PREFACE.

nee Dette

On completion of this second volume of the JourNAL or THE ASIATIC

Society, the Editor feels it to be due to his subscribers, as well as to

himself, to lay before them as briefly as possible, the results of the ar-

rangements which he contemplated carrying into effect at the conclusion

of the last volume ;—more especially as a somewhat erroneous estimate

of the cost and circulation of the Journat found admission into a late

notice of the Indian Periodical Press, drawn up by the Editor of one

of the morning papers. The Journat is not published, as there

stated, by the Asiatic Society, but solely at the cost and responsibility

of the Secretary, who was Editor of it before he enjoyed the honour of

an election to that office. Since there never has been the least view to

profit, either in the GuzANnines or in the present work, there can be no

object whatever in concealing any information respecting its publica-

tion; and it may be useful hereafter to find on record a note of the ex-

pences of printing, and the difficulties against which a Journal exclu-

sively scientific has had to contend, as well as the advantages which it

has enjoyed, in India at the present time. The following particulars

have therefore been extracted from the accounts of the two years now

terminated.

The amount of subscriptions to the Journau at one rupee per number,

including two extra numbers, in 1832, was.......- Rs. 5148 8

From this, deducting 20 per cent. commission paid to

Messrs. Thacker and Co. for circulating it,.......... 1028 11

There remained net subscriptions available, Rs. 4114 13

The Baptist Mission Press charged for printing and

stitching 500 copies, Rs, 3742 10

And the 15 plates cost with printing, 416 5

Total 4178 5

vi PREFACE.

The result of the first year exhibits a sufficient accordance between

outlay and return. Of the amount subscribed however, only Rs. 3786

13 have been collected up to the present time, so that in fact there

was a deficit of Rs. 392 2.

The alterations which the Editor proposed and completed for the

second vear were :—

1. The saving of nearly half of the commission paid for the mere

circulation of the work (without responsibility), by undertaking that

duty with the aid of his establishment as Secretary of the Asiatic So-

ciety;

2. Asa return for this favor, he proposed circulating the Journal

gratis to such of the paying members as should express a desire to

take it in.

The effect of this scheme has been as follows :

Fifty members of the Society have availed themselves of the privi-

lege, which has made a deduction to the same amount from the

monthly receipts. The number of copies circulated, including those

sent to subscribers and societies in Europe, is about 450.

The number of paying subscribers on the list, is 320, which at 1 R.

per month, (including one extra number of Buchanan,) would give

Rs. 4480.

The expenses of printing 500 copies, of 670 pages,

at 4-5 per page, may be stated at ........ Rs. 2,890

144 pages of Buchanan, at 4-8 per page,........ 648

Covers, table work, &c. charged extra, ........ 250

40 pages of Appendix,-at Sisep ots. ss aa os 200

28 plates (18 lithographs, 10 engravings*),.... 480

Establishment for circulation, ........ Sores 600

5,068

Leaving a loss on the year of Rs. 588, or nearly as much as the sub-

scriptions of the members exempted from paying.

But it must be mentioned, andmentioned witha degree of disappoint-

ment which is almost disheartening, that of the flattering list of sub-

* For these the cost of printing and paper only is charged.

PREFACE. vii

Scribers above given, 70 have not paid any part of the year’s subscrip-

tion, and as many more are still in arrears; so that a balance of

Rs. 1321-8 still remains to be collected. The actual state of the concern

is therefore by no means so favorable as could be wished, for it leaves

the Editor out of pocket upwards of 2000 Rs. as the reward of his

‘labour for two years ! But he will not for a moment suppose that the

balances outstanding are not recoverable: on the contrary the prin.

cipal difficulty lies in the distance, and the supposed want of a mode

of remittance.—Many subscribers are not aware, that letters containing

hoondees for the amount may be transmitted post free to the Editor.

It will be remembered, that the Bengal Government were pleased

to bestow the privilege of free postage on the GLEANINGS and on the

JouRNAL, on condition of the publication of the late Dr. Buchanan’s

Statistical Reports. Under the impression (justly formed) of a corres-

ponding increase of circulation, consequent upon this liberal boon, it was

resolved not to incorporate these records in detached notices in the

Journat, nor to diminish from its original matter*, but to publish them

as a separate work ; and one volume has accordingly been completed,

containing 356 pages, which at 4-8 per page have cost Rs. 1,602

Anda reprint of the first 108 pages, which became ne-

cessary on the subsequent extension of the edition from

300 to 500 copies, 216

Total, Rs. 1818

This expence has been incurred therefore on account of Government,

in return for the postage saved, not to the work, but to the sub-

scribers of the Journat. On the completion of the first volume

of Bucuanan, a second extra volume of an official nature on the

Monetary System was commenced, of which 50 pages have been printed

with 3 plates, being in fact an expence of more than 300 rupees not

included in the above estimate. The Government meantime placed the

remaining volumes of Buchanan in the Editor’s hands, with an intima-

tion of its ‘‘desire that the printing of these records should be conti-

nued.” It was therefore with no small feeling of mortification that

* Originally 32 pages only were given in each number, latterly 64.

Vill PREFACE.

the Eprror perused the following letter, announcing that the privilege

of free postage should cease from June next, especially after having

been honored, on an explanation of the nature of the work, with an

extension of the same privilege to the Madras presidency, in addition

to that formerly bestowed by the Governors of Bombay and Ceylon.

To JAMES PRINSEP, Esa.

Genl. Dept. Editor of the Journal of the Asiatic Society,

Sir,

I am directed to inform you, that the Governor General in Council has resolved,

that after six months the exemption from postage, which is now enjoyed by the

Journal of the Asiatic Society, shall be discontinued.

I have the honor to be,

Sir,

Your most obedient servant,

Council Chamber, G. A. BUSHBY,

2nd Dec. 1833. Offg. Sec. to Govt.

It may reasonably be feared that many subscribers at distant stations

may be unable to continue their support to the work, when its cost

shall be enhanced by postage; but (should it be impossible, on a pro-

per and respectful representation of the circumstances, to avert the

imposition of postage) every means will be taken of lessening the burthen

by sending the monthly numbers by the bangy instead of the regular dak.

On the contents of a volume which has already been perused by

nearly all to whom it circulates, it would have been obviously need-

less to make any remark, were it not desirable to prove that the favors

hitherto conferred upon the work by the Government of the country

had not been altogether misapplied.

Independently of the volume of Dinajpur Statistics, which forms a

model for the use of public officers engaged in collecting similar in-

formation, the GLrantnes and the Journat have been the means of

bringing to notice many of the mineral resources of our vast Indian

Empire, and of leading to fresh discoveries by the announcement of what

had already been found : coal may be adduced as an example, —of which

twenty or more different localities have been brought to our knowledge

throughits pages, where only two were before known. Of thenative mine-

ral productions, iron, copper, gold, &c. :—Of the native arts and manu-

factures, salt, nitre, turpentine, dyes, mills, &c. numerous original ac-

ss PREFACE, ix

counts have been inserted : catalogues of woods, medicinal plants and

drugs : experiments on materials, wood, iron, cement ;—Statistical

reports ;—descriptions of newly explored countries and people :—in fact,

it would be difficult to open a number of the Journat without finding

some information which must possess value in the eyes of a govern-

ment. Contributions of a more exclusively scientific nature have, in

the mean time, continued to multiply, and the objects pointed out as

desiderata at home in the geography, meteorology, geology, and

natural history of this country, are in the course of rapid and syste-

matic elucidation. So numerous for instance have been the registers

of the weather offered for publication, that space could only be found

for abstracts of many. There has hardly been time for the collection

of materials regarding the tides of the Indian coasts, suggested in the

Rev. Professor WHEWELL’s circular, (inserted in page 151,) but the

attention of those who have opportunities of eliciting the information

required, is again solicited to this object.

As aproof of the benefit conferred on science by the free and extensive

circulation of a periodical devoted to such objects, the Editor feels pride

in alluding to the ardour which his plates of ancient coins have in-

spired in many active collectors, and above all to the reward bestowed

ou himself by the munificence of General VenTuRA, the most successful

pursuer of antiquarian research in the Panjab, who has presented to

him all the coins and relics discovered on opening the celebrated

Tope of Manikyala. They are now on their way to Calcutta.

That extracts and analyses of European science have not been more

frequent must be attributed once more to want of space and want

of leisure. The Editor would recommend all who seek for knowledge

of the progress of science in Europe to procure acopy of the Reports of

the British Association for 1832, in which they will find every branch

discussed by the philosopher best able to give it illustration. To at-

tempt to shorten those admirable essays would be mutilation rather

than abridgment; yet unfortunately most of them are too long for the

pages of a monthly journal.

On the subject of orthography of native words, the Editor is driven

to make one concession, for which he fears the learned Societies at home

x PREFACE.

will denounce him as an apostate to the system of their leader. Every

communication, with hardly any exception, which comes for publication,

adopts the Gilchristian mode of spelling, or that modification of it which

has been ordered to be used in all Government records, surveys, &c.

An attempt has been made hitherto to conform the whole to Sir

William Jonrs’ method, but necessarily there have been continual

omissions, and the contributors in most cases express themselves but

ill pleased to see their words transformed into shapes but ill accordant

with ordinary English pronunciation. The Editor has therefore re-

solved to adopt the middle course followed in Hamiuron’s Hindustan,

namely, to print all Indian names and words in the ordinary roman type

as they are usually written and pronounced, and to place in italics all

such native terms and proper names, as are corrected, and spelt accord-

ing to the classical standard of Sir William Jonzs : in many cases the

latter may be inserted in brackets after the ordinary word.

Where contributors have occasion to illustrate their papers by

plates, it will be a great convenience to the Eprror to have the origi-

nal drawings prepared of the same dimensions as the printed page

of letter press, to save the trouble and expence of reducing them.

The Eprror will not allude in this place to the severe loss he has

sustained in the death of some of the most able and constant suppor-

ters of his work, and the departure to Europe of others in the course of

the past year; since he hopes that a more worthy channel will be found

for the record of their meritorious labours for the cause of Science in

India, in the Proceedings of the Asiatic Society, to which their names

belong, and in which their reputation must ever be cherished with fond

remembrance.

lst January, 1834.

LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS, 1833.

—

[The names marked with an asterisk have availed themselves of the privilege of taking the Journal

gratis, as members of the Asiatic Society : d, after a name, denotes deceased or discontinued. ]

The Honorable the Court of Directors, (By the Secretary to Government, General

Department,) one copy.

*The Right Honorable Lord W. C. BENTINCK, Governor General, &c. one copy.

*The Honorable Sir C. T. Mercaurs#, Bart. Member of Council, one copy.

*The Honorable Sir E. Ryan, Knt. Chief Justice, one copy.

*The Right Rev. Lord Bishop of Calcutta, one copy.

The Venerable Archdeacon CoRRIE, one copy.

Subscribers for twelve copies.

The Physical Class, Asiatic Society.

Subscribers for four copies.

Hyderabad Book Society.

Subscribers for two copies.

P. Andrew, Esq. Calcutta.

Major A. Irvine, Delhi.

J. J. Malvery, Esq. Bombay.

Subscribers for one copy.

re,

Abercrombie, Lieut. W. Hazareebagh.

Agra Book Club.

*Anburey, Col. Sir Thos. Calcutta.

Artillery Book Club, Dum-Dum.

Atherton, H. Esq. Futtygurh.

*Avdall, J. Esq. Calcutta.

Baikie, Dr. Ootacamund.

Baker, Capt. H. C. EngTand.

Baker, Lieut. W. BK. Seharanpur.

Ballard, Geo. Esq. Calcutta.

Barlow, J. H. Esq. Bagundee.

Barrett, M. Esq. Calcutta.

Barrow, H. Esq. Ditto.

Batten, J. H. Esq.

Batten, G. M. Esq. Calcutta.

Beatson, Lieut.-Col. W. S. Ditto.

Beckett, J. O. Esq. Coel.

Bedford, Capt. J. Allahabad.

Bell, Dr. H. P. Calcutta.

Bengal Club, Ditto.

Benson, W. H. Esq. England.

*Benson, Major R. Ditto.

Betts, C. Esq.

Bird, W. W. Esq. Calcutta.

Blair, Major J. Barelly.

Blake, Capt. B. Cuttack.

Blake, H. C. Esq. Dhobah, near Culnah.

Blechynden, A. H. Esq. Calcutta.

Boileau, Lieut. J. T. Agra.

Boileau, Lieut. A. H. E. Ditto.

Bombay Asiatic Society.

Boulderson, H. S. Esq. Seharanpur.

Boulderson, S. M. Esq. Azimgurh.

Boutrons, T. Esq. Purneah.

Bramley, Dr. M. J. Calcutta.

Brander, Dr. J. M. Cuttack.

Bridgman, J. H. Esq. Goruckpore.

Bridgman, Lieut. P. Agra.

*Briggs, Col. J. Nagpore.

Brittridge, Capt. R. B. Barelly.

Brooke, W. A. Esq. d.

Brownlow, C. Esq. Calcutta.

Browne, Capt. W. Seharanpur.

Brown, Lt. E. J. Engineers, Allahabad.

Browne, G. F. Esq. Jounpore.

Bruce, W. Esq. Calcutta.

*Bryant, Col. Sir J. Head Quarters.

*Burke, W. A. Esq. Ditto.

*Burnes, Lieut. A. England.

*Burney, Major H. Ava.

Burt, Lieut. T. S. Allahabad.

Butter, Dr. D. Ghazipur.

Bushby, G. A. Esq. Calcutta.

Byrn, W. Esq. Ditto.

Calcutta Periodical Book Society.

*Calder, J. Esq. Calcutta.

Campbell, Dr. D. Mirzapore.

Campbell, D. A. Esq. Nipal.

Campbell, J. Esq. Cawnpore.

Campbell, Dr. Arch. Moulmayne.

Carey, Rev. Dr. W. Serampore.

Carr, W. Esq. Calcutta.

Carte, Dr. W. E. Hansi.

Casanova, Dr. J. Calcutta.

*Cautley, Lieut. P. T. Seharanpur.

Chambers, R. G. Esq. Surat.

Cheek, Dr. G. N. Bancoorah.

