, and the question of the permanence of the relative level of the sea and

land; and that individuals who can furnish observations be requested to

‘correspond with him on the subject.

Note.—The importance which, especially of late years, has been attached to facts of

this nature, in illustration of the sciences of hydrography and geology, and the mass

of uncombined materials which have recently been accumulating, have induced the

Committee to make the present recommendation ; and in doing so, it feels pleasure

in being able to have in its view an individual whose practical acquaintance with

the coast in general, and more particularly the minute survey made by him some

years since, gives reason to expect from his report much important and accurate

information.

Botanical Committee.

The Committee recommend, that Professor Lindley be requested to prepare for

the next meeting an account of the principal questions recently settled, or at

present agitated, in the philosophy of Botany, whether in this country or abroad:

That botanists in all parts of Great Britain and Ireland be invited to compose

and communicate to the meetings of the Association catalogues of county or

other local Floras, with indications of those species which have been recently in-

troduced, of those which are rare or very local, and of those which thrive, or which

have become or are becoming extinct, with such remarks as may be useful towards

determining the connection which there may be between the habitats of particular

plants, and the nature of the soil and the strata upon which they grow ; with statée-

ments of the mean winter and summer temperature of the air and water at the

highest as well as the lowest elevation at which species occur, the hygrometrical con-

dition of theair, and any other information of an historical, ceconomical, and

philosophical nature.

Note.—If upon this plan a complete botanical survey of the British island

could be obtained, the results would be important when the Flora in the aggregate

came to be compared with its relations of soil, climate, elevation, &c.

1832.) Catalogue of Indian Birds. 313

Catalogue of Indian Birds.

[Continued from p. 267. |

CINCLOSOMA CAPISTRATUM. Cinclos. capite supra, genis, pteromatum maculd

rectricibusque ad basin intensé atris; remigum pogoniis externis, rectricum api=

vibus, tectricibusque alarum fusco-griseis, his fascia albé notatis ; dorso medio pal=

lide brunnescenti-griseo ; colloin fronte, nuchd, pectore, abdomineque summo pal-

lide, dorso abdomineque imis saturatitis, rufis.

Rostrum nigrum, pedes flavescentes. Remiges interiores, rectricumque mediarum

bases rufi. Longitudo corporis, 10; ale acarpo ad apicem remigis 6te, 4;

rostri, 75 5 tarsi, 1 253 caude, 43.

CINCLOSOMA VARIEGATUM. Cinclos. strig& a rictu per oculos extendente, mento

colloque in fronte, maculd pteromatum et medid alarum, rectricumque mediarum

basibus atris; fronte, strigd genarum infra, pectoreque pallidé albescenti-rufis ;

nota pteromatum, abdomine crissoque rufis; capite supra, nuchd, dursoque brun~

nescent'-griseis ; alarum pogoniis externis, rectricumque mediarum quatuor api-

cibus cineraceo-griscis 3 rectricibus quatuor utrinque lateralibus externé flavo-

olivaceis, apicibus albis.

Rostrum nigrum,-pedes rubri. Longitudo corporis,113 ale acarpo ad apicem

remigis 6te, 4; rostri, 2 3 tarsi, 1 15 5 caude, 44.

“CINCLOSOMA LINEATUM. Cinclos. capite supra, nuchd, dorso imo, rectricibusque

duabus mediis brunnescenti-griseis ; regione post-oculari, dorso summo, corpore

infra, rectricibusque lateralibus pallescenti-rufis; his fascid nigrd pone’ apicem

album notatis; capitis nucheque plumis in medio lineis fuscis, pectoris dorsique

summi lineis pallidis, per totam rhachium longitudinem graciliter strigatis.

Rostrum pedesque flavescentes. Longitudo corporis, 94; ale a carpo ad apicem

remigis 6te, 35 ; rostri, 753 tarsi, 1; caude, 3%.

Genus Timalia.

47. Timatta CHATARHA. Tim. supra pallidé brunnescenti, subtts rufescenti-cine=

rea; capite corporeque supra lineis fuscis striatis 5 rectricibus fusco obsoleté

fasciatis ; rostro palldo.

Longitudo 94.

Gogoye Thrush, Lath, ?

48. Timalia pileata, Horsf. Pileated Thrush, Lath.

49, TIMALIA HYPOLEUCA. Tim, supra rufescenti-brunnea, subtus alba; alis'ru-

fis; his cauddque subties cinereis, rectricibus fusco obsolete fasciatis ; rostro

NIZTO.

Longitudo 63.

50. TiIMALIA HYPERYTHRA. Zim. supra olivascenti-brunnea; capite in fronte

corporeque toto subtus rufis; caudd superné fusco obsolete fasciatd ; rostro pal-

lido,

Longitudo 5.

Genus Jzos,

51. Ivos jocosus. Lanius jocosus, Linn, Jocose Shrike, Lath.

52, Ixvos Cafer. Turdus Cafer, Linn. Cape Thrush, Lath. Le Courouge, Le Va. ills

53. Iros fulicata, Motacilla fulicata, Linn. Sooty Warbler, var, Lath.

Traquet noir des Philippines, Buff.

Fam. Sylviade,—Genus Lora,

54. Tora scapularis, Horsf. Scapular Wagtail, Lath.

8iT4 Catalogue of Indiaw Birds? [Jury,

f Genus Sylvia.

55. Sylvia Hippolais, Lath. Ind. Orn. Lesser Pettichaps, Lath. Reed Wren, Lath.

This is the bird alluded to under Dr. Latham’s Reed Wren, as an Indian variety

called Zikra and Tiktikt.

Genus Prinia.

56. PRINIA CURSITANS. Prin. corpore, supra pallide brunneo, fusco striato; gulé

juguloque albis ; abdomine rufescente 5 rectricibus mediis fuscis, omnibus

subtus ad apicem fascid nigra albo terminatd notatis.

Longitudo 4.

57, PRINIA MACROURA. Prin. supra grisescenti-brunnea; capite, alis, uropy-

gioque subrufescenti tinetis; subtus ferruginco-albida ; rectricibus quatuor

mediis saturatioribus fusco obsoleté fasciatis, subtus ad apicem fusco leviter

notatis,

Longitudo 5%.

58, PRINIA GRACILIS. Prin. cinereo-grisea; dorso, alis, cauddque olivascentibus ;

guld, pectore, abdomineque subttis albidis 5 rectricibus subtus griseis fascié

nigra albo terminatd notatis.

Longitudo 4 ,%.

Foodkey Warbler, Lath ?

Genus Motacilla.

59. MoTACILLA PICATA. Mot. capite, collo, corporeque supra nigris; strigd utrin=

que superciliarit alterique longitudinali alarum, corpore subtus, rectricibusque

duabus lateralibus albis.

Longitudo 9-

Pied Wagtail, Lath. pl. 104.

60. Motacilla fava, Linn, Berzeronnetie jaune, Buff. & Bergeronnette de printemps,

Buff. Yellow Wagtail, Lath,

This is the Indian bird alluded to by Dr. Latham under the head of Yellow

Wagtail, called Peeluck, which is its Indian name,

Genus Enicurus.

( Hitherto considered limited to the Indian archipelago.)

ENICURUS MOCULATUS. En. capite, collo, dorso superiori, pectore, ptilis, remigibus

secundariis cauddque intensé atris; frontis noté latd, maculis confertis nuche et

sparsis dorst, pteromatibus, dorso, imo, abdomine, rectricibus lateralibus, medi-

arumque apicibus albis ; remigibus primariis fuscis ; rostro nigro pedibus albes-

centibus.

Statura, En. specioso equalis.

Genus Sazicola,

61. Sazxicola rubicola, Temm, Stone Chat Warbler, Lath.

Genus Phenicura,

62. Phenicura atrata, Jard. & Selb. Indian Redstart, Id.

PH@NICURA C@RULEOCEPHALA, Phen. atra, abdomine strigdque alarum longi-

tudinali albis ; capite pallide eeruleo.

Statura, Phan. communi.

PHENICURA LEUCOCEPHALA, Phen. corpore apiceque caude atris; abdomine,

crisso, uropygio, rufis; capite supra albo, Statura Phen. rubecule,

PHENICURA RUBECULOIDES. Phen. capite, collo, corporeque supra atro-c®rue

leis, capitis summo splendidiore ; abdomine albo; pectore rufa.

Statura, Phen. coruleocephale

1832.] ~ Catalogue of Indian Birds. 315

PHENICURA FULIGINOSA. Phen. corpore fuliginoso-plumbeo ; cauddrufd.

Staturé paullo major quam precedens.

Fam. Pipride.—Genus Parus.

63. Parus atriceps, Horsf. Mésange cap-négre, Temm.

PaRus XANTHOGENYS. Par. capite cristato, guld, pectore, abdomine medio, strig&

utringue colli, scapularium maculis, alis, cauddque atris, his albo notatis ; dorso

scapularibusque virescenti-griseis ; genis, strigd superciliari, maculd nuchali, ab-

dominisque lateribus flavis.

Staturd precedentis.

PARUS MELANOLOPHUS. Pare griseus; capite cristato pectoreque atris; genaram,

nuche, tegminumque alarum maculis albis ; remigibus rectricibusque fuscis;

maculd sub alis rufa.

Staturi Par. atro paulo minor.

PARUS ERYTHROCEPHALUS. Par. supra pallidé brunnescenti-canus, subtus rufes-

centi-albus ; guld, strigd superciliari, rectricumque lateralium pogoniis exter-

nis albis ; capite supra rufo; strigd latd per oculos ad nucham extendente,

thoraceque atris.

Statura Par. pendulini, Linn.

PARUS MONTICOLUS. Par. capite, collo, pectore, abdomine medio, alis, rectrici-

busque atris; genarum maculd latd nuchalique parvd, tegminum remigum

secundariarum rectricumgque apicibus, et.remigum primariarum rectricumque

lateralium pogoniis externis albis; abdominis lateribus flavis.

Statura paulo minor Par. majori.

Tribus CONIROSTRES.

Fam. Fringillide.—Genus Alauda.

64. ALAUDA CHENDOOLA. 4. supra pallidé grisescenti-brunnea, plumis fusco

in medio notatis ; corpore subtis strigdque superciliari albis ; rectricibus brun-

neis, duarum utrinque lateralium pogoniis externis albis 5 pectore brunneo ma-

culato, capite cristato.

Statura 4/. arvensis, Linn.

65. AtaupA GuLcuLa. Al. pallidé rufescenti-brunnea, plumis in medio late et

intense brunneo lineatis ; subtts albescens, pectore brunneo lineato ; femoribus

rufescentibus ; rectricibus brunneis, externa utringue feré totd, secunde pogo-

nio externo, albis.

StaturA feré precedentis,

Genus Mirafra.

66. Mirafra Javanica, Horsf. Alouette mirafre, Temm,

67. MiraFRa PHENICURA. Mir. pallidé cinereo-brunnea; corpore subtus, remi-

gum pogoniis internis, rectricumque basi rufis; rostro albo, culmine apiceque

Suscis.

Longitudo 5.

Genus Emberiza.

68. Emberiza Baghaira. Baag-geyra Lark, Lath.

This bird is the common Ortolon of India, called Baghairi.

69. Emberiza Gingica, Gmel. Duree Finch, Lath.

70. Emberiza cristata, Gould’s Century of Himalayan Birds.

71. Emberiza Bengalensis. Baya Berbera, Asiat. Res. Loxia Bengalensis, Linn.

The Hindu name of this bird is Baya; its Sanscrit name Berbera.

316 Catalogue of Indian Birds. [Jury,

EMBERIZA CRISTATA. Mas. Emb. capite cristato corporeque atris ; alis caudd-

que rufis.

Foem. aut Mas jun. ? Capite subcristato corporeque fuscis, abdomine imo palli-

diori ; alis cauddque rufescentibus, fusco tinctis.

Statura Carduelis communis.

CARDUELIS SPINOIDES. Mas. Card. fronte, occipite, collo corporeque infra,

ptilis, pteromatum apicibus, fascia remigum, rectricumque lateralium basibus

flavis ; capite supra dorsoque olivaceis ; alis cauddque fuscescenti-nigris.

Foem. ? Coloribus mints saturatis; abdomine dorsoque olivaceo-fusco striatis.

Statura pauld major quam Card. Spini.

CARDUELIS CANICEPS. Card. brunnescenti-canus; alis cauddque nigris ; cir-

culo angusto frontem rictum gulamque circumcingente coccineo ; fascia alarum

aurea ; thorace, maculi: paucis alarum, uropygio, abdomine imo, crisso, rectri-

cum externarum pogoniis internis, mediarumque apicibus albis,

Statura Card. communis.

Genus Fringilla.

72. Fringilla Amandava, Linn. Le Bengali Piqueté, Buff.

73. Fringilla formosa, Lath. Lovely Finch, Lath.

74. Fringilla Malabaria, . Loxia Malabaria, Linn. Malabar Grosbeak, Lath.

75 FRINGILLA FLAVICOLLIS. Fring. supra cinereo-grisea, subtus albida; jugulo

macula flavé notato; humeris ferrugineis ; alis maculis albis fascias duas exhi-

bentibus notatis.

Longitudo 5 ,°,-

This bird, though placed amongst the Finches, differs in the form of its bill,

and it may perhaps hereafter be found expedient to remove it.

FRINGILLA RODOPEPLA. Fring. supra brunnea; capite, nuchd, dorsoque lineis

fucis rosaceoque nitore notatis ; strigd utrinque superciliari, guld, thorace, ma-

culis alarum, uropygio, corporeque subtus rosaceis.

Longitudo circiter 7 uncias.

FRINGILLA RODOCHROA. Fring. supra brunnea; capite, nuchi, dorsoque lineis

fuscis, illo rosaceo tinctis ; fronte, strigd utrinque superciliari, guld, pectore,

corpore subtus, uropygiogue rosaceis ; alis immaculatis.

Longitudo circiter 53 uncias.

Genus Coccothraustes.

Coccothraustes icteroides. Mas. Cocc. capite, jugulo, dorso medio, alis, femo-

rum tectricibus, cauddque atris; nuchd uropygio, corporeque subtus luteis.

Foem. Olivaceo-cana, uropygio abdomineque lutescentibus ; remigibus rectricibus-

que atris,

Genus Ploceus.

76. Ploceus Philippinus, Cuv. Philippine Grosbeak, Lath.

Fam. Sturnide.—Genus Pastor.

77. Pastor roseus, Temm. Rose-coloured Thrush, Lath. Le Roselin, Le Vaill.

78. Pastor tristis, Temm. Merle des Philippines, Buff.

79, Pustor griseus, Horsf. Le Martin gris defer, Le Vaill.

80. Pastor Contra vel Capensis, Temm. Etourneau Pie, Buff.

81. fastor Pagodarum,Temm. Le Martin Brame, Le Vaill.

Fam. Corvide.—Genus Corvus

82. Corvus Corone, Linn. Carrion Crow, Lath.

1832. ] Catalogue of Indian Birds. 317

This bird appears to be the common Carrion Crow of India; it differs only in

size from the European Crow, and in the greater elevation of the bill.

Genus Coracias.

83. Coracias Bengalensis, Linn. Blue Jay from the East Indies, Edw.

Genus Pica,

84, Pica vagabunda, Wagler. Rufous Magpie, Hardw.

Genus Garrulus.

GARRULUS LANCEOLATUs. Garr. vinaceo-badius ; capite subcristato, guld, jugulo,

alisque atris: collo anteriort albo, lanceolati ; pteromatibus remigibusque

ceruleo fasciatis, illis albo terminatis; cauda ceruled, nigro fasciatd, fascid

lata apicali albo terminatd notatd.

GaRRULUS BisPecuLaRIS. Garr. pallidé badius, uropygio crissoque albis ; ma-

culd latd postrictali, caudd, pteromatibus, remigibusque atris; his duabus cerus

leo fasciatis.

GARRULUS STRIATUS. Garr. pallidé brunneus, subtus pallidior ; corporis supra

subtusque plumis in medio albo longitudinaliter striatis; cristd vertical remi-

gibus, rectricibusque unicoloribus.

This latter species was observed to deviate in general colour and markings from

the European species, although according in form ; and in the former charac-

ters to exhibit a manifest approach to the nut-crackers or the genus nucifraga

of Brisson.

Genus Nucifraga.

NUCIFRAGA HEMISPILA. Nuc. castaneo-brunnea ; capité subtus, collo anteriori,

dorso, pectoreque albo maculatis; capite summo, alis, rectricibusque intensé

brunneis; his, duabus mediis exceptis, ad apicem laté albis.

This new species, in the shape of the bill, is shorter and stouter at the base than

in the European species, and approaches to the Jays.

Fam. Buceride.—Genus Buceros.

85. Buceros Gingianus, Lath. Indian Hornbill, Lath.

There is some confusion with regard to this bird in Dr. Latham’s General

History, under the heads of Gingi and Indian Hornbill: it is the Dhanésa of

India.

86. Buceros Malabaricus, Gmel. Unicorn Hornbill, Lath.

There is also much confusion with regard to this bird under the heads of Fied

Hornbill and Unicorn Hornbill of Latham: it is the Dhanésa of the latter,

var, B.

Tribus SCANsoRES.

Fam. Psittacide——Genus Paleornis.

87. Pal@ornis torquatus, Vig. Psittaca Borbonica torquata, Briss. La Perruche &

double collier, Buff,

88. Paleornis Bengalensis, Vig. Psittacus Bengalensis, Gmel. Blossom-headed

Parakeet, Lath. sp. 74. var. A.

89, PALEORNIs FLAVICOLLARIS, Pal, viridis ; capite lilacino-cano, flavo mar-

ginato ; rectricibus mediis ceruleis apice albo.

Longitudo 12,

According to the description, this would appear to be Dr. Latham’s yellow-

collared Parrakeet ; but he refers to figures which do not correspond,

318 Catalogue of Indian Birds, [Juzy,

Genus Psittacula.

PsITTACULA RUBIFRONS. Psitt. viridis, subtus pallidior ; fronte, dorso imo, rec-

tricumque tectricibus coccinets; remigibus cauddque viridi-fuscis, rostro sub-

elongato rufo.

Statura paullo major quam Psztt. Galgul.

Fam. Picide.—Genus Bucco.

90. Bucco canicers. Buc. gramineo-viridis ; capite, nuchd, collo, pectoreque gri-

seis; illus plumis in medio albido hneatis; rostro rubro; pedibus flavis ;

regione circumoculari nuda flavescenti-rubra.

Longitudo 10.

Fichtel’s Barbet, Lath.?

This bird is the Bara-Basanta of India, and appears to be the same as var. A. of

Dr. Latham’s Fichtel’s Barbet.

91. Bucco Philippinensis,Gmel. Barbu des Philippines, Buff.

Genus Picus.

92. Picus Bengalensis, Linn. Bengal Woodpecker, Lath.

93. Picus Mahrattensis, Lath., Ind. Orn. Mahratta Woodpecker, Lath.

Picts HYPERYTHRUS. Mas. Pic. corpore supra niyro, albo-maculato, subtus ru-

fescenti-badio; capite crissoque coccineis ; striga utrinque per oculos extendente

alba; mandibuld superiori nigra, inferior: alba.

Foem. Capite nigro albo-lineato.

Statura Pzc. medi, Linn.

Picus Occrerrauis. Mas. Pic. viridis, uropygio lutescenti; fronte coccineo; ver-

tice striga lata occipital ad nucham extendente, alterdque utrinque sub oculos

postrictali atris ; remigibus rectricibusque fusco atris, parum duabus mediis

pallido-fusco striatis, ellis externé albo maculatis ; gula genisque canis. Foem.

Fronte atra albo lineata.

Picus Squamatus. Pic. supra viridis, uropygio sublatescent ; gula juguloque viri-

di-canis ; capite coccineo; strigad superoculari, abdomineque viridi albis, hoc atra

squamato ; striga supercilari alterdque utrinque mental: atris ; remigibus rec-

tricibusque fusco atris, illis externé, his utrinque albo maculatis.

Picus sprLoLtopHus. Pic. dorso alisque sanguineo-coccinets ; subtus sordide albus,

fuscescenti undulatus; capite colloque nigris, guttrs albis maculatis; hujus

maculis grandioribus ; remigibus caudaque fuscis, harum pogonis internis albo

maculatis.

Longitudo corporis, 113.

Picus MopEstus. Pic. supra ater, alis ad latera apicesque subrufescentibus ;

capite in fronte genisque obscure cocciners, occipite, gula, jugulo, colloque gri-

sescenti-atris, plumis macula minutissema alba ad apicem terminatis ; rectri-

cibus duabus medhis elongatis.

Longitudo corporis, 15; ale a carpo ad apicem remigis 4tz, 6; caude, 6; tarsi, 1;

rostri, 13.

Picus auricers. Mas. Pic. capite supra aurec ; occipite, abdomine imo, crisso-

que coccineis; collk parte postervore et strigd utrinque laterali, corporeque su-

pra nigris; colli parte frontal et laterrbus, corporeque infra albis, hoc nigro

striato; scapularibus, pteromatibus, remigibus, rectricibusque lateralibus albo-

maculatis ; dorso medio griseo, albo nigroque fasciato.

Foem. Sine nota coccinea occipitali.

Statura Pec. mediz.

Picus pyema@us. Mas. Pic. capite supra dorsoque medio griseo-canis, hoc albo

nigroque fasciato; striga utrinque per oculos ad nucham extendente, gula, ma-

culisque pteromatum remigum et rectricum lateralium albis; pectore abdomine-

1832. | Catalogue of Indian Birds. 319

que albescentibus, fusco graciliter striatis ; nota longitudinali gracili utrinque

post oculos coccinea.

Foem. Stine nota coccineé postoculari.

Statura minor quam Pic. minoris.

Fam. Certhiade.—Genus Sitta.

94, SITTA CASTANEOVENTRIS. Svt. superné griseo-plumbea; pectore abdomineque

eastaneis; strigad a rictu per oculos ad nucham extendente, remigibus, rectri-

cumque pogoniis internis nigris; gula maculdque rectricum lateralium albis.

Longitudo 5.

Ferruginous-bellied Nuthatch, Lath.?

Genus Certhia.

95. CERTHIA SPILONOTA. Certh. supra griseo-fusca, albo maculata; capite albo

gractliter striato; gula abdomineque albidis, hoc fusco fasciato; cauda albo

Suscoque fasciata.

Longitudo 5}.

The tail of this bird is soft and flexible, in which respect it differs from the type of the

genus ; but it agrees in all others.

Genus Upupa.

96. Upupa minor, Shaw. La Huppe d’ Afrique, Le Vaill.

Fam. Cuculide.—Genus Leptosomus.

97. Leptosomus Afer. Cuculus Afer, Gmel. Edolian Cuckow, Shaw.

Genus Cuculus.

98. Cuculus canorus, Linn. Common Cuckow, Lath.

This bird, on comparison with the common Cuckow, differs so little that it can scarce-

ly be called a variety; itis the common Cuckow of India, and its habits and note

resemble those of the European bird.

99. Cuculus fugax, Horsf. Bychan Cuckow, Lath.

The common Indian name of this bird is Pépiha or Pzpeeha, from its note ; in Sans-

crit Chataca. Dr. Buchanan named it Cuculus radiatus.

100. Cuculus Sonnerati, Ind. Orn.? Le petzt Coucou des Indes, Sonn.? Sonnerat’s

Cuckow, Lath. ?

Not having either specimen or figures to refer to, I conclude, from description alone,

that this bird is Sonnerat’s Cuckow.

Genus Centropus.

101. Centropus Philippensis, Cuv. Coucou des Philippines, Buff. Chestnut Coucal, Lath.

Genus Lampromorpha.

‘ LAMPROMORPHA AMETHYSTINA. Lamp. supra splendide amethystina; abdomine

albo, fasciis viridi-amethystinis ornato ; rectricibus lateralibus albo notatis.

Longitudo 7}.

This description is taken from a bird in the state of change, the amethystine feathers

on the back, tail and breast, appearing partially through a ferruginous ground, but

sufficiently numerous and defined to indicate the adult plumage. A younger bird

in the collection has nearly the whole of the upper body ferruginous, with an ame-

thystine feather here and there breaking out. Ina note appended to the descrip-

tion of the species, Mr. Lindsay states thatthe natives considered them of extremely

rare occurrence.

The male exhibited of this species was observed to have the two middle tail feathers

elongated beyond the rest, and the lateral feathers were shown to be altogether

soft and flexible, like those of the genus Picuwmnus, Temm.

This bird is the Mahooka of India, so named from its note; it is called also, by the

English, Pheasant Crow. Dr. Latham’s chestnut Coucal very accurately de-

scribes it, but his figure is bad ; having apparently been taken froma drawing of Gen.

Hardwicke’s, which stated it to be a young bird. Dr. Buchanan named it Cuculus

castaneus,

320 Catalogue of Indian Birds. [Jury,

Genus Eudynamys.

102. Eudynamys Orientalis. Cuculus Orientalis, Linn. Eastern black Cuckow, Lath.

Coucou noir des Indes & Coukeel, Buff.

This bird is the Coe/ of India, and the Couwkeel of Buffon.

103. Eudynamys Sirkee.:Centropus Sirkee, Hardw. Sirkeer Cuckow, Lath.

Tribus TENUIROSTRES.

Fam. Melphagide.—Genus Chloropsis.

104. Chloropsis aurifrons, Jard. & Selby. Malabar Chloropsis, Sard. & Selby.

This bird is the Huwréwa of India, and is well described by Dr. Latham as the Hur-

ruwa Bee-eater.

Fam. Cinnyride.—Genus Cinnyris.

105. Crnnyris ORIENTALIS. Cnn. capite, collo, dorsoque splendide .virescenti-pur -

pureis; abdomine purpureo-atro; alis cauddque atris; fasciculo utrinque sub

alis aurantiaco.

Longitudo 4.

Eastern Creeper, Lath.

Cinnyris Goutpi. Cinn. capite supra, guld colloque in fronte, regrone auricu-

lari, strigd utrinque gracil ad latera colli usque ad humeros extendente, uro-

pygto, caude tectricibus, rectricibusque duabus mediis elongatis purpureo et

ceruleo metallicé splendentibus ; capitis lateribus, occipite, nucha, scapulari-

bus, dorso summo, ptilisque sanguineo-rubris ; dorso imo, pectore, abdomineque

sulphurets, his sanguineo sparsis; remigibus rectricibusque lateralibus fuscis.

Longitudo circiter 5 uncias.

This species has been dedicated by Mr. Vigors to the accomplished artist, Mrs. Gould,

who executed the plates of the Himalayan birds.

Orvo IIT. RASORES.

Fam. CoLuMBID.

Genus Vinago.

106. Venayo militaris. Columba militaris, Temm. Columbar Commandeur, Temm.

Hurrial Pigeon, Lath.

Genus Columba.

107. Columba tigrina, Temm. Colombe a nuque perlée, Temm.

108. Columba Cambayensis, Gmel. Colombe mailiée, Temm.

109. Columba risoria, Linn. Colombe Blonde, Temm. La Tourterelle Blonde,

Le Vaill.

Le Vaillant mentions a larger bird of this species which is common in Africa ; the

same thing occurs also in India, where there are two birds differing only in size.

110. Columba humilis, Temm. Colombe terrestre, Temm.

CoLuMBA LEUcONOTA. Col. capite canescenti-atro ; crisso cauddque nigris;

nucha, corpore subtus, dorso medio, caudeque fascia lata media, albis; teg-

minibus alarum vinaceo-canis; dorso superiort scapularibusque brunnes-

centi-canis ; remigibus, fascusque alarum brunnescenti-fuscis.

Statura Col. Palumbi, Linn.

Fam. PHASIANID&.

Genus Pavo.

111. Pavo cristatus, Linn. Le Paon, Buff. Crested Peacock, Lath.

Genus Tragopan.

112. Tragopan Satyrus, Cuv. Meleagris Satyrus, Linn. Horned Pheasant, Lath.

TRAGOPAN Hastinesu. Trag.dorso brunneo-fusco undulato, abdomine intense ru-

bro, amborum plumis ad apicem nigris in medio albo guttatis ; cristd crissoque

atris,illa ad apicem coccined, hoc albo maculato ; collo posteriori coccineo ; tho-~

race aurantio; regione circum oculari nuda, carunculisque pendentibus luteis ;

cauda atra, lutescenti-albo undulata.

1832. ] Catalogue of Indian Birds. 321

This is a second species of the singular group of Horned Pheasant (Meleagris

Satyra of Linneus), peculiar to India.

Genus Phasianus.

PHASIANUS ALBO-cRISTATUS. Mas. Phas. supra ater, viridi nitore splendens ;

dorso imo albo fasciato ; criste plumis albis, elongatis, deorsim recumbentibus,

basi subfuscis ; remigibus corporeque infertori fuscis ; pectoris plumis lanceola-

tis albescentibus.

Foem. Corpore supra cristaque breviort, fuscescenti-brunneis ; abdomine pallidi-

ore; gulad plumarumque corporis apicibus et rhacibus albescentibus ; rectrici-

bus lateralibus atris, mediis brunneis albescenti undulatis.

This is the true pheasant, indicated only by former writers from imperfect drawings

and descriptions. i

Puastanus Sracett. Phas. stramineo-albus, supra frequenter, subtus parce ni-

gro fasciatus, dorso abdomineque imis rufescentibus ; capite cristato fusco;

cauda fasciis latis nigris, ad basin interne rufis, ornatd.

Longitudo corporis ab apice rostri ad apicem caude, 3 pedes 4 uncias.

PHASIANUS LINEATUS, Lath. MSS. Phas. supra cano-griseus; fasciis gracilibus

nigris undulatus ; capite, crista elongata, gula, collo anteriori, corporeque in-

fra mgris; abdominis laterum plumis in medio linets gracilibus albis notatis ;

cauda albo nigroque undulatim sparsé.

Fam. TETRAONID&.

Genus Péerocles.

113. Pterocles exustus, Temm. Ganga ventre-brulé, Temm.

Genus Francolinus.

114. Francolinus Ponticerianus, Temm. Francolin a rabat, Temm.

115. Francolinus vulgaris, Steph. Le Francolin, Buff. Francolin, Edw.

Genus Perdix.

116. Perdix picta, Jard. & Selby. Painted Partridge, 1d. Beautiful Partridge, Lath.

117. Perdix Hardwicki, Gray. Curria Partridge, Lath.

118. Perdix Cambayensis, Temm. Perdrix rousse-gorge, Temm.

Genus Coturnix.

119. Coturnix dactylisonans, Meyer. Common Quail, Lath.

This bird is named Ghagul; it corresponds with the European species, and is not

very common in India.

120. Coturnix Coromandelica. Perdix Coromandelica, (ath. Pesdin textilis,

Temm. Cazlle nattée, Temm.

This is the most common Quail of India, called Bhuteir. Dr. Buchanan named it

Perdix olivacea.

Genus Hemzpodius.

121. Hemipodius Dussumier, Temm. Turnix Dussumier, Temm. Mottled Quail, Lath.

Fam. STRUTHIONID 2.

Genus Ofis.

122. Otis Indica, Ind. Orn.? White-chinned Bustard, Lath.?

This bird has usually been considered as the female of the Otis aurita, and has been

so figured and described ; but it is well known to be a distinct bird. It is the com-

mon Leek of India, called by the English Bastard Florican. Iam not quite cer-

tain that Dr. Latham’s White-chinned Bustard is the bird, but his description is .

so near, that I have not thought it proper to make it anew species.

Oris NIGRICEPS. Ot. corpore supra pallideé badio, rufo-brunneo graciliter undu-

lato; colle, maculis parcis alarum, abdomineque albis ; capite cristato, tectrt-

cibus alarum exterioribus, remigibus, notaque grandi pectorali nigris.

Longitudo corporis ab apice rostri ad apicem caudz, pedes 4; latitudo, 44.

Oris HimMaLAYANus. Ot. niger; alis albis; dorso medio scapularibusque pallido.

rufo, brunneoque variegatis ; dorso imo pallido-rufo undulatim sparso; criste

collique plumis anterioribus et posterioribus confertis, elongatis.

322 Catalogue of Indian Birds. [Jury,

Orpo IV. GRALLATORES.

Fam. GrvuIpz.

Genus Grus.

123. Grus Orientals, Briss. Ardea Antigone, Linn. Indian Crane, Lath.

Fam. ARDEIDZ.

Genus Mycteria.

124. Mycteria Australis. Ciconia Mycteria Australis, Hardw. Tetaar Jabiru, Lath.

Genus Ardea.

125. Ardea purpurea, Linn. Le Héron pourpré huppé, Butt. Crested Purple Heron,

Lath.

126. Ardea speciosa, Horsf. Darter Heron, Lath.

This bird is without doubt the Darter Heron of Dr. Latham; and the Ardea speciosa

of Dr. Horsfield is, I think, merely the Javanese type of the same bird.

127. Ardea Torra, Buch. Ardea Egretta, Lath. Ind. Orn. var. Ardea alba, Linn.

var. Great Egret, Lath. Indian variety Torra or Bughletar.

This is the Indian White Egret, and it differs only in size from the European species,

being somewhat smaller. Dr. Buchanan named it Ard. Torra, and when without

its filiform appendages on the back, Ard. Putea; so that these Indian terms ap-

pear to correspond with Ard. Egretta and Ard. alba.

128. Ardea Caboga, Penn. Caboga Heron, Pem. Gibraltar Heron, Lath. var. A.

The term Caboga is a corruption of the Indian term Gao-buga, Cow or Cattle Heron,

in allusion to its frequently being seen amongst cattle, like the Gibraltar Heron.

Genus Botaurus.

129. Botaurus cinnamoneus. Ardea cinnamonea, Gmel. Cinnamon Heron, Lath.

Genus Nycticorax. ;

130. Nycticorax Europeus. Ardea Nycticorax, Linn. Night Heron, Lath.

C. Nycricorax MAniILueEnsis. Nyct. supra castaneo rufa; collo in fronte, abdomt-

nis lateribus, femorum tectricibus, alarumque tectricibus inferioribus pallidior:-

rufis ; capite colloque supra nigris, criste pennis longis pendentibus albis, apice

nigro; pectore abdomine crissoque albis.

Statura paulo major quam Nyct. Caledonica, cui simillima ; differt tamen colore

cristz, colli in fronte, tectricumque inferiorum alarum.

Genus Tantalus.

131. Tantalus papiilosa. Ibis papillosa, Temm. Bald Ibis, Lath.

Fam. ScoLopacip &.

Genus Rhynchea.

132. Rhynchea Orientalis, Horsf. Cape Snipe, Lath. Bécassine de Madagascar,

Buff.

Ruyncw aa Carensis, Sav. Rhynch, remigibus angustis, fasciis latis flavis sex no-

tatis, infra griseis, nigro-vermiculatis, flavoque fasciatis ; secundariarum macu-

la poyonii externi, fascidque pogonr interni, flavis.

Long. corporis 93 unc.: tarsi, 212 lin. : digiti unguisque medii, 203 lin.

Ruyncua picta. Rhynch. remigibus sublatis, externis flavo late 7-fasciatis,

wnjra griseonigroque vermiculatis, interno obsoletéflavo-fasciato : secundariarum

apicibus, macula ultima fascie-formi pogonii externi, fascidque pogonw inter-

nt, albis.

Long. corporis 104 unc. : tarsi, 194 lin.: digiti medii, 19 lin. :

The wing-coverts of both species are spotted with yellow in the young state ; and in

the adult state are metallic olive with black bands.

Genus Tringa.

133. Tringa ochropus, Linn. Green Sandpiper, Penn.

134. Tringa Glareola, Linn. Wood Sandpiper, Penn.

135. Tringa pusilla, Linn. Little Sandpiper, Lath.

136. Tringa hypoleucos, Linn. Common Sandpiper, Lath.

1832. | Catalogue of Indian Birds. 323

Fam. RaAuuip»#.

Genus Parra.

137. Parra phenicura. Gallinula phoenicura, Lath., Ind. Orn. Red-tailed Galli-

nule, Lath. Poule-Sultane de la Chine, Buff.

138. Parra Sinensis, Gmel. Chinese Jacana, Lath.

139. Parra Indica, Lath., Ind. Orn. Indian Jacana, Lath.

Genus Rallus.

140. Rallus niger, Gmel. Black Rail, Lath.

Genus Porphyrio.

141. Porphyrio hyacinthinus. Fulica Porphyrio, Linn. Purple Water-hen, Edw.

Fam. CHARADRIADZ.

Genus Vanellus.

142. Vanellus Goensis. Tringa Goensis, Lath. Vanneau armé de Goa, Buff.

143. Vanellus ventralis. Charadrius ventralis, Wagl. Spur-winged Plover, Hardw.

144. Vanellus bilobus. Charadrius bilobus, Gmel. Bilobate Sandpiper, Lath.

Genus Cursorius.

145. Cursorius Asiaticus, Gmel. & Lath. Courvite de la Cote de Coromandel, Buff.

Genus Himantopus.

146. Himantopus melanopterus. Charadrius Himantopus, Linn. L’ Echasse, Buff.

Genus Charadrius.

147. CHARADRIUS HIATICULOIDES. Char. supra griseo-fuscus ; fascia frontal altera-

que verticali, corpore subtus, collarique nuchali albis; linea sub oculis ad

aures extendente, fascia ad frontem, torqueque pectorali subgracili ad nucham

extendente nigris; rectricibus, duabus mediis exceptis, albis,in medio nigro

et griseo-brunneo notatis, fjasciam semilunarem exhibentibus.

This bird differs chiefly from the European species in size, being at least one third

smaller, and in the narrowness of the pectoral band.

Orpo V. NATATORES.

Fam. ANATIDZ.

Genus Anser.

148. Anser Indicus, Lath., Ind. Orn. Barred-headed Goose, Lath.

149. Anser melanotos, Gmel. Black-backed Goose, Lath.

150. Anser Coromandeliana, Gmel. Sarcelle dz la Cote de Coromandel, Buff. Anas

Girra, Hardw. Girra Teal, Lath.

Genus Anas.

151. Anas arcuata, Cuv. Siley Teal, Lath.

The name of this bird in India is Sz/ey or Silhez, from its whilstling note; the Eng-

lish call it Whistling Teal; it scarcely differs from the Javanese species as figured

by Dr. Horsfield.

152. Anas Crecca, Linn. Common Teal, Lath.

This bird is the common Teal of India, and agrees exactly with the British species,

Fam. CoLyMBiDz.

Genus Podiceps.

153. Podiceps minor, Lath., Ind. Orn. Little Grebe, Lath.

Fam. PELECANID#.

Genus Carbo.

154. Carbo fuscicollis. Phalacrocorax fuscicollis, Shaw. Brown-necked Shag, Lath.

Genus Plotus.

155. Plotus melanogaster, Gmel. Black-bellicd Darter, Lath.

Genus Sterna.

156. Sterna melanogastra, Temm. Hirondelle de mer a ventre noir, Temm.

324 Instructions for collecting and preserving [ Juny,

1X.—Instructions for collecting and preserving Coleopterous Insects.

Under the name of Coleoptera are designated all insects with hard wings, such as

cockchafers, beetles of various kinds—Curculio, Melolontha, Copris, Lucanus

Cervus, Scarabeus, Necrophagi, &c. They are found every where on flowers and

leaves, under stones, the bark of trees, moss, and fallen leaves, in rotten wood, old

mushrooms, in stagnant water, and among decomposing animal and vegetable

matter.

‘Some interesting species live about the roots of plants, which must be extract-

ed to get at them.

Places where trees have been cut down, should be explored, especially under the

logs, andy in the sun, upon the exterior of the timber. }

Many insects, in hot climates, hide themselves during the day in the ground,

which should be dug up round insulated trees to the depth of a few inches :—the

same kind of search should be made along the foundations of walls, &c. The detritus

left along the bank of a river, or the sea shore, by retiring water, should be exami-

ned. A good number of rare Caradi are found on the banks of ponds,—buried in

the sand, or concealed under the pebbles of a dry brook. The puddles formed by

heavy rain, must by no means be neglected : they abound in interesting insects.

Besides the mode pointed out above, there are various others for collecting quick-

ly a number of insects which live upon plants : thus holding a parasol or a hand-

-kerchief under a bush or a branch, and shaking the latter affords a ready method

of getting at many curious insects : or a light bag, fitted to a hoop and handle, may

be moved rapidly about the extremity of branches while shaken, and the Co/eoptera

will be entangled therein and easily made prisoners.

The Necrophagi are net often found in hot climates, where their place is

supplied by ants. The way to procure them isto place wide-mouthed bottles,

baited with pieces of flesh, out of the reach of ants, that is, hung up in the air, or

insulated by being placed in a vessel of water. The smell of the meat will attract

the insects.

Nocturnal Coleoptera are very rare in collections. To take them, a cloth should

be spread towards night in the neighbourhood of a flower bed, and a couple of

lamps placed on it: the insects settle upon the cloth where they must be made

captive without loss of time. Searching plants in the night is also very productive.

Coleoptera should be pinned Always through the right wing, proportioning the pin

to the size of the insect, and taking care not to injure the feet and antenne.

To save time during the chase, small insects may be put in a bottle, and pinned

on return. They do not injure themselves, if a little moss or paper is introduced

for them tohold by. In hot climates, the best time for the chase is, the morning

or the evening. Nevertheless every moment of the day abounds with new species, and

a zealous collector will vary the time of his visits abroad. There is no occasion to

make long walks: it is better to explore thoroughly a circumscribed space, more

especially if a rare individual has been discovered, because it is probable that

another may be found in the same locality : there are generally many together.

Besides the travelling box, the collector should have a number of larger boxes for

the preservation of his specimens. They should be three inches deep, and the bot-

tom covered with a stratum of cork. In intertropical countries the cork may

be replaced by sola, or by various spongy woods.

1832.] Coleopterous Insects. 325

One box should be devoted to large Coleoptera, to avoid the injury their

weight would cause to the smaller species if they should get loose in travelling.

Insects should not be put in the magazine boxes until they are dead ; they may

then be put as close as possible to save space.

When the feet or antenne prevent the specimens from being closed up, they

should be placed for a time in a humid atmosphere, in a covered saucepan with

a few drops of warm water, or in moistened sand :—the limbs will then become

relaxed, and may be easily brought close to the body, where they must be

held by pins until they have dried in the proper attitude.

For preserving Coleoptera, pinning is decidedly the best method, it is only large.

black hard insects that can be preserved in spirits : cotton, sand, sawdust, &c. are

of no use whatever.

If a rare insect loses a leg or antenna, it should be carefully wrapped in paper,

and pinned by the side of the mutilated animal. Itis useless to collect grass-

hoppers, flies, spiders, or bugs. These insects are very difficult of preservation,

often too very large, and therefore only encumber the boxes uselessly.

When a box is sufficiently full of Coleoptera firmly fixed with pins, according

_to the foregoing directions, it should be accurately closed by pasting paper over

all the joints, so as to prevent moisture, dust, or other insects from penetrating.

The above directions are translated from a paper transmitted to the Asia-

tic Society by a zealous French entomologist, Mons. Petit de la Saussaye, chef du

bureau des travaux au Ministére de la Marine, at Paris, who was desirous of ob-

taining specimens of the Coleopterous insects from India, and who handsomely

offered in return, duplicates from his own extensive cabinet. The following ex-

tract from M. Petit’s letter to the Secretary As. Soc. read on the 4th Jan. may

tempt some of our correspondents to comply with his request.

“ Amateur zelé de l’etude de l’entomologie, je posséde une des collections de

_ Paris les plus riches en coléoptéres, famille dont je m’occupe principalement.

Les relations que j’ai avec plusieurs parties de l’Afrique et de l’Amérique me

donnent les moyens de faire des échanges avec les musées étrangers, et j’ai osé es-

perer que vous voudriez bien m’admettre au nombre des personnes qui correspon-

dent de cette maniére, avec le célébre établissement que vous dirigez.

L’avantage que je puis vous offrir consisteroit moins dans la variété des espéces

que je vous adresserai, que dans |’exactitude de la classification. Ma collection est

nommée d’aprés le systéme adopté par M. le Compte Dejean, dont les ouvrages sur

les coléoptéres sont connus de tous les entomologistes, et les envois que je fais sont

classés avec le plus grand soin, ce qui facilite beaucoup 4 mes correspondants

l’arrangement et 1’étude des insectes.

De votre coté, Monsieur, il vous seroit bien facile d’enrichir ma collection, car

je n’ai presque rien des belles contrées soumises A vos explorations, et les espéces

moins rares auraient déja pour moi le mérite de la nouveauté.”

Collections or letters to M. Petit may be addressed under cover & Mr, le Minis-

tre de ia Marine, & Paris.

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JOURNAL

THE ASIATIC SOCIETY.

No. 8.— August, 1832.

I.—Progress of Indian Maritime Surveys.

Amonest the events of scientific interest which have recently been

announced in India, is the institution in England of a new Society,

having for its object the promotion of Geographical Science, and called

the Royal Geographical Society. Mr. Barrow, the reputed author of

many valuable articles in the Quarterly Review, illustrative of the

Geography of various parts of the world, and the adviser of those ex-

peditions into the Arctic Seas, from the success of which in exploring

the northern coasts of the American continent, so much credit has

redounded to the British nation, is the President of this Society ; and

certainly, since the death of our own Major Rennell, there is no one

whose reputation stands so high in this department of science, or

whose zeal, acuteness, and rare tact in the discrimination of the value

of materials promise more for the success of an association devoted to

such objects. There has been issued already one number, containing

the first fruits of the Society’s labours; and the interesting papers it

contains, added to the style of elegance and correctness in which the

maps are executed, make us wish anxiously to see the continuation.

There is no branch of science so proper as geography to be taken

up by an Association of this kind, because there is none in advancing

which pure study and literary research can do so little, and the pro-

gress of which depends so much upon the accidental circumstances

in which men of various attainments happen to find themselves placed.

For nearly all that has been done, and for most that is still doing in geo-

graphy, by land or by sea, we are indebted to the exertions of practical

unpretending individuals, who finding the maps and charts they are using

incorrect, or lighting by chance on new objects not laid down, employ a

328 Progress of Indian Maritime Surveys. [Aue.

few leisure days in examining and noting what they thus illustrate or

discover. Each in this way adds his little mite to the store of knowledge

already accumulated, and, without the authentic record afforded by the

published proceedings of a Society, these contributions might be with-

held altogether from the world, or might fall into the hands of those who

would misuse them. Henceforward the publications of this useful insti-

tution will afford a certain means of tracing discoveries to their source,

and of ascertaining upon what authority additions are made in succes-

sive Maps and Charts. The compiler and publisher who has set his

name ostentatiously in the corner, has too often hitherto got the credit

for all the improvements introduced; while the adventurous voyager

who has discovered, and the surveyor whose superior skill has delineated

and assigned the true position to objects, have been defrauded of the

fame which is their just due. The observation holds equally whether the

addition to geographical knowledge be the result of measures taken by a

Government officer, with the specific object of ascertaining or verify-

ing a point, or of individual enterprise directed by zeal, or by

accident, into this line of science. For, with exception to the large

general surveys undertaken by Governments for military or for fiscal

purposes, the results of which are given to the world, each with the

pretension of out-doing all that has gone before, but of which the great

expence must make the instances rare, the improvements effected by

Government officers, are, like those by individuals, of isolated locality ;

and. when the point has been ascertained, the result is incorporated in

some general chart, and the time and manner of the survey is soon

forgotten, or known only to those who from curiosity or from official du-

ty may happen to be employed inransacking the archives of state offices.

For these reasons we look upon the establishment of a Society devoted

especially to geographical science to be a most useful institution ; and

we hope that all who are engaged in the same pursuit, and who

may become possessed of materials, or be placed in circumstances to be

able to contribute any thing towards the advancement of this science,

will furnish their results to the new Association, that they may be there

digested and compared and verified, and so be turned to account, ac-

cording to their value,in leading to a more accurate knowledge of the

earth’s surface—every advance made to this object being set down te

the credit of the right owner.

The field of geographical inquiry isstilla very wide one. The in-

terior of many continents remains blank in our latest maps. The coasts

of others are set down as handed from chart-maker to chart-maker

without. any recent verifications, and upon very doubtful original

1832.] Progress of Indian Maritime Surveys. 329

authority, while of more than half the islands on the earth’s surface

we have no more accurate knowledge, than the fact, that they exist

in clusters of uncertain number and position, and of very dangerous

approach. Nay, even in the great high-ways of commerce and of navi-

gation, there are rocks and sandbanks and other perils, as to the ex-

istence and locality of which the evidence is balanced with most per-

plexing equality. Such things ought not to be in this age of philoso-

phical research, and in a department more especially which admits of

exact ascertainment. We look to the labours of the new Geographical

Society to dispel the mist of uncertainty which now covers so much

of the earth’s surface, and by little and little to bring out the whole in

-clear and well-defined and undisputed outlines. Those who aid in this

work, may be assured of the approving cheer with which the results of

their labours will be hailed by all classes and all nations ; for geo-

graphy is a science, the benefit from advancing which none are so

obtuse or so bigotted as not to acknowledge.

As a science, geography is entirely of modern growth. It has followed

upon the advances made in the art of navigation ; and to this circum-

stance only can we ascribe, the comparative backwardness of the an-

cients in the department, and the little they have left that is of value in

it. Before the discovery of the compass and the improvements made

in the construction of ships, and the numberless inventions which have

made navigation a means of access to the remotest corners of the far dis-

tant ocean, the geographer’s materials were confined to itineraries, and the

confused records of military expeditions, and of laborious land-journies.

Then mountains and rivers, and interior seas, deserts and lakes, were the

objects of first discovery. Now we have the coasts and outward appear-

ance, and the entire size of a continent thoroughly ascertained and de-

lineated before we know any thing whatsoever of the interior. With

the advance of navigation came the necessity of providing the means of

accurately knowing, whereabout on the earth’s surface the winds and

waves had carried the adventurous voyager. Hence the discovery of

instruments for determining latitudes and longitudes witha precision be-

fore undreamt of, and hence the ability to assign a place on the general

map of the earth’s surface to every object that presented itself to the

navigator’s observation.

The refined and scientific surveys on land, undertaken for the correct

determination of the earth’s figure, would never have been set on foot

but for the discoveries previously made by navigation. They are but

an extension of that science, and are effected through an application of

_the same intruments and materials, though these are prepared and

t 2

330 Progress of Indian Maritime Surveys. (Ave.

used of course with much more elaborate care than for the common

purposes of the practical voyager.

Seeing, therefore, how entirely dependent geography has been, and

still is, and, for a long time to come, must be upon navigation, we learn

to appreciate the labours of those marine surveyors and careful scien-

tific navigators, through whom we have arrived at a correct knowledge

of the positions of islands, and of the figure of continents, and of the

bays and rivers, and rocks and sand-banks, which distinguish the shores

of seas and oceans, and thus are enabled to compilea chart which shall ac-

curately exhibit the phenomena of the earth’s surface, and enable future

voyagers to steer boldly to ports they have never before visited ; asto-

nishing the native inhabitants by the display of more information on the

subject than they possess themselves.

There is nothing however more deceitful, or that ought to be received

with more distrust than a chart or nautical survey, with the author

of which and the materials of construction we are unacquainted. There

is not a midshipman nor a captain’s clerk in the mercantile navy that

cannot take a latitude and a bearing, and with the help of the printed

navigation tables, make an approximate calculation of the longitude.

Nobody, therefore, that sails in a ship which happens to light upon

strange lands, or upon objects of any kind not laid down in previous

charts, fails to assign at once a locality to what hesees ; and if the time

allows him to cast anchor, a chartis constructed from a series of bearings,

and produced. with as much confidence as if made from the best trigono-

metrical data. If the author of the discovery be a man of credit and in-

telligence, his chart is incorporated in those published to the world, and

continues, with all its defects, to be given out as the best record possessed

of the portion of the earth’s surface delineated. This is exactly as it

should be, and no one in his senses, would wish such information and

materials to be suppressed ; but the difference is wide between the sketch

of acasual voyager of this kind, put together from compass bearings,

and logboard distances, and computed latitudes and longitudes, and the

accurate delineation of the practised nautical surveyor employed to

verify, and to ascertain once for all, the exact position and outline of

what has been hitherto vaguely and imperfectly known and reported.

The Governments of British India are entitled to much credit, for the

manner in which the means at their disposal have been employed in fur-

thering the advance of our geographical knowledge, by surveys of this

kind. The department has, in the seas to the eastward of the Indian penin-

sulas, been for many years under the direction and personal management

of Captain Ross, Senior Commander in the Indian Navy, and Marine

1832.] Progress of Indian Maritime Surveys.” 331

Surveyor General to the Supreme Government. The reputation of

this officer stands already too high to be affected by any commenda-

tions we might bestow upon the works he has produced. We look

‘upon the charts as complete models in their kind, knowing them to

be constructed with a care and a regard to scientific accuracy, cre-

ditable alike to himself,and to the Government, which approving his

cautious methods, leaves him to prosecute his surveys as his own good

sense may suggest, unembarrassed by minute instructions, and with

merely the locality and direction of his investigations indicated before-

hand. The result is, that charts are annually produced, which con-

vert tracts of complete terra incognita, or coasts roughly laid down

from the loose bearings and observations of casual voyagers, into lines

‘of accurately defined and well delineated shore, with the mountains and

highlands, the bays and harbours, the rivers and watering places, and

‘all the towns or villages, within observation from the sea, correctly

set down. Each of these charts is a new acquisition to geography,

quite independent of the service done to navigation by laying down

the real position and bearings of dangers, visible or hidden; and by

‘enabling every nautical man, on approaching the coast surveyed, to

know for certain where he is, and what course he should steer in pro-

secution of the voyage he has in hand.

A coast once laid down by the accurate methods pursued by

Captain Ross, needs never to be surveyed a second time. Future

‘investigators may complete what from circumstances may have

been left by him imperfect. They may add a few new lines of

‘soundings, but they will find nothing to find fault with or to require

correction. Indeed, the confidence with which practical navigators,

-when once they come upon the ground included in his surveys, follow

boldly his directions, and shape their course at pleasure, in the most

intricate passages, is both a compliment to hisindustry and professional

‘skill, and a proof of his well-earned reputation in the depart.

ment.

Captain Ross was, we believe, first employed in surveying various

- portions of the China Seas, under the orders of the Court of Directors,

‘issued as far back as in the year 1806. These surveys occupied him

‘14 years, and embraced all the most prominent dangers of the fre=

quented passages of navigation to and from China, and all the most

important coasts of that empire. The charts were separately pub-

‘lished, as they were completed, but the whole were afterwards incor-

.porated in the General Chart published by the hydrographer of the

Company, and which bears Mr. Horsburgh’s name.

332 Progress of Indian Maritime Surveys. [Auve.

In 1823, Captain Ross was appointed by the Court of Directors to

his present office of Marine Surveyor General. His operations were

necessarily interrupted during the Burmese war; but the following

surveys have since been executed in succession under his superin-

tendence, and mostly by himself personally.

1, The Rangoon river to its mouth.

2. The straits, approaches, and harbour of Singapore.

3. The Mergui archipelago, Tenasserim coast, and Martaban, with

the river at Amherst and Moulmein. The sheets of this Chart cover a

line of coast extending from Lat. 8°. 28’. N. to 16°. 32’. and include a vast

number of Islands never before laid down or even visited by Europeans,

4. In the meantime, the coast of Ava from Negrais to Ramri, and

Sandowi, was surveyed by Captain Crawfurd, and Cheduba roads

and Ramri, by Captain Ross’s assistant Lieut. Lloyd.

5. The coast of Arracan, north of the point to which Captain Craw-

furd’s Chart extended, was, in the past season, the object of Captain

Ross’s personal survey ; and, in one or two seasons more, the entire

eastern shore of the Bay of Bengal will have been laid down by this

officer, or by those under his orders, with as much accuracy as can be

claimed for the charts of the coasts of Europe and the Mediterranean.

All Captain Ross’s surveys, and those made under his orders by

junior officers of the department, are laid down from bases carefully

measured on shore, where this has been possible, and are strictly tri-

gonometrical ; and though necessarily wanting that minute correctness

aimed at in similar surveys on land, they possess, nevertheless, an accuracy

fully sufficient for the scale on which the Charts are delineated. The

base lines on shore are measured on the most favorable level spots that

can be found, by running a ten-foot rod along a cord, stretched tight

between the extreme points, and kept in position by stakes, of which

the direction is verified by a telescope at one end. Second and third

bases are measured for further assurance, and in correction of the first.

If there be no means of measuring a baseon shore, as when the

Jocality of rocks and sand-banks, out of sight of land, may have to be

ascertained, recourse is had to the measurement of a base by sound,

which ina long line of 54 to 6 geometric miles is a process affording more

practical accuracy than would be supposed. The vessels being an-

chored at this distance, and a calm period chosen, the distance is taken

between the flash and report of a gun, and upon the assumption that

sound travels at the rate of 1140 feet per second, while with repeated

Note.—The Andaman Islands were surveyed as far back as 1789, 90, and 1793,

by Captain Blair.

1832. ] Progress of Indian Maritime Surveys. 333

experiments the time can be taken to a tenth ofasecond, the distance

of the two vessels is obtained by this process to within at least 50 or

60 yards.

The angles subtended by the different points on shore, are taken

always with the sextant, and the azimuth compass is only resorted to in

order to lay down the true meridian. The practice of taking points

by bearings of the compass, though common with many nautical sur-

veyors of repute, is one that admits, comparatively with the sextant,

of very little accuracy. The theodolite cannot be used on board ship.

_ Frequent observations for latitude and longitude, made both on shore

and on ship-board, and as well from morning as from evening sights,

afford further means of insuring accuracy ; and it has been stated, that

upon the result of the survey made of the coast and archipelago of

Mergui and Tenasserim, extending through a space of eight degrees of

Jatitude, and of one or one and a half of longitude, and comprising

upwards of 600 islands entered in the chart ; the difference in position

of any two intermediate objects found trigonometrically, barely ex-

ceeded, when tested by careful observations for latitude, one quarter

of a mile :—more than this cannot be desired for any purpose within

the objects of a Marine Survey.

It has been usual for the Government, upon receiving each chart as

it is completed, to strike off a few copies by lithography, and to send '

the originals to England, where they are engraved by the Court of

Directors, and we presume, made accessible to the public. We have

heard occasional complaint of difficulty in procuring copies, but whe-

ther that difficulty refers to their not being furnished from the Go-

vernment offices in India, or to disappointment at not being able —

to procure them here to purchase, we confess that we do not thorough-

ly understand. The later Charts of Captain Ross, and in particular the

very interesting survey of the Mergui archipelago and Tenasserim coast,

are well deserving of the attention of the Geographical Society in

England, from the additions they afford to the geographical informa-

tion possessed of those countries; and we hope to see them noticed

with due acknowledgments by that Society. Did we possess the same

facility of neat engraving, that publishers in England have at command,

we should have thought it our duty to annex to this article, a sketch of

the whole of this coast and of its islands, as now laid down, compared

with the same as given in the latest previous Charts, in order that the

extent of the improvement effected might be duly appreciated. The

backwardness of India in this branch of art compels us to leave this

to be done by others.

334 Progress of Indian Maritime Surveys. [Aue.

The progress of the maritime surveys on the western side of the

peninsula of India, has not been less effectual in defining the out-

line and real bearing of the coasts, and the position of the islands,

rocks, and sand-banks, between the Indus and the African shore, in-

cluding the two inland seas of Persia and Arabia. We have not the

means of stating the periods when each tract of this wide space was

surveyed, or of giving the names of the officers employed upon the

work; but we learn that a series of engraved charts, illustrative of a

considerable part of the shore of Persia, has been lately received from

the Court of Directors in England, and we know that a surveying esta-

blishment is maintained for those seas, quite independently of that under

the Supreme Government at the head of which Capt. Ross is now placed.

That establishment, we may be assured, has not been idle, but it is

the less necessary for us to enquire what may have been the result of its

official labours, because we learn that a branch of the Royal Geographi-

cal Society has already been formed at Bombay, so that we may look

forward to receive accurate reports of the progress making there in every

branch of this science, either in separate publications for embodying the

proceedings of the Branch Society, or inthe communications and papers

it will contribute to the pages of the parent Society in England.

The example of this diligence, ought not to be lost upon us ; and

although the proceedings of our Asiatic Society, and several articles

which this publication, or its predecessor, has been the means of

laying before the world, sufficiently shew, that the interest and

curiosity already directed to this field of science needs little further

stimulus or excitement, yet we confess, that we think it might be advise-«

able for the Asiatic Society to form a separate committee of its mem-

bers into a Geographical Class, whose labours should be specially direct-

ed into this channel, as is the case with the Physical Class already

formed, and through whom correspondence might be opened with the

Royal Geographical Society in England, and with the Branch Society

more recently established at Bombay. This object is well worthy of

the attention of those members of the Society who have devoted them-

selves to Geography, and who as navigators, travellers, and professional

surveyors, may have already contributed, or may have the means of

_ contributing to the stock of information already accumulated in this line.

Their experience and talents cannot be more usefully employed than

in comparing, combining, and publishing in a mature and digested form

the materials which, if such a Committee of the Asiatic Society were in

existence, would, there can be no doubt, be offered in abundance from

many quarters.

1832. ] ~ On the Mammalia of Nepal. 335

II.—On the Mammalia of Nepal—By B. H. Hodgson, Esq. C. S.

[Read in the Physical Class, 8th February.]

The geographical distribution of animalsis, I observe, daily at-

tracting, more and more, the attention of the ablest Zoologists ; and

reasonably, for this view of the subject has many relations of great

interest and importance. On this account I am induced to offer to

the Society, a summary enumeration of the Mammalia of Nepal. But

as the territories comprehended within the dominions of the Gorkhali

dynasty, and now universally denominated Nepal, possess an extra-

ordinary variety of temperature and physiognomy, it will be necessary

to preface my account of the animals found within its limits, by a

brief description of the climate and physical aspect of the materially

different parts of these territories. These parts are three, the juxta-

Indian, the Central, and the juxta-Himalayan. The first embraces the

Tarai or marshes, the Bhawar or forest, and the little hills with their

subject valleys up to the base of the mountains, properly so called.

The marshes and forest are on the level of the plains of Hindustan,

and possess their climate, with some increase of heat from deficient ven-

tilation, especially in the forest; and with an excess of moisture,

derived from numberless petty streams oozing out of the hills, and dis-

sipating their waters in the soil of the forest and Tarai, for want of

force to cut channels for themselves into the rivers.

About ,4, of the Tarai is cultivated: the rest is overrun with topes

gone to jungle, brush-wood, and giant-grass. Large tracts of the grass

land of the Tarai are annually subdued by fire, and afterwards de-

pastured by thousands of cows and buffaloes, but only for about two

months ; after which the grass growing out of all compass, restores to

these temporary pastures, the features of the surrounding wilderness.

The forest is entirely void of cultivation, and isa prodigious assem-

blage of noble trees woven together by immense creepers.; and incum-

bered, above, with air plants; below, with underwood and grass from

6 to 10 feet high.

The third portion of this tract, comprising the small hills with their

subjacent valleys, up to the base of the great or true mountains, has

the same character with the forest, (save where, here and there, one of

the valleys has been cleared and worked,) and the elevation of this

tract is too inconsiderable to make any difference in its temperature.

The malaria prevails equally and terribly throughout all three parts

_of this region, from the middle of March to the middle of October ;

and whoever has traversed it must, I think, fee/ that the pestilence is

336 On the Mammalia of Nepal. [ Aue.

generated by the undue and almost exclusive prevalence of vegetable

exhalations in the atmosphere. There is no free ventilation; and the

forest and the lesser hills (where the malaria is worst) are absolute

wildernesses of rank vegetation, of so extravagantly rife an increase that

in Oriental phrase, you may almost see and hear it grow!

Yet, it is worthy of remark, that in this pest-house, from which

all mankind flee, during 8 months of every 12, constantly reside

and are bred* some of the mightiest quadrupeds in the world. The

royal tiger, the panther, the leopard, the elephant, the arna or wild

buffalo, the rhinoceros, and stags of the noblest growth, abound :

and, what to our fancies is less singular, the same malarious region

cherishes Boa constrictors of the largest size, and other huge creatures

of their kind.

The like is notoriously the case elsewhere: yet still we may rea-

sonably insist on the fact, and ask what is it in the constitution of these

large quadrupeds, (I omit the serpents in the argument,) carnivorous

and herbivorous, which enables them to breathe healthfully the air

that is death to man. Take ¢ame animals of their very kinds suddenly

into this region between April and October, and, like man, almost,

they will catch the malaria and die. On the other hand, there are

particular tribes of men bred in these or similar places, (such as the

Thard of the spot and the Dhangar of South Behar,) who can live there,

at least, if not flourish. They die not ; neither do they pine visibly ;

* A friend, who is looking over my shoulder as I write, suggests to me, that

Bishop Heber has observed in his Journal, that the malarious tract is entirely

abandoned by wild animals, as well as by man and his flocks and herds, in the

unhealthy season.

The Bishop probably was unaware that the malaria is not confined to the Tardi,

properly so called, but rages thoughout the saul forest and the lesser hills, up to an

elevation of some 3000 feet on the mountains: and that the wild animals, which

are driven, by fire, out of the more open parts of the Tardi at the close of the cold

weather, and cannot return till the rains have restored to them the shelter of a

rank vegetation, retire during this interval to the covert of the forest and lesser

hills.

If the elephants, rhinoceroses, wild buffaloes, and tigers, were to quit the

malarious tract altogether, they must either ascend the huge mountains of the

central region of Nepal, or, issue out into the plains of Hindastan : either of which

suppositions is extravagant enough, one would think, to refute itself, were they not

both of them, as they are unquestionably, refuted by notorious facts—such as the

extraordinary depradations committed upon the crops of the Taréi by wild ele-

phants and buffaloes issuing out of the forest at the height of the malarious sea-

son—the circumstance of European gentlemen seeking the tiger in his lair, on

the confines of the forest, in March and April, at the hazard of their lives, because

he is to be found no where else, &c. &c.

1832. ] On the Mammaiia of Nepal. Sam

but they are poor specimens of humanity ; whereas the great quadru-

peds alluded to are the largest and most vigorous of their respective

kinds.

These facts would seem to indicate, that the principle sought is that

of inherited habits of body, or acclimatization, carried to such perfection

by course of time, inrespect to the great quadrupeds, as to have super-

seded their original and natural habits of body—carried to a much less

perfect state in regard to the particular tribes of human beings in

question. The elephant, tiger, &c. may well be supposed to have

tenanted these recesses for countless ages—man has but recently at-

tempted to divide the dominion with them. Yet, it must be confessed,

that the notions broached carry the idea of physical adaptability to an

extreme extent; besides contradicting the accepted opinion as to the

superior capacity of man over the brutes in that respect. Let it be

observed, that in these observations I wish merely to insist upon the

singular fact, which I do not remember to have seen noted elsewhere,

viz. that in the most noxious tracts of country, tracts in which man

cannot live, some of the noblest quadrupeds abound and flourish—quad-

rupeds whose superior organization precludes the idea that the prin-

ciple of life is differently modified in them and in man, and which

consequently ought to be similarly affected with man by atmospherical

causes. Why then, are they not so? Craving pardon for this digression,

I now proceed briefly to characterise the region which I have denomi-

nated the central one.

This consists of a clusterous succession of mountains, varying in height

from 3 to 10,000 feet, covered every where with a deep bed of mould,

which feeds and sustains the most superb trees, and shrub vegetation,

and grasses, in general, toorankly luxuriant to afford wholesome pasture.

The mountains are very precipitous, with extremely narrow intervals.

There are no extensive high flats, such as we call table lands or pla-

teaux, and only two low flats or valleys of any extent, which are those

of Nepal proper and of Yimila. The succession of the seasons is the

same as in the first region, and in the plains of India; from which the

central tract differs only in the material respect oftemperature. Varying

with the diversities of elevation, this region possesses a temperature

from 10 to 20 degrees lower than that of Hindustan, and, with some

allowance, its climate may be characterised as similar to that of the

Mediterranean shores. It is as moist as the plains of North Behar,

and, upon the whole, as salubrious as most countries in the world,

Not a ith part of its surface, probably, is under the plough. For

some cca anet reason (I myself suppose the rankness of the pas-

u 2

338 On the Mammalia of Nepal. [Ave.

ture) neither the small nor large horned cattle flourish: in it, in the

domestic state: and the paucity of its wild mammalia would seem

to indicate that animals of this class find its climate inimical to them

even in the state of nature.

The third region of Nepal is the juxta-Himalayan, called by

Buchanan the Alpine, and by the natives denominated the Kachar.

From the crest or spine of the Hemachal it extends, in breadth, about

10 horizontal miles. The mountains are of a like structure, and as

’ splendidly wooded almost as those of the central region, but much

higher, being, I should suppose, generally from 10 to 16,000 feet above

the sea, up to the limit of habitability ; where, of course, I stop. For

half the year the summits of these mountains are buried under snow ;

and, near to the imadus, their sides and basal intervals also. The

suite of the seasons is tropical, as before; and, occasionally, the heat

isextreme. But the season of heat is short; and, upon the whole,

the climate of this region more nearly resembles that of high than

that of low latitudes. It has nothing tropical about it but the course

of the seasons. Its grasses are short and wholesome: its underwood

free from rankness; and hence probably its cows, sheep, and goats,

are numerous, large, and fine ; whereas, as already observed, they are

few and poor in the proximate region, the succulent vegetation of which

retains much of the tropical extravagance of growth. When the

heats set in, in the central region, all the woollen-wearing inhabitants

of the Kachar hie away to their own province; nor ever return till

the approach of the cold weather. Ex uno disce omnes. It is the

same with the birds as with the mammalia. There are peculiar ones

to each of the three regions—a point which I insist on, because, those

very persons who are so careful in mentioning the habitat of animals

have described many procured from the kingdom of Nepal, without

advertence to the particular part of that kingdom whence they were

obtained.

I now proceed to my enumeration of the mammalia of Nepal,

distinguishing such as belong to the lesser hills, forest, and Tarai,

such as are found in the central region, and such as are peculiar to

the Kachar. Let me begin by acknowledging that I am but an

amateur zoologist, and have but recently turned my attention to the

mammalia: but as I may be soon removed from Nepal, or may

have my attention drawn off from Natural History to graver labours,

I shall not let an idle conceit of accuracy prevent me from mentioning

what has fallen under my observation, so far. My personal know-

ledge of these hills is chiefly confined to the central and northern

1832. ] On the Mammalia of Nepal. 339

regions above defined; and of the mammalia of the lower or juxta-

Indian region, I have probably less knowledge than was possessed by

Abel, Duvaucel, and others, now alas! no more ; but whose investiga-

tions have, no doubt, survived them. Without professing therefore

to give a full or exact enumeration of the mammalia of Nepal, I pro-

ceed to notice the result of limited observation. Should I remain

here, and have leisure, I can and will follow up the subject.

Crass MAMMALIA.

Sus-crass Uneuricutata. Family Bimana. Genus Homo.

The great indigenal mass of the population of Nepal belongs to the

Kalmak division of the vast mongolian variety of the human race. But

the dominant tribe of Khas are mongrels; derived, on the male side,

from the Brahmans and Kshetriyas of India, on the female, from the

Aborigines, and chiefly from the Magar and Jariah clans of these.

These observations apply to the northern and central divisions of

the country. The southern or juxta-Indian division is peopled, so

far as it is peopled at all, either by the Hindus and Musulmans of

the plains, or, by a peculiar race demominated Thard, of probably

similar origin with the Bhils, Coles, and other rude mountaineers of

the great Indian’ continent. The Thari, however, though their lan-

guage and physiognomy prove them to bea distinct race from the

Hindus, have probably been much mixed with the latter; and, at

all events, are fairer, less ugly, and less barbarous, than the Indian

mountaineers in question.

Family QuapRUMANA.

There are no monkeys in the northern and central* regions; and

those of the southern region are identical, so far as I know, with the

ordinary species of the plains, viz. the /angér and the bandar. There

are no others that I am aware of.

I am not acquainted with any animal of the genus Lemur in Nepal ;

but the, for the most part, nocturnal habits of these animals tend to

withdraw them from observation. It is probable, that the slow-paced

Loris, at least, inhabits the lower hills; and possible, that species of

other sub-genera are tenants of that immense solitude.

* Religion has introduced the Bandar into the central region, where it seems

to flourish, half domesticated, in the neighbourhood of temples, in the populous val-

ley of Nepal proper. My shooters were once alarmed in the Kachér by the appa-

rition of a ‘‘ wild man,” possibly an ourang, but I doubt their accuracy. They

mistook the creature for a cAcodemon or rakshas, and fled from it instead of

shooting it. It moved, they said, erectly: was covered with long dark hair, and

had no tail,

340 On the Mammalia of Nepal. [ Aue.

Family Cuemorrera.

The genera Galeopiithecus and Phyllostoma are, I believe, wanting.

Of the four remaining genera of this family, viz. Noctilio, Vesper-

tilio, Pteropus, Rhinolphus, there are abundance in the Tarai: but

few in the central region, and fewer still in the northern. One species

of Rhinolphus harbours in out-houses in the central regions, and oc-

casionally enters dwelling houses at night when attracted by the

lights. And one species of Pteropus appears in the autumn, and then

only, to plunder the ripe pears in gardens. It is similar in characters

with the great “¢ fox bat” of the plains; but much smaller, and ofa

duller colour, or uniform dusky brown.

Family PuantigRADA.

There areno hedgehogs in Nepal. Moles are found only in the

Kachar. Musk shrews abound in the lower and central regions,

wherever there are human habitations. The shrew of Nepal is a

smaller variety of the familiar stinking creature called ordinarily the

musk-rat in the plains. It is the Sorex Indicus. No such animal

is known to the Kachar. Bears ( Ursida) of different kinds abound

in all parts of Nepal, and are very dangerous and troublesome :—in the

Tarai, Prochilus Labiatus and Helarctos Malayanus ;—in the central

and northern regions, Ursus Isabellinus and Ursus Tibetanus. And

here we may notice those interesting animals of newly proposed sub-

genera, which serve to connect the bears with the civets and weasels.

Ailurus Fulgens and Ictides Albifrons belong to the Kachar, though

they are occasionally found in the central region also. This latter

division is the exclusive habitat of a new species of Paradoxurus,

coloured, especially in youth, like the Mustela Hardwicki. It is not

foetid, and prefers, in confinement, vegetable to animal food. When

very young its tail is not convolate.

Family DicitiegRapA.

Of the genus Viverra, or Civet, the Zibet, or Indian Civet, is common

in the central region: but not known to the northern. It is probably

found likewise in the lesser hills; but lam not aware of the fact.

We have also, in the central region, a very small variety of the In-

dian ichneumon or V. Mungos of Gmelin.

The Tarai, Bhawar and lesser hills teem with all the known, large

Indian species of Felis, such as the royal tiger, the panther, the

leopard, the cheeta or hunting leopard, besides some described and

undescribed species of smaller cats. To the central region the tiger

isalmost unknown, and so is the panther. But leopards abound in

it; they however confine themselves almost entirely to the woods, sel-

1832. | On the Mammalia of Nepal. 341

dom approaching inhabited places, or doing greater mischief than the

occasional destruction of a village dog. They are much less dreaded

than the bears.

Some of the small cats of the central region are numerous and

beautiful ; such as the Felis Nipalensis. ‘The Miarmi cat (mihi)

is peculiar to this tract, in which and in the northern region also is

found a species of wild cat belonging to the section of the lynxes, or

medial cats, with shortish tails and pencilled ears. It answers

precisely to Felis Chaus of Ruphel, but not to the booted lynx,

which has usually been held to be the same animal. The domestic

cat is as common in Nepal as elsewhere, and has no peculiarity worthy

of note. Judging by its marks, I should conjecture that it is derived

from the Felis Nipalensis ; if so, it has lost by domestication the fine

ground colour of that beautiful species. Strange as it may appear, it

is unquestionably true that the royal tiger is found in the Kachar,

close to the snows. But it must be remembered, that in that extra-

ordinary region there are valleys of extreme depth and heat, as well

as mountains of extreme height and coldness. Why this monster

should avoid the central region, and yet seek the western one, may be

probably explained by the paucity of ruminants in the former region,

and by their comparative abundance in the latter-: and it must be re-

membered, that there is free access from the Tarai and Bhawar (the

nursery of tigers) to the Kachar, by the means of the banks of the

large rivers. The leopard is also found in the Kachar, and a variety

of undescribed small cats. All the three regions of Nepal abound in

weasels (Mustelide), many of which are unknown altogether to Natural

History.

We have, in the central region, besides Mustela Hardwickii, another

species nearly allied to it, but of a fuller habit, andlarger: and yet

another similarly allied, but very small and beautifully coloured. The

two last are undescribed. In the lower hills is found a new species,

with shorter tail than the above, and more closely resembling the vulgar

weasel of England: having a white stripe down the vertex and a white

band across the forehead; and one species in the Kachar, also new.

The polecat likewise is an inhabitant of the central and northern re-

gions,—rare in the former, and common in the latter.

Of the genus Lutra, we have seven species, all differing from

either of the two species found ordinarily in the plains, as well as with

one exception, from thosedescribed by authors. ‘The exception allud-

ed to is the common otter, (L. vulgaris,) of which the largest Nepa~

lese species cannot be considered more than a variety. This animal

342 ‘On the Mammalia of Nepal. [Aueé

in Nepal reaches the length of five feet, inclusive of the tail ; and is

upon the whole, the largest, though not the longest, species we have.

It is peculiar to the lower region, where, also, three other species have

their habitat. Two more belong to the central region: and one only to

the Kachar. One species is yellowish white all over : the rest are brown;

more or less dark ; some having the chin and throat, or whole inferior

surface, paled nearly to white. They differ in extent from 5 feet to

14 foot ; and not much less considerably in bulk, for some of them

exhibit an almost vermiform habit of body ; and others are as stoutly

made as the badger.

Genus Canis.

The only domesticated species of dog found in any part of

Nepal south of the Kachar is the common village dog, or chien

de rue of the plains, usually known there by the name of the

pariar, a prick-eared cur belonging to every body and nobody. The

Parbattiahs however prize the creature, and render it useful in

hunting deer and antelopes. It belongs to Cuvier's 2nd section.

The noble beast usually denominated the Nepal dog is found only

in the Kachar, where alone in Nepal he can live. It was introduced

into the Kachar from Tibet, in which region it is indigenous, and in

various parts of which there are several varieties. That of Lassa

is the finest, and is almost always black, with tan legs, and a false or

5th digit before and behind.

Landseer has excellently figured a male and female of this dog,

which were taken from the residency and presented to the king of

England. The mustang variety is rather smaller, of a bright red

colour, with wall eyes ; and he wants the 5th digit behind. Even in

the Kachar, this dog degenerates rapidly ; and he can no more bear the

heats of the central region of Nepal than his country-fellows of the

human race. This would seem to be the dog whose extraordinary

powers, ages ago, surprised Alexander and his Grecians. It is found

throughout Tibet. This dog is justly placed in Cuvier’s 3rd section

of the canine ; but he ought surely to be classed under the variety

mastiff, not bull dog. His superior size, moderately truncated muzzle,

long fur, sunken eye, perfectly pendant ears, and 5th claw on the hind

foot (in the Lhassan animal at least) seem decisive of this point. The

chief character of the skull consists in the great development of the

longitudinal and transverse criste. There is a species of wild dog*

peculiar to each of the three regions of Nepal. That of the lower

region is the smallest and darkest : that of the central tract is of a

* Canis primevus, mihi. The Bidnsté of the Nepalese.

1832. ] On the Mammalia of Nepal. 343

deep ferrugineous red ; and that of the Kachar of a wolf-like reddisli

sandy yellow, as much larger than the wild dog of the central region,

as that is larger than the species or variety belonging to the -lesser

hills and forest.

These dogs are very numerous, but so exceedingly shy of human

habitations, that it is only by rusticating in the depths of the woods of

Nepal that you have a chance of seeing or even hearing them.

Through the kindness of the first minister of this state, [ have obtained,

alive, several individuals of them, especially of the variety peculiar to

the central region, and have kept them in confinement for many

months. |

They are all alike distinguished by a double, thick coat; large,

erect, wide, coarse, obtusely-pointed, ears; feet with hairy soles;

a straight, very bushy tail, of medial length; and jackal-like odour,

form, proportions, and aspect. And, if I may trust 5 skulls, of

mature or old individuals, now in my possession, their dental system

contradistinguishes them from all their congeners: for they have only

six molars on either side of either jaw. The swell of the parietal por-

tion of the skull is very great; and, as these primitive dogs have only

a moderately elongated head, they must be arranged under Cuvier’s

second section of the Canine.

The jackal of the plains* is very abundant in the lower and cen-

tral regions of Nepal, rare inthe Kachar. In the Tardi, the small

Indian insectivorous fox* is found ; but not in the forest of lower hills ;

nor in the central mountains, nor in those of the northern region.

Six years ago, I introduced it from below into the valley of Nepal ;

and it seems to thrive well. The Kachar has a large peculiar species

of fox, which I have not been so fortunate as to see. The wolf

of the plains is unknown beyond the limits of the level country, nor

is there any other species or variety peculiar to Nepal ; unless it be

found in the Kachar: which 1 am not aware of. The like is true of

the hyena.

Family Pepimana.

This family presents, as far as I know, a perfect blank.

Family Ropentta.

The common species of the genus Hystrix is frequent in the cen-

tral and lower regions ; unknown tothe Kachar, 1 believe. In the Tarai,

* We want descriptions of both of these, which differ as varieties, from all

those described.

344 ‘On the Mammalia of Nepal. | [ Aue.

the ordinary small species of hare* of the plains abounds: and

thence extends into the central division, where, however, it is very

scarce. ,

There is a larger species very nearly resembling the English, in the

central and northern regions ; but rare in both. The genera Kan-

garus, Castor, and Cavia, are unknown to us. In the southern re-

gion the common, little, striped, squirrel of the plains abounds. In the

central region we have an animal of the same size and characters, but

of an unstriped earthy-brown colour, tipped with golden yellow :

and in both these tracts the beautiful flying squirrel is found—a large

species, rich deep red-brown above, and golden yellow below ;

belonging to the sub-genus or subdivision Sciwropterus of the younger

Cuvier. It is not known to the Kachar, but is most common in the

central region.

Of the genus Mus we have none of the numerous sub-genera except

Mus proper and Arctomys ; the latter, confined to the Kachar. The

rat of Nepal is a small variety of the common type (Norway rat),

and is very numerous and troublesome. The Mus giganteus, or

bandicoot of the plains, is unknown to it. House mice are rare, and

no way peculiar: field mice, common. I have already noticed, in its

proper place, the musk-rat, or, more properly, musk-shrew.

Family Epentara.

Genus Manis. The short-tailed species of manisis of frequent

occurrence in the hills of the lower region, and in the mountains of

the central tract. It is unknown, I believe, to the Kachar. The

received opinion, that it has no external ears, isa mistake. I am not

aware that any of the other genera of this family are found in any

part of Nepal.

Family Tarpvicraba.

The solitary genus of this family+ ( Bradypus) is not, so far as. I

know, known to Nepal.