Clarke, Dr. J. Calcutta.

Coignard, E. Esq. Junghipur,

Cole, R, Esq. Madras.

xil LIST OF

*Colvin, Major J. Delhi.

Colvin, A. Esq. d.

*Colvin, J. R. Esq. Caleutta.

Conolly, Lieut. E. B. Cawnpore.

Conoylaul Tagore, Baboo, Calcutta.

Coombs, Lieut.-Col. d.

Cope, Gunner, Meerut.

Cracroft, W. Esq. Dacca.

Crawfurd, W. Esq. Seharanpur.

Crommelin, Capt. A. Barrackpur.

*Csoma de KGrés, Calcutta.

Cullen, Col. W. Madras.

Cunningham, Lieut. J. D. Rajmahal.

Cunningham, Lieut. A. Berhampur.

Curtis, J. Esq. Calcutta.

Dalby, Lieut. G. M. Calcutta.

De Courcy, R. Esq. Kishnaghur.

Delhi Book Society.

Dennis, Capt. G. G. Meerut.

Dickens, T. Esq. d.

Dixon, Capt. C. G. Ajmere.

Dobbs, A. Esq. Calcutta.

Dorin, J. A. Esq. Ditto.

Douglas, H. Esq. Patna.

Drummond, Capt. J. G. Allahabad.

Dubois, Col. A. Lucknow.

Duff, Rev. A. Calcutta.

Dunlop, Lieut-Col. W. Cawnpore.

Durand, Lieut. H. M. Meerut.

Eckford, Dr. J. Nussirabad.

Edgeworth, M. P. Esq. Umbala.

Editor Bombay Liter. Gaz.

Editor Calcutta Courier.

Editor Caleutta Liter. Gaz.

Editor Colombo Journal, Ceylon.

*Egerton, C. C. Esq. Calcutta.

Eisdale, D. A. Esq. Poona.

Ellerton, J. F. Esq. d.

Elliot, J. B. Esq. Patna.

Elliot, W. B. Esq. Bauleah.

Erskine, D. Esq. Elambazar.

Evans, Dr. Geo. Calcutta.

Everest, Rev. R. Delhi.

*Ewer, W. Esq. Allahabad.

Fagan, Lieut. G. H. Cawnpore.

Fagan, Brig. C. $., C. B., Neemuch.

Falconer, Dr. H. Seharanpur.

Fane, W. Esq. Allahabad.

Ferguson, W. F. Caleutta.

Fiddes, Col. T. Muttra.

Fisher, Lieut. T. Kachar.

Fitzgerald, Capt. W. R. Calcutta.

Forbes, Capt. W. N. Ditto.

Fraser, H. Esq. (Senr.) Delhi,

Fraser, A. Esq. Ditto.

Fraser, C. S. Esq. Saugor.

Frith, Lieut.-Col. W. H. L. Dum Dum.

Garden, Dr. A. Calcutta.

Gardner, Col. W. L. Lucknow.

Gerard, Capt. A. Hansi.

Gerard, Capt. P. Subathu.

Gerard, Dr. J. Ditto.

Gilchrist, Dr. W. Vizianagaram.

SUBSCRIBERS.

*Gordon, G. J. Esq. Calcutta.

Gorton, W. Esq. Benares.

Governor (His Exc. the) of Ceylon.

Gowan, Capt. E. P. Calcutta.

Greme, H. S. Esq. d.

Graham, J. Esq. Calcutta.

Grant, J. W. Esq. Hurripaul.

Grant, Lieut. C. E. d.

Grant, Capt. W. Benares.

Grant, J. Esq. Calcutta.

Grey, E. Esq. Calcutta.

Greenlaw, C. B. Esq. Ditto.

Gubbins, C. Esq. Delhi.

Hall, Lieut. J. H. Kalladghee.

Hamilton, H. C. Esq. Bhagulpur.

Harding, Ben. Esq. Calcutta.

*Hare, D. Esq. Ditto.

Harris, F. Esq. Ditto.

Hart, Dr. T. B. Saugor.

Henderson, Dr. J. Agra.

*Herbert, Capt. J. D. d.

Hodges, Lieut. A. Sunderbunds.

Hodgson, B. H. Esq. Nipal.

Hodgson, B. Esq. Kishnaghur.

Holcroft, V. Esq. d.

Homfray, J. Esq. Care of Messrs. Jessop

and Co.

Horse Brigade, Artillery, Meerut.

Howrah Dock Company, Calcutta.

Howstoun, R. Esq. Backergunge.

Huddleston, Lieut. H. Goruckpur.

Hunter, R. Esq. Pari.

Hunter, J. Esq. d.

Hutchinson, Major G. Calcutta.

Hutchinson, Capt. F. Bombay.

Hutton, Lieut. T. Neemuch.

Inglis, Esq. China.

India Gaz. Press, Calcutta.

Inverarity, Lieut. J. Engineers, Madras.

Jackson, Dr. A. R. Calcutta.

Jeffreys, Dr. J. Ditto.

Jenkins, Capt. F. Ditto.

Jervis, Capt. Thos. Ootacamund.

Jones, Capt. N. Cawnpore.

Jopp, Capt. J. Poona.

Kali Kissen, Moharaja, Bahadoor.

Kean, Dr. Arch. Murshedabad.

Kennedy, Lieut. T. Bombay. d.

Kerr, A. J. Esq. Malacca.

King, Dr. Geo. Patna.

Kassipersaud Ghosa, Baboo, Calcutta.

Kyd, J. Esq. Ditto.

Laidly, J. W. Esq. Beerbhoom.

Lamb, G. Esq. Dacca.

Lambert, W. Esq. Allahabad.

Langstatf, Dr. J. Calcutta.

Laughton, Dr. R. d.

Law, J. S. Esq. Surat.

Lindsey, Dr. A. K. Chunar.

Lindsay, Col. A. Dum Dum.

Lloyd, Capt. Rich. Calcutta.

Lockett, Col. A. Ajmere.

Logan, Geo. Esq. Seharanpur.

LIST OF

Louis, J. Esq. Bouleah. d.

Louis, T. Esq. Moradabad.

Lowther, W. Esq. d.

Lowther, R. Esq. Allahabad.

Lushington, G. T, Esq. Bhurtpoor.

Macdonald, Lieut. R. Saugor.

Macdowal, W. Esq. Rungpur.

Macfarlan, D. Esq. Calcutta.

Macgregor, D. W. L. Loodianah.

MacCheyne, W. O. H. Esq. Nusseerabad.

Mackenzie, Lieut. J. 8th L..I. Cawnpore.

Maclennan, Dr. J. Bombay.

Macleod, D. A. Esq. Assam. d.

Macleod, Col. D. Murshedabad.

*Macnaghten, W. H. Esq. Calcutta.

Macpherson, Lieut. 8. Hyderabad.

MacRitchie, J. Esq. Bancurah.

Madras Club.

Mainwaring, T. Esq. d.

Malcolmson, Dr. I. N. Nagpore.

Mannuk, M. M. Esq. Calcutta.

Manson, Capt. J. Bittour.

Marshall, Capt. G. T. Calcutta.

Marshman, Rev. Dr. J. Serampore.

Martin, Lieut. R. Delhi.

*Martin, J. R. Esq. Calcutta.

Martin, C. R. Esq. Ditto.

Martin, W. B. Esq. Indore.

Master, W. Esq. Calcutta.

* Mendez, F. Esq. Ditto.

Mess Library, 11th Light Dragoons.

Miles, Lt. R. H. Futtyghur.

*Mill, Rev. Principal Dr. W. H.

Milner, Captain E. T. Almorah.

Military Board, Calcutta.

Military Library Society, Mhow.

Montgomery, Dr. W. Penang.

Montrion, Lt. C. Calcutta.

Moore, Capt. J. A. Hyderabad.

Morgan, R. W. Esq. Tirhoot.

Morley, C. Esq. Calcutta.

SUBSCRIBERS.

Ommaney, M. C. Esq. Saugor.

Ostell, T. Esq. Calcutta.

Pakenham, T. Esq. Calcutta.

Parental Ac. Institution, Ditto.

Parker, H. M. Esq. Ditto.

Patrick, W. Esq. Fort Gloster.

Patton, Capt. J. W. d.

*Pearson, Dr. J. T. Calcutta.

Xill

*Pemberton, Capt. R. B. on Survey.

Persidh Narair Sing, Baboo, Benares.

Piddington, H. Esq. Chonadinga Fac-

tory.

Pigg, T. Esq. Calcutta.

Playfair, Dr. Geo. Meerut.

Plumb, J. R. Esq. Calcutta.

Poole, Col. E. Ditto.

Pratt, Geo. Esq. Purneah.

Presgrave, Major D. Saugor.

*Prinsep, H. T. Esq. Calcutta.

Prinsep, Miss, England.

*Prinsep, C. R. Esq. Ditto.

*Procter, Rev. T. Ditto.

Proprietors of the John Bull, Ditto.

Pyle, J. C. Esq. Futtyghur.

*Radhacaunt Deb, Baboo, Calcutta.

*Ramcomul Sen, Baboo, Ditto.

Ramsay, Capt. W. H. Head Quarters.

Ranken, Dr. J. Delhi.

Rattray, R. H. Esq.

*Ravenshaw, E. C. Esq.

Renny, Lieut. T. Agra.

Renney, D. C. Muttra.

Rhodes, D. W. Sylhet.

*Richy, Monsr. A. L. Calcutta.

Roberts, Major A. Ditto.

Robertson, T. C. Esq. Sylhet.

*Robison, C. K. Esq. Calcutta.

Rogers, Esq. Ditto.

Ross, A. Esq. Ditto.

Morris, J. C. Esq. for Mad. Lib. Socy. *Ross, D. Esq. Ditto.

Madras.

Morris, J. C. Esq. Arrah.

Morse, Major A. Bombay.

Mouatt, Lt. James A. Kurnal.

Ross, Capt. D. Gwalior.

Routh, W de H. Esq. Boolundshuhr.

Row, Dr. J. Bandah.

Royle, Dr. J. England.

Mouatt, Dr. J. A. Pres. Bangalore B, Kuspini, Rev. W. Dinapur.

Socy. Bangalore.

Muller, A. Esq. Calcutta.

Murray, Capt. H. R. Noacolly.

Muzzufferpore Book Club, Tirhoot.

Napier, Lieut. R. J. Seharanpur.

Nash, Dr. D. W. Hyderabad.

Nicholson, Capt. M. Jabalpur.

Nicholson, 8. Esq. Calcutta.

Nisbet, W. Esq. d.

Noton, B. Esq. England.

Nussirabad Book Society.

Officers, 73rd Regt. N. I. Benares.

H. M. 16th, Chinsurah.

40th Regt. N. 1. Allyghur.

12th Regt. N. I. Lucknow.

Oliver, Major T. Nussirabad.

Oliver, Hon’ble W. Madras.

Ommaney, Lieut. E. L. Dacca.

*Sage, Capt. W. Dinapur.

Sale, Lieut. T. H. Delhi.

Sanders, Capt. E. Cawnpur.

Sandy, T. E. Esq. Arrah.

Sandys, Rev. T. Calcutta.

Satchwell, Capt. J. Dinapur.

Saunders, Geo. Esq. Calcutta.

Saunders, J. O. B. Esq. Coel.

Scott, D. Esq. Burdwan.

Seaton, Lieut. T. Jamalpur.

Sevestre, Robt. Esq. Caleutta.

Shaw, T. A. Esq. Chittagong.

Shore, Hon’ble F. J. Futtyghur.

Shortreed, Lieut. R. Poona.

Siddons, Lieut. H. Berhampore.

Simmonds, Capt. J. H. d.

Sleeman, Capt. W. H. Jabalpur.

Sloane, W. Esq. Tirhoot.

Smith, T. P. Esq. Baitool.

X1V LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS.

Smith, Samuel and Co. Calcutta.

Smith, Capt. E. Ditto.

Smith, Lieut. J. T. Musulipatam.

Smyth, Capt. W. H. Calcutta.

Smyttan, Dr. Geo. Bombay.

Society Nat. His. Mauritius.

Southby, Capt. F. S. Calcutta.

Sparks, Capt. J. P. Ghazipur.

Speed, D. W. H. Esq. Calcutta.

Spiers, A. Esq. Allahabad.

Spilsbury, Dr. G. G. Jabalpur.

Spry, Dr. H. H. Saugor.

Stacy, Lieut.-Col. L. R. Nussirabad.

Stacy, S. P. Esq. Calcutta.

Stainforth, F. Esq. Goruckpur.

Stephenson, J. Esq. Patna.

Stevenson, Dr. W. Jun. Calcutta.

*Stirling, E. Esq. Allyghur.

Strokes, Dr. J. Hamirpur.

*Strong, F. P. Esq. Calcutta.

Sutherland, Capt. E. Calcutta.

Sutherland, Hon’ble J. Bombay.

Sweetenham, H. Esq. Futtyghur.

Swiney, Dr. J. Kurnal.

*Swinton, G. Esq. England.

Sylhet Book Club.

Tanner, Capt. W. F. H. Monghyr.

Taylor, T. G. Esq. H.C. Astronomer,

Madras.

Tayler, J. Esq. Dacca.

Telfair, C. Esq. Mauritius d.

Terraneau, Capt. W. H. Sylhet.

Thomas, C. Esq. Singapore.

Thomas, Dr. W. Barrackpur.

Thomas, E. F. Esq. Kemaon.

*Thomason, J. Esq. Azimgurh.

Thompson, Capt. G. Hazareebagh.

Thompson, Capt. J. Calcutta.

Thoresby, Capt. C. Berhampur.

Tickell, Col. R. Barrackpoor.

Tierney, M. J. Esq. d.

Trade Association, Calcutta.

Trail, G. W. Esq. Kemaon.

Tremenherlt, Lieut. G. B. Delhi.

*Trevelyan, C. HE. Esq. Calcutta.

*Trotter, R. Esq. Gyah.

*Troyer, Capt. A. Calcutta.

Turner, T. J. Esq. Seharanpur.

Twemlow, Capt. G. Arungabad.

*Twining, W. Esq. Calcutta.

*Tytler, J. Esq. Ditto.

Udny, C. G. Esq. Calcutta.