Sus-crass UNGULATA. Family Pacnyvermata,

The elephant and rhinoceros abound in the forest and hills of

the lower region of Nepal, where they breed, and have their fixed

abode; and whence, in the season of the rains, they constantly issue

* Like the Indian fox and jackal, it still remains to be accurately described and

distinguished.

t+ N. B. Arrangement is no part of my object; and, in want of books, I

follow the tabular synopsis of the Mammalia given in the GLEANINGS IN SCIENCE,

No. 29. It is sufficiently near to the most accredited and notorious system to be

generally intelligible, in the way in which it is used by me.

1832. ] On the Mammalia of Nepal. 345

into the cultivated parts of the Tarai to feed upon the rice crops,

Both these genera are entirely unknown to the central and northern

regions. The elephant is that so well known as the Indian variety,

and as such is contra-distinguished from the African variety. But

it may be questioned, if there be not two distinct varieties or species

in India alone, viz. the Ceylonese, and that of the saul forest. The

former differs materially from the latter by having a smaller lighter

head, which is carried more elevated, and by higher forequarters. It

is also said to be larger, and of a more generous and bold temper.

The difference of size, however, is certainly a mistake. I cannot

speak to the point of temper. The rhinoceros is of the unicorn spe-

cies. The two-horned is unknown,

The rhinoceros (as I had the good fortune, eight years ago, to

have an opportunity of ascertaining in the menagerie of the Rajah of

Nepal) goes with young from 17 to 18 months, and produces only

one at a birth. When born, and for a month afterwards, the young

has a pink suffusion over the dark colour proper to the mature hide.

At birth, it walks pretty firmly, and measures three feet four inches

long (exclusive of tail), and two feet high at- the shoulder. At a

month old, it is very active and vigorous, and measures 3 ft. 10 in. by

2ft. 5 in. I have just seen and carefully examined this young animal.

He is now eight years and a month old, but is certainly very far

from being adult. His length (without the tail) is 9 ft. 3 in—his

height, at the shoulder, 4 ft. 10 in. utmost girth of the body 10 ft. 5 in.

length of the head 2 ft. 4 in. and of the horn 5 inches.

The rhinoceros continues to suck its mother for nearly two years,

and is believed to live at least 100 years ; having been in one in-

stance, taken mature and kept at Kathmandu 35 years, without exhi-

biting any symptoms of approaching decline. If reared in confinement,

or taken young, the rhinoceros is perfectly tractable, and may be

driven out to graze, through the streets of a crowded city, by a single

man without even a halter to restrain it.

Of the remaining genera of the Pachydermata, we have only the

wild hog, which is common to all the three regions of Nepal, and is

plentiful in all. It resembles that variety found in the plains of

India, which is or ought to be ‘distinguished by small tushes and a

nearly horizontal back, the other Indian variety being conspicuous

for the elevation and weight of its forequarters, and the superior

development of its canine teeth or tusks.

x 2

346 On the Mammalia of Nepal. [Aue.

Family Rouminantsa.

The great forest of Nepal is the nursing mother of numberless

animals of the genus Cervus, which, in the rainy and cold months,

when cover abounds, thence issue into the Tarai; and in the hot

months, when fire is effectually employed to clear the Tarai, and

forest too in a less degree, of grass and underwood, retreat into the

recesses of the lower hills.

Besides the Chittra, the Lagna or Pada, and the Sigoriah of the

plains of Hindustan, (the spotted Axis, the spotted and the brown

Porcine Awis, respectively,) to the lower region of Nepal belong, the

Barah Sinha, a splendid variety of the common stag or Cervus

Elephus ; three species of the Rusa group of Major Smith, denominated

collectively Jarai by the Nepalese, and contradistinguished by the

epithets Phisro, Rato, and Kalo, or hoary, red, and black ; of which

the first is the Cervus Hippelaphus of Cuvier ; the second, possibly,

Major Smith’s C. Equinus ; and the last, undescribed, the Bahraiya,

a new osculant species, serving with C. Wallichii, to connect the

Elaphine and Rusan groups of Smith; and, lastly, a new species of

Muntjac described by me under the local name of Ratwa.

There is no deer proper to the central region but the Ratwa,

which, though it occur in the hills of the southern division, and in

the lowest valleys of the Kachar, is the more peculiar inhabitant of

the middle tract. I can make nothing of Sir W. Ouseley’s musk deer

of Nepal, referred by Smith to the Muntjacs, and named C. Mos-

chatus.

The Rato Jarai is sometimes found in the mountains; but it,

and the other two species of Jarai, belong decidedly to the lower

region.

In the Kachar there is no species of Cervus ; the Nepal deer or

C. Wallichit being, I am pretty sure, trans-Himalayan ; and the

Ratwa being, as already hinted, a vagrant there.

Of Antelopes, the Ghoral (4. Ghoral, Hardwicke) belongs exclu-

sively to the northern and central divisions ; the Thar (A. Thar,

mihi) properly to the central, though he occurs also in the northern

and southern regions; and the four-horned and black antelopes, (A.

Chikara and A. Cervicapra,) exclusively to the lower region. The

former keeps to the open plains of the Tarai; the latter, to the cover

of the saul forest. And there are no more antelopesin Nepal; for

the Chira (A. Hodgsonii, Abel,) never passes the Himalaya, nor even

approaches that stupendous chain of mountains; it being confined to

the open plains of north-eastern Tibet. The Thar, much more

1832.] On the Mammalia of Nepat. ee

properly than the Ghoral*, belongs to Major Smith’s Naemorhedine

group, and bears an extreme resemblance to the Cambing Ootan

of Sumatra. The females of the Thar species, however, have four

teats, and carry horns. Wherefore, those indicative characters of the

group, set down with a note of interrogation by its author (viz. females

hornless and with two mammez), would seem to be incorrect. In the

Thar the bony core of the horns is cellular, and connected with

the frontal sinuses; and the horns arise very decidedly behind the

orbits; material deviations from Antilope, and approximations to

Capra, agreeing with the generally Caprine character of the external

attributes of this species, which is indeed linked to the antelopine

genus only by its horns and suborbital sinuses. In respect to that

beautiful little animal of the Tetrucerine group, called Chouka in

Nepal, Chikara in the plains, I am enabled, by means of a beautiful

specimen, to say that the distinction of species attempted to be estab-

lished upon the Duvaucellian and Hardwickian specimens and draw-

ings cannot be maintained.

To the northern division are exclusively confined the wild goats

and wild sheep of Nepal; of the former of which genera there is one

species only, viz. the Jharal (Capra Jharal, mihi), and of the

latter, two species, viz. the Bharal and the Nayaur, or, Ovis Argali,

Pallas, and Ovis Nayaur, mihi. The latter, however, is probably only

a variety of the former. The common domestic goat of the Kachar,

called by the Parbattiahs, Sinal, is a tall largish species, with ordinary

horns ; long, flowing, straight hair, drooping, longish ears, and

semi-erect, short tail. A small variety of the Changra, or shawl goat,

is not uncommon in the same quarter. Neither of these can endure

the heat of the central, and far less of the southern region, except in,

the cold season.

These latter regions have no domestic breed of goats in any respect

peculiar to them. The species found in them is the common little

goat of the lower provinces of the Bengal presidency. It is rare

aud thrives not; though it does better than the goat of the upper

provinces ; which can scarcely be bred as a luxury or curiosity by

the rich.

The domesticated sheep of the Kachar or Barual, isa stout, middle-

sized, short and narrow-tailed species, with chaffron extremely

arched, massive horns, retaining the primitive character of the wild

* M. F. Cuvier is mistaken in supposing the Ghoral to have suborbital

sinuses. It has none. The ears are striated.

348 On the Mammalia of Nepat. [Ava

race, and very short, semi-truncated ears, depressed by the incumbency

of the horns.

The rams are celebrated for their courage and pugnacity. The

wool is good, but far inferior to that of the Hiniah or Bhoteah sheep,

which, though naturalized in the Kachar, is of trans-Himalayan origin,

and still scarce as compared with the Barudl, immense flocks of which

native species are reared in the Kachar.

The Huniah is a large, tall breed, with slender, compressed, spi-

rally-twisted, horns, and short narrow tail. The colour is almost

invariably white. Individuals of this species are apt to have 3, 4, and

even 5 horns. The Hiniah cannot bear the heats of Nepal, south of

the northern division, and will doubtless flourish in England, where the

experiment is making of naturalizing it. Its wool is superb¥. The

tame sheep of the central region, or K4go, as it is named by the Par-

battiahs, is a small breed, bearing all the characters of the Barual ;

from which variety it evidently sprung at no very remote period : horns

and tail, as in the Barual: ears longer, pointed, directed forwards and

downwards : chaffron less arched : fleece finer, shorter, spirally curled,

almost always white. 3

The lower hills have no peculiar breed of sheep. Goats and sheep,

rare in the central, are almost unknown in the southern hills: but both,

and especially the latter, are very numerous in the northern division.

The domesticated cows of the Kachar are large and variously

colored like those of England : the cows of the central region small, and

black or red, like those of the Highlands of Scotland. But in the second,

the hump is conspicuous ; and not absent in the first. The Bos grun~

niens or Yak of ‘Tibet likewise flourishes in the Kachar: but not south

of it. It isa mere foolish error to suppose the milk of the Yak not good.

There are no wild animals of the Bovine kindin any part of N epal, save

the southern, where, as far as I know, the wild buffalo alone represents

the genus—the Gayal or wild Bull of the Indian mountains being un<

known to us.

Family Soutrepa.

Wild animals of this family are utterly unknown to Nepal ; and in

the domesticated state we have only some small varieties of the Tibetan

pony, called here ‘Tanghan : and though coarser and heavier, somewhat

* N. B. Should this paper meet the eye of any wealthy and spirited individual

in England, who may be disposed to forward the experiment in question, I

beg to say, Ishall be happy to assist him. Let him refer to Messrs. Mackintosh

and Co. Calcutta.

1832. | Memoir of Giuseppe @ Amato. 349

resembling in size and character the Shetland pony. Thishreed is found

from the confines of China to the Bild Tag: on the western side of

which range of mountains it increases in size, and bec omes the Chougosha

horse of the Turks. The Tanghan is bred exclusively in the Kachar

division of Nepal : and but very rarely.

We have no tame asses or mules ; man being, in Nepal, the sole “ beast

of burthen ;” by reason of the steepness of the mountains, and the want

of made roads.

III.— Memoir of Giuseppe d’ Amato.

[Extract of a private letter from Major H. Burney, Resident at the Burmese

Court, dated Ava, 9th April, 1832.]

I grieve to tell you, that the good Italian priest died last week at

Moun-lha, one of the small Catholic villages up the Moo river, near

Dibayen, and about 30 miles to the north-west of this city. It is

a pity that some account of the life of this humble missionary cannot

be communicated to the civilized world. He was a native of Na-

ples, and his name was Giuseppe d’Amato, although he was better

known to his Catholic flock, who understand only Burmese and_ the

native dialect of Portugueze, by the style and title of Padre Don

José. He and another priest, Luizi de Grondona, or as he was

styled Don Louis, were deputed from Rome by the Society De

Propagandé Fide, at the peace of Versailles in 1783. They went

to England for a passage to this country, where they arrived

sometime in 1784. Soon after, the wars of the French revolution

put a stop to all communication between them and Europe, and

for upwards of 30 years they received no assistance whatever from

their Parent Society, and were obliged to trust to their own exertions

and to the charity of their followers, who are most of them in

a state of poverty themselves, for the means of subsistence.

They were both skilled in medicine and surgery, but particularly

Don Louis, of whom very honorable mention is made by Colonel Symes

in his second mission in 1803, and by Captain Canning, on several

occasions. Don Louis died in this city about nine years ago.

Don José usually resided in the midst of his flock, which occupy

five small villages, distant from each other from four to 10 miles, and

situate in the district of Dibayen to the north-west of this city. The

names of these villages and number of houses in each are stated to be

as follows :

350 Memoir of Giuseppe d’ Amato. [Aue

Mouwarthay: yh) 5.5. 2a elaswieicle meat auel s 25 houses.

Kiyoung= Voss {Faas .255- eee oe. 15

Khyan-ta-roowa, ............ vase) 100

Wehivotiny oo ie. y ues. he pono aes ok 15

Nga-bek,....... 2 eo TANG «hate a 20

Total 175 houses,

which are said to contain a population of about 960 souls. Most

of them at one time professed the Catholic religion, but of

hi eth years many have apostatised, as D’Amato complained to me.

* Besides the above-mentioned villages, there is a small one containing

about 40 or 50 souls, called Mengalagoure, situate close to the western

walls of this city, near the British residency. To this village, in

the centre of which are a Chapel and Parsonage, built of bambts and

leaves, Don José paid an annual visit about Christmas, and it was

here that I first saw him in December, 1830.

He was then about 73 years of age, and I was particularly struck

at observing how lively all his recollections of his native land still

were. He described Naples and a celebrated piece of sculpture there,

with a degree of gesture and youthful animation that quite surprised

me. “ Dear Italy,” was always a favorite theme with him; when

he first heard Mrs. play on the piano forte, he burst into tears,

and he wept like a child for half an hour, begging all the time that

the music should not cease.

He shunned the court, and never went near any of the great men

here, if he could avoid it. He lived always among his flock like one

of themselves, and was venerated by them in no common degree. His

dress consisted of a pair of trowsers with a black cotton gown, and

Burmese sandals on his feet. He said he found stockings very

uncomfortable, and could not wear them even during the cold season.

Tis amusements consisted in drawing and painting, gardening, and

when he was in the country, in driving about in a Burmese cart drawn

by oxen. He said, that he had never been sick for even a day until the

year I first saw him, when his constitution was evidently breaking.

But even then, he walked about a good deal, and made no use of

spectacles.

The district of Dibayen, in which he lived was at one time much

infested with banditti, and Bundoolah has the credit of having put

them down, and settled that part of the country just before the late

war. D’Amato’s knowledge of medicine enabled him to doa great

deal of good among the population in his district; and although the

1832. ] Memoir of Giuseppe @ Amato. 351

village in which he resided was repeatedly plundered, he was himself

never infested but on one occasion, by a robber who did not know

him, but who was soon checked by the rest of the gang. When Dr.

Richardson went from hence to the frontiers of Manipur last year,

he heard every where on his route the most pleasing accounts of the

charity and active benevolence of old D’Amato. The Burmese of

all classes respected him greatly, and when he was seized and put in

irons by an officious officer, at the time the English army was advan-

cing from Pagan, the moment the king heard of the circumstance, he ~

ordered D’Amato to be released, observing, “ He is like a god ; why

should we molest him ?”

He was intimately acquainted with both the Pali and Burmese

languages, and was allowed to be deeply read in Burmese scriptures,

knowing more about them, a Woongyee once told me, than some of

the best informed among themselves. He gave me some curious

drawings and explanations in Burmese of the Budhist cosmogony,

geography, &c. I hope to send them to you some day with my

translations.

D’Amato was a respectable painter, and as he knew something of

natural history, he had made a collection of drawings of about 300

non-descript plants and flowers, and about 200 animals, writing down

at the same time all he could learn as to the habitat, properties,,&c. of

each. He had bound the whole in four folio volumes, two containing

the drawings and two the explanations. These volumes had occupied

his leisure hours for nearly forty years; but when the late war broke

out in 1824, he was apprehensive of some accident to himself, and he

delivered these books to the charge of one of his flock residing at the

village of Men-ge-la-goun. After the last Burmese army was

defeated at Pagan, the king ordered some additional defences to be

constructed around this city, and all the approaches to it were clear-

ed ; Men-ge-la-goun was burnt and plundered : a private soldier, it was

said, got possession of D’Amato’s books, and the prettily coloured

drawings in them induced him to carry them to the Queen’s brother,

Mengagyee, who gave the soldier a patsho or cloth, and kept the

books. Report added, the Mengagyee had cut out most of the pictures,

and stuck them up in different parts of his house.

The moment I learnt all this from D’Amato, I applied to the king

himself, and to all the ministers, urging them, in the strongest terms,

to have these books restored to their poor owner. I told them plainly,

that as these books contained no political information, but related

entirely to objects of general science, the king and the whole of his

352 Memoir of Giuseppe d Amato. [Aves

court would be considered as aset of the greatest’ barbarians by

every civilized nation, if works of such a description, belonging to

a priest, were not forthcoming. The king repeatedly ordered every

search to be made, and the ministers, to do them justice, exerted

themselves to recover the books, but without success. Mengagyee

denied all knowledge of them, and had me taken into the inner

apartments of his house to prove to me that they contained no such

_ drawings as those belonging to D’Amato. I believe the king and

his ministers were sincere in their desire of recovering the books; but

T am sorry to say, that I have never been able to discover what has

really become of them, although, supposing that they might have

fallen into the hands of some private individual, I offered a very large

pecuniary reward to any one who would produce them. It was

pleasing to see, when I gave up the inquiry, with what pious and

Christian-like resignation poor D’Amato submitted to this loss of the

fruits of so many years’ labour.

D’ Amato is to be buried in great state, and his body is preserved in

honey, until the whole of the Christians in this quarter can assemble,

and pay the last honors to the remains of their venerated pastor.

I may mention here, that the inhabitants of the five Catholic vil-

lages in the district of Dibayen are the descendants of certain French

and other prisoners, whom Alompra took at Syriam, in 1756, and

brought up and settled here. Many of these Christians still show their

descent in the light colour of their hair and eyes; but besides the

descendants of the Syriam captives, it is reported, that in those

villages, and at another village near Mouttshobo, there are many

persons with light-coloured hair and eyes, who have a tradition, that

their fathers were shipwrecked somewhere on the coast of Arracan,

and brought up and detained in this part of the country, so far back

asin the reign of some fortieth king from the present monarch.

Possibly some of them may be descended from those English

establishments which Dalrymple relates as having existed at Ava:

and to the northward, on the borders of China, about the beginning

of the 17th century. ;

In the month of June, last year, D’Amato was joined by two

young colleagues from Rome. They came to Rangoon via Egypt;

and the Red Sea, accompanied by a Bishop of Ava by name Frede-

rico Cao, and another priest, who are now residing at Moulmein.

The two priests who have come up here, Antonio Ricca and Domingo

Tarali, are natives of Italy, and appear to be intelligent, amiable

young men. The Pope must have strengthened his Ecclesiastical

1832. ] Oriental Accounts of Precious\Minerals. S53:

Establishment in this kingdom, with a view, I presume, of making

converts. Hitherto, the Catholic clergy here appear to have confined

their labours to their own flock, without any desire of increasing it,

_ Besides the number of Catholics in Dibayen and here, there are

about 260 souls at Rangoon under a Padré Don Ignatio; and many

of these are wealthy enough to build themselves a good brick Chapel,:

which they have lately done. The Catholics near Ava live and

dress like Burmese, from whom, I am sorry to say, they cannot be

distinguished by any superiority in moral or intellectual qualities.”

Pére Domingo is now residing at Khyan-ta-roowa, and Pére Tarali

at Ngabek.

IV.—Oriental Accounts of the Precious Minerals.

[Translated by Raja Kalikishen ; with remarks, by James Prinsep, F. R. S. &c.]

I have been favored by Raja Kalikishen, with some interesting

extracts from oriental works, respecting the precious minerals, which I

have embodied in the present notice, with such modifications, as appear-

ed necessary to suit the mineralogical reader, and with the addition ofa

few remarks in elucidation of the subject arising from a reference to the

original works obligingly lent to me by the Raja, as well as from an

examination of the rough minerals themselves, where I could procure

them from the native jewellers. I trust that the Raja will continue his

translations from similar works, both Persian and Indian, as nothing

can conduce more toa right knowledge of that, at present, obscure

subject, oriental mineralogy. A great variety of mineral substances are

sold in the bazars of India, and included in its materia medica, of the

proper classification of which we are as yet altogether ignorant.

The information contained in the present notices is extracted from

three books, of different ages: 1, the Ajdib-ul-makhlukat 0 Ghardib-

ul-moujudat, an ancient Persian work on natural history, written

by Zakarya, a native of Kufa, date unknown; 2, the Agqul-i-ashreh,

a work on science, by Mahomed of Berar, An. Hej. 1084, (A. D.

1673 ;) and 3, the Jawahir-ndmeh, a modern anonymous compilation,

containing much useful matter in a condensed form : it was probably

written at one of the native courts, either Delhi or Hydrabad, since it

mentions the opening of recent mines in India.

The two former volumes comprise sketches of all the different scien-

ces known to the ancients. The third, as its name denotes, particu-

larly treats of mineralogy. The Raja has not attempted to give a verbal

¥ 2

354 Oriental Accounts of [Ave.

translation of either, and I shall follow his example in merely gleaning

the facts which appear curious, or peculiar to oriental ideas.

Tue Diamonp.

A, almds ; G. adauos ; s. héraka; u. hira.

In Arabic and Persian works of natural history, Aristotle is ge-

nerally quoted as the chief authority whence information is drawn,

and the most vague and fabulous tales of the origin and qualities of

natural substances, are laid to his account; many no doubt with

- justice, but more without any authority whatever. Thus, of the dia-

mond, some authors assert, that when Alexander visited the mountain

Sulmat, (others call it Sarandip,) where the inaccessible valley of dia-

monds is situated, he directed pieces of flesh to be thrown in as the only

means of procuring the gem:—vultures picked up these with the preci-

ous stones adhering to them, and dropped them in their flight, on vari-

ous parts of the earth, where alone they are now discovered! It must be

confessed at least that we have no theory of the origin of the diamond

to offer inlieu of this oriental hypothesis.

The Agul-i-ashreh does mention in general terms, that there are

mines in the south-east of Hindust’han. The Jawahir-ndmeh is more

explicit, and notices a new mine opened in southern India, at Kom-

pila, between Mahali and Bijapur, near Masulipatam.

The Jawahir-nameh describes the mode of digging for the ore, and

washing the sand or gravel. The similarity between the diamond and

rock crystal, both met with in the same matrix, has given to the latter

the appellation of kacha, or unripe, and to the real gem, that of pakka,

or ripe, diamond.

The diamond is supposed by some to be a preservative from light-

ning, and to cause the teeth to fall out when put in the mouth, but

this is objected to by one author, on the ground, that diamond pow-

der has been used for tooth-powder with no bad effects.

The triangular (tetrahedral) form of the pulverized fragments is

noticed : also the natural cleavage, which is adroitly taken advantage

of by the native hakdks, in forming table diamonds, by striking the

stone between two sharp-edged tools.

Some knowledge of the combustible nature of the diamond might

almost be inferred froma passage in the Ajaib-ul-makhlukat. “ If

it be exposed to the strong heat of a wind furnace, it will be melted*,”

* The original passage is as follows, and I am not sure that I have given the

correct translation :— =

he hte . ear an) J . °° P

grav dhundy adie 290 ashy 5!

1832.) Precious Minerals. 355

probably alluding to the rounding of its edges by slow combustion.

eakarya also says, that if mixed (fused?) with pure sal ammoniac,

the diamond will dissolve, but not with lead, sard; probably the

oxide of lead is intended.

“ The great mart for diamonds formerly seems to have been at Kal-

bargah, to the west of Hyderabad, where a clearrough diamond of two

carats would sell for 7 jilor?, (a gold coin; the etymology of the word

is not evident, perhaps it may be a corruption of florin.) When dressed,

the same stone would fetch 15 jilort. ‘The European lapidaries are

stated to be the only workmen who can by cutting and polishing fully ~

develope the brilliancy of the diamond.”

RuomBoHEDRAL CoruUNDUM or SAPPHIRE.

A. yaqut 3 G. axavoa? s. manikya ; u. manth.

Under the name of yaqiit are comprised all those stones of the sap-

phire and ruby species, which are distinguished (or rather connected,as be=

ing chemically one) by the epithet oriental, in English books of minera-

logy, and are now classed together under the general head of corundum,

because they are composed of the same earth, alumina, as the corun-

dum or kiréin of the Indians. The natives, like our own mineralogists,

distinguish four principal species of yaqit ; red, blue, yellow, and white,

or colorless.

The first, or ORIENTAL RUBY, A. yaqut-ahmar, H. manik 2

exhibits seven varieties of colour, viz. mihrmdtz, striped ; arghwanéz,

hyacinth ; rwmadnz, bright-red, or pomegranate; riz, brass-colored ;

Khamri, red-wine-colored, the Ametnyst, H. nagina ; lahmi, flesh-

colored ; and khy/lz, or asafcetida-colored.

“ Not to be deceived in rubies, is a work of difficulty, because

there are spurious ones of polished crystal, which much resemble the

true gem; these are called dyn-ul-rajdn: but a skilful lapidary

will easily recognize them. When placed in the fire, a true ruby be-

comes invisible, but when immersed in water, it appears to glow with

heat : it also shines like a coal in the dark.”

The second is the ORIENTAL SAPPHIRE, A. yakut-arzaq or qabid,

safir ; G. comperpos* > . nilam.

Of this, there are enumerated five varieties, viz. : ¢aisé, peacock-tail

* It is doubted whether the camgeipos of the ancients was not rather lapis la-

2uli than the gem now called sapphire :—it was called xpvoomapos from the yel-

low spangles in it. (Zheophrastus.) Pliny includes it among the cyani, a general

name for all blue stones : he says, ‘‘ Causam nominis afferunt quod usque ad

vini colorem accedens priusquam eum degustet, in violam desinat.’’ If the word

is derived from the name ofa colour, it may be from asfar; but that would

signify yellow rather than purple wine,

356 . Oriental Accounts of [ Ave.

blue; asmdné, azure; nél2, indigo ; chaklt, grey or collyrium; and

sabzé, greenish.

The third or ORIENTAL TOPAZ, A. yaqut-asfar or zard, u. pokhraj,

has four tints, viz. narinjt, orange; kahz, straw; shamdz, flame or

lamp; and ¢uranjz, citron-colored. This variety is said to stand the

fire better than the others.

If the yaqut akhzar, or ORIENTAL EMERALD, be esteemed the fourth

variety, then there is a fifth, “ of more variegated tints but of less

value,” comprising probably such as are not transparent, common co-

rundum, adamantine spar, salam [ silan, or ceylon| stone ? &c.

Gladwin translates yaqit and yaqit surkh as “ topazes,” in his Eng-

lish version of the Ayeen Akbery ; the yaqit rumani (written rahmdné

in the MS. belonging to the College of Fort William) and the yaqut

kabid he calls the “‘ sapphire :” and on one occasion he renders the yaqut

surkh, “amethysts :” showing the confusion which prevails on the

subject of these gems. That different species of the corundum, however,

were intended by all, is evident from a table of specific gravities quot-

ed by Abu Fazl from a work of Abu Rihan-al-Birount, which closely

agrees with modern results, and proves that the term /a/ (hereafter to

be noticed) is confined to the Balas or spinelle ruby : the table reduced

to decimal expressions is as follows :

Name of Jewel. _ S ba Bohan by Fie oe i

Want 7umant, . 6.5. 3s: 3.98 ¢ oriental sapphire,.... 3.97 Mohs.

TAGE SUT, gas aic'e eee e see ruby, topaz, &c..... 3.90 do.

RRR I wa aie vee wrehnn sve 3.52 spinelle ruby, ...... 3.52). dos

POOLE LG gales oe .seee+ 2.75 rhombohedralemerald,2.73 do.

#373123) io eR a ee + 250'* rock ‘crystals. a aes 2.58 do.

The Jawahir-nameh includes among the varieties of yaqut, the dyn-

ul-hireh (cat’s eye) and the ¢urmali, from which latter word may,

perhaps, be derived our tourmaline, though applied by us to a

different mineral.

The dyn-ul-hireh (1. lahsunia) is evidently that variety of the sapphire

which mineralogists designate chatoyant, or opalescent sapphire, and

which, when cut en cabochon, shews a silvery star of six rays, and is

then termed asterra. This must be distinguished from the common

cat’s-eye, a chatoyant variety of quartz with which it has probably

been confounded by the oriental jewellers. Pliny also adverts to the

two minerals: of the first he says, “ proxima candicantium est as-

teria : nata est in Karmania, &c.” and he distinguishes it from an infe-

rior sort of astrios, resembling common crystal, which comes also from

1832.1] ~ Precious Minerals. 357

India and “ Pallenes littoribus.” There were several inferior sorts : fr

those called ceraunia in the east; 2, the astroites much praised by

Zoroaster; 3, the astrobolos of Sadines, resembling the eye of a

fish, &c.: all of these appear to have been varieties of the quartz cat’s-

eye. “The jewellers appraise the value of the dyn-ul-hireh according

to the number or perfection of the threads (zandr_) visible in it, which

should give the stone, when turned about, the appearance of a drop of

floating water.” This description accords with the quartz cat’s-eye

rather than with the asteria; but there is some difficulty in reconciling’

the uncertainties regarding this mineral, and I have not been able to ob-

tain the actual name of the as¢eria for the want of a specimen of the stone.

The dyn-ul-hireh probably, however, comprises both of the above

minerals; in the same manner as the turmali, next to be mentioned

of the varieties of yaqut, apparently embraces both the zircon and

tourmaline families.

“ To the twrmali, as being of a greenish yellow tinge, people frequent-

ly give the name of zabarjad, or beryl? It is found in small rounded

pebbles in the same rock or matrix as the other Ceylon stones.”

_An uncut specimen of éurmali and several polished stones, ob-

tained from a native jeweller in Calcutta for examination, proved to be the

“jargoon of Ceylon,” or precious zircon. It had a specific gravity

4.56 ; hardness 7.0; fracture vitreous; colour greenish, some quite

transparent and clear ; form rounded, amorphous: inalterable before

the blowpipe perse. The colorless ¢urmaié is cut and sold as a false dia-

mond, in the bazars of India. Davy says, that “ the yellow varieties of

the zircon are sold by the inhabitants of Ceylon as a peculiar kind of

topaz; the green as towrmalines*, the hyacinth red, as inferior rubies,

and the very light grey, as imperfect diamonds ; the natives being

altogether ignorant of the true nature of this mineral. It is most abun-

dant in the district of Matura, whence it has its common name in

Ceylon of Matura diamondt.”

Of the localities of the yaqidt, it is only stated in two of the works

before us, that the gem comes from the hottest part of the globe, “from

the south near the equator.” In the Jawdhir-nameh, however, the

large island of Ceylon is said to be its only habitat, where it is gene-~

rated in caverns from the suppuration and solidification of the essence

of water! ‘“¢ The natives dig wells in these places, and wash the sand

* In Rees’ Encyc. the Singalese name for tourmaline is stated to be tournamal,

+ In speaking of the hyacinth (which among us isa variety of the zircon)

Pliny says, ‘‘ Hunc colorem Indi sacon yocant, et talem gemmam sacodion,”’

358 Oriental Accounts of [ Aue.

extracted from below, for the various minerals which are disseminated

in it.”

The medical properties of this gem are remarkable: “it puri-

fies the blood, strengthens, quenches thirst; it dispels melancholy re~

flections ; and, as a talisman, averts dangers, insures honor and com-

petence.”

In hardness it only yields to the diamond: it is unaltered by the

fire, the red and yellow varieties, if any thing, improving in color there-

from. The blue, or sapphire, when pure, is of equal value with the

“diamond. The Arabs are fond of engraving their names upon it.

Besides the Sz/anz or Ceylon yaqiut, there is stated in the Jawahir-~

nameh to be “another ruby, now very much in yogue, which is

extracted from a mine in Bengal, near T'chat-ul-Suraa, in the vicinity

of which is an island, called Rakhang, nigh to which is a stream,

where also the ruby is procured.” Tahat-ul-surda may mean a deep

mine; Rakhang is the Arracan of Europeans. “It is greatly valued in

Hindisthan. Jewellers assert, that its nature is soft, and that fire will

dissolve it, but from its appearance or touch no idea can be formed

of these defects.” This account may refer to the spinelle ruby

about to be described, or to a species of garnet.

DopECAHEDRAL CoruNvvUM or SPINELLE Rusy.

p. lal; u. manik 2 or lal.

Concerning this gem there is considerable incertitude among oriental

authors, which an acquaintance with mineralogy alone can dissipate.

Jewellers of the present day apply the term /d/ to all rubies ofa fine

red color. It is evident however from the books before us, that the /4/ is

quite distinct from the yaqut, and that it properly designates what we

term the spinelle* ruby. The lal rumani, scarlet or pomegranate-

coloured ruby, is probably the true sprneLLE; while the /é/ Badak-

shdné, or ruby of Badakshan, of a rose color, is what Europeans call the

Baas ruBy; indeed it appears possible that Balas may be a corrup-

tion of the latter name ; for, the French Encyclopedia says, the name is

derived from the kingdom whence the rubies come, supposed to be

situated, vaguely, somewhere between Pegu and Bengal. Balkh, the

capital of Badakshan, might have been written Badach in French, and

afterwards softened to Balas by the same process which has converted

the Khan into the Cham of Tartary.

* The etymology of the word spinelle is obscure—Tavernier describes among

Indian varieties of the ruby, the “ espinels or mothers of rubies,”

1832. ] Precious Minerals. 359

The Persian authors are particular in their description of the

locality and origin of this stone. ‘“ The mine of this gem was not dis-

covered until after a sudden shock of an earthquake, in Badakshan*,

had rent asunder a mountain in that country, which exhibited to the

astonished spectators a number of sparkling pink gems of the size

of eggs. The women of the neighbourhood thought them to

possess a tingent quality, but finding they yielded no coloring matter,

they threw them away. Some jewellers, discovering their worth,

delivered them to the lapidaries to be worked up, but owing to their.

softness the workmen could not at first polish them, until they found

out the method of doing so with mark-i-shésd, marcasite or iron pyrites.

This gem was at first esteemed more than the yaqut, butas its color and

hardness were found to be inferior to the latter, it became less prized.”

There are many varieties of color: red, yellow, and greenish, but the

piazi, reddish yellow or onion-colored, (the rubicelle 2?) and the mina,

violet-colored, (the almandine ruby ?) are held in the highest esti-

mation ; of the red there are giveneight tints, wine color, date color, Bra-

zil wood color, &c. which it is needless to enumerate. The author

of the Jawdhir-nameh says : “ as the lal ruby did not exist in the time

of Jemshzd, no mention of it is to be found in ancient works ;

modern physicians ascribe to it the same medicinal qualities as the

yaqut possesses.”

In a manuscript history of Cashmir and the countries adjacent,

by Abdul Qadir Khan, Benares, 1830, is the following description

of the manner of extracting rubies from the Badakshan mines: it pro-

fesses to be taken from an oral account by Mirza Nazar Baki Bég

- Khan, a native of Badakshan, settled at Benares.

Having collected a party of miners, a spot is pointed out by ex-

perienced workmen, where an adit is commenced. The aperture is

cut in the rock large enough to admit a man upright: the passage

is lighted at intervals by cotton mashdls placed in niches ; as they pro-

ceed with the excavation, the rock is examined until a vein of

reddish appearance is discovered, which is recognized as the matrix

of the precious gem. ‘This red colored rock or vein is called rag-

i-lil, or, the vein of rubies ; the miners set to work upon this with

much art, following all its ramifications through the parent rock.

* The Manaif-ul-ahjdr dates this occurrence ‘‘ 350 years ago,’’ but the date of

the work is not given : the /d/ is not mentioned by Zakarya. Since the above was

written, Mr. H. H. Wilson has favored me with a sight of another work on jewels,

entitled Ahawds-ul-hejdr, translated by himself, in which the /@/ is treated of un-

der the name of balaksh (Balakshan being synonymous with Badakshan). This

leaves no doubt as to the origin of the word Balas. Banaksh is also described as a

variety of inferior quality and no value. The word is not used by other authorities,

360 Oriental Accounts of [Ave.

The first rubies that present themselves are small, and of bad colour:

these the miners called piadehs (foot soldiers ) : further on some larger

and of better colour are found, which are called sawars (horse sol- |

diers) ; the next, as they still progress in improvement, are called

amirs, bakshis, and vazirs, until at last. they come to the king

jewel, after finding which, they give up working the vein: and this

is always polished and presented to the king. The author proceeds

to describe the finest ruby of this kind that had ever fallen under his

observation. It belonged to the Oude family, and was carried off

by Vizir Ali; he was afterwards employed in recovering it from

the latter: it was of the size ofa pigeon’s egg, and the color

very brilliant; weight, about two tolas; there wasa flaw in it, and

to hide it, the name of Julél-ud-din was engraved over the part ;

hence the jewel was called the dd/-i-jalah. A similar ruby to this,

but considerably larger, is in the possession of Runjit Sinh, and has

the names of five emperors engraved upon it.

The bright-red spinelle ruby, /a/ ramani, is called by modern jewel-

lers yaqut narm, or simply, in Hindustani, narmeh ; also Jdlré : it comes

from Pegu* and Ceylon, and less frequently from the north.

THE RHOMBOHEDRAL EMERALD.

Pp. zamarud ; G. cuapaydos ; S. markat ; uw. panna.

The mines of this gem are stated in the Persian works to be situated

in the “ extreme west,” in Barbary, and the upper parts of Egypt. It

bears a higher value in India, on account of its entirely foreign origin ;

it is soft and seldom free from flaws, sp. gr. 2.70. The medical and talis-

manic properties of the emerald are, averting bad dreams, giving courage,

curing palsy, cold, and bloody flux. There is a close connection be-

tween the zamardd and the zabarjad. Zakarya says, the names are

synonymous, and that the true color of the emerald is a brilliant yellow,

(chryso-bery! ?) adding on the authority of Aristotle, that it is frequently

met with in gold mines.—Mahomed of Berar says, that “ the zabarjad,

although reckoned the best kind of emerald, is, in fact, another stone

of higher value, and now scarce.” The Khawds-ul-hejar describes it

as possessing none of the qualities of the emerald, and of an inferior

greenish color. The name of zabaryad is therefore probably applied

indiscriminately to varieties of the beryl, the chrysolite, and the topazt.

As no separate mention is made of the topaz, it must be consi-

dered as really classed in the same family with the emerald and za-

* Taht-ul-Surda, mentioned ina former page, may be a corruption of Syriam in

Pegu, the great mart for spinelles and yagéts from the Capellan mountains.

tT The topaz of the ancients is supposed to have been the chrysolite of moderns,

and vice versa. Pliny classes it among his gemmis viridibus non translucentibus.

“* Egregia etiamnum topazio gloria est suo virenti genere.”’

1832. | Precious Minerals. 361

barjad. This may be easily accounted for by the similarity of

their prismatic crystallization: beryl or aquamarine, a variety of

emerald, passes from green into a yellow color; and_ the striated

prisms ‘of topaz pass from a deep golden yellow to a pale green

color. Their difference in specific gravity and chemical compo-

sition could not be known to a lapidary ; their hardness is nearly the

same, and they occur in the same mines in Kgypt and elsewhere:

indeed the term beryl was applied to both by Werner. The aqua

marina or beryl is called beri: specimens shewn me had a specific

gravity 2.70. The Indian name for topaz is pikhraj, whence has been

taken the modern Arabic appellation of topaz, buszak.

Tue Turevois.

Pp. firozeh* ; @. naddus 3S. péroy ?

The name Fvrozeh is said in the Jawdhir-nameh to have been

given to this stone by Firoz Shah, but this must be matter of doubt ;

as also whether the Sanskrit synonyme in Hunter’s Dictionary, péray, is

not a corruption of beri, beryl, quite a different stone. From the loca-

lities and from the characteristics of the two varieties in the books

before us, it might be conjectured, that the two species of this mi-

neral known to European mineralogists, as the calaite, or mineral tur-

quois, and the odontolite, or bone turquois, are equally familiar to the

Persian jewellers, under the epithets of 4bu-Is’haqi and Badakshant,

The Abu-Is’haqi, (father of Isaac,) or genuine turquois, is the pro-

duce of the mines of Ansar, near Nishapér, in Khorasan, (the same

place mentioned as Michebourg, in 'Tavernier’s Travels in India.) All

authorities concur, that these are the only turquois mines in the world :

the stones are said to vary from pale blue to green and white, but all ex-

cept the azure are worthless. A curious fact is mentioned also, which, from

the nature of the mineralt may be readily believed, though it has not

been observed in Europe : “ the real blue turquois of Nishapur changes

its color when kept near musk or camphor, also from the dampness

of the ground, as well as from exposure to the fire{; the inferior

stones become discolored even without this test,” by gradual decompo-

sition or efflorescence. The Ahawds-ul-hejar makes the clearness or

dulness of the turquois vary according to the atmospheric changes. “ It

brightens the eyes; is a remedy for ophthalmia and bites of venomous

animals ; it is used in enamelling sword handles, &c.”

* Firozeh nakis, an inferior turquois, is enumerated amongst the mineral pro-

ducts of Tibet, by Abdul Kadir Khan, in the History of Cashmir before quoted.

+ Vide GLEANINGs IN ScIENCE, II. 375.

} Pliny also remarks of the G@allais ; ‘‘ que sunt earum pulchriores, oleo, un-

guento et mero colorem deperdunt.”’

362 Oriental Accounts of Precious Minerals. [ Ave.

“ The Badakshdani turquois essentially differs from the Nishapuri in

being able to withstand the heat of a fire for ten days without altera-

tion: for this quality it is much esteemed, although in other respects

not so good as the produce of Ansar.”

Now the calaite, which contains 18 per cent. of water, would be

entirely destroyed by such an operation, while the bone fturquois is

actually made in many places, by exposure to the fire of fossil bones

impregnated with iron ; and the fossil bones brought from the north

of the Himalayan range, when exposed to a red heat, are found

to assume the very appearance of odontolite* : it is possible, therefore,

that a supply of this artificial gem may find its way into Persia through

Balkh, and take its name from that country as its known market.

Arguments are not wanting on the other hand to shew that the Bada-

kshani turquois is nothing more than lapis-lazuli, or Idjaward, and the

descriptions of the two are mixed up together in the books hetare us,

like those of the emerald and topaz.

Lapis-LaZzuui.

p. lijaward ; s. vaidurya.

« The country of Badakshan abounds in mountains, and contains se-

veral rivers. On the Jihun (Oxus) river, near where the Samarkand road

crosses it, is the mine of lapis-lazuli. This mineral has different shapes ;

one, like the egg of a hen, which is covered with thin, soft, and white

stony coats, is reckoned the best when pounded, it needs neither wash-

ing nor polishing ; the others are without covering and must be washed.

“ The method of washing is this : first to pulverize it and afterwards

to keep it wrapt in silk cloth, besmeared all over with gum sanda-

rach, which should be previously softened in very hot water, and then

rubbed over or kneaded with the hands ; it is kept in the water for

three days, until all the foreign matter has been washed out.”

This is exactly the process for manufacturing ultramarine from

lapis-lazuli, given in Ure’s Chemical Dictionary. ‘“‘ There is alsoa

mine of /djaward in that part of Kashan called kharud, or minor, It is

difficult to distinguish the Kashani from the Badakshani mineral, but

there is aconsiderable difference in their value :—the following test is

prescribed to recognize them :

“‘ First rub the specimen on a piece of stone without water, and

ifin doing so it becomes dark, this immediately marks its spuriousness ;

secondly, put it in the mouth, and afterwards throw it into the fire ;

when it becomes red, take it out, and if it be not discolored, its

* Vide JournaL As. Soc. 1.77. Theophrastus enumerates fossil ivory of a

lighter or darker colour, as distinct from the sapphire, evidently shewing, that the

odontolite or bone turquois was intended by eAepas opuxros.

1832.] Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. 363)

genuineness is established.” “The Kashdné mineral is of an antimo-

nial colour, and is ground up for the painting of glass and porcelain.”

It is possible that this description may refer to the zaffre mineral or

sulphuret of cobalt.

This last cursory notice, although foreign to the subject of the preci-

ous gems*, arouses a curiosity to know a little more of the contents of

the Ajaib-al-Makhluqat, and I trust the Raja will continue his labours,

confining himself as far as possible to a literal translation of his text.

V.—Proceedings of the Asiatic Society, Physical Class.

Wednesday, 15th August, 1832.

Sir Edward Ryan, President, in the chair.

The proceedings of the last meeting having been approved, the following

letters were read.

1. From Capi. P. Gerard, dated Kotgurh, 23rd July, announcing, that

he had dispatched to the address of the Society, a box containing 164 paper

parcels of fossils from the Himalaya, by direction of his brother, Dr.

Gerard, their discoverer. He further acquaints the Society, that Dr. Gerard

had forwarded from Cabul the first paper of his promised paper on the

valley and section of the Spiti, illustrative of these fossils, and that the

remainder is expected from Bokhara.

2. From W. Cracroft, Esq. to Sir EF. Ryan, President, dated Chirra

Punji, 25th June, announcing further discoveries of coal beds in the Kasya

hills.

The present site is near a place called Monthan, where the coal seams occur

between the sandstone beds, accompanied as usual with bituminous shale,limestone,

and indurated clay ; the coal strata altogether are six feet in depth : this locality is

so far interesting, because it has been hitherto a desideratum to obtain coal near

the foot of the hills equally good with what is found above: the specific gravity

of this coal is stated to be only 1.31.

3. From Dr. Alex. Turnbull Christie, dated Madras, 14th August, stating,

that he had been entrusted by the Geological Society of London with the

charge of a series of casts of the fossil bones discovered in Ava by Dr.

Crawfurd, for presentation to the Asiatic Society : further, in his own name,

begging its acceptance of a small collection of fossil shells from the tertiary

formations of France and Italy.

[The package has not yet reached Calcutta.]

4. From G. Swinton, Esq. Chief Secretary to Government, commu-

nicating a letter from the Rev. Wm. Vernon Harcourt, Secretary of the

British Association for the Advancement of Science, by direction of the

Central Committee, transmitting a copy of their first Report, and requesting

his assistance in extending to India the operation of the plan detailed

therein, by the formation of a Committee to correspond with the Association,

* Lapis-lazuli, or azure stone, as has been already remarked, has been supposed

to be the carpeipos of the Greeks.

364 Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. [ Aue.

to promote its objects, and to aid it in carrying on upon a common system,

in the most distant parts of the empire, the extensive investigations which

it meditates. Copies of the report have been also addressed to Sir E.

Ryan, Major Benson, Dr. Christie, Captain Herbert, and Messrs. Calder

and Prinsep, who have been requested to coalesce with Mr. Swinton as

members of the Indian Committee.

The purport of submitting this letter to the Physical Class was to give publicity

to the objects of the British Association, through the circulation of the Society’s

proceedings, that all who are inclined to undertake any of the trains of investiga-

tion pointed out in the published ‘‘ recommendations*,”” may know where they

may address inquiries, or transmit the results of their observations.

“Mr. J. Calder brought to the notice of the Society, as connected with

the communication just made known, that since the death of Doctor

Voysey, the situation of Geologist and Naturalist to the grand Trigonome-

trical Survey had remained vacant. He trusted that the present Surveyor

General would not lose sight of the great advantages to science of such an

appointment, when he should be preparing to continue his grand arc

through the unexplored regions of Central Hinddsthan.

5. From Dr. Strong, with copies of correspondence with Col. Sir Thos.

Anburey, Chief Engineer, respecting the pay of the men of the Sapper and

Miner Corps employed in the boring experiment.

6. From G. Swinton, Esq. forwarding on the part of Colonel Watson

specimens of Kasya iron ore, smelted iron, and coal; also some native

caoutchouc, manufactured into bottles, and thin sheets, at Chirra Punji.

The latter may become a valuable article for many purposes; the sheets

are very thin, pliant, and impervious to air or water.

The coal is of the slaty kind, sp. gr. 1,447, containing volatile matter 36, carbon

41, and a copious white ash, 23 per cent.

7. From Dr. J. T. Pearson, submitting his suggestions on the im-

provement of the Museum of the Asiatic Society.

After some discussion, and a vote of thanks to Dr. Pearson, for the labour

he had taken in the consideration of a subject of such vital importance to

the Physical branch of the Society,—Messrs. Calder, Troyer, Tytler,

Everest, Wilcox, and C. Hunter, in conjunction with the President and

Secretaries, were nominated a Committee to report upon the best mode of

giving effect to the very desirable plan proposed by Dr. Pearson, previous

to coming before the general meeting of the Society, with any application

on the subject.

Dr. Pearson exhibited a part of his entomological collection, as an example

of what might be effected towards the preservation of specimens in this

country.

A fossil was presented by the Rev. R. Everest, supposed to be the vertebre

and ribs of a saurian animal.

Papers read.

1. Description of the Canis primevus of Nepal, by B. H. Hodgson,

Esq.

* These were printed at length in the last number of the Journal.

1832. | Scientific Intelligence. 365

This interesting paper gives a particular account of the wild dog, of which a

notice will be found in Mr. Hodgson’s paper on the Mammalia of Nepal published

in the present number: it is accompanied by accurate drawings of the animal,

and, by way of comparison, of the ‘‘ chien de rue,’’ and the jackal; and of the

skeletons of the head of each.

ViI.—Scientiric INTELLIGENCE.

1.—Gold Mines of North America.

Several new sites of gold ore have, within a few years, been discovered in the

United States.

The gold mines of North Carolina, are acquiring importance rapidly, through the

improvements in mining introduced by foreign miners. In Virginia also, since 1827,

considerable attention has been attracted by the discovery of the precious ore

along a belt of country extending through Spotsylvania {and the neighbouring

counties. In the latter State it is diffused over large spaces, and has not been found

sufficiently in mass, except in a few places, to make mining practicable ; but in

North Carolinathe produce has increased from D. 2,500 a year to D, 128,000 in

1829, and 204,000 in 1830.

The mint returns for 1830 state the receipt of gold from ‘“‘the gold region of

the United States,’’ to be D. 466,000, of which D. 212,000 was from Georgia,

whence no specimen had ever before been received ; D. 24,000 from Virginia

and D. 26,000 from South Carolina, The gold country was estimated by

Prof. Olmsted, in 1825, at only 1,000 square miles, but it has since been found to

be vastly more extensive, and a succession of mines has been discovered in

the country east of the Blue Ridge, extending from the river Potomac into the

state of Alabama, and ending in Tennessee. The gold works in the counties of

Burke and Rutherford are washings: the gold is found in small and pure particles

mixed with the sand, which lies in deposits, occupying as it were the beds of

ancient streams, creeks, &c.

The counties of Mecklenberg, Rowan, Davidson, and Cabarras are the richest

in what may be properly called gold mines; thatis, where the gold is found in ore,

and distinguishable by the eye, and where it is separated by pounding, and amal-

gamation with mercury, separating the latter from the gold by distillation in an

alembic in the usual manner.

The gold region abounds in quartz, which contains cubical pyrites. These

cubes are sometimes decomposed, and the cells thus created are filled with gold.

The greatest portion of the metal, however, occurs in veins in slate.

‘‘The best veins of gold are not horizontal, nor often vertical, but have a dip of

about 45 degrees. They vary in width from a few inches to several feet: they are

not confined to hills at all, but are found also in low lands. These veins are often

parallel to each other at unequal distances: their depth in most places has not

been ascertained, no shafts having yet pierced lower than 120 feet. The mining

required a great deal of skill and experience in economizing the perforations and

galleries. There are no less than thirteen different languages spoken at these mines,

so speedily have adventurous miners been attracted from Germany, Switzerland,

Spain, England, &c. Mills for grinding the ore, propelled by water or by steam,

have been erected, and in one establishment alone more than 600 hands are em-

ployed. The state of morals among this heterogeneous mass of adventurers is

represented to be deplorably bad.

366 Scientific Intelligence. [ Aue.

‘‘There is indubitable evidence, that these mines were known and worked by

the aboriginal inhabitants, or some other people, ata remote period. Many pieces

of machinery, which were used for this purpose, have been found. Among them

are several crucibles of earthen-ware, surpassing in durability the best Hessian

crucibles.”

We have extracted the substance of the above notice from ‘‘ Zhe American

Almanac and Repository of Useful Knowledge, for the year 1832 ;’’—a small octavo

volume, which puts to shame all the almanacks of our own country, with the

exception of that published under the auspices of the Society for promoting Useful

‘Knowledge, by the immense mass of information, calendral, statistical, and physi-

cal, which it contains, as well as by the method of its arrangement and the neat-

ness of its execution.

2.—Analysis of the Copper Ores of Cuba, in the Cerco of Villa Clara. By Don Ra-

mon de la Sagra.

The specimens produced belong to the class called green copper (cobres verdes),

or the carbonate of copper of mineralogists. Some pieces have an earthy appear-

ance, and are soft, friable, and of a whitish-green colour, like certain copper ores

of Rio Tinto, in Spain, commonly called ‘‘ verde de montana.’’ Others are more

compact, of a sea green, and sometimes a metallic grey. The oxide of iron with

which it is combined is very perceptible to the eye. In order to separate it, I

pounded specimens of both descriptions of ore, then distilled and calcined two

grammes of each, to ascertain the quantity of water and of carbonic acid, and

dissolved the mass in boiling nitric acid : after concentrating the solution, filtering

it, washing the residuum, and mixing together the water employed in the washing,

I obtained 65 centigrams of precipitate from one mineral, and 38 from the other,

by means of liquid ammonia, These quantities of ammoniate of iron correspond-

ing to 32 and 18 centigrams of metal respectively, or 16 centesimals of iron from

the former, and 9 from the latter. The whole contents being,

Ist SPECIMEN. 2nd SPECIMEN.

Green copper, earthy ore. Green copper, compact ore.

Sub-carbonate of copper Sub-carbonate of copper

(hydrated.) \ Tee. (hydrated.) : } ~ 56 5

Oxide of iron, 22 5 Oxide of iron, 13 0

Silex and earthy residuum, 13.0 Earthy residuum, 30 5

100 0 100 0

3. Coal from the district of Guanah, in the island of Cuba, analysed by Don

Ramon de la Sagra.

Texture laminar, of a bright lustre, like the best coal of England—fracture cubi-

cal—specific gravity 1.18.

CONTENTS.

Carbon or combustible matter of coke, as ee 60

Betun mineral, (Tar,) ore ae a ona 205

Water, ee ee ec Aji. F

Incombustible ashes, a ao Ac aeuianliz

Gas, oe eo oe ee A

100

1832.] Progress of European Science. 367

VII.—Progress of European Science.

‘ ELEcrRicity.

- Our journal has hitherto adverted but little to the subject of European

science. Our space has been too fully occupied to admit of copious extracts

from the scientific periodicals of England, and of the continent ; we have

confined ourselves to the reprinting of such notices in natural history,

as were immediately connected with India. There is consequently a large

arrear to bring up in other branches of science, and we must seek the

means of doing so rather in the shape of a general review, than of broken

and detached extracts. Fortunately, the materials for such a review are

for the most part prepared to our hands, in the papers and essays read at

the Academie, the Royal Society, and the Royal Institution ; and in the

annual addresses of the Presidents of other scientific bodies. It is a coma

mendable rule of the French academy, that all works and papers presented,

instead of being read at random and at length, are first referred to a com-

mission, whose report generally condenses the original matter into a short

and lucid abstract, much fitter for perusal before a mixed audience, or by

the general class of readers. It is from such sources that we propose to

gather our information.

Eecrriciry is one of those invisible agents of nature, to the develop

ment of the effects of which attention is at this moment powerfully direct-

ed, on account of the discovery of several new phenomena, partly by

accident, but chiefly by well-conducted experimental investigation.

We shall endeavour to lay before our readers the progress that has been

made, in these researches, under two heads:—Ist, as connected with

chemistry ;—and 2nd, as connected with magnetism. The time seems near

at hand, when the principle which actuates the triwne sciences of galvanism,

magnetism, and chemistry, will be acknowledged to be one only, under the

name of vis electrica, subject to as simple and invariable laws as those of the

gravitating principle, although like the latter its actual nature may ever re-=

main a mystery to our limited comprehension.

1.—Electro-Chemistry.

lf anything proves how far we are from a right understanding of the theory of

the development of electricity in the voltaic pile, it is the diversity of opinions

among philosophers who have especially engaged upon this inquiry.

’ VoLTa conceived that the simple contact of two solid conductors, such as the

two metals, zinc and copper, produced electricity; and he thought that the

liquids interposed between the couplets of the pile served only to transmit the

electricity of one to the next.

An observation made in France, by Messrs. Biot and Frep. Cuvier, proved the

influence of atmospheric oxigen in the charge of the pile; for having placed it in

a receiver full of air, resting upon water, the action of the pile went on dimi-

nishing as the oxigen of the air became fixed on the zinc, and finally stopped

when nothing but azote was left in the receiver. ©

WOLLASTON sought to prove, that the electricity of the pile proceeded from the

chemical action of the liquid, interposed between the couplets, on the metals of

the latter.

Davy, while admitting the principle of Votta, regarding the development of

electricity by contact, recognized the necessity of a chemical action between the

liquids and the metals which formed the pile, to produce a charge.

368 Progress of European Science. [Aue.

Lastly, M. NoBiL1 starting from the fact, that an electric current is established

in a metallic bar unequally heated, concludes that, in the pile, the action of liquids

on metals develops electricity, because it develops heat, which is unequally com-

municated to the metals.

The electricity of the pile then has been attributed to three causes, viz. to sim-

ple contact, to chemical action, and to heat.

M. BEcouereL, for the last ten years, has been engaged in a train of researches

which have greatly added to electro-chemical knowledge: it is he who has

proved, in an incontestible manner, the development of electricity in chemical

action, a fact of the highest importance ; he has proved besides that, if it be true,

as asserted by Davy, that an acid and a solid alkali, become, by contact and before

their mutual combination, the first electro-negative, the second electro-positive ; it

is not true, as the illustrious English philosopher has maintained, that at the moment

of combination their electricities neutralise eack other, for his experiments prove

on the contrary, that a current of positive fluid then arises from the base to the acid.

He has shewn besides, that two liquids of different nature may assume different

states of electricity, and thus form the elements of a pile.

These discoveries, the fruit of very delicate and ingenious experiments, natural-

ly led their author to study the pile, not so much in respect to a general theory,

as with a view to an experimental analysis, such as should determine with some

precision the causes that influence its charge.

M. BEcQUuUEREL, in the first chapter of a work submitted to the French academy,

treats of such of these causes as are due to chemical action 3 and his experiments

are directed to submit one element of the pile, as much as possible, to the influ-

ence of a single cause productive of electricity.

Speaking of the action of different liquids on one another, he gives a sufficient

number of experimental results, from which it appears that an cid conducts itself

with a saline solution with which it mixes, as it would with a salifiable base with

which it would combine, that is, zt is positive towardsit. It seems also, that phos-

phoric acid is positive, relative to the muriatic, nitric, and sulphuric acids; a fact

curious enough.

M. BECcQUEREL, in examining the electricity developed by the contactof metals,

and of those acids which attack them, or of metals and saline solutions, proves in

general, that in the action of an acid on a metal, particularly when this action is

not very strong, the greatest part of the electricity developed, proceeds not from the

action of the metal on the acid, but from the mutual action of the solution of salt

produced and the free acid.

Copper, lead, bismuth, zinc, and iron plunged in their respective nitrates be-

BT negative by the addition of a few drops of nitric acid ; while those metals

which decompose water, iron, zinc, and manganese, plunged in their respective

sulphates, become positive as soon as some drops of sulphuric acid are added.

M. BecQuerer then takes up the subject of the electric effects produced when

two metals, connected by means of the wire of the multiplier, are partly plunged,

either in the same liquid or in different liquids communicating together. In this

case it 1s generally the mutual action of the liquids, and not the action of either

liquid upon the metal, which produces the greatest electric effect.

He observed also, that in a pile formed of copper and zinc, the maximum

electro-magnetic effect is obtained when the copper is plunged in nitrate of

oe ee e Nari of zine ; because, if the copper and the zinc be-

3 er negative,—the nitrate of copper by its contact with

the sulphate of zinc becomes positive, whilst the second becomes hegative, conse-

quently the sum of electricity developed is then the greatest.

1832.] Progress of European Science. 369

M. BEcouUEREL perceived that one way to preserve electrical effects sensibly

constant during a certain interval, in a voltaic element formed of two metals,

was to prevent their surfaces from becoming covered with solid deposits : unfor-

tunately the process he adopted to obviate this defect is not of easy application

in the ordinary construction of the pile, nor is it explained in the report.

Before entering upon the processes of electro-chemistry that he has employ-

ed to produce new chemical combinations, he describes an old experiment by

Bocuouz, founded on the same principles.

Bucuouiz, having introduced into a narrow receiver, containing a solution of

sulphate of copper surmounted by plain water, a plate of copper, so that its upper

part was immersed in the water, and the lower part in the sulphate, observed,

that this part became soon encrusted with metallic copper : M. BecQuEREL sup-

poses that, in this case, the two liquids form a voltaic couple, of which the solu-

tion is the positive pole and the water the negative.

When the slip of copper is immersed, a current of positive electricity is esta-

blished from below upwards ; thus the plate becomes a pile of which the base is

negative, and the summit positive ; and as a simple consequence, the copper is

transported to the negative pole.

The possibility of thus establishing piles of single pairs formed either of two

solids, or of two liquids,—andthe property enjoyed by oxigen of travelling quicker

than do the acids to the positive pole of these piles, which have always a very

feeble tension,—led M. BEcQUEREL to avail himself of electro-chemistry, to ob-

tain several compounds of a remarkable nature, whether from their resemblance

to the natural products met with in the strata of the earth, or from their similarity

to certain products of the chemist’s laboratory. As an example,

He put into aclosed tube some concentrated muriatic acid, and a piece of

eharcoal fixed to a slip of silver by a wire of the same metal ; the open end of the

tube was then drawn out to a fine thread with the blowpipe, but not closed. At the

end of several months, there were formed upon the lamina of silver, octohedric

crystals of chloride of silver, 0.001 metre (0.04 inch) in diameter, which resem-

bled exactly those of nature ; while from the charcoal was disengaged some gas

supposed to be carburetted hydrogen. The rationale is as follows: the charcoal

and the silver formtogether a pile, of which the former is the negative pole; hence

the hydrochloric acid is decomposed,—the chlorine goes over to the silver with

which it combines, while the hydrogen goes to the negative pole. When copper is

substituted for silver, protochloride of copper is deposited in tetrahedric crystals.

Protoxides of copper, of lead, the oxide of zinc, &c. have all been obtained

in crystals by the following process : taking copper as an example: in a glass

tube, a convenient portion of deutoxide of copper is placed, anda saturated

solution of nitrate of copper, along with a slip of the same metal which ought to

touch the deutoxide. The tube is then hermetically sealed ; the nitrate in contact

with the deutoxide gradually passes to the state of insoluble subnitrate: then the

lower part of the solution being less charged than the upper, acquires negative

electricity, whilst the upper becomes positive ; a current commences therefore from

above downwards, so that the Jamina is itself a pile, of which the positive pole is

below, and the negative above. It is natural, therefore, that the protoxide of cop=

per should transport itself and crystallize on the upper extremity of the lamina,

Finally, M. BecQueReL has formed double chlorides, bromures, iodures, sulphu~«

rets and cyanurets, crystallized under the influence of electro-chemical forces.

Thus to obtain a double chloride of copper and sodium, he takes a tube curved

SaaS

370 Progress of European Science. [Aue.

like the letter V. He fills the curved part of it with Aaolin, (porcelain clay,)

previously boiled in acid ; he then fills one branch of the syphon, with a solution

of chloride of sodium—the other with one of nitrate of copper ; lastly, a bit of cop-

per-wire is put into each, and the openings are closed with mastic.

The two solutions upon their gradual mixture acquire different states of electri-

city: the wire plunged in the nitrate becomes negative, while that in the chloride

remains positive ; the nitrate of copper is decomposed, and its metal deposited

upon the wire which is plunged into it, whilst the oxigen of the base transports

itself to the positive wire plunged in the chloride and thus produces a double chio-

ride, because a portion of this chlorine unites with the metallic wire, and the

chloride of copper resulting combines with the chloride of sodium. The greater

part of the nitric acid remains free in the branch where the copper is deposited.—

Journal des Savans, Jan. 1831.

In the proceedings of the RoyalInstitution of February last, we also find the fol-

lowing notice of some experiments made by Dr. RicHIe, on the laws of action in

an elementary galvanic battery, and their application to the laws of a compound

battery.

“‘ Dr. RicH1g’s experiments proved, that VoLTa’s electro-motive theory was in-

correct, and that decided voltaic effects could be produced by one metal and one

fluid. He attempted to account for the deflection of the needle and the decompos-

ing powers of an elementary battery, without supposing any actua/ transfer of the

electric fluid from the zinc through the fluid to the copper plate, by the definite

arrangement of the molecules of water. He shewed that the electro-magnetic efe

fects are nearly inversely as the square roots of the distance between the plates :

and that the effects of two unequal batteries were nearly as the square roots of

their lengths. When their lengths were much extended, as is the case in an ele-

mentary battery, the increase of power begins to deviate from this law, and to

verge to a limit beyond which any increase in the number of plates would dimi=

nish their powers.””

——=

Il.— Elec tro-Magnetism.

In the Philosophical Transactions for 1831, is an essay by Mr. BARLow, on the

Probable Electric Origin of all the Phenomena of Terrestrial Magnetism, which

gives so clear a view of the progress of researches on this most interesting branch

of electricity, that we regret our limits do not allow us to present it to our readers

at length: the following is a summary of its contents.

The facts relative to terrestrial magnetism collected during the scientific travels

of M. HumBotpr were the first to awaken inquiry as to the laws of terrestrial

magnetism. The difficult task of reducing that eminent traveller’s results to cal-

culation fell to the lot of M. Brot.

** Considering the earth as a magnet, he assumed an indeterminate distance to

represent the distance of its two poles ; and then, supposing their power to vary.

inversely as the square of their distance from the point on which they acted, (a

Jaw which had been already established,) he obtained a general expression for the

direction of a magnetic needle; he then made his indeterminate distance vary ;

and comparing at every step his results with those observed, it was found that

the nearer the poles were made to approach, the nearer the computed and observ-

ed results corresponded ; and finally, that the errors were reduced to a ‘minimum

when the two poles were coincident, or indefinitely near to each other.’’ This

1832.] Progress of European Science. 371.

important result demonstrated that the earth was not a magnet, according to the

common property of which the poles are distinct and distant from one another.

The intricate formule of M. Biot when simplified, were found to agree with an

empyric relation discovered by M. KrartT of Petersburgh, in examining some ob-

servations of the magnetic dip in different parts of the world; namely, ‘‘ that the

tangent of the dip of the needle in any place is equal to double the tangent of

the magnetic latitude of that place.’ It followed also from Buot’s formule,

that the intensity of the dipping needle ought to vary inversely as the square

root of four, minus three times the square of the sine of the dip; and that of

the horizontal needle, inversely as the square root of three, plus the square of

the secant of the dip: conditions which have in a great measure been verified, but

which call for further confirmation in every quarter of the globe.

These Jaws are entirely inconsistent with those of a permanent magnetic

body ; while Mr. Bartow shows, they are the fundamental laws of a body which

receives its transient magnetism by induction ; and resemble precisely the condi-

tions of the iron sphere upon which his experiments were made in 1819*, where

the remarkable fact was pointed out, that all the magnetic power of an iron

sphere resides on its surface.

Still an insuperable obstacle seemed to oppose itself to any rational hypothesis,.

relative to the cause of the earth’s magnetic power. At that time only one means of

inducing magnetism was known, which was by the approximation of a permanent

magnet toa ball, or mass of simple iron, and of one or two other metals ; the cause,

therefore, remained inexplicable, until the important discovery of M. OERSTED,

that a wire conducting an electric current was during the interval of transmission

_ in a state of magnetic induction. A number of interesting facts were immediately

brought to light, founded upon this grand discovery, by the researches of M. AM-

PERE, BioT, and Farapay. Mr. Bartow sought in it directly for the explanation

of the phenomena of the iron sphere ; andafter many experiments to prove,that the.

force of each particle of the galvanic wire on each particle of the needle varies in-

versely as the square of the distance, and that the nature of the force is tangential,

that is, such as would place a needle always at right angles to the direction of the

wire, (facts more fully elicited by M. AmPERr’s investigations,) he applied it

to the construction of a globe which should exhibit the whole phenomena of terres-.

trial magnetism as due to the superficial action of galvanic currents. This idea

was put to the test of experiment with the most satisfactory results. A wooden

globe of 16 inches diameter was encircled by aseries of coils of wire in circles

representing the latitude lines of the actual globe or parallels to the earth’s mag-

netic equator. When the two ends of the coils of wire were connected with the

two poles of a galvanic battery, a state of magnetism was induced precisely re-

sembling the state of things on the earth: and a small needle placed in any situa-

tion upon its surface assumed the dip and variation corresponding to the locality.

Thus Mr. Bartow was the first to prove the existence of a force competent to

produce all the phenomena of terrestrial magnetism, without the aid of any body

usually called magnetic ; and indeed it had been shewn by M. Biot’s laws, that no

position of asingle magnet, nor the arrangement of any number of such bodies

within the globe, could cause an exhibition of the same phenomena, particularly as

relates to the intensity of the needle’s magnetism.

As far as the discovery of M. OERsSTED went, however, it did not appear how a

system of electrical currents could have existence on the earth, without a particur

* Essay on Magnetic Attraction, 1820.

372 Progress of European Science. [Aue.

Jar arrangement of metals, acids, and conductors. This difficulty was removed

by a subsequent discovery of Professor SEEBECK, of Berlin, only inferior in impor-

tance to the first, that the mere application of heat to a circuit composed of two

metals was competent to produce the same development of galvanic and magnetic

effects as those of the pile. Thus if instead of the coil of conducting wire on the

globe above described, each parallel were made complete in two metals, all the

phenomena might be represented by the application of heat only. A still farther

simplication has been made by Mr. StuRGEON of Woolwich, who has produced all

the effects of acompound metallic combination, with a rectangle of bismuth only,

unequally heated: a fact according wonderfully with the galvanic plate, described

in M. Becquerel’s experiments, of asingle metal acted on by saline solutions of

irregular composition.

‘<M. SEEBECK’S discovery brings us therefore,’’ says Mr. BARLow, “ a step nearer

to our object, by referring us to the sun as the great agent of all these phenomena,

and indeed only one link seems wanted to connect together the chain, and thereby

to reduce to simple and intelligent principles what has hitherto been considered

amongst the most mysterious laws of nature.”

Since the publication of Mr. BaRLow’s paper, Mr. Farapay has taken up the

subject of volta-electric and magneto-electric induction, and although we have not

a full account of his experiments, the notice of them in the report of the Royal

Institution already prepares us for a train of highly curious results; indeed, the

grand desideratum of converting magnetism into electricity seems in his skilful

hands on the points of attainment.

‘If two wires (A and B)be placed side by side, but not in contact, and a

voltaic current be passed through A, there is instantly a current produced by

induction in B, inthe opposite direction. Although the principal current in A be

continued, still the secondary current in B is not found to accompany it, for it

ceases after the first moment ; but when the principal current is stopped, then

there is a second current produced in B, in the opposite direction to that of the

first produced by the inductive action, or in the same direction as that of the prin-

cipal current. These induced currents are so momentary that their effect on the

galvanometer is scarcely sensible; but when they are passed through helices

containing unmagnetised steel needles, they convert them into magnets.

Ifa wire connected at both extremities with a galvanometer be coiled, in the

form of a helix, round a magnet, no current of electricity takes place in it. This

is an experiment which has been made by various persons, hundreds of times,

in the hope of evolving electricity from magnetism, and, as in other cases in

which the wishes of the experimenter, and the facts, are opposed to each other,

has given rise to very conflicting conclusions.—But if the magnet be withdrawn

from or introduced into such a helix, a current of electricity is produced whilst

the magnet isin motion, and is rendered evident by the deflection of the galva-

nometer. If a single wire be passed by a magnetic pole, a current of electricity

is induced through it, which can be rendered sensible,”

Thus is obtained the result so long sought after, the conversion of magnetism in-

to electricity ; whenever a metallic body moves near a magnet, so as to intersect

the magnetic curves, electricity is evolved, according to very simple laws. Similar

results have been obtained even with the magnetism of the earth ; on these subjects

Mr. Farapay had recently read a paper before the Royal Society, and he intended

(in February) bringing them forward experimentally at the evening meetings of

the Royal Institution,

1832, ]. Progress of European Science. 373

“The induction of electricity by the momentary passage of a magnetic pole, so

analogous to that of the induction of magnetism by a current of electric fluid,

leads at once to the consideration of another branch of magnetic phenomena which

originated with Mr. ARaGo, and has since been studied assiduously by Messrs.

HERSCHEL, CHRISTIE, BARLOW, and STURGEON, and others, namely, the magnetic

effects of metallic plates in rotation, with which we think should be classed, the

practical methods of magnetising steel bars, by the motion of magnets over them,

That magnetism existed in brass had been pointed out by Mr. Bartow in 1823,

but the magnetic force in most metals except iron, nickel, and cobalt was far too

feeble to be detected by the simple application of the most delicate needle. Mr.

ARaGO judiciously applied the principle of the magnetic momentum generated by the

rapid motion of discs of these metals, and demonstrated that all possessed magnetic

energy in various degrees*. The novel phenomenon of a magnetic needle rotating

on its pivot by simply placing it above a revolving plate of copper, had something

in it so fascinating, and presented so striking a similitude to the electro-magnetic

rotations then familiar to philosophers, that for a while it was doubted whether

or not the revolving plate possessed electric properties. Another mode of solv-

ing the problem was, that the copper plate, like all ferruginous bodies, actuated

the needle through what is called induced magnetism by the influence of the earth,

and that the needle was put into motion by a rapid succession of transient magnetic

poles induced in the plate. When however it was found that light copper discs would

of themselves rotate when suspended over a revolving horse-shoe, or other powerful

magnet, it occurred that all the phenomena emanated from the action of the

magnet employed, exciting transient polarity in the metals under examination.

Mr. SturGEon, from whose paper the foregoing facts are drawn, was from the

want of an adequate hypothesis led to examine the distribution of magnetic pola-

rity in metallic discs, by making them revolve or oscillate between the poles of a

horse-shoe magnet, and trying the conditions of various parts of the plate by a

small dipping needle. The number of vibrations performed by a thin copper disc

under the influence of a magnet, were reduced even five-fold when compared

with its free vibrations in air.

This subject is still under investigation, and will doubtless receive fresh eluci-

dation from the able men engaged upon it: we have already found that magnetism

is but another name for electricity, and shall soon know how to elicit it from every

substance, and perhaps to draw benefits as important in mechanical as the pola-

rity of the needle is in nautical science, What can be more wonderful than the pro-

digious mechanical force set in action by what appears a very inadequate cause,—

the elector-magnet, an instrument now familiarly known, in which a coil of wire

is wound round a horse-shoe of soft iron, and connected by its two extremities

with two small plates of zinc and copper. One of these instruments, constructed

by Mr. Watsu of Woolwich, was exhibited at the evening meetings of the Insti-

tution, which when the plates were dipped in weak acid, sustained a weight of be-

tween 300 and 400 pounds, though before the application of the voltaic power it

did not support an ounce.

_ The last fact to be noted in the progress of electrical knowledge, is the produc-

tion of sparks from the magnetic needle in Italy : Signor NoBiL!’s announcement

has been confirmed by Mr. James D. Forbes’ experiments, before the Edinburgh

Royal Society, in April, 1832, And the power of drawing sparks from the natural

magnet is now established. All we know as yet of the procedure is that, it “ rests

upon the recent discoveries of our distinguished countryman Mr. Farapay.”

* W. Sturgeon, Phil. Mag. April, 1832.

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JOURNAL

THE ASIATIC SOCIETY.

No. 9.—September, 1832.

ee ee

I.—Analysis of the Kau-cyur. By H. H. Wilson, Sec. As. Society,

; (Continued from page 8.)

SHER-CHIN.

Ar a former meeting of the Society, a summary of the contents of

the Dux-vé, or first part of the large Tibetan collection, the Kan-

GyuR, derived from the more detailed catalogue of Mr. Csoma pr

KGros, was presented to the Society. Since that period Mr. Csoma

has completed the catalogue of the whole work, and I propose on the

present occasion to offer an abstract of the information thence obtained.

Il —Tue SuHer-cuin.

The second portion of the Kau-cyur is entitled the Shes-rab kyi

pha rol tu phyin pa, or by contraction Sher phyin, pronounced Sher-

chin. In Sanscrit Arya Bhagavatt Prajna Pdramita, or simply

Prajna Paramitd, the two first words implying the venerable goddess,

epithets applied to Prajna, wisdom or understanding ; also styled Para-

mitd, or that by the means of which life is traversed and emancipation

obtained, from Pdram beyond, and Ifa gone ; and which may be ren-

dered therefore Transcendent or transcendental wisdom.

The Chinese explain it correctly, “le moyen de parvenir a l’autre rive

par la science: parvenir a l’autre rive est une expression mystique pour

indiquer—labsorption du contemplatif et sa delivrance finale.”—

Journal des Savans, Mai, 1831.

This class consists of six different works, in twenty-one large volumes ;

of these, the first five all bear the same title Arya Bhagavaté Prajna

Paramitda, and are only discriminated by the titles expressing the

number of stanzas which they contain, The sixth division is of a

more miscellaneous character.

376 Analysis of the Kah-gyur. [Serr.

The first work, entitled the Shes-rab kyipha roltu phyin pa—s’tong

phrag Br. gya-pa (or H. bum), or in Sanscrit Arya Bhagavati Sata

Sahasrika Prajna Paramitd, consists as the designation imports of

100,000 slokas or stanzas. It occupies 12 volumes, divided into 75

books and 303 sections.

The second work is nothing more than an abridgement of the preced-

ing, in which the number of stanzas is 25,000, whence its name the

Panchavinsati Sahasrika. It occupies 3 volumes.

The third work is also an abridgement of the first, in 18,000 stanzas,

or Asthadasd Sahasrikd. It likewise occupies three volumes.

The fourth work in one volume is the Dasa Sahasrikd, an

abridgement of the second work in the collection, in which the 25,000

stanzas are reduced to 10,000; and the fifth work is a final abridge-

ment of the whole, in which the number of stanzas is brought down

to 8,000, contained in one volume.

The twenty-first and last volume of this division of the KAn-cyur

is entitled S’na-ts-hogs, or the miscellany. It comprises 18 different

treatises, all of the class of Sz¢ras*, (original preceptive authorities, ) and

explanatory of the doctrines taught in the preceding volumes, in a

summary form and commonly in verse.

As might be expected from their more compendious form, several of

these are of more general currency than the original, and they may be re-

garded as the popular representations of the metaphysical speculations

of Buddhism. Thus the fifth tract, entitled the Vajrachhedika, the

cutter of adamant, in which the true sense of the Prajnd Pdra-

mita is explained by Saya to his disciple Susuuri in 18 leaves,

is frequently met with in Tibet, in a detached form. The five

last treatises are denominated from the Bodhisatwas, to whom they are

addressed, the Prajna Pdramita of Surya-gerbha, Chandra-ger-

bha, Samanti-bhadra, Vajrapani, and Vajraketé. In one of the

number, a specimen of mysticism occurs. It is called the Prajna

Pdramitéd Sarva Tathagata Ekakshari, or the mono-literal trans-

cendental wisdom of all the Buddhas, and refers the essence and origin

of all things to the first letter of the alphabet, or A. For this being

the first element of speech, all instruction is derived from it, all wisdom

obtained, and it is hence to be regarded as the mother of the Bod-

hisatwas, the essential means of final liberation, and the substance of the

Prajna Pdramita.

* Mr. Hopson says, Sétra is often explained Mila (root) Grantha, and Buddha

vachana, or words of Buddha.—As, R. vol. xvi.

1832. | Analysis of the Kah-gyur. ave

A careful examination of the original Prajna Pdramitd, or a trans-

lation of one of the abridgements of it, is the only means of determin-

ing the real purport of the native doctrine of the Buddhas, as taught

by Sdxya. It is indeed urgently required, in order to save many

eminent scholars from the unsatisfactory labour of endeavouring to

compose a regular system out of the disjecta membra placed within

their reach, by the study of inferior authorities or oral communication’.

It is to be hoped, therefore, that Mr. Csoma may be prevailed upon to

undertake the task, however difficult and irksome it may prove, not

only from the inherent obscurity of the subject, but the very desultory

and vague manner. in which it is treated by SAx yA, or his disciples—a

style of discussion which renders it impossible to give a satisfactory

analysis of the contents of the Sher-chin.

Speaking generally, the volumes of this division contain the meta-

physical and psychological doctrines of the Bauddhas, as taught by

Saxya to his pupils, and to other Bodhisatwas and Buddhas. There

are especially one hundred and eightleading topics ( Dhermas), which

with numerous subdivisions admit of argument, of affirmation and ne-

gation. Thus of aggregation or body, five predicates may be asserted

—shape, perception, consciousness, faculty, and discrimination, The

senses are said to be six—sight, hearing, smell, touch, taste, and un-

derstandingt ; there are also six organs of sense, six objects, and

eighteen regions. There are six elements, earth, water, fire, air,

ether, and spirit, (or intellectt.)

There are twelve concatenated causes of existence, whether of mat-

ter or spirit—1l. ignorance; 2. faculty ; 3. discrimination; 4. definite

form ; 5. sensation ; 6. perception ; 7. knowledge; 8. desire; 9. priva-

tion; 10. vitality ; 11. birth ; 12. oldage and death. There are six trans-

cendental virtues—1l. charity ; 2. gentleness; 3. patience ; 4. vigorous

application ; 5. meditation ; 6. wisdom. To these four others are some-

times added—method, salutation or prayer, fortitude, and prescience.

* Mons, RemusarT states in a note on his Review of Mr. Hopcson’s Sketch of

Buddhism, in the Transactions of the R.A. Society (Journal des Savans), that sub-

sequently to its publication, “‘ il a paru dans le Journal Asiatique, et dans les Me-

moires de l’Academie de Petersbourg, plusieurs morceaux ou l’existence d’un Dieu

supreme, dans le Buddhism est discute® contradictoirement.”’

+ This is contrary to the statements hitherto published: disputed points be-

tween the Nyayikas and Bauddhas being the number of the organs, reckoned by

the former, six, including mind, and by the latter, five, excluding mind; and the

including of the dfds as a distinct element, which the Bauddhas do not recognise.

282

378 Analysis of the Kah-gyur. . [Sepr.

Of the great dogma of Buddhism, the determination of Sunyatd, emp-

tiness or unreality, eighteen varieties are enumerated.

The specification of these varieties however does not furnish a very

precise notion of what is meant, and it is not easy to understand what

is intended by the doctrine that “ nothing is,” especially when associated

with the eternity of matter, and even of an eternal first cause. In

one point of view, itis a mere logical subtlety. All things are liable

to change, the only state of which eternal identity can be predica-

ted, is non-existence—nothingness. That which never is can never

perish, and is therefore the only one enduring invariable principle in

creation.

Sunyata may also be regarded in a figurative sense, as the illusory

nature of all corporeal and mundane existence.

These and the other speculations contained in these volumes are

said to have been taught by Sdxya in his 53rd year, 16 years

after he had attamed the degree of a Buddha, when he resided on the

mountain of Gridhra-kita, near Raja Griha. In some cases he de-

livers his instruction direct ; in others he replies to questions put to him

by propositions, which his disciples discuss, and thus elicit the answer

for themselves.

The first compiler of the Prajna Paramita was Kasyapa, the suc-

cessor of SAkya in thehierarchy. The work was translated in the ninth

century by the Indian pundits Jivamitra and Surennra Bonu, and

the Tibetan interpreter Ye-surs-pe. As I had occasion to notice, on

a former occasion, the Society is in possession of the Sanscrit original

of the Sata Sahasrikd, or work in 100,000 stanzas; one entire

copy and three sections of a second in the Lan-ja character ; and one

entire set in Devanagari, in five large volumes.