Vicary, Lieut. N. Meerut.

*Wade, Capt. C. M. Loodianah.

Walters, H. Esq. Chittagong.

*Wallich, N. Esq. Calcutta.

Warner, Capt. J. H. Bauleah.

*Watson, Col. T. C. Dacca.

Watt, A. Esq. Singapur.

Waugh, Lieut. A. H. Agra.

Webb, L. W. Esq. Surat.

Wells, F. O. Esq. Monghyr.

Western, Lieut. J. R. Midnapur.

White, Rev. E. Cawnpore.

Wilcox, Capt. R. Gt. Trig. Surv.

Wilkinson, W- Esq. Pooree.

Wilkinson, J. E. Esq. d.

Winfield, Capt. J. S. Bhopal.

*Wilson, H. H. Esq. England.

Wise, Dr. T. A. Hoogly.

Wise, J. P. Esq. Dacca.

*Withers, Rev. G. N. Calcutta.

Wood, Dr. Arthur, Simlah.

Woodburn, Dr. D. Shirghati.

Woollaston, M. W. Esq. Calcutta.

Zeigler, L. Esq. Setapur.

CONTENTS.

No. 13.—JANUARY.

Page.

I.—Continuation of the Route of Lieut. A. Burnes and Dr. Gerard, from Pésha- :

war to Bokhara. sis oy ae

II.—On the Manufacture of sieges as pened iy the Natives ‘of Tithit. By

Mr. J. Stevenson, Supt. H. C.’s Saltpetre Factories in Behar. 55 aithy 8

III.—On the Greek Coins in the Cabinet of the Asiatic Society. By James

Prinsep, Secretary. ab oe ae on oe o0 oa ey

IV.—Eclipses of Jupiter’s Satellites... : 41

V.—A method of preparing Strychnia. as J. .. Pat. son, isi ease carne 42

VI.—Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. ae ar do ae 5 o. 43

VII.—Miscellaneous.

1.—Hot-spring at Pachete. By C. Betts, Esq... oe 46

2.—Extraordinary Banyan Tree at Kulow Nagty ee near Bhaina Naik

Droog, in the territory of Mysore... He oe : 24 ae +. 47

3.—Discovery of the Silhet Coal Mines.. F ae Ap vag 10s

4.—Questions proposed by the Burmese ies Apparent. oe se ari. 10»

VIII.—Progress of Astronomical Science. fe Be oe He Sem twialeie, 48

IX.—Meteorological Register. eeu -ye 26 5¢ 46 oe be a. 56

No. 14.—FEBRUARY.

I.—Note on the Origin of the Kala-Chakra and Adi-Buddha Systems. By Mr.

Alexander Csoma de KGrds.. ; 3 A ee 7

II.—Journal of a March from nee to ioc ‘on the ihieativiens aeons pedtoviat

ed in 1831, by D. Richardson, Esq. Assistant Surgeon of the Madras Esta-

blishment, under the orders of Major H. Burney, the Resident at Ava. ao i)

III.—Trisection of an Angle. By Lieut. Nasmyth Morrieson, W. S. a6 71

TV.—Short Description of the Mines of Precious Stones, in the District of crate

pyen, in the Kingdom of Ava. ps 75

V.—Note on Saline Deposits in Hydrabad. By hatte Surgeon J. Malcolm-

son, Madras European Regiment. .. Ohl

VI.—An Experimental Inquiry into the tennis Tae by the Muvtivds of

Bengal for making Ice. By T. A. Wise, Esq. M.D. .. ie bs ss) ~~ 80

VII.—Proceedings of the Asiatic Society... : 91

VIII.—Systematically arranged Catalogue of the iasinitales ‘sad Bir ds belowitts

to the Museum of the Asiatic Society, Calcutta. By Dr. W. Warlow. 96

IX.—European Notices of Indian Natural History.

1.—The Dugong. Sie ae of ate ae Se Ne de -- 100

2.—Nipal Specimens. Ae é Rig He ihe on ole st LOL «

X.—Meteorological Table for Febishrye ai a6 of “7m oe ee « 104

xvi CONTENTS.

; Page.

No. 15.—MARCH.

I.—On the Restoration of the Ancient Canals in the Delhi Territory. By Major

Colvin, Engineers... - Bo oo IDE

II,—Abstracts of Obscrratvons of the Tempesatene Bhossure; and Hyena

cal State of the Air at Nasirabad. By Major T. Oliver.. ae 128

III.—Determination of the Constant of Expansion of the Standard 10-feet icon

Bar of the great Trigonometrical Survey of India; and Expansions of Gold,

Silver, and Copper by the same Apparatus. By James Prinsep... 130

1V.—Continuation of Dr. Gerard’s Route with Lieut. Burnes, from Boknaee a

Meshid.. oe . ong “6 oe 56 ne .. 143

V.—Pr peceaines of the ‘Anintie Soden - on d6 So a0 -- 149

Whewell’s Desiderata on the subject of Tides. b6 ae oc hel

Vi.—Madras Literary Society. ae a ays S6 2c sc -. 154

VII.—Miscellaneous.

1.—Indian Botany... ge so Hie 55 ae oe -. 156

2.—Indian Geology. Ac se sc oe ce Se sie Bie Og

3.—Indian Arts and Manufactures. 55 oe te a -. 158

4.—Note on Lieut. Burt’s Instrument for eae Angles. .. do -- 159

VIII.—Meteorological Register for March. ac 5¢ =e le -- +. 160

No. 16.—APRIL.

I.—Account of the Jain Temples on Mount Abii in Guzerdt. By Lieut. Burnes,

Bombay Army... fc 161

II.—List of Indian Woods sollecred by N. Wallich, M. D., F. R. S. {Eanes

ing Member of the Royal Institute of France, and the toss of Sciences

at Berlin, &c. and of the Society of Arts of London; Superintendent of the

Botanic Garden at Calcutta.. a0 5 167

III.—Table for Ascertaining the Heights of Moustans ave the penta aie of

Water. By James Prinsep, Sec., &c.. 194

TV.—Translation of a Tibetan eae dated me D. 1688. By M. ee: acuta

de Kords. 26 oe a5 a6 oud ae fe Sci Abi

V.—Proceedings of the hone Sones ee os oe oe an -. 203

VI.—Miscellaneous.

1.—Indian Meteorology. . 5 : es =< a -. 206

2.—Indian Arts and Mamie =: ate o. 50 -- 209

3.—Phenomenon of the Japanese Mirror. oe es a -. 214

VII.—Meteorological Register for April. Ee ve ar re -- 216

No. 17.—MAY.

I.—Origin and Classification of the Military Tribes of Nipal. By B. H. Hodg-

son, Esq... a3 «= 217

II.—Description of eee By Licht. A. etinnees Rowibay Setting Assistant

Resident at Kutch. .. f «- 224

III.—On the Climate of Nagpiar. “By Ww. Geddes, Sraetony Mad. Har. Reg... 239

IV.—Table shewing the Rise of Spring Tides in Bombay, Harbour, during night

and day, for the year 1832, communicated by Ben. Noton, Esq... Rater 7.

V.—On the Native Manufacture of Turpentine. Sr -- 248

ViI.—Description of a Sun Dial in the Court of the Moti Masjid, in ee Fort of

Agra. By Capt. J. T. Boileau, Engineers.. Sc -. 251

VII.—Catalogue of the most remarkable Celestial Objects visible i in ihe Honigon

of Calcutta, arranged in order of Right Ascension.. : +. 252

VIII.—Description of a Compensation Barometer, and Obsertations on Wet

Barometers. By J. Prinsep, Sec., &c... we at ee ee «- 258

CONTENTS. XVil

: “ Page.

1X.—Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. i ay 5 oe ». 262

X.—Miscellaneous.

1.—Rustic, Bridge, se oc = . 267

2.—Remarks on the Paper on the Trisection of an Hf Awein e in No. 14. of the

“Journal of the Asiatic Society.’’. "A He ne y 268

3.—New Patent Improved Borate ae ie ne -. 269

4.—Specific Gravity of Metallic Alloys. ae oe, an -. 270

5.—Proportion of Recent and Fossil Sheils. Bed . 106

6.—Table of the Lengths in British Miles of the Bees, of Denitgide ad

Longitude from 0° to 30°, with the Areas bounded by them in Square

Miles... : a sa oe by CT ee

XI. —Meteorological meres for May. = ¢ ac oe = weed 2

No. 18.—JUNE.

1.—On the Marriage Rites and Usages of the Jéts of Bharatpir. By G. T.

Lushington, C. S. ty . 273

II.—Report on the Geology of Hyde, By ‘i. H. Vousty, Bed. Pirated sa

Geologist to the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India, 1819. 53 298

III.—On the reputed Descendants of Alexander the Great, in the Valley of the

Oxus. By Lieut. Alexander Burnes, Bombay Army. S. -» 305

IV.—On the ‘‘ Topes’’ and Grecian Remains in Panjab. By Lieut. Hiarine’s Bom-

bay Army. - - 308

V.—Note on Tientenant Barnes! Collection of roy Coins: By J ames ‘rinece!

Sec., &c. nie os ee en : -. 310

~ V1I.—Astronomical Observations at Barelly. By H.S8. Benge. ace oS

VII.—Notice of a Native Swiphate or Alumina from the Aluminous Rocks of

Nipal. By J. Stevenson, Superintendent H. C. Saltpetre Factories in Behar. 321

VIII.—Notice of a Native Sulphate of Iron from the Hills of Behar, and used

by Native Dyers of Patna. By Ditto. : é 6 Abele!

IX.—Notice of Analysis of the Ashes of four Indian Plants. $99 Ditto. ne B22

X.—Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. 2 oe oe 30 See

XI.—Miscellaneous.

Synopsis of the Winds, Weather, Currents, &c, between Bombay and Suez,

throughout the Year. By Capt. J. P. Sanders, Bombay. iO) .. 325

XII. ee orocicat Register for June. bt ae ac e -. 328

No. 19.—JULY.

I.—The Birth of Um4—a Legend of Himaldya—by Calidasa. ei 20

II.—Description of thé” Pan-chaki or Native Water-mill. on . 359

re vil —Description of the Salt Works at Panchpadder, Mewar. By Lieut. K:

Burnes, Bombay Army. Se ae 28 - ae -. 365

TV.—Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. oe cn - 367

V.—Report of the Committee appointed on the 27th March, 1833, to dondidet 6 on

the expediency of recommending to the Government the continuance of the

Boring Experiment. 5 ‘7 aC “0 an Cc -. 369

VI.—Miscellaneous.

1.—Remarks on Hutton’s Mathematics. fs St ae o. 374

2.—The Royal Society. 40 . e- 375

3.—Discovery of a Bed of Fossil Giliarine ?) Shells on ke Table Land of

Central India. ee ee a v2 aE eis +» 376

4.—Indian Zoology. bt» Xe ote — aatioll

Vil.—Analysis of Books.—Taylor’s Astronomical Onatentan at Madras. o» 380

XvVill CONTENTS.

Page.

VIII.—Meteorological Table kept at Bancoora, for the year 1832, by John Mac-

Ritchie, Esq. Se =e we pesos

IX.—Meteorological eoeter for aaty Bc +. 384

No. 20.—AUGUST.

1.—Origin of the Shdkya race, translated from the Q] (Za), or the 26th, volume

of the mDo class in the K4é-gyur, commencing on the 16lstleaf. By M.

Alex. Csoma de KGrés,.. . 385

II.—Second Report on the Geninen, of Hyderabad! ge H. W. vores: me:

Surgeon and Geologist to the Trigonometrical rae of India, dated Secan-

derabad, the 28th June, 1820. or od - 392

IJI.—Bactrian and Indo-Scythic Coins —Sunbianel By James Prinsep, F. R. S.

Sec. As. Soc. are 405

IV.—Note on the Zoology of te on Part of the Ganaagtons of the Physical

Class of the Asiatic Society of Bengal,. . Jc o -. 417

V.—Note on the extraordinary Fall of the Barometer aan the Gale of the 21st

May last. By James Prinsep, Sec. &c,.. a Sc .- 427

V1I.—Climate of Singapar,.. -. 423

VII.—Culminating stars observed with the Mfeoit at ‘Nésirabéd. By Lieut. -Col.

Thomas Oliver, &c.,

oe ae -- 432

VIII.—Chemical Analyses. By ite ames Prinsep Sec. io at ie ~» 434

IX.—Earthquake, se so as sg. 2 . 438

X.—Meteorological Register, for August, .. a0 sc v -. 440

No. 21.—SEPTEMBER.

I.—An Inquiry into the Laws governing the two great powers, Attraction and Re-

pulsion, as operating on the Aggregation and Combination of Atoms. By

Julius Jeffreys, Esq. Bengal Medical Service, .. : -. 441

II.—On Progressive Development in the cold-blooded ve tehirain, By D. W.

Nash, Asst. Surgeon, Beng. Est. A. L. S. Corresp. Member S. A... -. 465

III.—Some Geological remarks made in the country between Mirzapir and Sdgar,

and from SAgar northwards to the Jamna. By the Rev. R. Everest, F. G.

S. &c., é 5 5% ot «. 475

IV.—On the Notice of ee or Saldjit of Nipal. ‘By A. Campbell, Assistant

Surgeon, &c.. or oe ate =< -. 482

V.—Defence of Lt. Burt’s Trisection teceainent? A .. 485

VI.—Computation of the Area of the Kingdoms and Baacipaiees of ates -. 488

VII.—Miscellaneous.

1.—Importation of Ice from Boston, . A 491

2.—On the Action of various Lights upon the nena: By Sir D. eee 494

3.—Substances contained in Opium, oe 38 a. -- 495

3.—Death of Captain J. D. Herbert, ee ic te aay 405

VIII.—Meteorological Register for August, 5e aot Pcie ate -- 496

No. 22.—OCTOBER.

1.—A visit to the Gold Mine at Batting Moring, and Summit of Mount Ophir, or

‘“*Gunong Ledang,’’ inthe Malay Peninsula. By Lieut. J. T. Newbold,

23rd Regt. Mad. L. Inf. ate 497

» IJ.—On the Nest of the Tailor Bird. By Lieut. T. nition: 37th Regt. INS 2-502

IiI.—An Inquiry into the Laws governing the two great powers, Attraction and

Repulsion, as operating in the Aggregation and Combination of Atoms. By

Julius Jeffreys, Esq. Bengal Med. Est. ba S: an ca" -. 506

CONTENTS. xix

Page.