TIL.— Puat-cw Hen,

The third division of the Kaa-cyur is called in Tibetan Sangs-

gyas phal po chl’he, or by contraction Phal ch’hen. In Sanscrit Bud-

dha avatansaka, the crest or diadem of the Buddhas.

In the general account of the Kau-cyur, the term is given Bud-

dhavata-Sanga, association of Buddhas, but the present is probably the

correcter reading.

It is of much less extent than either of the preceding portions, con-

taining only six volumes of a connected series, which detail in 45 sec-

tions legends relating to different Tathagatas and Bodhisatwas, anda

description of the different regions of the universe, agreeably to Bud-

dha cosmology, interspersed with recommendations of the moral practices

of the system. These legends and lessons are narrated chiefly by

1832.| Analysis of the Kah-gyur. 379

Sfxya, either on the summit of mount Meru, or in the Tushita heaven ;

and accordingly are intended only for the benefit of the highest order

of aspirants to the perfection of a Buddha.

This work is also termed a Maha Vaipulye Sutra or Scripture

of great extent: it was translated in the ninth century by the pundit

Surenpra Bopui and Lorsava Barrotsana Ragsuita.

‘1V.—Kon-tsees.

The next division, although of no greater extent, is more diversified

in its character, and contains in six volumes 44 different treatises ; the

whole collection is entitled D. kon M. cWhog Br. tsegs pa, or simply

Kon-tsegs. In Sanscrit Retna-kita, the jewel peak, or pile of precious

things. These precious things are the instructions of SAxya, ona

variety of moral subjects, delivered by him on the mountain Gridhra-

kuta to his disciples. Many of them are in the form of dialogues,

and more are in the shape of a reply to a question put by one of the

disciples. One of the inquirers is the Hindu sage Vyfsa, who is

enlightened by Séxya on the topic of charity and alms-giving. Others

are of all descriptions, from a Bodhisatwa to a young girl. The topics

are various, generally moral, as in the first article-on the three obliga-

tions; the eighth on the ten virtues : sometimes legendary, as the 5th,

6th, and 12th, which give an account of the regions of the Buddhas,

Amitabha and Akshobhya, and the Bodhisatwa Manji Sri. Treatise

four is upon the interpretation of dreams. No. 13 describes the meeting

of Skxya and his father SuppHopaNA, after the former had become

a Buddha; and in number 20, SAxya explains to his disciple Ur<xr

the order in which the chapters of the Dut-va are to be arranged.

The translations of the Kon-tsegs are regarded as the work of the

ninthcentury, by the pundits Jinamirra, Surenpra Bopnt, Danasixa,

and others, and the Tibetan interpreters YxE-sueEs-pe, and D. Put;

Br. Tsres.

V.—Do.

The next portion of the Kan-cyur is entitled M. Do-de ; Sans.

Sutranta, or simply, M. Do Sutra, atermimplying properly aphorism or

rule,but here applied to acollection of treatises considered as ofanautho-

ritative, preceptive, or scriptural character. According to one classifi-

cation of the Kan-cyur, the Do class comprehends all the portions of

the entire collection, exceptthe Gyut, the lastand Tantrika class; but in

the present instance, as a distinct division, it comprises 251 different

treatises, collected in 30 volumes.

They areall supposed to have proceeded originally from Séxya,and

to have been committed to writing shortly after his death by his disciple

380 Analysis of the Kah-gyur. [Sepr.

Ananva. Thefirst volume B. skal, B. zang, or S. Bhadra Kalpika, the

age of happiness, is called also a Mahd-ydna Siitra, or a great chariot

precept: the phrase which is commonly used in Buddha literature to

denote a scripture of the first order, the metaphor implying that such

works act as conveyances to bear the spirit beyond the bounds of

existence.

The principal subject of this work is the enumeration both in prose

and verse of a thousand Buddhas, of whom four have existed, the rest are

yet tocome. The circumstances related of each of these are classed

under 15 heads, or—1. his name; 2. the place of his nativity; 3. his

tribe; 4. the extent to which the radiance emanating from him pro-

ceeds; 5. his father; 6. his mother; 7. his son; 8. his attendants; 9.

the most intelligent of his disciples; 10. the one amongst his disciples

best versed in working miracles; 11. the number of his disciples col-

lected on any particular occasion; 12. the duration of his life; 13.

the period during which his doctrine prevails; 14. the relics remain-

ing of him; 15. the shrines built for their reception. About 300 leaves

are occupied with these details ; they are preceded by 150 on the ge-

neral perfections of a Buddha, and are followed by about 100, de-

scribing the first step taken by the Buddhas particularised to attain

divine perfection. ‘The work is supposed to have been repeated by

SAxy¥a in reply to the questions of a Bodhisatwa, and in the presence

of a large concourse of followers of both sexes, gods, demons, Bodhi-

satwas, and Buddhas, in a grove between Sravasti and Vaisali.

In the enumeration of the Buddhas anterior to SAKya in this

volume, it is worthy of remark, that only three are specified, or Kra-

KUCHCHANDA, Kanaka, and Kasyapa. Sdxya is the fourth. It

would seem from this, that the existence of the three first of other lists

Vieasyi, Sikui, and Viswasyu’ was not universally recognised in

Tibet, any more than in Ceylon or to the eastward.

According to Mr. Schmidt, they do not occur in the Buddhist writ-

ings of the Mongols, but this seems doubtful, and Mons. Remusat

states that they are specified in Chinese works.

The second volume of the Do class is chiefly occupied with the

Lalita Vistara, or the account of S&xya, a piece of autobiography,

related at the request of the gods by the sage himself. It is unne-

cessary to advert to it more particularly, as it furnished many of the

details read at the last meeting on the subject of S<xya’s life and ac-

tions. It is one of Honeson’s nine Dhermas.

The volume contains also three other short works, yet nevertheless

styled Mahd-ydna Sutras—l., Arya Manjusri vikridita ; 2. Arya Man-

1832. | Analysis of the Kah-gyur. 381

jasri vikurvana ; 3. Buddha kshetra nirdésa. The two first relate to

the actions and past lives of Mansvu’ Sri’, a Bodhisatwa of some repute,

who is the chief interlocutor in them with Sfxya. The third is an ac-

count of the virtues of the place of Buddha’s abode. These tracts con-

tain various metaphysical discussions on the nature of life and spirit.

The third volume contains two works. The abridged title of the

first may be Bhagavan jnydna retna, the jewel of the holy wisdom of

Buddha. In this the omniscience of Sxxya is eulogised and _illus-

trated, first by his disciple Gane-po, in a course of instruction given

to a pioushouseholder at a fabulous city called ‘ Excellent Virtue,’ and

afterwards by the Nagas. Skxya himself gives proofs of his power, as

well as explanations of his doctrines, to both his new and old disciples.

The second work Sarva Buddha jnyana dloka alankdra, the orna-

ment of the light of knowledge of all the Buddhas, originated in a

question put by Mansu’ Ser’ to Séxya, as to the meaning of the phrase,

There is no beginning nor end to a Tathagata ; or in other words, a

Buddha is subject to neither life nor death. SAxya in reply maintains

argumentatively the superiority and imperishableness of all the Bud-

dhas.

The fourth volume comprises five different works of comparatively

small extent and little importance ; the two first are explanations of the

doctrines delivered by Sx ya to his disciples. The third contains a dia-

logue between SAxy and alittle child found in a deserted house, and

whom SAxy¥a instructs in the usual topics. In the fourth, a Bodhi-

satwa describes the different regions of the Buddhas ; and the last,

entitled ‘ the eight Mandalas, contains little more than a recommenda-

tion to make these Mandalas or diagrams, as the means of securing

prosperity ; a rite which belongs to the mystical rather than the meta-

physical class of Bauddha notions.

The fifth volume comprises three different works. In the first, the

Sandhi nirmochana, or resolution of combinations, an assemblage of

Bodhisatwas is described ; several of whom propose subjects to Skxva,

on which he expatiates.

Thus in theninth chapter, SXxya at the request of AVALOKITESWARA

explains the ten bhumis or stages of perfectibility of a Bodhisatwa

and Buddha; and in the 10th, S{x va expounds to Manyu’ Sry’ the mean-

ing of the term Dherma kaya, the body or substance of righteousness,

The second treatise, the Lankdvatara, contains the doctrines taught by

Sanya to a prince of Lanka; and the third explains the meaning of

the term Bodhisatwa given by SXxya to Mansv’ Savon thehill Gaya

Sirsha, whence it is called the Gaya Sirsha Mahd-yana Sitra.

382 Analysis of the Kah-gyur. [ Serr.

The sixth volume has three treatises. The first discusses the

nature of life and the soul: the second is of mixed character, being

as much legendary as philosophical; it is termed Maha karuna

pundarika, and describes the approaching death of SAxya, and

the conversations that took place between him and his disciples or

the gods.

Thus on Brauma’s coming to condole with him, SAxya asks him

who was the creator of all things, and whether he had any hand in

creation. Brand declares that he had none, and in turn inquires the

birth of SAxya. The sage replies, that creation depends upon the acts

of created beings ; that is, as long as retributive justice is rendered neces-

sary by the weakness or vices of existent beings, they must continue to

be born and die, and the world consequently to endure. He adds also,

that the whole is illusion, there is no reality, all is Suwnyatd, or

emptiness ; he then dismisses BrauMA, desiring him to take care of the

world on his behalf.

S&xya then gives instructions to his pupils Anvanpa and K asyApa,as

to the dissemination and compilation of his doctrines, and desires them

in communicating his oral lessons, to use this formula, “ I myself heard

this, atsucha time when Chom-dan-das (SAxya) lectured at such or such

a place, when his auditors weresuch or such persons, all of whom when

the discourse was over rejoiced greatly, and concurred in his doctrines.”

The third treatise bears the same name Karuna pundarika, and

relates to the same subjects.

The seventh volumecontains six different works. In the first, Mar-

TREYA and Mansvu’ Srv’ are introduced, discoursing on the marvellous

perfection of Sfxya,and the six great or transcendental virtues, charity,

morality, patience, diligence, deep meditation, and clearness of intel-

lect.

Other disciples appear in the work, of whom Ssxya foretels the

estimation in which they will beheld. He also describes the conduct,

and relates the livesof former TaruAcatas. The work is considéred of

high value, and is called Sap Duerma PunparrxKa, the lotus of the

piety of the holy. The other works in this volume are of a similar

character. The fourth, the Karanda vyiha,is held in high veneration

by the Tibetans, containing many eulogies by S{xya on CHENRE'sIK

V&necunux, their patron saint.

The ninth volume in likemanner contains seven different works, and

all to the same purpose. The two first were delivered by SAKY¥A

when on the point of death. The third or fourth, although ascribed

originally to SXxya, are stated to have been rendered from Chinese

1832. ] Analysis of the Kah-gyur. 383

into Tibetan. The ninth volume contains six, and the tenth, seven

different treatises.

Each of the succeeding volumes is similarly distributed amongst a

greater or smaller number of different works. Thus, the 15th contains

nineteen tracts, the 16th, eighteen, and the 26th, thirty-three. They

are all of too similar a character to need particularization. Each is a

lecture on some topic of Bauddha belief or practice, delivered by

S<xyA, at the request of some of his followers, or in reply to their

inquiries. A few particulars of some of them may be noticed.

- In the 13th volume and 14th article is narrated a dialogue between

SAxya and an old woman at Brij. She puts many philosophical en-

quiries, to the astonishment of SAxya’s pupil Kun-Gau-oo, on which

SAxya tells him that she had been his mother in former ages for five

hundred generations.

The 11th number of the 15th volume, the Guile ots darika

Vydkarana, contains a prophecy, that a girl named CoanpRoTTars

and one of his followers shall become a Buddha ; there are similar

predictions of other persons in this volume.

Inthe Lokana Samana Avatara, the 19th article, in the same volume,

Séxya explains to Mansv’ Sry’, his spiritual son, the considerations

which induce the Buddhas to conform their practices to the concep-

tions of mankind.

The 19th volume commences with the Dherma Sangiiz, or treatise

on moral merit: in this, the different virtues are enumerated, and an

account given of the advantages to be derived from their exercise.

A discussion is also detailed between two Bodhisatwas on the nature

of the Tuthagatas or Buddhas, and in what sense the description of

their birth, life, and death is to be received.

Most of the treatises in the 20th volume are intended for the bene-

fit of the Bodhisatwas, and shew them by what moral and virtuous

observances they may soonest attain the perfection and degree of a

Buddha.

The first article in the 21st volume is entitled Buddha nama sa-

hasra pancha, sata chatur, tri panchasat, and is, as the name implies,

the enumeration of 5,453 epithets of a Bnddhaor Tuathdgata, each

being descriptive of some fancied or real excellence, and being accom-

panied with a reverential formula. Thus,

Tadore the Tathagata, the universally radiant sun.

I adore the Tuthagata, the moral wisdom.

1 adore the Tathagata, the chief lamp of all the regions of space—

and so on, for 137 leaves,

384 Analysis of the Kah-gyur. [Seer.

The second book in the 22nd volume, entitled Achyuta Raja, gives

an account of the periods of time prevailing in the different Loka-

dhatus, or regions of different Buddhas.

The region of SXxya_ is the Sahaloka dhatu, the world of mortals

under the viceregal supremacy of Braumg. In the same volume

occurs the Sapta Buddhaka Sutra, in which the seven Buddhas Vi-

pasyr and the rest, at the solicitation of a Bodhisatwa, appear and

communicate Mantras severally for averting evi!. Three other tracts

are successively devoted to eight, ten. and twelve Buddhas, but these

are the holy personages of the region, and have ne connexion with

Sdxya and his direct predecessors.

The twentieth work, in the 22nd volume, commences the Saddherma

Smrityupasthana, or the influence of recollection over the discharge of

true virtue. The work is continued through the whole of the 23rd and

24th volumes, and the greater part of the 25th, and may be considered

as the moral code of SXxyva. In this he describes the ten virtuous

and ten vicious acts, and their consequences ; the different degrees of

transmigration ; the scale of rewards and punishments ; the division of

heaven and hell ; as well as the suffering experienced in this world ; and

illustrates his subject by numerous legendary tales. These volumes

contain little speculative matter, and belong to the external or practi-

cal portion of the Bauddha doctrines. The last portion of the 25th

volume contains, amongst other treatises, two belonging to the Esoteric

doctrine—on Srinyaté and Maha Siinyatd, emptiness and great

emptiness, or the total unreality of material existence.

The lst article in the 26th volume is an account of the life and

actions of SXxya, and of the origin of the SXxya race. The details

agree generally with those in the 3rd volume of the Dux-va, and in the

Qnd of the Do class, or Lalita Vistara.

The 29th volume is occupied with four tracts, to three of which the

term Avadéna is applied : they are of a legendary character: thus, the

Suharika Avadana narrates the story of a divinity of one of the in-

ferior heavens, named Suwharika, foreseeing that he is to become a hog

in his next migration ; his anticipated degradation plunges him into

great distress, when he is advised by InpRa to have recourse to SAKYA:

he does so, and upon his death, not only escapes his threatened humi-

liation, but is elevated to a higher heaven, or that of Tushita.

The 30th volume contains 25 treatises, most of them legendary ; the

first five are in commendation of charity, the 11th is a narrative of

S<rv'uranAsa, the son of Trisanxu, a former chief of the Sudra

race, who by his talents obtained the daughter of a celebrated Brah-

1832.| Analysis of the Kah-gyur. 385

man for his wife. This story is related in justification of SXxya’s dis-

ciple and successor ANANDA, who married a girl of the Stédra caste.

The tract contains an enumeration of castes and citations of several

Hindi works. In the 22rd and 24th, the Surya and Chandra Siitras,

the sun and moon, apply to Skkya when seized by RAuv, and are

liberated from the demon at the command of the sage.

Two or three of these works are described as translated into Tibetan

from Chinese, but with these exceptions they are rendered professedly

from Sanscrit, and the names of the pundits and translators are given.

They are much the sameas those met within the Dul-va class, or Jina-

MITRA, SURENDRA Boput, DAna-S1'Lta, PrasnyAverma, Muniverma,

&c. Few names of the Lotsavas or Tibetan interpreters are given ; the

chief is Ye-sues-pe, the translator of the Lalita Vistara and other

principal articles in this class.

The M. Do class of the Kan-cyur may be considered as that part

of the course of Buddhist scriptures which is especially addressed to the

lay votaries of this faith. It is not like the Dux-va, intended for the guid-

ance of the priests, nor is it like the Suer-curn, addressed to the philo-

sophers, whilst it isalso distinguished from the ‘last great division of

the Kah-gyur, by being free, with one or twoslight exceptions, from any

taint of mysticism. Although some of the treatises are of a specula-

tive and metaphysical tendency, yet by far the greater number have a

more practical bearing, and either in the legends they narrate or the

lessons they convey, are evidently composed to enforce belief in Sf{xva,

and consequent diligent practice of those virtues which it was the end

of his mission to inculcate.

Several of the works contained in this collection belong to the Nava

Dherma, or nine Dhermas, mentioned by Mr. Hopeson, as objects of

adoration, as well as high authoritiesin Nepal; such are the Lalita vis-

téra, Lankdvatara, and Sat Dherma Pundarika.

Vi.—Myane Das.

The smallest division of the Kau-ayur’ is the Mya-nan-las-das-

pa,or Myang Das: in Sanscrit the Maha-parinirvana, or simply Nir-

vdna Sitra. Itis confined to two volumes,which give an account of the

concluding scene of SAxya’s life; his Nirvana or attainment of that

state of spiritual quiescence which constitutes the swmmum bonum of the

Buddhists. SAxya’s death took place in Asam or Kusa. The pos-

session of his relics was disputed by several of the cities and princes

of India, and finally distributed amongst them, Stately chdityas or

mausolea were erected for their reception,

2c2

386 Analysis of the Kah-gyur. [Serr.

VIl.— Gvyor.

The seventh and last portion of the Kau-cyur is of a very different

description from either of the preceding, constituting an extensive

collection of works on mystical worship, corresponding to the T'antri-

ka system of the Hindus, from which it is probably derived. The

works are also of amore modern date, and less legitimately Bauddha

character. The series consists of 22 volumes, each containing a

number of small tracts. Most of them as usual are ascribed to

SAKYA.

The first volume contains 14 works, the first of which is an enume-

ration of thenames of Mansu’ Sri’, aperson who was very possibly

concerned in grafting Tantra rites on Buddhist speculations. The

third work is called the Paramédibuddha uddhrita Sri Kala Chakra,

a Tantra delivered by Skxva, at the request of Da-zane, a king of

Shambhala, a fabulous city in the north; but the original is said to

have proceeded from the first Supreme Buddha. It was introduced from

the north, it is said, into India, in the 10th century, and into Tibet,

in the 11th. How this is reconcileable with its being delivered by

S<xya does not appear. Its modern date is unquestionable, as it makes

mention of Mekka, and describes, in the form of a prophecy, it is true,

the rise, progress, and decline of the Mohammedan religion. The

work contains a variety of details in cosmography, astronomy, and

chronology. }

The second volume contains four works, the Laghu-samvara, the

Abhidhdna, the Samvara, and Vajra Daka, in which the worship of

certain spirits, as HeruKka, Samvara, and Vasra-Daxa, with that of the

female sprites and witches of the T'antras, the Yoar’nts and DAxtnis,

is enjoined, and the Mantras, or mystical formule for invoking them,

communicated. These different beings are considered equal to the

Buddhas in power and sanctity by some classes of Buddhists.

The third volume has also four works of similar purport. In the

first the Hertika Anubhita, or appearance of Heru’Ka the speaker, is

Vasrasatwa, alsostyled Samvara and BHAaGAvAN, who, in answer to

the questions of VArcut', a goddess, explains her origin, her names, the

import of the male and female symbols (Linga and Bhaga), the

mystical power of different letters, illusion and union by Yo«a with

the deity : this and the other tracts also describe the different divi-

nities worshipped, the mandalas or diagrams to be formed, and the

Mantras to be repeated. The Mantras are also given, that of Vajra-

vardhé commences “ Om Nama, goddess Vasra-vArdur, holy and

invincible mother of the three worlds, Great goddess of all wisdom,

1832. | Analysis of the Kah-gyur. $87

the remover of terror from all created beings.” This Mantra is re-

puted to be of peculiar sanctity and efficacy.

- The first article of the fifth volume is the Sri-chanda Mahdroshana

Tantra. Inthis the Bhagavan Vasra-satwa instructs the Baacavati’

Prasny4 P&ramirti how to worship the wrathful deity called Cuanpa

Mandrosuéna, and in what manner a person may be initiated into the

same knowledge by his spiritual guide. There are also speculations on

the nature of body and spirit, and the means of re-uniting the human

with the divine spiritual essence.

The first article of the sixth volume describes the subjugation of

Nirampara-puara, Vasrapdniand Inpra, by S<xya. In the second,

the Mantras of several Hindu gods are given, or Om Braumk—Om

Visunu—Om salutation to Ru’pra—Om KArtixeya—Om Ganapati

—Om salutation to IypRAa—Om Mankxdua—Onmsalutation to Brau-

mA, and thelike. In the fourth, especial injunctions are given to the

novice, to persevere; the advantages of which are illustrated by the

adage familiar to most nations, “In time a large stone is hollowed

by small drops of water.” ‘ Gutta cavat lapidem non vi sed sepe

cadendo.” In this also Mantras or incantations are given for procuring

abundance, curing disease, overpowering an enemy, and the like.

The first and second tracts in the seventh volume are styled

Krishna Yamari, and Yamari Krishna Karma Sarva Chakra Sid-

dhahara, the black foe of Yamar,and the wheel of the black foe of

Yama or death, for accomplishing all acts. The fourth is the Rakta

Yamari Tantra, or of the red foe of death. The third is the Vajra

maha Bhairava Tantra, and fifth, Bhagavan Ekajata, the god with

the braid of hair: all, indications of close alliance with the followers

of Srva.

In the ninth volume, the sixth article is the Maha Vairochana Abhi=

sambodhi, a work of some extent, and sometimes regarded as a Siitra.

It is ascribed to the Bodhisatwa Vatrocuana, and was delivered by

him at the request of Vasrapant. The chief interest attaching to this

work arises from its containing the passage published in Europe in

1722, and most egregiously mistranslated by European scholars, as

described in a former number of the Journal.

The tenth volume contains some treatises that seem scarcely to

belong properly to this division ; they contain prayers ascribed to

different T'athdgatas for the welfare of all animal beings, and repeated

by Sdxya at the request of Mansvu’ Sri’. There are indeed many

such tracts in the collection, some of which are met with in the other

divisions, as the 4th and 8th of the 11th volume, the Vipula pravesa,

388 Analysis of the Kah-gyur. [Sepr.

which occurred previously in the 2nd volume of the Dut-va, and the

Sapta Buddhastava, short prayers or Mantras attributed to each

of the seven Buddhas which had a place in the 22nd volume of the

Do class.

The fifteenth article in the 11th volume is one of the numerous

proo's afforded by the cat logue of the intimate connexion of Mangv’

Sri’ with this part of the Buddhist ritual. It is styled Arya Manji

Sri Mila Tantra, the primary Tantra of the holy Mansv’ Sri’.

It is described as delivered by SAxkya in the highest heaven, in the

course of a conversation with Mansu’Srr’ in the presence of the assem -

bled Bodhisatwas and gods, Besides descriptions of Mandalas, and

of various ceremonies, accompanied with numerous A/antras, it contains

a system of astrology, an account of the planets and lunar constella-

tions, of lucky and unlucky periods, and the characters of men born.

under different planetary combinations. SAK YA in this part of the work

predicts the birth of some illustrious characters in Indian literature

or history,as PAnrnt and CHAnpraAcupta ; also of some eminent per-

» sonages in his own faith, as NkXgXkrsuna and ARyYa Sanaa, entitled by

Mr. Csoma, the Aristotle and Plato of Buddhism, and said by him to be

the teachers of comparatively rational systems, speculative or practical,

in the Madhydmika and Yogacharya schools, of which they were

severally the founders. N&cGArsuNa is a person who enjoys a very ex-

tensive but rather unintelligible celebrity in Hindustan. In the south

of India, he is the reputed author of works on alchemical medicine, and

in the introduction to the almanacks of Benares, he is commonly men-

tioned as the institutor of a Saka or era yet to come, the last of the

Kali age. Nothing else is known of him to the Hindus. According

to the Bauddhas he flourished four centuries after SAx ya, in the south

of India, and lived 600 years, traditions evidently connected with those

of the peninsula. AryA Sanea, according to Mr. Csoma, livedin the’

6th or 7th century after Christ.

This Tantra is held in high estimation by Tibetan writers, and con-

tains a number of interesting particulars relative to the princes of

India, who fostered or who persecuted Buddhism. It was translated

by order of a Raja of Tibet, named Cuane-cuu-suor, at Tholing, in

Gu-ge above Gerhwal and Kamaon, in the 11th century, by Kum&ra

Kaxasa Punpit, and the Getone, Skxya Lo-eros.

The 12th volume contains two works of the same name and sub-

stance, but differing in their source ; one being translated from Chinese

and the other from Sanscrit. The Tibetan titleis, Dehi shing kim kwang

med gwuhi sng wang kyang, The Sanscrit, Arya Suverna prabhasa

1832. | Analysis of the Kah-gyur. 389

Uttama Sitra Indra Raja nama Mahayana Sitra, or the great holy

Vina Siitra, the prince of the best of Svtras, resplendent as the radi-

ance of gold. This is one of the nine Dhermas of the Nepalese, and

is very popular with all Buddhists. It contains a course of dogmatic

instruction delivered by SAxya at Gridhra-kuta, to his disciples and

hearers, including the goddesses Saraswati and Laxsumy, and the four

kings of Mount Meru, Vaisravana, Duritardsutra, ViIRU’DHAKA,

and Viru’PAKsaa.

The 13th volume contains 71 different works: many of them are

but of small extent; some of them not more than two or three verses,

the greater number being Dharanis, short incantations, or prayers of

supposed protective efficacy, and not unfrequently carried as amulets

about the person. Thus the 25th article, the Apardjitt Dharant,

which occupies about eight leaves, is a collection of formule address

ed to the different Buddhas, which are preservatives against thieves,

water, fire, poison, weapons, foes, famine, disease, lightning, sudden

death, earthquakes, meteors, princes, evil spirits,and gods. Articles 28,

29, and 30 are Dharanis for the cure of fever, ophthalmia, and heemor-

rhoids, whilst they are preceded by the Sarva roga prasamini, No. 27

a cure for every malady. Some of these are ceremonial, to be used on

circumambulating or consecrating a temple or mausoleum. In 42, isa

Dharani for the augmentation of the understanding, Prajna verdhani ;

this occupies but one page. The chief secret lies in the repetition of the

Mantra, Namo retna trayéya, Namo aryd Avalokiteswaraya, Bodhi-

satwaya, Maha Satwaya Maha Karunikaya, “ Salutation to the Three

Holies. Salutation to the venerable Bodhisatwa, the purified and come

passionate Avalokiteswara.” No. 65 is a Dhdranié of two verses. No. 71

is agreat Dhdrant, Mahi Dharani, delivered by Skxya to his disciple

ANANDA, as a defence against all sorts of evils. ‘These works are

mostly ascribed to the same translators, as those of the large and more

standard works ; but Mr. Csoma thinks they had no part in these trans-

lations, the subjects being so dissimilar, and it being universally

admitted by Tibetan writers, that the princes of the 9th and succeed-

ing centuries discouraged the promulgation of Tantrika works.

The 14th volume contains 53 works of a similar character in general

as the preceding. From No. 3 to 10, they are lists of the names, 108

in number (like those of Stva), of different characters, in the Buddhist

mythology, or Avalokiteswara, Matreya, Akdsa-gerbha, Sdmanta-

bhadra, Vajrapant, Manji Sri, Sarvdvarana, Vishkambhi, Kshetra-

gerbha. No. 15 is called the Mahdmegha, the great cloud, being

the name of a Buddha. In this a rather unusual office is assigned to

390 Analysis of the Kah-gyur. [ Sept.

the Nagas, or serpents, the charge of the rains, which they are made

to promise they will send down in due season, in Jambudwipa, or

India. Nos. 18 and 19 are the Maha Ganapati Tantra and Gana-

pati Hridaya, and describe the worship of GaAnesa, and the prayers

sacred to him. Works with similar titles are not uncommon in Hindis-

tan. The first was introduced into Tibet in the 11th century.

No. 25 furnishes another analogy in nomenclature, being the Devi

Mahika'li’ Dharant. This goddess, however, is called the sister and

wife of Yama, the mother of Mra or Love, and queen of the region

Kamarupa. She is described as visiting Sfx ya, and receiving instruc-

tions and Mantras from him.

There are some other tracts on the same subject. ‘Towards the

end of the volume are several Dhéranis, ‘of which the hero

is the Bodhisatwa AVALOKITESWARA or CHEN-RE-SIK, who is re-

puted to be the particular patron and tutelary divinity of Tibet.

The last numbers are dedicated to the goddess TArd, the mother of

all the Tuthagatas, and origin of many things ; her names (108) are

enumerated, and worship described, and M/antras addressed to her re-

peated.

The fifteenth volume is chiefly devoted to the Tdntrika worship

of Amocuapdsa and the goddesses Saraswati and Mandsri’. One ar-

ticle, the last, entitled Bhuta damana, treats on the means of bringing

Bhuts or imps, ghosts and goblins, under human controul. Part of

the process is the use of the sundry gesticulations known in the Hindu

system by the term Mudrd.

The 18th volume contains but one work, the Bhagavatt Arya

Tira Mila Kalpa :—a detailed description of the powers of TKr&

the goddess, the incantations addressed to her, and mode of offering

her worship. It is attributed to S&xya, and was revealed by him to

his disciples, when AvALOKITA was sent to him by AmrtAsua from the

Sukhavati region.

In the 19th volume, the two first works are the Dharanis of MAnt-

BHADRA, the Yaksha, and son of Kuvera. The A/antra of this person-

age is Namo Retna trayaya, Namo Manibhadraya Mahayaksha Sena-

patayé. Salutation to the Holy Three—salutation to Manipaapra,

general of the Yaksha host. The 12th article, Sarva Mandala samanya

Vidhana, or general ritual for all Mandalas, is a copious account of the

figures of these diagrams, mode of making them, and ceremonies to be

observed on the occasion. In one place the symbols of different

deities to be placed in the divisions of the diagram are described, as a

trisul or trident for Rupra, a discus for Visunu, a lotus for BRAHMA,

1832. ] Analysis of the Kah-gyur. 391

a spear for Samvara, a thunderbolt for Inpra, a furnace for AGNI, a

club for Yama,a sword for Narrrita, a noose for VARUNA, a banner for

Vayu, a staff for Kuvera, &c. No. 14, the Susididhikara Mahé

Tantra, is a work on the usual Tuntrika subjects, but held in high

estimation.

The 20th volume is interesting for its antiquated style, its different

purport, and its being authority only with the Nyig-md-pa, the oldest

Buddhist sect in Tibet. It contains three works ; the Sarva dherma

Mahdasdnti bodhi Chitta Kulaya Raja, the royal instructor of the

understanding in the great quiescence of all virtue. The second has

a still longer title, with its equivalent not only in Tibetan but in what

is called the Bruzha language, a language of which Mr. Csoma could

- obtain no information. It is also said to be translated from that lan-

guage. The third has a simple denomination, the mysteries of all the

Tathigatas. It is regarded however as a continuation of the second.

The mysticism of these works is of a different character from that of

the others, and is doctrinal, not ceremonial. They also belong to theis-

tical Buddhism, being revealed by the Supreme Soul, the Creator of all

things, and who has existed from all eternity, in answer to the question

of Vasrasatwa the chief of the five Buddhas, styled elsewhere the

Dhydani Buddhas. The first was translated in the 8th or 9th century

by Sri Stnna Prasua and the interpreter Vatrotsawna, the second

(from the Bruzha language) by Duzerma Bopui DANA Raxsuirta and

the interpreter CHHE’-TSAN-SKYES,

The 21st and 22nd volumes contain severally four and fifteen works of

the same description as those which preceded the contents of the 20th ;

they do not need any particular specification. In the fourth line of the

22nd volume directions are given for the representation of the five

Buddhas, Varrocuana and others, with their symhols. The Buddhas,

Bodhisatwas, and others, who are the interlocutors in these works, or the

objects addressed by them, are as before Vasxasatwa, VasRaPANI,

Mansv’ Sri’, Heruxa, and Vasrapuara. The doctrine or worship of

Illusion or Maya occurs in the Vajrasatwa Mayd gala Guhya Sarva

dersha, the mirror of the mysteries of the net of illusion of Vajra-

satwa, the 3rd article of the 21st volume, and in the Ist of the 22nd,

the Mahamaya Tantra.

Thus terminates the great collection, the KAn-cyur, a vast specimen

of misdirected talent and time. Imperfect as the summary view given of

its contents must necessarily be, it is evident from it, that there is no

very great variety of subject, and that the general character of the

Bamposition is monotonous identity. The patience and perseverance

392 On the Ancient Roman Coins. [Srrr.

of Mr. CsomA, in going over the whole of these bulky volumes in the

manner he has done, will entitle him, I have no doubt, to the thanks not

only of the Society, but of a considerable number of the learned of

Europe, who are at this moment warmly interested in the investigation

of Buddhism. He will have a still stronger claim upon their acknow-

ledgments, if by the translation of some of the philosophical works, he

enables them to appreciate what Buddhism really is.

Besides the catalogue of the Kan-cyur, Mr. Csoma has made occa~

sional translations at my request, for the illustration of particular points.

These are also submitted, as an account of the life and death of SAKYA,

the origin of the Saxya tribe, and some passages from the SHer-cHin.

Il.—On the Ancient Roman Coins in the Cabinet of the Asiatic

Society. By James Prinsep, Sec. Ph. Cl.

(Read, July 4th.)

Having been lately engaged in decyphering the inscription of an

antique copper coin found at Kanouj, by Mr. E. V. Irwin, C. 8. and

presented to us by Captain Sanders, Executive Engineer at Cawn-

pore, I was led into an examination of the contents of the Society’s

small cabinet itself, which, although it boasts but a very insignificant

collection of Roman coins, and those mostly without any record of the

exact localities in which they were found, or of the parties who present-

ed them, is entitled to some interest from the circumstance of the

Indian origin of all that it contains. It was not until the year 1814,

that the Society opened a museum, and publicly invited contributions

to it of the natural productions, antiquities, coins, and other curi-

ous monuments of the country: it is the less surprising, therefore,

that its collection should not hitherto have attained any magnitude or

consideration. Most private individuals, who have interested themselves

in collecting medals and coins, have carried their spoil to England,

where, indeed, they may be mortified in finding them swallowed up

and lost among the immense profusion of similar objects in the public and

private cabinets of European antiquarians ;-and they may perhaps regret

that they did not leave them where, from their rarity, they would have

been prized, and, from their presence, have promoted the acquisition of

further stores for antiquarian research from the wide continent of India.

The greater part of the late Colonel Mackenzie’s collection was thus

consigned to the museum of the Honorable Company in Leadenhall

‘Street. Doctor Robert Tytler also presented to the same museum a

1832.] On the Ancient Roman Coins. 393

valuable cabinet, chiefly of Roman coins, procured by him with great

industry while Civil Surgeon at Allahabad. Col. T. Wilson, c. 8. lately

carried hence some curious coins; and many other private collec-

tions might be mentioned, without alluding to the extensive cabi-

net of Major Tod, which cannot be said to be lost to India, but rather

‘to be returned to us more valuable than before, through the plates and

notes in elucidation of them published in the Royal Asiatic Society’s

-Transactions.

The publication of a catalogue raisonné of the contents of our draw-

ers, although it may expose our present poverty, will, I doubt not, by

a wholesome re-action tend to our future enrichment, both by esta-

blishing a nucleus to which the antiquities henceforth discovered will

be naturally attracted, and by affording to inquirers, who may not

have the opportunity of consulting books on the subject, some clue,

however insufficient, to the decyphering of worn and imperfect medal-

lic remains, which appear to a novice to defy scrutiny.

We here possess the advantage of reference, in the Society’s

library, to the splendid numismatic works that were printed in Europe,

during the last century, when numismatology was a favorite study.

The copious volumes of Vaillant, Patin, Mezzabarba, Hunter, and

Banduri, leave hardly a possibility of doubting the exact epoch of a

Roman coin, when the device on either side, or a few letters only

of the inscription are still visible. It is by means of these works, that I

have been able to decypher and classify the greater part of the coins

in the following catalogue:—I have added to the list several that

were the private property of Mr. Wilson, Col. T. Wilson, or my-

self, found in different parts of India: I have also availed myself of

a manuscript catalogue of the Society’s coins, drawn up by Dr. R.

Tytler, in the year 1826, which includes the mention of twelve Roman

coins.

The number in the cabinet at present amounts to between 50 and

60 : they extend in antiquity through a period of more than 1000 years,

from the Augustan age down to the decline of the lower empire. The

_ accompanying plates exhibit the greater number of them faithfully

delineated, of their real dimensions and appearance, with all

the defects of workmanship and the injuries of time. There

are few among them which would be objects of primary interest

among professed medallists at home, who, in the profusion of

Roman coins every where discovered in Europe, are content

with none but those of superior fabrication and high preservation,

worthy of the titles of medals and medallions of large and smaller mos

2D 2

394 On the Ancient Roman Coins. [ Serr.

dulus, fancifully conferred upon them in their class books. We possess

none of what are usually called medallions of “ large brass :°—

those beautiful specimens of the die-sculptor’s art are supposed to

have been struck less with a view to circulation as coin, than as me-

morials of state events and families of note. The pieces found in

India are chiefly of the lower denominations, the common currency of

the eastern part of the empire, and if it were allowable to argue from

such insufficient data, the predominance among our specimens of the

copper coin of ASgyptian fabrication confirms what is known from

history, of that country having been the principal channel of

commerce between India and the Roman Europe. Robertson says

that specie was one of the principal returns in trade for the

spices, precious stones, silk, &c. of India: it is not improbable,

therefore, that the coin of the empire circulated to a considerable

extent in India; and that there existed no native currency at an

early period among the Hindus, we have the authority of Pausanias,

and the silence of other authors on the subject: this supposition is

supported by the almost, nay, total absence of the remains of any an-

cient Indian coinage. The Indian coins of Kanouj and the Dekhan, de-

scribed by Mr. Wilson in the As. Res. and the Indo-Grecian coins of

Major Tod, are evidently descendants from the Bactrian coinage, from

the types of which they gradually progress into purely Hindu models ;

but these are comparatively scarce, and must soon have given place to

the coins of the Muhamedan conquerors. Coinage is certainly one of the

improvements which has travelled and is still travelling eastward. Thus

we see, at the present day, countries immediately to the east of us, Ava

and China, nearly destitute of fabricated money of their own; into

the former of which our silver and copper currency is but now by

degrees beginning to penetrate, while the latter along the coast is

supplied with dollars from America; and, within perhaps a century

or so*, in its north-western provinces with coin struck by the neigh-

pouring frontier states of Nipal, Lahore, &c. for their use. But this

is a digression involving questions of deep research, foreign to my

present object, and which I am by no means prepared to discuss.

The symbols on the Roman coins, unlike those of the Greeks, are

generally explained at once by the inscriptions encircling them:

thus SALVS REIPVB, Or SALVS AVG, accompanies the type of a female

feeding the serpent of the goddess of health, at an altar : concoRDIA,

ABUNDANTIA, PROSPERITAS, &c. are allmarked by the cornucopia ; the ca~

* The Chinese provinces north of the Himalaya, Tibet, &c. were supplied with

eoin struck in the vailey of Nipal—Dr. Bramley’s Notes on Nipal Coinage.

1832.] On the Ancient Roman Coins. 395

duceus expresses peace or commerce ; the pontifical hat, the priesthood ;

military standards and warriors, glory and victory : a fort, or gateway,

security, &c. The eagle generally denotes the consecration of an

emperor, as the fhensa or divine chariot is the emblem of that of an

empress. All, or the greater part, of the types on the reverse of the

coins of the emperors have reference therefore to some attribute or

event of their reign; and when accompanied by the date of tribunate,

consulate, imperial or pontifical elevation, &c. are so many imperishable

testimonials of the truth of history. In not a few cases they have

served to fill up blanks or to rectify doubtful events; and they have

brought down to our sight not only the record of facts, but the very

portraits of the monarchs, heroes, law-givers, and authors, whose deeds

and words form the delight of our studies from our youth up-

ward. It may be regretted, that the Roman coins did not directly

exhibit the calendric date, especially after the entire reformation of

the calendar under the first of the Caesars; but with this sole exception

what system of modern coinage, in the world, can stand a competition

with the Roman or its prototype the Greek, the two earliest

supposed to have been introduced among mankind ? If as a contrast

we look but one moment at the system of coinage prevalent in the nine-=

teenth century throughout the extensive provinces of India, what will

it impart of the history of our time to after-ages, when all other

records shall have perished, or shall want the confirmation of public

monuments, and the cherishing memory of a proud posterity? It will

deceive them, as to the name and nation of the ruling power ; as to the

date, and as to the place of coinage! It will afford neither information,

nor variety, nor beauty of design to gratify the curiosity of future anti-

quaries; the very excellence of its fabrication will be thought to have

been lavished on an object unworthy of a great and enlightened

nation! But this also is a digression, only excusable as it serves to

enhance the value to us of the precious reliques of antiquity.

As the contents of our cabinet are to be regarded in the light of

mere coin, a few remarks are necessary, to explain by what names

they went and what value they represented ; this part of the subject

is generally disregarded by writers on medals, properly so called, who

look to their numismatic value only as elucidatory of history and the

arts; it has however received a very clear illustration in Pinkerton’s

Essay on Medals, from which we collect the following facts. The

gold coin of Rome (aureus) varied gradually in weight from the

Augustan era to the close of the empire, though in a less degree than

the coins of the other metals; it was, under the first emperors, 110

396 On the Ancient Roman Coins. [Serr.

grains in weight, passing for 25 silver denarii and 100 sestertii: it de-

clined to 80 grains in Gallienus’ time: Aurelian attempted in vain to

restore its weight to 100 grains. Besides the term aureus, it generally

took a cognomen from the emperor, whose image it bore, as is still the

case with the coin of many modern countries. Constantine introduc-

ed a new name and system of subdivision of the gold coin, but main-

tained his solidus of gold of the same weight as the aureus, or 80 grains ;

it became current throughout Europe as the Bezant (from Byzanti-

um), and gradually dwindled to less than half its size and value with

the decline of the empire.

The principal silver coin of the republic was called denarius : it

weighed 90 grains, and was worth, as its name implied, 10 copper

ases : its subdivisions were the quinarius (5 ases), and the sestertius

(half the third, that is, 2} ases). In the reign of Augustus the weight

of both copper and silver coins had declined, and the denarius (then

of 60 grs. weight) was made equivalent to 16 as. The sestertius thence-

forward ceased to be a silver coin, and in lieu thereof, the handsome

large brass medals, so prized by collectors, were first struck, weigh-

ing a Roman ounce. The silver quinarius (also called victortatus from

the common figure on its reverse) lasted to the time of the Philips. At

that period the denarius having diminished to 40 grs. was called minu-

tus, and a new piece called argenteus philippeus of 60 grs. or one-half

heavier,was introduced as an equivalent for 24 ases of copper, or six brass

sestertii. This again dwindled down to 40 grs. by the time of Galli-

enus, when all the inferior silver, as well as the large brass, disappeared

entirely, and small silvered copper pieces (denarit eris), weighing 60

grs. took the place of the sestertii, and passed current as tokens of

10 ases value; the silver philippeus itself being, as before, 60 as, or six

of the plated denarii. Diocletian restored the szlver denarius of 60 grs,

and replaced the denarius eris by the follis, a new copper coin of

1 an ounce, silvered or tinned : six of these as before were equal to the

denarius, or to 60 copper ases of 60 grs. weight each.

Once more, the-new denarius had declined to nearly 40 grs. by the

time of Constantine, under whom its name was changed to centenionalis,

so called because 100 pieces=11b of silver, and a new 70 grs,

piece was instituted, having the title of mdlliarensis, from 1000

pieces being equal in value to one pound of gold. The copper follis

remained of half an oz. in weight, but 24 now went to the md/li-

arensis : Numerous fractional parts of the latter also were made : the

NMiov poreos, or $s TETApTOV, OY x § oBodor, or '5 5 *7aploy, or as (now of

only 20 grains,) and the vovmoy, or 75; from this last coin, the marks upon

1832.] On the Ancient Roman Coins. 397.

the copper pieces of the lower empire are supposed to be derived ;

thus the Greek numeral M. on a copper piece weighing 4 an ounce,

shews it to bea follis or 40 vovmia ; K stands for 20, I for 10, of the

same unit, &c.

Tn describing the silver coin, I have unavoidably introduced as much;

notice of the copper coinage as is requisite for the purpose of recogniz-

ing, or naming, all that will come under review in the following cata-

logue. The as. was the pysa—the penny piece—of the Romans

from first to last, merely declining in weight from one pound in the

time of Servius Tullius, to halfan ounce in that of Augustus, and to

20 grains in that of Constantine the Great.

The money of account was distinct from the coin, being estimated

in sestertii and sestertia; the sestertium (pondus), or 2 centum

denariorum being equal to 100 Sestertit, or about £368 English

money ; but with this we have nothing to do at present, and it is

high time to turn to the coins before us.

Gold Coins.

In the Astatic Researcues, vol. III. is a notice of the discovery

of a number of Roman coins, chiefly of gold, of the second century,

by a peasant, in digging the remains of what appeared to be an old

Hindi temple near Nelore, 100 miles west of Madras, in the year

1787. Many were melted up as old gold, but 30 were recovered by

Nawab Amir-ul Amra, who allowed the Governor of Madras, Mr. A.

Davidson, to make a selection of two from the number for himself.

He chose an Adrian and a Faustina, of which drawings were sent

to the Asiatic Society. “Some of the Tragans were in good preser-

vation, and many of the coins could never have been in circulation,

they were so fresh and beautiful.” This printed record is all that

now remains in our archives of the interesting discovery :—the coins

were probably brought to India by the Christian or Jewish refugees,

who migrated to Mysore in the third and fourth centuries of our era.

Pi. VII. fig. 1,2DN ARCADIVS PFE AVG. Dominus noster Ar-

A, D. 392. ‘ cadius pius filius Augustus. Front face of the

prince, juvenile, in helmet and armour : an eques-

trian device on the shield.

Reverse. NOVA SPES REIPVBLIC oe. below, conos.

Type. Victory seated, half naked, inscribing five crosses or XX Xxx

on a shield ; a star on the left.

Weight 70 grs. troy :—The solidus of Constantine and his succes

sors.—As. Soc.

398» On the Ancient Roman Coins. [Serr.

This coin does not agree with any engraved in Bandurius or in Vaillant ; it is

however described by the former vol. ii. 529, with the difference of. B in lieu of

©, marking it of the second instead of the ninth year of his reign, The significa-

tion of the five X’s does not appear to be understood, nor to whom zova spes

refers, unless it was struck by the emperor Theodosius, on consecrating his son

as Augustus. Bandurius entitles his similar coin rarissimus.

Fig. 2. DN ARCADIVS PF AVG. Head ofa youthful prince

A. D. 389. looking tothe left, with chaplet and toga.

Reverse.. CONCORDIA*AVGGG s (an. 8.) .

Type. Helmeted female: sitting on the. prow of a ship, with spear

in_ the’ right hand and a shield in the left; inscribed v o T

V MVLX ’

Weight 65° grs. ° yididise® |

This coin is depicted in Bandurius, page 527, an. H. It is, as all those with

mention of votes, esteemed a very rare cdin.. It was given to me by Mr. Wal-

ter Ewer.

Silver Coins.

_ Fig. 3. ROMA X on the exergue, or below the image of a

B. c. 200. head armed with a winged helmet ; either of Pallas or

of Dea Roma.

Reverse. .On the exergue SGERII, an equestrian fice on the

E right, and traces of a pedestrian on the left. There isa

hole through the coin; it is in the possession. of Col.

Wilson.

The % probably denotes that this coin is the ancient denarius, which bore the

impress X, (meaning 10 ases.) Pinkerton supposes that the value of the denarius

was changed to 16 ases about 175 years before Christ; if so, this coin must be

of very ancient fabrication, and it may be the more valuable, because none of

precisely similar appearance is to be met with in the books to which reference has

been made.

In the earliest times of the Roman coinage, the silver denarius, quinarius, and

sestertius, all bore alike on the obverse the winged head of Pallas with the simple

word ROMA, and the marks of value X, V, or HS respectively : and on the reverse,

the mounted Dioscuri, or Castor and Pollux. Perhaps the present indistinct device

may be of this nature, although from the epigraph it seems rather to point to

some victory. over the Germans. Perhaps the latter, which was indistinct, may

haye been SPQR. I am not able now to refer to the coin to ‘decide this point.

Fig.4. YC HSAR AVGVSTYS.......-ATRIA. The first part

B. C. 1, t of this inscription is barely visible, and a part of the

_ coin is cut off. Well defined head of the emperor.

Reverse: ...., CHSARES; The rest illegible. ae

Type. Two figures standing and supporting two shields, the one

“partly covering the pihoe

Tour. As.Soc.

7 J Prins ep del.ct sculps

RoMAN Corns PII.

1832. ] On the Ancient Roman Coins. 399

This coin is doubtless the same as one described by Mediobarbus (page 39) of

the 14th year of Augustus.. The full inscription would then be CHSAR

AVGVSTVS DIVI F PATER PATRI. And on the reverse, below,

or on the erergue, as it is called, “‘ Cet LL CHXSARES (Caius et Lucius)

AUGUSTI FILII COS DESIGNATI PRINCIPES JUVENTUTIS, TZype, Due figure toga-

tz assistentes clypeis cum hastis puris.”’

Caius and Lucius, the sons of his daughter Julia, and Agrippa, were adopted by

Augustus as his successors upon the birth of the latter (16 B. C.) ; were desig-

nated principes juventutis attwelve and thirteen years of age, and “‘ Consules

post quinquennium,’’ Caius in B, C. 5, Lucius in B. C. 1. The present coin pro-

bably belongs to the latter year. The two princes died within four years after.

Fig. 5. TI CHSAR DIVI AVG FAVGVSTVS. Head of the

A. p. 6. t emperor Tiberius in good preservation.

Reverse. PONTIF MAXIM.

Type. A figure seated, (either the emperor, as officiating priest, or

Dea Clementia;) a spear in the right hand, an olive

branch in the left.

Weight 60 grs. The silver denarius.—As. Soc.

Tiberius Cesar, the adopted son and successor of Augustus, was made Pontifex

Maximus in the seventh year of his reign. Mediobarbus mentions but one

silver coin corresponding with this in device ; it myst therefore be scarce and

valuable.

Fig. 6. ..ASIANVS AVG COS II, V.P. Head, a good deal

A Ds. 70, worn.

Reverse. SALVS AVG,

Type. A female figure standing before an altar, offering food toa

serpent,

There is no coin of VESPASIAN in Mediobarbus exactly resembling this in APea

and bearing the same date, but the device is common enough.

Fig. 7. --MAXIMVS CARSAR GER, Head of the emperor

A. D. 236, distinct,

Reverse. Illegible, probably Princeps Juventutis.

Type. An armed youth, standing.

C. Jul, Ver. Maximus was nominated Cesar and Princeps Juventutis at the age

of 18, by his father Maximus: he took the title of Germanicus with his father

during their campaign in Germany, on the following year, when they were both

killed in their tents,

Copper and Brass Coins.

Fig. 1.

a. D. 14.

Reverse. s C [senatus consultu] enclosed in a wreath of laurel.

A brass coin, weighing 118 grains, or ¢ 0z.; in Value 1 as. None of the coias of

Augustus enumerated in Mediobarbus precisely agree with this; those struck by

: -.AVGVST...Well executed head of the emperor.

A00 On the Ancient Roman Coins. » [Serr

Tiberius, in honor of his apeotheosis, resemble it most ; but the wreath in them

was of oak, the inscription DIVVS AVGVSTVS.

B. c. 40, CASAR AVGVST PONT MAX TRIBVNIC POT.

A; D. 19. Head of Augustus without the laurel. \

Reverse. S.C. encircled by If. VIR‘A‘A‘A‘F-F-P. LVRIVS-AG-

RIPPA. Z

This is one of the coins denominated nummi monetales, bearing ‘ets name of

the mint-master of the time, Lurius 4grippa. There were three prefects or mo-

neyérs in the Roman erarium, one for each of the precious metals; as explained -

by the inscription 7'riviri Aeris Argenti Aurique Flandi Feriundi curam habuere.

They were chosen from the members of the senate, and the names of nearly fifty

mint-masters of those ancient times have been faithfully preserved on the coins of

Augustus alone. A similar coin is depicted in the Edin. Encyc. Numism. Pl. cccxx.

Fig. 2. -ESAR'DIVIAVGFAVGVS.-.Head of Tiberius

A.D. 15. Ged facing the left.

- Reverse. ..BVN POTEST XVII. PONTIF MA:..In area S.C.

Type. A female figure seated, holding in one hand a-cup, and

in the other the hasta pura, or blunt spear. ae aes

Weight 165 grs. Copper; much worn.

This is known to belong to Tiberius from bearing his title of Divi Desectl fi.

It agrees with a coin described i in Mediobarbus, 64.

_ A. dD. 84.—Legend illegible, head recognizable as that of Vespasian.

’ Reverse. SC, below ROMA. =a"

Type. A square frame,—the gate of a temple?

Fig. 4. as TRAIANO AVG. GER. DAC PM. Head of the

A. D. 107. emperor.

Reverse. Optimo prin c1PI. Most of the inscription effaced.

- Type. Emperor standing with sceptre in left hand ; right hand

outstretched to a suppliant figure at his feet. In

area § C,

Weight 368 grains. Brass sestertius—H. H. Wilson. Mea. 157.

Trajan assumed the title of Dacius upon the reduction of Dacia, and its forma-

tion into a Roman province, A. D. 106. The type probably refers to the reduction

of an insurrection on the following year.

Fig. 5. QHADRIANVS AVG COS IIL.-Well executed

rm. UST. : head.

Type. Figure of Mictony holding a branch; no 0 Fegendt Ss or on the

area.

Weight 465 grains. - Brass sestertius.

Medicbarbus explains, that coins of the emperor adnan, bearing only SC on

the reverse, belong to the year A.V.C. 890, or A. D. 137.

Fig. 6. '

Mey. 187 thap RIANVS.-.. Head. similar to the last.

ay ett. |

ROMAN COINS. Pl.

EGYPTIAN .

- a

i ¥

Se ee

Jour: AS. Soe.

J hrinsep del ct seulps.

}

1832. | On the Ancient Roman Coins. > 401.

Type. Female standing, and holding a branch. S C in area,

Weight 174 grains. A copper assarium.

PU. Il. fig. clk BER cHBAcrn. Head of Julia Augusta, the

A. D. 200. wife of Septimius Severus.

Reverse. mPorvc ae ON:

Type. A standing female figure, with spear and wreath.

Patinus (page 233) says, that of many cities of the name of Prusxz, the most

probable one to strike a coinsin honor of Julia was in Bithynia, near Mount Olym-

pus: the coin is of brass and much worn.

A. D. 180.—A coin of one of the Antonines, by the appearance of

the head, but the legend effaced. On the reverse, a

trophy, S C, Copper.

_ Fig. 8. IMP ALEXANDER PIVS AVG, Wreathed head

A. D. 226. t of emperor.

Reverse. PROVIDENTIA AVG ;in area SC. Female figure

holding an ear of corn over a pannier; I. h. a

cornucopia.

Weight 250 grains. Brass sestertius. Med. 321.

Alexander was called Pius in this year, on the opening of the Alexandrian baths.

Fig.10, QIMP ALEXANDER PIVS AVG. Head in good

A.D. 231. : - preservation.

Reverse. PM TR PX COS III SP,.Half naked figure of the

Sun, with r. h. elated ; in the left a whip or fagrum.

* This coin is described in Med. 324, and was struck after a victory in Persia.

Fig. 9.

A. D. 243.

Reverse. A triumphant car drawn by four horses.

Weight 130 grs. Copper assarium. Med. 340.

¢. corvranvs PIuS AVG. Mauch worn.

Fig. 14. IMP GALLIENUS AVG, Only the lower part of

A. D. 263. : the letters visible.

Reverse. APOLLINI CONS. AVG. A griffin (monstrum ala-

tum, Med.) Described also in Bandurius I. 158, as a

silver coin.

Weight 60 grs. Copper, or billion, [plated copper.] denarius wris,

or sestertius.

This is the first of that peculiar system of coinage of silvered copper, the

value of which has been so much contested by antiquaries ; they are easily recog

nised by the rounding of the edges of the letters, probably done to prevent the

silver covering being cut by the die. Gallienus’ coins of this year are peculiar for

land and sea monsters, supposed to refer to the Decennalia, then celebrated with

great magnificence.

7 Z2E2

402 On the Ancient Roman Coins. [Sert-

Fig. 13. i --CARCINIA T..KUA.? Face imperfect and illegible

A.D. ? legend. I...A. Female figure standing,

Fig. 3. IMP CLAVDIVS AVG, Emperor’s head in radi-

A. D. 268. ated crown.

Reverse. VIRTVS AVG.

Type. A soldier standing on the prow of a vessel, holding a

branch in the right hand ; in the left, a spear.

Weight 55 grains. Copper, denarius eris.

Ditto. Another coin similar to the last, having on the reverse

JEQVITAS, with the figure of Justice holding a ba-

lance.

These coins were inserted in Plate I. under the impression that they belonged

to Tiberius Claudius. It requires however but little knowledge of medals to per-

ceive that they belong to Claudius Gothicus, who-succeeded Gallienus.

Fig. 7. --ICTORINUS PP AVG. Head with radiated

A. D. 268. crown.

Reverse. Iegible. Figure of Sol with r. h. outstretched.

Weight 35 grs. Copper.

This is a coin of M. Aurel, Victarinus, who was associated in the empire with

Posthumus Senior; he killed the latter along with two other rivals, and reigned

himself for six years.

Fig. 12.

A. D. 270. dime CTET....-PF AVG, Radiated head.

Reverse. SALUS AVG. Female offering a cake to a serpent near

an altar.

A coin of C. Fesuvius Tetricus, Preses of Gaul, under Aurelian, and nominated

colleague in Italy with him.

Fig. 11.

A. D. 275.

Reverse. LE (an. 5) with the head probably of Jupiter or Apollo:

but belonging to a die of inferior size.

Sana AOM AYTPHAIANOC ...-emperor’s head.

An Egyptian coin of Imp, Ces. Luc. Domit. Aurelianus Aug. described in

Bandurius I. 387.

The coins of the Roman Emperors bearing Greek inscriptions are of two kinds :

those of the Grecian cities, provinces, and colonies had generally the name

or insignia of the town where they were fabricated on the reverse, without any

date : those coined in Egypt (at Alexandria), had invariably the date or year of the

reign, in alphabetic numerals, on the reverse, with various devices, but no legend

or epigraph. Some of them havea letter Aor A _ below the type, supposed to

designate the town or mint. It is necessary to bear in mind, that the numerals

12345678 9 10 11 20 30 40 50, &c. were represented in Greek by

ABTAESZHOI IA K A MN. The ancient form of the Greek

Jambda L is supposed to stand for AvkaBavros, anno (currente) : sometimes, and

1832.] On the Ancient Roman Coins. 403

especially in coins of the ¢hird year, the word ETOYC (anno) is used in lieu of it,

and the ninth year seems to be invariably expressed by ENATOY L (xono anno) in-

stead of L©. Ido not find any explanation of this circumstance, which is pro~

bably attributable to some superstition in Egypt respecting the mystical numbers

3 and 9.

Fig. 16. Me arp mposoc CEB Imp. Ces. Mar. Aur. Pro-

A. D. 277. bus Augustus, Head of the emperor rudely executed.

Reverse. LB, an.2. An eagle bearing a laurel wreath.

Fig. 17. See :

ers {Same inscription, and device; LH, ano 8.

Probus was made Imperator of the East by the Emperor Tacitus, and recovered

_ a part of Egypt and Persia which had revolted. The weight of these copper coins

is 120 grains, or } oz. They are therefore the accapioy or oBodos of the eastern

empire.

Fig. 18. AKMAKAPINOC K. Imp. Ces. Mar. Aur. Cari-

A.D. 282. t nus Ces.

Reverse... LA, ano 1, An eagle holding a wreath between

two military standards,

Fig. 19.

A. D. 283.

Reverse... LB, anno 2. Female holding in the right hand a

flower ; in the left her robe. Band. 538.

This is a brass coin ; it was dug up in the neighbourhood of Mirzapoor,

$ Same image and superscription of the Emp. Carinus.

Fig.20. QJaAKMA NoYrMEPIANOC CEB Imp. Ces. Mar. Aur.

A. D. 284, Numerianus Aug.

Reverse... UB, anno2. Anarmed and helmeted female sitting

on a shield: r.h. an image of victory; 1.h. a spear.

Weight 140 grs, Copper.

Numerianus, younger brother of Carinus, accompanied his father Carws in the

Persian war : on his death, he succeeded to the empire, and reigned for two years.

PiIIL. fig. 24. VaxrovraAatoKan.....Imp. Ces. Caius. Val.

A. D. 285. Diocletianus Aug.

LB. anno 2. Female bearing a branch and a cornu-

copia ; a star on the right.

A. D, 285.—Two similar coins of the same year, with Justice holding

a balance.

Fig. 25. t -++ AIOKANTIANOC CEBaoros,

A.D. 286. 4 Lr, anno 3.: Female with wreath and cornucopia,

Fig. 26. es anno 4. Female helmeted: r.h.a victory; 1. h.

A, D. 287. cornucopia. A shield on the ground. Band. II. 39.

Fig.27— La,anno4, Legend illegible; r. h, an eagle?

AOA On the Ancient Roman Coins. [Serr.

Fig. 28. Lz, anno 7. Jupiter naked with a spear in the left

A.D. 291. hand, and thunder in the right ; at his feet an eagle.

Fig. 29. Lu, anno 8. Jupiter seated with the same accom-

A. D. 292. t paniments ; beneath A. Band. 39.

Fig, 30.—Lu, anno 8. Same type as fig. 28. Band 39.

Fig. 31. LENATOYT, anno 9. Female figure in tunic, holding

A.D. 293. t a flower in the right hand; gathering her garment

with the left: below a. Band. 39.

This coin was procured at Kanouj, by Mr. E. V. Irwin, C. S. and was presented

to the Society by Captain Sanders, Engineers, 1832.

Heat 32. ;

A. p. 294, Lb anno 10. The eagle bearing a wreath.

Weight 120 grs. Copper. This device is not in Bandurius.

Fig. 34. QAKMA OVA MAZIMIANOC CEB Imp. Cas. Mar.

A. D. 284. Aur. Maximianus Aug.

LA, anno 1. Female holding an olive branch or flow-

er, and acornucopia. Band. 80.

Fig. 35.— LA, same device. Two cornucopiz ; star on the right.

Fig. 36. 2 by aha tage

A. D. 285. LB, anno 2. Similar device ; star on the left.

Fig. 37. LS, anno 6. A winged female holding a flower wreath

A. D. 290. the right hand, and a palm branch in the left.

L S, another in every respect similar.

L S, another belonging to J. P. Band. 81.

The above series of coins embraces ten years of Diocletian’s, and six of his col-

league Maximian’s, reign. These two emperors called themselves the Jupiter and

Hercules of the state, and frequently impressed the effigies of those gods upon

their coins.

The fabrication of money, bearing Greek inscriptions in Egypt, ceased alto-

gether in the twelfth year of the reign of Diocletian, A. D. 296, when Egypt

was united to the rest of the empire by the defeat of the tyrant Achilleus ; after

which period, its coin bore the usual Latin legends. Our series reaches within

two years of this date.

Pl. III.. 2 This coin was procured at the ruins of Manikyala, inthe

Fig. 33. Panjab, by Lieut. Burnes and Dr. Gerard, in 1832.

From the LS, and the appearance of the device, I supposed it to be a Roman

‘coin of Egyptian fabrication of the second or third century : but on a closer exa-

mination, I am inclined to think, that it is a Bactrian coin, similar to those which

are described by Mr. Wilson, in his paper on Indian coins in the As. Res. XVII.

Pl. II. fig. 25. Their device is a figure on horseback, with arm outstretched ; the

LS, forms part of the head and ear of the horse, and the arch of his neck are

faintly visible on the coin, although not represented in the plate, for.want of

shading. The bandelettes of the head on the obverse also agree better with the

coins of the Bactrian dynasty, as well as the size and weight of the coin.

Pol LELIX.

ROMAN COINS PUL. 111.

Four, As. Sec.

SS,

@y Ss

(aaa S

~ z

JP? wnsep ded.

a. >

ASSURE aH

Lata al :

AP Pel Dee wa Bl a 4

Re ee as 9

1832.] On the Ancient Roman Coins. 405.

Fig. 38.

A.D. 309.

Reverse. CONSERVATORES VRBIS SVAE, beneath 1acr.

Type. A statue of Roma, seated in a temple of 6 columns,

Weight 105 grs.—the half follis described in Band. IT. 154.

Fig, 39. CONSTANTINUS MAX AUG, Head with a wreath

a. D.307, mek of jewels.

wees EXERCITUS (gloria exercitus).

Type. Twomilitary standards with armed supporters ; some letters

below illegible.

¢waxENtivs PF AUG. Head much worn.

_ Fig. 40.

Ae De O08.

Reverse. PROVIDENTIA AUGG. Below smante.

Type. A gate or arch (castrorum porta, Band. 278) surmounted

by two globes, and a star in the centre.

Ditto.— Another coin of similar inscription and type. Head Jaurel-

led.

Ditto._CONSTANTINVS MAX AUG.

GLORIZ X EXERCITVS. Military standard. smans.

This coin is reckoned rare by Bandurius, as it bears the Monogram of Christ,

¢ C ONSTANTINUS AUG. Head of the Emperor.

Fig. 41. - ; ;

: CONSTANTINVS AVG. Head with plain band.

AnD, SoD.

Reverse) DN CONSTANTINI MAX AUG: Below smna. Med.

A68.

Type. A wreathenclosing yvOT xxx.

Weight 60 grs.

This coin must be a denarius eris, coined previous to the introduction of the

large copper follis of 240 grs..

Fig. 42. SERN pail es tale A juvenile head (of Con-

A. D. 330. stantine junior ?)

Reverse. Legend wanting: Victory with outspread wings sitting on

the prow ofa ship, with spear and shield: below smatr,

Weight 40 grs.

This piece differs in the epigraph from any enumerated in Bandurius : it is not

certain whether Constantine himself struck any coins in honor of his new capital, or

whether they originated with his successors. A. D. 330 is the date of the dedica-

tion of the new city.

a. D. 330.— VRBS ROMA. Juvenile head helmeted.

Reverse. Romulus and Remus suckled by a wolf: two stars

above ; below conso

- Coins of the imperial city seem to have been struck at the same period with those

of its rival Constantinople, to prevent jealousy between the two.

406 On the Ancient Roman Coins. [Serr.

Fig. 43. ? ...VL CONSTANTIVS NOB C. Flavius Julius Con-

A.D. 330. stantius...Nobilis Cesar. Head with plain band.

Reverse. GLORIA EXERCITVS. Two standards and martial

supporters : below..cp..

Weight 50 grs.

Constantius was made Cesar by his father Constantine the Great, in 323.

A.D, 330.—FL IVL CONSTANT NOBC

GLORI© EXERCITVS. Below, cms. Standards.

There are two or three coins of similar device.

It is difficult to say, whether the last two are coins of Constantius, or of his

brother Constans : both having the same names FL, 1VL. The coins of Constantine

and his family are extremely numerous, and have nothing to mark their precise

dates, Bandurius arranges them alphabetically, according to the legends on the

reverse. : Ao,

A.D. 337.—DN CONSTANTIVS PF AVG: Head with ornamen-

tal wreath. Py

Reverse. FEL TEMP REPAR..-.Below illegible. al

Type. A captive thrown from his horse, is pierced by the spear of

a Roman soldier.

The device of this small coin is very neatly executed.

Fig 44.

A. D. 364.

Reverse. SECVRITAS REIPVBLICZ indistinct. Victory step-

ping forward; on the face sp; below asiscu. -

This coin is described by Mediobarbus, 506. Valens was put in charge of the

western empire by his brother Valentinianus in the year 364.

Fig. 45.

A. D. 393.

Reverse. GLORIA ROMANORVM. Three figures standing,

armed with spears, Med. 519.

Mediobarbus supposes the three figures to be the Emperor Vhcodosius, with

Arcadius and Honorius, his sons, imploring the divine aid on their expedition to

Italy : the coin is rare ; it was found at Mahkabaliptiram, along with several others,

bearing the same device, but of a smaller size. They belonged to Col. Mackenzie’s

cabinet.

Weight 30 grs. 5 the oBodoy.

Fig. 46.

A. D. 379,395

Reverse. Illegible. Victory crowning the Emperor,

Fig. 47.

A. D. 403.

DN VALENS PFAVG. Head with plain band.

Hes -.-DOSIVS PP..Head with star on the right.

t THEO.... Head of the Emperor Theodosius much worn.

woes VS PF AVG. Head of Arcadius?

VIRTVS..... The Prince receiving a crown of laurel

from Victory.

Wail. PC X

dour. As. Soc.

Eastetn E mpire.

(E/

TAS

JP rinsy del

1832.] On the Ancient Roman Coins. 407

Fig. 49.

Ae D394 don HONORI...D.N. Honorius Aug.

--»-ROMAN...Glori@ Romanorum. Two figures

armed, supporting a globe.

Weight 20 grs. the voumior.

This device, no doubt, represents the two brothers, but the type is not found in

either of our authorities. A coin of due figure, is mentioned in Patin’s catalogue

of rare inferior coins.

Fig. 48.—A small coin referrible to the same period, but unintelli-

gible. On the reverse four legs united, or a cross ?

From their weight these must be the voywa, or smal-

lest copper coins, whence the denominations of those

which follow were derived, as explained in the

introductory remarks,

Fig. 50. ----INVS PF AVG Probably D. N. Justinus Pius

2 Be 522, Felix Augustus.

Reverse. + Vix with a globe under the centre of the M. Copper

CON follis, of very inferior fabrication,

Weight 170 grains.

Fig. 51. +---PF AVG. Front face apparently of Mauricius,

A.D. 585. : with jewelled head-dress : holding in his left hand a

globe and cross,

— M a The year is not very distinct ; c under the M does

Reverse. a C x not occur in Med. 576, or Band. 666. The follis.

Weight 240 grains.

Fig. 52. } Head apparently of Christ, almost obliterated ; inscrip-

A. pd. 970. tion on the reverse, very rude and only partly legi-

ble... XRISTuS .., BAsIL .,

This is a coin of Joannes Zimisces (Band. 738), the full inscription being IjSuS

XRISTuS bASILevS bASILEwyr,

Weight 140 grains,

Fig. 53. 4 Three-quarter front figure of Christ, with a glory

| Be De es round the head: much worn.

Reverse. An ornamental cross, with four globes in the quarters 1¢

Xo NI KA signifying Inow Xpiotw vikay Which may be the origin

: of the Latin motto, In hoc signo vinces.

_ Weight 170 grs.

408: Observations of the Transit of Mercury. [Srrr..

JoANNES ZIMISCES, a monk who rose to the throne after the murder of his

benefactor Nicephorus Foca, was the first who ventured with dissimulated piety to

put the effigy of Christ upon his coin. They were thence called Swrnpixo. The

modern Greeks erroneously ascribe them to Constantine the Great. It is a curious

fact, that these, which are the most recent coins in the cabinet of the Asiatic

Society, should be in the worst state of preservation.

Note.—Since writing the above, the Society has become possessed

of 250 Roman coins, purchased from an Armenian ; as they were not

found on the continent of India itself, I do not feel called upon to

include them in the present list, although they will be of great use in

forming the germs of a future cabinet. Some of them are in high pre-

servation ; they comprise

2 of Augustus 2 Maximinus 32 Diocletianus

2 Nero 1 Septimius Severus 27 Maximianus

1 Galba 1 Sept. Geta 18 Constantinus

6 Vespasianus 4 Alexander Pius 2 Constantinopolis

1 Titus 1 Gordianus 11 Constantius

3 Domitianus 8 Philippus 2 Valens

2 Nerva 6 Trajanus Decius 2 of Greek Towns

2 Trajanus 8 Gallienus 1 Severa

6 Hadrianus 4 Claudius Gothicus 1 Lucilla Augusta

45 Antoninus Pius 2 Aurelianus 4 Faustina

16. Commodus Ant. 8 Probus 2 Mamma

and 20 others, more or less illegible. Should any of them turn out to

be new or rare, I shall take occasion to notice them hereafter.

III.— Observations of the Transit of Mercury. By James Prinsep,

Sec. Phys. Ci. :

On the 5th of May, the expected transit of Mercury over the sun’s

disc, a phenomenon which occurs twice in an interval of about

12 years, invited all lovers of astronomy to be prepared at their

telescopes. Unfortunately, in Calcutta, the day proved cloudy

just at the time when the ingress took place, and, as the sun set before

the egress, little advantage could be taken of the event in correcting

the longitude ; much less in attempting to furnish data for the calcula-

tion of the parallax of the sun or of the planet. From half past four

to a quarter past five Pp. m., there were intervals of sunshine sufficient to

afford a transient view. Lieutenants Waugh and Rennie, Engineers,

endeavoured with me to profit by these moments in taking the posi-

tion of the planet on the sun’s disc. We were permitted the use of a

1832.] Observations of the Transit of Mercury. 409

very fine 4-feet achromatic telescope, belonging to Lieut. Pemberton, of

four inches aperture, mounted equatorially, and provided with a deli-

cate wire micrometer. The power used was 60, and the darkened

glass was varied to accommodate the light to the eye—the clouds

were sometimes sufficient alone to act as a screen against the sun’s

rays.

For the time we were indebted to Mr. Gray, with whose astronomical

clock our chronometer was compared before and after the observa-

tion ; thus,

At 9h. 10m. a.m, Mm. °S.

Chronometer slow of Ellicott’s Clock,.00.— 15 46.2

Deduct error of Clock by Me. So. Time, 4+ 4 55.2

Chron. slow of Mean Time, 10 51.0

mm, Ss.

At 5h. 45m. p.m. Chron. slow, 15 50.0

Clock fast, (daily rate 0.2 gaining), -- 4 55.2

— 10 54.8

@litones Toss) 10/8 Ths 35M. ennsncsnsncrorerncronrorcoosce 3.8

PUR ALE OSIN 5. o/s wisldalels v e.n0lne tle Base de 10.33

Hourly rate 0.43-s.

Correcting the times noted, therefore, the subjoined are the obser-

vations expressed in mean solar time. From the rapid motion of the

sun, we found it quite impossible to measure the distance of Mercury

from either the advancing or the following limb with the wire micro-

meter; the planet’s distance, however, from the tangent of the sun’s

northern limb, or at right angles to his motion, was taken at three dif-

ferent times, during the series of observations. There is, however, more

or less uncertainty in this mode of measurement, from the difficulty of

bringing one of the wires of the micrometer to coincide with the

sun’s limb, as from the darkened eye-glass, the wire ceases to be

visible as soon as it is off the disc; the divided object glass microme-

ter is in this respect preferable.

For the equatorial measurements, we had resort to the times of

transit of the sun’s two limbs and of the planet past the two wires of

the micrometer; repeating the sights as frequently as the weather

would permit, by moving the telescope a little in advance before each

series of readings commenced. ‘There was a small spot on the sun

indistinctly defined towards the advancing limb, the transits of which

were also noted: the time occupied by the planet’s passage of a wire

was about half a second, but as small reliance could be placed on the

measurement of such a space, it has been preferred to insert the mean

of the two readings, as the passage of his centre. His disc appeared as a

2EF2

410°. Observations of the Transit of Mercury. [Serr. |

clean circular spot, surrounded with a slightly enlightened ring ; his

diameter was as near as could be estimated, that of one of the micro-

meter wir es.

The time occupied by the passage of the sun’s disc across the wires

decreased as the evening advanced, from the effect of the atmospheric

refraction contracting his vertical diameter.

Transits of Mercury and of the limbs of the Sun, past the wires of an equatorial tele-

scope in mean Solar Time, at Calcutta, Lat. 22° 36' 21’ Long. 5h. 53m, 28s. —

- 3 a ES os

a Bs | i & 2 debe es 8

ice} 8 2 20+ 2 ape go

dl O= n a Of Ge oe

° = ob ses ie ~~ @ Am

ays Og os ao o & ua Sa =©0

o 2 Or oa oe oe E LOge os as

oy oS on on = Sn o 2 > =

a5 as % 23 es 235 Bos

3 an w Rw 2 DQ — =" ee

Zz, & < & Ps eu saint |) =

H. M. 8. M. S. M. S. M. S. M.S;

] 4 30 44.3 31 59.5 32 57.6 2.133 0 58.1

2 33 54.4 34 10.3} 35 09.0 36 07.8 2 13.4 2 58.8

3{ 46 40.8 46 57.2 AT aes 48 54.2 2 13.4 1 02.9

47 04.9} 47 216 48 17.0 49 18.6 2 13.7 1 01.6

af 49 40.6 49 56.4 50 50.4 51 52.6 2 12.0 02.2

50 05.3 50 20.6, 51 15.2 52 17.6 2 123 1 02.4

of 52 36.5 amore 53 45.5 54 48.3 2 Als 1 02.8

bo HOl.o 53 16.7 54 09.9 Dos a, 2 122 1 03.8

64 5 00 06.3 00 23.0 01 14.5 02 17.5 2 11.2 1 03.0

00 33.7 00 49.3 01 40.5 02 45.6 2 11.9 i T0521

y 03 38.0 C3 «54.3 04 44.7 05 50.3 2 2S 1 05.6

04 04.3 04 197 05 10.2 06 15.7 2 11.4 1 05.5

8 16 05.6 17 09.) 18 17.8 2 A282 1 06.7

{ 16 33.8 16 59.4 17 366 18 45.8 2 12.0 1 09.2

Means.| 4 54 37.7 4 55 46.6) 4 56 50.0 2 124 1 03.4

Time of ©’s passing meridian by Nautical Almanack,.. 2 12.28}

Distance from Mercury’s centre to the tangent of the northern

limb of the sun, measured with a wire micrometer.

Mean Solar Divisions In space. 3

Times. of the Micrometer.

h. m. s. f “

At 4 40 00 509 5 55.4

457 14 530 6 10.1

5 07 24 568 6 36.6

The sun’s horizontal diameter measured by the same micrometer, on

the 7th May, 6 rp. m. was 2727 divisions. By the Nautical Almanack

for the same period, it was 1904.0 seconds, which makes the value of

the divisions 1.452 per second.

There is too much discrepancy among the foregoing measure-~

ments to allow of their being individually useful ; the utmost that

can be expected from them is the determination of the position of

Mercury on the sun’s disc at one mean period. As I hope this will be

1832.] On the Habits of the Paludine. 41}

undertaken by an astronomical friend, who will combine the results

here published with his own observations at Madras, I shall leave the

subject in his more able hands.

I have been favored with the following auaeivutiaad of the transit

at other places :

At the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta.—The mean time of

Mercury’s outer contact was observed at 2h. 53 m. 24. 2 s., but the

sight was not esteemed good, owing to the state of the weather.

At Chuprah.—Latitude 25° 43’ N. Longitude 5h 39m. E. Mr.

Walter Ewer observed the internal ingress of Mercury at 2 h.

42 m. 18s. mean time. “ The telescope was a Troughton’s three

_ and a half feet achromatic, aperture two and three quarter inch, and

“power about 60. The time was taken by equal altitudes of the

sun on the preceding day. ‘The nearest approach was at about

6 h. 8 m., taken with a wire micrometer by Troughton ; but the sun

was so low, the refraction so great, and the motion of Mercury so

slow, that this can only be considered an approximation. The pre-

cise latitude and longitude of the place are not yet determined.”

At Barelly.—Latitude 28° 20’7” N. Longitude, 5h. 17 m. 20 s. E,

The internal ingress was observed by Mr, H.S. Boulderson, at 2 h.

20 m. 58s. mean time Barelly. ‘ This observation may be doubt-

ful to two or three seconds, as the planet had just entered the disc

of the sun when first seen.”

1V.—On the Habits of the Paludine. By Lieut. T. Hutton,

37th N. I.

If it be not against existing rules and regulations, and the matter

here furnished be deemed at all worthy a place in your interesting

Journal, I propose doing myself the pleasure of sending you occasion-

ally a few extracts from my “ Notes on Natural History,” accompa-

nied by specimens of any thing that I may consider worthy of your

acceptance.

On the 2ist and 22nd of June, after a few heavy showers of rain,

I ventured forth from my bungalow to a grove of mangoe trees hard

-by, in search of land-shells, or in fact any thing that might fall in my

way; at the foot of many of the trees, the water was lying in pools,

and wherever this was the case, | found a great many small shells,

with the living animals in them, evidently just forcing a passage

Al2 On the Habits of the Paludine. [Szrr.

through the moistened earth, and crawling over its surface beneath the

water in search of food. I gathered up several of them, and took

them home, where they were placed in a tumbler for future examina-

tion.

In about an hour afterwards I returned to the same spot, in search

of more, but by this time the water had all dried up, and with it had

disappeared the shells also. From that time up to the Ist July, we

had no more rain, and the weather became in consequence very sul-

try and oppressive ; the heat once more put to flight the various insects,

&c. which were just preparing to sally forth, and although I was a dai-

ly visitor at the mangoe grove, I made no addition to my museum.

On the Ist, 2nd, and 3rd days of July, the rain descended in torrents,

so much so, that the plain all round my bungalow, for some hun-

dreds of yards, was a sheet of water for several hours after.

This state of things gave new vigor to my spirits, for I knew, that

when the water should have sufficiently subsided to allow of my going

out, arich harvest awaited me: and I was not disappointed, for my

usual haunt the clump of mangoe trees, alone, furnished me with a

good supply, not only of the above-mentioned shells, but also with two

fine specimens of the wood scorpion and a fresh-water crab.

With regard to the shells, I perceive that in the 9th No. of the

GLeanriNnes IN Science, Mr. Benson has made some observations on.a

small species of Paludina, found by him in localities somewhat similar

to those observed by me; but as that gentleman seems uncertain of their

abode and habits during the hot season, I shall here mention a few ob-

servations which I made on finding shells in the situation above describ-

ed. At theroots of several trees, the water was lying in puddles, and

thinking that this might have been occasioned by the droppings from

the tree, I stooped down to see if there were any insects or land snails

washed down with it, and I there saw, for the first time, the little Pa-

ludine crawling on the dead leaves, &c. beneath the surface of the wa-

ter ; several of these I took home and placed in a tumbler without any

water, where they remained forgotten for a week or more, but on look-

ing at them at the end of that time, they were all firmly closed and

shut in by their little calcareous opercula; on putting them into

water, however, they began to open and crawl about in apparently

good health.

On an after-occasion I had the good fortune to observe them push-

ing aside the moistened earth, and coming forth from their retreats ; but

on the disappearance of the pools of water, not one of them was to be

seen above ground; wishing therefore to ascertain what had become

1832.] On the Habits of the Paludine. 413

of them, I turned up the earth at the base of several trees, and inva~

riably found the shells buried from an inch to two inches below the

surface.