EV.—Iron Suspension Bridge over the Beosi River, near Sagar, Central India.

Pl. XVI. << of ” .. 538

V.— Additional Note on the NCkntate of Nag. By J. Prinsep, Sec. As.

Soc. &c., F 2 Be we & -. 542

VI.—Proceedings of thie Asiatic side, 30 36 o5 ” .. 546

VII.—Analysis of Books, of a te De ae >. Sol

VIII.—Miscellaneous.

1.—Circular Instructions from the Geolcgical Society, for the Collection of

Geological Specimens, 3 ne dé ae are se Bi aey

2.—Mirrors of Fusible Alloy, 56 re _ ae -. 559

3.—Liverpool and Manchester Railway, Se < se at ts

IX.—Meteorological Register for September, on ie 20 -. 560

No. 23.—NOVEMBER.

I.—On the Colossal Idols of Bamidan. By Lieut. Alexander Burnes, Bombay

Army, : 561

II.—Account of the weabgaake i ficathenont: By is Cannell ae, “Aes

Surgeon, attached to the Residency, 0 564

III.—Census of the fee aaa of the City ad District of Miirehednhad: ee

in 1829, ate - 567

1V.—List of Birds eae in the a pnaies of Bor nee and Dholbhim. By

Lieut. S. R. Tickell, 31st Regt. N. I., ns : . 569

V.—Note on the Fossil Bones ecw esall near J apuraaee By J A Bynes! S55,

As. Soc. ae a 583

VI.—Report on a Collection of Objects of eect eee By the Giater of

the Museum of the Asiatic Society, : Aa -. 588

VII.—Note on the Genus Spiraculum. By J. Tr. Pearson, Cuertes: As. Soe. -- 590

ViII.—On the Kukumb ka Tel, or concrete Oil of the Wild Mangosteen, .. .. 592

IX.—Note on the Coal discovered at Khyak Phy“i, in the Arracan District, -. 595

X.—Analysis of Books.—Transactions of the Batavian Suciety, a a 597)

XI.—Miscellaneous.

1.—Register of the Temperature of Ghazipir. By the Rev. R. Everest, .. 604

2.—Note on the Salajit of Nipal, ob a ae ae wen GOD

3.—Summary Sketch of the Geology of India, Ac uo 5c -. 606

XII.—Meteorological Register for Nov. 1833, 58 ala +. 608

No. 24.—DECEMBER.

I.—A short Account of the Charak PGja Ceremonies, and Description of the Im-

plements used. By Ram Comul Sén, Native Secretary, Asiatic Society. .. 609

II.—Specimens of some Ornamental Forms of Persian ‘avieea By Maha Raja

KAali Kishen Behadir, of Calcutta, he Si -. 613

III.—Description of an Indian Balance, called Tula. By the same, ore 615

IV.—Abstract of a Meteorological Journal, kept at Kotgarh, (Lat. 319 11’ 45”

N. Long. 77° 27’ 49” E.) Subatha, and the intermediate places in the Hima-

laya mountains for 1819-20. By Captain Patrick Gerard, 9th Regt. B. N. I. 615

V.—Notes on the Specimens of the Kankar Formation, and on Fossil Bones col-

lected on the Jamna. By Captain E. Smith, Bengal Engineers, .. 622

VI.—Further particulars of the Earthquake in Nipal. By A. Campbell, Fe,

Assistant Surgeon, attached to the Residency, : -. 636

VII.—Note on the Fossil Palms and Shells lately alctorre~ ed on the Table- land of

Sagar in Central India. By H. H. Spry, Esq. Bengal Medical Service, .. 639

VIII.—Meteorological Register at Barelly in 1831. By H. S. Boulderson, Esq. 641

xx CONTENTS.

IX.—Proceedings of the Asiatic Society, of cid os we

X.—Miscellaneous.

1.—Note on the Tailor Bird’s Nest. By Lieut. Gifford. <i

2.—Note on the Inscription on the Hindu Coins. (Plate VIII. Fig. 15.)

3.—Radiation in Valleys. oc =

4.—Bones in the Delta Alluvium. ais a A

5.—Fall of Fish from the Sky. oe ob 55 OE

6.—Fossil Shells near Herat. vs ae

7.—Cochineal. an a Hac aie

8.—Reply to the Questions of the Burmese Philosopher Prince, we

9.—Cave of Secanderiah, near Tabriz. af ate

XI.—Meteorological Register for December, 1833. or

Page 37 line 35

ERRATA.

for ‘Col. Swiney,’ read ‘ Dr. Swiney.’

for ‘ Bu-stom,’ read ‘ Bu-sToN.’

for ‘ grain,’ read ‘ gram.’

29-30 for ‘in 17 hours 55 minutes,’ ead ‘in the year 1755.’

for ‘(5.1)’ read ‘ (6.1)?

for ‘ (6. ax.)’ read * (ax. 6.1)’

for, 5al? mead | \(G.L)e7

Jor ‘ the circle,’ read ‘a circle.’

after ‘GA’ insert ‘ (Fig. 3.)’

jor ‘ and also touches,’ read ‘ and A D also touches.’

after ‘A BC,’ insert ‘ (Fig. 4.)’

after ‘A BC,” insert ‘ (Fig. 5.)’

2 | for ‘J.S. Lushington,’ read ‘G. T. Lushington.’’

Sor ‘ BC,’ read ‘ BG.’

for ‘ BE & BC,’ read ‘ BE—£ BC.’

Sor ‘to,’ read ‘ therefore.’

for ‘ others,’ read ‘ other.’;

for ‘ further from,’ read ‘ towards.’

for ‘ valued,’ read * salient.’

for ‘4 (ABI+18,)’ read ‘ 3 (ABI-++-180°).’

Sor ‘ Cardwide,’ read ‘ cardioide.’

270, under the word Fahrenheit, insert the following figures omitted by mistake:

633°.2 466 381.2 362.2 356.8 384.8 365.8 452.2 381.2

272, in the mean height of the Barometer at 4 P. M. for ‘ .545,’ read ‘ .513.”

— 57 — 23

== 60 = 18

oa Ye —— 23

—- —- — 28

——)-— —— 29

—— 92 4- 34

— — — 39

—— wee 1

= Ph 49

a 9G

— 154 —

— 273 —

—— 268 — —

eee

——- -—_ — 4

—— = — 99

— 269 — 2

— 306 line 16

— 334 — 10

— 314 — 5

315 — 6

316 — 17

319 — 5

—-— 9g

354 note 15

356 note —

358 20

390 — 27

392 — 7

418 — 18

438 — 24

449 — 24,

=) 36

455 —— 7

Aaa HEED J lara

after ‘ Iskardo,’ insert [Skardo, see mention of this place made by

M. Csoma de Kérds in vol. i. p. 125.]’

for ‘ craigs,’ read ‘ crags.’

after‘ Indus,’ insert ‘ The date PIZ or 117 of the era of the Seleu-

cide, shews this to be a coin of Antiochus the Third: the

emblem of a ship was common to Tyre and Sidon, and other sea-

port towns.’ [See Catmet’s Dictionary of the Bible, vol. ili. ]

for ‘ antiquity,’ read ‘ antiquities.’

after ‘ ABHIMANYA’ insert ‘ comma.’

Sor * 92.174,’ read ‘9’ 2", 174.’

for ‘118.7,’ read—‘ 1’ 18’’ ,7’ and for ‘ 1’ 8.4’ read— 1’.8”,4.?

Jor 224.5,’ read ‘+2! 24” 5’ and for ‘ 0 42.7’ read ‘ 4-0.42, 7.?

for ‘ scarcely or ever,’ read ‘ seldom.’

for ‘alternate 10 and 11 syllables,’ read ‘alternate 11 and 12

syllables.’

for ‘sy read ¢ Ti.’

after ‘KARNA,’ insert ‘ (T. rNa-va-chan), and dele the same word

in the 29th line.

Jor * Gnag-hjog,’ read ‘ gnas-hjog.’

Jor ‘ stupenduous,’ read * stupendous.’

Jor ‘ (vague) 11 0 &e.’ read ‘11 10 ++ 28 = 1138’ by Mr. W.

Ewer’s Chronometer.

32. for ‘ olefint,’ read ‘ olefient.’

Jor ‘ heat by,’ read ‘ heat due to.’

for ‘ operating,’ read ‘ operated.’

lso supply brackets to inclose the following paragraphs :

Beginning with page 446, line 6, and ending page 448, line 28.

Ditto ditto page 449, line 3, ditto ditto page 449, line 34.

— 472 line 21

— 489 — 36

— — — 18

— 492 — 12

— 205 — 17

— 23 — 7

— 309 — 36

— 549 — last

for ‘ lucertina,’ read ‘ lacertina.’

for ‘ extent of coast,’ read ‘ extent of land frontier to the East,

North, and West of the British Possessions in India,’

for ‘ thus weighed, the,’ ead ‘ thus the.’

dele lifts.

jor ‘ lime and stone,’ read ‘ limestone.’

Jor ‘ Ludiya,’ read ‘ Sadiya.’

after * pbuilding,’ insert (See plate xix).

after * the fossil shell,’ insert ‘ (See plate xx).’

DIRECTIONS TO THE BINDER.

Tue sheets of Buchanan’s Statistics are to be separated from the monthly

numbers, and (being now complete) to be bound as a separate volume.

The sheets of Appendix headed “ Indian Monetary System” are also to be

separated, and reserved to form part of a future volume.

The Plates may either be bound up at the end of the volume, or placed

in the following order:

Plate I.

II.

Til.

[V.

VI.

. Turpentine Still, &e. 222

; Mustic Bridge, cake

XI.

XII.

XIIT.

XIII.

DELVE

XV.

XVI.

XVII.

XVIII.

XIX.

XX.

XXI.

XXII.

XXIII.

XXIV.

XXV.

XXVI.

Greek ‘Coins, Pl. V..to face pase.t5 eit ee

Persian Coins, Pl. Vi. 222 Ses 2 ee

Tibetan Dext) ..20 2 ee een i Sacer

Dr. Richardson’s Route from Ava to Kendat, —----~~~

Trisection of an Angle; sip scipicncareon tena + etna eee

Sketch of Delhi Canals, to be cancelled. ]

Sketch of Delhi Canalsj.2is.iteceet edt a et a om

Expansion of Wietaley Ponte neste ceric race cages eases

Compensation Barometer, ~ vane ~ enn

Reese ere rene

Bactrian Coitis, Bl Vill oe,

Delhi: Water . Mid gscsesteee pees vaeeansate de easioa eden ee

Geological Section through Hyderabad, cree annemnnnnnrer

(bis) Section of the Calcutta Alluvium, 22-00 osebioe

Bactrian Coins, Peale a ee eee

Trisection. Instrument; 222.222 nce ee

Iron:Suspension Berge, 22.1 es OS eee

Geological Sections cies mecemrranetetencns ene ee oe

Mount Ophir, and Tailor Bird’s Nest, ——

Colossal Idols of Bamian, 223 tee he Ronee darethe nen

Fossil Bone and Shell of Jabalptr, 2 2n-vaccnnnncnnnrennanreree

Narsinhpnr Fossil Bones, —.--scn00~

Ornamental Persian W YiGiing’ 5) cscaercenpeantnn Ate toad oc et

Kankar «Formation amSlabs= 4 tee eee

Sections of Jamna Banks, —

Jamna Fossil Bonesyt tee eee eee a eee

Site ofthe Sagar Mossi se i c-ccccreeanntneeeneropontacnsed eee

POM DA REDE Dn Tene Te re

\ tetehaaindiaataaadadaatedamamamnadad

~ nenerece

JOURNAL

THE ASIATIC SOCIETY.

No. 1.—January, 1833.

1.—Continuation of the Route of Lieutenant A. Burnes and Dr. Gerard,

from Péshdwar to Bokhara.

[The same gentleman who favoured us with the sketch of the route of these travellers

to Péshawar (vol. I. 145) had prepared a continuation of his account, derived from

the private letters of Dr. Gerard, for insertion in the present number. While

printing it, however, we were, through the kindness of Captain A. Gerard, put in

possession of copies of his brother’s more recentletters to himself: we have availed

ourselves of both ; merely arranging the extracts in the order of the places visited ;

and we beg to offer our acknowledgments to both of our contributors for their

permission to give publicity to private correspondence, in the absence of any

direct communication to ourselves, relative to a journey which excites so much

interest.—Eb. |

Tue travellers reached Péshawar about the 15th March, Kabil on

the lst May, Khulm, on the 30th May, and Balkh, before the 10th of

June. They appear to have made twenty-six marches to the latter

place, and to have traversed a space of about five hundred miles. They

were induced to stop about 61 days at the principal cities on their way :

of which 34 were spent at Péshawar, 17 at Kabdl, and 10 at Khulm.

‘« The trip from Péshawar to Kabil, was very harassing, and to me, ill of

fever, superlatively so. The country is naturally difficult, and our mer-

ciless guide drove us about regardless of heat and cold; rain, and shelter.

Our stay in Kabul was too short to recover suchan exertion, and I left that

place in the same state of health as I arrived. Dost Muhammed Khan’s

treatment of us was highly satisfactory, and more than we durst have

relied upon, considering the position he occupies. We had none of the

assiduous attentions and caresses of his brother at Péshawar: his charac-

ter does not admit of familiarity, while his situation equally forbids it ;

but his civilities were of the first estimation. Kabal is rising into

2 Continuation of the Route of Lieut. A. Burnes [JAN.

power under his republican spirit of government, and I should say is destin-

ed to an importance in spite of itself, for in every view it is the key to

India. It is astonishing how much the country is relieved by the over-

throw of the royal dynasty ; and with respect to the latest reigns of the

Timur family, the change in the condition of things for the better is

not more wonderful than it isnatural. In Shah Shujah’s haughty career,

there was little security in all we most value, and robberies and bloodshed

disgraced the precincts of his court. Dost Muhammed’s citizen-like demea-

nor and resolute simplicity have suited the people’s understanding; he has

tried the effect of a new system, and the experiment has succeeded.

My fellow traveller pursues a very good plan for any political object,

by keeping up correspondence with every one who has treated him with

civility ; particularly with our friends in Kabul and Péshiwar. We may

soon have to ask Sultan Muhammed for a supply of coals to navigate the

Indus ; mines have been discovered ; and they ought to be worked upon

scientific principles. Moorcroft searched in vain for seams, but no doubt

the people took up the hint. The specimens which were brought to us

indicate the variety to be what is termed anthracite, or slate coal, and con-

sequently as fuel is very meagre; but this may be the exterior crust or

shell, and when penetrated, a richer material may be discovered. We saw

it inthin plates, of a concave-convex form ; the fracture was grey, but with-

out any lustre, and it soiled paper ; at first I took it for graphite or plum-

bago, and IJ shall not be surprised if that mineral is contiguous. It burnt

by the flame of a candle, and gave out a dense gas. We should have senta

specimen to Calcutta, had an opportunity offered. The mine is in the dis-

trict of Kohat, in the plain-ward hills, and therefore most conveniently si-

tuated at the navigable extremity of the Indus. I hear there are mines in

Cuch, which thus sets the question of physical capabilities at rest, and sup-

plies the only remaining desideratum. Sultan Muhammed Khan would be

delighted at the proposal of working the coal seams, for reciprocal ad-

vantages must flow from sucha medium. There are also sulphur seams in

Kohat; and adjacent, even conterminous with that estate, is the fertile

country of the Waziris, famed, I believe, for a superior breed of horses,

and report says, rich in indications of auriferous and other precious ores.

Moorcroft paid a visit to that district, and I suspect that he was aware of

its mineral deposits. The whole of Afghanistin teems with the germs

of metallic treasures, but it may be long ere we become better acquaint-

ed with those hidden stores. I was disappointed in not discovering any

traces of shells or fossils on the route to Kabul, but we durst scarcely

look around us. I was too ill besides, and our journey was too precipitate

for any useful purpose.

1833.] and Dr. Gerard, from Péshdwar to Bokhara. 3

«* We entered Kabul after a fatiguing journey at four o'clock, having

been 24 hours from the last encampment, and with the exception of a

short slumber our guide unwillingly allowed us at midnight, and my

doze upon the raisin bags of a small grocer’s dukan by the road side,

where my horse made his repast while I reposed, I may say, I was in

a high state of corporal suffering during that long period, with a fever

raging in my blood, and a fiery heat in my face, which haslatterly burn-

ed to parchment. I need not describe Kabul to you, who have travelled

over the same ground, andI should certainly fail in my attempts, having

seen but little of the place. One is not disappointed in the display, after

the uniformly arid aspect of the surrounding country; but it is in this

contrast, rather than in any peculiar scenery, that we are delighted with

the spot. Frail mud houses, which seem only to be renewed by the

accessions of patch-work, form a penurious threshold to a great entre-

pot of commerce ; but when the bazar opens, one is amply gratified by

a scene, which for luxury and real comfort, activity of business,

variety of objects, and foreign physiognomy, has no living model in

India. The fruits which we had seen out of season at Péshawar loaded

every shop; the masses of snow for sale, threw out refreshing chill, and

sparkled by the sun’s heat: the many strange faces and strange figures,

each speaking in the dialect of his nation, made up a confusion more

confounded than that of any Babel, but with this difference, that here

the mass of human beings were intelligible to each other, and the work

of communication and commerce went on. ‘The covered part of the

bazar, which is entered by lofty portals, dazzled my sight, even quite

as much as the snow of the Himalayan peaks, when, reflected against

the setting sun. In these stately corridors, the shops rise in benches

above each other, the various articles with their buyers and sellers, regu-

larly arranged in tiers, represent so many living strata. The effect of

the whole was highly imposing, and I feel at a loss adequately to

describe the scene presented to our eyes.

‘Our stay at Kabul furnished few objects of interest ; the time passed

rapidly, and my own ill health prevented me making any exer-

tion. We were Nawab Jabar Khan’s guests, and though our quar-

ters occupied one side of a square which was a rendezvous for courtiers,

we were infinitely more at liberty than at Péshawar, and even quiet

till we were roused up by Mr. Wolff, who amused us greatly by his various

adventures. As long as he staid at Kabul, we were in a perpetual stir ;

the house was filled with Jews.

“« The climate of Kabul was considerably colder than I was prepared

for, when the barometer announced an elevation of 6000 feet. The

B 2

4 Continuation of the Route of Lieut. Burnes (Jan.

morning temperature varied between 43° and 47°, and 66 degrees was

commonly the maximum of the day; while, in the house, 61° and

63° were the extremes; and this temperature was during the first

half of the month of May. This state of the atmosphere is far

below that of Simla, but as there are no periodical rains, the sum-

mer heat increases till August; and, notwithstanding that, Baber

talks of sleeping throughout the year with a pustin: in the dogdays,

the air is warm enough to make the tops of the houses a comfortable

place of rest. Kabul, like Kan4war, is indebted for its fine climate

and luxuriant gardens to the aridity of its atmosphere, and to irri-

gation. The snowy range, that lies on the north-west, contains within

its ramifications many thousand orchards, from which all the dried

fruits that fill the bazars of India are supplied. The majestic rhubarb

grows there wild, and its succulent stem is one of the luxuries of every

house; ithas a grateful acidity. Fresh snow fell frequently upon the

neighbouring mountains, but none of the peaks appeared to attain a

greater height than 16,000 feet. The summits of the true Hindi

Kash were visible on the north, like heaps of pure snow. Macartney is

outatleast 20 miles in his latitude of Kabul, whichis too low. Rennel’s

position of it, and also of Kashmir and Kandahar, will be found most

correct. Burnes took the elevation of the pole, and it is close

upon 343°, The barometer showed a little above 24 inches, and water

boiled at 202°. I need not mention our treatment by Jabar Khan,

whose character is so well known. Common words would not express

the friendly attentions he heaped upon us. He is much too good a

man to be connected with the family : his whole pride of distinction is

in charitable actions, and a modest, but confident demeanour of person.

Of his brother, Dost Muhammed Khan, we have every reason to speak

with the greatest respectand satisfaction. He is diminutive in stature,

with a common face, which you would pass a dozen times without re-

mark, and fail to distinguish ina mob. He has no state; a single atten-

dant follows him, who is generally the best dressed of the two, anda

stranger, fresh from an European or Indian court, would mistake one for

the other. His habits correspond with his appearance, and every

thing about him partakes of the simplicity of character that raises

him above the multitude. Itis in conversation, when his countenance

becomes brightened with intense animation, that the mind of the chief

developes itself, and evinces his intellectual power with the happiest

effect.

“The Russian Church is held in high estimation at Kabul, and the

Kabulis meet with much attention from the subjects of the Autocrat,

1833.] and Dr. Gerard, from Péshdwar to Bokhdra. 5

while they are scarcely noticed beyond the Satlej; these opposite re-

ceptions of course leave strong impressions on the feelings of individuals,

«« Dost Muhammed gave us six introductory letters (one to the king

of Bokhara) ; and on the 18th of May, we took leave of Kabul, under

the protecting guarantee of a Nazir, a man of high connexions and repute,

who however proved himself anything but agreeable. The opportunity

was too favourable to require consideration, the man’s character was

to be our passport, and as we anticipated difficulties in Morad Bég’s

territory, we thought ourselves fortunate ; although we afterwards re-

pented.—Our ill-favored guide was proceeding to Russia, to recover the

property of his brother, who died there. On this occasion, Dost Muham-

med Khan wrote a letter to the Emperor! !”

«« The passage of the Hindi Kush presents no difficulties, and viewed

in any way, shrinks to msignificance, compared with those portions of

the snowy chain which you and I have seen. Even asa barrier to an

invading army the difficulties are far from formidable by this route.

The great pass, which is alone named Hindi Kish, is even more acces-

sible, though more lofty ; we would have taken that route, but for the

dread of encountering Morad Bég. The pass is worth seeing, especially

as we heard some strange stories about flights of birds bemg so much

baffled by the strong wind, that they no longer could fly against it, and

actually took to walking for a change, when vast numbers were killed

by the natives. The emperor Baber mentions the same thing, and the

fact would seem to argue great elevation. The Hindi Kish has nolonger

the configuration of the Himalaya; the steep cliffs of hard compact rock,

which characterise that ridge, scarce appear here at all, and few of the

peaks attain any remarkable altitude. The most prominent point was

Kohi Baba, and I do not believe it rises to 19,000 feet: all the neigh-

bouring heights appeared in bluff masses, resembling the contour of the

mountains upon the Chinese frontier and the interior of Kanawar, which

is evidently the effect of a different structure; and as far as I could

judge from the nature of the road, wherever the bare rock was ex-

posed, the elements of the whole range are of the class of formations

termed secondary; and as we penetrated into the country, the hills

changed into slate, gravel, and even mud, which last mixed with loam

and calcareous rubble, all indurated by alternations of weather into a

rugged hardness, compose the formation of the Bamean “ Bits,”’ or idols,

which most people believe, and the natives themselves represent, to be

cut out of the solid rock. But to return to the Hindi Kush :—we rode

up to the pass, which is scarcely 11,000 feet in height; the snow lay

deep upon the summit, but was fast retiring before the ardent sun, and

6 Continuation of the Route of Lieut. A. Burnes [Jan.

the slopes were only speckled at that limit. The descent was quaggy

and tedious, but there was not much of it, and villages appeared at a

general level of 10,500 feet. The second pass was nearly 12,000 feet, the

adjoining villages hampered by the snow projected their grey turrets

through the uniform field of whiteness. The third pass was accessible

by horses*, and we descended by the hollow of a gorge into a dell that

drained off the waters towards Kindiz and the Oxus. When I be-

held the opposite course of the streams, | began to ask, is this the only

range that separates Khorasan from Turkistan, and the valley of the

Oxus; and when soon after I found our level to be close upon 5000

feet, I conceived that other and loftier ridges crossed our route; but a

few more days, and the 13th from Kabul, brought us upon the plains of

Tartary, for that name is specifically apposite in the region of Asia, ad-

joining Bokhara and Samarkhand. My understanding was now enlight-

ened, for IT had but vague and ill-defined ideas of the geographical

nature of this tract, but in one respect I was not wrong—I never pelieved

there could be any flat expanse, similar to the plains of India: and the

fact is so, and could not have been otherwise; and long after we had

entered the open country, and crossed the Oxus, a range of snowy

mountains on our right-hand (our face being then towards Bokhara),

confirmed my conjectures. We were both much surprised at such a

sight, particularly as it was of so transitory a nature as nearly to elude

our comprehension: it was almost sunset, and the outline, just lighted

up, gleamed for a few minutes, and faded into a dim mass. The spec-

‘tacle was full of grandeur, and left us wondering; for we never saw

another trace of the range, or its desolate snows.

“« The map gives us very imperfect notions, I should say none at all, on

the subject; for the mountains, marked there as snowy, could not have

been in sight, and those that seem to indicate their position, are not

only black, but occupy a very limited space. Now, heights bearing

perennial snow, and far exceeding that marginal boundary, do not

often start up abruptly in patches or isolated ridges from a flat ex-

panse of plain; as the routes to Y4rkund cross them free of snow at this

season of the year, they may not be so elevated as they appear. When

thus in the open plains of Turkistan, the thought (which had often

amused us) recurred, is the Hindi Kush the true limit of the great

snowy chain that forms the northern frontier of British India? As to the

appearance on the map, the illustration is correct, as far as it goes; but

wenaturally, andupon cosmogonic grounds, ask,—where isthe Himalayan

ridge ? and where should it go to, but north. It (unfortunately for

* I should rather think my brother means inaccessible on horseback, A. G.

1833.) and Dr. Gerard, from Péshdwar to Bokhara. 7

geography) is unknown by that name, and amidst the confusion of such

unmeaning designations as Hindi Kush, Caucasus, Suféd Koh (White

Mountain), as if snowy mountains should be any other color: to be sure,

we have heard of red, to which the map adds blue mountains, white moun-

tains, cloudy mountains, and black mountains (see the map in the octavo

edition of Elphinstone’s Kabul); besides Taghs and Tukhts, innumera-

ble; and lastly, Parapamisus, which is a fine sounding name, but it

unfortunately happens not to exist; there are also Kara or black moun-

tains, which arealso salt. Is not all this too bad ?—In seeking for the

continuity of the Himalaya, we must go north of Ladak, and the sources

of the Oxus, where a vast tract of lofty summits will be found to trend

towards the skirts of Yarkund, and somewhere near the heads of the

Oxus and Jaxartes, to define the slope of the country to the north-

west; this will bring the high plateaux, north of the Indus, within

more precise limits. All this tract, which is by no means very remote,

is still unseen by the eye of civilised man.

«The Bits of Bamean represent a man and woman of colossal mag-

nitude, carved in the cliff of the ridge that bounds the valley on the

east. On approaching them, I saw from the very look of the hills, that

they could only be moulded in some soft calcareous substance; yet a

very intelligent man, a Haji Baba, who was with Moorcroft at the spot,

insisted that the figures were in the solid rock, which would indeed

have been an anomaly, as the whole of the neighbouring hills and the

dell itself is a diluvial, perhaps an alluvial, deposit of mud, clay, and

conglomerate. I was certain in my opinion, and took a bet of 100 groats

to one, with the old Haji, that they were mud, and so they proved

to be. <A piece of a toe, or part of the nose of one, will decide their

structure : it isnot gypsum. Though it is rather a disappointment to find

mud instead of granite, still these idols are very curious objects, both

with regard to antiquity, and as memorials of an epoch, the history of

which eludes our research. The written accounts, if they are not

vitiated by mythological figures, assign their formation (creation) to

the year 56 before the Christian era, which is far from extravagant,

considering the nature of the records (Mahabharat), which give that

date ; but without attending to these, it is almost certain, that they existed

before the time of Muhammed, and when the country was possessed by

the kafirs under the dominion of Zohak, whose reign was antecedent to

Christianity—These august idols were mutilated both by Timur the

Great and by Nadir Shah : the former discharged arrows, and the latter

fired shots at them. Some faint traditions of Alexander the Great are

in the mouths of some of the inhabitants ; but there are so many Sikan-

8 Continuation of the Route of Lieut. A. Burnes [JAn.

dars that it is almost impossible to extricate the right one. We saw

nothing like Greek inscriptions, but heard of many near us. A ques-

tion readily occurs—is the material of which the idols are con-

structed calculated to resist the impression of hundreds of years, not

to think of a period approaching to thousands? Had I not myself

been fully aware of the preservative nature of the climate in the Trans-

Himalayan regions, and seen antiquity represented in mud walls, books

and other works, which we consider perishable, I should have been

staggered at the idea of the Bamean idols’ claim to so remote an origin.