From this circumstance, I am strongly inclined to think, that during

the prevalence of the hot-weather they remain beneath the surface of the

earth in a state of torpor, at a sufficient depth to protect them from too

great a degree of heat, and the immediate action of the sun upon them,

until the refreshing moisture of the rains once more enables and induces

them to come forth for the purpose of performing that part, in the

great chain of animated nature, for which an all-wise Creator destined

them.

Of these shells I have found two species, both in the same: situa-

tions, and both having calcareous opercula. :

The largest of the two appears to be identical with that found by

Mr. Benson in a ditch at Banda, and the animals of both are similar to

those of the other Paludine,

No. 1. Animal with the head proboscidiform ; two fentacula long,

tapering, and retractile; eyes at the exterior base of the ¢entacula ;

color of the animal pale, with a dirty tinge of white; head and tentacula

mottled with greyish.

Shell. About. 4} lines long, with a pale olive-brown pitt. :

whorls (apparently) 4; the spire very much eroded ; aperture angular

above and below ; deeply umbilicated ; operculum calcareous ; shell

conoid ; whorls rounded.

No; 2. Animals similar to the foregoing ; colour pale throughout, but

darkest on the head.

Shell. About 4 lines long, with an olive-brown epidermis : whorls 4 ;

spire eroded; aperture sub-ovate, angular above, rounded below ;

no umbilicus ; operculum calcareous, and at the very edge of the shell,

and incapable of being drawn within the aperture ; shell conoid ; whorls

rounded.

In Lamarck’s generic description of Paludina, he merely says, when

speaking of the aperture, “ angular at the summit.” If by this we

are to understand, that it is on/y angular at the summit, and not below,

then my species No. 1 is no longer a Paludina, being angular both

above and below ; it therefore remains to determine to what genus it is

referrible, or whether it may not constitute a new one.

At all events, I am inclined to think, it cannot be classed with the

Paludine, as all the shells of that genus in my possession (and I have

six. or seven species) are angular at the summit alone, agreeing with the

generic description.

414 On the Habiis of the Paludine. [Serr.

The circumstance of these shells burying themselves beneath the sur-

face of the earth is by no means peculiar to them ; both the Ampul-

larie, Planorbes, and Paludine, being found in similar situations dur-

ing the heats of the dry season, as I should suppose Mr. Benson

must have observed;—of this I have abundant proof before me ina

hollow, which being now full of water, forms a tolerably large jhil, in

which all these species occur plentifully ; but a fortnight or three weeks

ago this same hollow was as hard and dry as the walls of my bungalow,

and yet by digging a very little way below the surface, [ found both

Ampullarie and Paludine*, which on being left in a tub of water for

about a quarter of an hour, began to craw] about in great vigor.—At

the bottom of the tub I placed a quantity of mud, about nine: inches or

a foot deep, and when after some days, the water by not being renewed,

had all evaporated, the shells of both genera had disappeared, and were

buried in the mud at the bottom. I allowed them to remain thus for

a few days, until the mud became dry, and I could not disengage them

from it, without digging them out, whem I again furnished them with

water, which by moistening the earth enabled them to force a passage

through it.

The ova of Ampullarie occur very abundantly at this season, in the

small jhil near my house, being deposited in beautiful clusters among

the long grass and weeds just above the water mark ; in some instances,

I saw the animals in the act of depositing them. At first they are ra-

ther soft, and contain a gelatinous transparent substance, like the white

of an egg, but thicker; in a few hours, they become brittle and covered

with a calcareous shell, of a pure white. When fresh and moist, they are

very heavy, but become remarkably light on drying. In shape they

are sometimes round, sometimes oval, and resemble small caraway com-.

fits stuck together in bunches.

If my present communication be deemed acceptable, I shall have plea-

sure in continuing from time to time to furnish you with a few lucubra-

tions on similar subjects.

Mirzapore, 23rd July, 1832.

Norte. We shall always be happy to receive Lieut. Hutton’s communications, which

are those of a zealous amateur in a field hitherto but little explored.

The doubt expressed by the author as to the first of his species may perhaps

reasonably be extended to both, if the structure of the operculum be allowed to

indicate the structure of the animal; and neither the one nor the other of these

Mollusce would belong to the genus Paludina.

* Paludine with corneous operculum, shell thin and pale-greenish ; animal with

the head and tentacula spotted, orange and black.

1832. ] Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. A$

In this interesting paper, both species are described as having a calcareous oper-

culum, but the under-mentioned authorities describe the operculum of Paludina

as horny.

** Un opercule orbiculaire et corné’’

** Operculum orbiculare corneum”

are the expressions of De la Marck, and which would have been noticed by Du-

bois if incorrect. Dubois however contents himself by translating them “the

operculum forny and orbicular.’” Mr. Guilding, in his notices of the Zoology of

the Caribzan Islands, when speaking of the ‘‘ Paludina Anetorum,”’ says, “ opercu-

lum corneum in dorso pedis.’’ And some species found in Bengal have none other

than a horny operculum.

Again ;—the author describes his first shell as “‘ deeply umbilicated,” and the

second, with ‘‘xo umbilicus.’ On this part of the subject Mr. Guilding represents”

the shell of the genus Paludina as “* sub-umbilicata,’’ a term well expressive of the

rudimental wmbilicus formed by a'slight reflection of the columellar lip towards

the body of the shell ; De la Marck affords negative evidence by making no men-

tion of any kind of wmbilicus ; and in this country it occurs but inthe slight

degree mentioned above. All concur in the rounding of the lower part of the

aperture.

Upon the whole, therefore, these species do not appear entirely to agree with

the characters of any known genera ; but this is a point of too much importance

to be determined in the absence of an exceedingly minute description, both of the

animal and the shell, particularly of the anatomy of the former,

V.—Proceedings of the Asiatic Society.

Wednesday, 5th September, 1832.

The Rev. Dr. W. Carey, senior member, in the chair.

Read the Proceedings of the last Meeting, and proceeded to the ballot,

when Sir Epwarp Ryan was elected President of the Society ; and

Mr. J. Cauper, Vice-President, in his room.

Dr. Langstaff, proposed at the last meeting, was elected a member.

Correspondence.

The Secretary communicated to the meeting an application from the

executors of the will of the late Mr. Bruce, for the Society to forego their

claim to any further share in the property of the testator in favor of his

brother and sister.— Resolved, that the determination of the Society be sus-

pended, until they are apprized of the amount of the residuary share to

which they are entitled by the will.

The Secretary communicated to the meeting aletter from the Baron de

Ferussac, with reports, prospectus, and proceedings of the Societé Anonyme

of Paris, and proposing to the friends of Literature and Science in India to

subscribe for six shares in this Society.— Resolved, that the letter and docu-

ments accompanying be referred to the Committee of Papers for their report

at the next meeting of the Society.

Al6 Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. [Srer.

The number of literary and scientific journals issued to the world in the nine-

teenth century, amounts according to the prospectus of the Bulletin to upwards of

fifteen hundred; learned Societies have multiplied in an equal ratio; so that it

would occupy a man’s life to peruse the mass of information accumulated, even

if he could collect together the numerous works containing it. The Baron de

Ferussac would secure to France the privilege of assembling and concentrating in

a focus this scattered knowledge : he is perhaps the only man ambitious, perse-

vering, and laborious enough to put the feasibility of such a scheme to the

proof; but the experience of eight years has shewn that he is equal to the task.

His Monthly Bulletin Universel, in its eight parts, contains analyses of the con-

tents of every published journal, and with the aid of copious annual indexes,

forms a register of all that is done in literature and science, enabling the student

of any department to become acquainted with every new fact and discovery, and

the historian to trace the progress of each science, from a most perfect and com-

pendious record. —

But the scale of the work as hitherto conducted is found to be quite inade-

quate to embrace the mass of additional matter now offering itself for publica-

tion :—and the only mode of effectually keeping pace with the demands of

knowledge, is to enlarge the scheme by raising further capital, or forming a

kind of joint stock association among those who would otherwise patronize the

work as subscribers; and of whom there are already 5000 enlisted.

The following is a general view of the scheme:

There are 500 shares, 450 regular and 50 supernumerary, valued at 1000 francs

each: ashare may be held jointly by any number of persons not exceeding four.

The holders will be entitled to such annual dividends as may be afforded by

the profits of the concern.

The shares are to be transferable and heritable.

Every share-holder has the option of receiving the monthly numbers of the

Bulletin to the value of 50 francs, per annum, per share, in lieu of a dividend

to that extent, or any thing below it.

According to the prospectus published on the cover of our July No., 50 francs

will cover the subscription to any single division of the work, except the geogra-

phical. The whole work of eight parts costs 300 francs per annum.

The Society to continue 25 years from the year 1828.

Of the 500 Shares, France has already subscribed for 150

Original proprietors and coadjutors, ..........ee0- 89

‘ : = 239

OROIFH COURURIES Tae 4.< a1 giee'eis + s'a.0/0 0» pieiaicins slesidie 51

290

There are still 210 shares to be disposed of, and these have been assigned by the

projector to the various literary bodies, who have not yet joined the association ;

thus six shares have been set aside for the members of the Societies at the se-

veral British establishments in India, and one share for the Governor General : the

originator of the scheme calculates more on the moral support and concurrence

of its friends, than on their expectation of pecuniary benefit ; and certainly view-

ing it as a money transaction, unless some prospect is confidently held out of much

higher annual dividends than 5 per cent., it is not clear wherein the advantage of

investing capital in the concern would lie: the interest of the same sum, safely

lodged in the securities of the country, would purchase an equal portion of the

mw Live

Biss

1832. ] Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. A417

publications of the Societé Anonyme: and a subscription for the whole work

would be equivalent to the interest of the six shares.

The Treasurer’s Report submitted, showing a balance in favor of the

Society of Rs. 10,892, 6. 7.

The Collector's Report submitted, shewing a balance of outstanding bills

of 11,140, of which 3,856 may be realized.— Resolved, that the Subscribers

in arrear be written to for payment.

Museum,

A number of articles of Tibetan manufacture, presented by Govern«

ment.

A collection of shells and a dried fish, presented by Dr. Burlini,

A snake, called Kaulaw Ganney, presented by Mr. George. .~ ‘

A metal box, containing eleven silver rings, and three coins, (two of the

Mohammedan Kings of Bengal, and one of Assam,) dug up in clearing an

estate in the Sunderbans, sent for inspection by Mr. Storm,

Fourteen specimens of Roman coins, procured in Persia, presented by

Mr. Avdall.

Library.

Books from the Bookseller, laid on the table.

Rickard’s India, Part 4th.

Gray’s Indian Zoology, Part 8th.

Lyell’s Principles of Geology, 2nd Vol.

Cabinet Cyclopedia,—Military Commanders ; Italian Republics ; and Porcelain

and Glass.

Mr. H. T. Prinsep presented Molesworth’s Mahratta Dictionary on the

part of the Bombay Government.

Read a letter from Mr. Twining, presenting a copy of his Clinical Illus«

trations of the Diseases of Bengal.

Read a letter from J. Vaughan, Esq. Secretary of the Philadelphian

Philosophical Society, dated 23th April, 1830, presenting,

1. Mr.C. L. Bonaparte’s Observations on the Nomenclature of Wilson’s Orni-

thology.

2. Danas’ Outlines of the Mineralogy and Geology of Boston and its vicinity.

3. Secretary of Treasury’s Report to Congress on the Commerce and Naviga-

tion of the United States for 1830.

4. Achlan’s Flora Cantabrigiensis.

5. Vols. 4 and 6, and Ist New Series of the Transactions Americ. Phil. Soc.

And offering politely to supply any former numbers of the Transactions which

may not have reached the Society.

Dr. Bowdich’s Translation of the Mecanique Celeste,—presented by the

author.

Meteorological Registers for May, June, and July, 1832,—from the Sur«

weyor General.

A list of books, some of which it might be desirable to purchase, submit

ted by Mr, J. Tytler. Referred to the Committee of Papers.

262

rhs

418 Miscellaneous Intelligence. [Serr.

Resolved, that the thanks of the Society be presented to the Donors of the

above presents.

Literary.

A collection of papers on the language and literature of Madagascar, and

specimens of Missionary Tracts, printed at Madagascar, were presented by

Mr. Calder, on the part of Mr. C. Telfair, President of the Natural History

Society of the Mauritius.

We hope hereafter to find room for the insertion of some of the curious legends

of Madagascar, as translated faithfully by Mr. Baker, the contributor of the spe-

cimen of the poetry of that island printed in our number for March.

Remarks on the intercourse of the western nations of antiquity with

. India, by Mr. E. Stirling.

ers

The papers connected with the abstract of the subsequent portion of the

Kah-gyur were laid on the table ; of which an analysis by the Secretary was

presented at the last meeting ; (printed in the present No.)

The thanks of the Society were voted for the above.

VI.—MiscELLANEOUS INTELLIGENCE,

1.—Ezxtract of a letter from Lieut. Alex. Burnes, dated Balkh, 11th June, 1832.

““QOn leaving India, I had resolved to avoid the Town of Khalm, in the territories

of the Uzbek chief of Kandaz, who placed Mr. Moorcroft’s party under contribu-

tion to the amount of 25,000 rupees, but by the urgent advice of a most influen-

tial man at Kabul we joined a party who were to pass that town, since they were

supposed to have influence at Kandtz. The result was, that we were forthwith

put under surveillance, and reported to the chief, who summoned us to his pre-

sence. Leaving all my party behind me, as well as Dr. Gerard, I proceeded to

Kunduz, and personified the character of a poor Armenian, by profession a watch-

maker, who was proceeding to Bokhara. Mdarad Bég was deceived ; but I must

add, that I first came to a private understanding with his custom-house officers to

keep me in countenance. You may imagine, I did not wait long at Kunduz, but

mounting my horse, rode 70 miles at one stretch, and 40 on the following day, to

this city, where we are beyond the reach of all such désagrémens. As I finish this,

our caravan is just starting for Bokhara, which we shall reach in fourteen days.

Our journey across the Hinda Kash was most exciting: it is a fearful under-

taking, but with a judicious choice of season presents no barrier to the passage

of an army, if accompanied by a horde of pioneers. The great range of the Indian

Caucasus, i. e. the prolongation of the Himalaya, has been placed erroneously in

our maps to the north, instead of the south of Bamian. None of the passes were

higher than 12,000 feet, as water boiled on them at 192° and 193°, [Bar, 19.72 and

20.15 inches,] but some of the peaks cannot be under 20,000 feet. ‘There are six

passes between Kabal and Khilm. The formations of the three first differed widely

from those farther north, and which are lower. South of Bamidn we had iron, blue

mica slate, and quartz, and from the higher hills blocks of granite had been pre-

cipitated from above. North of Bam{dn, at the pass of Dundan Shikun, or the

tooth-breaker, the formation changed into ash-coloured limestone, and continued

so till we left the mountains. Once across the mountains we wound among terrific

defiles and dells, the different courses of the water. Some of these rose to a height

1832.] Miscellaneous Intelligence. ) 419

of 2000 perpendicular feet over our heads, and were such as to hide the sun from

our view. What a country for a geologist! The Hinda Kash is almost desti-

tute of vegetation ; but the asafcetida plant grows in great exuberance, and forms

the principal pasture of the flocks, which browse over them.

We have now fairly debouched into the plains of Tartary, but we have no plateau

or elevated land, as seems to have been imagined by some geographers to exist in

these regions. Here water boils at 2093°=[Bar. 28.40 inches], and before we reach

Peshawer, since we follow the Oxus, it must even rise. This climate is

considered insalubrious, but it looks avery nice place, and produces the most

delicious fruit: the apricots are as large as small apples, with the mellowest

flavour.

You must not suppose, that we took the route of the Hind& Cash in our jour-

_ ney to this place, but followed the grand caravanseras. The Hind& Cash is but the

name of one pass over these mountains, and though it is the highest of all the prac-

__ ticable passes and is only traversable for three months in the year, it is described as

_ the best road. Twenty horsemen may go abreast on it, but the snow is eternal, and

it is a three days journey without grass, wood, or supply. It must be very high,

since men and animalsall experience a difficulty of breathing. There appears to

be a phenomenon of nature in this mountain, which deserves mention—I allude to

snow-worms. They are described to be as large as asilk-worm before it begins its

cocoon, and white and transparent; they die on being separated from the snow.”

2.—Lithontrity practised in Persia.

The following notice of a method of breaking up a stone in the bladder is ex-

tracted from the Khawés-ul-hejar, an anonymous Persian translation of a treatise

on the properties of minerals, composed in the Arabic language ; the date of the

work is not known, but it is accounted ancient. Were the spirit of the author to

appear before the Académie at Paris, we know not whether it might not become

a claimant fora share of the Monthyon prize of six thousand francs lately ad-

judged to M. Leroy, for his various lithontritic instruments. The passage oc-

curs in describing the qualities of the diamond.

** One of its properties is to reduce urinary calculi to powder, and it is used in

this way :—a diamond of the size of a grain is fastened firmly to a kind of probe

of copper (v0 mil, an instrument used for applying collyrium) with mastich

or lac, which probe is then brought in contact with the calculus and rubbed upon

it until the stone is broken to pieces, when it is voided with the urine.’’

3.—Extract from a letter from Major Burney, Resident in Ava, to Mr. Swinton,

dated Rangoon, 24th August, 1832.

“*T lately discovered in the 21st volume of the Burmese History, that the Cho-

lera is no new disease in this country. In the year 1706, it raged in the city of

Ava, and destroyed a great many of the inhabitants, The Burmese History, in

which I find this account, is said to have been compiled before the Talain conquest

of Ava in 1751, and the copy of the work which I possess is marked as having been

transcribed in the year 1790. These are the words in the original, ‘‘ On Thurs-

“* day, the 4th day of the waning moon of Katshoun (our April), in the Burmese

** vear 1068 (A. D. 1706), past six o’clock in the evening, the whole of the golden

** city was seized with panic, and made a great uproar, shouting and beating with

“* sticks. And from this month of Aatshoun the whole city of Ava suffered from

“purging and vomiting, and a great many persons died of the Kdla-na, or Kala

“ sickness.” The above is a literal translation of the passage. The Burmese still

A420 Miscellaneous Intelligence. [Sepr.

call the Cholera Kdla-na, which means sickness that comes occasionally. About

four years ago this dreadful scourge appeared in this town of Rangoon and carried

off 3,500 of its inhabitants,

4—Rain at Chirra Pinjl, registered by W. Cracroft, Esq.

1832. inches. inches. inches.

June 1 to 17 6.45 July 12 0.450 August 6 5.805

18 2.24 13 1.150 7 0.937

19 1.40 14 1.420 8 0.680

20 4.91 15 5.169 9 1.987

21 4.76 16 7.597 10 1.155

22 1.04 17 5.250 Tl 0.517

23 not meas. 18 5.860 12 0.0

24 1.04 19 3.390 13 0.0

25 2.39 20 0.701 14 0.060

26 2.22 21 ~~ not meas. 15 0.915

27 0.0 22 do. 16 1.150

28 0.0 23 2.490 17 0.407

29 1.85 24 not meas. 18 0.765

30 1.40 25 4.869 1s 0.0

July t 1.95 26 0.0 20 7.812

2 1.83 27 0.0 21 2.862

3 2.12 28 1.350 22 4.420

4 4.57 29 1.355 23 1.595

5 9.73 30 0.0 24 2.425

6 4.11 31 2.642 25 not meas.

7 1.33 August 1 not meas. 26 1.087

8 1.837 2 2.715 27 2.650

9 1.247 3 2.862 28 2.170

10 0.0 4 2.690 29 2.050

ll 1.287 5 not meas. 30 0.405

31 2.265

For 16 days of June, 28.58 inches.

In July, 73.724

In Aug. 52.386

Total rain 154.690

For the first 22 days, the measurements were taken by means of a glass bottle

and funnel :—afterwards, by an accurately constructed tin pluviameter.

5.—Method of ascertaining the Humidity of the Soil, from an Arabie work,—

communicated by Mulvi Abdtil Mijid.

‘¢] find in a book of Agriculture, that if any one wish to know the proximity

or distance of water, he is to dig three or four cubits in the earth, then to take a

pot of brass, or a pitcher of earth, and besmear the inside evenly with fat ; let the

pot have a wide mouth, and when the sun sets, let him take a quantity of white

wool, combed and washed, and a stone of the size of an egg ; wrap this wool

round it like a ball, and moistening the side of the ball with melted wax,

attach it to the bottom of the pot already smeared with grease, then throw it to

the bottom of the hole that has been dug, so that the wool will be dependent, and the

wax will retain it, and it will be dependent to the place of the stone*: then pile upon

* This passage is unintelligible in the original : it means apparently that the pot shall

be placed in an inverted position in the well, so that the stone enclosed in the cotton and

attached to the bottom of the earthen vessel with wax, shall hang in an insulated position

in the hollow space; any moisture rising from the ground would thus be deposited

in minute drops upon the cotton,

1832. ] Miscellaneous Intelligence. 421

it earth to the height of one or two cubits, and leave it during the whole night,

and when it is morning, before the rising of the sun, scrape the earth from it, and

lift up the vessel, and if the water is seen adhering to the vessel within, in many

drops, near to each other, and the wool filled (with it), there is water in

this place, and it is near ; and if the drops be not collected (together), and

not near each other, and the quantity of water in the wool be moderate, then

the water is neither very far off nor very near ; and if the drops be adherent and

separated from each other, and there be little water in the wool, then the water is

distant; and if there be seen no drops in the vessel, neither large nor small, and there

be no water in the wool, then there is no water in the place, and it is useless to

dig it, I find also in some copies of agricultural works upon this subject, that

he who wishes to know this matter is to examine the ants’ nests, and if he find the

ants thick, black, and slow in their motions, let him consider, and as slow as are

their motions, so near is water to them, and if the ants are quick in their motions,

it is not near; and the water is 40 cubits from them ; and the water in the first case

_ is sweet and good, and in the second is heavy and salt: and this paragraph is for

him who desires to find water, and we have explained this in detail in our book

the Akhbar-uzzamdn, and have only mentioned here what necessity requires as a

hint on the subject, without any detail or explanation.” fz.

6. Mirage in India.

It is not generally known that the mirage, apparently first brought to the notice

of modern Europeans by the French army in Egypt, is visible in the central parts

of Hindaéstan. In Rajpfitana it is necessarily of constant Occurrence; but in the

less arid plains to the eastward it is also to be seen. At Ghazipar, between the

European bazar and the stables of the Company’s stud, there is a level, extending

about a mile; from the east end of which may very often be seen, about half a de-

gree under the western horizon, the appearance of a sheet of water about 1° in

width and perhaps 10¢ in length from right to left, in which the sky, houses, trees,

and animals are reflected as in a bright mirror. D. B.

7. Hard Mind, or Green Basalt, used for coloring Stucco.

The rock in which the caves of Ellora are excavated is stated by Captain

TwemLow, Bombay Artillery, to be a basaltic trap, which from its green tinge,

and its different stages from hardness to disintegration, is supposed by the natives

to be full of vegetable matter in a greater or less advance to petrifaction. ‘The

crumbling rock affords a natural green color, which is ground up and employed by

the natives in painting on wet chunam: it is called hard mind, or green enamel,

probably because when exposed to heat it fuses into a dark bottle-green glass.

CHAPTAL, the chemist, introduced in France a method of making glass bottles

with pulverulent basalt, either alone or mixed with sand and ashes. The above

substance might doubtless be employed for the purpose, were there sufficient in-

ducement to set up an establishment of the kind. :

8. On the Converging Beams of Light which are occasionally seen opposite to the Sun,

* This phenomenon is always seen opposite to the sun and generally at the same

time with the phenomenon of diverging beams, as if another sun, diametrically

Bpposite to the real one, were below the horizon, and throwing out his divergent

; beams.” In a phenomenon of this kind which I saw in 1824, the eastern portion

of the horizon where it appeared was occupied with a black cloud, which seems

to be necessary as a ground for rendering visible such feeble radiations,

499 Miscellaneous Intelligence. [Srer.

- This phenomenon is entirely one of perspective. Let us suppose beams in-

clined to one another like the meridians of a globe to diverge from the sun, as

these meridians diverge from the north pole of the globe, and let us suppose that

planes pass through all these meridians, and through the line joining the observer

and the sun, or their common intersection. An eye, therefore, placed in that line,

or in the common intersection of all the fifteen planes, will see the fifteen beams

converging to a point opposite to the sun, just as an eye in the axis ofa globe

would see all the fifteen meridians of the globe converge to its south pole.’

Having observed in Sir David Brewster’s treatise on optics (published last year

in Lardner’s Cyclopedia), the above repetition of his usual account of a beautiful

appearance which frequently adorns our Indian evenings, and having always

thought his explanation of it deficient in the clearness and truth which generally