The aridity of the atmosphere here is pretty similar to that of upper

Kanawar and Tibet, where a thing neither rots or decomposes, but falls to

dust in long ages ; and the substance of the figures is of that kind which

becomes indurated by exposure to the air, and like the mud upon the

roofs of the houses, acquires the hardness of the surrounding kankar.

Near this we passed a ruined fort, said to have been built in the days of

Zohak ; the slender walls of unburnt brick were perched upon cliffs, which

time had rendered inaccessible. Close to the Bits are the remains of

a mud castle, about which Some curious traditions are related; but I

omit them, lest you might think me as credulous as the people who re-

lated them.

Without thinking of the idols, over which superstition and un-

determined antiquity have bestowed a false character, there never

was a spot better appropriated for fabling the extravagancies of na-

ture, or raising ideas of bhits and spectres. As to the kafirs,

their domiciles yet remain: desolation is not the word for this place,

the surface of the hills is actually dead; no vegetable trace is to be

seen, all is parched up, and as it were baked white, and scoriated

by the sun’s rays; such is the horrid aspect of this part of the country,

to which the caves of the kafirs have added a savage impression.

These are still inhabited, but their first possessors have long since dis-

appeared ; the sides of the mountains are full of excavations, presenting

to the approaching traveller some thing like a honey comb; whole

families occupy these recesses, living in smoke and darkness, of which

they seem to form a part, in their black figures.—One of the idols is

actually tenanted, and high upon the acclivity are seen isolated nitches

and black heads peeping forth. At night, the moving lights and yells of

unseen people have a singularly wild effect, and one dwells in the con-

templation of the scene, till it actually appears one of an infernal kind,

fit only for such companions as bhits and demons. Burnes took

sketches of the whole.

1833.] and Dr. Gerard, From Péshdéwar to Bokhdra. 9

‘“‘A Persian of our party, who had been at Moscow, had draw-

ings of the idols, which he affirmed were an object of enquiry in that

country, and that he had made them at the request of the Russians ; and

when they send to Bokhara for coins and other antiquities, there is

nothing surprising in their extending research to Bamean. The figures

appear to my eyes more like designs of Budha than any other; their

physiognomy at least resembles that of images I have seen in Kanawar

and Tibet. They are mentioned in several old books, and it is strange

that any mystery should prevail about the age or events of which

they are symbolical. We can however now assign them their true site

and position in Hindi Kush, which were to us even at Kabul ex-

tremely vague, and to people in India, utterly incomprehensible.

Bamean has its site upon the northern declivity of Hindd Kush,

and within its lofty ramifications, in a dell or valley, which throws

its waters into a tributary of the Oxus, that passes through Kundiz.

The map places it south of the snowy ridge.—It forms the extremity of

the Kabul dominions, and is elevated a little above 8000 feet. The

climate was rude and disagreeably cold on the 20th of May, and the

grain crops were only sowing. An idea has prevailed that Bamean is

a pass in the Hindu Kush, or in a more southernly ridge; but it is

quite across the chain, although environed by snowy heights. On the

north, at the head of the dell, the mountains are depressed to a hollow,

or pass between 10,000 and 11,000 feet, and beyond that the country

subsides in undulations to the Oxus.

Hitherto we had adopted no particular precautions to maintain our

disguise, except evading the gaze of people, passing either unobserved,

or as Armenians; but on entering Morad Bég’s territory, we rolled our

heads within our turbans, and this saved our faces from the scorching

sunshine.

At Dwap or Doab, where Mr. Wolff was robbed, we apprehended

danger, and provided an escort from a neighbouring brigand chief. In

the hollow of a pass, we met a kAfila of very fine horses: they were all

safe, and quite unaware of their escape, as afterwards appeared. We

had no idea of any alarm, but as we were descending the slope

of the pass, a body of robbers appeared—they had lost their aim

in the horses, and were now coming up toa couple of camels, the last

remains of the kafila—I was behind, as usual, and although

I saw, I could not understand the manceuvres of our party, and kept

lingering on till met by one of our servants, sent back to bid me

gallop my horse. The robbers were very fair and candid, as I thought,

suspecting who we were: they sent one of their party to communicate

10 Continuation of the Route of Lieut. A. Burnes (Jan.

with us, who on our side was met by a young lad, the leader of our

escort, and son of a neighbouring chief, who in his turn becomes free-

booter, and to these mutual interests in plunder, and partly to our force,

we owed our escape. They immediately declared themselves, and

their disappointment in the horse kafila, intimating with a good deal of

honesty, that they ought to have had a recompense in us. Notwith-

standing this result, our kafila-bashi was very assiduous in his exertions

to send the baggage mules and foot-travellers out of the way. The fate

of the camels and their drivers was inevitable, the latter seemed to have

lost all resolution, and between fear and hope they shrieked and stood still.

We were looking up from a dell, andeagerly watched for their escape;

but had to witness both them and the camels carried off, the former to

be sold in the public markets of Bokhara. It is this ultimate object

that makes the predatory work so odious and terrific. Highway-rob-

bery, like slave trade, when pursued systematically, loses many of its

horrors, and much of its criminality, (not that I am at all countenancing

either.) In fact, whenever acts become a custom of a country, self-interest

deprives them of violence, and people club together for the sake of con-

federate advantages, frame laws of honor, and pursue their profession

upon principle, and the state itself shares in the benefits of system ; kasids,

or letter-carriers are held sacred, the property of individuals is spared,

and life is rarely lost. Many of the chieftains, such as Morad Bég, have

a personal interest both in plundering kafilas, and in making slaves, and

take turn month about with their feudatory vassals. Our friends, the

robbers, kept within our sight, moving slowly along the top of a ridge,

and occasionally reminding us of our good fortune. We were now

fast descending towards the basin of the Oxus, though the country

continued rugged, and now and then betrayed its altitude in hoary peaks.

' At last a mild wind from the north, and a haze in the horizon, announ-

ced our proximity to the plains of Tartary. The few latter marches

were rather irksome, on account of the disguise we thought it prudent to

adopt: the instant we reached our ground we were covered over with a

heap of clothes. One morning, we found ourselves in juxtaposition to

the chief of the place, a man of disrepute and a deputy of Morad Bég’s:

he came to dine with our kafila-bashi. We were lying amongst the

long grass, and stole away a few yards, where we reposed with confident

security, and listened to his conversation. Here we had troubles of a

different kind, scorpions which stung our servants, and a little farther on,

snakes; the heat too was already considerable, although our elevation

was about the level of Subathu (4200 feet), and our latitude above 36°;

but we were refreshed with a little rain. However uncomfortable such

1833. } and Dr. Gerard, from Péshdwar to Bokhdra. 1]

things may appear in a letter, in reality there was much amusement,

and our most serious misfortunes (apprehensions I should say) excited

an interest that was far from disagreeable ; even Mordd Bég himself

appeared to me a plausible enough sort of asavage. At midnight, on the

29th of May, ourkafila-bashi warned usto be off: we scrambled awkwardly

through a marsh, and the day broke while we were yet in the deep hollow

of a torrent ; we hoped still to reach Khulm (which was to terminate all

our doubts of safety) before the bazars were crowded, and finally, soon

after sunrise we emerged upon the plains of Turkistan ; the pass through

the mountains was between mural precipices of tremendous grandeur ;

and I was so much struck with the solitude of the spot, that I conceived

we might evade observation in some of the recesses of the cliffs, and

escape the sun’s rays at the same time, and resume our journey at night-

fall towards Balkh. On opening upon the new world, the first objects, as

usual, were mountains, at the base of which rolled the Oxus; the river

itself was not in thesight, but a regularly defined haze indicated its

course, a phenomenon I had before remarked in the Satléj, and we

ourselves had observed in the Indus, which arises from the difference of

temperature between the stream and superincumbent stratum ofair. We

regaled our eyes with the regions of ‘‘ Trans-oxiana.” The respectability

of our party saved us any trouble at the custom-house. We were not

searched, and pushed through the streets, staring every one in the face?

Weentered a caravanserai full of people, and lodged ourselves amongst tea

merchants, and traders in Russian furs, and people of all nations and de-

scriptions, as if nothing had happened ; and I am not now going to waste

time on the subject. Suffice it, that we found ourselves in the safe cus-

tody of Morad Bég, and after ten days rather anxious suspense, escaped

from all apprehensions, and departed under his aid and protection !! How

we extricated ourselves from a scene which was at one time tragic, at

another comic ; contortion, trickery, and sordid interest on the part of the

Nazir, to make the most of us; fear and folly on that of others; self.

confidence and friendship in a few; wonder, expectation, and the most

stupid credulity in Morad Bég himself, and altogether a drama in which

the chief actors struggled for the loaves and fishes in our pockets ; poor

Morad Bég got nothing by his Oozbek simplicity, while we who sus-

tained the whole scene were never thought of, except it was to produce

more money. My part in the play was rather that of a spectator than

of a performer, and might appear easy; but I had taken an early

interest in the swamps of Kunduz and arid sands of Talikan, (as you

will recollect,) the scenes of poor Moorcroft’s misfortunes, and Morad

Bég himself became in my eyes an object of attraction, by his savage

c 2

12 Continuation of the Route of Lieut. A. Burnes (Jan.

conduct on that occasion; and however strange it may appear toothers,

as I fancy it did to Burnes, our situation at Khulm only struck me in the

light of an opportunity I should have of realizing former prospects, and

the idea of meeting the chief of Kandtz, either as a tyrant or a friend,

was by far from the least cherished of my adventures ; but I was doomed :

to disappointment, and for some reason or other, my sunburnt face,

silvery beard (which is now black enough), and ignorance of Persian,

(though Turki is the spoken language in Kiunduz,) were supposed by

the catchers of the loaves and fishes to be unfavorable to our disguise ;

consequently I was left behind, and Burnes alone paid Morad Bég a visit

at his country seat. We had been summoned to his presence to give an

account of ourselves, and to remove the suspicions which rumor had

attached to our character. Neither Burnes nor I anticipated any per-

sonal danger, but the chance of restraint, or at least incalculable

delay, and the certainty of a pecuniary sacrifice, or absolute depri-

vation of all our resources, had sufficient alarmstomake both of us anxi-

ous for the result. Bad as the repute of Morad Bég was, and too surely

deserved, by his treatment of Moorcroft, I could not resist the idea that

we should find him better than he was described; and though poverty

and power together might plead an excuse for robbing us of our money,

sordidness itself could not wholly destroy the common sympathies of our

nature, and make him stare forth the naked savage. The self-will of an

arbitrary tyrant, enjoying a penurious chiefship, might induce him to

an act of extreme rigor; but self-interest would scarcely allow him to

trespass the bounds of discretion, and insulate himself from the feelings

of all around him. Burnes successfully appeared before Morad Bég, as

an Armenian watch-maker from Lucknow, and it turned out, that the

blackest person of our party would have answered equally well; with

the above simple reply, the despot of Kunduz and king of terrors

was satisfied. Could this be, amidst the game that was playing, the

gold that was shining through us, promised bribes and open trickery ?

besides, Morad Bég had heard of us at Péshawar and Kabul approaching

with five lak’hs of rupees, and the custom-house officers were looking

out for us; yet all this and much more happened, and if there was no

delusion, confirms the character of the Oozbeks as given by Elphin-

stone, for unsuspecting candor and the most stupid credulity. Burnes

passed a pleasant-enough time at Morad Bég’s country-seat, drinking tea

all day, and eating the leaves, according to custom, after the manner of

the ancients ; and having been presented by an honorary investiture of

some new clothes, he returned to Khulm, a distance of 70 miles, without

dismounting, much better dressed than when he left it.—Moorcroft, ‘at

1833.] and Dr. Gerard, from Péshdwar to Bokhdra. 13

the very same place, in his flight from Morad Bég, and for the safety

of his life, made his remarkable journey to Talikan upon a single

horse, with grain in his saddle bags; the distance, as then stated in the

Government Gazette, 130 miles, seems to be excessive. Previous to this

final result of Morad Bég’s curiosity, we thought of escaping to Mazar; but

we were watched, and this would have been a feat of senseless heroism;

as we were liable to certain danger on the road from robbers. Morad

Bég’s courtesy and attentions to us as Armenians, in ordering an escort

of 50 horsemen to see us beyond his frontier, did not allay our apprehen-

sions for our liberty ; and as the scheme, as well as ourselves, were noto-

rious throughout thecaravanserai, we made every haste, and next morn-

ing’s dawn saw us on the way to Balkh. Our own people, scarce

aware of our plans, had provided us but meagrely, for a ride of 30 miles

under a burning sun, and I had neither clothes nor any thing else. We

were now literally flying from ourselves, and the protection of a man

whose very name we dreaded, and whose treatment of us is veiled in an

obscurity, that leaves it doubtful, whether we at this present moment

stand towards him in the relation of friends or enemies. Subsequent

travellers may remove the uncertainty, which is of more consequence

than appears to the eye, but in this respect our experience can prove to

them no guide.

The journey to Mazar was rather trying, over a bare, baked soil,

without shade or water; thetemperature of the air was 100°, and that of

the sun’s rays much greater : my face at least was completely burnt. Our

escort left us at what appeared the most dreary point of the road, and

it was actually the most dangerous; our horses were wearied, and that

which I rode stood still in a place where our kAfila-bashi said it was

imprudent even to look around us. We entered Mazar unknown and

unsuspected, and it was perhaps fortunate, as the people are intolerant

bigots and disreputable in every way. Piles of snow, and the most

delicious apricots were in abundance. It was here that Moorcroft’s

property was seized and plundered: we felt extremely anxious to ascer-

tain if any papers or memorials still remained, and the fate of his books,

which we heard were in the possession of the chief; but prudence con-

strained us to pass over the scene in silence.