characterize his writings, I shall venture to suggest another mode of illustration :

~~~ The diverging beams which to us appear to radiate from the sun when obscured

by broken masses of cloud are in fact, as a consequence of the sun’s enormous dis-

tance, sensibly parallel to each other. It need hardly be remarked that in per-

meating the atmosphere they do not proceed in straight lines, but are more or less

inflected towards the earth. This inflection being disregarded, they may be consi-

dered as a series of elongated parallel prisms, extending perhaps 50° to the north

and south of the zenith, at the height of a few thousand feet. The beam which

crosses the zenith will have to the spectator the same appearance as the sky seen

from the centre of a long narrow street of lofty houses: at the zenith it will have

its greatest breadth, and it will taper and appear to descend towards the sun and

opposite point of the heavens, and the same will happen with all the other beams

lying north and south of it; whence they will appear to converge.

I may remark, that the phenomenon is incomparably more vivid in this climate

than in Britain, that it is frequently and most clearly seen when there is not a

visible cloud except the few masses in the west which produce the necessary ob-

struction of the solar rays, and that the beams can be traced across the whole con-

cave in alternate shades of the purest light and dark blue. D. B.

9. Errors in Dr. Arnott’s Physics, Second Volume.

In the first volume of the GLEANINGs IN SCIENCE I remarked on some mistakes

which disfigure Dr. Arnott’s excellent Elements of Physics ; and the first part of

the second volume of the latter work having recently reached me, I would beg

to direct the author’s attention to the following slight blemishes, which might, if

uncorrected, affect its otherwise well sustained character :

The most serious mistake is in his theory of the camera lucida, at p. 304: the

eye does not see the paper ‘‘ through’ the prism but beyond its edge, the plane in

which lie the line of sight and the edge of the prism bisecting the pupil.

At p. 218 he states that if the insertion of the optic nerves were at corresponding

parts of the eyes, a black spot would always be seen in the field of vision ;—for-

getting that when only one eye is open zo black spot appears. Why no black spot

in this case appears is as yet unexplained.

At p. 194 he represents as a straight line aray of light passing obliquely through

the centre of a lens.

At p. 157 he states that “‘ the inhabitants of India, where the thermometer

sometimes stands at 115° in the shade, have their blood no higher than 98°.’’ Dr.

John Davy from numerous experiments concluded, that blood heat in tropical

countries is raised to 100° during the hot season.

1832. ] Miscellaneous Intelligence. 423

_ At p. 102 he repeats his erroneous theory of the artificial formation of ice in

India,—‘‘ by evaporation and a current of air;’’ while the former circumstance

is unnecessary to the process, and the latter always fatal to it. Radiation is the

principle. DLE

10. Silver Mines discovered in Cuba. By Don Ramon de la Sagra, Superintendent of

the Botanic Garden at the Havannah,

(From the “‘ Anales de Ciencias, Agricultura, Comercia 0 Artes’’ of May, 1828.)

When towards the end of 1826, I began a course of lectures on mineralogy and

geology, it was my object to induce attention to the mineral productions of the

Island of Cuba, and they had the effect of procuring me numerous contributions of

Specimens from various districts. About the same time Don Jose de Escalante,

an inhabitant of Villa Clara, being well acquainted with the mines of Peru and

Mexico, employed himself in exploring and examining the minerals of that neigh- pe P

bourhood, and he succeeded in discovering, first, several veins of copper, and after- ad

wards atone of silver, which he has claimed (denunciado) in the usnal form. The

ve pecimens of minerals submitted by him, were sent to me for analysis by His Ex-

cellency the Intendent; and the following is the result ; the silver being separated

by amalgamation.

BP0D <<

erercccescscversseasserececceecscosescecvesarascccocseteretescscscocccocooccocce OF184

TE elas anilnhansupservoninnboersseentaned, MEE

TRIN co eco tec creed orca instnrvincavcovonelcanavuccaees! inet

UNE PARED BNE WATER, | oecccctacedncrosnresrarcacsonreceroesooreccsonctronsesen 2Y.99

aes

100

_ The mineral is found in mass ; of an earthy ferruginous appearance; friable

on the surface, but compact within ; of a grey metallic colour ; texture granular,

sometimes laminous ; fracture irregular and rough, with a few bright specks ;

fluate of lime makes no impression ; but the ore is easily scratched by rock crystal ;

yields a reddish powder,—not magnetic: its specific gravity is 2.25; easily dis-

solyed by nitric and hydrochloric acid; and also by weak sulphuric acid, which

disengages much hydrogen gas. When dissolved, prussian-blue may be precipitated

abundantly with hydroferrocyanate of potash. Infusible with the blowpipe, which

converts the ore into black scoria. Hence I class the mineral among the ochreous

iron-stone, or the Ochriger roth Eisenstein, of the Germans.

According to Geological reports of the mines in Peru, most of the silver from

that country is extracted from ore of iron clay. In Mexico also, there are

mines worked in the province of Oajaon the ore of which has a similar appear-

ance, being composed of grey iron with native silver disseminated in the mass,

not perceptible to the eye. Humboldt remarks, that, both in Mexico and in

Peru the masses of oxide of iron which contain silver are found in the upper

part of the veins near the surface of the earth; which is a good sign as regards

Senor Escalante’s discovery.

According to the report of the discoverer, the mine apenn tea a great extent of

ground on the slope of a hill ; but he is ignorant of the width and depth of the

vein, A mine which yields 7% ounces of silver to the quintal of ore, if the ore

be abundant and of easy access and separation, is a treasure worthy the attention

of government and of enterprising individuals. Should the mass of mineral prove

as considerable as Senor Escalante asserts, the mine of Villa Clara will be one of

the most valuable in America, on account of the proportion of metal which it

contains, and the very simple process required to extract it.

424 Miscellaneous Intelligence. [ Serr.

The researches of Don Fausto del Elhuyar, whose fame is so well esta-

blished in the history of science and of the mining art, shew that the mean

produce of all the mines of Mexico does not exceed 18 to 25 parts of silver in

10,000; which is equal to 3 or 4 ounces per quintal (100 tbs.) The calculations of,

Senor Garrés give less than 2 ounces per quintal for the mean produce of all

America. The great vein of Guanajuato, the most valuable in the world, has

yielded only an average return of 4 ounces per quintal. The proportion of 73

ounces found in the ore from Villa Clara is therefore remarkable ; but not less

so is the great facility with which I obtained the metal, by a first experiment,

without any guide to regulate the quantity of salt and the proportion of quick-

silver, best suited to form the amalgam, which nevertheless was formed within

a few hours after throwing in the mercury. It is also to be observed that no

“‘ magistrat’”’ (precipitant ?) was employed, which is usually indispensable.

A subsequent article by the same writer, dated January 1829, states that no

other silver mine had been discovered, and that the workiug of that of Don Jose

de Escalante had made little progress up to that date. iret Ae G.

ll. Supposed Change of Climate of the Northern Parts of the Earth.

Our readers are aware, that the opinion of the northern parts of our earth,

having formerly possessed a much warmer climate than at present, has been

adopted and supported by many naturalists and geologists. The proof of this

fact is supposed to be found in the remains of vegetables and of animals, the

inhabitants of warm countries, being now found in the rock formations of colder

climates. Dr. Fleming, who was the first to shew the weak points of the much

talked of speco-diluvian hypothesis of Dr. Buckland, has now taken up the

subject of the remains Of animals, His opinion is, that the discovery of the

remains of a species in any rock formation is no ground for inferring, that the

other species of that genus must have been also inhabitants of the same country.

He considers, that unless the same species are found in our rocks, which at present

inhabit warm countries, nothing certain can be concluded; as an instance how

much analogy may mislead us in this question, he mentions, the genus Eguws, the

species of which are sufficiently separated in geographical distribution. In like

manner he brings forward the elephant, the remains of which found in Siberia

have been pronounced by Cuvier to be very probably those of an animal that

inhabited a cold country. Analogy is certainly a powerful instrument in the

search after truth, but it is to mistake its nature and use altogether, to

apply it to the direct establishment of dogmas. It can only guide our enqui-

ries ; at most it may shed a ray of light upon our path, and enable us to distinguish

and seize the particular truth we are in search of: but it would be to confound all

science, to suppose that every analogy is a truth. Analogy cannot be made the

foundation of a fact ; but it may form sufficient grounds for enquiring if that

fact be true or otherwise.

Dr. Fleming’s paper is in answer to Mr. Conybeare, and taken with the former

on Dr. Buckland’s deluge, proves him to be an antagonist every way worthy of

attention. Both the papers contain detections and refutations of that loose

analogical inference, for reasoning it cannot be called, which is the bane of true

science. H.

12. Limestone Formation.

Professor Sedgwick, in his communications to the Geological Society, of 1831, has

shown, that the mountain limestone of the north of England consists essentially of

1832. ] Progress of Mechanical Science. 425

two groups, the ‘‘ great scar limestone’’ is the lower, having an average thickness

of more than 500 feet, and containing orthocerata, trilobites, and ammonites, The

younger group contains five beds of limestone, of which the highest or ‘‘ 12 fae

thom limestone”’ is associated with many strata of sandstone and shale, and 3 or 4

seams of workable coal. The whole of this calcareous system is overlaid by a

complex group connected with the millstone grit, and interlaced with beds of shale,

and one or two seams of coal. From his general conclusions we learn, that the

carbonaceous formations become much more calcareous in their range to the

north—that from the nature of the associated organic remains, coal has, in some

places, been produced in deep seas, and in other places in shallow estuaries,—that

changes in the mineral character of the contemporaneously formed strata are usu-

ally accompanied by changes in the species of the fossils, whether animal or vege-

table—and lastly, that the valleys in the carboniferous chain, near the lines of sec-

_ tion, are not fissures which have been deepened by erosion, but true valleys of

denudation. 4

2 ¢

13. Correction of a mistake in the notice on Marine Surveys.

In page 333, line 4, where mentioning, thatthe sextant is used fortaking the relative

positions of points on shore, it was said that “ the azimuth compass was resorted to only

for laying down the true meridian.” Every surveyor will see, that this must be an inac-

curacy, as such determinations would ill accord with the exactitude obtained by the other

parts of the operation. The sentence should have run thus ;—“ azimuths taken with the

sextant between the limb of the setting or rising sun and some fixed object on the

horizon, as an island or peak, afforded the means of determining the true meridian.”

Such we know to be the method practised by Captain Ross.

VII.—Progress of European Science.

MECHANICs.

1. Steam Carriages.

The introductionof steam carriages on the turnpike roads of England may now be

considered as established : this grand improvement has broken its way through the

difficulties opposed to it—in the nature of the machinery,—the varying resistances

and levels of the roadway, --the prejudices of the public against its dangers and incon-

veniences, and the strenuous opposition of the stage-coach proprietors, and of the

toll trustees, whose prohibitory increase of charge has been finally levelled by an

Act of Parliament, if not passed, at least brought up by the chairman of the Select

Committee appointed to inquire into the subject of steam carriages, and conse-

quently not likely to be negatived.

This great achievement in mechanics has prevailed through two irresistible

practical arguments: lst, journeys from London to Bath and Southampton have

been performed, and 2nd, a great saving of expence to travellers has been certified.

The following extract from the ‘* Report” shews the progress already made :

“* The first extensive trial of steam as an agent in draught on common roads, was

that by Mr. Gurney, in 1829, who travelled from London to Bath and back in

his steam carriage, He states, that although a part of the machinery, which brings

2u 2

426 Progress of Mechanical Science. [ Serr.

both the propelling wheels into action, when the full power of the engine is re-

quired, was broken at the outset, yet that on his return he performed the last 84

miles from Melksham to Crawford Bridge in 10 hours, including stoppages. Mr.

GuRnEy has given to the committee very full details of the form and power of his

engine, which will be found in his evidence. The committee have also examined

Messrs. SUMMERS and Oc ie, Mr. Hancock and Mr. STonE, whose steam carriages

have been in daily use for some months past on common roads. It is very satis-

factory to find, that although the boilers of several engines described vary most

materially in form, yet that each has been found fully to answer the expectation

of its inventor ; so well in fact have their experiments succeeded, that in each case,

where the proprietors have ceased to use them, it has only been for the purpose of

constructing more perfect carriages, in order to engage more extensively in the

business.

When we consider that these trials have been made under the most unfayoura-

ble circumstances, at great expense, in total uncertainty, without of those

guides which experience has given to other branches of engineering that those

engaged in making them are persons looking solely to their own interests, and

not theorists, attempting the perfection of ingenious modes; when we find them

convinced after long experience that they are now introducing such a mode of

conveyance as shall tempt the public by its superior advantages from the use of

the admirable lines of coaches which have been generally established, it surely

cannot be contended that the introduction of steam carriages on common roads is

merely an uncertain experiment unworthy of legislative attention.

Beside the carriages already described, Mr. GurNEy has been informed, that

from twenty to forty others are being built by different persons, all of which have

been occasioned by his decided journey in 1829.

The committee have great pleasure in calling the attention of the house to the

evidence of Mr. Farey. His opinions are the more valuable from his uniting, in so

great a degree, scientific knowledge to a practical acquaintance with the subject

under consideration. He states, that he ‘‘ has no doubt whatever but that a steady

perseverance in such trials will lead to the general adoption of steam carriages ;”

and again, ‘‘ that what has been done proves to his satisfaction, the practicability of

propelling stage coaches (by steam) on good common roads, in tolerably level

parts of the country, without horses, at a speed of 8 or 10 miles per hour.”

Much of course must remain to be done in improving their efficiency, yet Mr.

GurRnFy States that he has kept up steadily the rate of 12 miles per hour ; that the

** extreme rate at which he has run is between 20 and 30 miles an hour.”

Mr. Hancock “ reckons that with his carriage he could keep up a speed of 10

miles per hour without injury to the machine.”

Mr. OGLE states, “‘ that his experimental carriage went from London to South-

ampton in some places at a velocity of from 30 to 35 miles an hour.

‘* That they have ascended a hill, rising 1 in 6, at 16 miles an hour, and four

miles of the London road, at the rate of 24} miles per hour, loaded with people.

‘“‘That his engine is capable of carrying three tons weight in addition to

its own.”

Mr. Summers adds, “ that they have travelled in the carriage at the rate of 15

miles per hour with 19 persons in the carriage up a hill 1 in 12.

“* That he has continued for 43 hours to travel at the rate of 30 miles per hour.

itt ts

Aas

1832.] Progress of Mechanical Science. AQ7

** That he has found no difficulty in travelling over the worst and most hilly

roads.”

Mr, James STONE states, ‘‘ that 36 persons have been carried in one steam car-

riage. That the engine drew 5 times its own weight, nearly at the rate of from 5

to 6 miles per hour, partly up an inclination,”

The several witnesses have estimated the probable saving of expense to the public

from the substitution of steam-power for that of horses at from one half to two-

thirds. Mr. Farey gives, as his opinion, ‘‘ that steam coaches will very soon after

their first establishment be run for one-third of the cost of the present stage

coaches,”

The advantages of steam-power are not confined to the greater velocity gained

or to its greater cheapness than horse draught :—

“‘ There is no danger of being run away with ; and that of being overturned is

greatly diminished. It is difficult to control four such horses as can draw a heavy

carriage bos miles an hour, in case they are frightened or choose to run away 5 ~and

for quick’ travelling they must be kept in that state of courage, that they are al-

ways inclined for running away, particularly down hills, and at sharp turns of the

road. In steam, however, there is little corresponding danger, being perfeetly con-

trollable and capable of exerting its power in reverse in going down hills. Every

witness examined has given the fullest evidence of the perfect control which the

conductor has over the movement of the carriage. With the slightest exertion they

can be stopped or turned, under circumstances where horses would be totally un-

manageable.”

The danger of explosion has been greatly reduced by adopting the tube form of

boiler, and further benefit is expected from some ingenious modifications of Mr.

TREVITHICK.

The questions of frightening tiie horses of other carriages, of inconvenience

_ from smoke and steam, are also disposed of by the committee; but they are of too

trivial a nature to need comment, and we know that steam carriages have passed

over London bridge in the midst of vehicles of all denominations.

The mass of evidence taken before the committee is of a most valuable nature,

but for this we must refer our readers to the printed report, or to the Mechanic’s

Magazine for 1831, selecting only a few notes therefrom.

Mr. GURNEy’s boilers are of cast-iron tube : he works them up to 100 Ibs. on

the square inch. On plain ground, one wheel, on hilly or slippery, two wheels are

connected with the working crank : the facility of stopping by throwing the

steam on the opposite side of the piston is so great, that if going 8 miles an hour,

acarriage can be brought up within 6 or 7 yards: it can turn inacircle of 10

feet. When moving at a slower rate than 4 miles an hour, the expense of fuel

is greater than that of horses. The evaporation of 9 gallons of water per hour is

equivalent to one horse power: Mr. Gurney prefers coke as a fuel, and thinks -

smoke cannot be consumed without separation of the carbonic acid gas, by passing

through lime or other means : considers explosions not always attributable to

steam, but frequently to formation of explosive compounds of hydrogen and

oxygen, as does Gay Lussac.

To provide for accidents from the guide falling asleep, he has contrived that the

valves of the engine shall only remain in gear while he is awake and at his post,

The moment he takes his foot off, the engine stops: the same contrivance

428 Progress of Mechanical Science. [Seprt.

prevents the carriage running down hill too rapidly, and there is no occasion

for drags.

Mr. J. FARry, engineer, thinks the carriage for conveyance should be upon

the same wheels with the engine, to give firmer adherence to the road; approves

of the ejection of the waste steam in a stream upwards through a contracted ori-

fice at the bottom of thechimney (introduced by Mr. STEPHENSON on the rail-way

engines) , as it increases the draught, which from the necessity of a short flue

cannot be maintained otherwise, without fans, blowers, or bellows. However

Mr. Summers and other engineers object to this plan, as the contracted orifice

of the steam escape takes away proportionally from its power on the other side

of the piston.

The vertical jet gives such an intensity of draught as was never procured before,

and with the further advantage, that the rapidity of draught so produced increases

whenever the engines work faster and discharge more steam. This may be consi-

dered avery important improvement, as is another described by Mr. R. TREvI-

THICK regarding the construction of boilers. This engineer has taken out a

patent for an entirely new engine, wherein the fire-place, boiler, and condenser

stand perpendicularly one within the other : they are formed of six wrought iron

tubes. One charge of distilled water only is required; the steam being condens-

ed and returned into the boiler by a force pump. To supply the waste by leakage

a small apparatus is used, which effectually prevents any fluctuation in the height

of water in the boiler, or the collection of sediment, and consequeut danger of

the boiler hecoming heated red-hot.

The boiler is not only less than any other but stronger, and if it were worked

at the same pressure as the portable gas-holders, theory would give a saving of

fuel, weight, and room over low pressure engines of sixteen to one.

’Mr. Davies GILBERT explains the apparent anomaly, that with steam power

increase of velocity does not enhance expence*,

It was last year determined by the society of civil engineers, that the ex-

pence of conveying carriages drawn by horses was at its minimum, when the

rate of travelling equalled about three miles an hour ; and that expence

increased up to the practical limit of speed nearly as the velocity; while on

the contrary, friction being a given quantity, as well as the force necessary

for impelling a given weight up a given ascent, the power required for moving

steam carriages on arail-way remains theoretically independent of its speed,

and practically increases a very little in consequence of resistances from the atmo-

sphere, slight impacts against the wheels, inertia of the reciprocating piston, &c.

The expenditure of what may be called efficiency is as the actual force multi-

plied by the velocity, and the consumption of fuel in a given time will be

in the same proportion : but the time of performing a given distance being

inversely as the velocity, the expenditure of fuel in a given time will be constant

for a given distance; and it is very nearly so in practice.

* This is the case on land, where friction is constant, but on water the very reverse

takes place ; for the resistance to motion in fluids increases much more rapidly than the

velocity : thus the same expenditure of steam (or coal) that will carry a steamer alone

a certain distance, with a given velocity, will with a sacrifice of only ;'; of time, convey

her with a large ship astern to the same distance. Vide GLEANiNGs, III. 158.

1832.) Progress of Mechanical Science. 429

Mr. James M’ADAM acquaints us with the fact of the legislature having obliged

the tires of all wheels to be free from projecting knobs or nails—a great improve-

ment; he looks to great benefit to the roads from dispensing with horses : weigh

bridges are now universally abolished, the effect of carts upon roads being mainly

proportionate to the number of horses, according to which the toll is now levied.

Mr. Joun MacneiLt furnished a variety of very useful experimental tables of

the pressure of various carriages upon an inch surface of road ;—the weight neces-

ary for their draught with different velocities and on different inclinations ;—and

he expence per mile for the same, The experiments of the second table were

conducted under Mr. TELFORD, with a machine invented by his assistant Mr,

MacnEILu for measuring the force of traction, or the labour of horses in drawing

carriages. The following are the general results in a tabular form.

Results of experiments made with a stage-coach, weighing, exclusive of passengers,

18 cwt. on the same piece of ground with different inclinations. —

Expence of drawing,

= a

Be nee Rate of tra-|Force requir-| one ton per mile

Enrchunenea. velling. =e ina faseah at 23

miles per hour,

pence.

1 in 20 6 miles 268 lbs. 22.83

1 in 26 Ga ae: 213

1 in 30 Gn se 165

1 in 40 (Se 160

-1 in 600 Giyiiss lll

horizontal

1 in 20 REP ape 296

1 in 26 Siz° 3; 219

1 in 30 Sir rss 196 mile in a four-

1 in 40 Saar. 166 horse stage, at 10

1 in 600 Seaers, 120 miles per hour.]

: d.

1 in 20 Orr s 318

1 in 26 10> se 53 225

1 in 30 LDS MEER 200

> 1 in 40 Onis a5 172

1 in 600 Oss 128

horizontal Oi ye <3 ?

’ The following are the same engineer’s accurate measures of traction, or resis-

tance, on different qualities of road, which are directly opposed to M’Apam’s

theory of road-making, as applied to cities, though not to country.

1.—On well-made pavement, the draught (of each horse?) in a waggon

weighing about 21 cwt. iS ......0 000 cecccccccccscnce es 33 Ibs.

- 2.—On a broken stone surface or old flint OAS we etee ce tusesceee TOD

ENERO LISOAL, c.0 c's gid cies a uialtiwt ofc nic clsesvee seas ceivneee LAZ

4.—Qn a broken stone road upon a rough pavement foundation, 46

5.—On a broken stone surface upon a bottom of concrete, form-

edvot Parker’s:cement and-gravel, .. 26/0 ..cewssieccccers, 46

No description is given of Mr. MAcCNEILL’s dynanometer, but Mr. Tetrorp

speaks of it in great commendation.

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JOURNAL

THE ASIATIC SOCIETY.

No. 10.—October, 1832.

home

1.— Analysis of the Vishnu Purana. By H. H. Wilson, Sec. As. Soc.

The Vishnu Purana, as may be inferred from its appellation, is

eminently Vaishnava, and considers Visun'v one with the Supreme

Being, Panama Brauma, and Parama’rma’.

It is supposed to be related by Pardsara, the grandson of Vasts-

uT’HA, to his disciple Marrreya, and dispenses with the usual machinery

of Suta and the Rishis : it issaid in the first chapter, indeed, in the form

of a prophetic enunciation by VastsuT’Ha, that Pardsara is the au-

thor of the Sanhita and the Puranas.

_ In other chapters, however, it is again asserted, that Dwarpfyana

VvAsa is the author of all the Puranas, and to reconcile these two

statements recourse ishad to a statement in the 3rd chapter of the 3rd

section. It is said, that there isa Vydsa or Vepa VyAsa in every

Dwapar Yuga of the Vaivaswat Manwantara ; of this Manwantara we

are now inthe 28th Kali: accordingly, 28 Dwdapar Yugas have elapsed,

and 28 Veda Vydsas have existed ; the last is Krisuna Dwatrayana,

or the person usually designated as Vysa. Pardsara was the 26th

VvAsa, and this Purdna is consequently the work of a preceding

Mahdyuga, or aggregate of four ages. The Agni Purdna states

Parsara to be the author of the Vishnu Purdna. In the classifica-

tion adopted by itself, (book 3rd, chapter 6,) it is placed the third ;

after the Brahma and Padma.

This Purana is divided into six Ansas, books or sections, each

being sub-divided into a varying number of Adhydyas or chapters :

it does not follow the order prescribed by the usual definition of a

Purana, but deviates less widely than most of these compositions :

according to the Agni Purana, it contains 25,000 slokas. A come-

432 Analysis of the Vishnu Purana. [ Ocr.

mentary on this Purana exists, but of no great value, except as

explanatory of some of the philosophical passages.

The first book opens with the dialogue between Maitreya and Pa-

RASARA, as already noticed. Panrdsara states himself to be the son

of Sakti, the son of Vasisut’HA. Buchanan, from the B’hagavaty

makes him the son of Upamanyv and grandson of Sakti, but the

Mahdab‘harat confirms the authority of the Purdna. ‘‘ The son of

Sakti (Pakdsara) next arrived there with his disciples.” The passage

of the B’hagavat on which Buchanan’s statement rests, has not been

found ; the Bengali manuscripts generally read Saktri instead of

Sakti.

Buchanan has also noticed the incompatibility of ParAsara’s gene-

alogy with his being, as it is stated, cotemporary with Santanu

king of Hastinapur, that prince being the 44th in descent from Arri, —

who is cotemporary with Vasisut’HA, who again is but three genera-

tions anterior to Pardsara ; he supposes therefore, that many genera-

tions in the line of Vasisut’Ha must have been omitted. It is not

necessary, however, to attempt to reconcile these incongruities, for

the coetaneous existence of Atri and Vasisur’H4 is less chronological

than mythological, or, perhaps, as they are both enumerated amongst

the stars of the great bear, astronomical; it extends throughout the

Manwantara: their immediate successors, who hold a sacred character,

enjoy a like longevity, and are similarly cotemporary at any period

with their ancestry and posterity: if we consider them as mere mor-

tals, we must suppose, that ParAsara preceded the great war by

three generations, Krisana Dwarpdyana, his son, being the father of

DurirardsutraA, Panpu and Vipura by the widow of VicuiTRAvti-

RyA. VyAsa was however cotemporary with his grandson and _ their

descendants, agreeably to the above system of saintly immor-

tality. Mr. Bentley places Pardsara about 575 B. C. (Hinda

astronomy), Buchanan about 1300 B. C. (Genealogies of the Hindis),

and Wilford 1391 (A. R. ix. 87.)

The first chapters of the first book of the Vishnu Purana contain

an account of the creation, ascribing it to the association of Visanu

with PrapuAna and Purusua, matter and spirit, or the female and

male, or passive and active energies. During the intervals of creation,

Visunvu exists independant of all connexion or attributes, and is be-

yond the comprehension of human faculties. When disposed to create

the universe, the elements, properties, and senses generated by the two

sensible combinations of the deity are collected into an egg floating

on the water, in which VisuNnu again, as Braum&, is concealed, and

1832. ] Analysis of the Vishnu Purina. 433

from which he issues to separate, and arrange the constituent

portions of the world: the system is therefore perfectly conformable

to that anciently entertained as explained in the opening of Menu,

Substituting Visunu for Branma.

** The third chapter contains the usual divisions of time, from the

twinkling of an eye to the period of a Kalpa; the fourth, an account

of the Vartha Avatara, whence the Varaha Kalpa, or actual great

period, derives its appellation. In the 5th chapter we have the series of

creations, effected by Visunu, amounting to nine, followed by a moré

detailed account of the order in which the several classes of beings

sprang into existence, extending through the 6th and 7th chapters.

The seventh chapter brings us to the creation of the chief charac<

’ __ ters of the Swuyambhuva Manwantara, the account of whose family

is in part at least obviously an allegory. Swayambhuva, the son of

the self-existent, is married toSaTarupa,(thehundred or many-formed,

the great mother;) their children are two sons, Paryavrata (the lover

of devotion), and Urrsnapdpa (where we are at fault), and two

daughters, Prasutr (child-bearing) and Axuti*, a name not admit-

ting an obvious allegorical etymology. It may be observed, that the

Bhagavat adds a third daughter, Devanuti (invocation of the gods),

“married to Kerpama (soil or sin); Axutr was married to Rucur

(light), a Prajapati, but not included in the usual enumeration of

those sons of BramMa, unless he be the same with Maricut; their

offspring were Yasna (sacrifice), and Daxsurnc (donation), who,

though brother and sister, were married and begot the twelve divinities

called Yamas, aclass whose character and office are not known. Pra-

suTi was married to the Prajapati Daxsua (ability or power) ; .they

had twenty-four daughters, all emblematical, Srappu4, (faith,) Laxsu-

Mi, (prosperity,) Duriri, (fortitude,) Tusurr, (content,) Pusurr, .

(satiety,) Mepu, (apprehension,) Krry’a, (action, &c.); thirteen were

married to Duerma, (equity ;) of the other eleven nine were mar-

ried to the nine Rishis, SwXuX (oblation) was wedded to fire, and the

collective Prrris or progenitors had Srdddha, the funeral sacrifice, for

their spouse: their posterity are all of the same significant character,

as their appellations satisfactorily indicate. The Puranas, in general,

follow this account of the first race of created beings, with some medi-

fications and additions: the B’hagavat, as we shall hereafter see, has

supplied the most copious accessions, and has introduced into the series

* However another reading often occurs, usually considered, it is true, an error

of the copyist, but possibly the right reading ; AHU’TI, invocation of the gods,

prayer, or sacrifice, : , -

zi 212

A34 Analysis of the Vishnu Purana. [Ocr-

a degree of perplexity and inconsistency that are quite foreign to the

simplicity of the Vishnu Purana, in which we may therefore conceive

the primitive notion is most faithfully represented,

The churning of the ocean for the recovery of Sri and Amrita or

ambrosia, lost to the gods in consequence of the anger of Durvasas with

Indra, is narrated in the ninth chapter, but more concisely than usual.

The posterity of the Rishis by the daughters of Daxsua follow, and

we have then a long episode relating to Duruva, the second son of

Urtnapdpa, who, for his devotion to Visunu, was elevated to the

dignity of the polar star.

The descendants of Duruva are traced in the 13th chapter to the

6th Menu Cucxsuusna, and from him by Uru, Anea, and Vena to

PrituHu, from whom the earth was named Prithivi : the fourth descent

from Pritav, consisted of the ten Pracuetasas, and their son was

Daxsna the Prajapati in a new birth : this is the father of the 60

daughters, of whom 27 were the constellations, the lunar mansions, or

wives of the moon, and thirteen the wives of Kasyara, by whom the

gods and demons, men and animals, were produced. The remaining

chapters of this section contain the accounts in detail of the origin of

these races, from the daughters of Daxsua married to Kasyara. The

original refers these in the 21st chapter to the Swarochisha Manwan-

tara, but this is irreconcilable with the descent of Daxsua, as before

mentioned from Chdkshusha Menu, and as again stated in the third

book. This section of the Purana terminates with the division of the

universe under its respective regents, and praises of VisHNu as the

Supreme Being. |

The second book contains the usual account of the division of the

earth into Dwipas, and the formation of the seven Patdlas, and Na-

raka, with the situation and course of the planets and the description

of their several cars: that of the sun is very fully and curiously detail-

ed: the last chapters give a legendary account of Bharata, the object

of which is to inculcate the supremacy of Visunu, and the unreality

of worldly existence, agreeably to the doctrines of the Vedanta philo-

sophy.

The third book of the Vishnu Purdna should have formed, agrees

ably to the systematic classification of the contents of a Purdna, its

fourth, treating of the reigns of the different A/enus and their descen-

dants: the detail’ however is little more than a bare enumeration of

names, the appellation of the Menu, the InprA, or king of the gods,

the Ganas or classes of Devas, the seven Rishis, and the sons of the

Menu, and who are all distinct in each Manwantara. Those of the

——<_ Cl

1832.] Analysis of the Vishnu. Purana. 435.

first, sixth, and seventh periods are of the most note. In the inter-

mediate «es little of interest occurs, and less in those that are to come.

We may therefore here insert the names of the persons of these

three Manwantaras.

“MENv. Swayamb’ huva. Chdkshusha. Vaivasy at.

INDRA. Manojava, Purandhara.

DEvaTAs. Adyas. Adityas.

Prasutas. Vasus.

Bhavyas. Rudras, &c.

Prithugas.

Mahanubhavas, &c.

Risals. Marichi. Sumedhi. Vasisht’ ha.

Angiras. Viraja. Kasyapa. |

% Atri. Havishmat. Atri,

Fulastya. Uttéma. Jamadagni.

Pulaha. Madhu. Gautama.

Kratu. Atenaman. Viswamitra,

Vasisht’ ha. Sahishna. Bharadhwdja,

SONS. Priyavrata., Uru. Thshwdku.

Uttanapada, Puru, Nab'higa.

Satadru. Dhrishta,

; Tapaswi. Sarydati.

e Satyavati. Nazrishyanta,

Suchi. Bhagadheya.

Agnishthoma. Karusha.

Sadyumna. Prishadhra.

Abhimanyu. Vasumat.

Atiratra.

In this manner the persons of the remaining seven Manwantaras

are prophetically detailed.

_ In the next chapter of the third section occurs the enumeration of

the 28 Veda Vydsas already alluded to. In the Dwapar age of

every Mahdyug, or aggregate of four Yugas,.a Muni or sage appears,

who makes a new arrangement of these works, and is therefore called

Vyasa or Veda Vyasa. The Vydsa of the present period is Krisuna

Dwatrdyana, the son of ParAsara, and the twenty-eighth of the

series, and who, according to this authority, and the sectarial notions it

advocates, is a minor descent or incarnation of Visunu himself.

. The origin of the Vedas and Puranas is treated of in the next

chapter of this section, with many curious details. The Veda, it is said,

was originally a ritual, containing ample instructions for the five great

sacrifices, or oblations to fire, at the full and change of the moon, and

in every fourth month, the offering of animals, and libation with the

juice of the acid Asclepias ; these five being doubled as Prakriti and

—

Sita

“She

tag

436. Analysis of the Vishnu Purdna. [ Ocr,

Vikriti, or simple and modified, became ten, and these were the objects

of the Vedas. .

The mode in which Vydsa is described as arranging the Veda,

implies its prior existence in separate portions, as he called to his

assistance four persons, severally acquainted with them, or Paila for

the Rik, Vaisampdyana for the Yajur, Jaimini for the Sama, and

Sumanta for the Atharvan. The description is not very clear, but it

should seem that he made a kind of digest of the whole collectively,

which he again separated according to the purport of the different

passages ; the Rik, containing the Richas, or prayers used with obla-

tions by the Hotri, or officiating priest; the Yajur, comprising the

formule of the rite repeated by the Adhwaryu ; the Sama, compos-

ed of the hymns chanted by the Udgatd ; and the Atharvan compre-

hending prayers and rites suitable for princes or the military order,

repeated or conducted by the Brahmans on their behalf.

The Vishnu Purana then describes the different Sanhitas, or collec-

tions of the prayers and formule of each Veda, and their respective

authors. The Rig was divided into two Sanhitds, by Patta, who

taught one to InpRapRAmAtI and the other to VasHKata; each of

these and their disciples made further subdivisions. The Yajur was

divided into 27 Sakhas by VatsampXyana, besides the other great

portion of it obtained from the sun, by YasnawautKya, which sub-

sequently branched into fifteen divisions. The Sama and Atharvan are

in a like manner extensively subdivided. The whole of these details are

curious, and indicate a period long forgotten, when the Vedas were

extensively studied : the names derived from the subdivisions, as Tatt-

tiri, Vaji, &c. still designate tribes of Brahmans in some parts of

India, but few of any of the separate Sanhitas are procurable. Mr.

‘Colebrooke has made use of these sections of the Vishnu Purana in

his account of the Vedas. (A. R. Vol. viii.)

The origin of the Purdnas is here also ascribed indirectly to various

individuals. Vyasa is said to have compiled the Purdna Sanhita,

put he gave it to Sura or Lomanerswana, who had six disciples,

Sumati, Aenivercucud, Marrreya, Sinsapfyana, Kasyapa, and

Sfvarni; and to them Sura delivered six Sanhitds. Three of the disci-

ples, Srnsap£yana, Kasyapa, and Savarni, composed Sanhétds, also

called Mula Sanhitd, and RomanersHana compiled another. The

Vishnu Purdna, again, it may be inferred is a subsequent compilation,

as it is said to contain the substance of these four works. <A list of

the Purdnas is then given as usual, omitting the Vayu from the

series,

1832.] Analysis of the Vishnu Purdna. 437,

_ The remainder of the section is occupied with the detail of the

duties of the different tribes and orders, and terminates with an absurd

legend called the Yama Gitd, the scope of which is to shew, that the

spirits of those who have faith in VisuNu, are not to be approached by.

the messengers of the infernal monarch ; it must be admitted, however,

that compared with the other Puranas, the Vishnu Purana does not

- very frequently offend with legendary insipidities of this description.

The fourth section contains the genealogies of the royal fami-

lies, commencing with the lines of the sun and moon, and termi-

nating with the kings of the Kal age, until a modern period.

This section has furnished the greater part of the materials with

which Sir William Jones, Mr. Bentley, and Colonel Wilford, at-

___ tempted to adjust the historical chronology of the Hindus ; the latter

(A. R. Vol. ix.) gives the Vishnu Purana as one of his authorities ; -

the first cites a list furnished by his Pundit, but it is the same thing

with one or two inaccuracies; as an example of these may be stated

what he asserts of the four Kanwa princes, that they reigned 345

years, whence Sir William Jones observes, that the generations of men

and reigns of kings are extended beyond the course of nature even

in the present age (A. R. ii. 143.)

Adverting to the same circumstance, Mr. Bentley refers (vol. vy.

page 324,) the extravagant elongation of the reigns of these princes,

to a deliberate attempt to fill up a chasm occasioned by placing the

descendants of JaNnamrsAya at too early a period, and cites this as

one of the innumerable absurdities of the modern Hindis.

Colonel Wilford again observes, these AKanwas are said to have

reigned 345 years, which is still more extravagant. ( Vol. ix. page 110.)

It would scarcely be supposed, that these assertions are all founded

on error. In the early stage of Sir William Jones’s enquiries, his

trusting to his Pandit’s authority, may be excused; but it seems

very doubtful whether Mr. Bentley or Colonel Wilford took the.

pains to verify that statement. At any rate, in four manuscripts of the

Vishnu Purana, two in the Devanagari and two in the Bengalee cha-

racter, instead of 345 years, the term of the united reigns of the four

Kanwa princes is stated to be 45 years, a period neither extravagant

nor absurd, nor beyond the course of nature.

The ancient dynasties of kings anterior to the Kali age, within the

bounds of which they should no doubt be brought, can scarcely be

adjusted with much consistency or satisfaction ; at the same time this is.

a consideration rather favourable to their authenticity, as had they

been the result of a systematic fabrication, they would easily have

438 Analysts of the Vishnu Purana. [Ocr..

been adapted to some fixed periods, and to each other. That many in-

accuracies and some falsifications have crept into these genealogies

may be readily admitted ; but there is no good reason to dispute the

actual existence of the principal individuals commemorated, nor the

general course of their ancestry ordescendants. That their memory

was preserved by some means anterior to the Purdnas is established

by the Vishnu Purdna. Reference is made in it repeatedly to form-.

er traditions, and old verses are cited as illustrative of the history or

character of a number of the princes of whom mention is made. (Sec-

tions 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 19, &c.)

The 11th and following chapters of this book, to the 15th, contain

a detailed account of the descendants of Yapu. A curious story is

interwoven into the portion that relates to Kruisuna, of his being

falsely accused of having stolen a marvellous gem, the possession of

which secured wealth and prosperity to its possessor, if virtuous. It

was given to Satrasit, the cotemporary, very inconsistently it must

be confessed, of Krisuna, and his sixth ancestor, and a member of

the Ydpava family. Apprehending Krisuna’s requiring the gem,

Satrasit gave it to his brother, who was killed in the forest by a lion.

Krisuna hunting killed the lion and found the jewel; he re-

turned it to Satrrasit, who gave him in requital his daughter in

marriage: this led to further family dissensions, in which Krisuna was

accused by his own brother of having under-handedly appropriat-

ed the gem to himself: he, at last, however, cleared himself in an

assembly of the Yadavas, and the jewel became the undisputed pro-

perty of his relative Akrura. In these transactions, the character of

Krisuna, although heightened with marvels, is of a very earthly com-'

plexion ; and as to Batardma, it is said of him by Krisana, that he

is unfit to be master of the jewel, because he drinks wine, and is’

addicted to sensual pleasures. With respect to the gem, its properties

of procuring plenty to the country of its possessor, and of bringing

down rain when needed, ally it to the marvellous stone, for the acqui-

sition of which, the Tartar tribes not unfrequently had recourse to

hostilities.

In detailing the lists of Magad’ha kings, the Vishnu Purana states,

that from the birth of Parixsuir to the coronation of Nanna, 1015

years elapsed. NaAnpa preceded Cuanpracurra 100 years, and

Cuanpracurta, as identified with Sanproxortus, ascended the throne

315 B. C. Parrixsuit was the grandson of ArsuNa, consequently the

war of the Mahab’hdrat occurred 1430 years before the Christian era.

Wilford reduces this by 60 years, and places the conclusion of the

din

1832.] Analysis of the Vishnu Purana. 439

great war 1370 B. C., the difference is not very material, and either

date may present an approximation to the truth.

' From Cuanpracurta to the accession of the Anpura princes,

three dynasties occupy an interval of 294 years: the ANpuRas there

fore commenced their rule about 20 years before Christ, which will

agree well enough with the account of the power of the Andra, .as

given by Pliny, about the end of the first century of our era. Accord-

ing to the Purana, there were 30 princes, who reigned 456 years,

which brings them to A. D. 436. Colonel Wilford has endeavoured

to extend them, however, to the seventh century, identifying the last:

or Pulomarshi with the Pouloumien of the Chinese Annals, who

died in 648, according to De Guignes. (As. Res. ix. 87.) If this

is correct, the Anpura dynasty must be imperfectly given. The

commencement being corroborated by Pliny, is apparently accu-

rate, but we want two centuries at the termination. Wilford pro-

poses to supply part of the deficiency, which is less in his statement,

by inserting seven princes, whom he calls genuine ANpuRas, before the

ANDHRABHRITYAS ; but there is no warrant for this, and the number is

inadequate to the interval required. There is however evident confusion

_here in our authority, the text and comment state expressly that the

dynasty is composed of 30 princes, and yet even with the repetition of

the name Satakerni five times, although it is probably intended in most

cases as a title, we have but 27 names. Wilford’s list, indeed, con-

tains but 25 names. It is likely, therefore, that some of the names

have been lost ; and if we can suppose the dynasty to have comprised

nearer 40 than 30 princes, we may extend the time of Putian, so as

to be the same with that of Pouloumien.

There is another identification in this list with the Chinese history,

which may be even more readily adjusted than the preceding.

The annals of China record that in 408 ambassadors arrived from

Yuegnai, king of Kiapilz in India, the Kapéla of the Bauddhas, to

which possibly the authority of the Magadha prince as Lord para-

mount extended. The name of the prince is clearly Yasna, and

we have a Yasna Sri the 24th of the Anpura kings. Agree

bly to the commencement of the race 20 years B. C. and the

average of reigns authorised by the text, 15 years and five months,

Yasna Sri reigned about 330, or only 78 years earlier than he

appears in the Chinese accounts. If indeed, as is allowable, we

consider him to be the 27th prince, being the third before the last,

then the agreement is almost precise ; as he will have reigned from 375

to 390, and we have only to suppose his reign one of those above the

440 Analysis of the Vishnu Purana. [ Oct.

average amount, to bring him to the year 408 ; these identifications,

however, whether made out precisely or not, bear favourable testimony

to the accuracy of the Hindu lists, as to the existence of the individu-

als about the time specified : we can scarcely expect a close concur-

rence in the annals of different nations, at best imperfectly known to

each other.

The succession of races which follows the Anpuras is evidently

confused and imperfect ; seven distinct dynasties are detailed, extend-

ing through 1390 years, and two others through a period of 406 years :

47 princes of different tribes succeed them, to whom less than four

centuries cannot be ascribed, the whole throwing the last of the

Anpuras back 2190 years, and computing that 4055 years of the

Kali age had elapsed : the last periods, grafted probably, as Colonel —

Wilford has supposed, on the coetaneous existence of different dynas-

ties at undefined intervals, are in all likelihood calculated to fill up the

years expired of the Kal age, and so furnish a clue to the date of this

Purana: if 4055 years of Kali had passed when the work was com-

piled, it was written 870 years ago, or in the year 954.

_ The notices that follow would present an interesting picture of the

political distribution of India at the date at which it may be supposed

the author wrote, if the passages were less obscure : as it is, consider-

able uncertainty pervades the description. It appears from it that the

Kshetriya rule was very generally abolished, and that individuals of

various castes, from Brahmans to Pulindas (mountaineers or foresters)

reigned in Magad’ha or Behar, at Allahabad, at Mathura, Kantipurz,

Kasipuri or Kanyapuri, probably Benares or Kanouj, and in Anu-

gangam or Gangetic Hindoostan, The Guptas, a term indicating a

Sudra family, reigned over part of Magad’ha, and Devarakshita, an

individual so named, over the maritime provinces of Kalinga, &c.

the Guhas in another part of Kalinga, the Manidhanas in the Nai-

misha, Naishada, and Kalatoya countries, or the districts to the east

of Benares and Bengal. Swdras and cowherds ruled in Surat, in

Mewar, along the Nermada and ‘at Ougein; and Mlechchhas pos-

sessed the country along the Indus, along the Chandrab’haga, or in

the Punjab, Darvika, and Cashmir : this last statement is corrobora-

tive of the accuracy of the detail, as well as of the date assigned to

the composition, as although in the middle of the tenth century, the

Ghaznivide princes had not occupied Cashmir, yet they had extended

their influence along the Indus, and into the upper parts of the Punjab.

The fifth book is appropriated to the history of Krisuna, and is pos-

sibly a graft of more recent date than the original. Although the

1832. | Analysis of the Vishnu Purana. 441

story is told in the usual strain, yet there is this peculiarity, that

Krisuna is never considered as one and the same with Harr; he is

only an Ansdvatara or an incarnate portion of Visunu ; not a very

distinguished one either, being only one of VisHnvu’s hairs (B. v.

chapter 1.) plucked off by himself at the prayers of the gods, to

become incarnate in the conception of Devaki, to be born for the pur-

pose of alleviating the distresses of the earth.

The subsequent occurrences are related conformably to the tenor

of the B’hagavat, and very differently, therefore, from that of the

Bharat ; the war with Jarasanpua particularly, and the adventures

of Kata Yavana: it also includes what may be supposed to typify

some hostile struggles between the followers of Siva and Visunu,

in the personal conflict between Krisuna, and the former, as taking

part respectively with Anrruppua and Banasura.

From the 34th chapter of this section, we learn that there have

been spurious Krisunas amongst the Hindus, and Paunpraka, the

king of Benares, is described as usurping the title of Vasudeva: he is

encountered by the legitimate possessor of the name, defeated and

slain: his son continues the war with the aid of Sankara or the Sarvas,

and it should appear at first with some success, so as to endanger

Dwaraka, the capital of Krisuna : the allies however are repelled,

and the holy city Kasé burnt by the relentless discus of the victor ;

the legend seems to delineate, though darkly, actual occurrences.

This book terminates with the destruction of the Yadavas ; Krisu-

na’s being shot through mistake by a forester, and his ascent to heaven.

The last book of the Vishnu Purdna, after describing the divisions

of time into Kalpas, &c. expatiates on the various pangs that flesh is

heir to, and directs mankind to the only remedy for them, faith in

Visunu as the Supreme.

The general character of the Vishnu Purana will be readily con-

ceived from this sketch of its contents : it is a sectarial work, but of

a much more sober character than such works generally possess, and

appropriates to legend and panegyric, a comparatively insignificant

portion of its contents: the geographical and astronomical systems to

be found in it, are of the usually absurd complexion, but they are

more succinctly and perspicuously described than perhaps in any other

Puranas : the same may be said of the genealogies, and the fourth

book, may be regarded as a valuable epitome of the ancient history of

the Hindus.

The date of the compilation, it has already been observed, may be

inferred to be as low as the middle of the tenth century : there are no

2K 2

442 On the Standard Weights of England and India. — {Ocr.

other grounds for specifying the date, but the Puwrdna is clearly sub-

sequent to the development of the whole body of Hindu literature :

the Vedas and their divisions are particularised, the names of all the

Puranas are given as usual, and reference is repeatedly made to the

Itihasa and Dherma Sustras. In the fourth section of the third book

also ParXsara says, Who but N&rfyana can be the author of the

Mahabharat 2 It is consequently posterior to that work, in common it

is most probable with all the Puranas. Notwithstanding this recent

origin, however, the Vishnu Purana is a valuable compilation, particu-

larly in its being obviously and avowedly derived from more ancient —

materials.

11.—On the Standard Weights of England and India.

The Westminster Review, No. 31, contains an able article on the -

imperfections of the system of measures and weights adopted by the -

legislature in England, upon the report of the parliamentary commis-

sion in 1825.

The reviewer justly remarks, that the fear of innovation seems to

have curbed the free exercise of judgment by the commissioners, so that

in fact, after all their deliberations, they did little more than settle the

discrepancies of various standards to the thousandth part of a grain,and

lop off four and a half grains from the avoirdupois pound ! In most other

respects the country is left in as much confusion as before, with two

kinds of lineal measure ;—two kinds of superficial measure ;—three

kinds of cubic measure ;—and not only two kinds of weight, but these

so exquisitely varied, that the larger pound has the smaller ounce!

In lieu of so perplexing and anomalous a state of things, the re-

viewer proposes to substitute a system founded on a simple and a

rational basis : viz.—that some fixed length, a foot for instance, shall be

taken as the unit of lineal measure ; that the square of this shall become

the unit of superficial measure ; and thecube, the unit of solid measure.

We do not propose at present to advert to his arguments on the

inconveniences of our numerous linear and square measures,—but

on the subject of weights, we will endeavour to show the kind of

system which he represents as capable of formation out of mate-

rials at hand, with only such little modifications as would not practi-

cally be felt in the ordinary affairs of commerce.

He first premises as a maxim of utility, that the current coin of

the country should be closely connected with the weights ; accord-

-1832.] On the Standard Weights of England and India. 443

ingly,—the pound of standard silver being coined into 66 shillings in

England, it is evident that 11 crown pieces weigh 10 oz. troy,

leaving a very simple ratio for the conversion of one into the other :

the crown (436.36 grs.) is also nearly equal in weight to the avoirdu-

pois ounce (4373 grs,) and might be substituted for it practically

without much inconvenience: moreover, 1000 crowns are exactly

equal in weight toa cubic foot of distilled water at the temperature

of 15° cent. (59° Fahr.) (436363 grs.)

From these data, it becomes a very easy problem to frame a system

of weights, measures, and coin connected together in simple ratios,

uniting all the benefits of decimal numeration, and still maintaining

tolerable accordance with the weights now in use. To give a general

__ idea of the combination proposed, without entering into its details, we

7 present the following scheme alongside of the existing system.

S$ % SS

Proposed Crown} & > » §

ag > 5 > > Remarks.

One crown grain, .. = 1 0.91 He troy grain = 1.] crown grain.

2U gr. = 1 scruple, 20 18.18 ,

3 sc. — 1 dram, .. 60 54.54

8 dr. —1 oz. (orcr.) 480 436.36) (the avoir.oz.now is 437.5 tr. gr. or 481.25 cr. gr.

16 oz. =1 pound, . 7680 9681.82/(ditto ditto, Ibs. 7000 ,, or 7700 ,,

100 Ib. =c. lb. ....} 768000 698182)(the cwt.av. wgs. now 784000 or 862400 ,,

500 lb. = 1 qr. ton, ; r. gr. cr. gr.

2000 lb. =1ton, . 13963636] (the ton weighs now 15680000 or 17 248000)

Measures of Capacity.

1 oz. — I cubic digit (or 0.1? foot) =the proposed liquid ounce.

1000 oz. = 1 cubic foot of distilled water, at 59g Farht. or 15e cent.

10 oz. marked x = $ pint.

20 oz. marked xx = | pint.

AO oz. marked xxxx = 1 quart.

160 oz. = ONE GALLON (the present imperial gallon =10Ib. av. or 10 cr. lb. + 200 c.g)

8000 oz. — 500 Ibs. = 1 hogshead = 50 gallons= 8 cubic feet = cube of 2 feet.

1000 Ibs. = 1 pipe = 100 gallons = 16 ditto.

2000 Ibs. = 1 ton or TUN= 200 gallons = 32 ditto.

It must be confessed, that the higher numbers in this scheme both

of liquid and solid weights are too much at variance to obtain easily

a footing in commerce, and in many respects as good a system might -

have been framed with the preservation of one only of the pounds

and the present troy grain.

The most fortunate hit in the scheme of the reviewer is in the for-

tuitous circumstance of 1000 crownrpieces, of our preseut coin, counter-

balancing precisely a cubic foot of pure water at 59°. A fact worth

carrying in the memory, at any rate, for although five shilling pieces

Are but rarely seen in currency now-a-days, it may be convenient for

A44 On the Standard Weights of England and India. [ Ocr..

those who experimentalize upon water in regard to evaporation, rain,

discharge of pipes, and the like, to know that they carry a decimal

divisor of the liquid foot in their pocket. But the crown piece of our

coinage is already allied to the pound troy, as the coin must always

be by the very provision that the “pound troy shall be coined into

so many shillings or aliquot parts.” The pound troy then is actually

the standard unit of weight and coinage, and however plausible a

scheme may be brought forward, unless it adheres to some such fixed

point of very general prevalence, it may be looked upon as merely

speculative, and not likely to gain admittance among practical men.

The troy pound is coined exactly into sixty-six shillings. The troy

ounce therefore weighs 5s. 6d. without any fraction. Tlie weights of

every other coin, and the value of all the other systems of weights

used in commerce, such as the avoirdupois, the liquid measure, &c. are

expressed in terms of the troy grain, which is nothing but a subdivi-

sion of the troy pound unit, so that although a multiplicity of -stand-

ards has been made up for preservation and comparison, this alone

is entitled to the name of stanparv. It was to simplify the con-

nection of the avoirdupois weight in relation to the latter that it was

changed from 70043 to 7000 grains; the latter number however

is almost as irrational as the former, and it would have been far

better to have expunged the anomalous avoirdupois weight altogether ;

or, if it were thought absolutely necessary to preserve a heavy weight,

a pakka wazn as the natives of India would call it, it might have

been made one-third heavier than the troy pound, or 7680 grs, :—

this would have been divisible by 16 into an ounce identical with

the troy ounce, and when multiplied by 100, for the hundred weight,

would have given a weight (of 7680000 grs.) nearly equal to the

present clumsy cwt. of 112 ay. tbs. or 7840000 grs. and equally

applicable to all the wholesale operations of commerce, without neces-

sitating any change of the customs charged on the gross weight, or even

affecting the price-current of most commodities in the market.

But it is useless at this time, and at this distance from the scene of

its operation, to comment upon a system now irrevocably adopted. It

must ever be regretted, that a scheme of such national importance

did not chance to fall under review under the ministry so eminent

in science as the present Lord Chancellor of England.

The subject was brought to our notice principally by a measure

now in agitation before the Government of British India, for the adop-

tion of some law respecting the weights and measures of this country,

in which at present so great a confusion prevails that it is almost ime

~~ | ee

~ 1832.) On the Standard Weights of England and India. 445

possible to say what is the recognized standard in either, even at the

presidency itself.

The Indian system, when the English first became acquainted

with it, combined all the advantages of a direct connection bes

tween the coin and the unit of weight*. They were in fact the same

thing, until the regulation taking force from the Ist January, 1819,

changed the standard purity of the coin by anaddition of copper, with-

out altering its value in pure contents of silver. This measure in-

creased the weight of the rupee by an awkward fraction of ,12222 parts,

and rendered all subsequent conversions of weight into money a matter

of intricate calculation ; for the old rupee was still retained as the unit of

- weight under the title of sicca weight, in contradistinction to the new-

__ly introduced sicca rupee : and it was allowed still to regulate the

weight of the bazar maund, which was forty seer of eighty siccas each.

Subsequent changes in the upper provinces and in the other

presidencies have had similar effects of introducing new weights, and

although the object aimed at by the home Government has been all

along that of equalizing the whole, yet, for want of a common basis to

proceed upon, and of due combination in carrying their measures

into effect, nothing more has been attained than mere approxi-

mations, as perplexing to the admirer of uniformity as the ori-

ginal system itself. It would lead us into lengthy observations

to explain the steps taken at each place, to bring about an ac-

cordance of the several rupees to that ordered by the Court to

be made the standard of India; and as our object is to shew how

all may become even now amalgamated into one system, connected

directly with the standard of England, it will suffice to state, what our

materials are at the present moment :

Appellation. Weight in troy grains.

Calcutta sicca rupee,...... o..+-+2e6+ 191.916 gold mohur, 204.710

MGPA Weight, .. v0.0 ececsee 179,606

Lucknow rupee, in weight, .......... 172.101 (value in Standard 180,705) ”

Furukhabad rupee, used as a weight up

the country, where the old weight has

MISMTICOLED 5,» 6 one se eens cesiesasces-cs 180.234

Sonat Rupee, (nominal,) ......... eve. 183.644

Madras and Sagur rupee and weight,.... 180.000 (Madras mohur 180)

Bombay Rupee, in weight, (since order-

ed to be made 180 as at Madras,)......... 179.000 but in Standard value 179.642

* The genuine Indian weights were the jo or barleycorn, the rati, masa, and tola:

7i jo = 1 rati: 8 ratis—l mdsa=17.708 grs. 12 misa=1 tola=2125 grs. but

these are now become obsolete, and are Only known to jewellers, or beyond the

provinces under British rule,

446 On the Standard Weights of England and India. _[Ocr.

Bazar maund at Calcutta, ....cseccceee 82 Ibs. 20z. 2.055 dr. avoirdupois.

at Benares, ..cecscece we 82 lbs. 6 oz. 5.9

Salt maund of 82 siccas to the seer, .. 84 lbs. 203. 15.7 drs.

Factory maund, ..........s0.. boaoot 74 lbs. 10 oz. 10.666

Madras candy of 20 maunds, .. ....e6 500 Ibs. the md. = 24 Ibs. 2 oz.

Bombay ditto of 20 ditto, .. ...... oe 560 Ibs. 28 Ibs.

The Calcutta or pakka maund is also used at the latter place, and

in bullion is received at the Madras and Bombay mints by the pound

troy, as it is in England : in purchases of native produce, bazar

weights are used, which vary in almost every different district ; in

transactions with the Company’s commercial agents, the factory maund

is employed ; in salt purchases a maund of 82 siccas to the seer ; opium

is sold in packages of 133 to 140 Ibs. to suit the Chinese pikal

weight ; while again for exportation to Europe, English cwts. or Ibs.

must be entered in the invoice, so that in one merchant’s godown

there are generally not less than three species of weights, and it is

matter of experience, that continual mistakes will occur in their use,

unless, as is seldom the case, they are markedin very legible characters,

intelligible not only to Europeans, but also to the native weighmen.

It was not long since a case occurred in which the weights of a com-

mercial establishment were found to be in error eight or ten per cent. : it

may be very fairly supposed, that this proceeded from the confusion

of the weights of different systems, although it must be acknowledged,

that a skilful podar would very soon perceive differences of such large

amount, and if he were inclined to take fraudulent advantage of them,

could do so without much risk of discovery. It has been at times

source of complaint, that the receipt and delivery weighments at

the custom-house are at variance ; in short, if it be desired to clear

away all suspicions of wilful or accidental error, and to simplify to the

utmost the transactions of commerce, it can only be done by adopting

one system of weight ; abolishing all others by common consent, and

establishing means of adjustment and verification accessible to all parties.

We shall now offer a few hints on the system which appears most

eligible from its simplicity, its connection with existing things, and its

ready adjustment to the standard system of Great Britain ; our reason

for doing so, through these pages, in the first instance, rather than in a

direct appeal to the proper authorities, where we have every reason to

know they would meet with proper consideration is, that the question

is one of universal interest, and, where the convenience of the public

is concerned, the more such a measure is canvassed, the more likely

will it be to have its faults and objections pointed out, and improve-

ments, either radical or collateral, suggested.

1832. } On the Standard Weights of England and India. 447

J. At first view, it is obvious, that the Calcutta sicca weight, so

called, (179.666 grs.) and the several rupees (or weights) of the

upper provinces, and of the Madras and Bombay presidencies,

though not identical (varying from 180.7 to 179 gprs.) may be made

to coincide, without the slightest effect upon commercial proceed-

ings and a number of small perplexing difficulties may thus be

avoided.

2. The advantage of assuming in even numbers 180 grains for the

sicca weight of all India would be equally obvious in dealings with

England, both in coin and in goods ; for the bazar maund, being 40 seers

of 80 siccas each, would be equal to 576000 grains, or precisely 100

of the standard troy pound of Great Britain. The difference from its

present weight would be a little short of ten sicca weight, or two chitaks,

a quantity far too small to be influential; andifa number of weights

were at once adjusted on such a system, they might be dispers-

ed throughout the country, and introduced at once, without disturbing

the public mind by any talk of innovation. The seer weight would

be exactly equal to 22 pounds; the pound troy would equal 32

sicca weight ; 23 British Indian rupees would weigh,1 oz.; and 1 rupee

would weigh 74 dwt.

With regard to the connection of the maund with the avoirdupois

weight, of course a simple relation could not be formed : in practice it

would remain nearly 7m statw quo ; in theory it will be at any more

simply connected than at present in the ratio of 823 to 82,433%,, or 82 Ibs.

2 oz. 2.055 drs.; the maund would represent 82} Ibs. aver. within

a trifling fraction.

3. Should it be necessary to retain the Calcutta sicca rupee, which

has, at present, by law, the weight of 191.916 grs. troy, this fraction

might with great convenience be made at once 192 grs. orexactly ;4 in

excess of the proposed sicca weight, so that the up-country rupee

would be precisely equal to 15 annas, instead of having a small frac-

tional difference as at present. Thirty sicca rupees would then weigh

1 Ib. troy, and, if the standard were the same, would be equivalent in

‘value to 66 shillings, the rupee being = 2-2, shillings,

Regarding the difference of standard alluded to, we would fain say

‘a few words, although the subject may prove too technical for general

readers to follow. The Indian standard of silver contains , of alloy:

English standard silver has contained by law ever since the time of

‘William the Conqueror 18 dwts. in the pound, or 518,, being ,3,5th

purer than that of India. Until the last year, however, on account

of an error in the ancient Parliamentary standard plates of England,

448 On the Standard Weights of England and India: [ Oct.

the coin of both countries has been coined 11 dwts. too fine, so that

in reality our Indian coin has been only 2 dwts. worse, or almost

equal to the English legal standard. Now, that the error has been

corrected at home, and has been brought to the notice of the proper

officers here, with a view to the introduction of a similar correction,

would it not be far simpler to equalize the two standards at once by

raising our purity 3 dwt., instead of lowering it 14, and making it

differ from almost every coin on the globe? The Spanish, the Portu-

guese, the Mexican, and the North American dollar ; the French franc,,

the German and Swiss,(since the confederation,) and the Italian coins, all

contain ;, alloy, and were it advisable to deviate from the English stand-

ard at all, it might be better to adopt that simple and almost universal

system: but now that England has determined to supply her colonies

with her own currency in silver coin, it may be perhaps better that

the rupee of her Indian possessions should conform thereto as nearly

as possible,—and if so, the present opportunity of equalizing the stand-

ard should not be allowed to pass by.. There is another argument in

favor of the measure, namely, that the proposed improvement in qua-

lity is nearly balanced by the proposed reduction in weight of our

up-country rupee from 180.234 to 180.0 grains, so that there would

be no appreciable difference in commercial or revenue transac-

tions.

It may be urged against the alterations suggested, that they will

render useless the splendid standard weights sent out to the several

mints of India, by the Honorable Court of Directors, for the express

purpose of adjusting the weights of the country: but such is not the

case, for these magnificent standards comprize complete sets of troy

weights, avoirdupois weights, and bazar weights, and it is the first

of these only which can be regarded as the true standard of com-

parison whereby the other two are to be verified. The Bazar weights

may by means of the troy standards be made to conform to the pro-

posed system with the greater facility, because there will be no frac-

tional discrepancies.

We read some time since in the Government Gazette, a notice of

the verification of the standards alluded to, which was made by order

of the Court upon their arrival in India; it gives a high idea of their

great exactitude, and of the superior excellence of the superb bal-

ances by which these results were obtained : they were sent out by

the Honorable Court inthe year 1829, and are deposited in the new

mint. Assuming the 1 1b. troy as unit, the errors of the following

weights were respectively : ;

1832.] On the Standard Weights of England and India. A49

On the single troy grain,...... — 0.0019 grain.

the sixty pound troy, .... — 1.90

the one pound avoirdupois, — 0.04

the fifty-six pound ditto, .. + 0.71

the sicca weight, ........ - + 0.003

the maund, ...... siege «e's! - O.2

A brief description of the principles of the construction of these

balances, and of the improvements introduced by Mr. Bate, was giv-

en in the GLEANINGs, vol. iii. p. 220.*

Since the examination above alluded to, the standard measures of

capacity have also been verified, and have been found equally credi-

table to Mr. Bate, their maker, They are brass cylindrical vessels,

covered with flat glass discs pierced through the centre with a small

aperture, so that the quantity of distilled water contained in them

may be ascertained with perfect accuracy : ivory handles are attached

to them, to prevent an undue influence on the temperature of the me-

tal from the contact of the hand. With due allowance for the tem-

perature of the water used in the experiments, the trifling errors of

capacity, expressed in weight of water, were as follows :

measure. {avoirdupois.} ture. jexcess in grs./excess in grs. grs. of water.

lb. Oz. ie

Gallon, .. 10 0 77.4 95.97 93.4 + 2.57

Half gallon 5 0 773 47.59 47.8 — 0.21

Quart, «0. 2 8 77.3 23.78 26.3 — 2.52

ae 1 4 77.2 11.80 8.0 + 3.80

Half pint, 0 10 77.0 5.80 6.2 — 0.4

Qr. pint, .. 0 5 76.9 2.87 2.7 + 0.17

The only material error is in the pint measure, where it is equal to

0.015 cub. inch or about three drops; in all the others but the quart

the difference is much within what would be caused by a single degree

of temperature higher or lower, and consequently within the limits of

experimental error. We hope soon to see the liberal intentions of the

home government in supplying these splendid instruments of comparison,

followed up by a gradual review and reform of the existing multifarious

system of weights and measures in their Indian possessions,

' * It is recordedin the dyeen Ahkbery, that the great Akber caused theroyalstand-

ard weights of his empire to be made of polished agate, from the barley-corn up

fo the 140 tank weight (about 1 lb. troy). His example is worthy of imitation

everywhere, but more especially in a country where metals are so liable to injury

from damp, and acrid perspiration. The new standard weights, although doubly

gilded, already exhibit incipient specks of oxidation,

2L2

450 On the Gypsum of the Himalaya. [Ocr:

IlI.—Remarks on a late Paper in the Asiatic Journal on the Gyp-

sum of the Himalaya. By the Rev. R. Everest.

In the July No. of the Asiatic Journal, there issome information

given us on the gypsum of the Himalaya, for which the thanks of all

lovers of geology are due to the writer (Capt. Cautley). But as it

is accompanied by a theory of the formation of gypsum in general,

which seems to have been hastily adopted, and which a more mature

consideration of the subject would probably induce him to reject, I

shall make no apology for pointing out what I believe to be his error,

lest others should be misled by his authority.

Having stated a doubt among geologists respecting the gypsum of

the Alps, viz. whether it is primitive or transition, he proceeds to

describe the gypsum of the Himalaya, and having done so, thus express-

es his opinion as to its origin.

<< A question of considerable interest arises from the appearance and position

of the above-mentioned deposits, which, as mentioned in a former part of this

paper from their position under rocks of the primary and secondary classes ac-

quire an appearance of antiquity, not borne out by the general history of the mi-_

neral; viz. that the gypsum throughout the globe is simply an infiltration ana-

logous to the tufa, and calcareous deposits ; and depending on causes chemically

similar; the sulphuric acid being the active generator instead of the carbonic. If

in the proximity of sulphur an excess of oxygen would produce sulphuric acid, a

difficulty is removed, and the contact with lime-rock, or carbonate of lime would, it

may be supposed, produce its sulphate or gypsum; and I cannot perceive the impro-

bability of such a process having been, or being still in force ; or that nature’s labora-

tory might not have been as active in the dissemination of gypsum, as it is in the

present day, of the calcareous tufa.’’—vide p. 293. And again, p. 295. “* If there-

fore, where carbonate of lime, sulphur, and water are abundant, the chemical change

above-mentioned is allowed, or is supposed from analogy, to be a probable con-

Sequence, gypsum can no longer be entitled to a place in either primary, tran-

sition, or secondary classes ; but must be considered as an adventitious formation

common to all ages, and produced by causes analogous to the present rapid for-

mation of calcareous tufa. Among our primary and transition rocks, none can

be assimilated to the stalactitic carbonate of lime ; among our secondary or latest

class of general rocks, there is none like the gypsum, that is to say, we know of

none actually forming at this day. Causes that led to the formations of such

abundance of gypsum formerly may, from unassignable reasons, no longer exist ;

and those which produce the tufaceous carbonates, then at rest, may now be in

full vigor.”

Did the writer, when he thus proposes as original the opinion of

the formation of sulphuric acid from the proximity of sulphur and

water, forget that it is the common solution of one of the most common

phoenomena in geology, I had almost said, in nature ; and never

1832.] On the Gypsum of the Himalaya. 451

doubted? In almost every bed of clay, where sulphuret of iron and

calcareous matter are present, and the bed is so loose as to allow of infil-

tration, the sulphuret is decomposing and the sulphate of lime forming ?

Did he not know that the same solution was commonly given and

received for the presence of the abundant sulphuric and sulphurous

acids, which both rise in vapours from the craters of volcanos and im-

pregnate the mineral waters near them; viz. that they were produced

by the decomposition of sulphur and sulphuretted hydrogen. Has he

never heard, for instance, of the phenomena of the “ Solfatara” near

Vesuvius, and the manner in which they are accounted for? Lastly,

when he asserted that “ we know of no gypsum actually forming at

this day,” had he forgotten that gypsum, as well as the tufaceous car

bonate, is actually forming at present? In proof of this, I will refer

him no further than to a popular treatise of the day, Lyell’s Geology,

(vol. I.) Under the head gypsum springs, he may see a notice of that

at Baden near Vienna; and a little farther back he will find an account

of the baths of San Filippo, where three copious springs deposit calcare-

ous carbonate, with gypsum and sulphate of magnesia.

Having accounted for the formation of gypsum, and thus rendered

it probable that some gypsum beds are deposited by infiltration, i. e. by

the insinuation of the mineral in solution into cracks and fissures, he

comes to the general conclusion that all gypsum is produced by infiltra«

tion. That gypsum is analogous to calcareous deposits, is certainly true,

but ifhe had recollected the manner in which calcareous deposits took

place, he would have seen that great part of them could not be

said to be caused by infiltration. Thus, when a spring containing

carbonate of lime in solution issues to the surface, most of its mineral]

is carried to a neighbouring river; by the river to a lake, or to the

sea. We have instances of calcareous beds now forming at the

bottom of lakes, and, though we can have no direct evidence of what

' is going on at the bottom of the sea, we have good reason to believe,

that the same process is taking place there. Now the same reasoning

holds with respect to sulphate of lime. It is carried down to lakes

and seas, and must be precipitated, owing to the evaporation which is

continually taking place. If we examine the deposits of carbonate of

lime and gypsum, which together constitute great part of our later

Strata, we find that they tally with the above supposition; viz. that

they are precisely such as would have been deposited at the bottom

of the lakes or shallow seas. The different remains found in them,

the shells, the aquatic vegetables, the amphibious reptiles, the fishes,

the mammalia, all point to the same result. Take, for instance, the

452 On the Gypsum of the Himalaya. {Oct:

Paris basin, as it is called. Here we have gypsum interstratified with

beds of sand, marl, and carbonate of lime ; now what reason have we

to suppose that the gypsum was deposited by infiltration any more

than the carbonate of lime, or indeed than the sand and marl; for

they too may be held in suspension by springs, as the others may be

held in solution. Do not the remains found in each prove that they

are all of the same era? The writer talks of the absence of vegetable

remains in gypsum. Did he never hear of any in the gypsum near

Paris ? Moreover, if we must suppose the process of infiltration to have

taken place for the gypsum, and for that alone, we must also suppose

that the place it now occupies was once a hollow. That is, in the

country round Paris a subterraneous cavity existed, a few feet in depth,

but occupying an area of many miles in extent, covered by a roof

composed of loose beds of sand and gravel. The writer may have

seen, in examining mines, the great difficulty of driving a tunnel

through soft strata, wide enough even for a man to creep through, and

the artificial supports it must receive. What could have supported

the cavity, we just now supposed, before the infiltration was completed ?

I forbear from extending these arguments to the gypsum of the earlier

secondary formations, but they are equally applicable to them. The

writer states that all geologists are agreed as to many beds of gypsum

being secondary. One would have thought that circumstance might

have made him hesitate before propounding his theory, and conclude,

they had some good reasons for doing so. As I have never examined

the gypsum of the Alps, I cannot enter into that part of the question;

there are one or two other points, however, which I cannot pass over,

as they seem like a revival of the obsolete doctrines of Werner. The

writer esteems it almost matter of certainty, that tke origin of all gyp-

sums is contemporaneous, from the “ exact resemblance both in texture

and crystallization that they all bear, whether Alpine, or those varie-

ties found with the secondary rocks: a similarity that does not exist

in any of the limestones formed at different periods.’ To refer him

no further than the same chapter of the same book, I have already

quoted (Lyell), we find there that a rock is now depositing in Italy

from aspring, “ which cannot be distinguished, in hand specimens, either

in grain, colour, or composition from statuary marble.” I have myself

seen on the continent of Europe a secondary limestone, not distinguish-

able in texture and crystallization from the primitive marbles which

are usually found in beds in mica-slate. Many other instances might be

cited to the same effect. Nor is the writer more fortunate in two

other assertions he has made, viz. that “ quartz veins are the type of tran-

1832. | On the Gypsum of the Himalaya, 453.

sition,” and that primary rocks “ are never found reposing on the

newer formations.”

That identity of mineral structure proves formations to be contem-

poraneous, and that the order of superposition is invariable, were

doctrines laid down by Werner, and for along time received as axioms

in geology. But of late years, a further insight into the phanomena of

existing volcanos, and a more extended research over the surface of

the globe, have brought both these propositions into doubt, and tended

to confirm a belief that natural causes at present in operation are

adequate to produce all the appearances that are presented to us. [I

cannot quote an example of quartz veins in secondary rocks from

memory, and at this distance in the country having few books to refer

to, I must be content with Jamieson’s Mineralogy. It is there stated,

under the head quartz, that quartz veins are found in secondary rocks

as well as in transition. But I could name a locality,in the north of

Europe, of granite overlying a transition limestone, and I can refer to

Humboldt, as quoted by Daubeny, (on volcanos, p. 350,) for the fol-

lowing as an ascending series: No. 1, granite ; 2, Alpine limestone ; 3,

granite. To the same chapter of the same work I would refer for a de-

scription of the porphyry of South America, not distinguishable from the

transition porphyry of Europe, which as well as sienite, gradually ap-

proximates to trachyte, and passes into it ; so that Humboldt considers

there is no natural line of separation between the transition and modern

volcanic formations of America. What then becomes of the doctrine

of contemporaneous origin? It may be matter of convenience to pre-

serve the classification of primary, transition, secondary, and tertiary

rocks, for want of a better or as indicative of certain organic remains.

But it is prejudicial to the cause of truth to ascribe to the opinion

- more importance than it deserves ; especially in a country as yet almost

unstudied, where the disciples of it must go forth predetermined to find

analogies to the European formations, and to overlook discrepancies.

It may appear presumptuous in me to hazard an opinion respecting

a rock which I have never seen, but one or two circumstances men-

tioned by the writer lead me to believe, that the gypsum beds de-

scribed by him in the Himalaya are not posterior to the formations

with which they are connected. The first of these is, that they are

interstratified with a reddish argillaceous schist. Now although it may

be conceived to be possible that liquid sulphate of lime might have been

forcibly thrust between two layers of rock of a different nature, as we

see is frequently the case with lava, trap, and granite; there is nothing

in the history of gypsum which leads us to believe it would happen... It

A454 : Description of the Regulating Dam-Sluices. [Ocr.

is but rarely found in veins, and never is, I believe, the sole substance

that fills a vein. My second reason is, that he describes it as passing

into the limestone with which it is connected. Now, it is usually in-

ferred, that rocks in juxta-position, which approximate and gradually

pass into each other, are contemporaneous, or at least next in succession

toeach other. The passage of one into the other at least proves, that the

one, if not semi-fluid, was loose, earthy, and unconsolidated, so as to ad-

mit of being penetrated by the other, at the time of their junction.

1V.—Description of the Regulating Dam-Sluices of the Doab Canal.

To provide a clear and open water-way during floods, unimpeded

by the superstructure, which is generally attendant on sluice gates, and

to facilitate their removal on sudden freshes, the following construc-

tion has been adopted at the dams over the large mountain tor-

rents that cross the Doab canal in the country north of Saharunpdr.

Although merely a modification of the old self-regulating gate,

it may be perhaps worth noticing, as I am not aware that an arrange-

ment similar in detail has either been put in practice before in works

of this nature, or that gates depending on lower pivots for their

movements, have ever been alluded to in any books treating of canal

works, |

It may be necessary to mention, that the mountain torrents which

cross the lines of the Doab canal, in their northern extremities,

only flow during the rainy months, when continued falls of rain

in the lower mountain range, and on the belt of forest that skirts them

to the south, give rise to very sudden and rapid drainage, which being

effected on the line of these rivers, or as they are provincially termed

rows, cross the canal at right angles, and pass off by a series of sluice

openings, fixed in masonry dams across their channels. On these

occasions the volume of water is not more to be guarded against

‘than the quantity of floating logs, large forest trees, roots, grass, &c.

that the water collects in its course, for all of which a passage is as

absolutely necessary as for the water itself. As the canal supply of

water depends entirely on these masonry dams, and the facility of

regulating the sluices in them, so that they may remain closed and

be opened upon the occurrence of sudden freshes, is of absolute ne-

cessity, the main point, to be, attended to, is to provide openings

sufficiently large for the escape of the greatest quantity of water

that the channel will carry, yet of such a size that the opening and

shutting of the whole line can be effected in the shortest possible

Jour, As, Sou. Vile FLAT

hs SALTCH of GATES

Jrregulaling Damm Sluices aspractsed onthe Mushus rar. Vigaon- hives

4 Te od

t “as

ood of VER.

SS P SJlood of W840.

SSC

NS Daa

SSS

fie)

at i

(TTT

NOU

_ s

Caleulta.d B.Fassin lil.

. 1832.] of the Doab Canal. Ad5

time, and with the least possible labor; at the same time avoiding the

application of superstructure in the shape of a fixed road-way and

lifting gates; in short, to throw the whole dam as open as possible,

and to relieve it from any obstructions that may interfere with the

free passage of the floating timber, &c. It will appear evident, that,

the best sort of dam ina position of this nature would be a simple

flooring of masonry, with flanks of the same material; the bund

or bank for retaining the water being constructed of earth, gabions,

&c. which although it would be annually washed away during the

rains, would be repaired at a trifling expense, and the space of masonry

between the flanks would provide an escape sufficiently ample, and at

the same time perfectly free and unimpeded by any interruptions from

piers, &c. initswidth. This species of dam would best suit a situation,

where the heavy freshes only rise once during the year, and springs

of sufficient abundance occur below the works to keep the southern line

of canal supplied with water; but in the present case, the destruction

of these bunds or dams, and the loss of the head supply from the moun-

tain streams, would leave the canal nearly dry, as there are but a few

scanty springs in the southern limits. To meet this difficulty the follow-

ing form of sluice has been introduced in the dams over the Rogaon

and the Muskara rivers, on the Doab canal works; and as the experience

_ of two rainy seasons has proved its efficacy, and shewn a facility of

working, which was in a measure unexpected, I cannot do better than

enter into a short description, accompanying it by a sketch, which will

also exhibit the high-water mark of the floods that have occurred within

_ the last two seasons.

Fig. 1—Represents a tranverse section through the centre opening of the Mus-

Kéra dam. The gate being closed, the flank revetment is shewnat the back.

The horizontal lines explain the different levels at which the canal supply may

be regulated. The two upper lines shew the high-water marks of floods in the

rains of 1830 and 1831. The former of 8 feet 9 inches, and the latter of 10

feet, from the flooring of the dam.

Fig. 2—Shews an elevation of three Openings of the dam, with the sluice gates

at different angles, the windlasses and chains fixed, &c.

Fig. 3—Shews three similar openings, with the gates dropped, and the windlasses,

chains, &c. removed, as happens in the height of the rains, when the rivers are

subjected to continual floods. The gates moreover act as self-regulators on certain

occasions, especially on the approach of the flood water from the hills, which is

generally sudden, although its approach is perfectly well known to the inhabitants

of this part of the country.

The gates are made to fit the grooves in the masonry as closely as possible, so as

not to fall by their own weight, but to depend on the increased pressure of the rise

of water for their removal in these sudden floods: the arrangement on these occa-

Sions is simple, the catches fixed to the bit-heads are removed from theratchet wheels

456 Note on thé Jabalpir Fossil Bones. [ Oct.

at the end of the windlasses, and the handspikes being removed also, arise of a few

inches in the water throws the whole dam open at once—a method thatis usually

practised in the cold-weather floods, and when the rise of the water is not very

great. In the height of the rains, the logs of wood and rubbish borne in the waters

makes this out of the question ; fig. 3 being the state of thesluices at that period.

August 18, 1832, Northern Doab. B.

V.—Note on the Jabalpir Fossil Bones. By James Prinsep, Sec., &c.

(Read at the Meeting of the Physical Class, 3rd October. ]

In consequence of a hint from Dr. Hugh Falconer, that he had

heard of the discovery of some fossil bones at Jabalpur, I inserted a

notice in the June number of the Journal, soliciting information on the

subject from some of my correspondents on the Nerbada.

I am happy to say, that my appeal has not been ineffectual, and -

that the subject has been taken up with zeal by Doctor G. G. Spils-

bury, Civil Surgeon at Jabalpar. That gentleman has sent me by

dak three specimens of the fossil bones for presentation to the So-

ciety, promising a further supply when the season shall enable him

to visit the spot, and offering to conduct any extended investiga-

tions which the Physical Class may point out as desirable to elucidate

the subject. Doctor Spilsbury informs me, that the fossil remains were

discovered by Captain Sleeman two years ago. They are not mentioned

by Capt. Franklin in his survey of that part of the country, printed in the

Ast pt. Trans. Phys. Cl. neither by Dr. Voysey, nor Captain Coulthard :

Captain Sleeman is therefore entitled to the sole credit of having brought

the interesting fact to light, and we may hope from his official situation

that he will zealously take measures for making a particular examina-

tion of the spot, so as to extract if possible some fragments of bone in

better preservation, and enable us to ascertain to what animals they

belong, and to what epoch of the world’s history they may be referred.

Dr. Spilsbury describes the locality as being about 13 miles N. E.

of the residency at Jabalpur, on the northern side of a broken range of

limestone hills, capped with a horizontal layer of trap, rising from the

valley of the Nerbada, about 150 feet to the east of the small rising

ground, where the petrified tree was discovered, which is in the museum.

The three specimens sent are in too mutilated a condition to enable

us to pronounce what they may be, but the osseous structure of the

two first is very apparent.

They differ materially from the fragments of Himalayan fossil bone

brought down by Mr. Royle in January, inasmuch as the latter contain-

)

1832.) Note on the Jabalpir Fossil Bones. 457

ed its natural quantity of animal matter unaltered, whereas all of these

now before us are thoroughly mineralized,—that is, the whole of the

animal substance has in them been replaced by earthy matter, which

proves to be of different quality in each; the following are the results

of a hasty chemical examination of them.

No. 1.—In this specimen, the osseous part has become quite friable

and white, as if it had been burnt, while the membranous fibre has

been replaced by crystals of carbonate of lime of a delicate greenish

hue: I separated a small portion of these crystals with care, and ana-

lysed them by solution in muriatic acid, in a glass measure over mer-

cury: the carbonic acid disengaged was equivalent to 82.5 per cent. of

carbonate of lime ; the remainder was phosphate, which had adhered to

the crystals. The white part treated in a similar way gave,

IN MOMALES Be a3309 Sol SIE «Gh GAEs 0. 9(xisTor e065: 01060 «.niada, vie. date's as b.otnah 14.0

Phosphate of lime dissolved with ditto and precipitated by ammonia,. . 85.5

Needle-form silicious fibres evidently deposited by infiltration, ....... 0.5

100.0

There was no trace of animal matter.

- No. 2.—The appearance of this boneis more compact than the first :

the membranous texture has in some places taken a fine peuce color,

and in others a green tinge: treated as before, or rather calculating

the carbonate from the wezght of gas expelled; and the phosphate

from the amount dissolved by the acid, in excess of the carbonate, its

composition was,

Carbonate of lime,.. oe @F CFG eHP ee Oe HeHH SOB eS ee eH Oe 16.0

Piigepuate Gf ime; ts Me bet Kins OIG Tee cecal cesses ee 71.0

Skeleton of silex more complete than the first; color j jasper BEG Weise ciictacehcm baer ce

100.0

No. 3.—This specimen has become almost entirely silicified ; it

scratches glass ; does not effervesce with acids, and only yields one per

cent. to boiling nitric acid: it is unaltered before the blow-pipe,

' Before Mr, Royle went home, he gave me a fragment of porous cal-

careous stone, found by him somewhere on the banks of the J: amna,

which he imagined to be fossil bone: I did not then minutely examine

it, but I am now happy to confirm his opinion, and only regret, that I

have not the locality to pursue the inquiry further: the animal matter

of this specimen, No. 4, is gone, and isreplaced only by loose dirt: the

composition of the osseous part is,

Carboratel ox Limes cciee.<0octs ss tieie-vdeng NOLO

Phosphate of lime,...........se00e2e2 90.0

Brown ochreous residue,., secccvsesoces 2.0

100.0

# Qu 2

458 List of Articles of Materia Medica. { Ocr.

The ammon. precipitate of phosphate was digested in sulphuric acid,

and converted into sulphate: the filtered solution was then proved to

contain phosphoric acid by its behaviour with muriate of magnesia and

ammonia. The analysis was not carried farther than to the demonstra-

tion of the presence of he phosphates generally, and their amount in

round numbers.

The Ava fossil bones were found to be mineralized also, and to have

lost their animal matter, but they differ again from either the Hima-

layan or the Jabalpur fossils in regard to the mineralizing substance,

and are of two distinct kinds.

4. The first, a dark brown heavy substance, is impregnated with

iron clay, yielding on analysis,

Carbonate of lime, F ciceapd fe 22

Phosphate of lime dissolved i in 1 nitric acid, aoe 100

Silex and oxide of iron, &c.—-not dissolved. .- 41,

5. The second or earthy bone from Ava proved to be wholly con-

verted into carbonate of lime, colored merely with a little clay-iron of

a dirty greyish brown.

VI.— List of Articles of Materia Medica, obtained in the Bazars of the

Western and Northern Provinces of India. By J. F. Royle, Esq.

late Superintendent of the Botanic Garden, Seharunpir.

The following table was by no means drawn up with a view to

publication ; thinking it however eminently fitted to assist naturalists in

India in pursuing their investigations of the natural products of the

country, we obtained the author’s permission to make use of it as it is.

In the 11th volume of the Asiatic Researches will be found a catalogue

of asimilar nature, drawn up by Dr. Fleming and Professor Carey,

of such articles of Materia Medica, drugs, minerals, and plants as were

procurable in the bazars of Bengal, with notes of the uses and qua-

lities of many of them. The present table contains very numer-

ous articles foreign to that list, and to these provinces altogether ;

and besides the advantage of the progress of botanical knowledge

since that time, the plants of many of the drugs not cognizable by

their external appearance have been procured and cultivated by Dr.

Royle in the Saharunpur Garden, to ascertain their real nature, and to

compare them with the description given in the works of Aristotle, —

Dioscorides, Pliny, Avicenna, and the ancient Arabic authors. These

remarks relate more particularly to the voluminous catalogue of plants,

&c. taken home by Dr. Royle, which we hope ere this has been put

into the publisher’s hands ; but the present epitome of such substances

1832.] List of Articles of Materia Medica. ° 459

as were procurable in the open bazars is entitled to the greater con-

fidence, from having been corrected by those more ample tables.

Where uncertainty prevails about any article, it has been left in

blank to be filled up hereafter with a pen; and we shall take care to

advise our readers when we obtain any information for the completion

of the list. Meantime, we can but recommend to others to make simi-

lar catalogues in Central, Southern, and Eastern India, so as to form an

appendix to the one before us.

The alphabetical order followed by Dr. Royle is, it will be seen,

that of the Arabic language, because the names in the first column

are mostly those which occur in the Arabic medical works. ‘This can

be attended with inconvenience only to the very few in India who may

be ignorant of the Persian alphabet; whereas, on the other hand,

it affords facility in recognizing the native names, and in referring

to native works: besides which, those who are acquainted with the

oriental name (and such acquaintance is implied in a catalogue giving

English synonymes) can more readily seek for it under the Persian

initial than under the English, which may vary ad libitum according

to the system, fancy, or ignorance of the writer.

- The numbers in the first column refer to the specimens in Doctor

Royle’s cabinet: the second column contains the Arabic names: the

third gives synonymes, generally Hindustani: the fourth shews the

part of the plant sold or used as a drug: then follow the Botanical

name and the place whence procured, the latter depends frequently

upon the declaration of the venders, and is consequently vague, as in

the case of “ India,” where the particular place cannot be defined. In

some instances a locality is given as being mashhir, or noted for sup-

plying a good quality of what may otherwise be common to many

other parts of the country ;—where “ gardens’’ are mentioned, either

the Seharunpar, or the Calcutta Botanic Garden is intended.

]

Name under

a ree Es Besser an ote Part used. Botanical name. wane

Catalogue. (a)

1 Aarghis, Zirishk, p. bark, Berberis chitra, Hills.

2 Abrin, (house leek,) plant, lLabiate, n. o. Delhi.

3 Abakhalsa, Ratanjot, root, Buglossum ? Mialtan.

4 Abukanis, (sow bread,) do. Cyclamen, Turkey.

5 Abhul, Haber, fruit, Juniperus, Anmritseér,

6 Utaruj, Bijaora nimbu, peel, Citrus, Gardens,

7. Atis, Butis, root, Aconitum afees, Hills,

8 Asal, Pharas, seed, Tamarix, India. |

9 Aslak, Sambhala, fruit, Vitex trifolia, Do.

4) Indian names in the first column are printed in italics, to distinguish them from the rest, which are Arabic.

460 List of Articles of Materia Medica. ‘[Ocr.

Name under

Refe-. which Article Hindustani or other Part used. Botanical name. Whence

rence. is described in synonyme. obtained.

. Catalogue.

10 Tjas, Ala Bokhara, fruit, Prunus Bokhariensis, Kabul.

11 Ujmid ? Ajwain, seed, Ligusticum wwain et diffusum, India.

umbellifera, Khadir.

12 Ahriz, Kusumphal, do. Carthamus tinctorius, Tndia.

13 Akhirus, Kal-gihin, do. Coix Indica, Hills and Khadir.

14 Ada, adrak, (Green ginger), root, Zingiber officinalis, Ind. Hills,

15 Azaraki, Kouchla, seed, Strychnos, nux vomica, India.

16 Izkhir, Mirchiagand,(bél,) root, Andropogon, Do.

17 Anjar, Badam kohi, seed, Prunus chalu, Hills.

18 Arli, Tah-baranga, root, Bignonia Indica, India.

19 A’as, Mendi ? fruit, Myrtus communis, Kashmir.

20 Asarun, Taggar,

21 Ustukhudus, Dharu,

22 Asgandeh, Nagaori,

23 Isqil, unsul, Kandri,

, 24 Usturkhar, Unt-katara,

25 Ushneh, Chalchalira,

‘26 Aftimin, Akas-bél,

27 Afranjeh, Aflunjeh,

28 Afsantin, Satara,

‘ 29 Afimidin,

30 Afius, Afius g.

31 Akakia,

32 Akas bel,

33 Akit makit, Kal-karenja,

34 Akrora,

35 Akr-ul-bahr,

substitute for Asarum Eur.Hills.

plant, Prunella (substitute for La-

vandula strichos), Kabil.

root, Physalis flexuosa, India.

root, Scilla Indica, (squill,) Do.

Fagonia Mysoriensis? Delhi.

36 Iklil-ul-jabal, flower-buds of one of the Myrtacez (subst. for rosemary) Surat.

37 Iklil-ul-malek, parang,

88 Alusarasun, (alu san ?)

39 Amaritun,

40 Amdaryan, Amdarban,

4) Amar bél,

42 Amras,

43 Amsiukh,

44 Um-ghilan, Kekar,

45 Amal bed,

46 Anlaj, Aonla,

47 Ambaj, Am,

48 Amchur, unripe,

49 Anteleh, Nirbisi,

50 AnjibarRumi,Bistort,

51 Anjudan,

plant,

Echinops spherocephalus, Firth.

a Lichen Islandicus, ‘

L.from hills substituted, Hills.

do. Cuscuta Europea, (reflexa, subs.) Kabdl.

seed, Urtica, Do. and Delhi.

do. Artemisia absinthium, Kabul.

plant, Indica, Amritsér.

root, Delhi or Surat.

plant, Do.

ext. fr. Acacia vera, Arabia via Delhi.

plant, Cuscuta reflexa, India.

seed, Cesalpinia Bonducella, Do.

root, Cyperacez ? Delhi.

wd.and bk. Piurab.

fruit, (leguminose,) Kabil.

plant, Surat.

do. Do.

berry, Arabia.

do. Awritsér.

concretion found in old mango-wood, Delhi.

seed and berry, Surat.

fruit, Mimosa Arabica, India.

Acid twigs, Delhi.

es Ration be tt

do. Mangifera indica, Do,

do. - Dried do.

root. Caltha nirbisi, Amritsér.

do. Kabul.

seed. Ferula asafoetida, Arabia,

Refe-

rence.

1832.] List of Articles of Materia Medica: 461

Name under

which Article Hindustani or other Part used. Botanical name, Whence

is described in synonyme,. obtained.

Catalogue.

52 Anjudan 2nd, seed, Surat.

53 Anjareh, Utangan, seed, Urtica, Kabul.

54 ——__—_2nd, Nettle seed, seed, __ Urtica, Marwar.

55 Andhauli, wood, Dehli.

56 Anésan, seed, applied to (Bae

Apricon petro-selima, ) Kabul.

57 Awafinis, seed and plant, Surat.

58 Anga, Chirchira, seed, Achyranthes argentea, India.

59 Ablilaj, Bijwareh, fruit, | Terminula Chebula, Do.

60 asfar, Har-zard, fruit, Ditto, Do.

61 ——-aswad, Ditto séah, fruit, Ditto, Do.

62 ——- aswad jua, jawi haré, fruit, Ditto, Do.

63 Umaranutali, berry, Surat via Dehli.

64 Babchi, seed, Parab.

65 Babiuna, p. Chamomile, flower, Anthemis nodziis, India.

66 Bad-award, berry, Hedysarum Alhagi? Surat.

67 Badranjboyeh, Billé-lotan, plant, Ocymum ? Paurab.

68 Badrij, Jangla tulsi, seed, Ocymum, Furakhabad.

69 Badinjan, Baigan, Egg plant, do. Solanum melangena, India.

70 Badyankhatai, Star-anise, do. Tlicium usitatum, China.

71 Billa-i-kand, root. Kabal.

72 Bardast, Abnis, ebony, wood, Diospyros, India.

73 Baila, Seu-channa, bean, seed, — Faba vulgaris, Do.

74 Bagila-misri, do. Nelumbium speciosum, Do.

75 Balangt, tikhm, aoe Draconphalum Kanour.

Roylenum, Rewari.

76 Bansa, leaf, Justicia adhatida, India.

77 Biisar, wood, Dakhan.

78 Bidari kund, Saral-chip, root, Hedysarum tuberosum, _—_ Parab.

79 Bidhara, do. Gangake Khadir.

80 Barkak, berry, A scandent plant, Surat.

$1 Barg-Tibet, Hulas Kashmiri, root, Rhododendron campanulatum, Kashmir.

$2 Barm dandi, plant, Centaurea, India.

83 Birin jasif, berry, Artemisia, Najibabad.

84 Biranj kabuli, Bae birang, seed, Embelia rzées, Do.

85 Baryaleh, | Khardnti, berry, Sida cordifolia, India.

86 Bazrkatuna, Asafghil, seed, Plantago zsafghola, Gardens,

87 Buz ghunj, galls, | Pistacia vera, Kabal.

89 Bastiaj, khilal-i-mekka, seed, composita, Dehli.

90 Basfaij, root, Polypodium vulgare, Kabal.

91 Bis khapra, do. Trianthema pentandria, Jndia.

92 Bis mar, wood, ; Dehli.

93 Battikh Hindi, Tarbiz, seed, Cucurbita citrullus, India.

94 Baklat-ul-hamka, Kulfa, lonia, do. Portulacca oleacea, Do.

95 Bagam, Patlang, wood, Cesalpinia Sappan, Do.

96 Bakimbar, Kambha, flower, Caréya arborea, Do.

97 Baladur, Bhilawar, seed, Semecarpus anacardium, Do.

‘Refe- which Ariicie

452

Name under

rence. is described in synonyme.

Catalogue.

98 Balsan, Balm of Gilead tree, wood,

99 Bazrul banj, Ban?

100 Balelaj, Bahera,

101 Banj, Ajwain khorasani,

102 Bandal,

103 Bundag, Fandak,

104 Bunduk Hindi, Ritha, Soap nut,

105 Banafsaj, Banafshel,

106 Ban Karela,

107 Bozidan,

108 Boi-madaran,

109 Boi,

110 Bha-rangi,

111 Bhaiphali,

112 ——_—— 2nd,

113 Bahman, strkh,

114 ———— = suféd,

115 Biy-band,

116 Bel,

117 Baengan,

118 Besh,

119 Bhambel,

120 Padil,

121 Pakhan-bed,

122 Panri,

123 Papita,

124 Patol-pattar,

125 Pars-i-oshan, mobarika,

126 Pusht-barni, Chit-kabra,

127 Palas papreh,Dhak-papra,

128 Panwar,

129 Pirlaikanda,

130 Phalwa,

Belgiri,

Jangli kathail,

Kasuri 7.

Paral ?

131 Pokhar mil, Baghar mul,

132 Palu, , Keril,

133 Petha, Kumra,

134. Tal-mokhana, Isgandhanagori,

135 Tirayaman,

136 Turbad, Nasch,

137 Tashmazaj, Chaksu,

138 Turmis,

139 Tamr, Chuhara,

140 Tamr-Hindi, Inli,

141] Tamtirih, Tung?

142 Taroi siah,

143 ghia,

144 ——karwi,

Hindustani or other Part used.

(St. Ignatius bean,) seed,

List of Articles of Materia Medica.

Botanical name.

[Ocr.

Whence

obtaineds

Balsamodendron Gileadense, Surat.

seed, Quercus ban, Do.

fruit, | Terminalia bellerica, India.

seed, Hyosciamus niger, Dehli.

fruit Momordica, : India.

hep. echinatus,

seed, Corylus lacosa, Hills.

fruit, Sapindus detergens ? Deyra.

flower, Viola serpens, Kashmir.

fruit, Cucurbitacex, Below hills.

root, Surat.

fruit, | —— [composition ?] Delhi,Surat.

do. Amaranthus tomarosus, § Delhi.

bark, Almora.

berry, | (leguminosz,) Delhi.

do. Do.

root, Kabul.

do. Surat.

seed, Delhi.

fruit, § Agle marmelos, India.

do. Solanum, Dehli.

root, Guzerat.

bark, §Euonymus tingens, Hills.

fruit, | Bignonia suaveolens, India.

root, Saxifraga ligulata, Hills.

root, Surat.

Strychnos Ignatia, Pirab.

extract, Dehli.

plant, Adiantum, Hills.

root, Hedysarum Alopecuroides, India.

seed, Butea frondosa, Do.

do. Cassia tora? obtusifolia, Do.

root, Dehli.

Bassia butyracea, Almora.

root, Guzerut.

fruit, | Capparis aphylla, Hansi.

seed, Cucurbita pepo, India.

do. Barleria longifolia, Do.

root, Anatis? Kabul.

do Convolvulus Turpethum, Tndia.

seed, Cassia acacalis, Deyra.

do Lupinus albus, Egypt.

fruit, Phoenix dactylifera, Arabia.

seed, Tamarindus Indica, India.

seed, Rhus parviflorus, India.

do. Luffa, Do.

do. ——- acutangula, Do.

do. ——- pentandra, Do.

Refe-

1832.]

Name under

which Article

List of Articles of Materia Medica.

Hindustani or other

rence. is described in synonyme.

Catalogue.

145 Tadri suféd,

146 - surkh,

147 ——- zard,

148 ——- gulgin,

149 Tej-bal,

150 Tin, Anjir,

151 Tent, Keril,

152 Samrat-ul-asl, Chhoti mai,

153 ——- ut-tarfa, Buri mai,

154 Jamphal, Safri-am,

155 Jawars, Bajra,

156 Jamghas,

- 157 Jadwar, Nirbisi,

158 Jirjir, Tireh tezak, p. Tirmira,

159 - 2nd kind,

160 Jazar, Gajar,

161 Jalnar, Gul-anar,

162 Jal nim,

163 2nd,

164 Jintiana, Pakhan béd,

165 2nd,

166 Jawansa,

167 Jouz, Akhrot,

168 Jouz-us-sarv, Sart, Saras,

169 Jouz-ul-katat,

170 Jouz-nl-kai,

171 Jouz-boa,

-2nd,

172

173 Jouz-rami,

174

177

179 Chab,

180 Chandni,

181 Chai, cha,

178 Jia pota,

masil, )

175 ——aswad, Kala dhatura,

176 Jounchi,

2nd,

182 Chirya kand,

183 Chalapa,

184 Chilghoza,

185 Champa,

186 Chdb chini,

187 Chik,

188 Chonch,

189 Hasha,

. 190 Hashish,

Maenphal,

Jai-phal,

(Nutmeg,)

Dhatura,

Putranjiva,

(Tea,)

(Jalap,)

Nuoza,

Pat,

Husn-i-yasf, p.

191 Hab-ul-ban, Bakain,

192 Hab-ul-balsan, Takhm balsa,

Part used.

seed,

fruit,

seed,

do.

plant,

berry,

fruit,

berry

seed,

leaf,

root,

do.

seed,

do.

root,

do.

seed,

plant,

seed,

fruit,

seed,

Botanical name,

Cheiranthus,

Malva

Xanthoxylum aromaticum,

Ficus Carica?

Capparis aphylla,

of Tamarix dioica,

Indica,

Psidium pyriferum ?

Panicum spicatum,

polypodium,

Calthza, (kyllingia),

Moricandia tira,

Daucus Carota,

Punica granatum,

Gentiana?

Hedysarum Alhagi,

Juglans regia,

Cupressus sempervirens,

Solanum

Posoqueria dumetosa,

Myristica moschata,

———?

Datura mefel,

fatuosa,

Nageia putranjiwa,

of gaj-pipal,

[an convolvuli ?}

Thea viridis,

Convolvulus jalapa,

Pinus neoza,

Michelia Champaca,

Smilax Chine,

Corchorus olitorius,

(given for thyme,)

Melia sempervirens,

Carpobalsamum

463

Whence

obtained.

Gardens.

India.

Kabal.

Surat.

Hills.

Kabal.

Kurnal.

India.

Do.

Surat.

India.

Surat.

Anritsér.

India.

Surat.

India.

Do.

Dehli.

Do.

Kabul.

Surat.

India.

Hills.

India.

Arabia.

India.

Purab.

Do.

Surat.

India.

Do.

Dehli.

Do.

India.

Najibabad.

Dehli.

China.

Kashmir,

Dehli.

Anmritsér,

Hills.

Purab.

Anmritsér.

Tndia.

Surat.

Marwar.

Surat.

Arabia.

464

Name under

Refe-

rence. is described in

Catalogue.

193 Habut-ul-khazra, (green seed,) seed,

List of Articles of Materia Medica.

which Article Hindustani or other

synonyme.

194 Hab-uz-zulam,

195 —— simneh, ;

196 —— ghar,

197 —— qilt,

198 —— Qilkil,

199. ——wmahlab,

200 —— nil,

201 Hurf,

202 Hurmal,

203 Hasak,

204

205 Huzuz hindi,

206 —— mekki,

207 Hulbeh,

208 Halimos,

Piyal ke bij,

Chiraunji,

(laurel berries),

Kulthi,

Kalkal, Karavi,

Gyovni,

Kaldona,

Halim,

Isband,

Gokra dakhani,

Gokri,

Rasot,

Methi,

209 Hammaz barri,Epalki, Chuka,

210 Hamama,

211 Ditto,

(apwpor),

Ditto,

212 Himmas abiaz, Chana Kabuli,

213 Himmas ahmar, Lal chana,

214 Hinna,

215 Heénteh,

216 Hanzal,

217 Khiub-bazi,

218 Khibeh,

219 Khardal,

220 Khurnub,

Mehndi,

Gehun,

Bislambha,

Chandera,

Khuibkalan,

Rai,

(Carobs fruit),

Shami,

ce Le eA

222 Khiroa, Arandi, Réndit,

223 Khas, Kaha,

224 Khas, Panni, Bena,

9225 Khas-khash-abiaz, Post,

226 -——aswad, Pazara,

227 Khusyat-us-salab, Salab-misri,

228

p99) eee

230 Khitmi, Gualkhyra,

231 Khilaf, Bed miashk,

232 Khandrus Mekki, Bari joar,

233 Kholinjan, Kolinjar,

234 Khiar-shambar, Amaltas,

235 Khaeri, Todri saféd,

236 Dar chini,

237 Darshishaan, Kaiphul,

238 Dar filfil, Pipal,

239 Dalim,

Darmi, Dharmi, Anar, seed,

root,seed,Cucumis colocynthis,

fruit, | Malva rotundifolia,

seed, Sinapis pusilla?

do. Sinapis nigra?

fruit, Ceratonia siliqua,

do. Cassia oe

seed, Ricinus communis,

do. Lactuca sativa,

root, Andropogon muricatu

seed, Papaver somniferum,

do. Ditto, red variety,

root, [Orchidez,]

do. variety,

do.

seed, Althea rosea,

do. Salix Aigyptiaca,

do. Zea mays,

root, Alpinia Galanga,

fruit, Cassia fistula,

seed, Cheiranthus cheiri,

berry, Laurus cinnamomum,

do.. Myrica sapida,

fruit, Piper longum, ~

Punica granatum,

‘ (Ocr.

Part used. Botanical name. Whence

obtainede

Pistacia terebinthus, Kabial.

do. Arabia.

: do. Buchanania latifolia, Najibabad.

fruit, Laurus nobilis, Arabia.

seed, Dolichos Hills.

do. Cardiospermum Halicacabum, India.

do. Rhus ? Almora.

do. Spomea cerulea, India.

do. Lapidium sativum, Do.

do. Corchorus capsularis, Do.

do. Pedalium murex, Hatras.

do. Tribulus lanuginosus, India.

extract, Berberis Asiatica, Nagarkoth.

gum, Surat.

seed, Trigonella Foenum-grecum, India.

wood, Surat.

seed, Rumex undulatus, Saharanpar.

leaf, Surat.

do. Kabul.

seed, Cicer—, India.

do. Cicer arietenum, Do.

leaf, Lawsonia inermis, Do.

seed, ‘Triticum hybernum, estivum,Do.

Do.

Saharunptr.

Marwar.

India.

Syria.

Arabia. -

Farkhabad.

India.

Do.

Kabil.

Saharunpar.

Purab.

India,Gardens.

Kashmir,

India.

Piurab.

India.

Kabial.

Purab.

Hills.

India.

Hills.

1832,]

Name under

Refer- which Article Hindustani or other

ence. is described in synonyme.

Catalozue.

240 Dar hald, Ambi haldi,

241 Danaj abrij,

242 Dukhn, China, Kangni,

243 Dardab, Kachri, send,

244 Daranaj-Arabi, Atis?

245 Dam-ul-akhwain, (post),

246 Dand, Jamal gota,

247 Dopaharya,

248 Didhi,

249

250

251 Dhai,

252 Dhanatiar,

253 Deodar,

254 Zareh,

255 Razianaj,

256 Rasan,

257 Rampatri,

258 Rawand,

2nd,

ki jar,

Asphota?

Jawar,

Sonf,

259 khatri, Rawand chini,

260 Ratanjot,

261 2nd,

262 Riwasan, Jael,

263 Raman, Anar,

264 Zabib minaqga, Kismis,

265 —— ul-jabal,

266 Zarawand tawil, Isarmal,

267 ———— midehraj,

268 Zarnab, Birhmi,

269 Zaranbad, Kachur,

270 Zafran, Kesar, (saffron,)

271 Zanjabil, Sonth,

272 Zufa-yabis,

273 Saj, Sagwan,

274 Sadaj Hindi, Tez-pat,

275 Sal, Sal,

276 Salsa, (ushbeh) (salsaparilla)

277 Sagu dana, (sago)

278 Sang,

279 Sifistan, Laisora,

280 Satawar, Satrawal,

281 ——— saféd,

282 Satpuira, Barans,

283 Sati, Kapur-kachar,

284 Sazab, Sadas,

285 kohi,

286 Sada sohagin,

287 Sadei,

288 Sarphonka,

List of Articles of Materia Medica.

465

Whence

Part used. Botanical name, obtained.

root, Berberis Asiatica, Hills.

seed, Sarat.

do. Panicum miliaceum, India.

fruit, | Cucumi, Do.

bark, (gum?) Surat.

seed, Croton tiglium, Parab.

do. Pentapetes Phoenicea, India.

plant, Euphorbia hirta, Do.

do. Euphorbia, Delhi.

root, Euph.hirte radix, India.

flower, Grislea tomentosa, Do.

seed, Clitoria ternatea, Do.

wood, Pinus Deodara, Hills.

seed, Sorghum vulgare, India.

do. (substitute given,) Do.

leaf, Salvadora jal, Shanli.

rind, Dakhan

root, Rheum Emodi, Hills:

do. palmatum, China

plant, Lithospermum vestitum, Delhi

do. [Vorraginez, ] Do.

seed, Aischynomene seshan, India.

Pomegranate fruit seed,

seed, Delphinium ? Surat.

root, Aristolochia longa, Kashmir.

do. —— rotunda, Do.

leaf, Taxus variatus, Hills

root, Curcuma zeranbel ? Do.

stigma, Crocus Cashmerianum, Kashmir.

root, Zingiber officinalis, Hills

plant, (given for hyssop,) Kabul

seed & |. Tectona grandis, India.

leaf, Laurus cassia, Hills.

do. Shorea robusta, Deyradan,

root, Surat.

plant, Calcutta,

fruit, | Mimosa Hansi.

do. Cordia myxa, India.

root, |§ Asparagus ascendens, Najibabad.

do. Delhi..

bark, Rhododendron arboreum, foot of Hills

root, Globba ordhnoul, Deyra.

seed, br. Ruta graveolens, Surat.

do. —— parviflora? Hills,

seed, fr. Hibiscus Phoeniceus? Delhi.

plant, composita, India.

do. Galega Do.

466

Name under

Refer- which Article Hindustani or other

ence. is described in synonyme.

Catalogue.

289 Sarshaf, Sarson,

290 Sarwari, Chia,

291 Sad, Motha,

292 ——- 2nd,

293 Safarjal, (hab) Bihi-dana,

294 Silq, Chokandar,

295 Salikheh, Taj,

296 Simmag, H. Kangni,

297

298 ——— (v. Arzan)

299 Simsim, semam, Til,

300 Semundar phal,

301 —— sokh,

302 Samar kokla,

303 San, Mesta pat,

304 Sana,

305 Sumbul-ut-tib, Jatamansi,

306 Sans-rii,

307 Sankhahili,

308 Singhara,

309 Suranjan shirin,

310 — talkh,

311 Sas, Mal-hati,

312 Rab-us-sis,

313 ———— 2nd,

314 Sosan,

315 Sahajna,

316 Sisaliyun,

317 Shakhul, Arhar,

318 2nd,- Tor,

319 Shanehdushti, Kanghi,

320 Shah balut,

I'rsa,

321 Shah taraj, Pil papra,

$22 Shah hasfar, Ryhan, Tulsi,

323 Shabit, Soya,

324 Shabibi,

325 Shabba,

326 Shabu nah,

327 Sharbati,

328 Sharifa,

329 Shaqagal,

Urad ke jar,

Arla,

330 Shukaa,

331 Shukakat,

332 2nd,

333 Shakar-i-tighal,

334 Shaljam,

Badaward, p.

Salgram,

Part used.

seed,

root,

do.

extract,

do.

root,

seed,

do.

fruit,

seed,

plant,

seed,

do.

root,

seed,

do.

root,

bark,

fruit,

do.

manna,

seed,

List of Articles of Materia Medica.

Botanical name.

Sinapis dichotoma,

Celosia argentea,

Cyperus rotundus ?

ditto,

Pyrus cydonia,

Beta vulgaris,

Laurus cassia,

Panicum Italicum,

Rhus foong,

Rhus coriaria,

Sesamum orientale,

Barringtonia acutangula,

Hibiscus cannabinus,

Cassia senna,

Valeriana jatamansi,

Portulacca,

Evolvulus,

Trapa bispinosa,

Colchicum autumnale,

Glycyrrhiza globa,

Liquorice,

Tris,

Hyperanthera morunga,

Sesali?

Cytisus cajan,

bicolor,

Sida indica populifolia,

substitute for Acorus,

Fumaria parviflora,

Ocymum p2losum?

Anethum soya,

Phaseolus max. radiatus,

[Ocr.

Whence

obtained.

India.

Guzerat.

Delhi.

Kashmir.

Gardens.

Najibabad.

India.

Hills.

Kabul.

India:

Do.

Khadir.

Parab.

India.

Jungles.

India cult.

Surat.

(not the seed of Polyanthus), Delhi.

Bignonia Indica,

Ocymum

Annona squamosa,

Eryngium campestra?

Cratagus oxyacantha, a

substitute given,

Cassia?

Mimosa,

found on Anzeriat,

Brassica rapa,

India.

Lucknow.

India.

Kabil.

; Surat.

Purab.

Dakhan.

Kabul.

India.

1832. ] List of Articles of Materia Medica. 467

Name under

Refe- which Article Hindustani or other

rence, is described in synonuyme.

Catalogue.

335 Shoukhran,

336 Shonghan,

337 Shouniz, Kalounji,

338 Shir-khisht,

339 Shitaraj, Chita,

340 Sibr, Elwa,

341 Satar,

3842 —— 2nd,

343 Santbar saghar,

344 Sandalabiaz, S. sufeid,

345 ——almar, Rakat-chandan,

346 Talisfar,

347 Tarasis,

348 Tarfa, Jhao,

349 Akarkarha, Karkara,

350 Adas, Masur,

351 Arak, Jawa haldi,

352 Artk-ul-safr, Amba haldi,

353 ——_——_, Pahari haldi,

354 - : Piurabi do,

355 —, Magla do,

356 Ushbeh, Maghrabia,

357 Ushshar, Ak, madar,

358 Afs, Maja,

359 Enab,

360 Enab-ul-salab, Bhambholan,

361 U'd, Ud Hindi,

362 2nd,

363 —— kimari,

364 Ghariqun,

365 Ghafis,

366 Gul-ghafis,

367

868 Ghubaera, Sanjad, p. :

369 Ghotaghia, Osareh rewand,

370 Faghereh,

871 Fawania,

372 Fujl, Muli,

- 873 Farasiin,

374 2nd,

375 Faranj mishk,

376 2nd,

277 Faranj, Mushk Ramtulsi,

Part used.

plant,

seed,

manna,

root,

extract,

leaf,

seed,

wood,

do.

leaf,

root,

berry,

root,

seed,

root,

do.

berry,

root,

galls,

fruit,

do.

wood,

do.

plant,

do.

flower,

do.

fruit,

extract,

seed,

Whence

Botanical name. obtained,

5 Conium maculatum, sub- : Sivatl

stitute given,

Valeriana, Hills.

Nigella Indica, Paniput.

Frascinus . Kabal.

Plumbago zeylanica, India.

Aloe perfoliata, Guzerat.

Origanum vulgare, Persia.

—— Smyrneun, Ayabia.

Pinus neoza, Anmritsér.

Santalum album,

Ss E Pea ¢Dakhan,

yrium myrtifolium,

Pterocarpus santalinus, Purab.

Rhododend. aromaticum, Kabul.

Surat.

Tamarix Indica, india.

Anthemis Pyrethrum, Calcutta.

Ervum hirsutum, India.

Curcuma Bengal.

Do.

Hills.

Bengal.

———- Do.

Smilax, Arabia.

Asclepias gigantea, India.

Quercus infectoria, Purab.

Zizyphus é Kashmir.

Solanum nigrum, Najibabad.

Aloexylon Agallochum, Hiatras.

Surat.

China.

Boletus igniarius, Kabul.

Surat.

Delphinium, Do.

Eupatorium canna binum, Arabia.

Glinus lotoides, :

Zizyphus giom, Surat.

Stalagmitis Gambogia, Do.

Xanthoxylum, vi

Fagara piperata, ; Najibabad.

Peonia corallina, Arabia.

Rappanus sativus, India.

Manulea? Surat.

Anthericum Indicum, India.

Ocymum Arabia,

Bazar.

Kabal

468 List of Articles of Materia Medica. [Ocr.

Name under

Refer- which Article Hindustani or other Whence

ence. is described in synonyme, Part used. Botanical name. obtained.

Catalogue.

378 Fustuk, Pista, seed, Pistacia vera, Kabual.

379 post birun-i-pista, envelopes of seed, do. Do.

380 — gul pista, Phul pista ka, galls, Excrescences formed by insects.

381 Fatrasalitn,

382 Filfilabiaz, White pepper,

383 ——aswad, Seah mirch,

384 —— moyeh, Pipala mul,

385 Fodnaj barri,

386 Fufal, Supyari,

387 2nd,_ S. chikni,

388 —— gul fufal,

389 Faveh, Manjith,-

390 Qagilleh saghar, Choti elachi,

391 kebar, Bari do.

392 Qissah, Kakri,

393 Qasad, Khira,

394 Qirdmana,

395 - 2nd,

396 Qirasia, Alu balu,

397 Qarsana, Shoka ibrahim,

398 Qara, Kada,

399 Qirfeh,

400 Qaranful, Laoung,

401 Qust shirin, Kuth,

402 2nd,

403 talkh,

404 Qasb-ul--zarireh, Cheretta,

405 Qutun, (hab-ul) Binola, cotton,

406 Qiulan,

407 Qinnab,

Columba,

Bhang,

408 Qanbil, Kambela, Strigose pubescence of fruit, Rottlera tinctoria,

409 Qanturyun,

410 Kat,

411 Kajuphal,

412 Kakrasingé,

413 Kaknaj,

414 Kala bichwa,

415 Kala kuth,

416 Kak ziri,

417 Kamraj,

418 Kababeh,

419 Kabbar,

420 Katan, Alsi Tisi,

421 Katar-bizung, Kathaela,

Katha,

Kabab chini,

422 khurd, Kathasla,

423 Katoi,

424 Katha, Kental,

seed, Apium petroselinum, Kabul.

fruit, Piper nigrum, Dakhan.

do. Ditto, Do.

root, Piper longum, Parab.

plant, Dracocephalum Royleanum, Delhi.

seed, Arecha catechu, Parab.

do. Dakhan.

apparently an exuda-2_

ou ‘a on ane catechu, ; Purab.

root, Rubia manjistha, Anritsér.

fruit, | Elettariacardamomum, Malabar.

do. Amomum racemosum, Parab.

seed, Cucumis utilissimus, India.

do. sativus, Do.

do. Umbellifera, Kabul.

do. Ditto, Surat.

fruit, | Prunus cerasus, Kabul.

seed, Lagenaria vulgaris, India.

bark, Lauras Cassia? Furukabad.

flower, Caryophyllus arom. Parab.

wood, Costus, Amritsér.

do. Kashmir.

do. Amritsér.

plant, Swertia cheretta, Dakhan.

seed, Gossipium herbaceum, India.

root, Surat.

plant, Cannabis sativa, India.

Deyra Dun.

plant, Polycarpon arymbosum, Kabul.

extract, Mimosa catechu, Deyra Dun,

seed, Anacardium occidentale, Dakhan.

galls, | excrescence, Rhus, Hills.

fruit, | Atropa physalodes, Kabul.

root, —[polypodi?] Lucknow.

do. Calthoea? Auritsér.

seed, Serratula anthelmintica, Hills.

berry, Purab.

fruit, | Piper cubeba, Pali, Calcutta,

bark, — Capparis spinosa, Kabial.

seed, Linum usitatissimum, India.

fruit, Solanum Indicum, Do.

do. Jacquini, Do.

root, Delhi.

seed, Artocarpus integrifolia, Gardens,

1832.] List of Articles of Materia Medica. 469

Name under

Refer- which Article Hindustani or other Whence

ence. is described in synonyme. Part used. Botanical name. Obtained.

Catalogue. ,

425 Kuras, seed, Allium porrum, Delhi. .

426 Karafs, do. Opium graveolens, Room.

427 Karafs bekh, root, Ditto, Kabul.

428 Kirm daneh, gum, Lac, Bokhara.

429 Kirmali, seed, Delhi (hills),

at Carum Carui,

430 Kuravia, Carraway, do. (substitute from Kabil,) ¢ Europe.

431 Kura, berry, Echites Kheribass.

432 Kart, root, Gentiana Hills.

433 2nd, do. Pederota Do.

434 Kuzbureh, Dhanya, seed, Coriandrum sativum, India.

435 Kissar ke jar, root, Ancissus ? Saharunpur.

436 Kasoundha, leaf, Cassia Sophona, India.

437 Kaseri, root, Cyperus tuberosus, Delhi.

438 Kasht bar kasht, Maror phali, fruit, | Helicteres ? Kheri.

439 Kishangona, plant, Cyperus Delhi. .

440 Kashis, Akas bel ke bij, seed, Cuscuta Kabal.

441 Kahora, root, Momordica muricata, Tndia.

The former bears fruit,

442 —— Ban kakora, do. ; ine laticamaty Do.

443 Kalesar, fruit, | Cucurbitacee, Delhi.

444 Kamazriis, leaf, Teucrium chamadrys, Surat.

445 Kamiun, Zira siah, seed, Cuminum Cyminum, Kashmir.

446 safeid, —— safeid, do. [umbelliferee, ]

447 Kundus, Nak-chinkhni, plant, Artemisia sternutatoria, India.

448 Qnd, root, An Kuth ? ‘Hills.

449 Kankol, Langoth, fruit, Delhi.

450 Kankol mirch, do. Dakhan.

451 Kanoucha, [v. marv,] Kaoneh, seed, Dolichos pruriens, India.

452 Khati, plant, Justicia Delhi.

453 Khirniz, seed, | Mimusops kauki, India.

454 Kaelh, Kath-bél, fruit, | Feronia elephanta, Do.

455 Gaj pipal, do. Pothos scandens, Hills.

456 Gangeran, bark, Grewia hirsuta, Kheri, Delhi.

457 Gagan dhil, plant, [fungi,] Dooab.

“458 Gul-machkan flower, Pterospermum ? Hills.

459 Giloh, berry, Menispermum cordatum, India.

460 —— Sath giloh, fecula of ditto, Do.

461 Gihunle, seed, Amritsér.

462 Gudachla, plant, Delhi.

463 Ghumohi safeid, seed, Abrus precatorius, India.

464 —— surkh, do. Do. Do.

465 Gilar patri, Goitre leaf, leaf,

466 Latori, plant,

467 Lihyat-ut-tés, extract, an Cytus Hyporistus, Delhi.

468 Lesan-us-saur, Gao zaban, root, Do.

469 Sankaholi, plant, Onosmabractiata, Kabul.

470 Lesan-ul-saur, (gul,) flower, Boraginee, . Ghilan.

470

Name under

Refe. which Artic'e Hindnstani or other

rence. is described in synonyme.

Caaogue.

471 Lisan-ul-haml, Bartang,

472 —— al-asafir, indarjao shirin,

473 Lutffa,

474 Lakmana, Lakmani,

475 Lodh,

476 Louz-huliv, Badam shirin,

477 —— mur, Badam karwa,

478 Mazareyin,

479 Mal-kangni,

480 Mamisa, *.

481 Mamiran, (2nd kind),

482 Manas rohani,

483 Mahu-daneh,

484 Mahi zaharaj,

485 Mirchai, Kawa thonthi,

486 Mirch kal,

487 Marzan-jush,

488 Marv, Kanouncha,

489 Mar-hari, —Maror phali,

490 Mishk-tara-mashih,

491 Moghas, Maeda lakri,

492 2nd,

493 Makhareh,

494 Malin,

495 Mor-pankhi,

496 Musk safed,

497 2nd,

498 —— safed, Sembkal ki musli,

499 —— seah,

500 Mindi,

501 Maeda lakri, Chandan,

502 Nasjil, Naryel,

503 bahri, Daryai naryel,

504 Nar-mushk, Nag kesar,

505 Nan khwah, Ajwain,

506 Nah,

507 Nirgandhi,

508 Nirmal,

509 Nigand,-babari,

510 Nimb, Nim,

511 Nil, Nil,

512 Nilkanthi,

513 Nylofar, Bhambhil,

514 Waj, Bach,

515 Ward, Gulab,

516 Halha jori,

517 Halhil,

518 Halyin,

List of Articles of Materia Medica.

[Ocr.

Part used. Botanical name. bly

seed, Kabul.

do. Echites antidysenterica, Pirab.

root, Atropa mandragora, Surat.

plant, Delhi.

bark, | Symplocos racemosa, Hills.

seed, Amygdalus communis dulcis, Kabul.

do. —— amara, Do.

do. Celastrus nutans, India.

root, Ranunculus Ficara, Kashmir.

leaf, Myrsine bifaria, Hills

seed, Ipomcea India.

fruit, | Capsicum pubescens, Do.

seed, Hippophae salicifolia, - Kabal.

fruit, | Helicteres scabra, Khera.

wood, Dictamnus fraxinella, Baghdad,

seed, Tetranthes, Kabul.

seed, Euryale ferox, Patna.

r. and br. _ Hills,

plant, Pteris palmata, Delhi.

root, Dakhan.

do. Gualior.

do. Bombax heptaphyllum, _—_ India.

do. | Commelina scapiflora, Kheri.

plant, Spheranthus Indicus, India.

bark, Tetranthera spitala, Almora.

seed, Cocos nucifera, Bengal,

do. Surat.

flower, Manna? Guzerat.

seed, Ligusticum ajwain, India.

plant, [rubacee], Delhi.

root, Dakhan.

seed, Strychnos potatorum, Do.

plant, Delhi.

seed, Melia azadirachta, India.

do. Indigofera tinctoria, Do.

plant, Ajuga Delhi.

flower, Nymphea India.

root, Acorus Calamus, Khorasan.

fruit, | Rosa damascena, India.

plant, Polypodium, Lucknow.

seed,

fruit, | Asparagus officinalis, Surat.

1832. | List of Articles of Materia Medica. 471

Resins, Gums, and Gum-resins.

Arabic name. Synomymes. Botanical name of plant.

1 Ushaq, Kandar, Ammoniacum ushk, from Heraclea gummifera, Kabal.

2 Anjir ki gond,

3 Anzerit, Sarcocoll, Pinea sarcocolla, Do.

4 Barzad, ganda beroza, Galbanum, Bubon Galbaniferum, Hills. °

5 Padam ki gond, Prunus puddum, S. B. G.

6 Pachdhara do. , Euphorbia angularis, Do.

7 Taranj bin, Persian manna, Alhagi Maurorum, Kabal.

8 Tun ki gond, Cedrela Toona, India.

10 Jawashir, gaoshir p. Gum opopanax, _ Pastinaca opopanax, Arabia.

1] 'Fingan ki gond, Kani gond, Icica gummifera, Kheri pass.

12 Dam _ul-akhwain, Hira dukhi, Khan § Dracena draco, Calamus rotang, @ Surat. -

kharaba, Dragon’s blood, ; Pterocarpus draco, Arabia.

13 Ratianaj, Rajina, Colophony? Burseria paniculata, Surat.

14 Zard alu ki gond, Prunus chooloo, S. B. G. -

15 Zift, Resin, pitch, Room.

16 Saleh ki gond, Kundan? Boswellia serrata, Kheru.

17 Sakminya, Scammony, 4 Convolyulus scammonia, Surat.

18 ————.. 2nd, Do.

19 Sakbinaj, Kandal Sagapenum, Ferula persica, Arabia.

20 Sandris, Chandris, Sandarach, Marwar.

2i ———— 2nd, Kharwa, Copal,

22 Sahajné ki gond, Hyperanthera morunga, _ India.

23 Stris ki gond, Mimosa serissa, Do.

24 Sem ki gond, Gota gond, ; Bauhinia gummifera, Dehra.

25 Sembalkigond, Mochrus, Bombax heptaphyllum, _India.

26 Sibr, Elwa, musabba, Aloe perfoliata,

27 Samegh Arabi, Gum Arabic, Acacia vera, Arabia.

28 Elk-ul-batm, Chian turpentine, Pistacia Terebinthus, Surat.

29 Farfiyin, afarbiyin, Euphorbium, Euphorbia officinarum, Arabia.

30 Karch, Nal, Shorea robusta, Khera.

31 Kirasia, Cherry gum, Prunus cerasus, Surat.

32 Katira, Kasira, Katila, Gum tragacanth, Bombax gossypium, Kheri,

33 Kundur, Loban, Olibanum, Surat.

34 - 2nd, Frankincense, Juniperus Lycia, Piarab.

35 Kaent gond,

36 Kamarkas, Dhawe ki gond, Butea frondosa, India.

37 Khaer ki gond, Mimosa catechu, Deyra.

38 Kah ruba, Amber, Hills.

39 Ladan, lazan, Labdanum, Cistus ladaniferens, Surat.

40 Luk, Lak, Lah, Gum Lac, Coccus lacca, Sehartnpar,

41 Mar, Bol, Myrrh, Surat.

42 Mustaka, Mastich, Pistacia lentucus, Kabul.

43 Mod), Gogal, Bdellium,

44 ——- 2nd, 2nd, Hills.

45 Nagauri gond, Nagore,

472 Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. [ Oct.

VIl.— Proceedings of the Asiatic Society—Physical Class.

Wednesday Evening, 3rd October, 1832,

Sir Epwarp Ryav, President, in the Chair.

The proceedings of last Meeting were read and adopted. .

Library.

The following books were presented :

« Fragmens de Geologie et de Climatologie Asiatiques, par A. De Hum-

boldt,” in 2 volumes. From the Author.

« An English Index of Indian Plants, by H. Piddington, Esq. Foreign Sec.

. Agricultural Society, Calcutta, 1832.” rom the Author.

This very useful compendium has been drawn up with great industry from all

the available sources of information. The native synonymes include many

corruptions from the right reading, which have found their way into Botanical

works : it might perhaps have been an improvement that the correct word should

have been distinguished from the rest, and spelt according to some constant

system of orthography.

Museum.

The Secretary announced the receipt of the fossil shells of the Paris

basin, of the tertiary formations of Italy and Sicily, as well as from Dia-

blerets in Switzerland, and specimens of the bone brescia of Nice, alluded

to at the last Meeting, in a letter from Dr. Turnbull Christie, of Madras.

The shells are in the highest preservation, and will form a most useful series

for reference on all occasions. A catalogue will be published in the Society’s

Journal, that members at a distance may be aware what fossil shells are in our

possession.

A letter was read from Mr. James Calder, Vice-President, presenting in

the name of C. Telfair, Esq. President of the Mauritius Natural History

Society, the following geological specimens and minerals :

1. Mammellated black owide of Manganese, found in a state of great purity, and

in vast quantities, in the interior of Madagascar.

2. Capilliform Obsidian, (Actynolite?) from Bourbon. After the last eruption of

the volcano in that island, the country for miles round was found to be covered

with crystals of green actynolite, like a hoar-frost, which from its appearance

received the name of Neptune’s hair.

3. Petrified wood and fossil shells, from Basse’s Straits and New Holland.

Unfortunately the labels on these are lost, which is the more to be regretted,

as the shells and their matrix resemble very closely those from the Himalaya :

especially two, which are identical with Nos. 22 and 25 (Producta and Spirifer ?)

of Mr. Everest’s Plate, in the Trans. Phys. Cl. 2nd Part.

4, Asbestus ; veins in serpentine—locality not specified.

A letter was read from Dr. G. G. Spilsbury, dated Jabalpur, 7th Sep-

tember, presenting three specimens of the fossil bones recently discovered

in that neighbourhood.

The Secretary read a note upon the subject, which appears in the present

number.

1832.] Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. 473

A geological notice was submitted, explanatory of a series of specimens

collected between the plains of Assam and Chira Punji, in the Kasya

Mountains, and presented to the Society by W. Cracroft, Esq. through the

President.

Two boxes, containing 415 specimens of different kinds of wood, from In-

dia, Assam, Ava, Arracan, the Cape of Good Hope, Australia, and Pitcairn’s

Island, with a catalogue describing their native and Botanical names, was pre-

sented by Captain Baker, Superintendent of Iron Suspension Bridges.

Captain Baker has just completed an elaborate series of experiments on the

strength and elasticity of these woods, of which a partial account was printed in

the GLEANINGs. The paper will appear in the RESEARCHES.

A model of Theodore Jones and Co.’s new Patent Suspension Wheels,

with a full description of their various advantages, was presented by Lieut.

Col, Watson.

Of this invention, we shall give a particular account in our next.

Papers read,

1. Note on the Saline Deposits near Cawnptr. By Mr. H. H. Spry.

This paper will appear in our next. |

2. On the Ice Manufactory at Hugli. By Dr. Wise.

3. Report on the present state of the Boring in Fort William. By Dr. Strong.

The holidays had for a period suspended proceedings, and the overseer was

employed in making up a claw and spring tool for the extraction of the rods, which

had again unfortunately broken in the second shaft, at a depth of 130 feet. This

accident had frequently occurred from the falling in of the sand, notwithstanding

the protection afforded by the tubing of the present shaft. It would, probably, be

necessary to withdraw the tubes to get hold of the rod; in which case, Dr. Strong

proposed to replace them carefully, and proceed with the perforation: but, for

this a further supply of cash would be requisite; the last grant of 500 being

expended, and money being still due to the workmen,

A motion by Dr. Strong, seconded by Mr. D. Ross, that 500 rupees should

be granted unconditionally for the continuation of the experiment, was nega-=

tived: an amendment was proposed by Mr. Wilson, and carried, “ that the

Committee recommend to the Society to make a further grant of 500

rupees to the gentlemen in charge of the Boring experiment, on the express

condition, that it shall be the last, unless they shall be then able to shew con.

vincing proof, that its further prosecution will be attended with success.”

4. Report of the Sub-Committee, on the subject of the proposed extension

of the Museum.

The report pointed out the difficulty of furnishing suitable accommodation for

a resident curator on the premises, and proposed instead, that a small house in

the immediate neighbourhood should be hired, in which all the preparations of

the specimens could be made, leaving the whole of the lower floor of the Society’s

premises open for their reception, The expence of this arrangement, including the

contingents of making and altering cabinets, stuffing, &c. was estimated at 200

rupees per mensem. After some discussion, the report was referred back to the

Sub-Committee, to inquire what means exist to meet such an expenditure, before

going before the Society with the proposition.

202

ATA Notices in Natural History. [Ocr.

VIII..— Notices in Natural History. By Lieut. T. Hutton, 37th N. I.

The commencement of the rainy season is the period of vital activity among

the insect creation : their rapid and prolific increase presents some of the most

astonishing facts among the wonders of nature; it seems as if every avenue of

comfort and health would be choked up and destroyed by the millions which

crowd into existence ; but means are wisely ordained to preserve each link of the

chain of nature in equilibrium with the rest : thus beasts prey upon beasts, birds

on birds and on insects, and these upon other species, so that the various tribes of

living beings are kept within the limits which the purposes of their creation

require. I will adduce a few instances of this amazing increase which have just

fallen under my view.

1. Ova of the Spider.

.~A lad, whom I employ to bring specimens for my museum, brought me a small

white ball, about the size of a pea, which proved to be the silky bag with which

some spiders envelope their ova. It was closely constructed of silky threads,

strongly interwoven, and glazed on the exterior, for the purpose probably of

guarding against moisture. At first sight, its contents appeared to be small white

eggs, but on closer inspection, I found them to be young spiders seemingly fully

formed, at least as far as I could determine with a tolerable magnifier.—I then

took a needle, and drew them forth one by one to the surprising number of three

hundred and ten living spiders,

What numbers of insects must be destroyed to furnish this vast increase with

food, while they themselves will in turn fall a prey to birds, &c. before the period

of ovipositing shall again arrive ; and immense as the increase from one pair of

spiders appears, yet having aided in keeping other families within their proper

limits, perhaps not one in a hundred will survive to perpetuate the race.

2. The Scorpion.

The second instance I shall notice was a scorpion—Scorpio Afer ? Pecten

with 15 teeth ; eyes8; colour dark bottle-green ; legs and poison sack dirty

straw-colour ; clasps or forceps tuberculated—length 3% inches.

The above was dug out of a hole in the ground ; it had ten young ones clinging

about it ; these were a quarter of an inch long, and perfectly white, very soft, and

the sting not perceptible througha magnifier, although the poison sack was formed

—the point, where the sting should be, being quite obtuse in the whole of the

young ones.

3. Fresh-water Crab.

The third and last instance which I shall at present advert to, was a fresh-

water crab, which I found in a small hole, apparently that of a mouse, at the

foot of a tree, and which for the present I have referred to the genus Thelphusa,

Lat.

This had the two exterior antennz placed at the base of the ocular peduncles ;

jaw feet covering the mouth ; legs 8 ; forceps of equal size nearly, with a spine

on the second joint ; shell cordiform, and truncated posteriorly, slightly wrinkled

on the side with ashort spine anteriorly, near the eyes ; colour greenish or livid

grey above, dirty white beneath ; a mark in form of an impressed X on the back,

and two rows of small white spots placed in parallel lines at the anterior part of

the shell, viz. two spots in the first line and four in the second, thus y*y¥%*y. On

lifting the ventral plate, if I may so term it, in which the ova are found, I count-

1832. ] Notices in Natural History. 475

ed to my astonishment no less than eighty-five young ones, all alive, and seemingly

fully formed ; they were pale-greyish above and white beneath.

On placing them in a basin of water, they appeared very lively, swimming

about quite briskly, but the next morning I found them all dead ; probably in con-

sequence of their not being sufficiently matured to leave the parent*,

From the situation in which I found this specimen, I was at first induced to

think that it belonged to the land crabs ( Gecarcinus), from which it does not

much differ, if at all; hut some few days afterwards finding another in every re-

spect similar, in a small jhil, I referred them to the genus above mentioned.

Although Ihave frequently seen crabs carrving their ova, I never before met with

one’ which had young ones clinging to it ; and as several works which I have con-

sulted, state that the ova are deposited in the water, I am still inclined to think

that I have not referred my specimens to their proper genus: moreover, the cir-

cumstance of the second specimen having been found in the water does not at all

militate against the supposition of its being a land crab, as they are said to repair

to the water for the purpose of ovipositing.

Stark, in his Elements of Natural History, speaking of land crabs, observes,

‘** They pass the greater part of their lives under ground, coming out in the even-

‘ing for food. Once a year in the breeding season, they assemble in numerous

“ troops, and take the shortest direction to the sea, for the purpose of depositing

“‘ their ova ; and when this object is accomplished, return again to their haunts,

“<< It is said they stop up their holes at the period of their changing their shell.”

I shall now conclude my letter with a sketch of an insect, which by Shaw is

‘stated to bea native of Surinam, in South America ; and as I had the good for-

tune to procnre a very fine specimen a few evenings since at this station, I feel

happy in being able to communicate the same to you, in case it may not hitherto

have been acknowledged as an inhabitant of the East.

Order HemipTera, genus NepaA, Water Scorpion, Nepa grandis. Snout inflect-

ed; wings four, cross complicate, coriaceous on the upper parts,

Fore feet cheliform ; the rest formed for walking.

Colour dull brown, darkest on the scutellum and thorax; on the last of which

are two pale longitudinal lines—Length 33 inches.

This species is aquatic, and preys on water insects and tadpoles. I was dining

with a friend whose house stands on the bank of the Ganges, when I captured the

above.

These insects leave the water and fly during the night, and its coming into the

house was probably from the attraction of the lights.

The genus Nepa of Shaw, in which he includes the present species, are all in-

habitants of stagnant waters ; I have collected, besides the Nepa grandis, several

of the N. cinerea, N. cimicoides, and N, linearis, being all that Shaw mentioned in

his General Zoology.

I may perhaps take occasion to mention some other genera in a future letter, as

I have made a very tolerable collection of insects since the commencement of the

rainy season.

I shall also take an early opportunity of noticing several varieties of scorpion,

which, if the number of teeth in the pectinated plates on the abdomen is to be

_* Size of the young ones about as big as a capsicum seed ; the old one the size of a

dollar.

476 Miscelluneous Intelligence. [Ocr

taken as a distinguishing mark, will amount to many more species than I have

hitherto found described in any author I have been able to consult.

I had intended sending a drawing of the Nepa grandis, but not being able to

delineate it myself with sufficient accuracy, I have been obliged to delay it, until

I can get it drawn correctly.

IX.— Miscellaneous Intelligence.

1. Roman Coins in Upper India.

' Ina letter published in the Zndia Gazette of the 19th October, Dr. R. Tytler

mentions that many of the Diocletian coins noticed in the catalogue of the Sncie-

ty’s Cabinet were preseated by himself, and that they were collected at dilahabad,

Mirzaptir, and Binddchal. His inference is, that they were brought to India by

Christian emigrants, during the ten years’ persecution which occurred in the reign

of that Emperor, and that some of the doctrines of the Christian religion were

then engrafted upon the superstitions of Hindastén. The coins of Carinus and

Numerianus were from Mirzapty and Chunar : and another of Diocletian’s was

procured at Kanouj. If diligent inquiry be made in that part of India, probably

an extensive collection of coins of the third century may be made. More remains

of the sort will naturally be discovered in the neighbourhood of ancient towns, and

the most prevalent date of the coin will in some way prove the period at which

these cities were in the most flourishing condition. P.

2, Spontaneous Combustion of Coal.

On Friday, the 26th instant, smoke was observed to issue from the hold of the

London, one of the ships severely handled in the late storm, which on examination

was found to proceed from 300 tons of coals then on board that vessel. Means were

taken to discharge the cargo, and the river engines were kept at work for two

days and nights, pumping water in to swamp the ignited mass: the only damage

sustained was in one of the pillars of the lower deck, which was nearly burned

through. A portion of the coal was examined by Mr. Ross, of the Mint, and found

to contain a considerable portion of pyrites: this mineral by the action of water

and air is rapidly converted into sulphate of iron, and developes sufficient heat,

when the mass is large, to ignite the coal: frequent accidents of the same nature

have before happened. The steamer Emulous on sailing from England was forced to

put back on account of the ignition of the coal stores. H. M. Ship Ajax is suppos-

edalso to have been destroyed in the same way. Commanders of vessels should

take particular care that coals taken on board are quite dry, and shew no yellow

veins or nodules : and they should not be placed where they are liable to be wetted,

nor too near the powder magazine,

3. Transit of Mercury observed in England.

The 5th of May proved in England, as in India, a cloudy day. The planet was

seen only thrice on the sun’s disc by Mr. Barker of Deptford, and then only for

intervals of two or three seconds ; the spectacle therefore, as that observer writes in

the Literary Gazette, was more gratifying than satisfactory in a scientific point of

view. At 9h. 1m. a. M. Mercury was seen advanced about half his diameter on the

disc, 9h. 3m. was observed to be the period of the first internal contact ; but itis not

mentioned whether the chronometer employed was at mean solar, or apparent time.

1832, | Miscellaneous Intelligence. A477

4. Rain at Chira Pinjl, from 1st September to 8th October, 1832, registered by

W. Cracroft, Esq.

inches. inches. 1 0.000

1 1.195 16 0.305 2 0.000

2 i eit by 17 1.050 3 0 000

3 1.575 18 6.375 4 0.000

4 2.510 i9 1.850 5 0.125

5 4.680 20 0.130 6 0.000

6 1.689 21 0.760 7 3.015

7 0.000 22 0.985 8 12.650

8 not meas. 23 4.600 Rain in Sept. 55.309

9 4.232 24 5,010 In 2 days of Oct. 15.790

10 9.494 25 0.000 Already regt. 154.690

11 6.332 26 0.080 ————

12 0.000 27 0.000 in four months, 225.789 in.

13 0.085 28 1.235 Maximum temperature,

14 0.000 29 0.000 16th,...8lo 5’

15 0.000 30 0.000 Minimum, 29th....60

5. Electric Spark from the Magnet.

The modes in which Sig. Nobili, in Italy, Mr. Faraday, and Mr. Ritchie, in Lon-

don, and Mr. Forbes in Edinburgh, have successively arrived at this satisfactory

result of their researches, are now given to the world.

Signor Nobili was the earliest in point of date, but he was led to the discovery

of the spark entirely by the theoretical views and previous experiments of Mr.

Faraday, who also arrived at the same conclusion immediately after, and with-

out a knowledge of his rival’s labours. The apparatus necessary to display the

phenomenon is exceedingly simple. The following are the views upon which it is

framed.

‘* The voltaic pile gives a spark only when composed of a certain number of

pairs of plates. A single Wollaston’s voltaic element yields it ; and when of a

certain activity, produces it constantly at the surface of the mercury, to which the

conjoining wires destined to close the circuit are conducted. In the voltaic pile,

having a certain degree of electric tension, the sparks pass between the zinc and

copper poles, either in the case of opening or of closing the circuit. In a single

Wollaston’s element, the tension is feeble and the spark occurs only when the cir-

cuit is interrupted. At that moment, the current, which was before moving, accu-

mulates as it were at the place of interruption, and acquires the intensity necessary

to cause the spark. Such tension is wanting in the other case of closing the cir-

cuit, and the spark also is absent.

“The currents developed in the electro-dynamic spirals by virtue of magnetism

are also in motion, but circulate only for the moment during which they are ap-

proaching to or receding from the magnet.

“‘ Tt was, therefore, Sig. Nobili and Antiniori concluded, in one of those two mo-

ments that the circuit ought to be opened in making the experiment for the spark.’’

Experiment. A coil of wire is wound round the cross-bar or armour of a horse-

shoe magnet ; the ends of the wire are brought away to a short distance from the

bar, and bent so as to meet ; and, to ensure their contact, a disc is attached to the

extremity of one wire, upon which the point of the other impinges at right angles :

the contact is then made perfect by amalgamation with mercury. When the bar

is separated from the magnet or brought to it, the jerk at contact separates the

points of the wire for an instant, and a spark is seen to pass from one to the other,

and when the armour is suddenly removed it is again visible: the experiment may

be repeated at pleasure.—PAil. Mag. Ixvi. 406.

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JOURNAL

THE ASITATIC SOCIETY.

No. 11.—November, 1832.

I.— Notice of the peculiar Tenets held by the followers of Syed

Ahmed, taken chiefly from the “ Sirat-tl-Mustagtm,” a principal

Treatise of that Sect, written by Moulavt Mahommed Ismail.

Tue Sirdat-il-Mistagém, or “ The True Path,” is the most im-

portant of several treatises which have been composed by followers

of Syed Ahmed, the modern Mahommedan zealot and reformer, with

whose name the European public has recently become familiar.”

It gives also the fullest account generally known of his tenets and

pretensions. The interest attaching to his personal pretensions, has

in a great measure ceased with his death, but the influence of his

tenets still continues extensive, being understood, indeed, to have

reached to almost all parts of India; and the subject is one which

deserves attention, with reference to the marked distinction of opinions

and usages which has arisen between those who have adopted his doc-

trines, and the mass of the Mahommedan population of the country.

A subordinate portion only of this work is devoted to a statement of

such opinions as affect points of common and obvious usage ;_ but it is

respecting these that curiosity may generally be supposed to exist. The

main object of the author in composing it was, in the first instance pro-

bably, to shew his own learning ; inthe next, to justify the claims of

Syed Ahmed, (of whom he was a constant and confidential adherent,)

as a devotee, gifted with a surpassing decree of religious capacity and illu-

mination. ts professed purpose is, kindly to impart to the world the

benefits of the experience and inspired discoveries of a saint so emi-

nent as Syed Ahmed was proclaimed to be, in those modes of reli-

gious exercise which are believed by the most orthodox Mahomme-

dans to have an influence in purifying and strengthening the higher

orders of human minds, which enables them, even in life, to attain to a

480 Notice of the Tenets held by [Nov.

knowledge of the hidden meaning and essence of the institutes of their

faith, to an intimate communion with the immediate presence of the

Divinity, and to the most exalted state of spiritual dignity and power.

The whole is written in a strain of what may most appropriately be

termed Orthodox Sufiism. Touching but little on the metaphysical

subtleties of the Safi opinions, and utterly denouncing such of their

professors as are not strict believers, it is still devoted to an exposition

of many of the admitted Sufi tenets and practices, and is full of the

technicalities of Sufi phrasedlogy. It makes reference especially, in

its explanations and allusions, to the peculiar divisions which prevail in

India, among those who aspire to the honours of religious initiation.

These are generally numbered as the followers of one or other of three

venerated Pérs, each of whom has given a name to a distinct school or

sect; the first, the “ Tartqa-i-Qadiria,” which traces its origin to

Abdul Qadir* Jilani, of Jilan, or Ghilan. Another, the “ Taréqa-i-

Chishéta,” so called from its founder Khwaja Muin-ud-din Chishti,

whose tombt is at Ajmere ; the third, the “* Tartqa-i- Nakshbandia,” de-

rived from a Khwajat Baha-ud-din Nakshband, a native of Bokhara.

It was one of the peculiar pretensions of Syed Ahmed, that he held

himself privileged, instead of confining himself, as is usual, to giving

admission to one only of these schools, to receive followers at his pleasure

into any, or into all of them, and he aimed also at becoming the founder

of aschool of his own, to which he gave the appellation of the “‘ Twréqa-7-

Muhammedia.”

It was not, however, to exercises of speculative piety, that this

aspiring adventurer chiefly trusted to gain himself reputation -and in-

fluence among his Mahommedan countrymen. The whole object of

his career was to rouse and unite Mahommedan feeling in support of

his own views of fanaticism and aggrandisement ; and he naturally em-

ployed for that purpose methods more likely to have a generally active

effect. The following sketch of the principal events of his career,

and of the means by which he sought to obtain distinction, taken from

the written or oral accounts generally current, may not be without in-

terest, before proceeding to the detailed description of the peculiarities

of belief and practice which his followers have adopted from him.

He began life in an indifferent school for the character of re«

former and saint, which hz ultimately assumed, asa suwar serving

* The name at full length, with all its titles, is Ghous-ul Azim Mabf{-ud-

din Abddl Qédir Jilani. Born 471, Hijri. Died 561, Hijri,

+ Died 633, Hijri.

t Born 718, Hijri. Died 791, Hijri.

1832. ] the followers of Syed Ahmed. 481

with Amir Khan’s free-booting horse in Malwa. Quitting that

service, about the time when the body of Amir Khan’s followers

was disbanded, he repaired to Delhi, and became a disciple of Shah

Abdul Aziz, a very celebrated devotee of the city; the fame of

whose knowledge and piety has been widely extended throughout this

side of India. It is frequently said by Natives, that it was from Shah

Abdul Aziz, that Syed Ahmed derived the peculiar opinions which he

subsequently promulgated, and the design which he adopted of preaching

up a religious crusade. It is atleast certain, that the chief of his first

disciples, and the most constant associates of all his fortunes, were two

near relatives of Abdul Aziz, one his nephew, and the author of

this work, named Moulavi Muhammed Ismail, the other his son-in law,

and also partially a contributor to the book, named Moulavi Abdul

Hye. Of these persons, Muhammed Ismail is generally esteemed

to have been a man of much talent and learning, Thé extreme ho-

nour which he and his brother Moulavi paid to Syed Ahmed, who

was himself nearly illiterate, had a powerful effect in attracting towards

him the respect of the vulgar. They rendered him almost menial offices,

running, it is said, with their shoes off, by the side of his palankeen, when

he moved out, like common servants. Attended by them, he set out

from Delhi on his way to Calcutta, and thence on the sacred duty of a

pilgrimage to Mecca. He chose a circuitous route for the purpose ; for

he is said to have first gone north to Seharanpur, and then west with a

sufficiently intelligible motive to Rampur; the jagheer held by the

descendants of the Rohilla chief, Fyzulla Khan, and the seat of a

large body of turbulent Pathans. From his first leaving Delhi, he

assumed the character of a religious teacher, and commenced spread-

ing his reforming doctrines. ‘The general spirit by which these were

animated, (identical nearly with that of the tenets of the Arabian

Wahabis, of whom the sect of Syed Ahmed may perhaps be accu-

rately termed an Indian imitation,) was the ardent profession of Mahom-

medanism in its primitive simplicity and fervour, and the utter rejec-

tion of all idolatrous or superstitious innovations, whencesoever deriv-

ed. Itis obvious, that such tenets were well calculated to awaken the

sincerity of religious zeal, and 1o gratify the pride of Mahommedan

feeling ; while, on the other hand, they were likely to meet with much

opposition in the influence of long established customs and indulgen-

cies, The manner in which they were at first actually received was

however highly favourable. When Syed Ahmed at last came down

to Bengal, he had got together many followers, and had established

an extensive reputation, He arrived in Calcutta with a considerable

2P2

482 Notice of the Tenets held by [Nov.

retinue towards the end of 1821, and immediately a great majority of the

Mahommedans of the place, of allranks and stations, flocked to become,

or to profess themselves, his disciples. In the early part of 1822, he.

proceeded with his friends, the two Moulavis, to Mecca, from whence

he returned in October of the next year, having touched for a few

days at Bombay, where, with reference to the shortness of his stay,

his success, in gaining numerous followers, was nearly as remarkable

as in Calcutta. In December, 1823, he again started for Upper

India. The next important event of his career, his commencing a

religious war in the Lahore territories, did not occur till after a con-

siderable interval, though the enterprise was one in which he had long

openly announced his intention to engage. Its date is given in the

following extract from the “ Targhéb-ul Jihad,’ or “ Incitement

to Religious War,” a little treatise written in Hindustant during

the continuance of the struggle, by a Moulavi of Kanouj, with the

view, as its name purports, of rousing the Faithful to rally round the

standard which had been raised inthe Panjab. “ The tribe of Sikhs,”

says the indignant Moulavi, “have long held sway in Lahore and

other places. Their oppressions have exceeded all limits. Thousands

of Mahommedans they have unjustly killed, and on thousands have

they heaped disgrace. The ¢ Azdn,’ or summons to prayer, and the

killing of cows, they have entirely prohibited*. When at length their

insulting tyranny could no longer be borne, Hazrat Syed Ahmed,

(may his fortunes and blessings be permanent !) having for his single

object the protection of the faith, took with him a few true Mussul-

mans, and going in the direction of Kabal and Peshawar, succeeded

in rousing the Mahommedans of those countries from their slumber

of indifference, and nerving their courage for action—Praise be to God

—some thousands of believers became ready at his. call to tread the

path of God’s service; and on the 20th Jummadi-ul-ila, 1242,

Hijri, (or the 2ist December, 1826,) the Jihad against the Kafir

Sikhs began.” The events of this war were watched with a natural

interest by the Mahommedan population of India generally, whether

followers of Syed Ahmed or not. Many of the inhabitants of our

Western Provinces went in bodies to range themselves under the

* This is a grievance of old standing among the Mahommedans of the Lahore

territory. Malcolm, speaking of the period when our army under Lord Lake

pursued Holkar into the Punjab, in 1805, says, ‘‘ The Mahommedan inhabitants

of the Punjab used to flock to the British camp, where they said they enjoyed

luxuries which no man could appreciate, that had not suffered privation. They

could pray aloud, and feast upon beef.’’

1832. ] the followers of Syed Ahmed. 483

standard of the Amir-ul Mominin, or Leader of the Faithful, the

title which he had now assumed to himself; and his emissaries gathered

large contributions of money and jewels, even from our own distant

Presidencies, and from the principal Mahommedan towns of the Dek-

han. The prominent occurrences of the war, the perseverance with

which it was kept up, the temporary and occasional successes which

Syed Ahmed met with, and his ultimate death in battle, are. well

known. With his death, the struggle appears to have entirely ceased.

That event, as was to be expected, is one which the people of his sect

have been very reluctant to believe, and reports are still every now

and then circulated among them, that he has been seen or heard of

alive, and that the Sikhs are yet to have a rough waking from the

dream, in which they are vainly indulging themselves, that they have

got for ever rid of this inveterate antagonist.

But the notice of Syed Ahmed’s personal fortunes has extended

perhaps further than the subject merited. The account contained in the

treatise, from which chiefly this paper has been compiled, of his rapid

progress in spiritual illumination, deserves however to be adverted to,

as affording a curious insight into the state of opinions among Mahom-

medans on such subjects at the present day ; and an abstract of it will

be given, in referring to the portions of the work which relate more

especially to speculative or Sufi practices. The following string of

questions, translated from a risdleh or tract, composed in refutation

of Syed Ahmed’s peculiar doctrines and pretensions, by an anony-

mous “ Fazi/t Madrasi,” or learned man of Madras, furnishes'a con-

venient summary of the more important of them, and forms an appro-

priate introduction to the more lengthy statements of the Sir4t-ul

Miastaqim.

The questions are given with the short preface which precedes

them in the original. ‘ To the skilled in religion and law, these que-

ries are submitted, in the hope that the perplexing doubts which have

in this age seduced the more illiterate among the faithful into the

thorny ways of error may by their sound explanations be removed,

that right doctrine may be distinguished from deluding falsehood, and

the actual relations and bearings of the truth, made clear to those

now lost about and wandering in uncertainty.”

Queries 1, 2, and 3. ‘* Canany one properly lay claim to be the

founder of a new and independent sect of law and morals, (to be a

Mijtahid-i-mistugill) after the time of the four chief Mujtahids,

(the heads of the four legal sects, the Hanafi, Maliki, Shafii, and

Hanbali,) and before the appearance of the Imam Mehdi? Has any

A484 Notice of the Tenets held by [ Nov.

one ever advanced such a claim? And, shall a claim of the kind now

be recognized on the part of any one, who in these degenerate times,

because he has picked up more-or less knowledge of the ordinary books

of commentaries and traditions, shall choose to set up a_ sect of his

own, differing in a minute point or two from the four established ones ?

Is it too permitted to an uninformed person of any of those sects, to

act on a tradition not recognized by his own sect, or by any of the

sects?” (These three questions have reference to one of Syed

Ahmed’s opinions, which is asserted distinctly in the Sirat-ul Mus-

taqim, that it is improper to follow the authority of the four Maj-

tahids, or Imams, where an opposing tradition* of the Prophet’s

precepts, or example, may be found of proved authenticity, and not

subsequently rescinded. The established opinion is, that the mere

fact of a tradition not having been received by one or other of the

Imams, shews it to be not authentic.)

Queries 4 and 5. “Is it proper to found a new sect, and school,

(of Sufi, or enthusiastic devotion is meant,) and to give it the name

of the Prophet of God, in the sense in which the appellation of “‘ Ma-

hammedjfa” has been given to the school of Syed Ahmed? and is

it competent to any person not skilled in all branches of know-

ledge, external and spiritual, to claim to bea ‘“ Mujaddid,” or Re-

novator of Religion? (This last claim was advanced by Syed

Ahmed on the ground of a generally received tradition to the effect,

that after every hundred years, God will send forth a person to

renovate the faith. The objection to the term “ Muhammedia,” as

it was used by Syed Ahmed, is, that it implied an almost exclusive

claim to connection with the Prophet. Had “ Muhammad” formed

a part of his own name, it might have been employed by him without

impropriety, to denote the connection of the school, or sect, with himself

personally.)

Queries 6 and 7. “ Is it lawful for a person to assume the title of

“ Amir-ul Mominin,” or Leader of the Faithful, who holds no sovereign-

ty, and cannot enforce his own orders ? And what is the true meaning

and application of the tradition which says, that he who does not

recognize the Imam of his age, dies the death of ignorance, (that is,

similar to that of the Arabs, in what was called their state of ignorance,

or before the time of Mahommed) ; and is it absolutely binding on

men to establish an Imam, or conditional only on their power to sup-

* Such traditions, which, after the Qoran, are the standard authorities on all

questions of Mahommedan Religion or Law, are intended wherever the word is

used here.

1832.] the followers of Syed Ahmed. 485-

port him, and on the absence of opposing circumstances?” (These

questions need no explanation, though the remark obviously occurs,

that they suggest very convenient excuses for declining to give support

to the enterprise of a mere fanatic adventurer.)

Queries 8 and 9. “ Is it a violation of the Unity* of the Godhead

to add to the true believer’s profession of faith, “ There is no God

but God,” the further declaration that “ Mahommed is the prophet of

God.” >

Is this giving a companion to God, or is it the very essence of

the true faith? And is it unlawful to invoke the Prophet by the

words, “ Ya Rasul Alla,” or “ Oh! Prophet of God.” (These

relate to branches of the Syed Ahmedi doctrine, of avoiding every

thing which may bear the appearance of a departure from a pure be-

lief in the Unity of God. It seems however questionable, whether the

opinion implied in the first query is fairly imputed to the sect. Re-

garding the subject of the last question, the writer of the tract

maintains, that to invoke the Prophet as an intercessor only is perfectly

allowable. The point is not minutely dwelt upon in the Sirat-ul

Miustaqim, but in another printed treatise, by the same author, in

the Hindustani dialect, named the “ Taqwiat-wl-Imdm,” the opinion

animadverted upon is supported by a little refinement in argument.

There is, it is admitted, nothing heretical in supposing, that departed

Prophets and Saints may be able to zntercede, but the faculty of hear-

ing at the distance at which they are now removed from this nether

world belongs to God alone.)

Queries 10 and 11. “Is it not lawful to make pilgrimage to the

tombs of Prophets and Saints (Ambia wa Aulia), or of Mahommedans

generally, repeating on such occasions texts and prayers from the

Qoran, and avoiding what are notoriously abusive innovations? “ And

is the practice of performing the ceremony of the Fatiha in honor

of the Prophet, of his companions, (the Sahaba,) of Saints, or of any

Mahommedan without distinction, by reading, at stated periods and

anniversaries, sentences of the Qoran, and then conferring the blessing

annexed to them, and to the food distributed at such times, on those

exalted spirits—an innovation to be received as acceptable and praise-

worthy, or is it to be rejected ?”

(The practices here referred to are among the most obviously pro-

minent of those in which the members of Syed Ahmed’s sect have

* It is not easy to find any single English word which shall convey the meaning

of ‘* Ishrak’”’ (—j,4 I); or the giving or attributing a companion to God. It has

been rendered, as here, a Violation of the Divine Unity throughout this paper.

486 Notice of the Tenets held by [ Nov.

departed from the general and deep-rooted usages of their Mahomme-

dan brethren in India. Occasionally their pious zeal impels them to

remove altogether such dangerous temptations to what they consider a

violation of the Unity of the Godhead, as the tombs of Saints, by for-

cibly pulling them down. The word Fatiha, which denotes originally

the first chapter of the Qoran, is commonly used to signify the whole

ceremonies performed and prayers offered in behalf or in honour of

the deceased, on the anniversary of their death or other fixed periods.

Such ceremonies are observed in honour of relations or of any venerat-

ed Saint, and as practised by the vulgar, they go much beyond the

simple form described in the queries. At celebrated shrines, they are

kept up with great pomp and solemnity ; and what are mentioned in

the queries as offerings, distributed for the benefit of the spirits of the

Saints, are in reality ordinarily regarded as propitiations presented to

secure their favour and protection. Saints are in effect commonly

made direct objects of worship. Against the customary abuses of this

ceremony, therefore, Syed Ahmed’s instructions and denunciations

were peculiarly directed ; long arguments, exposing their impious ten-

dency and character, are contained in the Sirat-ul-Mustaqim, and

they are a leading object of invective in all the writings of the sect.

A good account of the ceremonies at shrines, witha notice of several

of the most venerated Indian Saints, is to be found in the numbers of

the Asiatic Journal for December, 1831, and January and February

1832, abridged from an article inthe Journal Asiatique, on the pecu-

liarities of Mahommedanism in India, by M. Garcin de Tassy.

Queries 12 and 13. ‘Isit unlawful, or unattended with reward or

benefit, to repeat prayers sanctioned by the example of Mahommed

(Sunun ), whether of fixed forms or numbers, or occasional and supere-

rogatory prayers, when unobjectionable seasons are chosen for them ?

And is any one privileged to prohibit the giving of blessings to Ma-

hommed, (that is, the expression by men, of blessings upon him,) or re-

peating from books in which such blessings are set forth? (It appears

from the answers to these queries, that Syed Ahmed denied that

there was any excellence or virtue in the practices adverted to.)

Queries 14 to 18. “ Have the leaders in the path of religious con-

templation held it admissable to receive men indiscriminately as dis-

ciples into several of the Safi schools at the same time, or to receive

as a disciple one who has already adopted a religious instructor or

guide, of a virtuous and pious character ; such instructor being living

bited that any one, for his own corrupt and interested purposes, and

1832. | the followers of Syed Ahmed. 487

not possessing the requisite purity of heart and spirit, should deceive

the vulgar with false stories of his soul having ascended into the

heavens, and conversed with angels and the souls of the Prophets ?

Is not the using frauds in religion, and the turning the heads of the

vulgar from the fixed and certain w ay,a thing of fatal consequence,

and an obstruction to union with the Deity, (the mystical union with

the divine Spirit is meant ?) Andis it proper or possible for any one

justly to claim such an union with the Deity, who has abandoned the

established rules and methods of the Ahl-2-Shariyat wa Tariqat,

the teachers both of the external institutes of religion, and of the

' more refined and contemplative devotion ?” (These concluding queries

refer exclusively to Syed Ahmed’s pretensions to eminent success

_as areligious enthusiast and devotee, and sufficiently explain them-

~ selves. )

5, The Siratul Mustagim, which was composed before its hero,

(as he may fairly enough be termed,) had proceeded with its author on

pilgrimage to Mecca, and was printed in Calcutta during their absence

at Mecca, by an active member of the sect, Moulavi Mohammed

Ali of Rampur, discloses little or nothing of the designs which the

party entertained of stirring up a war of religious fanaticism against

the numerous infidels of India, though it breathes, in treating of the

duty of religious war, a sigh of pious regret over the darkness which

_hasin these later days overspread the land. Compare, it says, the state

of Hindustan with that of Ram and Turan! Compare it even with its

own condition two or three hundred years ago. Alas! where are now

the Oulta and Ulama of those times? But the subject is only inci-

dentally touched upon, and the part of the treatise which relates to

external duties of piety and morality includes it in a very general

review of those duties in all their branches. This review is contained

in the second chapter of the treatise, where it is inserted to shew the

preparation necessary before any real benefit can be gained by enter-

ing on the exercises of religious contemplation. The chapter is thus

entitled, “ On the avoiding innovations in religion, and the mode of

performing acts of religious duty and worship; on the purifying of

the heart from vices, and adorning it with virtues.” In much of this

chapter, there is nothing peculiar beyond the degree of extreme purity

and fervent zeal, which is insisted upon as indispensable for an aspir-

ing devotee, though it is expressly stated as being in excess of what is

required for acceptance as a true Mahommedan. The denunciations

against innovations are all that it is interesting to notice ; and these, illus-

trated by more detailed explanations of the generally prevalent abuses

488 Notice of the Tenets held by [Nov.

from other treatises, fully mark the puritan system of doctrines,

which wherever it has been embraced, pointedly distinguishes the fol-

lowers of Syed Ahmed from the bulk of the Mahommedan popula-

tion. Scattered in comparatively small bodies, over numerous parts of

the country, these people will probably be found to present every-

where nearly a uniform character, modified only by such broad traits

of differences as exist between the natives of Bengal and those of

Upper India. Mahommedanism, as it came pure from the lips, or

was exemplified in the life, of the Prophet, was the aim and profession

of the founder of the sect. Its members consider themselves the only

true Mahommedans, and regard the faith and practices of their coun-

trymen as little in advance of the idolatry of their Hinda neighbours.

They guard themselves as separate communities, apart from the con-

tagion of the ordinary superstitions ; they refuse to join their nearest

relatives in their most solemn and cherished ceremonies; they are

arrogant, intolerant, ready to give offence by proclaiming their con-

tempt for the commonly received opinions and prejudices, often, where

they are strong enough, by open acts of turbulence and violence.

Wherever they exist, more or less of irritation may be expected to

arise between them and their brethren from whom they have separat-

ed; but being commonly very much the inferior party in numbers,

they are likely to be kept down, or to get only noted and laughed at

_ for their excessive and precise zeal, and the ignorant conceit, (the

remark applies to the condition of the ordinary peasantry of the coun-

try,) which accompanies their pretensions as the professors of a reform-

ed belief and worship. They will, at the same time, probably, de-

serve the credit of being strict and sincere in the performance of the

prescribed exercises of their religion, and of having improved in many

points of moral character, in consequence of their change of doctrine.

All these circumstances, and the nature of the doctrines themselves,

seem sufficiently to shew, that the sect is not calculated to be perma-

nently popular, or to spread very generally and rapidly, unless under

the impetus of some strong causes of excitement, of the occurrence of

which there is now but little probability.

The innovations to be carefully shunned by every true Mahomme-

dan are divided in the treatise under three classes. The first, those

which have sprung from association with sceptics or heretics, and

with those. who sin against the Unity, and give companions to God,

appearing like genuine Siufis*. The second, those which have been

CS ‘ wee “ A " yes

a Da “Ea8 gad Gydy tthe att y0 ws yr § aids ).

1832. ] the followers of Syed Ahmed. 489

caused by association with Shias. The third, such as have had

their origin in the imitation of bad and corrupt usages generally.

Among the abuses included within the first of these classes are the

following. Excess of respect to Murshids, or religious instructors,

The numerous innovating ceremonies, which have become generally

observed at tombs; and the making offerings in honour of saints :

abuses, which may be said to constitute, in practice, nearly the whole

religion of the common Mahommedans of the country. These have

almost universally their Murshids, to whom they pay implicit defe-

rence. ‘To their venerated saints they apply in every difficulty, un-

dertaking long and expensive pilgrimages to their shrines, and propi-

tiating them by offerings and vows, to lend their aid in the attainment

of every object of earthly desire—children, health, fortune, or honour.

~ These innovations however may more accurately be ascribed to fami-

liarity with the rites and customs of Hinduism, than to the influence

of any Sufi speculations. The resemblance between a Mahommedan

Murshid and a Hindi Girt, is obvious. In India (to adopt the

phrase of the “ Hidayatul Mominin,” also a Syed Ahmedi

treatise.) more than in any other Mahommedan country, Islam

and Kafr have been mixed like khichrt! “If the Hindus have their

Gyah, their Mathura, and their Kashi, the Mahommedans have their

Makwanpur, (where the tomb of the saint Madar is,) their Ba-

raich, (where the holy Salar, or Salar Masud Ghazi is buried,) and

their Ajmir, (where the attraction is the well known tomb of Khwa-

ja Moyin-ud-din Chishti.) The one set build mat’hs over their

idols: the other, not to be behindhand, raise domes over their saints’

tombs. Inthe mat’hs, you will find Mahants and Gosains: at Ma-

hommedan shrines, Khadims, Mujawirs, and Pirzadas :”—the latter

being a numerous and influential race, whose interests, fortunately

perhaps, are directly opposed to the spread of the doctrines of these

strict and sweeping sectaries.

The rule laid down in the Siratul Mustaqim, respecting the reve-

rence due to a religious instructor and guide, is, that it is quite proper

to adopt such a person, and requisite indeed to those who desire to tread

the path and obtain the rewards of contemplative devotion. But that

he should not be so honoured as to be obeyed in preference to the orders

of the Qoran and the Prophet. In indifferent things, his authority

should be held paramount. ‘ Follow no one,” says the Taqwiatul

Iman, “be he Mujtahid, Imam, Ghaus, Kutb;” (these two are

appellations given to personages supposed to possess a certain high

degree of spiritual power); ‘ Moulavi, Mushaikh, King, Minister,

2Qa2

490 Notice of the Tenets held by [ Nov.

Padri, or Pandit, against the authority of the Qoran and the Tradi-

tions.” These opinions are evidently connected with the pretensions

which Syed Ahmed has been mentioned to have advanced of dis-

regarding the authority of the four Mujtahids, whenever opposed to a

tradition which might appear to be authentic, and never to have

been rescinded.

Respecting the abuses prevalent in regard to the tomhs of saints, and

the offerings and honours paid to them, the Siratul Mustaqim declares

them to be endless—but selects a few for prominent reprehension.

The subjoined is a concise abstract of the diffuse arguments and

illustrations into which it enters on the subject. “ First,” it says,

‘¢ the vulgar think it more of a sacred duty to make long and diffi-

cult pilgrimages from all quarters to the shrines of Saints, than to

perform the pilgrimage to Mecca, though the end of all the trouble

they impose on themselves, may be to run them into heresy and im-

piety, and by consequence to God’s wrath. The performance of

such pilgrimages may certainly yield a little benefit to. the spiri-

tual devotee, but it causes such excessive injury to Mahom-

medans in general, that all ought entirely to abandon it. Se-

condly ; The asking favour and assistance from the Saints of the

shrines, with a belief in their independent power, which is open blas-

phemy. Thirdly; The burning of lamps on tombs, which is actually

believed to have the virtue of rendering prayers acceptable, though the

_ practice is strictly prohibited in traditions of unquestionable authority ;

and all who are careful to choose that as the period for offering their

prayers, if they have not ignorance for their excuse, are clearly Kafirs.

As to the offerings made on behalf of Saints, as at the ceremony of

Fatiha, their origin was good, and according to the law; but the gross-

est abuses have crept in upon them, varying from the lowest, which is,

imposing on oneself as absolutely obligatory what is really not so,

to the greatest, which is openly to sin against God’s Unity. The

devotions of the living doubtless confer benefits on the dead, but

this may be done in two ways: One, by leading a life of general

piety and goodness, by which alone the duty which men owe to God,

the Prophet, their religious instructors, (all in the religious family, to

the Saint, its first founder, are understood to be included,) and their

natural parents will be fully fulfilled, and therefore a pious man may

abandon the performance of Fatihas altogether. The other, by doing

some specific virtuous act for the benefit of the departed. The cere-

mony of Fatiha belongs to this latter class, and if performed with the

sincere desire and hope, assisted by prayer.or not, that the reward of the

1832.] the followers of Syed Ahmed. AOL

gifts distributed, may be conferred on the deceased, it is blameless; but

then there must be no restriction as to times of distribution, kinds of

food, modes of serving it, or the descriptions of persons who are to be

privileged to share in it”—a condition, which at once strikes at the root

of all that is thought most valuable in the usual practices of the Fatiha,

and separates completely Syed Ahmed’s followers from the ordinary

community. It will be seen, how the doctrine tends to break up

families, when one who has adopted it would refuse to join his brother

in the ceremonies thought most binding in commemoration of their

father’s death. A variety of objections are urged against the proprie-

ty of the restrictions which are to be so entirely rejected. The sum

and climax of all is, that the observance of them, replete with abuse

as they are, has come to be considered as alone constituting the

real essence of faith; that it isnot for Saints, but fo them that the offer-

ings are regarded as being made ; and that saints are therefore in reali-

ty worshipped, while God is neglected or forgotten.

Besides the going in pilgrimages to distant tombs, and observing

the common ceremonies of the Fatiha, there are a variety of supersti-

tious practices connected with those usages, and with the veneration

paid to Saints generally, each of which is separately detailed, and

its relinquishment insisted upon in the Taqwiatul Iman. The

modes in which a pure belief in the Unity of God is departed from,

are there classed under the four divisions of “ Ishrak fil Ilm, Ishrak

fil Tasarraf, Ishrak fil Ibadat, Ishrak fil Adat,” or the assigning to

God an associate or sharer in his Omniscience, in his exercise of the

functions of Omnipotence, in the worship rendered to him, or the reve-

rence shewn to him in any of those acts, among the practices of com-

mon life, which are indicative in any degree of sentiments of adoration

orawe towards a superhuman power. Among the most popular practices

springing from reverence for saints, which are denounced as belonging

to one or other of those classes, are the applying to them for any par-

ticular desired blessing, as for children, &c. in the supposition, that

their favour can, in a manner, reverse the order of fate—the dedicating

in vows, and setting apart, animals to be sacrificed as offerings to them,

or in honour of them, and the placing distinguishing marks upon ani-

-mals for that purpose, which is declared to be an impiety, though even

the orders of the law should be complied with by the “ B’ism Illah” being

repeated when the animal is actually killed—the making offerings of

gratitude or propitiation to Saints after the birth of children—the giving

to children names implying that they have been obtained through their

favour ; such as “ Nabi Baksh,” ‘“ Imam Baksh,” ‘“ Madar Baksh,”

492 Notice of the Tenets held by [ Nov.

6 Abdul Nabi,” “Banda Ali,” &c.—the allowing particular locks,

or patches of the hair of children to grow untouched for certain periods,

or the boring their noses or ears, as a mark of devotion to, or

reliance for protection on, a Saint—generally the shewing the same signs

of respect to Saints, as by standing up in repeating their names or

invoking them, as to God himself—the making Sijda, or entire pro-

stration to any one but God—and the making the “ Tawwaf,”’ i. e. a

circuit or number of circuits, round the tombs of Saints, a ceremony

to be performed round the holy Kaaba only.

The doctrine laid down in the Taqwiatul Iman, the authority or in-

fluence of Saints, as respecting intercessors is, that they may undoubt-

edly be privileged to intercede, but only when God has first granted

them permission ; and that the proper course is not to depend at all on

their assistance, or to make any special prayer for their intercession,

but to leave that, with all the other desires or necessities of man, to

God alone, who, should such be requisite, will be careful both to provide

an intercessor, and to give a sanction to his requests.

Of the second class of prevalent abuses, or those which have sprung

from association with Shias, the first is an alleged departure from the

established and orthodox belief respecting the relative superiority and

precedence of the four first Caliphs, Ali being by many considered as

possessing a higher degree of dignity and honour than his predeces-

sors. ‘This error is said to have in part arisen from the circumstance

that most of the families or schools of religious devotees trace their

origin up to Ali. The second abuse of this class consists in the cere-

monies of the Moharram, which are observed as solemnly by very

many of the common Sunis of the country, as by Shias. “ A true

believer,” it is declared, “ should regard the breaking a Tazia, by force,

to be as virtuous an action as destroying idols. If he cannot break

them himself, let him order others to do so. If this even be out of

his power, let him at least detest and abhor them with his whole heart

and soul.”’.

Of the abuses which have sprung from bad and corrupt customs gene-

rally, those first marked for reprobation are the showy or expensive

ceremonies on occasions of festivity and mourning—at marriages, and

after the death of relatives. It is thought better, our author indig-

nantly exclaims, that children should starve at home, than that these

extravagancies should be abandoned. From such customs, a true

Mahommedan should as far as possible keep free. He should labour

indeed zealously to put a stop to them, reverting in such things to

the orders of the Prophet, and the practice of his companions. “ Fol-

1832. | the followers of Syed Ahmed. ~ 493

low the example of Mohammed of Arabia,” is the concluding direction

in this part of the treatise, “¢ and relinquish all the usages of Hind

and Sind, of Fars, or of Rum; a comprehensive exhortation

which gives in a few words the whole spirit of the reforming

doctrines.

Another abuse of this class, attributed to intercourse with Hindus,

is the prohibition of widows from a second marriage. “If there bea

widow among your relations,” (is the injunction on the subject,)

“ make her, if you can, marry a second time, whether she wishes it or

not. Should she persist in refusing, relinquish all kindly intercourse

with her—Shrink not, should you in this depart from the fixed cus-

toms of your ancestors ; God has a higher claim upon you than they.”

It should be mentioned, however, that it is not known how far this in-

" junction is at present respected, or at least practically acted upon, by

the members of the sect generally.

Of the further abuses, referrible to this last division, there may

also be mentioned, from either the Siratul Mustagim, or the

Taqwiatul Iman, the vain glorious relying on the good qualities

of pious ancestors, which is noted as the special sin of Syeds and

Pirzadas—the placing faith in the practices of astrology or sooth-

saying in any shape, or in omens or Fals from the Qoran—the at-

tending to lucky or unlucky days—the worshipping, like the Hin-

dus, their goddess of the small-pox, Sitala, or even [a curious

excess of enthusiasm] the adopting the infidel custom of keep-

ing children from going near others who have the small-pox—the

keeping pictures of the Prophet or of Pirs—the swearing by any one

but God—the using the words Malik and Banda to express the rela-

tion between master and slave—besides which are enumerated very

many others, defying any concise enumeration, against each of which

the Taqwiatul Iman arrays a battery of texts from the Qoran and

traditions, made accessible to all readers by translationsand comments

in the plainest Hindustani.

The above comprises as complete a sketch of the peculiar opinions

of the sect of Syed Ahmed, in all matters of external worship and

morals, as has been found immediately procurable from information

and books to be obtained in Calcutta, and presents doubtless a suffi-

ciently accurate outline of them. The effect which they must have in

separating their professors as distinct communities will be obvious

on the mere perusal of them—for they may be literally said to affect

every important event in which men can be concerned from their cra-

dle to their grave.

A94 Notice of the Tenets held by [ Nov.

It is to be remarked, as a new feature in the history of efforts for

the propagation of Mahommedanism, or for the reform of its corrup-

tions, how extensively the emissaries of this sect have availed them-

selves of the press to disseminate their tenets. The Siratul Musta-

qim, the Taqwiatul Iman, the Hidayatul Mominin, and a little

tract attached to it, named the % Muzhul Kubair wal Bidadat,’

and two other tracts, entitled the “ Nasthatul Muslimin” and “ Tum-

bihul Ghafiitn*,” have all been printed at private presses in Calcutta

or at Hooghly.

The pretensions of Syed Ahmed as a holy Sufi devotee, and his

system of enthusiastic discipline and devotion, remain to be adverted

to—but any thing beyond a very cursory notice of them would be

tedious. A few words will explain all that appears to be peculiar in

the system, and the details here given do not therefore extend beyond

the account which has been stated to be contained in the Siratul Mus-

- taqim, of the rapid progress of this apt scholar in the paths of spiri-

tual knowledge. With this branch of his opinions and instructions, it

is to be supposed, that the great mass of his followers have but little,

if any, minute acquaintance.

It has been mentioned, that the author utterly denounces the infi-

delities, which have attended the more refined and metaphysical specu-

lations of numerous Sufi professors. This denunciation is to the

following purport. “ Among the greatest obstructions of the path

to God are infidel or heretic pretenders to Safiism (Mulhidin i Safi

Shiar), who so far from fearing to violate the commands of the law,

make the doing so their habit and characteristic —who teach and learn

detestable, innovating, impious exercises or practices—and propa-

gate infidelity ({lhad) in the world; Let such be dealt with according

to their deeds. Let those who deserve death, be put to death ; and let

those who merit the other grades of punishment (Tazirwa Tambih)

receive them. If it be not in your power to enforce the orders of the

law, look on such persons with loathing, and regard the very sight of

them as an abomination.””— On the question of the identity of God and

matter—an opinion very prevalent among Sifis—it is declared, that

the point is one which it is worse than useless to be constantly discuss-

ing, but that what has been said respecting it by the illustrious

authorities of .Sufiism—the Akabr i Tariqat—does not go beyond

* Since this paper went to Press, the writer has seen another Treatise printed

in the course of Jast year, the Midyatul Masdil, or the hundred questions: be-

ing auswers by Shékh Mohammed Ishak, a grandson of Shah Abdél Aziz, to -

queries stated to have been put to him by some of the Royal family at Delhi.

1832. } the followers of Syed Ahmed. 495

this, that created things are not to be considered as actually one with

the Deity (eyn 7 hagq), though they have their stability and perma-

nence in him, and are the muzahir z sifat, the media in which he has

chosen to manifest his qualities.

The foundation of spiritual progress in the school of Syed Ahmed,

as with Sufis generally, is an entire abstraction from personal or worldly

reflectionsand interests, and an ardent and unceasing adoration of, and

love for, the Deity. But it is held to be important to distinguish between

two kinds of love, of which our nature is capable, and which are of sepa-

rate characters, though, with a true saint, like Syed Ahmed, they may

exist, and be cultivated in full vigour together; and the difference be-

tween these and the relative value of the two are stated to have been too

much lost sight of, especially in these later days. ‘The one designated

hubbi tshki, has its origin in feeling and passion, in the longing

of the soul to rejoin its divine source; the other, termed hubbi

mani or hubbi agli, (to which an indirect preference is given,)

springs from the intense admiration and affection, with which it is

inherent in the constitution of man’s reason and perceptions, that he

should regard a Being possessing all the qualities of beneficence, power,

and infinite perfection, which are combined in God. Of the former love,

the aim and reward are a certain mystical absorption in or junction with

the Deity, accompanied by the highest degrees of spiritual knowledge

and dignity. Of the latter, the result is an entire devotion of thought and

purpose to the service of God, which is recompensed by its possessor

being employed as an inspired and prominent instrument for work-

ing the divine will, or promulgating the divine commands, in the world.

The former is declared to have been the special state and ornament of

the Oulia or saints, and the exercises by which it is to be perfected

are therefore termed the rahi wilayat ; the latter was the peculiar at-

tribute of the various Ambia, or prophets and messengers to man, and

the modes of acquiring and strengthening it, to the degree to which it

can now be carried, are termed the rahi nabiwat.

So much of introduction explanatory of the nature of these fanciful

opinions has been necessary to render intelligible the following ab-

stract of the history of Syed Ahmed’s progress towards the perfec-

tion of the saintly character. It will seem strange, that such wild de-

lusions should ever have received* acceptance, which it must be sup-

* It is not known, that the Sir4tul Mastaqim, though printed, has any ex-

tensive circulation. The pretensions which it puts forward for Syed Ahmed, are

however, the same as those which he actually advanced for himself, and on which

496 Notice of the Tenets held by [Nov.

posed that they in some degree did from the reputation which this

fanatic generally acquired. The aim of the whole toserve his object of

establishing a claim to a high mission, and attracting followers, is very

obvious; but the familiarity with which his alleged intercourse with

the Deity is spoken of would, to our notions, indicate rather a near ap-

proach to irreverence than the excess of devotional awe, which is

inculcated throughout this treatise. ‘The names which occur of the

three £Ufi schools, the Kadiria, the Chishtia, and Nakshbandia, have

been already explained.

“ Let it be known,” says Mohammed Ismael, “ that all the perfec-

tions of the Tariq inabiiwat were implanted from his birth in the nature

of this holy man, as evidenced by the delight which he took in the ex-

ercises of piety, and practice of virtue from his childhood. At length,

when he was admitted into the society of the venerated Shékh Abdul

Aziz, (who received him as a disciple into the Nakshbandia school,) by

the propitious effects and influence* of the enlightened spirit of his in-

structor, theconcealed excellencies of his nature developed themselves in

a rapid succession of wonders. Of these, the first was that he saw the

Prophet himself in a dream, who fed him with three datesin succession,

which circumstance he knew to be true by the effect which he found to

be remaining (on his palate, it is to be supposed) when he awoke.

This was the commencement of his progress in the Tarig i nabuwat.

A further eminent advance in it was gained by him from the follow-

ing event: In another dream, he saw the sainted Ali and the holy

daughter of the Prophet, Fatima—when the former bathed him with

his own sacred hands, and washed him carefully, as parents wash their

children, and the latter clothed him in garments of exceeding richness.

On this the favour and acceptance, which had been set apart for him

from eternity, became directly visible, and he was taken under the

he founded his claim as the head of a new school and sect. The genealogical tree

of his religious family, a copy of which, like other religious teachers, he consigned

to each of his disciples, contains statements of his communications with the Deity

and with the spirits of saints, similar to those of the passage here translated. It

gives also the names of the different Pirs of each religious stock in which he pro-

fessed initiation, up to their respective founders: his claims being thus of two

kinds, one of direct communication from the spirits of the several saints, the other

of initiation in the ordinary mode.

* The words are “‘ Barakat i tawajjihdt.” ‘* Tawajjdh’’ is used in the passage

in a technical Safi meaning, implying the devotion by a teacher of all the contem-

plative powers of his mind to the object of communicating his own illuminations

to his disciple, which it is supposed that he has the faculty of doing.

1832. ] the followers of Syed Ahmed. 497

‘immediate guidance and guardianship of God. One wonder followed

upon another, tillone day the Deity taking his right-hand with his own

arm of power, and placing before him some of the rare treasures of

heaven, said to him, ‘ This [ have given to you, and I shall give you

yet more.’ About this time, some one entreated urgently to be received

by him as a religious disciple; when he put off giving a final answer

for a few days, and in the interim, applied with the eye of contempla-

tion to God, saying, ‘ You have taken my hand, which whoever in this

world does*, attends always to the obligation thereby assumed, and

what relation can the virtues of mortals bear to the qualities of God ?

What course then is it your will that I should follow towards this man

who desires to adopt me as his religious guide ?? The reply from God

to this application was, ‘ Should thousands and thousands seek to be

your followers, I shall provide for (or be sufficient to) them all.’ And in

this way event crowded on event with him, and fresh miracle upon mi-

racle, till he reached the ultimate perfection of the Tariq i nabiwat,

and attained to inspired knowledge.

Next as to the Tariq i wilayat—respecting this it is to be understood,

that the modes of exercise and contemplation followed in each of the se-

parate schools lead to a certain peculiar capacity of connection in the spi-

rit of the devotee with the Deity, which ordinarily is not acquired till

after all those preparations have been gone through. But occasionally

with some higher or more favoured spirits, this capacity precedes any

use of preparatory discipline. So it was with Syed Ahmed. In the

Kadiria and Nakshbandia schools, it was gained in a few hours, and

directly from communication by the spirits of the founders of those

schools—they having contended for nearly a month with each other for

the exclusive possession of him, and having in the end agreed to descend

upon him together. In the Chishtia school, its acquisition was com-

menced by communication from the spirit of the revered Kutbul aktab

Khwajat Bakhtiar Kaki, when Syed Ahmed was sitting in con-

templation on the tomb of that saint, and it was afterwards perfected

by communication from God himself. This happened to him in the

Akberabadi Masjid at Delhi, when he was engaged in devout con-

templation with a number of his followers, among whom the writer,

* The form is that by which a Murshid, or religious guide, receives the adher-

ence of his followers.

+ He was a celebrated Saint of the school.

2R.2

498 Notice of the Tenets, &c. [Nov.

Mohammed Ismael, himself was. When the assembly had broken up,

he told the writer what had occurred in the course of it, viz. that God

had himself vouchsafed directly to complete what had remained im-

perfect in his knowledge in the Chishtia school. From that time he

began giving instructions in that school also, and introduced of himself

the new and more expeditious method of performing its exercises, which

has been described in this treatise,”

The above is a sufficient specimen of the extravagances of enthusiasm

or imposture which pervade the book. What is claimed as the peculiari-

ty of the system which it explains, consisting of the distinction drawn be-

tween the two kinds of love towards the Deity, by which a devotee may

be actuated, and of the grades of spiritual distinction to which they

severally lead, much of it is occupied by expositions and illustrations

of the grounds on which that distinction rests. These form the sub-

ject of the first chapter. The second chapter treats of the religious

and moral duties and observances, the exercise of which prepares the

devotee for spiritual contemplation. ‘The third relates to the modes of

contemplation prescribed by Syed Ahmed, for attaining to the per-

fections of the Tariq i wilayat, with reference to the peculiarities of

each of the several prevalent schools, and contains much which might

be thought curious, could its technical details be brought within any

short compass. ‘The fourth describes the process of acquiring the ex-

cellencies of the Tariq i nabuwat, and a Khdtim or conclusion sets

forth the wonders experienced by Syed Ahmed himself, in the pas-

sage which has just been translated.

It has only to be added, that the treatise professes to have been

written throughout, though not under the dictation, yet under the im-

mediate eye and revision of Syed Ahmed. He, it is stated, having

been endowed with a nature resembling in all respects that of the Pro-

phet himself, was unacquainted with the forms and technicalities of

worldly science. So that, to render the subject intelligible to general

readers, his sayings and lessons have not been given exactly as he ut-

tered them, but have been explained and arranged by the author ac-

cording to the ordinarily understood rules of composition. The whole

however was carefully read over to, and corrected by, him before being

given to the world.

J. R.C.

1832. ] Description of an Instrument for trisecting Angles. 499

Il.— Description of an Instrument for trisecting Angles. By

Lieut. T. S. Burt, Engineers.

I have the pleasure of sending you, for insertion in the Asiatic Jour-

nal, a description of an instrument I have lately made for trisecting

any plane angle, which I should not probably have been induced to

trouble you with, had I not seen, in the United Service Journal, for

January last, an account of Captain Burton’s problems for effecting the

trisection, but they are all, you will have perceived, feunded on trials,

which in these cases are not allowed: and also, in the same volume,

Major Mitchell’s problem; but his attemptis very easily disproved,

notwithstanding the confidence with which he gives it forth, as the

true mode of trisecting an acute angle, which it is well known can-

not be effected geometrically, and which, moreover, has been proved

to be impossible.

Description. The accompanying Plate XII. fig. 1, exhibits a sketch

of the instrument or trisector, which consists of four pieces of brass

connected together at, but moveable on the points A and O. The leg

or piece, A B, passing through a groove or opening at the extremity

of the leg O B, in order that it may allow of O B being slided at B,

over and along its length. The piece A D is made rather thinner than

the others to admit of its passing underneath O B, whenever OB is

made to slide along the leg A B towards A, as above noticed. A D is

moveable on the point A.

This instrument will trisect any angle from 1° to 1800, and the cor-

rectness of its principle is evident from the annexed diagram, (fig. 2.)

It may not seem irrelevant to remark, that No. 22, volume [. of the

Mechanic’s Magazine, contains the description of an instrument for per-

forming a similar operation, invented in the year 1824; but that ma-

chine contains, of necessity, no less than 14 pieces, (see note at the end

of this statement,) and its principle of construction is quite differ-

ent from that of this instrument, which, as above stated, consists of only

four pieces, and may, as I shall hereafter shew, be reduced to three.

Application. Leta oc, fig. 2, be any angle required to be trisected.

Draw the chord a c, and lay the leg of the trisector, A O, upon one side

ao of the angle, so that the point A of the instrument may coincide

with the point a of the given angle, and O with 0, respectively. Next,

place the leg A D, which, as before described, is moveable on the point

A, along the chord ac, without paying any regard to the length of

this chord, until the leg and the chord coincide. Then slide the leg

500 Description of an Instrument for trisecting Angles, [ Nov.

O B, which is also moveable on the point O, until A D becomes equal

to A B; this can be easily effected, (because A D & A B have each a

scale of equal parts (of degrees) attached to them, commencing from

A.) The given angle aocis now trisected, and A OB is the third

part of it.

Proof. The two triangles ao b, abd, are equiangular, for the

angle a@6d is common to both triangles, as well as equal, both

to the angle 5 ao, (because rad. 6 o—= rad. a o,) and to the angle bd a,

(because a 6b =ad, by construction or application of the instrument.)

The two triangles, having 2 angles in the one, equal to two angles in the

other, have therefore their third angles equal, namely, the angle a o 5b

=angle bad. But the angle 6 a d, at the circumference of the circle

abc, being measured by half the arc it stands upon, 6 ¢, is half of

the angle b oc, at the centre of the same circle, measured by the whole

arc bc; therefore, the angle a o J, its equal, is half of the same angle

6 oc, or one-third of the whole angle a oc, which was to be trisected.

The legs of the instrument may be reduced, in number, to three, thus

—The piece A B is absolutely necessary to the first construction, in

order to affix a scale of equal parts to A D, similar to that upon A B,

(one of degrees is the best, because the angle can then be read off, not

forgetting, in dividing it, that A D is to be considered the chord of

an arc ; but as soon as the parallels have been cut upon both legs, A B

becomes superfluous.

To show this, I will state how A D is divided ;—1st, set off upon AB

a scale of equal parts, making their productions pass through the cen-

tre O, at whatever position of the instrument, but governed by O B.

Qdly, when thes: have been cut upon the leg A B, set off an equal

scale upon the other leg A D, and make their productions pass through

the corresponding lines upon AB, conveying to the centre O like-

wise.

This being done, it must be evident, that the subsequent use of

A B issuperfluous, because the leg O B, after it has been placed pa-

rallel to, that is, immediately over and upon, any line that has been

cut upon A D, and that was made by construction, to pass through

corresponding parallels on the leg A B,no longer requires, for this very

reason, the aid of the latter piece ; so that the trisector, in this state,

will, as before mentioned, consist of only three pieces, (as shewn in fig.

3.) But, in this case, having applied A O and A D, as before, to the

side and chord of the angle to be trisected, O B must be moved to-

wards A, until O B become parallel to, or coincide with one of these

ee ee ee

me etd oe |.'7

Pat es . ¢ “i tet

Nic ehee nee eta ~ Trea ae Ca ai) ae

1832. ] Ou the Trisection of Angles. 501

lines of equal parts, which are cut upon the piece A D, and then the

given angle will be trisected.

Note.—Fig. 4 is asketch of the instrument above alluded to : it is copied from

_ the Ist volume of the Mechanic’s Magazine.

III.—On the Trisection of Angles. By Mr. W. Masters, Verulam

Academy.

In one of the late numbers .of the United Service Journal, there is

an article on the trisection of an angle, written by a Major in the

British Army, resident at New South Wales. This gentleman be-

lieves he has solved the problem, and demonstrated his solution,

which is in substance as follows :

Let A BC be the angle to be trisected ; from C as a centre, and

with any radius C B describe acircle; produce A C, BC, to Eand D;

join E B; trisect the are A Bin F; join C Fand DF, and pro-

duce the line D F, till it meets the line E B produced in H ; join CH;

C H cuts the arc A Bin I; the arc B I is one-third of the arc AB:

this is his solution of the problem. In the demonstration, he pro-

ceeds to say, take B K=—B C, and from the centre K, with the radius

K B, describe a circle, &c. &c. The demonstration appears to be

complete, and the gentleman exults at his success; but it escapes

his sagacity, that his demonstration is built upon the hypothesis, that

the circle K. passes through the point H. Now, this is a very important

point ; the whole solution depends upon it: it is obtained by the

intersection of the lines E B and D F produced. My object is to

prove, that the locus of the point of intersection, of the two lines E B

and D F, isnot the circumference of a circle, which fee through B,

and ak radius B K is equal to B C.

If possible, let the point H be in the circumference of the circle K,

‘described as stated above.

3B = KB B.C = C D.

+ BK.4.K H= BC, + C D=B_D ; but

BK+KH>BH..BD>BH. Again

7 EBD=BHD+ BDH and

EBD=BC FP, because E H || C F,

« BCF=BHD+BDH; but

BCF=/BDF.BDH=BHD

502 On the Trisection of Angles, [ Nov.

.. B D = BH, and it has been proved to be greater, which is ab-

surd. Therefore the point of intersection of E B and D F is not in the

circumference of the circle K, and therefore, a line, H C, drawn from

this point to the centre C, does not cut off a third part B I of the arc

A B ; because

If B 1 be a third part of the arc A B, the locus of the intersection

of CI with E B is the circumference of a circle passing through B,