We had here a contention with our guide, who enacted a scene on

the occasion, partaking at once of the pathetic and the furious.—

Burnes was fortunately on horseback, and had the whip hand in

case of necessity—I mean, the advantage of escaping from an

irritated Muhammedan, who had only to proclaim us infidels and

revilers of the prophet, and there would have been tragedy indeed,

14 Continuation of the Route of Lieut. Burnes [Jan.

Thus terminated our intimacy and connexion with the man, to whose

care and protection we had been consigned, by the brother of Dost

Muhammed Khan, for our safety to Bokhara; we never spoke again.

The Syud, Mr. Conolly’s friend, whom we met at Péshawar, and whose

grateful feelings for the attention and liberality of the Governor General

had interested him in our journey, to the extent of promising to protect

and conduct us to Bokhara, we left at Kabul, ill, and otherwise too much

engaged in his own affairs, to assist us in any way. Thus deprived of

the dependence we had in these people, and without any introductory

letter to the king of Bokhara, (the Nazir having lost or wilfully de-

stroyed it,) we had to make the best of our way unassisted.

On the road to Balkh, we turned aside to see poor Trebeck’s grave.

Muhammedan bigotry had yielded so far, as to permit his remains to be

deposited within an enclosure or garden: a mulberry tree sheds its fruit

over the spot. We had heard this young man spoken of every where

with the highest eulogies, and it was a satisfaction to us to have visited

his lone sepulchre. We wished to leave some record of the spot, but

although it is possible to get a slab-stone here for his and Moorcroft’s

graves, it is doubtful how such a memorial would be respected, unless

we ourselves had witnessed its erection.

On entering Balkh, we were met by two custom-house officers, jolly

fellows, and one of them a Tarkoman; but from the nature of their

employment, rather boisterous and abrupt: they stopped our horses,

bade us dismount, and said we must be searched. A little surprised, we

kept our seats, and assured them we were not merchants. ‘‘ We must

see what is in those saddle bags,” said they. Burnes then dismounted,

and the Turkoman began an examination of his person, passing his

hand over his watch—what have we got here? Ah “ Saat,” that is a

useful article to travellers—very well, have you got nothing else, no tillas

(gold coin), and before Burnes could reply, he with much good humour

said, Come, come, you know as well as I do, that people cannot travel

without money ; now, how many have you? Twenty, said Burnes, offering

to untie them fromhis waist. Don’t trouble yourself; there is no occasion,

Your word is everything, ! am satisfied; and pointing to me, (I had not

dismounted, and was thinking what to say,) what has your companion ?—

thesame. Thank you, replied the Tarkoman, you are gentlemen. I wish

every one was as ready in their answers, they would save themselves

and me much unnecessary and awkward trouble. Your names, said

he. Sikandar Armeni and Gerard (with the French pronunciation). The

tax upon our money wasatenth. Hinds pay atwentieth; and Muham-

medans, a fortieth. We had no tillas except those tied about us; but

1833.] and Dr. Gerard, from Péshdwar to Bokhdra. 15

the Turkoman said, Make yourselves easy, I’ll call upon you at the

caravanserai. Such civil treatment, in such acountry and by monstrous

Tirkomans, deserves to be mentioned.”

<< We were now in the most ancient and renowned city in the world,

and when we looked at the ruin and recalled to mind, the dynasty of

Bactria, and in later ages the thrones of Jenghiz and Tymir, with the

neighbouring scenes of Bokhara and Samarkhand, the present and the

past, it gave us a lively idea of the countless revolutions which had

rolled away. There was nothing here by which we could recognise

these memorable epochs, and judging from the aspect of the few inha-’

bitants left, the spot seemed more suited to the dead, than as a place of

abode for the living. The ruins, which are mostly of mud, are very ex-

tensive; but they only mark the modern site of the city. The msalubrity

of Balkh is proverbial, and this calamity may be traced to the very

effects of its former greatness. The eighteen beautiful aqueducts, by

which it was irrigated, no longer guided by the art of the husbandman,

have spread their waters over the face of the country, and transformed

its fair landscape into a stagnant marsh. Here the Nazir had another

opportunity of resuming his tricks: in our difficulties with Morad Bég,

we had intrusted him with our passports; and forgot them at Mazar.

He now pretended to have lost them, and we were preparing to visit

him vi et armis, when the intercessions of our Hajee restored them with-

out more acting. From Balkh to the Oxus is almost a desert; camps

of Turkomans occur in some places, and the sand hills are well clothed

with bushes. The high road was considered unsafe, and we followed

the downward course of the valley. At one spot only we required an

escort of Tirkomans, who are themselves the robbers, but find it more

advantageous to compromise their habits by an easily earned recompense.

They were the first of the race we had seen, and their peculiarities

struck us with surprise and interest. Their features, their dress, address

and gay agility upon horseback, were all favorable; and, in fact every

thing about them, but their modes of life and predatory customs, were

respectable. On the 15th of June after travelling twelve hours, the day

dawned upon theshores of the Oxus, and atnine o’clock, we were encamped

upon its margin; a point that had so long been in prospect, and glim-

mered through so many vague and ill defined ideas of difficulty and peril,

was now at our feet, and we were not satisfied till our feet were actually

in its cool waters; and here we sat, slept, and passed three entire

days, with more ease than we dare expect upon the banks of the

Ganges, for here we had neither alligators nor enemies of any kind

to dread. ‘

16 Continuation of the Route of Lieut. Burnes [Jan.

The Oxus is a splendid river, here exhibiting an expanse and volume

fully equal to our expectations, or its appearance as given in the map;

but I should say of inferior magnitude compared with the vast extent

of country of which it is the dram, and where deserts and arid moun-

tains occupy so large a portion. The Hindi Kush generates but a

scanty tribute from its snow, and but few supplies are derived from the

north; the great body of the water coming from the south-east and

east, where the intersections of the Himalaya define the course of the

streams to the Indus, and branching northward, give origin to the

rivers which wash the Chinese frontier of Yarkind and Kashghar, the

whole of which tract from the limit of Kundur in one direction, and

Bokhara itself in another, is a blank in geography. It is true the

sources of the Oxus are pretty well ascertained, and the travels of Meer

Izzat Oolla have sketched the configurations of the country north-west

of Ladak; but the height, extent, and nature of the mountains which

intervene between Leh and Yarkiund, and along the north-west branches

of the Indus and Hindi Kush, are wholly unknown.

The stream of the Oxus is muddy, like that of our Indian rivers; but

confined within marginal banks bearing a stiff vegetation, it hasa more

regular channel, and rolls with greater rapidity ; where we crossed it, the

expanse of bed was divided by islands, and the current assumed various

degrees of size and velocity, the largest with a rate exceeding three miles

per hour and a depth of 20 feet. As no rain falls in this country, the

whole mass of water is liquified snow. It is impossible to form a com-

parative estimate of the actual bulk, but it can scarcely equal the Indus

at Attok. The ferries are ill supplied with boats, but the boats themselves

are substantial fabrics, and are built more after the model of our sloops

than any thing I have seen in India; but the people have no idea of na-

vigation ; their oars are of the rudest kind, only one or two in a boat,

but the chief impulse depends upon horses, which are fastened on each

side of the bow, and, by their exertions to swim, drag the boats across

the currents. I never heard of sucha practice, and almost doubted it till

we witnessed the spectacle. There are no fords downwards to its debouche

in the Aral, but in winter it freezes over in several places, sufficiently

strong to bear the transit of the kafilas, which is singular in a parallel

of latitude under 40 degrees, and ata very inconsiderable elevation.

The bed of the river, where we crossed it, scarce attains the level of

the Punjab rivers, in the line of our route, as well as we can estimate by

the boiling point of our thermometers, which are the only means left us.

Prinsep, in aletter to Burnes, reminds usof this resource (in the absence

_of barometers), to verify the levels of the Aral and theCaspian ; but this

1833.] and Dr. Gerard, from Péshdéwar to Bokhdra. 17

method (at least with common thermometers, where the divisions which

are so small, answer to so large an equivalent) is scarcely appreciable

to the extent of 200 or 300 feet, which those land-locked seas are sup-

posed to be depressed below the surface of the ocean. In this dry cli-

mate, the horary variations of the barometer would amount to more

than the above quantity, but we shall lose noopportunity of using every

means to confirm so curious a conjecture, if it is not already settled.

From the Oxusto Bokhara is more or less a desert tract, and the surface

of the soil undergoes every modification of barrenness, from the hills just

sprinkled with vegetation, to the hard-baked floor and dead sand heaps.

The first four days no villages but camps of Turkmans were passed.

The water was either salt or saliferous, and owing to our folly in trusting

to information which is in its nature imperfect, as the springs of potable

water are as variable as the sand hills, we suffered excessively from thirst,

the sun raged with a burning heat, and we had no defence against it but our

clothes. The wind of the desert dried* us like parchment, bnt the nights

were cool, and often cold: this however did not take place till towards day

break, and the few hours sleep we then got were deliciously refreshing,

after heaving up and down upon a camel’s back all night. The face of the

country was very uneyen, almost hilly; we at last came to waves of

pure sand which were said to shift their position, like those in the

African deserts, and we eagerly looked out for the moving heaps ; but all

* “Tn the journey from the Oxus to Bokhara, the mean difference between the

wet bulb and the temperature of the air was upwards of 20°, the extreme difference

often 34° and 35°, and the least 10° or 11°, but in Calcutta during the same

month (July) 3°.5 is the mean difference, and 5°. 5 and 2° the maximum and

minimum.” At Benares, according to Prinsep, the difference between the wet and

dry bulbs is sometimes 37° in the hot season. Bokhara seems to be drier in July

than Calcutta is in January :—can July be the driest month at Bokhara, when the

cold season appears to be driest in other parts of the world ?’ If the cold weather is

driest here in winter, the evaporation must be astonishing, which will account for

the excessive degree of cold in so low a latitude as 39° 43’.

“‘ The evaporation from a cup can be easily measured by a scale: I found it

more than once amount to two inches, in 24 hours, the thermometer being from

72° to 104° in the open air ; in the shade, since entering Tarkistan, the highest has

been 110°, and the lowest 54°, which occurred in the desert. In so arid an atmos~-

phere you may suppose we do not complain of heat, although the thermometer

is every day 97° and 98°in the house, and the more one perspires here the colder one

becomes. It is owing to the hygrometrical state of the air, that we see icemade when

the thermometer is above 50°, and by increasing the aridity, ice might be made

at 70° : in fact a difference of 37° is nearly that in the driest months here, we ought

therefore to expect ice with the thermometer at 80°. This great aridity will ac-

count for the state of our feelings, the formation of ice, preservation of meat, drying

of fruits, cold, vegetation, and many other phenomena.”

18 Continuation of the Route of Lieut. Burnes (Jan.

I could believe of such an occurrence, and which I saw, was the currents

of loose sand raised from the surface by the wind, or blown from one

place to another, the heaps themselves being immovable en masse. At

Karshi, which the map places full half way, we were seized with fever, no

doubt from the swamps of Balkh or the miasms of the Oxus. Burnes

was first taken ill (some days previous), and here I and two of our party

with a tea merchant followed, and as I delayed treating myself as

doctors usually do, it was not until I had been a week in Bokhara, and

after quantities of quinine, that I recovered, but the poor merchant died.

He was an intelligent and agreeable companion, and the few days we

‘were together in the desert left the impression of along period of friend-

ship. In oursituation we become acquainted with individuals who, wiser

in local experience than ourselves, entertain us by their adventures, and

from whom we separate with regret. The fate of this man, out of so

small a party and in so short a time, was a matter of some reflection to

us, who were even more liable to the effects of climate and the fatigues

of travelling ; it shewed us that without any dangers from robbers,

tyrants, or intolerant bigots, our health was sufficiently precarious, to

make such a journey of doubtful success ; and though the chances of ad-

venture did not allow us to consider any thing a real hardship, yet on

looking back, we saw ample reason to consider ourselves fortunate in

having so well overcome the trials we were exposed to.

I had almost forgotten to mention that we paid a visit to the de-

solate grave of poor Moorcroft at Balkh. It was a bright moon-light

night, and our Haji, who attended his remains to the earth, showed

us the way to the spot, which lay amidst marshes, and I could not help

thinking that these very marshes had caused the melancholy event. We

were surprised to hear that the severities of fortune, which accompanied

Moorcroft’s career from the beginning, had pursued him even beyond the

grave, and that a burial place was barely permitted to his remains, upon

the skirts of the city and on the outside of a garden wall. The spot is

retired, and had we not been guided to it, by one who had witnessed

the interment, we might have searched or inquired in vain for the site.

We were unprepared for such a spirit of odious prejudice as seems to

have prevailed against this lamented individual, for the same feelings

didnot exist in regard to Mr. Trebeck. Mr. Guthrie’s body is contiguous.

Those solitary receptacles have for the first time been seen by an Euro-

pean eye, and remote as they are from friends or countrymen, they are

nevertheless unmolested, where they themselves, while living, had gained

by their praise-worthy conduct, a respect and remembrance that will

long be cherished in Turkistan ; and if they encountered some tyrants

and wretches in their long travels, they met with many friends and well-

1833.] and Dr. Gerard, from Péshdwar to Bokhdra. 19

wishers, and have left the name of Englishman with all the honors which

we most covet. At Karshi we had a specimen of the gardens which

poets have celebrated in their descriptions of Samarkhand and Bokhara;

we lay amidst apricots and ice, and I enjoyed both in spite of an ague

that almost shook me to pieces. We heard of slaves for sale here, and

a young Hindu of our party, a clever and promising lad from the Delhi

institution, whose thirst for knowledge leads him into many strange

situations, has the following dialogue in his journal about the traffic.

It is headed “ a trick or jest for a slave girl, ” and I extract it literally.

** On my return from bazar I besought a man to shew me the house

of the merchant who sells men and women, which I reached after

traversing very hot streets. The merchant received me civilly, and sent

for three women from a room adjoining to that which was his own.