whose radius B K is equal to B C.

Let B C I be the one-third of B C A, and let C I and E B produc-

ed meet any where in H ; (it iseasy to prove, that they will meet in

that direction :) join E J, and through B draw B K || to ET.

ZLCKB=CIE=]CEI=3ACI=>1CB. BG. K.

Agin ZCKB=KCB=2TEB=2K BH; but

ACK B= KBH+ KHER] KH Bo. BH B,

and .-. K is the centre of a circle passing through H and B, and having

its radius BK = to B C.

The Major, therefore, has not trisected the angle: I believe, the

problem remains just as it was before the Major took it in hand.

I hope I may be allowed to correct an error, relating to the present

subject, into which many fall, who have not leisure to examine geome-

trical theories, &c., but yet have occasion to employ them. To tri-

sect an angle, they are directed by some treatises, (Adam’s Geometrical

Essays, I believe, is one) to find an arc that is equal to the third part of

the given arc, and to lay it off on the given arc ; and a cumbersome mode

is taught of finding this required arc, which is easily obtained thus :

Let D A F be the given angle ; take A D = any length = 3 (for

instance) ; and take A B=+4 A D=1, and describe the circles

DFE, BG C; then according to Newton’s 5th lemma, A B:

AD::arceBG:arcBF..arc BG=tare DF. Now the diffi-

culty is to lay off the arc B G upon the arc D F, so as to divide D F in-

to three equal arcs. Recourse is had to a pair of compasses ; but it is

very plain, that the compasses measure only the chord of B G, which

is a straight line, and not the arc itself, which is acurve, Let the

right angle D A E be trisected after this manner, and it will be found,

that the chord B C will not answer the purpose. If it do, each por-

tion of the arc being equal to 30°, BC = / 2 = 141, &e. will

be the chord of 30° ; whereas the chord of 30° to the radius 3 is equal

to 1.55, &c.

1832.] Note on Indian Saline Deposits. 503

V.—Note on Indian Saline Deposits. By Mr. Henry Harpur Spry,

' Bengal Medical Service.

[Read 3rd October.]

In the fourth number of the Journal of the Asiatic Society, a note

was published by the Rey. R. Everest on Indian saline deposits, in

which particular attention was directed by that gentleman to the

large quantities of carbonate of soda found in a plain about a mile to

the west of Ghazipur. He states also, that “ As the sulphate of soda,

is said to be collected in large quantities, from the soil of the ba-

saltic districts on the western side of India, it is not improbable, that

_ these saline deposits are distributed over the peninsula of India co-

extensively with the nodules of kankar (corbonate of lime), and hy-

drated iron ore.”

I have never met with any saline deposits among the trap formations

of this district; but I am induced to believe the following notice re-

garding the sulphate of soda deposit in the Gangetic portion of the

Oude territory, contiguous to Cawnpore, may not be unacceptable.

This saline deposit abounds in very large quantities about Unau,

and is found in the ravines all the way on to Sultanpur. It has a

light earthy, and sometimes a dirty white, appearance in the mass, and

its fracture is brittle. It yields by the common native process full 50

per cent. of pure Glauber’s salt, of which quantities are annually ma-

nufactured by them ; and on analysis I found 200 parts to contain of

Dried Sulphate of soda, ...... erie oie ois Ae

Mianatetor Soda, 2. Oi ed. 6. 6.0

Alumina,’’:.... Sk ee: Marae ee « 25.0

race ‘of *itans3. 2 S's ed ah 1.5

Palteraas* Hanh ns. ne, 9o ore cites oc SX 9.0

Trace of lime,....... 1 oe eee 1.0

BIOS OP oe ee ta are ot pas Neietete oes 12.0

200.4

The kankar formation is very abundant along the Cawnpore bank

of the Ganges, but the new sandstone formation of Bundelkhand, (which

is the nearest approach I am aware of,) must be further, even from the

sulphate of soda deposit of Unau, than the Ghazipur saline deposit

described by the Rev. R. Everest.

Sagar, Aug. 14, 1832.

504: Eclipses of Jupiter’s Satellites. ~ [Nov.:

VI.—Eclipses of Jupiter's Satellites.

(Observed at Chuprah, Lat. 25° 47’ 26’ N., Long. 5h. 39m. 7s. E. by Mr. Walter

Ewer. |

Mean Time. Difference from

hem 5. Greenwich.

2nd October, Emersion of Sat. If. at 7 57 56.3 very clear. 5 39 04.3

3rd Ditto, Emersion of Sat. I. at 9 53 50 ditto. 5 39 12

19th Ditto, Ditto at 8 13 32 ditto. 5 39 02

Troughton’s 5 feet achromatic, power about 200, aperture 3.8 inches. This teles-

cope has been 25 years in the country, and is in excellent order.

Observations in Calcutta.

19th October, 1832.—On this day by the Ephemeris the whole of

Jupiter’s satellites were to be eclipsed, and of the phenomena no less

than four out of six, viz. two immersions and two emersions, should

have been visible at Calcutta. The weather having been unusually

fine and clear for some days past, it was thought to be a good oppor-

tunity for trying the power of the superb reflecting telescope, lately

presented to Mr. James Calder, by Sir John Herschell:—one of

the last made under his father’s directions. ‘The following gentle-

men undertook to make simultaneous observations with their own

telescopes, by way of ascertaining the extent of uncertainty in the use

of different instruments under precisely similar circumstances: Captain

D. Ross, Marine Surveyor General, at his residence in Chowringhee,

and his assistant Lieut. Lloyd, with a second telescope at the same.

place; Captain Wilcox, Mr. Logan, and Lieutenant Waugh, at the

Surveyor General’s office, in Park Street; Mr. H. Barrow, H. C. Mathe-

matical instrument maker, in Loudon Street, Chowringhee ; and Mr.

Gray, at his observatory in Garstin’s Buildings; while Lieut. Pember-

ton with his own telescope, Mr. Gordon with his, and myself at the large

reflector, should make the observation at Mr, Calder’s residence in Es-

planade-row.

The evening proved hazy, and it was only at intervals that Jupiter

could be seen to advantage ; still, however, with all three telescopes,

and particularly with the large reflector, the belts and satellites were

distinctly visible through the haze. The immersion of the fourth

satellite expected at 8h. 17m. 30s. was not visible on account of the mist

—indeed the satellite had disappeared several minutes previously, or

when we first stationed ourselves at our glasses. ‘I'he emersion of the

same at 1lh. 3m. 20s. and the immersion of the third at 16h. 48m. 9s.

were likewise lost from the same cause; so that the emersion of the first

satellite, was the only one we were fortunate enough to obtain. The

sky too was less hazy at that moment, and the belts were distinctly

1832.] Eclipses of Jupiter’s Satellites. 505

marked : still the observation was under unfavourable circumstances,

and affords results applicable only to such. To save trouble all the obser-

vations have been reduced to the same meridian, namely, that of the

Ochterlony monument, by applying—2 sec. to those of the Surveyor-

Genl. Capt. Ross, and Mr. Barrow, and + 1 sec. to those of Mr. Gray:.

during the remainder of the month other observations were made in a

similar manner :—they have been reduced to the same meridian, and

the telescopes used are distinguished by letters of reference. P.

19th October.—Emersion of Jupiter’s first satellite, Calcutta.

Observer. Telescope. Aperture. Power. Note. Obs. Me. Ti. Longitude.

Prinsep, a. ten-foot reflector 9 in. 160 hazy 8 27 58 “5 53 28

Pemberton, 4. four-foot achrom. 3.7 110 do. 8 27 59 5 53 29

Gray, c. 42 in. achromatic, 2.7 80 do. 8 28 12 5 53 42

Logan, c. 42'in. dittoy .... 2:7 80 do. 8 28 05 5 53 35

Ross, ee AAvin: ditto, ous’ 2.7 80 dull glass 8 28 37 5 54 07

26th October—Emersion of I Sat. observed in Calcutta.

At the Surv. Gen.’s, Wilcox, c. (42. in. 2.7 ap. 80 p.] 10 23 15 5 53 05

Waugh, ec. 10 23 41 5 53 31

Logan, Cc. 10 23° 25° 5 53 15

At Mr. Calder’s, Pemberton, 8. [4 ft. achr.] 10 24 09 5 gi

Prinsep, a. [10 ft. ref.] 10 24 anf 28 ae

At Mr. Gray’s, Gray, c. 10 24 01 5 53 51

drifting clouds were passing the planet from the N. W. at the moment, and when

the satellite was first seen, it had evidently been some seconds out of eclipse.

. There were eight seconds between the two last observations, which was about

the time occupied by the cloud in passing from one station to the other. The sky

_ was cloudless in Chowringhee.

3rd Nov.—Emersion of II Sat. observed by Mr. Gray, tel. °c.

4th Nov.—Emersion of I Sat. observed ;

By Captain Ross, with telescope c. 42 inches. 6 48 38 5 53 46

By Lieut. Lloyd, with the telescope used by Captain Ross

on the 19th ultimo, the object glass tarnished, the emersion

was not visible until 14 seconds after. The evening was very

favorable and clear.

By Mr. Logan, at the Sur. Gl. office. c. 648 12 5 53 20

10h Nov.—Calcutta, very clear sky ; moonlight, (16th day.)

Emersion of III. Sat. Gray, telescope ce. very good 754 5 5 53 33

Gordon, d. 60 in. 3.7 ap. 110 p. doubtful, 754 56 5 54 34

Logan, d. 60in. 3.7 ap. 99 p. moonlight, 7 53 41 5 53 19

Em. II. Sat. Prinsep, 10 feet Refl. a. bad focus, 10 27 17 5 52 53

Gordon, b. good, 10 27 27 5 53 03

Gray, e. good, 10 27 27 5 53 03

Logan, e. 10 27 32 5 53 08

- 2s2

506° Meteorological Observations. [Nov.

11th Nov.—Em. I. Sat. Prinsep, b. very good, 8 43 57 5 53 12

Gordon, d. do. 8 44 05 5 53 20

Logan, d. do. 8 43 48 5 53 03

Barrow, (power 70) ¢. do. 8 44 32 5 53 47

17th Nov. Imm. III. Sat. Barrow, ce. do. 9 043 5 54 34

18th Nov.—Em.I. Sat. Gordon, d. veryclear, 10 40 01 5 53 19

Prinsep, 5. do. 10 39 47 5 53 05

Wilcox, c. do. 10 39 50 5.53 08

Logan, d. do. 10 39 43 5 53 01

Barrow, c. do. 10 40 06 5 53 24

27th Nov.—Em.I. Sat. Gray, c. good, 7, 9..10° (5:53, 10

Logan, ec. doubtful, 7 515 5 53 32

Barrow, c. do. 7. DEee DNS Oo

VII.—Abstract of Observations of the Temperature, Pressure, and Hy-

grometrical state of the Air in the vicinity of Dehli. By Major Oliver.

The observations were made at various places within the Dehli

territory, not exceeding 50 miles distance from the city, and generally

much less. It would of course have been more satisfactory had they

been made at one and the same place, but I was not stationary and

had not always the opportunity of making my observations at the most

favourable hours: notwithstanding these disadvantages, I trust it will

be thought that the mean results are at least as consistent as could

reasonably be expected.

Referring to table I, my barometer is one of Dollond’s: it was

compared five or six years ago with the one then used in the

Surveyor General’s office, when it stood -055 higher than the latter :

the reduction has been made accordingly.

during these eleven months, appears to be too little ; but on taking the

mean of a long series of observations made in camp, I find the mean

is ‘103. I had no observations at Gurgaon in April, but as the Baro-

meter in that month stands at nearly its mean height, the want of these

is perhaps of little consequence. It will be observed, that there is an

extreme difference of about 120 feet in the elevation of Gurgaon

above Calcutta, as deduced from the observations at the two places for

the several months: when it is considered that each of the results in

the Table is deduced from the mean of about sixty observations at

each place, it is evident how little dependence can be placed on the

results of single observations at places so far distant*,

The mean daily range

* The difference of the altitudes deduced from the monthly means, is just of the

nature which was anticipated in consequence of the annual barometrical range in-

creasing with the latitude; (vide page 30 of this Journal,) for all places in India

north of Calcutta, the summer observations will give too high an altitude,—the

winter, one too low: for southern latitudes the reverse will occur. We hope to fur-

nish a correction for this hereafter—Ep.

1832. | in the vicinity of Dehli. 507°

The observations in table I[, were made at various places within the

limits already mentioned. The mean temperature of each month has

been deduced generally, from the observations at sunrise and 2} p.m. ;

but occasionally (when others were wanting) from the observation at

sunset only ; in the latter case 3° have been deducted from the tem-

perature at that time; as I find from the mean ofa long series of

observations, that the temperature at sunset is 3° above the mean of

maximum and minimum. For the temperature of the night I have

taken the mean of sunset and sunrise.

In Table III, for the dew points (headed S in the table) I have used

1.233

the formula (f= F’—6-056

July 1829, page 192, altering the constant 6.056 to 5.84, for, when I

received this number of the GrEanines, having by me Daniell’s Meteo-

rological Essays, and finding that the table of the force of vapour

there given, page 596, differed from the one used by the author of the

valuable paper above referred to, I had the curiosity to calculate the

5p: elven in the GLEANINGs for

value of 3 (see the papersame page) and found it = 5.84; the dif-

ference is not perhaps very material, but as I have always used the

table of the force of vapour given in Daniell’s Essay above quoted, I

thought it more consistent to use the constant modified accordingly,

The two last columns of table III, (mean dew point and mean compa-

fative tension) have been thus formed: the mean dew point is the

mean of all the observations (or rather of all the results derived from

the wet thermometer depressions) for several months: the force of

vapour answering to the mean dew point, divided by that answering

to the mean temperature of the month, gives the mean comparative

tension. I have adopted this mode, not only from my having by neces-

sity or choice so often altered my hours of observing, but from the

consideration that as the dew point generally varies but little during

the day, it appeared to me that it would be more accurate to deduce

the mean comparative tensions from even one observation of the dew

point and the mean temperature, than by taking it as the mean of

results calculated for any two or more hours, not excepting even sun-

rise and 24r~.m. How far I may be right in this, I leave to more

competent judges to decide.

Table IV, is nothing more than an abstract of table III, the force of

vapour at the dew point being substituted for the dew point itself. It

appears, that May is the driest and August the dampest month, consi-

dering the comparative tensions as the fairest scale of the humidity of

503° Meteorological Observations [Nov.

the air. There is a less quantity of aqueous vapour in a given quantity

of air in January than in May, but the difference of temperature

makes the drying power of the air in the latter month superior to that

in the former. I find by a rough calculation that the weight of aque-

ous vapour in a cubic foot of air varies from 3-3 grains in January to

10.3 in August. Comparing the driest month at Dehli with the driest

in Calcutta, I find the ratio as 5 to 3 nearly : the dampest month is

nearly the same at both places, and the mean of the year as 5 to 4

nearly : I should have expected a much eae difference.

I have added a table of the factor (5-842 84 ——— ) for finding the

ew point from observations of the See of the air and that of

the wet thermometer ; also the table of the force of vapour which I

have used in my reductions: should these be thought worth printing,

it will be as well to give an example of their use to prevent misconcep-

tion. Suppose the temperature of the air 100°, that of the wet ther-

mometer 70° .. D = 30°, the barometer standing at 27-0 inch; required

the dew point and comparative tension ?

For wet thermometer 70° and D = 30° Table IV. gives 402

* For barometer 27.0 inch, deduct *402 x *1= "040

"362

Force of vapour at 70° 723

Dew point 49°.9—force of vapour answering thereto == °361 log. = 9°55751

Force of vapour at temp. of air 1000 = 1°874 colog. = 9°72723

Comparative tension = 0.193 == 9°28474

There I. Barometer reduced to 32°, and Temperature of the external Air observed

at Gurgaon.

Monthly } Elevation of

Year and 10 Ae Me 4PM Merane Daily |difference] Gurgaon

Month. range of | from above Cal-

= Bar. mean. Cutta-

Bar. Temp Bar. Temp: Bar. Temp.

in Q in 4 in. C in. in, Feet.

May, 1829. |28.832'100.6 |28.712 107.6 | 28.772|104.1 | .120/—.182] 868

June, .... 813) 96.1 714.100.5 763] 98.3 .099|— .191 841

July, oo. we 717| 84.0 -646| 87.0 .682) 85.5 -071|— .272 855

August, .. 791) 83.9 711) 85.8 751} 84.8 -080/— .203 803

September, } .882) 86.6 798) 91.7 840) 89.2 084 114 807 -

October, .. | 29.034; 84.5 955) 91.1 995) 87.8 079 041 808

November, .223| 72.7 | 29.143) 79.1 | 29.183) 75.9 080

December, .255| 62.4 158) 71.3 .207| 66.8 079

Jan. 1830.] .230| 66.0 140} 74.9 185] 70.5 090

February, .153] 69.8 -067| 76.0 -110| 72.9 -086

March, .. 052] 77.3. | 28.963; 83.4 | .008] 80.4 | 089

April, ....

gre ete Blas

1832.] in the vicinity of Dehli. 509

TasLeE II. Mean Temperature of each month for three years, as observed at various

places in the vicinity of Dehli.

1827. 1828. 1829. MEAN. Dire. rROM inane

night. | day.) night. “aay. night. | day night. day. night. -

0 ° 0 0 9 v e ° °o

January, ..|56.7 | 51.4 [53.7 | 50.3 (58.4 | 53.5 | 56.3 | 51.7 -— 19.7/— 19.1 -

March,. 74.0 | 66.0 |70.6 | 63.8 |73.0| 66.0 | 72.5 | 65.3 J— 3.5|— 5.5

April, ..../83.8 | 75.5 |79.3| 74.2 |86.6| 77.9 | 83.2 | 75.9 |--+ 7.2/4+- 5.1 -

DT oly m9» 90.4] .. 87.0 | 82.2 |96.7 | 88.9 | 91.4 | 85.6 |-4+ 15.4|+4+ 14.8

June, 91.7 93.7 | 90.4 |92.0| 90.0 | 92.5 | 902 |-+4- 16.5|-+4 19.4

ly, sp cie\s 90.1 88.2 | 85.5 |79.7 | 80.6 | 86.0 | 83.0 + 10.0/-+ 12.2

August, 85.5 .. |83.6} 80.9 |82.5 | 79.4 | 83.9 | 80.1 |4+ 7.9/4 9.3

September, [83.2 | 79.3 |85.2] .. (81.7| 77.6 | 83.4 | 78.5 |-- 7.4|-+- 7.7-

October, ..|77.7 | 70.2 |76.2| 71.6 (77.5| 72.4 | 77.1 | 714 |4 1.1|/-+4 0.6-

November, |65.7 | 60.3 |65.2 | 55.2 (65.8; 61.7 | 65.6 | 59.1 |— 10.4|/— 11.7.

Dera: we) So.b (625 ) 54.8 (57.3%852.1 ; 58.9 153.3 17 175"

Means... ..|76.8 75.2 \76.1| 71.3 | 76.0 | 70.8

The mean of six observations of the temperature of water in wells from 74 to,

94 feet deep gives 74°.0: varying from 71° to 78°,

Tasce III. Temperature of the Air—Depression of Moist Thermometer (D), Point

of Saturation (S), or the dew Point, and mean comparative Tension, (T.)

SUNRISE 10 A. M. Noon.

Year and Month. “Temp. | D. BES.) Temp. |) Gib .).. bach. emp | ansaant aee

° o 0 aL (re eT |

April, 1327. .,..| 67:0 8.9 | 52°4

LESS Se ae ce We ee) 9.9 | 63.5

RUE OE Fie his, 5,015 «0 82.1 9.4 | 69.0

{ea aa 82.1 6.3 | 73.8

PURSE esis s+ 5. 79.3 2.7 | 79.9

September,...... 74.9 2.3 | 72.0

October; —_....... 61.5 4.9 | 53.8

November, ...... 49.7 4.1 | 42.4

December, ...... 46.5 0.8 | 45.2

January, 1828. ..| 43.8 1.2} 41.8

February, ...... 42.3 1.5 | 39.7

WYATON yo) cae 52.5 5.1 | 43.3

Sa eee 63.1 8.3 | 48.7

9 AA 71.3 | 14.0} 46.0

PUTO ee siple-a:v:ies »-0 82.8 | 11.9] 65.5] 96.5 | 20.7} 66.0

“ete Sa 81.7 5.2| 75.0] 92.3 | 12.6} 75.4

UPTISty 2... 4. 78.4 0.8] 77.5] 85.0 6.0 | 77.3

September, ...... 87.0 7.8 | 76.8

October, 5.42"... 87.0 | 14.0 | 66.8

November, ...... 72.0 | 14.0} 47.21 76.0 | 17.0 | 44.8 °

December, ...... 73.0 | 13.0 | 50.8

January, 1829. .. 68.0 | 12.0 | 46.4

February, ...... 74.0 | 15.0 | 47.3

ae 90.0 | 23.2 | 50.2

April, .......... 99.0 | 30.0 | 45.5

a 100.6 | 26.0 | 60.2

Yoon ae A 96.1 | 17.5; 71.7

July, + 84.0 | 5.0| 77.7

UMTS Gt coos «= 83.9 4.9 | 77.7

September,...... 86.6 | 11.9 | 70.0

MictOver, ss...) 4.» 84.5 | 18.4 | 54.2

November, ...... 724, | oA |} 441

December, ...... 62.4 | 13.0} 35.0

January, 1830. .. 66.0 | 14.7 | 35.2

Pebruary, ..:... 69.8 | 8.8] 55.9

PURE S's ne vine oc oe 77.3 ' 15.81 49.8

510

Year and Month.

April, 1827...

May, -

June,

July,

August,

September,..

October,

November, ..

December, ..

Jan. 1828. ..

February, .«

March, rae

April,

May,

June,

July,

August,

September, ..

October,

November, .

December, .

Jan. 1829, .

February,

March,

April,

May,

June,

July,

August,

September, .

October,

November, .

December, .

Jan. 1830. .

February,

March,

Meteorological Observations [Nov

TABLE III. (continued.)

<.30 vem F 4 Pe Me SUNSET. MEAN

De s Temp. D Ss. Temp: D. Ss. T.

iret el (er | ummm poe tome Poesy ieee ea] fo sy

30.3 |47.8 84.1 |19.1 |517 50.1 | .320

29.8 {55.0 ORE mes 5)

24.1 165.8 67.4 | .456

18.4 |72.5 Toe 2581

11.4 |76.7 76.3} .744

14.0 |73.0 83.8 | 8.7 |72.0] 72.5] .706

25.8 49.5 78.9 |16.7 |50.0} 51.7 | .412

21.4 |40.8 70.9 {15.3 |41.3} 41.6] .425

10.5 |49.6 59.8 | 5.5 |50.7} 47.4] .706

9.2 |47.4 56.8 | 5.5 [47.5] 44.6] .723

16.7 137.7 61.3 |10.4 |41.3] 38.7] .518

27.0 134.2 75.0 |18.2 |40.0] 38.7 | .324

28.6 }43.0 85.3 |23.3 |41.0] 45.9 | .317

33.0 [43.3 93.0 |24.1 |52.7] 44.7 | .238

27.9 |62.1}101.5 |24.7|64.6] 97.9 |24.3 |60.6] 63.8] .379

15.2 |74.0} 93.6 |15.1|72.8] 89.2 |11.7 |73.3] 74.5 | .644

8.3 |77.9| 87.0 | 7.0\78.0] 83.4 | 3.9 |78.6] 77.7 | .827

88.0 | 9.9|74.8 75.8 | .738

92.0 |22.0 |56.5 61.7 | .615

79.0 |20.0|40.3 44.1 | 475

50.8 | .668

46.4 | .651

47.3| .595

50.2 | .457

45.5 |} .248

107.6 |33.3 |52.3 56.2 | .265

100.5 |23.2 |66.4 69.0 | .476

87.0 | 7.0 |78.0 77.8} .941

85.8 | 6.7 \77.5 77.6 | .854

91.7 {15.8 |69.2 69.6 | .671

91.1 |25.6 |44.5 49.4} .382

79.1 |20.6 |38.3 41.2} 417

71.3 118.1 |32.5 33.8 | .424

74.9 |20.5 |29.6 32.4 | .394

76.0 |14.1 152.3 54.1 | .654

83.4 |21.9 |42.0 45.9 | .416

Mean first year, 55.1 | .523

second, 56.9} .550

third, 54.4] .512

Mean of three years, 55.5 | .528

TABLE IV. Comparative Tension, (T.) and Force of vapour at the Dew point, (F.)

Ap. 1827. |.320

May, .. |.359

June, .. |.456

July, .. |.581

August,.. |.744

Sept. .. |.706

October, }.412

Nov. .. |.425

Dec... |.706

Jan.1828, |.723

February, }.518

March,.. |.325

Means. |.523

363

001

.663

804 |:

891

.786

384

.266

329

.298

239

234

480

a oe Z|

Dec.

Jan.1829, :

Feb. .

March,

312| April, ..

550} 506

F. MEANS»

O0E}April, ..|.

.246

.299| May, ..| .265) .450)May,

.586| June, ..| .476| .699}June, ..|.

840] July, 941) .936,July,

.933| August, | .854/ .930/August, |.

.876| Sept. .671| .713}Sept. ..

.546| October, | .382| .354/Oct. ..

.292| Nov. 417) .262|Nov. ..]|.

.372| Dec. ..|.424).199[Dec. ..

.317| Jan.1830.} .394| .189lJan. ..

.328| Feb. ..|.654| .418!Feb. ..

.365| March,..| .416) .312{Mareh,. .

.512|.481

‘Le

599} .!

589)

589} 328

399

305

028! .489

1832. | in the vicinity of Dehli. 511

Taste V. For finding the dew Point from the Temperature of the Air,

and that of the Wet Thermometer.

Temperature of the Wet Thermometer.

1100

1? 006; .006) .006/ .006; .006) .006| .007} .007; .007; .007

2 013} .013) .013] .014} .014|) .014; .014] .014/ .015] .015

3 021) .022} .022} .023} .023; .023| .024| .024) °025) .025

4 030| .031} .032} .032{| .033) .034] .035] .035; .036] .037

5 040; .041) .042} 043; .044) .045) .046] .047| .048] .049

6 051} 052} .053}) .054| .055| .056}; .057} .058) .060| .061

7 062} .063| .065} .066| .067) .068/ .070} .071| .073] .075

8 073) .074| .076|] .077| .079| .081; .082| .084/ .086/ .089

9 084; .085} .087} .089} .091| .093/ .095] .097| .100} .103

10 pusaee-C9e e099) 101) 104) .106| “TOS 111) 114] 117

11 107} .109| .111] .114] .116/ .119] .122] .125; .128

12 120} .122| .124] 127] .130| .133/ .136] .139| .142

13. |. 132] 134) .137| .140| .143| .146] .150| .153] .156

14 145| 147] 150} 154] .157| .160/ .164] .168] .171

15 157} .160| .164] .168] .171| .175| .179} .183| .187

16 170| .174) .177] .181] .185| .190] .194] .198] .203

17 183} .187| .191] .195] .199] .204| .209] .214

18 196} .200| .205| .209| .214] .218| .224] .229

19 210} 215] .219| .224] .229| .234| .239} .245

20 224] .229| .233| .239| .244| .250| .256| .261

21 .238| .243| .247| .253| .259] .265| .272| .278

22 .252|} .258| .263] .269] .276| .282| .289] .295 ‘ell AD

23 .266| .272| .278| .284| .290| .297, .305 Bar. | Mul.

24 281} .286| .292] .299| .306| .313| .321

25 .295| .301| .207| .314] .321| .329| .337 29.5| 02

26 309| .316| .323| .330| .337| .345] .353 29.0} 03

27 324| .331| 339] .347| .354] .362| .370 28.5} .05

28 339| .346| .354| .362| .370] .379| .388 28.0| .07

29 354| .362| .370| .378| 386) .395 27.5| .08

30 369| .377| .385| .394] .402] .411 27.0| 10

31 385| .393| .402] .411] .420| .429 26.5| 192

32 400} .408| _.417| .427| .437| .447 26.0| 13

33 A16| .425) .434| .444| .454| .464 25.5| 15

34 431} .440} .450| .460| .470| .480 25.0| 17

35 447| 457) .467| .476| .487 24.5| 18

36 462} 472) .482| .493] .504 24.0| 20

37 A78| .488| .499] .510 23.5| 29

38 494] 505] .516| .527 23.0| 93

39 510} .521| .532 22.5| 95

40 526| 538! .549 22.0| .27

N.B.—The numbers in this Table to be multiplied by , B -being the height of

the Barometer : or, which will be easier, deduct therefrom the product of the ta.. ’

bular number by the multiplier opposite the height of the barometer in the small

table above*.

* We omit Table VI. of the Force of Vapour, because it may be found in any physi-

cal or chemical work ; besides which, the tensions of vapour at temperatures between

60 and 120, require to be more accurately determined for the present state of atmos-

pherical knowledge.—Eb.

Wor

512 Proceedings of Society. [ Nov.

VIII.—Proceedings of the Asiatic Society.

Wednesday, 1th November, 1832.

Tue HonoraBie Sir Epwarp Ryavy, President, in the Chair.

Read the proceedings of the last Meeting.

The following Members were ballotted for, and unanimonsly elected :—

Monsieur Richy, Captain Sage, Rajah Kalikrishen.

The communication from Baron Ferussac, referred to the Committee of

Papers at the last Meeting, having been considered by them, they report, that

they consider it unadvisable to take any share, but recommend to the Society

to subscribe for a complete annual set of the Bulletin Universel.

With regard also to the List of Books submitted by Dr. Tytler, the Com-

mittee recommend, that only such as have an oriental character be purchas-

ed.—Resolved, that the recommendations of the Committee be adopted.

The Secretary reported the completion of the 17th volume, also the pre-

paration of an ample Index to the first 17 volumes,—Resolved that the

index be printed,

The Secretary to the Physical Class reported, that it had been determined

to recommend a further grant of 500 rupees for the Boring Experiment, on

condition of that being the last grant to be made by the Society.—Resolved,

that the grant, subject to the stipulation, be confirmed.

Resolved also, as a matter of general convenience, that in future the Pro.

ceedings of the Physical Class-shall form part of the business of the General

Meetings, which shall be held once a month on the first Wednesday, as here-«

tofore.

Museum.

An Image of Bhairava. Presented through Dr. Twining on the part of

General O’ Halloran,

This image of Mahadeo was found at Bijrah Ghat, situated in a wild jungle on

the right bank of the Nerbadda, on the rout from Jabalpur to Garwarreh, about

14 miles from the former town, and about three miles from the high road ; it is

approached through heavy ravines.

On the topof a circular hill, about 150 feet high, in the centre is a temple dedi-

cated to Mahadeo, and on its brow, surrounding the temple, is an arcade, divided

into 72 compartments, in each of which is a large image, of good workmanship,

more or less mutilated, as tradition states, by the army of Aurangzeb, when in

progress to the Dekhin. At the foot of this hill, and at a small distance, close to a

temple, falling into decay, the above image was found, and conveyed to Sagar,

and from thence to Calcutta.

The arcades on the crest of the hill appear to be very ancient, and are built of

large stones, without cement.

Bijrah Ghat is considered as a sacred spot, where an immense crowd of pilgrims

congregate three days in the year, for the purpose of traffic and devotion.

A figure of Nemnath. Presented through Mr. Kyd.

Read a letter from Captain Boileau, presenting several coins dug up at Agra.

1832. | Proceedings of Society. 513

The Secretary reported, that the Committee had authorised the purchase

of a set of Roman Coins. A list of which, prepared by Mr. Prinsep, was

submitted.

The head of a Saw-fish. Presented by Mr. Hutchinson.

The thanks of the Society were voted for the above.

Library.

Read a letter from Counsellor Von Hammer, presenting the following

works : ;

1. 8th Vol. of the Ottoman History.

2. Persian Translation of the Meditations of Marcus Antoninus.

3. Account of Oriental Manuscripts in the Library of Turin.

4. Nos. 53 to 56 of the Johrbucher of Vienna.

“The Ass overladen.” Presented by Mr. Fisher.

Read a letter from the Secretary to the Royal Academy of Bourdeaux,

_ presenting 2 vols. of their Proceedings.

Transactions of the Geological Society, part 2nd of the 3rd Vol. presented

by the Society.

Notes on the Hitopodesa, by Messrs. Schlegel and Lassen. By the authors.

New edition of De Sacy’s Arabic Grammar. By the author.

Memoir on the Mussulman Religion in India, by M. Garcin de Tassy.

By the author.

2 small Persian Manuscripts on Astrology, &c. By Ensign Readbold.

Meteorological Journals for August and September, 1832. By the Surveyor

General.

Resolved, that the thanks of the Society be returned for the above.

The Secretary reported the purchase of the following Books.

1. Franklin’s Observations made on a tour from Bengal to Persia, 1 vol.

2. Scott’s Ferishta’s History of Dekhan, 2 do.

3. Bentley’s Hindu Astronomy, 1 do,

Literary.

Translation of an extensive Bauddha Vocabulary and Abstract of a Tibe-

tan Medical work. Made and presented by Mr. Csoma de KGrds.

A notice of some of the Arabic Poets. By Ensign Readbold.

An Abstract Account of the contents of the volumes presented by Ensign

Readbold. By Baboo Ramdhun Shen,

Read Extracts from a Letter from Major Burney, from Ava, to the Secre-

tary, regarding the historical records of that country.

Inscriptions from Vijayanagar, with translations and a pedigree of the

Kings of that city. Presented by Mr. Ravenshaw.

Read also observations on the same by the Secretary.

The thanks of the Society voted for the above, and the papers referred to

the Committee.

292

514 Scientific Intelligenee. [Nov.

1X.—Screntiric INTELLIGENCE.

Slate Quarries in the Western Ghats.

From official reports lately communicated from the Bombay Government to

this presidency, with the perusal of which we have been kindly favored, we learn

that Lieut. Jervis of the Bombay Engineers has brought forward propositions

for the working of quarries in the extensive clay slate formations in the southern

Marhatta country. That officer has sent down specimens of slates adapted to

the several purposes of roofing, flooring, monumental stones, dials, dripstones,

whet-stones, and drawing slates ; accompanied with samples of marble, porphyry,

lithographic stone, mill-stone, sand-stone, &c. all of which he shews may be turned

to great advantage in an economical point of view. He calculates, that slates

may be substituted for tiles in roofing and flooring, with a saving of weight and

expence—the weight of a 100 square feet of slate being 1 to 3 ewts. while that of

single tiles is 7 cwts. The expence of the slates at Bombay would be 8 to 15 rupees

per 100 sq. ft. cut and squared. There seems, however, a difference of opinion on the

subject among those conversant with building ; and it does not appear, that the

best slates in Europe are much, if at all, lighter than the tiles used in this coun-

try. The slates would, like the Chunar stones used in our western provinces, admit

of the beams being placed further apart, and of the burgars being dispensed with ;

and this alone, if the land carriage be not very heavy, will produce a demand

for so useful and elegant a roofing material. The following is an extract

from Captain Jervis’s report on the subject, dated March, 1832.

‘* The above varieties of slate alternate with strata of the most beautiful descrip-

tions of marble and porphyry; in the latter of which are found nodules of jasper,

of considerable size, and those strata pass off into micaceous schist, hornblende,

corundum, and trap, with a less distinct transition into alum-slate, and secondary

limestone.

‘“The strata run nearly east and west, and exhibit all the characteristics of the

primitive rocks to which they pertain, both in respect of their fracture, dip, and the

absence of all vestiges of animal remains; so far as I have yet been able to exa-

mine them, a small portion of these valuable productions lie within the Honorable

Company’s district of Bajulkota; but nine-tenths, and those of the very finest

quality, are in the territories of a number of independent jaghirdars and chief-

tains. The natives have no name for slate; are utterly ignorant of its nature, use,

or the method of quarrying it; and after a most diligent search in every village,

where I have traced it, I have not found a bit, so much as an inch square, in

any wall, or building, or in any way whatever applied to the purposes of life,

I shewed the native shop-keepers, in the presence of a number of people, its value

as a writing material, which delighted and astonished them beyond measure ; but

from the native chieftains downward to the lowest individual, not one, though

living on the very spot, was acquainted with its use or value. The chieftains are

anxious that 1 should carry on my researches within their respective limits, as

likely to be attended with great advantage to themselves and their people, as

well as to the community at large, The finest description of roofing slate is at

Lokapur, not in the Company’s territory ; but there are scarcely any two villages

which have the same kinds of slates—some kinds are good for one, others for

another, purpose. The districts in which these slates are found are most commo-

diously situated within a short distance of the confluence of the Gatparba and

1832.] Progress of European Science. 515

Kristna rivers, which latter flows through Rastea’s, the Nizam’s, the Nagpur

Rajah’s, and the Honorable Company’s territories, into the bay of Bengal; in its

way hence, it traverses the Kalkapur Rajah’s and Satarah Rajah’s territory, and

the states of the Putwardhans and other numerous jaghirs, independent of Go-

vernment.

“* The existence of these extensive beds of marble has hitherto been equally un-

known and despised : as the several varieties are very hard, they are little sought

after for building purposes, and I have scarcely met with twenty houses plastered,

or even built with lime—to which at least it might be supposed the natives

would have applied it where the marble abounds.”

The existence of the slate, although but little worked, seems to have long since

been pointed out by Mr. Thomas Marshall, Statistical Reporter to the Bombay Go-

vernment, from whose report, dated Dharwar, 29th July, 1821, we take the folow-

ing extract.

“The next most general rock is a bluish clay slate, which however never assumes

the elevation of hills, but is seen to traverse a great part of the country on both

sides of the Gatparba, in the direction of W. by N. and E by S. Its layers are

almost exactly perpendicular to the surface of the earth. It plainly dips under

the sand-stone hills—one of its softest quarries, near Kundargi, suppliesthe sur-

rounding country with whet-stones; but they are of a very inferior quality. It is

not uncommon for a few layers of this clay slate to pass suddenly into semi-trans-

parent greyish-white felspar, which in a few yards resumes the colour and texture

of the slate. Throughout, this slate is traversed by numerous most irregular

veins, which have the appearance of having once been a liquid matter poured into

transverse and curvilinear fissures, which run in all directions. The matter filling the

veins seems a mixture of quartz and clay, and is much harder than the substance

of the slate; very beautiful crystals of quartz are frequently found in it.”’

X.—Progress of European Science.

THEORETICAL GEOLOGY.

Following up the design proposed in our notice, of the progress of Electrical

Science, we seek the most concise, comprehensive, and authentic materials for our

present review, in the annual addresses of the presidents of the Geological Society.

These do not merely embrace the practical labours of the associates of the Society

itself at home and abroad, in their examination of the earth’s surface, the description

of rocks, the order of strata, and the classification of the fossils of every forma-

tion ; but they at the same time deliver what we may consider an orthodox judgment

ex cathedrd, upon the various theories which the most eminent authors of the day

have promulgated to the world: such, in the present period, are—the remarks of

Herschel upon the influence of Planetary perturbation on Geological phenomena ;—

Lyell’s estimate of the effect of causes still in action, upon the past modifications

of the earth’s crust, and Elie de Beaumont’s theory of the contemporaneous up-

heaving of parallel mountain ranges ;—the temperature of the globe ;—the connec-

tion of thermal springs with volcanic action ;—the gradual transition of fossij

species, and a multitude of other questions of the greatest interest to the geologi-

cal theorist. Thus Geology has almost ceased to be the science of observation

alone, as it was so long its boast to be called; and it now challenges a share in the

physical speculations of the astronomer, the dynamical calculations of the mecani-

cian, and the primeval chronology of the cosmogonist and historian, Upon the

516 Progress of Geological Science. [ Nov.

first of these connections, the Rev. Professor SEDGwick thus states the actual

state of opinions.

<¢ Some great and simple problems in physics have so immediate a connexion with

the structure of the earth, that we may almost claim their solutions for our own.

“The form put on by a fluid body in rotation is an abstract question, which might

or might not have any real application to the bodies ofour solar system. But direct

geodesic observations, as well as the relative position of land and water, prove

that the stratified matter on the crust of the earth is deposited in near conformity

to the surface of a true spheroid of rotation. Here then we have, inspite of one

of the arbitrary dogmas of the Huttonian theory, an indication of a primeval fluid-

ity before the commencement of any one phenomenon coming within the direct

speculations of geology. And again, the direct phenomena of geology are in the

strictest harmony with this conclusion. For, after passing through a few stages

of stratified matter, formed by the degradation of matter in a prior state of soli-

dity, we are conducted to other unstratified masses with that crystalline structure

which implies an anterior fluidity—in some cases unequivocally, and in all cases

probably, derived from the solvent power of heat.

“<< But if the earth ever existed in any state approaching to igneous fusion, it must

have undergone a great diminution of temperature, before it was fitted for the

habitation of any organized being. And here again geological facts are at least

in a general accordance with the hypothesis ; for the forms of the living beings,

entombed among the ancient strata, not only seem to indicate a high temperature,

but also a gradual refrigeration of the surface of the earth.

‘‘ Here however we meet with an unexpected difficulty. If during any period, the

earth have undergone a sensible refrigeration, it must also have undergone a con-

traction of its dimensions; and also, as a necessary consequence of a well known

mechanical law, an acceleration round its axis of rotation. But direct astrono-

mical observations prove, that there has been no sensible diurnal acceleration

during the last 2000 years ; and therefore, by inverting the steps of the reasoning,

we prove—that during that long period there has been no sensible diminution in

the mean temperature of the earth. This difficulty does not, however, entirely

upset the previous hypothesis : it only proves, that the earth had reached an equi-

librium of mean temperature before the commencement of good astronomical

observations.

“¢ But if our speculations are thus limited and guided by the observations of as-

tronomy, we have in part paid back to that exalted science the obligations we

owe to it. The great bodies of our system leave behind them no marks to track

their progress through the heavens; and the vast secular periods we can cal-

culate, reaching to ages long anterior to the records of our being, might be

mere fictions of the mind, which have never had any archetype in nature. But

in the phenomena of geology, we are carried back, almost at our first step, into

times unlimited by any narrow measures of our own ; and we exhibit and arrange

the monuments of former revolutions, requiring for their accomplishment perhaps

all the secular periods of astronomy. Nor is this all. Weshow, hy help of records,

not to be misinterpreted, that during this vast lapse of time, in the very contem-

plation of which our minds become bewildered, the law of gravitation underwent

no change, and the powers of atomic combination were still performing their office.

“Tf the phenomena of geology he coeval with long returning astronomical pe-

riods (and it is at least impossible to prove the contrary), a question may arise,

1832. ] Progress of Geological Science. 517

whether some of the first difficulties we meet with (such as those connected with

the transport of diluvial gravel, and the gradual diminution of temperature) may

not be attributed rather to effects of planetary perturbation than to any change

in the internal condition of the earth. This question has been admirably discuss-

ed in a recent paper by Mr. Herschel.

“ Of all the secular inequalities produced by perturbation, those of the moon

alone can produce any visible effects upon the tidal level. The lunar inequalities

considered are of two kinds—change of mean distance, and change of eccentricity.

Both are confined within narrow determined limits ; and Mr. Herschel shows,

by actual calculation, that they could not have produced any of the great move-

ments contemplated in geology.

“ The planetary perturbations of the orbit of the earth are next considered, and

the influences they may have produced on the diffusion of light and heat. The

secular variation of obliquity is too small to have ever caused any sensible effect

on our climates: but he proves, by direct calculation, that the mean annual diffu-

sion of solar light and heat varies inversely as the minor axis of the orbit ; or, in

other words, increases or diminishes with the increase or diminution of eccentricity.

Now, asa matter of fact, the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit has been for many ages

slowly diminishing, and is now very small ; but the limits ofits secular variation

have. not yet been calculated. He assumes, therefore, hypothetically, that the

eccentricity of our orbit may once have been as great as that of some of the inferior

and superior planets; and on that supposition, he proves, that the slow diminution

of eccentricity may have produced a gradual change of climate, of the very

kind indicated by geological phenomena.

“Tato the solution of the great problem of the heavenly bodies, there enter only

afew simple and unchangeable mechanical elements, and the conclusions are of a

simplicity corresponding to the simplicity of the premises. All the celestial move-

ments return into themselves ; and even the most complex of the deviations pro-

duced by mutual perturbation, are confined within narrow limits, and are com-

pleted in secular periods. The solution of this problem is incontestably the great-

est triumph of exact science, But with what semblance of physical truth can we

apply such mathematical results as these to the great phenomena of geology—

where the combinations are mutable and indefinite—where we have no vestige of

returning periods—and where the fixed elements of force are either unknown or

imperfectly comprehended ?

If all the complex groups of crystalline and stratified rocks ; if, ina word, all

the material things existing on the surface of the globe, be bound to each other by

_ Jaws like those which govern the movements of the heavenly bodies—then every

material combination we now see must re-appear with all its complicated relations

after the lapse of some long period of time. But would not such a supposition be

now regarded as the mere wantonness of hypothetical extravagance? And let it

not be said, that it isonly in the greater combinations on the surface of the earth

that we are to look for returning cycles. Great and small have no meaning, except

in reference to us and our conceptions. The earth is an atom in comparison with

the visible creation; and all we now behold may be but as an atom in comparison

of that which is unseen ; and the meanest combinations of material things submitted

to our senses propagate their influence through all space co-extensive with gravita-

tion, and play their part in keeping up the stability of the universe.

To the supreme Intelligence, indeed, all the complex and mutable combinations we

behold, may be but the necessary results of some simple law, regulating every ma-

518 Progress of Geological Science. [ Nov.

terial change, and involving within itself the very complications, which we, in our

ignorance, regard as interruptions in the continuity of Nature’s work. In contem-

plations of this kind, our understanding is lost among the stern doctrines of philoso-

phical necessity. But, as far as regards us and our faculties, there is no such thing

on earth as undeviating moral or physical necessity. For as, in morals, necessity

is made, in part, at least, subordinate to the freedom of human will, so, in physics,

the continued action of immutable causes may and does co-exist with mutable

phenomena.

‘“< The study of the great physical mutations on the surface of the earth is the busi-

ness of geology. But who can define the limits of these mutations? They have

been drawn by the hand of Nature, and may be studied in the record of her works

—but they never have been, and never will be fixed, by any guesses of our own, or

by any trains of d priori reasoning, based upon hypothetical analogies. We must

banish all d priori reasoning from the threshold of our argument ; and the language

of theory can never fall from our lips with any grace or fitness, unless it appear as

the simple enunciation of those general facts, with which, by observation alone,

we have at length become acquainted.”

The above observations are introductory to the Professor’s objections to Mr.

Lyell’s system of ‘‘ geological dynamics,” which, although highly praised, as a new

province of the science studied with immense research, and pregnant with facts ne-

cessary to be borne in mind, in the explanation of every observed phenomenon,

_seems to him to have been strained beyond the limits of logical inference, in its

application to the vast efforts of displacement and deposition, of the gigantic

epoch of geology.

“Mr. Lyell appears not only as the historian of the natural world, but as the

champion of a great leading doctrine of the Huttonian hypothesis ; in the lan-

guage of an advocate, he sometimes forgets the character of an historian. In

reading his graphic and eloquent descriptions of the mighty works of degrada-

tion yearly going on through the eastern shores of England, or of the enormous

weight of solid matter hourly rolled down by the Ganges* or the Missisippi, I have

fancied, that the earth was sliding from under my feet, and that it would soon pass

away, like the sand of an hour-glass, beneath the waters of the ocean.

‘« But are there no antagonist powers in nature to oppose these mighty rayages—

no conservative principle to meet this vast destructive agency ? The forces of de-

gradation very often of themselves produce their own limitation. The mountain

torrent may tear up the solid rock, and bear its fragments to the plain below: but

there its power is at an end, and the rolled fragments are left behind to a new

action of material elements. And what is true of asingle rock is true of a moun-

tain chain; and vast regions on the surface of the earth, now only the monuments

of spoliation and waste, may hereafter rest secure under the defence of a thick

vegetable covering, and become a new scene of life and animation.

lines, while some of the grand principles of conservation act upon the whole sur-

face of the land. By the processes of vegetable life, an incalculable mass of solid

matter is absorbed, year after year, from the elastic and non-elastic fluids circulat-

ing round the earth, and is then thrown down upon its surface. In this single

operation, there is a vast counterpoise to all the agents of destruction. And the

deltas of the Ganges and the Missisippi are not solely formed at the expense of the

* For a correction of the estimate of Major Rennell, see the pages of this Journal and

of the GLEANINGs.

1832, ] Progress of Geological Science. 519

solid materials of our globe, but in part, and I believe also in a considerable part,

by one of the great conservative operations by which the elements are made to

return into themselves.

** According to the principles of Mr. Lyell, the physical operations now going on

are not only the type, but the measure of intensity of the physical powers acting on

the earth at all anterior periods: and all we now see around us is only the last

link in the great chain of phenomena, arising out of a uniform causation, of which

we can trace no beginning, and of which we see no prospect of theend. And in

all this, there is much that is beautiful and true. For we all allow, that the primary

laws of nature are immutable—that all we now see is subordinate to those immuta-

ble laws—and that we can only judge of effects which are past, by the effects we

behold in progress. Whether there be, or be not, any physical traces of a state

of things anterior to the commencement of our geological series of deposits, is a

question of no real importance. But to assume, that the secondary combinations,

arising out of the primary laws of matter, have been the same in all periods of the

earth, is, Irepeat, an anwarrantable hypothesis with no 4 priori probability, and

only to be maintained by an appeal to geological phenomena.

** Each formation of geology may have required a very long period for its com-

plete development ; and of such an element as past time, we grudge no man the

appropriation. But after all, the successive formations, about which we specu-

late, however complex in their subdivisions, are smallin number: and after decy-

phering a series of monuments, we reach the dark ages of our history, when, hav-

ing no longer any characters to guide us, we may indulge at will in the creations

of our fancy. We may imagine indefinite cycles, and an indefinite succession

of phenomena ; and in the physical world, as well as in the moral, we may have

our long periods of fabulous history, But these things belong not to inductive

geology; and all Inow contend for, is—that in the well established facts brought to

light by our investigations, there is no such thing as an indefinite succession of

phenomena.

‘< Tf the principles vindicated in Mr. Lyell’s work be true, then there can be no

great violations of continuity, either in the structure or position of our successive

formations. But we know, that there are enermous violations of geological con-

tinuity ; and though, relatively speaking, many of them may be local, of this at

least we are certain, that they have been produced by forces adequate to the effects,

and co-extensive with the phenomena,

*< The very first step we take, we see a violation of continuity. Between the

alluvial silt, deposited by the waters now flowing off from the inequalities of the

earth, and the masses of diluvial gravel scattered over so many parts of its sur-

face, we can seldom establish any appearance of continuity, or give any intelligi-

ble proof of their common origin, I am not going now to plunge into this long dee

bated question ; but J may remind you of the enormous waterworn blocks (derived

from the primary chains to the north of the Baltic Sea), which lie scattered over

the great European plain, extending from the eastern states of Holland to the

Steppes of central Russia. Where are the inclined planes down which these

boulders could have descended? Where are the grooves and channels cut out by

the rivers which once propelled them? Where is the alluvial silt accumulated by

the erosion of these ideal waters? No answer can be given to these questions ; and

to talk of river action, aided as it may have been by every ordinary power of na-

ture, appears to me, in a case like this, little better than a mockery of my senses.’’

520 Progress of Geological Science. [ Nov.

“Tf indeed we were to admit a period of intense volcanic violence, and a sudden

elevation of the Scandinavian chain, we might then have a cause commensurate

to the effects observed, and in the rush of the retiring waters, we might ex-

plain the transport of those great boulders which lie scattered over the northern

plains of Europe. But in the speculations I am combating, all great epochs of

elevation are systematically, and I think unfortunately, excluded. Volcanic ac-

tion is essentially paroxysmal ; yet Mr. Lyell will admit no greater paroxysms

than we ourselves have witnessed—no periods of feverish spasmodic energy, dur-

ing which the very frame-work of sature has been convulsed and torn asunder.

The utmost movements that he allows are a slight quivering of her muscular

integuments.’’

These objections to Mr. Lyell’s theory are perhaps carried too far: he does

not insist upon the absence of all violent paroxysms, so much as he labours to give

due weight to the power of causes now in operation. The existence of a vast

depression on the earth’s surface, extending beyond the Caspian and the Aral,

might be adduced as an illustration of great operations still working before our

eyes ; should any fissure be laid open by subterranean force, so as to connect this

basin with the nearest ocean, we should suddenly witness a deluge, attended with

proportionate convulsions, over a space ascertained by M. de Humboldt and

Col. Monteith to extend over at least 18000 square leagues, reaching to Saratof

Orenburg, and the low regions of the Oxus and the Jaxartes: the lowest level

of this vast basin is 300 feet below the Mediterranean*.

Mr. R. J. Murchison, the present President of the Geological Society}, was a fel-

low labourer with Mr. Lyell, when his mind was first led to the line of investigation

which he has since developed. It was in their tour along the southern shores

of the Mediterranean, and subsequently in the north of Italy, that Mr. Lyell’s

attention was particularly directed to the distribution of the tertiary strata into

new groups, according to the proportional number of shells identical with living

species, found fossil ineach formation : after examining the Sab-Apennine shells,

he pursued his inquires in Naples and Sicily, where disturbing causes have been

in continual action from remote antiquity, hoping to ascertain whether successive

and distinct creations of organic remains might not have been elevated from be-

neath the sea, by a series of subterranean convulsions, continued from the period

of the mixed Sub-Apennine deposits, uninterruptedly, to the historic era. He here

began to unfold the true papyri of geological history: in many mountains of

considerable magnitude, the extinct species had nearly disappeared, and in other

vast accumulations of fossil marine shells, nearly all were specifically identical

with those now inhabiting the adjoining sea. Thus, bya series of deductions, he re-

moved as arbitrary and untrue those lines of demarcation between what had termed

the ancient andthe existing orders of nature; andhehad the satisfaction to find, that

the same train had been developed by M. Desnoyers and M. Deshayes, from a

close examination of the Paris basin.

* Professor Murchison’s Address, 1832, Phil. Mag. Ixv. p. 384.—GI. in Sc. III.

330. The Academy of St. Petersburg, at the instigation of M. de Humboldt, is now

engaged in directing surveys and barometrical ‘‘ soundings,” as they are emphatically

styled, by which the precise extent, depths, and true shore of this dry Caspian will be

accurately defined.

+ Annual Address, 1832, Phil. Mag. Ixv. 375.

1832, ] Progress of Geological Science. 521

Mr. Lyell has engaged the latter to co-operate with him in classing the terti-

ary formations chronologically, according to the relative number of existing species

in each group. Their joint labours will form a most valuable ‘ Manual of Fossil

Conchology,”’ which is announced as forthcoming in the third volume of Mr. Lyell’s

** Principles of Geology.” It was subsequent to these studies that the latter author

was prompted to continue his examination of the various causes still in operation on

the surface of the globe, which form the subject of his second volume. In the former,

we were presented with the effects of inorganic forces ; in the second, we find an

abundance of facts connected with the fluctuations in the organic world. So ample

are the data in natural history, upon which the author has established his conclu-

Sions, that they cannot fail to relieve him from the charge of visionary speculation*.

Prof. Sedgwick felt alarmed, lest the gradual course of nature, upheld in the first

volume, should favor the doctrine of spontaneous generation and transmutation of

Species, with all their train of monstrous consequences; but nothing can be fairer or

more impartial than the manner in which the untenable parts of Lamarck’s dogmas

are refuted in the second volume, and the recent appearance of man upon our

planet, satisfactorily confirmed.

Turning now from the view of gradual changes, upon which we have impartially

quoted the opinions of an opponent and of an advocate, we come to the hypothesis

of mundane convulsions, where, as might be expected, the late and the actual Presi-

dents change sides. In the words of the former, the theory of M. Elie de Beaumont

si thus describedt:

“*M. Elie de Beaumont, by an incredible number of well conducted observations

of his own, combined with the best attested facts recorded by other observers,

has proved, that whole mountain chains have been elevated at one geological pe-

riod—that great physical regions have partaken of the same movement at the

same time—and that these paroxysms of elevatory force have come into action at

many successive periods. Distinguisied as are his merits, he so far claims not an

undivided honour. But in the next great step of generalization, he reaches a posi-

tion where he stands entirely by himself.

“« Step by step, we had been advancing towards the conclusion—that different

mountain chains had been elevated at several distinct geological periods; and by

a long series of independent observations, Humboldt, Von Buch, and other great

physical geographers, had proved—that the mountain chains of Europe might be

separated into three or four distinct systems ; distinguished from each other, if I

may so express myself, by a particular physiognomy, and, above all, by the differ-

ent angles made by the bearings of their component formations with any assumed

meridian. All the subordinate parts of any one system were shown to be parallel ;

while the different systems were inclined at various angles to each other.

has now proved, that these two great classes of facts are commensurate to each

other; and that each of these great systeins of mountain chains, marked on the

map of Europe, by given parallel lines of direction, has also a given period of eleva-

tion, limited and defined by direct geological observations. Thesteps by which he

reaches this noble generalization are so clear and-convincing, as to be little short

of physical demonstration. It forms an epoch in the history of our science ; and

I am using no terms of exaggeration when I say, that in reading the admirable

researches of M. de Beaumont, I appeared to myself, page after page, to be ac

* Phil. Mag. 377. + Anniversary Address, 1831,

2u2

522 Progress of Geological Science. [Nov.

quiring a new geological sense, and a new faculty of induction ; and I cannot

express my feelings of regret, that during my recent visit to the Eastern Alps I

did not possess this grand key to the mysteries of nature.

“*T am aware how impossible it is in a few words to give any clear notion of a

volume of cordensed original researches. Dropping all minor details, I may,

however, claim your indulgence, while I point out the author’s manner of induc-

tion in four great systems of European chains : not indeed in the wish of quench-

ing the curiosity of those who have not studied this question, but rather in the

hope of urging them to seek the fountain of original information.

Cdte d’Or and Mont Pilas, anda portion of the Jura chain. It may be traced

towards the vailey of the Rhine, where it issuddenly cut off ; but it re-appears in

the chain of the Erzgebirge, between Bohemia and Saxony. 1t never rises into

mountains of the first order, but is marked throughout (as may be seen on a good

physical map) by many longitudinal ridges and furrows, ranging nearly parallel

to each other, in a direction about north-east and south-west. So far the state~

ment is only an enumeration of certain connected facts in physical geography.

But it is followed by a co-ordinate series of geological phenomena.

ries, enter here and there into the composition of the geographical system above

described ; and without exception, wherever they appear, all are in turn elevated,

broken, or contorted; yet in their lines of range they preserve a parallelism to

the general direction of the ridges. On the contrary, wherever rocks, of an age

not older than that of the green-sand or chalk, appear in the vicinity of any por-

tion of this system, they are either found at a dead level, and expanded from the

neighbouring mountains into horizontal planes, like the sea at the base of a lofty

cliff; or if, since their first deposit, they have undergone any great movement, it

is shown to have no relation to the bearing of the older ridges, and to have been

produced at a later period.

‘< From all these combined facts follow three important consequences: Ist. That

the whole system of parallel ridges, from one end to the other, was elevated at

the same period of time, after the development of the oolitic series, and before

the deposition of the green-sandand chalk. 2ndly. That the action of elevation

was violent, and of short continuance; for the inclined strata are shattered and

contorted, and between them and the horizontal strata there is no intermediate

gradation of deposits. 3rdly. That the period of elevation was followed by an

immediate change in many of the forms of organic life.

“<2. The next great system includes the whole chain of the Pyrenees—the Nor-

thern Apennines—the calcareous chains to the north-east of the Adriatic—nearly

the whole Carpathian chain—and a great series of inequalities, continued from

that chain through the Hartz mountains, to the plains of Northern Germany.

Through the whole of these vast regions the principal inequalities range nearly

parallel to each other, and have a mean bearing about west-north-west and east-

south-east. So far again the statement is purely geographical, and its truth is

Seen at once in glancing over any geod physica! map of Europe; and will be still

more clearly comprehended, by comparing some of the principal ranges of colour

on Von Buch’s great geological map with the bearing of the Pyrenees. But it is

followed by a series of co-extensive geological phenomena.

“* Through all parts of this great system, formations of the age of the green-sand

and chalk have had an enormous development, and without exception, their strata

1832. ] Progress of Geological Science. 523

are ruptured and contorted, and often lifted up to the very pinnacles of the moun-

tains. But, on the contrary, wherever any tertiary formations approach the con-

fines of this system, they are stated to be either in a position almost as horizon-

tal as the surface of the waters in which they were deposited ; or if they have

been moved at ail, it is by forces uninfluenced by the parallels of the older chains,

And the same three conclusions, with a mere difference of dates, follow here as

in the former case. All the great parallel ridges and chains of this second system

must have been suddenly and violently elevated, and at a period of time between.

the deposition of the chalk and the commencement of the tertiary groups ; and

the corresponding change in organic types is, in this instance, still more. strik-

ing than in the former.

“¢ 3. The third system embraces a great number of parallel inequalities, bearing

about north-north-east and west-south-west, and includes the whole Western

Alps, from the neighbourhood of Marseilles to the volcanic ridges near the foot

of the Lake of Constance. And by an hypothetical, but I think probable exten-

sion, it also takes in the whole of the great Scandinavian chain,

**T cannot enter on the elaborate and satisfactory details by which it is proved

—that all these great parallel inequalities in the region of the Western A!ps had

their origin after the tertiary molasse, a deposit partaking of all the elevations and

contortions of the older strata—that the elevatory movements were sudden and

violent, and commenced at a tine when tribes of mammalia (the remains of which

in England are hardly ever found except in the superficial gravel) flourished in

many parts of Europe-—and that these movements were immediately succeeded by

great horizontal deposits of old diluvial gravel at tne base of the Western Alps, and

prohably also by that vast offshot of Scandinavian rocks which lie scattered over

the northern plains of Germany.

** 4. The fourth system embraces many great parallel ridges, having a range

about east-north-east and west-south-west, and includes several considerable chains

in Provence, and nearly the whole chain of the Eastern Alps—from the great

flexure in the region of Mont Blanc to the Alps of the states of Austria.

** It would be impossible to follow the author through details occupying a large

portion of his volume. I may however state, thathe proves the formations of the

Eastern aud Western Alps not to pass into each other by any flexure of the strata

coinciding with the bend of the whole chain; but to meet at an angle marked by

a great double system of breaks and fissures, one passing in the direction of the

eastern, and the other of the western, portions of the chain. He further proves,

that the system of fissures in the line of the Eastern Alps is more recent than the

other system—that in the prolongation of this line, towards the west, the old dilu-

vial gravel has undergone movements of elevation—and that these movements

have been propagated to the lacustrine and volcanic regions of Auvergne.

** On a review of the whole evidence, I think he has demonstrated, that there are

two distinct deposits of diluvial gravel near a portion of the Western Alps—that

the colossal mass of Mont Blane, and at least a considerable portion of the Eastern

Alps, were elevated after the deposit of the older dilivium—and that the newer

diluvium (including all those enormous crystalline erratic blocks so admirably

described by Saussure) rolled off from the regions of the higher Alps during this last

period of their elevation.

** There are six other supposed periods of jelevation briefly considered in the re-

searches of M. Elie de Beaumont, each marked by distinct geographical features :

but I will not now detain you with their enumeration. If the generalizations to

524 Progress of Geological Science. [ Nov.

which I have pointed be true, (and as far as I comprehend them, they seem to be

based on an immovable mass of evidence,) we must then conclude that there have

been in the history of the earth long periods of comparative repose, during which

the sedimentary deposits went on in regular continuity, and comparatively short

periods of violence and revolution, during which that continuity was broken.

And if we admit, that the higher regions of the globe have been raised from the sea

by any modification of volcanic force, we must then also admit that there have been

several successive periods of extraordinary volcanic energy.

“* How we are to escape from this conclusion I am unable to comprehend, unless

we shut out the evidence of our senses. Ofvolcanic powers we know nothing,

except during the irregular periods of their activity—and returning periods of

intense activity, after long ages of comparative repose, may be among the endur-

ing principles in the mechanism of nature. Ido not throw this out as even a

probable hypothesis : but it is, at least, as probable as any other hypothesis un-

founded on the evidence of geological phenomena.

‘‘ That the system of M. Elie de Beaumont is directly opposed to a fundament-

al principle, vindicated by Mr. Lyell, cannot admit of doubt. And I have decided

to the best of my judgement, in favour of the former author, because his conclu-

sions are not based upon any a priori reasoning, but on the evidence of facts ;

and also, because, in part, they are in accordance with my own observations*.”

Mr. Boué and other able writers have opposed the views of this eminent geolo-

gist ; they deny him the merit of being the first to point out, that different forma-

tionsand masses of land have been elevated at distant and separate periods, and re-

ject that part of his system which asserts the synchronous elevation of distant

mountain chains parallel to each other. Before we are warranted in arriving at

general conclusions on this latter point, numerous facts must be collected, and we

can but urge all our working brethren to try the adequacy of M. de Beaumont’s

ingenious theory, by an appeal to natureft ; M. de Humboldt believes, that the

four great chains of Asiatic mountains are parallel to one another, and that cir-

cumstance tends powerfully to confirm the theory. As however, the personal ob-

servations of this traveller have not extended beyond the Altai, we must still look

for evidence whereon the synchronism of the elevations of these mountains may

rest to our Indian geologists, whose exertions will naturally be stimulated to attempt

the solution of the problem. Russia has been before hand with us in exploring their

newly acquired portion of Asia ; their government, with its characteristic enterprize,

being desirous of acquiring accurate information respecting the structure, natural

history, and heights of the Caucasus, sent hither in the summer of 1829, under a

strong escort, commanded by General Emanuel, a party of men of science, the chief

of whom, M. Kupfer, has given in his report to the Academy of Sciences of St.

Petersburg.

* “For example, the vertical position of the green-sand and chalk on the eastern

flank of the Hartz mountains, and the horizontal position of the same formations on the

flanks of the Erzgebirge, were remarked by Mr. Murchison and myself, in the summer

of 1829. During the same tour, we had repeated proofs of the recent elevation of the

chain of the Eastern Alps ; of the high elevation of the green-sand series in the calcare-

ous chain to the north-east of Trieste ; and of the horizontality of the tertiary deposits

of Styria. All these facts (of which we did not at the time comprehend the whole import:

ance), harmonize with the system of M. de Beaumont.”

+ Address, 383.

1832. ] Progress of Geological Science. 525

From the geographical and geological chapters of this interesting report, we learn,

that the low hills, which rise above the Steppes of the Black Sea and Sea of Azof,

are composed of limestone, filled with littoral shells, the collections of which made ~

' by M. Pander, on this and a former occasion, must prove of great geological im-

portance. On ascending from the Steppes towards the Caucasus, grits and older

limestones, with ammonites, occupy an undulating country, diversified by several

peaks of trachyte, the principal of which, the Bechtan, or five mountains, is stated

to be 4000 feet above the sea. The outer zone of the Caucasus is described as be-

ing a rugged and lofty plateau from 8000 to 9000 feet above the sea, the strata of

which present tabular summits, chiefly composed of calcareous grit and conglome-

rates nearly horizontal, or rising at only a gentle angle towards the central ridge.

This table-land is figured by deep transverse rents, in which the rivers flow 3 and

one of the lowest formations is a limestone, which the author compares with the

calcaire & gryphites, These secondary strata are separated from the central moun-

tains by a band of transition and old slaty rocks, which have been dislocated by

the contact of certain green stones and basalts. The loftiest part of the central

chain, culminating in the double peak of Mount Elborz, at the height of 15,400

French feet above the Black Sea, is entirely of igneous origin, being principally

composed of a dark-coloured porphyritic trachyte. The volcanic rocks of this re-

gion are shown to be of considerable antiquity, because the secondary deposits rest

upon them in undisturbed positions, the transition formations having alone been

dislocated*.

It did not come within our purpose to particularize any practical geological re-

searches, but we have digressed in this case, because the ground trodden is closely

connected with our own Asiatic field, and it may act as an useful stimulus to point

out what our neighbours are about. The Court of Directors have appointed to

Madras an eminent geologist, Dr. Turnbull Christie}, of whose researches in Sicily,

the President of the Geological Society speaks in high teriirs ; to him, we look

with great expectation, when he enters the vast field, hitherto but partially

visited by Voysey and Dangerfield.

But to continue our review of Theoretical Geology :—the phenomena of ¢her-

mal springs have been attributed by Dr. Daubeny to volcanic agency, whether

they issue from the neighbourhood of action and extinct foci of eruption, or upon

linear fissures and dislocations of the ancient strata, produced by expansive forces

during former periods of elevation ; in fact, the evolution of gases and increased

temperature of springs may be looked upon as proofs of the presence of volcanic

action still in force, with as much propriety as eruptions of lava and shocks of

earthquakes. Having detected the presence of nitrogen gas in thermal waters,

he concludes, that the chemical theory of the origin of volcanoes is still to be

maintained, as being more philosophical, and more consistent with facts and ex-

periments, than the hypothesis of a central ignited fluid, which has been from

time to time mechanically forced up to the surface of the earth.

The question of the increase of the temperature of the ground, in descending to

great depths, still rests upon uncertain data. As far as experiments upon mines

and artesian springs have been carried (by M. Cordier in particular), the results

* Murchison’s Address, Phil. Mag. Ixv. 385.

+ Since the above was written the death of this meritorious and able officer has been

announced! He was on his way to the Nilgiri Hills, which he proposed to explore with

care, where he was attacked by jungle fever to which he fell a victim in a few days.

526 Progress of Geological Science. [Nov.

are uniformly favorable to such a theory—on the sea they are as steadily oppos-

ed to it ; observations of the temperature of springs in all parts of the world are

invited to solve this question*.

It is now generally acknowledged, that the formation called diluvial gravel, and

supposed to have reference to the epoch of the deluge, is not the result of one,

but of many successive periods. ‘The essays of M. Beaumont have established

this point beyond dispute, although it militates against opinions, but a few years

since held almost universally as indisputable.

“* We. now connect the gravel of the plains with the elevation of the nearest

system of mountains; we believe that the Scandinavian boulders in the north of

Germany are of an older date than the diluvium of the Danube; and we can

prove that the great erratic blocks, derived from the granite of Mount Blanc, are

of a more recent origin than the old gravel in the tributary valleys of the Rhone.

“* Theories of diluvial gravel, like all other ardent veneralizations of an advancing

science, must ever be regarded but as shifting hypotheses to be modified by every

new fact, till at length they become accordant with all the phznomena of nature.

“¢ Tn retreating where we have advanced too far, there is neither compromise of

dignity nor loss of strength ; for in doing this, we partake but of the common for-

tune of every one who enters ona field of investigation like our own. All the

noble generalizations of Cuvier, and all the beautiful discoveries of Buckland, as

far as they are the results of fair induction, will ever remain unshaken by the pro-

gress of discovery. It is only to theoretical opinions that my remarks have any

application.

“* Different formations of solid rock, however elevated and contorted, can never

become entirely mixed together ; and the very progress of degradation commonly

lays bare all the elements of their structure. But diluvial gravel may be shot off

from the flanks of a mountain chain, during one period of elevation, and become so

confounded with the detritus of another period, that no power on earth can sepa-

rate them ; and every subsequent movement, whether produced by land floods or

any other similar cause, must continually tend still further to mingle and confound

them. The study of diluvial gravel is, then, not only one of great interest, but of

peculiar difficulty and nice discrimination; and in the very same deposit, we may

find the remains of animals which have lived during different epochs in the history

of the earth.

‘‘ Bearing upon this difficult question, there is, I think, one great negative conclu-

sion now incontestably established—that the vast masses of diluvial gravel, scat-

tered almost over the surface of the earth, do not belong to one violent and tran-

sitory period. It was indeed a most unwarranted conclusion, when we assumed

the contemporaneity of all tle superficial gravel on the earth. We saw the clear-

est traces of diluvial action, and we had, in the Mosaic history, the record ofa

general deluge. On this double testimony it was, that we gave a unity to a vast

* The prevailing practice of boring for water affords an easy method of ascertaining

the temperature of the ground of difierent depths, free from the dubious results of

mines:—thus Magnus has found from borings near Berlin, the temperature of the air

being 49° 1’ the heat of the ground was as follows:

at 675 feet, temperature 67.7, giving for one degree, 36.3 feet.

516 do. 63.9, 34.7 do.

392 do. 62.8, : 28.5 do.

1832.] Progress of Geological Science. 527

succession of phenomena, not one of which we perfectly comprehended, and under

the name diluvium, classed them all together.

““ To seek the light of physical truth by reasoning of this kind, is, in the language

of Bacon, to seek the living among the dead, and will ever end in erroneous induc-

tion. Our errors were, however, natural, and of the same kind which led many ex-

cellent observers of a former century to refer all the secondary formations of geo-

logy to the Noachian deluge. Having been myself a believer, and, to the best of

my power, a propagator of what I now regard as a philosophic heresy, and having

more than once been quoted for opinions I do not now maintain, I think it right,

as oneof my last acts before I quit this chair, thus publicly to read my recan-

tation. :

““ We ought, indeed, to have paused before we first adopted the diluvian theory,

and referred all our old superficial gravel to the action of the Mosaic flood. For

of man, and the works of his hands, we have not yet found a single trace among

the remnants of a former world entombed in these ancient deposits. In classing

together distant unknown formations under one name; in giving them a simul-

taneous origin, and in determining their date, not by the organic remains we had

discovered, but by those we expected hypothetically hereafter to discover, in them $

we have given one more example of the passion with which the mind fastens upon

general conclusions, and of the readiness with which it leaves the consideration of

unconnected truths.

““Are then the facts of our science opposed to the sacred records ? anddo we deny

the reality of a historic deluge? I utterly reject such an inference. Moral and

physical truth may partake of a common essence, but as far as we are concerned

their foundations are independent, and have not one common element. And in the

narrations of a great fatal catastrophe, handed down to us, not in our sacred books

only, but in the traditions of all nations, there is not a word tojustify us in look-

ing to any mere physical monuments as the intelligible records of that event: such

monuments, at least, have not yet been found, and it is not perhaps intended that

they ever should be found. If however, we should hereafter discover the skeletons

of ancient tribes,, and the works of ancient art buried in the superficial detritus of

any large region of the earth ; then, and not till then, we may speculate about their

stature, and their manners, and their numbers, as we now speculate among the dis-

interred ruins of an ancient city*.”

After learning, that so important a change has been effected in the nomencla-

ture of geological formations, we cannot conclude the present compilation better

than by presenting our readers with a comparative view of the classification of

rocks, according to all the current systems, extracted from the excellent Manual of

Geology recently published by Mr. De la Beche, a work which compresses into the

most portable form the whole data of Geological Science, and on which Mr. Mur-

chison passes the following encomium :

‘Nothing short of this compendious and instructive digest, in which with-

out losing sight of general principles the author has endeavoured to adhere to

the impartial rule of suwm cuiqgue was to have been expected from the pen of

so experienced and acute a geologist; and so eager is the demand of the public

for areally good work on this subject, that a second edition has been called

for, and is already publishedt.’’

* Rey. Prof. Sedgwick’s Address, Phil. Mag. 314.

+ Marchison’s Address, Phil. Mag. Ixy. 374.

528

STRATIFIED Rocks.

De la Beche.

Wiad ae oe varreuls

inds produce ry

1. eee causes TOW in ac-

Troup: | tion; Coral islands ;

Travertino, &c.

Transported boul-

ders and blocks; gra-

2. Erratic | vels on hills and

Block plains, apparently

Group. roduced by greater

orces than those

now in action.

Various deposits

above int at

such as, in England,

3. Soret the Crag, Isle of

creta~ =} Wight beds, Toner

pains and Plastic clays. In

roup. | France, the freshwa-

ter and marine rocks

of Paris, &c,

1. Chalk. 2. Up-

per green-sand. 3.

Gault. a Lower

green-san:

4 cme ae te may be

added, for conveni-

Group. ence,

1. Weald clay. 2.

SUPERIOR Hastings sands. 3.

STRATI- Purbeck beds.

FIED, Or

FossILI- The rocks usually

FEROS. | 5. Oolitic {| known as the Oolite

Group. } formation, includ-

ing the Lias.

1. Variegated or

6. Red Red marl. 2. Mus-

Sand- chelkalk. 3. Red

stone sandstone. 4. Zech-

Group. | stein; and 5. Red

conglomerate.

1. Coal measures.

7. Carbo- 2. Carboniferous

niferous + limestone.

Group. 3. Old red sand-

STONE, «+2 cece ccceene

SE tad thick-

ed and schistose,

8. a sometimes red ;

Grou Grauwacke lime-

P: | stones; Grauwacke

clay slates, &c.

Various slates, fre-

quently mixed with

9. Lowest

stratified compounds

Fossi-

liferous

Group.

resembling those of

the een

rocks. -

=| Wandeters

Various schistose

STRATI- f rocks,and many crys-

FIED, or ST Le talline stratified

Non- oan compounds, such as

Fossi1i- sito ., | Gneiss, Protogine,

FEROUS. Q SECs cies mise iern anise wa.e

Ancient and mo-

dern Lava, Trachyte,

Volcanic, Basalt, Green-stone,

Trappe- | Corneans, Augite &

UNSTRATIFI- } an, Ser- + HornblendePorphy- ¢

ED Rocks. pentinous, | ries, Serpentine, Di-

and Grani- | allage rock, Sienite,

tic rocks. Quartziferous Por-

phyry; Granite, &c.

Improved

Wernerian.

Alluvion..

Diluvium:

Ancient

Alluvion.

Classification of Rocks.

Conybear'

eececaee

| a] cee ceeee

Transi-

tion.--:

_—-~Y

Secondary

ete vecos .

Primitive,

or Pri-

amon

strati

rocks, ac-

cording to

tthe order

in which

they are

supposed

to occur.

Super-

medial

Order.

Inferior

Order.

sevccee

proved

‘Werne-

rian.

y -

dal & A-

galysian

rocks.

nian.

[ Nov.

Omalius d@ Brongniart,

Halloy, 1830. 1829.

Alluvial and \

ioeitabtee beet

rocks.

Clysmian

tocks.

TIzemian

rocks.

Ammo-

nean

rocks.

Hemi-

lysian

rocks. |

Agaly-

sian

rocks.

Modern vol-

canicrocks,

classed as

Jovian Period.

Secondary.

Saturnian Period.

Hemi-

lysian

rocks.

Primordial.

pyrogene-

ous rocks;

igneous

rocks of an

Pyroi-

older date,

as Typho-

Vol I. PU. XI.

il!

got

il ul i

Hus

I SI

Hy Lede

Wij EN

Hig =

O A

Section’

of the Nave.

Tip. 3

TF. B. Fassin Luh.

1832. | Mechanical Science. 529

XI..—Procress or Mecuanicat Science.

2. Tron Suspension Wheels.

[Note accompanying the model presented to the Asiatic Society, by Lieut.-Colonel

Watson, 3rd Oct.]

A description of the great improvement in the construction and principle of

wheels for carriages of all sorts lately introduced by Mr. Theodore Jones, will

be found in most of the journals of mechanical inventions at home; but as such

works are not frequently to be met with in India, I will commence by explaining

the nature of this invention in the words of a small pamphlet, published by the pa-

tentee, referring the reader to the accompanying platein explanation, or those who

are in Calcutta, to the model deposited in the rooms of the Asiatic Society.

‘<The construction of Messrs. Jones & Co.’s wheels is upon a new principle, that

of suspension. In the old wheels, those spokes, which are under the nave, support

the weight ; in these it is jointly sustained by rods depending from the upper part

of the felloe, as will be seenin the plate, fig. 1. The rod or spoke is made thick at

the outer end, so as to be drawn firmly into a conical hole, bored from the outside

of the felloe, and the nave depends from the rods, being sustained by nuts and screws

within the cells, fig. 2. The advantage of this principle is, thatit gives an elas-

ticity to the lower part of the periphery of the wheel, which, while it diminishes

the draught, is less wear to the road.

An aperture, in which there is a thumbscrew, is made into the centre of the

nave, where the oil cell is, and by which it is replenished, without taking the

wheel off the axle, The cell contains enough oil to serve the wheel in work for

five or six weeks.

The Patent wrought-iron wheels are made either cylindrical, conical, or dish-

ing, and are either sold with the improved axles, or may be fitted to any others.

Fig. 1 of the accompanying plate exhibits a perspective view of the wheels

applied to a gun-carriage. Fig. 2 is an elevation of the same, with the ring of

the nave open, to show the nuts of the suspension bars: their construction is

more fully shewn in fig. 3 wherein a, 4, are the front and back shields ; c, a collet on

the nose of the axle ; d, a screw with conical head, which passes through the collet,

and fastens it to the axle ; e, a small screw through the side of d; f, a collar on the

cap, which presses against a leather-washer, to prevent the oil escaping in front;

gg, small bolts, which keep the shields in their places ; h, a thumb-screw, where

oil is to be supplied; jj, the nuts which are screwed on the end of therods (or

spokes) in the nave. The cap (in front of the nave) must be taken off, when

the wheel is to be put upon the axle, in order to fasten the collet in its place,

which is a substitute for a linch-pin.

If the suspending rods of the wheels by any means becomeslack, each of the nuts

must be screwed up (equally), which is done better by giving the head of the rod

a blow with a hammer, and turning the nutat the same instant, taking care when

done, that each nut presents one of its flat sides in front for the shield to press

against, which will prevent the nuts unscrewing.””

Ishall beg leave now to offer a few remarks on the appearance, durability,

strength, efficiency, and comparative economy of the suspension wheels, and to pub-

lish, for the satisfaction of those, who wisely wait for the actual trial of an inven-

tion, before determining in its favor, the result of some experiments made by order

of the Court of Directors, who have in consequence determined on a more extensive

trial of the wheels by their ordnance department in India,

530 Mechanical Science. [ Nov.

The iron wheel, thoughethe same weight, or lighter than the common one in use,

is incomparably lighter and more elegant in appearance: to give sufficient strength

to wooden wheels, particularly in thiscountry, they require tobe made proportion-

ally clumsy ; this is particularly observable in the naves which exhibit an unseemly

conical block, so shaped to admit of the hoops being from time to time driven home,

as the wood shrinks, in the nave of the iron wheel no such deformity is presented.

The material, being iron throughout, is not affected by the atmosphere, which in

India is found so destructive to wood, causing the necessity of frequent setting up

and constantly recurring outlay for repairs ; even new wheels kept 12 months in

store, require to be set up before being brought into use, or sent on service. The

tire of the iron wheel is so firmly united to the nave, by the suspending rods or

spokes, that no working can loosen it—a defect wooden wheels are at all times, and

in all places, subject to. The tire or rim of the patent wheel is the only part liable

to wear out ; when this takes place to a certain extent, fresh tires may be applied,

asin common wheels ; such tires being put on at a red heat, over the cold rim,

grasp it by the contraction that takes place in the process of cooling ; almost as -

firmly as if the parts were welded together. By this simple and expeditious ope-

ration, a wheel after 20 or 30 years’ service may be putin condition to perform

as many more, with this difference however that:the spokes are no longer capable

of being removed at pleasure, the heads being covered by the new tire; but this

can be of little consequence, as such repaired wheels might be appropriated to wag-

gons or other carriages not usually exposed in action, or it might be found ad-

vantageous to withdraw the old spokes before applying the new tire, and then to

drill fresh holes for a new set of spokes, or for the old ones, with heads readjusted

to fit the holes, and thus a complete new wheel would be produced. These wheels

are not liable to injury from any concussion, however violent, because they yield

to acertain extent to the shock, space sufficient being left, within the cells of the

nave to admit ofa recoil or spring of the tire by the slight and simultaneons

insertion or penetration of the nutted ends of the spokes to the interior surface

of those cells.

The strength of the patent wheel is in proportion to the power of the

rods forming the spokes to suspend a weight; these spokes not only operate in

bearing the weight with which the wheels are loaded, but in binding and keeping

the whole together, each acting with its opponent in suspending the nave from the

rim. In common wheels, the spokes contribute little or nothing in binding the

parts together, which depends solely on the tire ; so that the fracture or relaxation

of this, whilst the wheel is in motion, would necessarily cause the separation of all

the parts. This disruption and consequent breaking down could not possibly take

place in the patent wheel, even though the rim were completely severed bya cannon

shot. Such was actually the case in the experiments lately tried at Woolwich, and

yet the wounded wheel, which had been placed before the butt, was put on to the

axle of the gun, and employed to carry it out of the field, whilst the wooden one

which had been struck by the shot exactly in the same manner, was left in scattered

fragments on the ground. The little model brought out by me sustained with

ease 14 cwt., and might safely be loaded with a ton, and from hence a calculation

may be made of the great strength of the full-sized wheels.

After an engagement, or during an action, the patent wheel may be repaired

in a few minutes, in case of some of the spokes being shot away, by the introduc-

tion of fresh ones ; whilst in such case the common wheel would be rendered

1832. ] Iron Suspension Wheels. é 531

unserviceable: in the former, if even half of the spokes remained, the wheel would

continue serviceable—not so the other. It would be superfluous to dwell on the vast

advantages which might arise from the being able to keep a gun in action

that in ordinary circumstances would be disabled. The iron wheel, if struck by a

cannon shot, will not splinter. The trial that took place at Woolwich fully

establishes this important fact. Iron wheels may be considered proof against

musquetry, if not against grape. Iron wheels will need no repair over rough

ground, or stony roads, or from concussions ; henceforge establishments with field

or battering rams may be greatly diminished, if not dispensed with altogether on

this account. In support of the general efficiency of iron wheels, in constant

employment for years in drags and heavy carriages of all descriptions, on the

paved streets of London, reference can be had to the certificates of many of the

principal brewers, builders, and practical engineers of the metropolis. The

draught of the patent wheels has been ascertained to be one-fourth lighter than

that of the common wheels—three horses performing the work of four.

The first cost of the patent wheels, deliverable in London, is as follows, each

being 4 feet eight inches high.

Ist, with tire, 3 inches wide, £18 per pair.

2nd, do. 4% do. 20 do.

3rd, 6 do. 25 do.

To this must be added the amount of freight from Europe, about £4 per ton,

I am not exactly aware of the cost of wheels made at the Gun Carriage Agency, but

according to General Hardwicke’s statement, itappears fully to equal, if not toexceed,

the above ; butthe great economy that would attend the introduction of iron wheels

into the service would result from the abolition of expensive establishments kept

up to supply or repair wheels not fairly worn out by service, but decayed or

shrunk from exposure to the vicissitudes of alternate heat and moisture. I am

not prepared to point out the various particulars in which retrenchment might

be made; but it is evident, that repairs would require but little ; that less than a

third of the sum at present allowed for tar and grease would be more than

sufficient for oil for the patent wheels ; that less than half the quantity of paint

would be required, and that every part of a condemned iron wheel would be worth

half of its original cost, whilst the condemned parts of wooden wheels, except

the iron work, are only fit for fire-wood. On this point of economy, I may quote

the substance of a letter addressed by Messrs. Whitbread and Co. to the Secre-

tary of the Honourable East India Company.

“* At the request of Messrs. Theodore Jones and Co. the proprietors of the iron

wheels, we beg to state to you, that the saving we have effected, in consequence

of the use of iron wheels, amounts to more than £180 per annum on 35 pair of

wheels. We take this opportunity of expressing our approbation of the invention

in every respect. WHITBREAD AND Co.”

With reference to this letter, which was delivered by General Hardwicke to the

Secretary, it need hardly be observed, that if a single house of business obtained

* solargea saving on 35 pair of wheels, the subject must be of immense importance

to the Hon’ble Company, as their saving would not only be great in proportion to

the number of wheels in the service, but also on account of the unfavourable in-

fluence of climate on wooden wheels.

The above remarks are fully corroborated by the following Report of experiments

made with the new wheels, under the superintendence of Major-General Hardwicke

532 Mechanical Science. [ Nov.

and Lieutenant-Colonel Forrest, extracted from a lithographed circular, published

by the Honorable Court, dated October 19, 1831.

Wheels tried. 4 : é Pa

Height tela a wee ey and Cass E aE Remarks.

es Height, 5 feet, 24 pdr. Iron, PRS | ae Me brat era ce

24 or 18 p { Width of Tire, 6 in. { paleo ee a i = ; was about 35 yards.

Height, 5 feet, 12 pdr. Brass,

cwt. gr. lbs.

12 or 6 pdr. { Wei 8 ” 3

i 4 ‘ ght 18 0 5

Width of Tire, 3 in. { Ditto of Carriage, 0 0 0

The experiments commenced with an iron 24-pounder gun and a brass 12-pounder,

mounted on travelling field carriages, and their limbers: to the 24-pounder carri-

age was fitted a pair of the patent wrought iron wheels; to the limber, their

own wood wheels were used.

The 12-pounder was equipped in the same manner, and provided with a draft of four

horses. The 24-pounder with 6. Thus prepared, both were trotted at a brisk pace,

and sometimes gallopped along a very rough pavement for about an hour; the wheels

could not have been submitted to trial of strength more severe, some of the hol-

lows in this pavement caused the carriages to bound from stone to stone to the

extent of some feet, and the violence was so great as to break the rope lashings

used to keep the guns in their places on their carriages, and the 12-pounder

carriage was jerked completely off its limber. '

On examination of theiron wheels after this trial, without removing them from

the axle, no mark of injury was perceptible, nor a joint started: the wheels of the

limbers which were wood did not resist the shaking so well, although they had

only the weight of the empty limber boxes to carry ; several spokes were started

more or less from their sockets, one of the openings measured 3-16ths of an inch

in width.—It may be observed, these were wheels never before used, and as they had

lain several years in store, it is less to be wondered at that the wood had shrunk

from the original joinings.

The next experiment was to drag the 24-pounder through marshy ground, with a

weight altogether of from 4 to 5 tons, of which the limber wheels had comparatively

nothing to carry, say about a 20th part of the weight.—It‘was started with a

draft of six horses, but the weight sunk too deep for that number to drag it out,

and the horses were sinking up to their knees ; two more were then added, but

while stopping the wheels of the carriage had sunk to a depth of 14 inches, and

it required the exertions of half a dozen men in addition to set it in motion.

This experiment ought to have been begun with 10 horses, at least eight is the

proper number allowed by the Regulations of H. M. service, for a 12-pounder

weighing about 18 cwt.—It was therefore not to be expected, that the same number

should drag through such a marsh, a load of 50-cwt. exclusive of the weight of the

carriage.

This trial was not quite as conclusive as could have been desired, yet it was

evident, that had the proper number of horses been given in the outset, the iron

wheels would have cut their way through the swamp without a halt, but whether

with the same ease as a wooden wheel, remains to be tried. ——The 6-inch rim

iron wheel has a tendency to sink into and plough up the soft ground, which ad-

heres to the inner part of the rim, and accumulates, an additicnal weight being

thus added to the wheel.—It is however to be remarked, that this objection ap-

plies only in very soft ground.

1832. | Tron Suspension Wheels. 533

Two 12-pounders were next dragged throughthe same marsh. One mounted on

patent iron wheels, the other on wood, and the draft applied was four horses to

each (half the proper number) ; both moved through without stopping, but the

draft was evidently difficult to both.—It was observed, that the iron wheels with 3-inch

tire, did not collect earth about the rim asa 6-inch tire does when moving

through soft ground.

The 24 and 12-pounder. were next placed in battery in front of the earthen butt,

and from each gun were fired three rounds with full service charges (shotted one to

each)—no visible effect was produced by this discharge.

To learn what would be the effect of a cannon ball fired at one of the patent

iron wheels, one wheel was placed in front of the butt : the first discharge from

the 12-pounder in the battery disabled two spokes. They were struck in an oblique

direction, and the ball cut them as smooth as if it had been done with a sharp

cutting instrument, bending both to one side, but without a fracture or fragment

flying off.

The second shot was directed to the face of the rim, which broke it, and bent

One end inwards ; one spoke was also cut through the nave, was grazed on the un-

der side, one end of the nave box cracked, and a small piece cut off the opposite

side of the rim.

The effect produced on the wood wheels differed very materially, the first shot

from the same gun shattered two spokes, the splinters from which spread much.

A second shot was then fired at the wood wheel, placed with the face of the

tire inclined to the front: the shot struck the tire a little below the centre of

the nave, shivered it to pieces, and scattered the numerous fragments of the

shattered wheel in all directions, some toa considerable distance-—This wheel

was no longer repairable.

From the foregoing experiments, it is but justice to the patentees of the iron

wheels to record the advantage under which they appear.

First. They are stronger and not so easily disabled in action, and when struck

with a cannon ball, do not splinter.

Secondly. When they sustain an injury to the extent of two or three spokes

broken, the wheel might be continued in use till an opportunity occurred of re-

pairing it ; while a wooden wheel under similar circumstances would for the time

be unserviceable.

Thirdly. The iron wheels are not subject to those changes which influence of

climate and changes of seasons work on wood wheels—we have seen in the course

of these experiments, that new wheels, that have lain a few years in store, would

require to be set up before sent on service ; no length of time can render that

necessary with the wrought-iron wheels.

Under all these circumstances, we are of opinion, that the trial, which has been

made at Woolwich of the iron wheels, has been sufficiently satisfactory to warrant

a hope, that the further and more extensive experiments, which the Bengal Govern-

ment will be enabled to made, under all the vicissitudes of Indian climate, will bring

their advantages fully to the notice of the Honourable Court.

The battery experiments were obligingly and ably assisted by the exertions of

Captain Rawnsley, of the Royal Artillery, who superintended laying the guns, and

which was done with an accuracy and effect hardly to be exceeded, and on the

Present occasion was all that could be wished for.

(Signed) Tuomas HarDWICKE, Major-General,

(Signed) W. Forrest, Lieut.-Colonel.

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JOURNAL

THE ASIATIC SOCIETY.

Mo. 12.—December, 1832.

T.— Analysis of the Puranas. By H. H. Wilson, Sec. As. Soc.

4. Tue Vayu Purana.

The Vdyu Purdna is so named from having been originally, it is

said, communicated by Vyu, or the deity of the wind, to the assembled

sages. It afterwards descended to Krisuna Dwarpayana Vy<Asa, by

whom it was taught to his disciple Lomanersuana, and at his desire it

is repeated by his son Ucrasrava to the holy ascetics at Naimisha-

ranya, agreeably to the form in which these works usually commence.

At starting however, a peculiarity occurs: the right of Su’ra to the

possession of the Vedas is denied, and he admits that he is entitled to

teach only the Itihdsas and Puranas. This distinction is attributed

to his equivocal origin which is very obscurely assigned to an error at

a sacrifice held by Prituv, in which the Ghz appropriated to Vari-

HASPATI, the teacher, was confounded with that set apart for INpRa, the

disciple, and from the oblation, termed Sutya, Su’ra was produced.

He consequently held an intermediate station between the Brahman

and Kshetriya, whom these gods, it may be inferred, severally repre-

sent ; and whilst in one capacity he is a scholar of VyAsa and a teacher

of the secondary scriptures, he is excluded in the other from instruct-

ing in the Vedas, and restricted to such means of acquiring a livelihood

as are compatible with the military profession,

The origin of Su’ra aswell as of MAcApua at the sacrifice of Prituu,

is also related in the Vishnu Purdna ; they are there said to have

sprung from the juice of the acid Asclepias, offered on that occasion.

The same story opens the Srishtt Khan’da of the Padma Purana, and

is there more fully, if not more intelligibly detailed : the account being

in fact the same as that of the Vayu Purana, and in the very same

words, with the addition of some stanzas, and the partial alteration of

536 Analysis of the Purdnas. [Dec.

others. The legend of the Vayu Purdna is quoted in the commenta-

ry of NInAKANTHA on the Mandpuirat.

The mixed character of the Su’ra is, however, more resenally ex-

plained in the works of Law. He is the son of a Ashetriya father

and Brahmani mother, and is consequently one of the Verna San-

kara, or mixed castes. His occupations are properly of a martial

character, as driving chariots and tending horses and elephants, but as

partaking of the Brahmanical order, he is also the encomiast, the

herald or bard of chieftains and princes ; such duty being assigned to

him and the Macapaa, by Priruu, the son of Vena, and it is in this

latter capacity that the Sita is the appropriate narrator of the Purd-

nas.

The origin of the Sita, whether legendary or rational, the duties

which are assigned to him, and the right conceded to him of teaching

the Puranas, seem to throw some light on the early history of these

works. In all probability, they were at first the traditionary tales of

a race of family poets, who corresponded precisely in character with

the scalds and bards of the north, and were at once the eulogists of

the chief and chroniclers of the family. In this manner some his-

torical traditions were preserved before they were formed into any

systematic account, but of course imperfectly and rudely. With the

genealogies the poets blended, no doubt, fanciful and mythological

fictions, and these were the materials which later writers wove into a

connected form, and from which they constructed the primitive Puranas.

The character of the compilers, that of religious men, gave, however,

a new complexion to the competition, and the mythological and mar-

vellous portions came to usurp an undue importance, to the neglect

of the historical records, The genealogies were, however, probably

preserved with some more care, as they were connected with the worship

of certain deities or deified princes, particularly RAma and Krisuna.

To the mythology also systems of cosmogony, geography, and astro-

nomy were added, and the five divisions of the Puranas were then

complete. . They were not long however suffered to continue in this.

condition. Contending sects arose, and each desirous of enlisting,

the Purdnas on his side, foisted into them absurd and tasteless fictions,

or metaphysical subtleties, calculated to inculcate the worship of some

individual manifestation of the Supreme. This began, there is reason

to think, about the 7th and 8th centuries with the Yogis. The fol-

lowers of Saiva doctrines carried it to a great extent between the 8th

and 10th centuries, and in the 11th and 12th, orafter the date of R<-

mMANUJA and Mapuwdcuarya the Vaishnava Purdnas were, there is

ee ee

1832. | Analysis of the Puranas. 537

little doubt, re-made or re-modelled to a.very considerable extent. By

all classes, however, the historical traditions of the Su’ras, or bards»

were treated with neglect. They disappeared altogether from most

of the Purdnas, and were in all much mutilated and compressed. Such

fragments as remain are, however, probably genuine, and when

separated from what is marvellous and unnatural, furnish some insight

into the actual history of India, in periods remotely past.

To return from this digression, however, to the Vayu Purana, it may

be observed, that as far as can be judged from the portion analysed, it

is a work perhaps of the earliest date, amongst the existing Puranas,

and clearly emanates from the Yoga school; it inculcates upon the

whole the preferable worship of the forms of Siva, but its sectarial

bias is less violently displayed than is usual in these works, the le-

gends are fewer, the cosmological parts are much more detailed, and

there is altogether a copiousness and consistency of system which is not

common in the Puranas. It is impossible in going through this work

not to feel an air of originality and antiquity about it, which is not

perceptible in any of the others hitherto examined. As far as appears to

be the case also, from the translated chapters, there is no allusion to

works or systems of an indisputably modern date.

~ The opening chapters profess to give a summary of the contents of

the work, but upon the first glance the detail is far from being applica-

ble to the sections that follow, either in subject or arrangement ; on a

further examination, however, it appears that the summary is more than

once repeated, with different degrees of precision, and withont any suf-

ficient mark of distinction between the end of one series and the begin-

ing of another ; this want of method is not unfrequent in Hindu works,

and the first books of the Mahabharat and Ramayana furnish speci-

mens of the same defective mode of indexing. There appear to be

three indexes in the first chapters of the Vayu Purana, of which the

two first are partial and inappropriate ; the third is more regular and

entire, and corresponds with tolerable accuracy with the contents of

the Purdna, as far as they extend in our copy, or to the description of

the Manwantaras. The index then proceeds to the families of the

sages and kings, observing apparently very little order in the details,

but comprising some curious particulars: as in the Vishnu Purana, the

account is carried forward into futurity, and the kings of the present

age are noticed. These historical sections are followed by cosmology,

terminating with the destruction of the world at the end of a Kalpa ;

the Purdna then gives the history of VyAsa, and of the divisions of

2¥ 2

538 Analysis of the Puranas. [ Dec.

the Vedas ; it comprises the legendary origin of NarmisH<ranya, and

the occasion of the assemblage of the Risuis at that place, and concludes

with an account of the incarnations of Siva, which, if we may judge

from the way in which that subject is treated in the Kurma Purana,

is the succession of teachers of the Yoga doctrines. All these chap-

ters are wanting in the only copy of the Vayu Purana we have

been yet able to meet with. They should form the latter half of the

Purana.

In the fourth chapter, the deity who existed before creation is re-

presented as eternal, without beginning or end, and the origin of all

things, comprehending within himself the two substances or attributes

by whose joint operation perceptible objects were formed, or A’tma,

Spirit, and Padhana or Prakriti, Matter: the mode in which elemen-

tary or primitive creation was evolved from the action of these two, is

then described in technical Janguage, conformable to the Sankhya cos-

mogony. The seven principal elements are the A/ahatatwa, Ahankara,

Akds, Vayu, Teja, Ap, and Prithivi. The first may perhaps be termed

the principle of collective animated elementary existence, and the se-

cond the principle of individual animated elementary existence, al-

though it must be confessed, that no very distinct and definite idea

appears to be any where attached to them; they may be sometimes

distinguished as mind, generally and individually, or elementary intel-

lect free from passion or emotion in the first case, and joined with it in the

second. The Mahdatatwa again, might occasionally, be rendered the

Divine Spirit connected with substance, but exempt from passion, and

which upon addition of the Gunas or qualities, becomes Ahankara: the

difficulty of explaining these terms satisfactorily is however, inseparable

from the visionary character of the existence of the things which they

denominate. The other five elements, if not more intelligible, are at

least more familiar to us, and though as little susceptible of definition

are, with one exception, cognisable by our senses, and therefore suggest

positive notions. A’kas is ether, a subtile element thinner than air. The

other four are air, fire, water, and earth. These partially combined

into an egg which lay in water, the water was invested by fire, the fire

by air, the air by A’kas, the A’kas by Ahankara, the Ahankara by the

Mahatatwa, and the whole by the Avyakta or imperceptible, identified

with Prakriti or Nature; from the egg, Hiranyagerbha, the four

headed Brahma was produced, the immediate agent of creation, the

materials of which, as far as this universe consisting of fourteen Lokas

or worlds, is concerned, lay concealed within the same recess from

which he issued.

| 1832.] Analysis of the Puranas, 539

Brauma’ the Creator, is in fact, only an embodied portion of the Raja

Guna, the quality of passion or desire, by which the world was called

into being. Rupra is the embodied Tama Guna, the attribute of dark-

ness or wrath, and the destructive fire by which the universe is annihi-

lated, and Visunu is the embodied Satwa Guna, or property of mercy

and goodness, by which the world is preserved ; the three exist in one,

and one in three; as the Veda is divided into three and is yet but one,

and they are all 4’srita, or comprehended within that one being who is

Parama or supreme, Guhya or secret, and Servatma the soul of all

things.

So far the theology of the Vayu Purana agrees with the deism

of the Vedanta, but it presently deviates from this doctrine in the

manner common to all the Purdnas, and to a purport which may be

supposed to have mainly influenced the present form of these composi-

tions. Agreeably to the Vedanta school, the Supreme Being, though of

one nature with his emanations, possesses a sort of separate existence, and

is always Nirguna or void of attributes. According to the Paurdnic

doctrines however, he is not merely Nirguna, but is occasionally

Saguna or Sukalydna guna, possessed of attributes, or at least of all

excellent attributes. In this latter case he becomes perceptible, and

appears in the form either of Visunu or Siva, according to the sect to

which the work that so describes him appertains : his appearances are

regarded as his L/a or pastime, and in this sense, the Vayu Purana

observes, the Paramatma, or Yogeswara, has engaged in various sports

and consequently assumed a variety of incarnations, and is known by

different names.

The successive stages of the creation of the world, are enumerated as

in the Kirma Purana, and amount to nine. They are somewhat dif-

ferently named in one or two instances, but the meaning is probably

alike. The nine Sargas are the Mahat, Bhita, ind Aréyaka, Mau-

khya, Téryaksrotas, Urddhasrotas, Arvaksrotas, Anugraha, and Kau-

mdra, or matter, the elements, the senses, the earth, animals, gods,

men, goblins, and Brauma’s sons, a list agreeing with that of the Kir-

ma Purana, except in the third, which is there called the Tejasarga, or

creation of light or lustre. The two works also agree in calling the

three first creations Prakrita, or elementary, and the six last Vackrita

or secondary, the elements being only made to assume Vikriti or

change of form.

The subject of creation is continued through the 7th and 8th chap-

ters, and the next sections are occupied with directions to practise ab-

stract devotion, and obtain a knowledge of the Supreme Being, interpers-

540 Analysis of the Purdnas. [ Dec.

ed with an account of the origin and duties of various sages, and the at-

tributes and power of some of the forms of Siva. 1n the eighteenth

chapter commences an enumeration of the Kalpas which is continued

through the 19th and 20th. Thirty-three Kalpas are mentioned, the

last of which is called the Viswarupa or Sweta, from the prevailing form

of Siva being of a white complexion. From this circumstance it appears

to be the same with the Vaishnava Vardha kalpa, in which Stva is in-

carnate on the mountain Ch’hagala as the Muni Sweta ; having for his

disciples Swaita Swetasikha, Swetasya and Swetalohita, the same who

are mentioned in the Kurma Purana ; the list of the Kalpasis followed

by that of the A/ahayugas in the present Manwantara, in each Dwa-

para of which, as well as a Vedavydsa, there is an incarnation of Siva,

who has four sons or disciples, all Mahayogis and portions of the divi-

nity. Those of the present period are Lakuli, and his sons Kustka,

Gargya, Mitraka, and Rushta ; the scene of their Yoga is called the

Kaydrohana Kshetra on mount Meru,

The subject of creation is not yet dismissed, and blended with illus-

trations of Siva’s supremacy continues through several other chapters.

In the 23rd chapter, Brauma and Visunv are introduced as propitiat-

ing. Mandpeva and receiving boons from his favour. To Branma he

grants progeny ; to VisuNvu praise; admitting him to be along with

himself the source ofall things, though in an inferior degree, thus he says

to Visunu “Iam Agni or fire, thou art Soma the moon; thou art the

night, I the day, thou art falsehood, [ am truth: thou art sacrifice, I

am the fruitofit ; thou art knowledge, I am that that is to be known,” &c.

The origin of Rupra from Braun by virtue of the boon given to

him, and the various appellations assigned by Braum< to that form of

Srva are next detailed, and this is followed by an account of the families

of the seven Rishis, Buricu, Maricu1, ANnciras, KarpAma or Pura-

HA, Puvastys, Kratu,and Vasisutua. Atrtiis notmentioned here, but

his wife, ANAsuy& is named as the mother of Sruti the wife of the son

of Kervama or Purana, named also Kerpama, from which alliance

the patronimic A’tréya is applied in the text to the descendants of that

sage. The place left by Arris’ exclusion, is occupied by Buritev, who it

appears, is considered as a formof Mandpeva. The descendants of Buri-

Gu are called Busreavas, and a branch of them sprung from the grand-

sonof Burieu named Mrixanpa aretermed Mark AnpbeEyAs; the descen-

dants of Maricat are the Kas’yapas from Kasyapa his grand-son, the

posterity of Anerr& are the Anarrasas;of Putasrya the Pautastyas,

of Vasisutua the VAsisuruas, and of Kratu the pigmy sages called B&-

LAKHILYAas. These denominations and genealogical classifications, as well

1832. | Analysis of the Puranas. 541

as several other details to be found in the same chapter, differ materi-

ally from the notions more generally received. We are not yet pre-

pared to say how far they are peculiar to this Purdna.

Some curious, and as far as yet known, peculiar mythology, follows,

describing the different kinds of Agni or fire, and particularising: the

Pitris, as the same with the Ritus or seasons of the year. A my tholo-

gical description of the divisions of time then ensues; it is clearly an

attempt to allegorise the year, and its divisions, in common with the

worship of collective ancestors by fire ; hence the year is called Agni,

the seasons the Pitris, and the five portions of animate and inanimate

creation of men, birds, beasts, reptiles, and trees, &c. are the five Ar-

tavas, the sons of the seasons or progeny of time: the allegory how-

ever is rather perplexed, and the whole description mystified and ob-

scure. The names given to the months and seasons here are double.

One set being the usual terms, and the other being peculiar; the name

of the months are the same as those cited by Sir Winx1am Jon's from

the Vedas, as the names of the solar months (A. R. III. 258.) The sea-

sons as the Prtris are called Kasa, dgni, Jiva, Sudhavan, Manyaman

and Ghora.

The Pitris are distinguished into two classes, the Varhishadus and

Agniswattus ; these are said to have had two daughters, Mend and Dhd«

rim ; the former became the wife of Himdvat, the latter wedded Meru,

and from her was descended Daksha, the mention of whom gives occa-

sion for the narration of his celebrated sacrifice, and for a number of

stanzas in praise of Siva’s supremacy.

_. The 30th chapter contains a very summary account of some royal

dynasties,and then particularises the duration of the four ages as 12,000

years. This calculation implies that the years are years of the gods,

such being the period of a Mahayuga, agreeably to Pauranic chrono-

logy, at thesame time the text does notspecify what years are intended*,

As analogous to the divisions of time, the Purana itself is here stated

to consist of 12,000 stanzas; a number different from that stated in

* The proportion in which the years are divided are,

Ri Catches Se mech ohss ot arbe b, Meth ee sied Aca kool ~ 4800

ROU bc dasniateete ee anne a en ei 3600

Daa, spc nopnettoeegeiee ee ee Me es 2400

12,000

the same is given in the Paulisha Siddhanta, as cited by Bhattatpala. (A R.

XII, 249.)

542 Analysis of the Purdnas. [ Dec.

the Matsya which assigns twice that amount or 24,000 Slokas to the

Vayu Purana.

A number of chapters then follow, appropriated to Pauranic geo-

graphy, the description of mount A/erw and the residence of the gods,

the seven continents and the divisions of the universe above and below

the earth; considerable portions of these chapters have been translated

by the late Colonel Witrorp. The Pauranic system is here very fully,

and upon the whole, distinctly detailed. The chief difficulties that

occur being perhaps rather the fault of the transcript than of the ori-

ginal work.

The same remark applies to the chapters that follow, in which the as-

tronomy of the Puranas is detailed with the same minuteness as the geo-

graphy: on these two topics, therefore, the Vayw Purana is a valuable au-

thority. .

Some of this astronomy is rather unusual, the relative sizes and situa-

tions of the planets, their cars, their steeds, and other appurtenances, and

their revolving round Dhruva or the pole, to which they are attached by

cords of air, as the potter’s wheel turns on its pivot, are in all the ordinary

strain; but we have a statement regarding the length of a Yuga, and the

commencement of the solar year, which are not conformable to received

notions, or the actual state of things.

It is said, for instance, that a Yuga consists of five years ; what kind

of Fuga is intended is not specified. Bentitey (A. R. VIII. 227), cites

the Graha Manjari for a Maha Yuga of five years, and in his last

work on the ancient astronomy of the Hindis he refers the construction

of a cycle of five years to what he considers, the first period of Hindu

astronomy, or from B. C. 1181 to 961.

This cycle it is said begins when the sun is in Sravana, and it is

again stated that Sravana is the first of the Nakshatras, and Magha

the first of the months ; according to the authority just cited,such could

have been the case only between the years 204 B. C. and A. D, 44.

when the year began with the month Magha. If Mr. Bentuey is correct,

this portion of the Purana at least, is of considerable antiquity what-

ever may. be the date of the rest (Ancient Hindu Astronomy, p. 271.) Mr.

Benttey also adds that, the mode of computation by which the com-

mencement of the year was made to begin with a different month and

asterism, was entirely laid aside by the Hindé astronomers subsequent

to A. D. 538.

The same chapter contains a description of the Szswmara, which is

interpreted by Mr. Davis to typify the celestial sphere (A. R. II. 402.)

The description is to a similar effect with that which he has translated

1332. | Analysis of the Purdnas. 543

from the Bhdgavat, but is shorter and less particular. There is also

this rather unintelligible addition, that the stars of the sphere never set ;

but the passaye may signify, that they are not annihilated at the usual

periods of destruction. The text is in this place evidently incorrect,

and the translation being made from a single copy, it is not safe to

venture any emendation.

A legendary account of Nilakantha or the blue-necked Stva follows,

and the description of the classes of the Pitris, and their feeding upon

the lunar nectar ensues. The introduction of obsequial ceremonies and

the worship of the manes appears to have originated with PururAvas, a

not unlikely circumstance, and one which explains the legend of his be-

ing descended both from the sun and moon; the worship of the manes

being connected with the conjunction of these luminaries, The list of

Pitris differs insome respect from that of Menu, and from that given in

a manual used by the Brahmans of Bengal, in which a verse cited from

the Vayu Purdna enumerates the following as the seven classes, Sawmy-

as, Agniswattas, Varhishadas, Havishmantas, Ushmapas, and Ajy-

apas. In the chapter now under consideration there are but four parti-

cularised. The Saumyas or Somapas ; the Kavyas or Ajyapas ; the

Verhishadas, and Agniswattas. Three others are merely named, the

Ushmapas, Devakirttyas, and apparently the Lekhas and Bahwikasy-

as; but these are unusual and probably inaccurate appellations. The

whole of the section is obscure, incorrect, and often unintelligible. The

same may be said of the two remaining chapters, which treat of the divi-

sions of time and the influence of the four ages.

Without being in possession of the contents of the remaining portion,

at least one-half of the Viyw Purdna, itis impossible to offer any opini-

on on the date as derivable from internal testimony. As far as the por-

tion analysed extends, it may be considered perhaps, as the oldest of the

actually existing Puranas, and it hasevery appearance of being a genuine

work, conforming more closely than any yet examined to the defi-

nition of a Purana, and admitting few of the unconnected digressions

and legendary absurdities by which the course of these compilations is

so commonly interrupted, and the established order widely disarranged

or wholly obliterated.

The Vayu Purana is not unfrequently omitted in lists of the eighteen

Puranas, but in that case it is considered to be the same with the

Saiva Purana, which takes its place. As now met with, however, the

two works are not identical.

544 Journal of a Visit [ Dec.

Il.— Extracts from a Journal kept by Mr. J. Emmott, Master

Attendant at Mergut, whilst visiting the Sapan Forests.

{Communicated by G. Swinton, Esq. Chief Secretary to Govt.]

I quitted Mergui on the 22nd August, 1830, and proceeded up the

Tenasserim river, with the view to inspect and report upon the forests

of Sapan-wood.

After passing the old city of Tenasserim and numerous islands,

sand-banks, rocks, and creeks, the names of which I have noted, and

many of which are described, I reached the first sapan forest on the

8th September, and continued ascending the river till the 11th, when

being taken ill, as also most of the boat’s crew, we were obliged to re-

turn.

From that date to the Ist October, I returned to Tenasserim, and

then re-ascended the river to the place I quitted on the 11th September.

I find, that there are no less than four ranges of the Tenasserim hills,

instead of one, as is marked in all the maps of the country which I

have seen.

From the 2nd October to the 17th, I was employed in examining

the forests.

The forests of Sapan-wood are considerably exhausted ; the wood-

cutters no longer meet with it on the banks of the Tenasserim

river, but are obliged to proceed about one day’s march inland, before

they can meet with it in any quantity. Many of them cross the

boundary, and obtain it from the Siamese territory.

August 23rd, 1830.—At one p. M. arrived at the old city of Tenas-

serim. It is situated on the bank of the river, and was originally sur-

rounded by a brick wall, which is now much dilapidated, and over-

grown with jungle. The west side was strengthened by a ditch

and breast-works, ‘The town at present consists of two streets, run-

ning parallel with each other, east and west. The population amounts

to about six hundred souls. A few miles beyond Tenasserim, the banks

of the river become steep, with moderate soundings: frequent hills rise

on the west, from five hundred to one thousand and three hundred

feet high ; in the middle of the river are turtle banks; along its side

are seen extensive Karian and Durian plantations: the maps of this

part of the country shew only one range of hills, but four distinct

ranges were observed. |

August 26th, 1830.—It is generally reported, that the Karian tribes

usually reside on the mountains and hills; but what I have seen of

these people, I find they invariably occupy table land, or the base of

1832. ] to the Tenasserim Sapan Forests. 545)

hills, They always select a rising ground on the brows of hills, to sow

their grain—a practice quite contrary to that adopted by their neigh-

bours, the Burmese, who invariably choose a low flat ground for this

purpose. Their manners and habits are also different from the Burmese ;

their houses are generally neat and well built, standing as high as fif-

teen or eighteen feet from the ground, with a moveable ladder, which

is drawn up at nights ;—this is done to protect themselves from the

nocturnal visits of tigers, elephants, and other wild beasts ;—the in-

side of their houses and their simple rustic furniture are kept extreme-

ly clean. Accustomed always to migrative habits, a Karian is na-

turally indifferent to laying out his plantations with any judgment or

taste, and consequently little labour is devoted to the rearing of trees,

the fruit of which may be reaped after a lapse of time, The soil pre-

ferred by them is of a red kind, found near the base of the hills, and

on this they plant vegetables, roots, and yams. Some of the stumps

of the jungle trees answer them as supporters to their betel, yam, and

other vines. Although in disposition they are far from resembling

savages, yet in their way of living they may be identified with them ;

every animal or reptile, that comes in their way, serves them as

an article of food. Met boats with Chinese and Burmese proceeding

up the river for sapan-wood :—freshes strong :—shores covered with

brush-wood :—passed another range of hills :—commenced tracking :—

passed a Siamese fort:—river apparently not navigable in the dry

season :—constant rain :—saw tracks of wild elephants and buffaloes ;

—passed several creeks, islands, and mountains :—nothing of interest

occurred until

September 3rd, 1830, (near Kotoung.)—At noon we came toa

creek called Phia Hat-thwet ; the Burmese maintain, that their god

came out of this creek, and took up his abode for some time in a cave,

on arising ground, a short distance from it. The rock under which

the cave is may be about three hundred and eighty feet high. On

its south side, it forms three squares ;—the entrance is towards the

westward, Its north-east angle slopes gradually down to the base of

the hill ;—the entrance to the cave is on a gradual ascent for about

two hundred yards, when you come to an irregular arch, about four-

teen feet in diameter. The inside is very spacious, and one is struck

with wonder and amazement on beholding such a spacious cave. Its

length from the entrance, east and west, is about one hundred and forty-

six feet, and from north to south, two hundred and sixty-seven feet,

The dome inside at its highest part is one hundred feet from the

ground, The rock of the cave is of a porous nature. In former times,

222

546 Journal of a Visit [Dec.

I am told, that the Siamese used to collect from this cave some tons of

saltpetre annually. I must say, that the grandeur of this cave sur-

passes the celebrated one on the Isle of Elephanta, or any thing of the

kind I ever saw in my life. Left this cave, and continued our course

up the river, steering on a westerly direction. At 4 P. m. passeda high

range of hills in a north north-west direction. Beyond this, the

river deepens to seven fathoms, with rocky and muddy bed :—passed

a creek, said to empty itself into the Tavoy river:—was deterred

from investigation by the boatman’s assurance, that no native ever

frequented it :—a long reef of sunken rocks, with two to four anda

half fathoms water :—freshes running ¢en and even fourteen miles an

hour :—forty men could not track the boat :—banks of the river

covered with jungle so thick as to be impenetrable.

September 11th, 1830.—Returned to Tenasserim, ill, and again as-

cended the river, to the same spot, by the “Ast October.

October 2nd, 1830.—At 10 a.m. arrived at the second range of

Sapan forests on the east bank of the river: the hills which surround

this forest are about five hundred feet high. Saw a boat with twenty-

six men, returning with six rafts of sapan-wood. Here I landed and

visited the forest. The trees grow on hills, as well as on plains. The

mountain-torrents had made such chasms through the forest to the

river, that it was with difficulty I could cross them before 1 could well

get at the place where the natives are employed cutting the wood. I

suffered a great deal in this excursion from the bites of leeches and

stings of musquitoes, which abound in the forests. ‘The day was wet

throughout. The leaves of the sapan tree are small, and resemble

much that of the tamarind, of a dark-green. It bears small flowers,

of deep orange-colour, which blossom during September and October.

The tree is in full growth, and worth cutting when it attains the height

of twelve or fourteen feet :—the bark is of a grey color, with notches,

from each of which protrudes a sharp thorn, about a quarter of an inch

long. These trees do not grow close to one another, and are not found

near the banks of the river.

October 3rd, 1830.—At 7 a. Mm. proceeded up the river in a

northerly course. Fell in with a boat at 9 a. m. from Mergui, with

spirits and other comforts, for the purpose of selling to those employed

in cutting sapan-wood. This boat was owned by a Chinaman.

October Ath, 1830.—At day light, wind easterly, arrived at Yebew

Gheune, formerly an extensive place for sapan-wood, but now almost

exhausted. Left a boat here belonging to some Chinese and Burmese

proceeding up for sapan-wood. The river here is rocky. Ali the

1832. | to the Tenasserim Sapan Forests. 547

natives are now obliged to enter the Siamese ground to cut sapan-

wood. The wood of this tree is so very hard, that a labourer thinks

he has performed a good day’s work if he has hewn three trees from

sun rise to sun set ; and as the forests are always damp and swampy,

nearly one-third of the people who proceed thither, are obliged after

a few days labour, to return to Mergui from suffering under fever, or

bowel complaints ; beside the musquitoes and leeches, the wood cutters

have to contend with a species of green snake from two to ten feet

long, and found among the leaves of the sapan tree. The bite of one

of these reptiles is so very poisonous, that the sufferer seldom survives

an hour. It preys upon birds, especially the peacock, which it chases

from tree to tree with great swiftness and success.

October 5th to the 9th, 1830.—Continued our way up to the river,

October \0th.—Arrived at a very steep hill, and made an attempt

to ascend it, but failed. aL examined the sapan forest about it, but

found it bare of trees; crossed the base of this mountain through a

deep ravine, and found great difficulty. In some places I was obliged

to be lowered down with ratans. We traversed round it, and came

to the banks of the river on the north-west side. It was so very steep

that we were obliged to make a bambu raft, and proceed on it to our

boat. It rained throughout the day.

October 11th, 1830.—The head-man of my boat left me with six

other Burmese, and proceeded into the sapan forest : towards the even-

ing they returned on a bambu raft; and brought some branches of

the sapan tree, and reported to me that there were plenty of full grown

trees where they had been.

October \2th.—Arrived at Meen wa Gheune, a famous place for

procuring sapan wood. Continued our way in a northerly direction,

passing at a distance immense sapan forests; passed a double range

of hills called Ara Moung Toung. This range lays north-west and

south-east ; they are not very high.

October 13th, 1830.—Ordered the boat to be got ready, and started

at 7-30 a. m. landed on a sandy beach and crossed a narrow neck of

land, where we came to a creek of considerable breadth, called by the

Burmese Pah Goon. It leads to Siam through a range of mountains.

I proceeded up this creek for some distance, and found the forest

here recently cut.—It is navigable for small boats.

During the night we had much rain, with thunder and lightning,

October 14th.—At day light continued our course up the river ;

at 9 a.m.arrived near the falls of Toung doung ka dain, but the freshes

being strong, we could make no use of our oars, and were obliged

548 Extracts from a Journal. [Dec.

to track the boat along the eastern shore, which occupied more

than four hours. At 1-30 p.m. arrived close to the falls; in the

centre is a small island, and on each side of it, it is lined with a reef of

rocks extending themselves to the main land. The falls are about

thirteen feet above the level of the water; on the south side the water

rushes with great impetuosity over a bed of sharp pointed rocks with a

hollow sound. The depth of water here is about twenty fathoms:

saw three or four boats about two hundred yards from the falls, these

belong to the sapan wood cutters.

October 15th, 1830.—Crossed over to the western shore in a boat,

with the whole of the boat’s crew. Crossed a mountain, and found

the river took a north-west direction and narrowed ; from the top of

this mountam Isaw the whole of the sapan forest as far as my eye

could reach ; descended the mountain, and walked along the banks of

the river until the evening, when I had a raft of bambus constructed,

and came down the river and arrived at our boats.

October 16th.—After breakfast I ranged along the west banks of the

river ; I saw some natives cutting sapan wood. Here I saw several

straggling sapan trees, each bearing the mark of a knife; and

J found on enquiry that they were the property of another gang of

wood-cutters. The people whom I met here told me that they intend-

ed to go more towards the southward to cut wood, and that the spot

where they are now employed, appears to have been occupied by others.

These men have, after some labour and time, cut only two rafts. The

forests, generally speaking, are not literally covered with sapan trees,

but only here and there a tree is to be found, so that the site which

the wood-cutter may fix upon for his field, turns out a chance as to

its abundance or scarcity. ‘The natives of Mergui, who engage them-

selves in this enterprize, hold each a share in the produce of their

labour.

October 17th, 1830.—During the day I employed myself in ex-

amining the heights of some of the mountains in the neighbourhood,

viz. Ka moun chat is about nine hundred feet high: others on the north-

west side of the river eight hundred and fifty feet high, and the “ Two

brothers” (Area moung ) mountains are about one hundred and ten feet.

Towards the evening, sent my boat to plant two flags on the western

sliore, asa base line ; took the height of Mecoun doung toung, six hun-

dred feet. This mountain lies to the south-west of Area moun toung

hill, and further on, in the same direction, is a round hill about four

hundred feet high.

1832.] Observations on the Ganges Water. 549

Finding that I could not proceed further up the river, in conse-

quence of the current being so very strong, and some of my boat-

men being unwell with fever and bowel complaints, (myself also being

troubled with the latter distemper,) and our stock of provisions al-

most exhausted, I thought it advisable to return to Mergui, which I

did on the following morning.”

III.—Some additional Observations on the quantity of earthy matter

brought down by the Ganges, its depth and velocity, made during

the rainy season of 1832, at Ghazipur. By the Rev. R. Everest.

The following are the results obtained during the present season in

continuation of the experiments described ona former occasion. [ Vide

page 238. | . W

Insoluble matter :— in a wine quart; ina cubic foot.

LD SU i rn ee eee 1 grain. 30 grs.

TONE Bele 3 eho tech Wie i | OB gg 240

93rd,...... Rene) a RRA Be OAs PO 1G 300

PSUs aie ico peo ash jo anny is ness cole ae 1740

oot AT a Ae Ay RS 1110

RR AEE Liha 9 ald geese » 20, op 780

Sept Gth;..... RSE ROTOR Men by age 510

BREE ns o\t-edale 0 m'e,a Wise sislescte eR telen, shes a kas 240

Dre es. Sits cies ties Oo 55 180

or 19 grains average for the 4 rainy months, from 15th June to 15th

October; add for soluble matter, suppose 2 grains ; the whole equal to

21 grains, or about 630 grains per cubic foot.

Velocity of the stream in ft. in an hour.

ERmhy Peet Ne ron elgi oes ofslels,els's eles) PS O.OkO

BH, wc eee go. Sa oop

pad > yu. er Baia. seis nts 21,000

Piiagee soehe er ian week .. 42,000

711 Pepe iy ot ce cecerserecee S49900

Sept. 6th,..... RES eae 21,600

DAR. < site mhe awsisc cee sees s whebie 13,320

Oct: Sth, fo wek oats Ni waindcab aq L800

or 20,200 for the average of the four months, which is equivalent to

about four miles per hour.

550 Eclipses of Jupiter’s Satellites. (Dec.

Depth of the river.

ft. in.

Jtaliy:, 22d oie srteee renter auoleies euab viene

S0the ne (olin ey ik cee ee

SULLY Sige es woe he' 1's Weis so! ol sinpiete Release A eee a

etic a tay, Seay A 28

sting .6,0 (cay el Ph eha\olel eum »<aceus einen

0 Js 0 awoke, Sills tells tno nD

Sillye sc oer w falta eiaiaidos ss \egeaetel oh ieee

13th, OPER 0 RR ee

DOmUe NL Sev satstos aneetetals oe eietenienes

SUBLsetn alls ce 2.0 > elec: tet eyele aot tenes

MERA OUI, . 0 \2 > 2% nlc sss cle ote oe a\n a

Bsns. 00 ene res .ceernST

24th,. . :

Oct. Ist... oe OPTED, wc 02. 26

AaMododcnondoA2a”a

or an average of 33 ft. for the four months.

Note.—It will be observed, that the averages here given are considerably less than

for the last year (1831), as stated in the Journal for June. But on comparing the

fall of rain for that, and the present year, as stated in the Meteorological Registers,

I am inclined to think that the previous estimate for 1831 is not excessive, but

defective. The small branch, or stream, when the river was at the highest, would

have a depth of about 12 ft. anda breadth of about 300 ft., an addition so trifling

to the main stream, that I have made no allowance for it.

IV.—Eclipses of Jupiter’s Satellites.

Observed by Mr. Walter Ewer. November, 1832.

Noy. 3. At Chaprah, with 5-feet achromatic, power 150.

Mean time Diff. from Diff. from Cal-

observed. Naut. Alm. cutta obs.

ham. Ss h. m. s. hm s.

Emersion II Sat. .......... 73745 53857 014 23

Nov. 4. At Digwareh, on road to Hajipar, 34-ft. achrom. power 100.

Emersion I Sat............. 635 00 5 4008 013 12

Noy. 10. At Hajipar, (Lat. 259 41’ 11” by sextant,) same telescope.

Emersion III Sat.,..2....0. 7 41901 0, 41 19) Oe

Noy, 11. Do. EmersionJSat. o.oo eeuk ss 8°31.35 540.50. (0 Ager

Nov. 27. At Chaprah, 5-ft. achromatic, power 150, ‘‘ capital observation.”

Emersion I'Sat;.220..5-..:2. "6 50°36 5° 3853" Oa 34

Ww.

The last column shews the difference as deduced from the Calcutta observation,

_made with a telescope of nearly the same power—(vide page 505-6.)

— -—

ee |

Vet I. Pl, XIV

pees ee

COWLES’S ANGLOMETER

SB. Tassin lth.

C Cowles dal

a ey wae’

oh See og &

ere Bhi

rns

he Mag",

‘

4 Mas er

‘-) ae,

3 “i rr ’

Rite ok y ve tg ee)

1a * ee at al

- o

xs a :

; gore 4 cS oat

: : vty 5

“a . }

: b,! ee byt

gat ome

F : > “ 4 , et oe

ti sine i's -

ae "wa

rate ; “i j ‘3 ny fl ~ he

: - ae ;

_ ¥ a ‘

priate

hill

ee OE:

1832. ] Description of the Anglometer. 551

V.— Description of the Anglometer, an instrument for working

Lunar Calculations. By Captain C. Cowles.

The instrument represented in the accompanying drawing (Plate

XIV.) was invented by me some years ago, with a view of reducing

to easy practice one of the many methods laid down for solving

the “ Lunar Problem.” The method I allude to will be found in Dr.

Kelly’s “ Practical Introduction to Spherics and Nautical Astronomy.”

In speaking of it, he says in his preface to that work, (page 10.)

“The manner of finding the longitude by the lunar observations is explained at

some length in an easy familiar way, and the principles are illustrated by stereo-

‘graphic projections, whence rules are deduced for estimating the correction before

hand. As this subject has not been attempted before, it required the more consi-

deration, which has led to the discovery of a method of solving the problem by pro-

jection of four right lines from the plane scale; and although this method cannot

be insisted on as perfectly correct, yet considering the complicated nature of the

problem, and the great simplicity of the projection, the degree of accuracy must be

matter of surprize rather than animadversion, as it will be found sufficiently correct

for the general purposes of navigation. Where perfect accuracy is required, this

method will be useful as a guide or check to calculation: and it is hoped, that the

extreme facility of the operation may tend to render the-practice of taking lunar

distances more frequent among the generality of seamen.’’

Simple as the above method is, there are difficulties, which oppose

themselves to its general adoption ; for instance, to perform it with any

degree of accuracy, it is necessary to have a tolerably smooth surface

to work on, good compasses and scale, with a hard well-pointed pen-

cil; on board ship one or other, and sometimes all these requisites are

wanting, and when present, it must be recollected, that even amongst

intelligent and well educated seamen, there are many who are not

aufait at the pencil and scale. The object of this instrument is to remedy

these inconveniences as far as may be, as it performs the work of paper,

compass, scale, and pencil: it has been used by many persons, among

whom I may mention Captain Laws, of H. M. S. Satellite, from whose

concurrent reports on its merits, as well as from my own experience, I

should say, that “its accuracy zs matter of surprize;” that under all cir-

cumstances, it is a very desirable check on calculation ; and, when the

“ distance” is not great, its accuracy may be depended on without

calculation ; and lastly, the certainty of being able to determine the

longitude, in the course of a few minutes, is a strong inducement to

take lunar distances when otherwise they would not be attempted.

Plate XIV. exhibits a perspective view of the instrument as made up

by myself with the rude means at my command ; the method of using

it to clear the lunar distance is as follows :

3 A

552 Description of the Anglometer. [ Dec.

Place the index A at the apparent distance on the arc of the instru-

ment; then place the plain bar BC on the divided edge BE,

or solar line, at the sun’s altitude; and the chamfered bar DF,

on the lunar line GH: mark at what division the plain bar intersects

it, which note down, and call it the line of correction; and when this

falls to the right of the lunar line, it is subtractive ; but when to the

left, it is additive.

Multiply* this line of correction by the given horizontal parallax ;

and divide the product by 62, when the correction is subtractive ; but

by 53, when additive, to find the “ true correction.”

To this description I will add a comparative example by the two

methods.

By the usual Formula.

)’s Apparent Altitude, 32° 30’ 00”

: *’s Ditto ditto,.. 43 43 00 .

Givenyeecis estes. Apparent distance! 4519 37 To find the true distance.

)’s Horizontal Parallax, 0 60 09

y ’s Apparent Altitude,32° 30’

*’s Ditto ditto, 43 43

Sum;..%.c..ece.. 7633 0 -Half,...... 38) 6 Co; Tanpmawas

Difference, yo... . WT 13:70 Half, .): 5 3.) foroor Canpents 8,9915

Apparent distance, 45 19 37 Half,...... 22 40 Co. Tang. 10,3792

First Correction,.. -e 0 6 Arc, A. .. 16 40 Tangent, 9,4763

45 19 43 Difference,. 6 00 Co. Tang. 10,9784

Second Correction, — 25 43 *’sAltitude, 43 43 Co. Tang. 10,0195

44 54 00 *’sCorrection, 0 59 P. Log. 2,2626

Third Correction, + 015 FirstCor. 0 6 P. Log. 3,2605

True Distance,.. 44 54 15 Sum,...... 39 20 Co. Tang. 10,0865

)’s Altitude, 32 30 ‘Co. Tang. 10,1958

)’s Cor..... 49 15 P. Log. 0,5629

2ndCor..... 25 43 P. Log. 0,8452

Given as above. By the Anglometer.

Line of Correction,.... 25’ 45” P. Log. 8445

) ’s Horizontal Parallax,60 9 P.Log. 4760

1,3205

Constant Log. 4629

8576

Correction,........ 0 24 59

Apparent Distance, 45 19 37

True Distance,.... 44 54 38

* The use of proportional logarithms will simplify this operation.

1832. | On the Indications of the Pulse. 553

VI—On the Indications of the Pulse according to the Hindis.

[Translated from the 2nd Section of the Oushudha-vall, a Medical Treatise in the

Bhaka language ; by Raja Kalikishen Behddur.]

The treatise, from which the following extract is made as a specimen of orien-

tal notions on medical subjects, professes to be a compilation from the A’yur Veda,

Abadhouta, Parvatl, Sakuni, Deviguya, Bhoja-Shastra, Tantra Purdna, and other

works, arranged in the Bhaka tongue for the use of practitioners. It was printed

in Calcutta in 1826, and its doctrines are of course prevalent at the present day

among all those who have not had the advantage of a medical education after the

European system. I have thought its publication might be interesting as a matter

of curiosity.

Much consideration is required to judge of a man’s constitution, by

the pulse ; and in some cases it is requisite to feel the pulse of both

his arms; for when the pulsation is found to be the same in either

arm, the inference is the existence of bodily equanimity : that part of

the arm which is just above the joint of the hand is the place where

the pulse is to be felt by the application of four fingers.

The following are the names by which the four navel strings are

distinguished ; namely, phlegmatic, bilious, flatulent, and sanguineous.

The fingers to be applied are the fore fingers, and the others arranged

in due order. If the motion of the pulse felt by the fore fingers be ser-

pentine, and directed upwards, it must be inferred, that the patient’s |

bile, blood, and interior are in a good state. If the pulse rise ina

horny form, above the semi-knuckle, it will then be a sure sign of

flatulency in the stomach, occasioning pain and giddiness of the head ;

but if it throb in the manner a wood-pecker picks grains, the indica-

tion will be a bilious disease.

If it beswelled, and rise up, phlegm and bile are to be understood as

predominant, and should its motion in this condition be very quick, it

will be a sign of fever; but if, in a swelled state, the pulsation should

descend towards the other semi-knuckle, phlegmatic fever will

appear to have ensued. If the pulse be faint, a superabundance of

heat in the bowels will be indicated ; if it be nearly impalpable,

or if it should vibrate at one time upwards, and down at another, this

will signify costiveness; when it becomes cold and weak, phlegm will

prevail; if it run up and down frequently, flatulence and obstructed

excretion ; if the motion be like that of a lapwing, it will show the rise

of a morbid state of the humours ; and if the pulse become thick from

being very hurried, it will quickly languish, and cause death.

When the pulse felt by the middle finger ascends in a thin faint

form, or beats the upper semi-knuckle, like a wood-pecker, a bilious

3A2

554 Notes in Natural History. [ Dec.

disorder will have taken place, which will also be indicated by the

pulse running violently upwards, from the tip of the finger, and in this

last case, it is probable, that vomiting and evacuation will ensue, if not

already prevalent ; phlegm is known when the pulse rises upwards fre-

quently, and fever when strongly ; when the pulse spreads, or becomes

broad on one side, from the tip of the finger, at the time of rising, this

will evince flatulence. Ifit get up, becoming thick in the lower semi-

knuckle, and thin in the upper, the symptoms of virility will be understood

to be deficient. Descending down the lower semi-knuckle, it will shew

_alatent and morbid state of the humours, and the approach of fever ;

and even in a feverish state, the pulsation will be the same.

If the pulse move upwards weakly or strongly, this will indicate

fever ; if such movement be not continual, it will imply a want of di-

gestion. Ifthe motion, resembling that of a lapwing, and attended by

an almost imperceptible morbid state, becomes thick at once, the pulse

will languish instantly, and be a forerunner of death. Ifthe pulsation

be at intervals, and confused, death is likely to happen, either after a

lapse of four or five days, or within a day or two. When the pulsation is

felt by the ring-finger, as drawing straight upwards, bodily, air will

appear to be prevalent; but when, being weak, it runs in the same

direction, and turns suddenly downward, flatulence will be apparent ;

besides, when the motion is slow or violent, and something like a knot

is felt, it may be taken as the sign of pain in the stomach.

Should the pulse come down the semi-knuckle, phlegmatic fever will

become manifest ; and should this occur during a fever, attended with

violent motion, and descending directly, rheumatism will prevail. If

it move up in a triangular form, being broad in the lower and thin in

the upper semi-knuckle, phlegm will be discerned. If the pulse, felt

by the little finger, is straightly drawn up, the blood will be found in a

clarified state; but a knot being perceived in the middle, it will indi-

cate cold.

When the pulse comes down, it will appear that the blood has un-

dergone some deterioration, and if not so already, that it will soon be

discharged naturally, or even flow through the ears or eyes.

VII.— Notes in Natural History. By Lieut. T. Hutton, 37th N. 1.

I have now the pleasure to furnish an additional instance, in which I have ob-

served the surprising increase of some species of insects during the rainy season.

About the 20th August, I accompanied some friends on an excursion to the

falls of Tarah, which are situated in the hills about 9 or 10 miles from Mirzapar ;

1832. ] Notes in Natural History. 555

owing, however, to the bad state of the weather, I made very few additions to my

collection of insects, and being unable from the continued rain to venture far from

the tents, I was amusing myself with watching the camels feeding among the trees

under which we had encamped, when I espied a large tick slowly crawling on the

ground; it was much swollen, and had probably recently fallen from one of the

camels. Isecured it in a small box which I carried with me for such purposes,

and afterwards in the hurry of returning to cantonments, forgot all about it, by.

which means it was left imprisoned until the 17th of September, nearly a month

afterwards, when on opening the box, I found the insect not only alive, but liter-.

ally buried in a mass of minute ova, of a brown colour.

I proceeded forthwith to ascertain the number of eggs, which it had deposited

during its long and solitary confinement, but owing to their minuteness and my

wish to be accurate in counting them, I found I had assigned myself no easy’

task :—

Remembering, however, the old saying of ‘* faint heart never won, &c.’’ I per-

severed, and at the end of more than four hours, by which time I was completely

tired, I found that I had waded through the almost incredible number of 5,283

ova.

These I kept for six days longer in a small glass phial, at which time the parent

died, and the young were hatched, when I destroyed the whole family for fear of

their infesting the house.

In a former note, I mentioned the great number of young produced by spiders,

and having since discovered one of the means by which they are kept within due

limits, I shall proceed to give a slight sketch of their enemy and the purpose to

which it applies them.

During the rainy season, but more especially at its close, a beautiful species of

Sphex, may be observed continually entering the room and searching for a con-

yenient spot whereon to build its cell, sometimes selecting the leg of a table or

chair, but more generally the wall or door- posts,

This done, it next brings in its mouth small portions of wet clay, with which it

plasters the spot and forms a foundation upon which it builds its cell, rounding it

into a cylindric form*, and always commencing at the bottom and working up-

wards to the mouth of it.

Having thus prepared the cell for the reception of its offspring, the sphex flies

off in search of a spider, which it deposits at the bottom of the cell and upon which

it fastens its egg.

It then again proceeds in search of more spiders, which are all placed in the cell

for the purpose of nourishing the young grub.when hatched from the egg.

The cell is then carefully closed with wet clay, and the sphex leaves it.

The grub when hatched, lives upon the store of food previously provided for it,

and when it has consumed this, becomes a pupa, in which state it remains for some

little time, and when ready to assume its imago or perfect form, it bores a hole

through its prison walls and makes its escape.

Several of these cells were formed in different parts of my Bungalow, sometimes

singly, sometimes in pairs closely joined side by side; when in pairs they are ge-

nerally plastered over with a coat of clay which conceals their real form.

a Ee ca ee a aes Ea RE a NR RA

* These cells when fixed to a wall or other flat surface, have the one side flat, and

the other rounded or cylindriform.

556 Notes in Natural History. [ Dec.

The following list will serve to shew clearly why, in spite of the vast increase of

the spiders, they do not cause that annoyance which the number would at first lead

one to expect.

A single cell contained, ........00.0 sesccceveecsecese 4 Spiders,

A nest of two cells contained, eee an et eg 2 =53 spiders.

a9 eeeeee

ASt cell foneeie. :

A do. do. do. Dat cell. 1 eda qe spiders.

SE CELL eos icleyeien a ;

A do. do. do. 4 ond bell, BS 0 spiders.

Total, 140

Again, another insect of a fine blue colour builds a nest of 4 or more cells, one

of which I also give as an example, viz.

Ist scellyseeie) 9 20

A nest of 4 cells contained, = a Sa ae =38 spiders.

L scovepeecers

4th cell, ......Pupa

The form of this last nest is the same as the foregoing, but I do not think the

insect is of the same genust.

Thus, however, we have more than 178 spiders killed by 5 insects alone ; conse-

quently, the increase of the species will be little more than equal to the consump-

tion.

Of the insect itself I shall give you a description in some future paper, together

with that of several others which I have collected.

I may add, however, that the cell is often built and stored with spiders in less

than an hour.

I shall now proceed to make a few observations on the difference in several

scorpions which I have examined.

In all the authors that I have hitherto had an opportunity of consulting, I find

the number of teeth, in the pectinated plates on the abdomen of these animals,

taken as one of the distinguishing marks of species.

This has confused me not a little, as I have lately examined upwards of 30 scor-

pions of different sizes, scarcely one of which agreed in the number of these teeth,

and yet, setting this aside, they are the samein colour, in the number of eyes, and

are often found together in the same holes.

In many instances I found one tooth dess on one side of the pecten, than on aa

other side, but this deficiency was generally (though not always) supplied by a knob

or rudiment of a tooth, which if counted as such made the plates correspond.

The deficiency was almost always at the inner end of the plate.

The following catalogue will perhaps shew the differences, better than I can de-

scribe them.

No. 1. A scorpion with 15 teeth in the right pecten, 14 in the left pecten, and

arudiment of a tooth on the left plate. Eyes 8in number. Colour dark

livid-green ; tail and forceps brownish ; legs and poison-sack brownish straw-

colour. Length 32 inches. Scorpio afer ?

+ Probably a species of pompilus, or some other genus of pompilide. I. T. P.

ei ae a

1832.] Notes in Natural History. 557

No. 2. A scorpion with 14 right, 15 left teeth in the pecten; eyes 8; colour of

the preceding ; length 35 ins. No rudiment of a tooth on the right plate. S.

afer ?

No, 3. Pecten with 15 7., 151. teeth; eyes 8; colour of last; length 33 ins. S,

afer ?

No, 4. Pecten with 15 7,, 157. teeth ;eyes8; colour of last ; length 3Zins. S. afer ?

These 4 appear to be the same, differing only in size, as the tooth, which in No.

1 is supplied by a knob, and in No. 2 is wanting, may have been broken off.

No. 5. Pecten with 16 r., 15 7. teeth; eyes 8; colour the same as above; a knob

on the left plate ; length nearly 13 ins. !

No. 5, which is not so much as half the size of Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 4, has neverthe-

less more teeth on the pectinated plates. Wotild not this argue, that the number

of teeth does not increase with the age of the animal, since the least in size has

_ often most teeth on the pecten ?

No. 6. Pecten with 147., 14 7. teeth; eyes8; length 3% ins.

Pecten with 14 7., 147, teeth; eyes 8; length 2 ins.

Pecten with 14 7., 14 7. teeth; eyes 8; length 3 ins.

Pecten with 13 7., 142, teeth; eyes 8; length 3Zins. A knob on the right

plate.

No. 7. Pecten with 13 7.,13 2. teeth; eyes 8; length 1# ins.

Pecten with 13 7., 13 7. teeth; eyes 8; length 33 ins.

Pecten with 13 7., 127. teeth; eyes 8; length 1? ins.

No. 8. Pecten with 12 7., 127. teeth; eyes 8; length 2 ins.

The natives say these scorpions inflict very painful wounds, attended sometimes

with danger.. They are found in holes in the ground.

The next species is much smaller and of a rusty brown colour, differing altoge-

ther in the shape of its forceps, which are more lengthened, and slender than in

the former species ; its general appearance also is much less forbidding. Its sting

is not dangerous, but attended with pain, and inflammation of the wounded part ;

a servant however of mine, who was stung in the foot by one of this last species,

was laid up for nearly two months in consequence.

No. 1. Pecten with 28 +., 28 /. teeth; eyes 8; colour reddish or rusty brown ;

forceps long and slender, and very little bulging ; length 2% ins. of which the

tailis 14 ins. Scorpio dAmericanus ?

These are found on trees, underwood, &c.

No. 2. Pecten with 29 r., 29 Z. teeth; eyes 8; length 2% ins.

No. 3. Pecten with 30 7., 30 7, teeth ; eyes 8; length 23 ins.

No. 4. Pecten with 32 7., 32 i. teeth; eyes 8; length 2 ins.

No. 5. Pecten with 33 r., 33 7. teeth; eyes 8; length 2 ins.

At first I was much inclined to think, that these scorpions constituted only 2

species, the first of which, the dark livid-green species, I looked upon as the

** Scorpio afer” in different stages of growth, and the second, or rusty brown

species, asthe ‘‘ Scorpio Americanus.’’ But on examining more closely I found

that the smaller ones had often more teeth than the large ones; as for instance,

No. 5, which has 16 7., 15 J. teeth, is only 13 ins. in length ; while No. 8, which is

one inch longer, has only 12 r., 12 4. teeth, And again in the second species, Nos.

4 and 5, which are only 2 ins, in length, have more teeth than Nos, 1, 2 and 3,

which are 3 an inch longer.

‘558 Notes in Natural History. [ Dec.

I therefore came to the conclusion, that, as the Jarger animals, which might rea-

‘sonably be supposed to be the oldest, had fewer teeth on the pecten than the small-

er ones, these teeth do not increase in number as the animal advances in age from

infancy to maturity, and consequently that the difference in the number, must

either indicate distinct species, or that the pecten cannot be regarded as affording

any distinguishing mark of species.

But there again a question occurs, which I confess myself unable to answer,

viz. how, if only one species, to account for the difference in the number of teeth ?

‘ Moreover, having procured a scorpion with several young ones clinging about

it, I found that the number of teeth in both parent and offspring were exactly the

‘same, the first having 15-15 teeth and being 33 ins. in length, and the last having

15-15 teeth, and being only 7 ins. in length.

This, I think, goes far to prove those above described to be of distinct species.

The stories of these animals committing suicide, when surrounded by fire, are I

believe now looked upon by naturalists as mere idle tales, unworthy of credit.

Arguing one day upon this subject and not being able to convince my adversary,

I procured two scorpions, one of each of the species mentioned above, for the pur-

‘pose of testing the truth of his statement, and found the result to be as I had

anticipated.

The poor animals after twice or thrice running over the glowing charcoal with

which they were encompassed, and being as often put back again, were ina

ninute or two completely roasted by the heat, and expired without making the

least attempt to sting themselves.

The animal, when in pain, lashes its tail about very quickly, which might pos-

sibly have given rise to the opinion, that it was stinging itself.

I consider it as next to impossible for them to commit suicide, as independent

of the hardness of their covering, it is a known fact, that the scorpion when endea-

vouring to sting strikes backwards with much force, whereas in stinging itself it

must push forwards, which I think it unable to do: but even if it could, I should

question its ability to pierce the armour with which nature has clothed it.

It has been said that scorpions are so fierce and voracious, that when confined

together they invariably fight until but one remains, which devours the carcases

of his fallen enemies. This I can affirm is not always the case, as 8 or 10 of

both kinds, which I confined in a large glass-jar, lived very peaceably for 4 or 5

days, although deprived of food ; on putting in some beetles however they were

speedily devoured. They appear to be very tenacious of life, as three, which I put

into a jar of water, lived for four days.

If kept together for any length of time without food, it is more than probable

that they would devour each other; but it is scarcely fair to stamp the poor

‘scorpion as a fierce assassin, merely because it does that which, in like cases,

every animal, from the Lord of the creation downwards, would be tempted to do,

rather than perish of hunger.

I had intended noticing two species of land shells, which I found at Mirzapar ;

but having much extended the present communication, I shall make them the sub-

ject of my next.

Mirzaptir, Oct. 26, 1832.

‘

1832. ] Asiatic Society. 559

VIII.—Proceedings of the Asiatic Society.

Wednesday, 12th December, 1832.

The Honorable Sir Epwarp Ryan, President, in the Chair.

Read the Proceedings of the last Meeting.

The Right Reverend the Lord Bishop of Calcutta, Colonel Thomas C.

Watson, and Charles Ray Martin, Esq. proposed at the last Meeting, bal-

loted for, and unanimously elected.

A letter was read, addressed by Babi Ramkomal Sén, to the Committee

of Papers, stating the circumstances of his connection with the Society since

the year 1803-4; he then acted as Registrar and Accountant under Dr.

Gilchrist, Mr. Home, Drs. Hunter and Leyden, on a salary of 30 rupees: in

1820, this was increased by Lord Hastings, then President, to 50 rupees, and

the duties of Collector were added, with an allowance of 20 Rupees for

establishment. In 1829, the Babi was elected a Member, but continued his

services as before, giving the emoluments to his son. Seeing the present state

of the Society’s funds, and the necessity of retrenchment in its expences, he

now begged to relinquish his salary, and proposed a new scale of establish

ment, with areduced total from Rs. 222 to Rs. 150 a month, making a saving

of 72 Rupees.

Resolved, upon the recommendation of the Committee, that the thanks of

the Society be presented to Baba Ramkomal Sen, for his long and valuable

services, and his disinterested offer of continuing their gratuitous performance,

and that in testimony of its satisfaction, he be elected Native Secretary to

the Asiatic Society.

Resolved, that Babi Ramkomal Sen be authorised to retain such establish-

ment as is necessary for the collection of the subscriptions, in communication

with the General Secretary.

The Secretary reported the completion of the 17th volume of the Asiatic

Researches, and that application had been made to Government for freight

for 100 copies for Europe.

Museum.

Ornaments worn by Ooriah women. Presented by Baba Ramkomal Sen,

with a note.

Library.

The following Books were presented by Mr. H. H. Wilson ;

Assemani Catalogo de Codici Manoscritti Naniana, 1 vol.

Belt’s Historia Antipodum, 1 vol.

Biot’s Traité de Physique Experimentale et Mathematique, 4 vols, in 2,

Georgii Agricole de Re Metallica, 1 vol.

Histoire General des Voyages, 25 vols.

Picart’s Ceremonies and Religious Customs, 6 vols.

Vaillant's Numismata Imperatorum, 1 vol.

Vocabulario de la Linga Tagala, 1 vol.

Inscriptiones Antique 4 Comite Carolo Vidua, 1 vol.

Stewart’s Principles of Money, 1 vol.

Sage

560 Proceedings of the [ Dec.

D’Olivet’s Langue Hebraique Restituée, 1 vol.

Tochon d’Anncey, Recherches sur les Medailles, 1 vol.

Astley’s Voyages, 4 vols.

Dictionary, Sanscrit and English, MSS. 4 vols.

The following Books presented by Messrs. Dondey, Dupré and Sons, of

Paris.

Chezy, Reconnaissance de Sacountala, Drame de Calidasa, 1 vol,

Roger, Recherches Philosophiques sur la langue Onolofe, 1 vol.

Carolo Vidua, Inscriptiones Antique in Turcico Itinere collect, 1 vol.

Klaproth, Table Alphabetique du Journal Asiatique, 1 vol.

Klaproth, Memoires relatives a 1]’Asie, 3 vols. in 1.

Refaha, la Lyre brisée, 1 vol.

Letronne, Analyse Critique du Recueil D’ Inscriptions de M. Le Comte De Vidua,

De Fonscolme, Memoire sur le preambule d’un edit de Diocletien, 1 vol.

Greppo, Essai sur Je systeme Heroglyphique de Champollion le jeune, 1 vol.

Blin Dictionnaire Francaise, Tamul, et vice versa, 1 vol.

Heber, Voyage de Calcutta 4 Bombay, &c. 2 vols.

Remusat, Nouveaux Melanges Asiatiques, 2 vols.

Trebutien, Contes Inedits des Mille et une Nuits, 3 vols.

Pongerville, les Amours Mythologiques, 1 vol,

Ditto, Lucrece de la Nature des Choses, 2 vols.

Marcel, les Dix Soirées Malheureuses, 3 vols.

The following Works from various Societies, &c.

The Ist and 2nd parts for 1831, of the Transactions of the Royal Society,

List of the Portraits in possession of the Royal Society, and

Ditto of Instruments and Apparatus belonging to the Royal Society. Presented

by the Royal Society of London.

Nos. 50 and 51 of the Journal Asiatique. Presented by the Asiatic Society of

Paris.

A Selection of Anecdotes, moral and entertaining, by Maha Raja Kalikishen.

The Memoirs of Ameer Khan, translated by H.T. Prinsep, Esq.—from the author.

Resolved, that the thanks of the Society be presented to the Donors of the

above.

The following Books received from the Booksellers.

Lardner’s Cabinet Cyclopedia, Spain and Portugal, 3 vols ; Switzerland, 1 vol.

Hardwicke’s Illustrations of Indian Zoology, parts 10th and 11th,

Tod’s Rajasthan, 2nd vol.

The Secretary submitted to the Meeting, the Journals and Papers of the

late Mr. Moorcroft, placed by Government with the Society.

Resolved, that they be referred to the Committee of Papers, to determine

in what manner they may most advantageously be made public.

PuysicaAL Branca.

Correspondence.

1. A letter was read from the Right Honorable Sir R. W. Horton, Gover-

nor of Ceylon, acknowledging, on the part of the Ceylon Improvement

Society, the receipt of the first eight numbers of the Journal of the Asiatic

Society, and communicating a resolution passed unanimously at their Meet-

es eS 7. ee

1832.] Asiatic Society, 561

ing of the 24th October, “‘ to enter into correspondence with the Asiatic

Society.”’

2. A letter from the Baron de Ferussac, dated Paris, the 10th April, acs

knowledged the receipt of a copy of GLEANINGs IN ScrENCE, and ex-

pressed a desire on the part of the “ Société du Bulletin Universel” to

enter into relations with the Asiatic Society, and to introduce to its Members

M. Richy, Juge de la Kacherié a Chandernagore (now a Member of our

Society.)

The Baron de Ferussac brings to the notice of Naturalists in India, his

work on the Mollusca, now in the course of publication, [of which a pros

pectus was printed on the cover of our last number. ]

3. A letter from Mr H. Piddington was read, presenting in the name of

Dr. Harlan, of Philadelphia, the following works:

1. Andubon’s Ornithological Biography.

2. Nos. 2, 3, and 5 of Featherstonhaugh’s Monthly American Journal of Geo-

logy and Natural Science.

3. Description of a fossil Fucus and fossil bones, by R. Harlan, M, D.

4, Description of the Arvicola Nuttali, by ditto,

Museum.

A letter was read from Dr. Spry, announcing, that he has transmitted to

the Society a magnificent specimen of a silicified palmyra tree from Sagar :

also four specimens of the strata observed in digging a well in the jail at

that station.

‘¢ S4gar is nearly surrounded by a chain of basalt hills; not in one continuous

range, but with here and there a break. About a mile and half N. E. of Sagar on

the Jabalpar road, a bed of limestone partly in mass and partly crystallized, juts

out at the foot of a range of these hills, and in the bed of a little stream, which is

dry, except in the rains, and which runs over this limestone bed, these fossil trees

are found, Captain Sleeman was the first to observe them. Three or four specimens

as large as the one now sent have been removed. They are seen protruding

through the soil, which on being removed, exposes the entire root. Masses of the

truuk are observed lying about, but an entire trunk has not yet been discovered.

Specimens of rocks and minerals from Mr. W. Cracroft, to complete

his series of the geology of Chira Punji.

Among these are several specimens of sandstone, with vegetable impressions of

twigs and wood; some of the Chira and Pandua limestones, with their distinct

shells: finely crystalline fibrous actinolite ; some very pure white porcelain clay,

and some gold dust, with magnetic iron sand, as washed from the sand of the

Brahmaputra river. Also, through Mr, G. Swinton, some of the auriferous pyrites

from Dr, Lamb.

The Secretary presented specimens of zeolites, received from Mr. B. Noton

of Bombay ; among them a fine transparent greenish prismatic apophyllite.

Dr. Strong communicated a report on the progress of the boring in Fort

William.

A third shaft has been opened to the depth of 82 feet, with a very large auger,

and appearances are hitherto promising. Nowell was sunk above the shaft.

opine

562 Proceedings of the [ Dec.

Dr. S. presented a list of works on the subject of artesian springs, which

was referred to the Committee of Papers.

A letter was read from Captain P. Gerard, dated Simla, 21st October, for-

warding the first part of his brother, Dr. J. G. Gerard’s, paper on -the valley,

and section of the Spiti, in illustration of the fossils discovered by him in

his visit to that elevated part of the Himalaya mountains.

This paper formed the subject of the evening’s lecture.

Proceedings of a Special Meeting of the Asiatic Society,

Convened on Wednesday morning, the 19th December, 1832.

The Honorable Sir E. RyAn, President in the chair.

The President opened the business of the Meeting, by adverting to the circum-

stance of their being assembled to consider on the most appropriate mode of

expressing their sentiments upon the approaching departure of their Secretary,

Mr. H. H. Wilson. After expatiating upon the severe loss which the Society

would sustain in this distinguished Orientalist, and the great debt of gratitude it

owed to him as a Member and as Secretary—as indeed the chief support of the

Institution for so many years—he proposed, that a Deputation should wait upon

Mr. Wilson, at his Residence, on the 31st instant, at 10 a. M. with an Ad-

dress expressive of their feelings on the occasion. He proposed that this Address

should be prepared rather by a Committee of competent Oriental Scholars than

by himself, as he could not pretend to do justice to the great merits of Mr. Wil-

son in a field of Literature entirely foreign to his own studies—he wished there-

fore to unite with himself Dr. Mill and Mr. J. Tytler, as Members of the

Committee.

He proposed also, that it should form a part of this Address, that Mr. Wilson

should be requested to allow the Society to have his Bust taken by Chantrey, or

by one of the most distinguished Sculptors in England—‘‘ that it may be placed

in this room as a durable monument of his name, and a testimony of the esteem

and respect with which his memory will ever be cherished by the Members of the

Asiatic Society.”

Mr. J. Thomason seconded this proposition, which was unanimously adopted.

Dr. Tytler expressed his ready concurrence in the measure proposed, and beg-

ged to add Captain Troyer’s name to the Committee, which was agreed to.

Mr. J. Prinsep informed the Meeting, that the expence of a Marble Bust,

executed by a superior Artist, was estimated at £200, including the conveyance

from England.

Mr. C. R. Prinsep hoped that all Members of the Society ‘* would be invited

to accompany the Deputation on the presentation of their Address :’? upon which

the Secretary of the Physical Class was directed to circulate a copy of the Pro-—

ceedings to all Members of the Society, and to announce the day and hour of

attendance to such as are resident in Calcutta.

In pursuance of the resolution passed on the 19th, the Deputation of

the Society, accompanied by most of the members, proceeded in a body to

the residence of Mr. Wilson on the 31st, where after the usual ceremo-

nials of courtesy, the Honorable President Sir Edward Ryan read the

following Address, which had been prepared by the Committee nominated

at the special meeting.

1832. | Asiatic Society 563

ADDRESS.

Tue ASIATIC SociETY To H. H. WILson, Eso. THEIR SECRETARY.

““When other Societies in this Presidency, which, either in science or the lighter

walks of literature, have shared the benefit of your counsel and assistance, are now

anxious to associate their expressions of gratitude and regret with your approach-

ing departure from India, it would ill become that one with which your connec-

tion is the oldest and most important of all, to suffer the most distinguished of

its members to leave these shores, without giving some public utterance to the sen-

timents which must on such an occasion animate every individual member.

From the time, now nearly 50 years since, when the Asiatic SoclETy was

instituted, ‘‘ for inquiring into the History and Antiquities ; the Arts, Sciences and

Literature of Asia’’—none, Sir, has with greater assiduity, or more splendid suc-

cess, contributed to the advancement of that object, than yourself. In more than

one department of their varied inquiries, your services are eminently conspicu-

ous: but in that one, which must on every account claim precedence among the

subjects of this Society’s research, they are pre-eminent and unrivalled.

The ancient learning of India, which from the days of Pythagoras downward,

had been the object of distant admiration, but never of clear definite knowledge, to

the whole of civilized Europe, had indeed, at the period of your first arrival here,

begun to emerge from the obscurity which had for ages encompassed it. The

labours, as we are proud to declare, of some of the earlicst members of this Socie-

ty, had led the way in unlocking the sacred treasures of Brahmanical literature:

through the ardent inquiring mind of our illustrious Fonnder and President, partly

preceded, partly accompanied and followed, by the profound erudition of Colebrooke,

the philological diligence of Wilkins, and some others ; specimens of Indian genius

and science had been given to the world in an English dress; and the matchless

language in which all these treasures were contained, unknown beforeand unstudied

by Europeans, except a few who keeping it from all others would have made

it an instrument of their own interested views, was now partially exhibited to the

more inquiring of the students of the West. But fully to throw open this re-

mote and difficult walk of learned research, to make what was hitherto necessarily

confined to a few amongst ourselves intimately conversant with the Pandits of India,

accessible in some degree to others destitute of this advantage—to render the study

of Sanscrit, as that of Arabic and Persian had long been, possibel, if not easy to persons

confined to the libraries of Europe—and thus create that general diffusion

of the study which, already reaching beyond our countrymen, is stimulating to

exertion the laborious students of France and Germany, this, Sir, is a merit,

which belongs, above every other individual, to you.

For the grounds of this judgment, we need point only to your Sanscrit and

English Dictionary: a work, which, while facilitating and accelerating the

progress of all subsequent students, can hardly be appreciated justly by any

who has not some experience of this gigantic species of labour: a labour so

immense, that, even when applied to the long-studied classical idioms of Greece

and Rome, it has been characterized by one of the most eminent restorers

of learning as comprising within itself alone every variety of literary toil.

In the present instance, when we consider the multifarious sources from which

the compilation was to be made (none of which, with one brilliant exception, had

been before subjected to the severe accuracy of European criticism),—the

564 Proceedings of the [Dec.

boundless extent of the language itself—the quantity of research often neces-

sary for ascertaining the precise import of even inconsiderable vocables among

the thousands here enumerated and explained ;—this work, so lucid in its ar-

rangement, its interpretations and etymologies, must ever be regarded as a magni-

ficent monument of philological skill and industry. The edition of 1819, setting

aside the consideration of those additions just now published, with which your

subsequent labors have enriched and nearly doubled its value—that first edition

alone would amply deserve this character. Under any circumstances, it would be

an excellent and valuable Sanscrit lexicon. Considered as the first in any European

language, it is admirable, and beyond all ordinary praise.

But we feel, Sir, that it would be unjust to your high merits in this department

of learning, were we to dwell too much on this one production, great as it is,

indeed pre-eminently valuable inits kind, and sufficient of itself to establish the re-

putation of any oriental scholar. The several translations of classical Indian com-

positions, which, before and after the publication of your great work, you have

given to the world, have shewn how well you could yourself tread those remote

and arduous paths of literature which your labours had made free to the ap-

proach of others : they have added to the character of deep’ recondite erudition—

the more desirable, if less distinguished, praise of a highly cultivated mind, and

poetic taste and feeling. These qualities, not common in their separate excellence,

but in their union truly extraordinary, are visible in your first published work,

the version of the Cloud-Messenger of Calid4sa, as well as in what is among the

latest, your selections of the Dramatic Literature of the HindGs: and while the San-

scrit scholar wonders at the graceful ease and delicacy with which the peculiar cha-

racter of Indian composition is most faithfully represented to English readers,

the English general reader—he at least who has taste to discern the forms of

beauty in the most unwonted combinations, and the philosophy to sympathize

with man, however diversified by climate and institutions—cannot fail to be both

delighted and instructed with the perusal.

It were really impossible to particularize in this address, the many elegant

and useful editions of Sanscrit works that you have prepared, or the still more

numerous dissertations on Hinda literature and antiquities, on the religious sects

of this peninsula, and other kindred subjects, with which your indefatigable

research has enriched the memoirs of this Society, as well as some other literary

repositories of India and England. One of these, however, which heads the 15th

volume of our own Transactions, is of too important a nature to be passed over

without distinct mention. In the intricate labyrinth of Indian history and chro-

nology, where the erudite labours of Jones, of Hamilton, and of Wilford, seemed

only to render the darkness visible, and the confusion more hopelessly inextrica-

ble, furnishing too just ground for the idea that, in India, mythology and pan-

theistic mysticism had swallowed up history altogether—you have discovered one

point at least, where order could be educed from the chaos of existing materials—

where conclusions satisfactory to sound historical criticism could be attained—

from which, as way-marks, the future investigator might safely proceed in

exploring what is elsewhere most doubtful in this vast undiscovered region of

Asiatic antiquity. That this is a correct jndgment of your “‘ Essay on the Hinda

History of Cashmir,”’ the voice of continental critics, some of them most conver-

sant with the philology of Central Asia, will unite with ours in attesting. And,

after the casual mention of one eminent deceased scholar of this Society, whose

1832.] Asiatic Society. , 565

life was spent in scanning the contents of the Mahabhdrata and Puranas, and

comparing them, often hastily and fancifully, with the results of an uncommonly

extensive and recondite western reading, we cannot fail to notice the far more useful

as well as more critical, labour,which you have bestowed on those huge treasures of

Hind mythology and tradition. Of the first and most classical of these poems,

you are about to give a splendid Sanscrit edition to the public. But your analysis

of the contents of this, of the 18 Puranas, and several Upapurdanas, with translations

interspersed of the most curious and interesting portions of each, is a work of which

the literary merit,and importance to all future inquirers into Hind@ fable or history,

can scarely be estimated too highly. It is indeed unpublished: but the 20 folio MS,

volumes containing it, hold a most distinguished place among the many valuable

gifts for which the library of this Society is indebted to you. We cannot but in-

dulge the hope, that the older and far more difficult monuments of Hind anti-

quity, the Védas, may hereafter receive that illustration frem you which no

other scholar, with the exception perhaps of Mr. Colebrooke, is fully competent to

afford them.

Hitherto it is in reference to Sanscrit studies only, or the dialects immediate-

ly connected with it, that we have considered your unrivalled claims to our

gratitude, and that of the literary world: but it will not have escaped the atten-

tion of any one acquainted with the works alluded to, the History of Cashmir

especially, how well you have availed yourself of the collateral assistance, which

the accurate knowledge of other Eastern languages has supplied. In the great

work which you gratuitously undertook of arranging and describing the very large

unformed collections of that indefatigable traveller and antiquary, the late Colonel

Colin Mackenzie, you had to apply that knowledge to a variety of interesting

objects separately. And, in the full description of the result of this six years’ la-

bour, which you published in Calcutta in two octavo volumesin 1828, a work in

which Sanscrit books and monuments hold the chief, but by no means the only

place, every reader must admire the happy critical attention which your active

mind could bestow on so many objects, each sufficient to engross the attention of

an ordinary scholar, collected from such various quarters, and comprised in so

many difficult languages.

It cannot but enhance greatly the admiration with which we view these illustri-

ous contributions to the stock of Asiatic learning, when we consider, that your

time, from your first arrival in the country, has been occupied in official

duties of an important and difficult character, totally unconnected with literature :

and that the severe scientific studies of your own profession also (in which your

merits have been recently acknowledged by those most competent to estimate

them) have not, amidst this double distraction, been neglected. Nor can we but

be greatly struck with the fact, that amidst occupations so various, so arduous,

and so honourable, you could undertake the province (which inferior minds

might have been delegated to perform, though they could not have performed so

well,) of preparing elementary works in English for the instruction of Hind@

youth, and even devoting a large portion of your time to the activesuperintendance

of their yet infant seminaries of education. Still more, when we find, that from a

complication of employments sufficient to distract or overwhelm the mass even of

clever men, your mind could not only unbend itself in the lighter departments of

elegant literature and art, but find ease and diversion in the hardness of statistical

566 Proceedings of the [ Dec.

inquiries, and the details of recent political history. Your work on the Commerce

of Bengal, lately published, and your History of the Burmese war, must remain

signal monuments of the rare vigour of your enlightened and accomplished un-

derstanding.

But we must return finally to your relation to the Asiatic Society, and that not

merely as a member, and unequalled contributor to its stores, but as its Secre-

tary. From the time when you succeeded the late Dr. Hunter in that important

capacity in 1810, not only have your main services been thus identified with the

progress of oriental learning, and conspicuous to the whole literary world,

but have been displayed in matters of which we alone are witnesses, and which we

only can acknowledge: thearrangement of our papers, the preparation of the Trans-

actions for the press, the compilation of a useful index to the whole, the conduct

of all the details of the Society’s business—in all which your attention and devo-

tion to our interests has been most constant and exemplary. Nor must we omit to

mention the masterly manner in which you have conducted the extensive corre-

spondence, domestic and foreign, of this Society ; nor the characteristic amenity

of manners with which you have been ever ready to assist with your valuable aid

and counsel the President and other individual members. None, after Sir W. Jones,

if even he is to be excepted, has stronger claims on our grateful recollection; none

certainly more long continued ones. During the last 23 years, you have never

quitted your place amongst us, except only that year (1820), when you were absent

on Government duty at Benares—an absence which, while it enabled you to fulfil

more perfectly many of your learned undertakings, could not fail to reflect the

greater honour on the Society.

For these eminent and unequalled services, we feel that the best thanks we

ean offer are but an insignificant recompense. We can only add to this tribute of

mere justice to your past merits, our warmest hopes and wishes for the future,

that you may fill, with increased honour and happiness, the distinguished station

which a munificent founder has established in one of our ancient universities.

We trust that you may succeed in awaking in many of the British youth, destined

to important stations here, a desire to acquire that knowledge of the Sanscrit lan-

guage and literature by which you are yourself so immortally distinguished, and

thus become the means of extending to this land the blessings of increased civiliza-

tion and Christianity.

But one wish remains for ourselves. We wish not to be without some durable

monument of the great talents which have, for nearly a quarter of a century,

given strength, and activity, and honour to our meetings in this place. We there-

fore request, that you will add to your former favours this one, of permitting your

bust to be taken by the most eminent sculptor in England, at the charge of this

Society : that it may stand in our room as an enduring testimony of the high

esteem and respect with which your memory will be ever cherished by the Asiatic

Society.

EDWARD RYAN,

Dec. 31st, 1832. President.”’

At the conclusion of this address, Mr. Wilson, having requested the

President and Members to be seated, replied in the following terms :

1832. | Asiatic Society. 567

“¢ When I recollect, that Mr. Colebrooke, on leaving India, received from the

Asiatic Society, of which he had for many years been the chief ornament and sup-

port, no Other tribute than an official letter from myself, the tenor of which was

left very much to my own discretion, I cannot but feel ashamed of the vastly infe-

rior claims which have been this day honoured by you with such highly favourable

notice. If he received less, I have reaped more than I am entitled to, and I have to

thank you not only for the commendations which I might in fairness claim, but for

your kindness and partiality, the not unnatural growth of many years of associa-

tion, which have suggested this overflowing measure of reward for any service I

may have rendered to the Society.

¢T shall not pretend to disclaim the warm interest which I have taken in the credit

and prosperity of the Asiatic Society, from the period of my first arrival in this

country, or in the researches which it was instituted to promote. After I became

a Member, the Secretary of the Society, to do so was no more than my duty ; but

it was equally my pleasure and pride to be a member of a body established for such

honourable and useful purposes as the investigation of man and nature in the East,

the development of the past history and present condition of these vast and im-

portant regions, and the maintenance of the British character for enlightened and

liberal research, and the disinterested cultivation of intellectual pursuits. The

share that I may have borne in the accomplishment of these purposes has made

many hours of my leisure in this country glide happily away ; to have been asso-

ciated in them with so many excellent and talented individuals, has always been,

and must always be, a subject of self-congratulation ; to have earned such an esti-

mation amongst them, as they have this day expressed, must ever be a source of

proud and grateful recollection.

** In consenting to the request with which you have been pleased to conclude the

flattering enumeration which you have made of my services to Oriental Literature

and to the Society, you will acquit me, I am sure, of being influenced by merely

personal feeling. If I can judge of your sentiments by my own, I can fully appreci-

ate the motives which induce you to seek to preserve memorials of those who have

taken an active part in the labours of the Society. One of the most interesting

decorations of the room in which we are accustomed to assemble is to me, to all,

the portrait of our illustrious founder; and I am sureyou will agree with me, that

the apartment would possess a still dearer interest were such decorations multi-

plied—did the countenances of Colebrooke, Wilford, Wilkins, and other distin-

guished members look down complacently upon the labours of their successors. I

need not add, how irresistible are such influences upon the human mind, and how

well calculated are such memorials to give a wholesome stimulus to youthful ener-

gies. It is not from a merely selfish motive, therefore, that I accede to your

request, but in the hope, that even in this way I may contribute, however feebly, to

the great ends of our Institution. At the same time I am not insensible of the kind-

ness which has prompted the proposal, and if I do feel vain, it is that you should

have thought me worthy of the honour of being perpetually, as far as any thing

human is perpetual, present amongst you.

* Gentlemen, I have only further to bid you farewell, and offer you my most

fervent hopes fcr the continued activity of the Asiatic Society, confident, that

that alone is necessary to insure it continued and increasing utility and re-

putation.”’

568 European Scientific Intelligence. [Dec.

Proceedings of the Indian Committee of the British Association for the

Promotion of Science.

In virtue of a resolution of the General Committee of the British Association on

the 3rd March, 1832, the Rev. W. V. Harcourt, Vice-President, in the Chair, the

following gentlemen were appointed a Local Committee in India, to co-operate in

the objects of the Institution—Sir Edward Ryan, Mr. George Swinton, Mr. James

Calder, Major Benson, Captain J. D. Herbert, Dr, Turnbull Christie, (since dead,)

and Mr. James Prinsep.

A first meeting of the resident members of this Committee was held at the

-house of Mr. Swinton, on the 3rd October, when Sir Edward Ryan kindly under-

took the office of President, and Mr, J. Prinsep that of Secretary. Mr. Swinton

signified the assent of Major Everest, Surveyor General of India, to become a mem-

ber of the Committee, and stated that he had addressed circulars to the members

absent from Calcutta, together with printed copies of the first report received from

the Rev. Mr. Harcourt. On the 14th Nov. a second meeting was held at the house

of Sir Edward Ryan, when it was resolved to submit an application to the Govern-

ment, for permission to borrow from the Surveyor General’s office such Barometers

and other Meteorological instruments as he might beable to spare, for distribution

to those gentlemen who may volunteer to prosecute the inquiry into atmospherical

phenomena on this continent, so urgently recommended to the attention of the

Indian Committee by the Association. With reference to this subject, a letter from

Dr. T. Christie* acquainted the meeting, that the Madras Government had strenu-

ously taken up the subject of meteorology, and had at his recommendation sent to

England for twenty complete sets of the best instruments, to be distributed among

observers on the peninsula; and had caused to be printed, at the Government

Lithographic Press, a note of instructions, with tables and forms of registers,

prepared by himself.

Captain Herbert’s reply to the circular from Mr. Swinton pointed out, that he

had been for some time engaged in investigating the theory of the wet bulb

thermometer, and that he hoped soon to be able to throw some light on that simple

form of hygrometric instrument.

Mr. Prinsep stated, that he was already in possession of one or two good series

of meteorological observations, and had every expectation of soon possessing a

valuable mass of such information.

1X.—Evurorean Scientiric INTELLIGENCE.

1.—New Nautical Almanac,

The Report of the Nautical Almanac Committee is printed in the 2d part,

vol. IV. of the Memoirs of the Astronomical Society. Their suggestions have been

adopted throughout by the Admiralty, and are ordered to take effect from 1834.

We extract the appendix to the report, which gives a clear view of important im-

* Whose lamented death we reported in our last.

1832. ] European Scientific Intelligence. 569

provements to be introduced, sufficiently intelligible to all engaged in astronomical

pursuits without further explanation. ;

Those articles which are now introduced for the first time, are printed in italics ;

and the same mode is adopted to denote the alterations which have been made in

the extension of the computations of the other articles.

‘‘ The use of apparent time to be abolished in all the computations, except in

those immediately connected with the sun’s transit.

The day of the week, repeated as often as convenient,

month, on every page.

year, (or days elapsed since Jan. Ist) in numerical order.

The fractional part of the year, for every such day.

Equinoctial time for every day in the year.

Mean time of the transit of the first point of Aries to two places, for every day.

At the time of

Sun’s transit.

Sun’s 4 Declination (ditto ) to one place,

L Siderial time of } diam. passing mer. to 2 places,

Equation of time (with hourly differences) to 2 places.

R. A. in time (with hourly motion) to 2 places,

(Right ascension, to two places. 7

Declination, to one place.

Sows 2 Longitude, to one place.

Latitude, to two places. At “ee

Semidiameter, to one place.

LSiderial time, to two places, |

Equation of time, to two places. i

Logarithm of radius vector, to seven places. J

Longitude, to one place.

| Latitude, to one place.

Horizontal parallax, to one place.

Semidiameter, to one place.

Mean time of transit, to the tenth of a minute.

rine Age to the ¢enth of a day for noon.

| AR. in time, to two places,

Declination to one place,

For noon and midnight.

f For every hour.

— with differences for five minutes.

Phases, to the tenth of a minute,

j F ch lunation.

Perigee and apogee for the nearest hour, ; OF Cah Uma tion

Beane ( Heliocentric Longitude, to one place, ]

oa al — Latitude, to one place, |

Merexiry Logarithm of nee pector to seven places, For sberytragae

Means. > | Geocentric AR. in ee to two places, ee

Niaws 4 arm Declination, to one place,

dancer, Long. distant from the Earth, to seven places,

Sararn: Mean time of transit, to the tenth of a minute,

Herschel, | Horizontal parallax, to two places, | For every fifth day

| Polar semidiameter to two places, i

570 European Scientific Intelligence. [ Dec.

]

{ Heliocentric Longitude,

\ 70 the nearest minute,

— Latitude,

Geocentric AR, in tim he te ‘i

PLANETs, Mee tay eae uth ls minute, | For every fourth

viz. -— declination to the nearest minute, >day at noon.

Vesta, | Radius veetor, to four places,

Tuno, { Long. distance from the earth, to four places,

Pallas, Mean time of transit, to the tenth of a minute, J

Geocentric AR. in time, to two places,

Ceres. For one month before

and after opposition at

midnight.

— Declination, to one place,

Radius vector, to five places,

Leong. distance from the Earth, to five places,

The co-efficients A B C D, for every day, at midnight.

. J

: in mean and siderial time, to one

(Retipses of{ | ; fociabewes ; pits :

lagrams for shewing the place at that time.

Contact with the planet, in siderial time,

JUPITER’S

SATELLITES < 4 ;

| Contact of shadows with the planet, in do.

| Configurations.

From the Sun and the nine principal

LUNAR Fixed Stars, and from Venus, Mars,

DisTaNcEs | Jupiter and Saturn, for every third hour.

With the proportional logarithm of the differences, annexed.

Apparent obliquity of the ecliptic, to two places, )

Parallax of the Sun, to two places, |

Aberration of the Sun, to two places,

Equation of equinoctial points, in Longitude, to two places, ? For every day.

in R A to two places, |

Mean longitude of the moon’s node, to the tenth of a minute, J

| To the nearest minute.

Solar, with the line of the moon’s umbra, diagrams, §c.

Lunar.

Predicted occultations (visible at Greenwich) of planets and fixed stars to the sixth

magnitude inclusive, in mean and siderial time, to the nearest minute; with the an-

ECLIPSES

gle from the vertex, and also from the most northern point of the moon’s disc.

Elements for predicting such occultations of the planets and fixed stars to the

fifth magnitude inclusive, as may be visible in any habitable part of the globe, with

the limits of latitude annexed.

The apparent places of the stars on the days of occultation to be given in both

cases.

Apparent places of the fixed stars (100 in number) for their time of transit: a

and 8 Urse minoris for every day, the remainder for every tenth day, with differ-

ences annexed:

Mean places of the same at the beginning of the year in a separate list.

A list of moon-culminating stars, continued within four days of new moon: the

apparent AR. of the stars to ¢wo places, and the mean declination to the nearest

minute ; also the

{ AR. in time, of her bright limb, to two places,

j Variation in ditto for one hour of longitude, For upper and

Moon’s Siderial time of semidiameter passing meridian, [{ lower culmination.

! to two places,

Declination, to nearest minute, for upper culmination.

1832. ] European Scientific Intelligence, 571

iG the moon.

Conjunctions (in of AR.) the planets with {eet fixed stars.

each other,

with difference of declination to the nearest minute.

in quadrature,

* in conjunction.

in opposition.

in their perihelion.

in their aphelion.

time when the planets are 4 in their nodes.

A LIsT OF

PHENOMENA, J

containing, |

stationary.

| at their greatest heliocentric latitude,

{at their greatest elongation (with

| amount).

Perigee.

time when the sun is in

Apogee.

time of the greatest brilliancy of Venus.

time of the maximum and minimum of the light of variable stars.

Ltime of the maxima of the moon’s libration.

transits of Mercury.

Notice of ¢ predicted comets,

any other remarkable phenomena,

the geocentric appearance of Saturn’s rin

Hilements for fi LOL ee eee ee of ie discs of pee and Mars,

{for the correction of 2nd differences in lunar distances.

Sor determining the latitude by the pole star out of the meridian,

TABLES of the longitude and latitude of the principal observatories.

of the time of high water at London bridge.

for finding the time of high water at the principal ports.

Loy Errata discovered in loxarithms and other tables of repute.

Notice of newly determined positions, magnetic variations, &c, &ec.

Preface, to contain an account of ad/ the tables used in every computation ; and

a notice of any equations omitted, or new corrections applied.

Cycles, remarkable days, moveable feasts, law terms, &c. to be prefixed.

Table of Contents.

(Signed) J. SouTu, President,

2.—Heated Air and Uncoked Coal for smelting Iron Ore.

The journals have lately announced the discovery in France of a method of

smelting iron ore with billets of wood uncoked, from which a great saving of

expense is anticipated. This discovery will prove of high utility to the iron

smelters in foreign countries, especially in the north of Europe: but to the Bri-

tish smelters, it is vastly inferior in importance to the process now employed at

the Clyde Iron Works, by which iron of an excellent quality is obtained at once

and in much larger quantity than formerly, by the employment of raw uncoked

coal. The agent in this remarkable amelioration of the smelting process is heated

air, with which the blast in the furnace is kept up, instead of the cold air hitherto

propelled into the furnace; the iron when withdrawn is mach more fluid than

572 European Scientific Intelligence. [ Dec.

when smelted by the old process, and in this respect has much resemblance to the

Silesian iron of the first fusion. The value of this happy application in an econo-

mical point of view may be seen from the following circular drawn up by the

patentee,

““ Comparative view of the quantity of materials required at Clyde Iron Works

to smelt a ton of foundery pig-iron, and of the quantity of foundery pig-iron

smelted from each furnace weekly :

Weekly

produce

Tron- Lime- in pig-

Coals. stone. stone. iron.

tons. cwts. cwts. tons.

1, with air not heated and coke,.. .....eesescee 7 3¢.0 5 45

2) withuair, beated andi COKE, a.) csv s\bisise/s\sieielcies stele 4 aaa 60

3, with air heated and coals,..02 secsecoescseseee 24 Se Ty 65

Note. 1. Tothe 2nd and 3rd lines there must be added five cwts. of small coals

required to heat the air, in iron pipes, carried several times through the oven, so

that the air may arrive at the furnace at a heat of between 600 and 700; it should

melt lead at three inches from the orifice.

2. The expence of the apparatus is from £200 to £300 for each furnace,

No coals are now used at the Clyde works: and we learn that Messrs. Jessop

and Co. at the Butterly works, have successfully adopted the same plan. The fur-

naces are blown by a double-powered steam-engine, with a steam cylinder 40 inches

in diameter, and a blowing cylinder of 80 inches, which compresses the air so as

to carry 2% lbs. per square inch. The muzzles are 33 inch in diameter. EDIN,

Jour. xIl,

3.—Price as measured by Money.

Political economists have been reproached with two small a use of facts, and too

large an employment of theory. If facts are wanting, let it be remembered, that the

closet-philosopher is unfortunately too little acquainted with the admirable arrange-

ments of the factory : and that no class of persons can supply so readily, and with

so little sacrifice of time, the data on which all the reasonings of political econo-

mists are founded, as the merchant and Manufacturer : and unquestionably, to no

class are the deductions to which they give rise so important. Nor let it be feared,

that erroneous deductions may be made from such recorded facts : the errors which

arise from the absence of facts are far more numerous and more durable than

those which result from unsound reasoning respecting true data.

The great diminution in price of all articles within these few years may have

arisen from several causes :

lst. The alteration in the value of the currency. 2nd. The increased value of gold,

in consequence of the increased demand for coin. The first of these causes may have

had some influence : and the second may have had avery small effect upon the

two first quotations of prices, but none at all upon the two latter ones. 3rd. The

diminished rate of profit produced by capital however employed. This may be estimat-

ed by the average price of three percents. atthe periods stated. 4th. The diminished

price of the raw materials, out of which these articles were manufactured. The raw

material is principally brass and iron, andthe reduction upon it may, in some mea-

Sure, be estimated by the diminished price of iron and brass wire, in the cost of

which articles the labour bears a less proportion than it does in many of the others

Sth. The smaller quantity of raw material employed, and perhaps, in some instances,

1832. | Death of M. Jacquemont. 573

an inferior quality of workmanship. 6th. The improved means by which the same

effect was produced by diminished labour.

In order to afford the means of estimating the influence of these several causes,

the following table is subjoined :—

Average Price of 1812 1818 1824 1828 1830 1832

Puts Git. s, tdi s. dias kde £ s. al& ,

Golder oz...........| 4 156) 4 0 0 3 17 63)-3 17-7) 3 1795 317105

eed La, 79 5 3197 610] 100 100 100 100

Price of 3 ‘per cent. }

consols...... .... 594 78% ae eo 893 825

Wheat, per quarter..../ 6 5 0) 4 1 0) 3 21/3 11 10) 3146/2193

Set} 710 06-7 6 6 10.0) 510 O14 00). ,,

English bar iron at Ge. = 10 10 0} 9100/7185 0|6 00)5 00

Swedish bar iron in

London, excluding ; :

aay of from £4 to 16 10 O|17 10 0/14 00 {14 0 0/13 150 ]13 20

£6 10s. per ton....

eer Rett: 100 on an | average | reduced |to 40

S. d\ s. dilass d.| s. d.| s, d.

Anvils per cwt......... {25 0/20 0/20 0 |16 013 0

Locks for doors, 6-inch,|per doz.|38 0/32 0 {15 0\13 6

Tron wire, No. 6......| bund. {16 0}13 0|9 0| 7 0

BSFASS WATE. 2. eo eere ne-e:s lb. 1 10) 1 4\1 0| 0 9

The most influential of these causes has undoubtedly been the invention of cheap-

er modes of manufacturing. The extent to which this can be carried, and yet a

profit be realized at the reduced prices, is truly astonishing, as the following fact,

which rests on good authority, will prove. Twenty years since a brass knob for the

locks of doors was made at Birmingham, the price, at the time being 13s. 4d. per

dozen. The same article is now manufactured, having the same weight of metal,

and an equal or in fact a slightly superior finish, at ls. 94d. per dozen. One cir-

cumstance which has produced this economy in the manufacture is, that the lathe

on which these knobs are finished is now turned by a steam engine ; so that the

workman, relieved from that labour, can make them twenty times as fast as he

did formerly. —Babbage’s Economy of Manufactures.

Death of M, Jacquemont.

We regret to learn from the newspapers, that Monsieur Victor Jacquemont, the

distinguished Naturalist, who was travelling through India on the partof the Aca-

démie of Paris, died at Bombay on the 7th instant. He commenced his tour

through India at Calcutta in 1829: he proceeded through the Jungle Mehals to

Benares ; thence to Rewah and Bundelkhand ; and through the Dodb to the Hills ;

whence, after obtaining permission, through the intervention of the Governor Ge-

neral, from Mahardja Ranjit Sinh, he pursued his journey into Kashmir, and even

penetrated a short distance within the limits of the Chinese territory. He returned

across the continent to Bombay, where a lingering affection of the liver, brought

on by constant exposure to severities of climate, puta period to his existence.

Mon. Jacquemont had never communicated the results of his researches to any one

of his many friends in India, but we know that he had been most actively employ-

ed, and we shall look anxiously for an account of all he has done, in the French

scientific journals.

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