He told them to sit before me, and then inquired of me which I liked

to buy. I replied to him, the young one, who had regular features,

was mild and attractive, her stature elegant, though below the middle

size, while her wit and vivacity exceeded even her allurements. In

the mean time the two others, who were neither ugly nor beautiful,

stood up and went into their rooms; the young one followed soon

after, but sat in a separate place, guarded by a very old man. I was

told by the merchant to go in the same room, to speak, to laugh, and

to content the girl. I sat out to the girl, and conversed in the following

manner. I love you and liketo buy you, art contented and pleased with

me? She smiles and says, No, I do not like you, because she is afraid per-

haps Isell her to another after enjoying my own gratification: her name

was Gul-sad-barg, (the flower of a hundred leaves.) After much alter-

cation, she says, Very well, I should swear not to sell her again and

make please to her master. The old man who sat by the door told her

to stand and to show me her whole body according to the custom, which

means perhaps that there be not any sort of disorder in her person.

All her body was crystalline, her age was 13 or 14 years. I talked with

her a long time on various subjects, inquiring her nativity and birth;

she said her home was in Badakhshan, and she had a large family: she

was ravished by the ruler of the country, and sold to this merchant. On

saying this she brought a flood of tears in her eyes, and said, For God's

sake buy soon, and release me from the hands of this unmerciful Uzbek,

It made me very sorry : I cursed the ruler, and bestowed a maledic-

tion on her merchant who troubles her. I instantly got up and came

away to my camp, without seeing or telling any word to the merchant,

as I had not inclination to buy her. The experience and fun induced

me to make a trick for investigating the principles of slave merchants,

20 Continuation of the Route of Lieut. A. Burnes [Jan.

who I say are very miserable, criminal, savage, and unmerciful men

indeed.”

At this place a conspiracy was attempted to be formed against us by

a Persian of our kafila, a man of consummate address and knavery,

and rumours were afloat that the king of Bokhara had interdicted our

entering his capital; but the extravagance of the plot almost betrayed

its falsehood: however, considering the influence and conduct of the

Nazir, who was the bosom companion of the Persian, and with no other

voucher of our character but our passports, we did not like the circum-

stances, though they scarcely made us uneasy. The remaining four

marches to Bokhara had less of the desert in them ; the undulations

continued ; also sand and salt-water. Sometimes the true and unlimited

horizon was spread before the eye; at last, on the 27th of June, we ar-

rived inthis fine city, which had a few months before appeared so remote

and uncertain. I have written so much that you must not at present ex-

pect any account of this ancient place. The transit of letters from this is

very uncertain, and to give them a chance of safety from the Allemans

(robbers), and even the Khybaris near Péshawar, we must fold them in

the native fashion. The usages of the Muhammedan government are

here extremely strict, and the precepts of their religion are fulfilled with

awful rigor; we are not likely to come under any of the penalties, ex-

cept, indeed, we are seen drunk in the streets, or smoking publicly, nei-

ther of which there is any chance of; but we might certainly have com-

mitted ourselves in regard to dress, which for all infidels is strictly

defined and peremptorily imposed, and if we are naturally obnoxious to

their sight, our dress adds to the spectacle. A black cap on our head

and a rope round our waist, are particularly interesting; for we have

only to pull the cap over our face and put the rope about our neck, to

make us really a spectacle! We are allowed to reside in a private house

after some little remonstrance; a public sérai is our proper dwelling

place. We cannot ride within the walls of the city, and must push our

way through the densely-peopled streets, which detracts considerably

from our interest in the scenes of the bazar, and in our walks in an

atmosphere so warm and dusty. Moorcroft was permitted to ride, but

he was in character, and brought presents for the king and his courtiers;

but this privilege was only granted on condition that his Muhammedan

syces should accompany him mounted, as they could not be seen on

foot attending an infidel on horseback. We have no character at all to

support, except it is that of faqirs or beggars (not religious mendi-

cants). The garments of all other unbelievers are similar to those in

which we are accoutred, such as Hindis, Armenians, and Jews, and

1833.] and Dr. Gerard, from Péshdwar to Bokhara. y

‘these last we especially resemble in every thing except their features.

The restriction we feel most is being unable to write, but this is more

our fault, or our courtesy, than any actual prohibition of the state, for as

we can elude suspicion by writing at night, it is only the chance of de-

tection that prevents us taking up our pen in the day time. As I can-

not see well by lamp light I shall not attempt making a single note, and

by the time we leave this I shall remember nothing to write about. I

have seen the minister, Ghés Bégi, once: heis a curious old man, and

very fond of decorum, though without state or show in himself. He is

always finding fault with our dress or posture in sitting ; and this last is

no easy matter, although we have been trying it for six months past.

With all the Bégi’s shrewd penetration, he seems to be at a loss what

to make of us.

Upon the whole, our reception at Bokhara, if not remarkable for dis-

tinction (except indeed that regarding our dress), or favors (neither of

which we had the least claim to, and I at least had no expectations of),

has been sufficiently respectable and civil; and with the people, whether

in the crowded bazars, in public sérais, in private converse, or in the

mosques, Our name and country have been a recommendation instead of

a pivot for insult and ignominy ; and this too in a city notoriously ortho-

dox in religious duties, and where Muhammedan principles of every kind

are fearfully arbitrary. We have not heard the epithet of Adfir from

one end of our journey to the other, and only at one place, near Attok,

some boys used the expression of monkeys. Wherever we have gone

and appeared as Europeans, that character has been respected; and we

may depend upon it, that the name of Englishman, whether this is un-

derstood by Feringi or Angrez, if assumed with discretion, is our best

passport.

We have no chance of seeing the king, except in the open streets

with the rest of the mob: the rascal of a Nazir has played us this trick.

Dost Muhammed’s letter would have done us aservice. The bazars here

are splendid, and the police regulations admirable. Bokhara is a large

and populous city, eight miles in circuit, and exceeding any we have

met with in our journey. There are many fine colleges and other build-

ings ; the Uzbeks are a handsome race, but the Jews, (more especially

the Jewesses,) carry off the palm of beauty. There is more religion,

more law and justice, and more crime, than in any place of equal size

inAsia; but property and life are safer than in most cities in the world,

whether civilized or savage. The people here are much more fami-

liar with the Russians than with the English, and another Russian em-

bassy is soon expected at Bokhara. People from all parts of the world

22 Continuation of the Route of Lieut. A. Burnes. (Jan.

except China are seen here. Every body drinks tea, generally after

our fashion, but without milk; there is a kind of tea called banka which

comes vid Russia from China ; it costs 10 rupees, and is very fine flavor-

ed, and it is said that a sea voyage injures it.

The banka tea goes from China to Russia by a direct road, avoid-

ing Yarkund, as by being packed up in small canisters it will not bear

export by the mountainous route, and by coming here from Orenburgh

it thus attains a very high price; the tea trade is immense. We

first saw loaf sugar at Khulm, and it is the same as we have at home.

Many people in Bokhara wear watches, all of London mechanism.

In the Bazar we see tea urns with the red hot iron in the middle to

keep the water warm, and many things remind us of Europe.

We have tried horse’s flesh, and having beef at the same time, we

gave the preference to the former; but whatever Elphinstone says about

horse’s flesh being the food of any part of the people, it is at least very

rare, and beef is far from frequent.

The climate, that eternal subject, is warmer than is agreeable; in fact

it is sultry, but dry, and otherwise delicious, the sun shining out his entire

course, and not a cloud in the air. How very different from India at this

season! The nights are generally cool, but we find sleeping in the air

necessary for comfort ; the usual range of the temperature outside is from

74° to 103°, rising to 106° in the streets: we loathe the air in a room

heated to 96° and even 110°, and, although sitting quietly, we feel it rather

disagreeable ; but in so arid aclimate, the sensation is less oppressive at

this degree of temperature, than at 80° in India, at the same season.

The most singular part of the climate is the intense cold of winter,

which freezes such a stream as the Oxus. The blocks of solid ice in

the bazars here indicate the severity of the weather, and can only be

explained by the extreme dryness of the air.

There are disturbances at Urganj, and their army has marched to at-

tack the Persians on the line of our route ; we therefore know nothing of

our prospects : but it strikes me we shall be forced to take the road to

Meshid. Burnes and myself are now quite recovered. I have received no

letters since the middle of March, and the only dawk which has reached

us since crossing the Indus, we got at Khulm, and by it came Nos. 1

and 2 of the Journal of the Asiatic Society ; it will please the Editor

to know, that his work spreads itself over such distant regions. I have

picked up some coins here, bearing Greek inscriptions and heads, and

something like masonic insignia upon a small axe ; but I am too distant

here to venture to send the originals, though I may impressions.”

Bokhara, 15th July.

1833.] On the Manufacture of Saltpetre. 23

Il.—On the Manufacture of Saltpetre, as practised by the Natives of

Tirhtt. By Mr. J. Stevenson, Supt. H. C.’s Saltpetre Factories in

Behar.

The soil of Tirhoot almost every where contains a large proportion

of saline matter, such as nitrate of potass (saltpetre), nitrate of lime,

sulphate, and muriate of soda, &c.* but in general the sulphate of soda

is most abundant. The saltpetre (as well as the other salts) lies in

patches as it were, some parts being more productive than others, ac-

cording as carbonate of lime and sand alternately predominate. By

analyzing the different soils, I have found those places most productive

of nitre to contain a redundancy of the former; and on the contrary,

where the soil was unproductive, I found a redundancy of the latter

substance. I am therefore naturally: led to the conclusion, that carbo-

nate of lime is one of the principal agents in the formation of this arti-

cle. This will also account for the district of Tirhit being more pro-

ductive of nitre than any other place in India, for almost half of its soil

is calcareous; an average sample of it, collected from various places

where saltpetre abounds, and carefully analyzed, gave me the composi-

tion as follows. 100 parts being operated upon.

Matter insolubleinthethree mineralacids, Silex, .............. 50.0

Matter soluble in ditto, ............ Carbonate of Lime,.... 44.3

Sulphate of Soda,...... 2.7

; Muriate of do......... 1.4

Matter soluble in water,.......... Fulci et capes tac sis 0.9

Nitrate of Potass,...... 0.7

100.0

This analysis does not agree with Dr. John Davy’s, but be it remem-

bered, that scientific gentleman operated upon saltpetre earth from

the factories, which of course contains more saline matter than the

general soil.

In the month of November, the Joneahs or native manufacturers of

saltpetre commence their operations, by scraping the surface off from

old mud heaps, mud buildings, waste grounds, &c. where the saltpetre

has developed itself in a thin white efflorescence, resembling frost rind.

This saline earth being collected at the factories, the operator first sub-

jects it to the processes of solution and filtration. This is effected by

* T have not been able to ascertain whether the sajji mati (native carbonate of

soda) is found in this district ; as far as my own observations have extended, it does

not form a part of the composition of the soil. I also could not detect any alumina,

though it is likely some parts may contain it.

24 On the Manufacture of Saltpetre. [JAN

a large mud filter, lined on the inside with stiff clay. Itisa round

hollow basin, in shape resembling the top of a well, from 6 to 8 inches

in diameter. A false bottom is formed of pieces of bamboo, laid close,

and resting upon pieces of brick. This leaves an empty space of a few

inches above the solid bottom, for an outlet to the filtered liquor. Over

these bambis, a covering of strong close wrought grass mats are laid,

which complete this simple form of filter. The operation then proceeds

with the process, by spreading over the mats a thin layer of vegetable

ashes, generally from the indigo plant, upon which the earth to be sub-

jected to the filtering process is laid, and trodden down level, and to

the desired solidity, by the operator’s feet. This requires great atten-

tion on the part of the man who performs it: for if too solid, the water

will pass through too slow; on the contrary, if too soft, the water will

pass through too quick; for the solution of the saline matter to take place,

and the full products would not be obtained. After this point has been

adjusted, water is poured gently upon the earth to the depth of four or

five inches, according to the size of the filter and quantity of earth

used, (one of six feet diameter will filter 20 maunds of earth.) The

whole is then suffered to remain tranquil for several hours, during which

time the water gradually passes through the earth, dissolving the saline

matter in its passage, and filtering through the mats, drops into the

empty space between the solid and false bottoms, and is conveyed by

means of a spout of bambi, or a hollow tile, into an earthen receiver,

made large enough to hold the full quantity of filtered liquor, and half

sunk in the ground for the purpose.

The saltpetre liquor thus obtained is more or less coloured with oxide

of iron and decomposed vegetable matter. Its specific gravity also

varies with the quality of the earth operated upon. An average from

a great number of filters gave me 1.120.

The second process is to evaporate the saltpetre liquor to a crystal-

_lizing state, which is effected in earthen pots fixed in two rows, over

an oblong cavity dug in the ground, the interstices between the post

being filled up with clay. An aperture at one end of the cavity serves

for an egress to the smoke; another at the opposite end is used for the

introduction of fuel, which is generally dry fallen leaves gathered from

the dm topes (mango groves): such are the simple materials used in

this part of the manufacture. The boiling is continued till the liquor is

evaporated to the crystallizing point, which is ascertained by the opera-

tor taking from time to time a small portion of the liquor from the

pots, and setting it aside to cool in small earthen dishes, like a common

saucer. After the liquor has cooled, and the crystals formed agreeable

1833.] On the Manufacture of Saltpetre. 25

to the practice of the operator, the fire is stayed, and the liquor remov-

ed to large shallow earthen dishes (which are used instead of crystal-

lizing coolers), placed in rows, and sunk to the brim in soft earth. At

the end of about 30 hours, the process of crystallization is finished. The

crystals of saltpetre are taken out of the coolers, and put into baskets to

drain, after which they are removed to the store-house, ready for sale.

During the operation of boiling, it occasionally happens that too much

heat has been used, and the pots are in danger of boiling over. To

prevent this, the operator has a very simple remedy, which our more

scientific operators might not be ashamed to take a lesson from—a bunch

of dry jungle grass is fixed at a right angle, to the end of a stick; this

is dipped into the liquor, and held up over the pot, and the liquor, which

it had absorbed, falls down in a shower (cooled by the air) into the

vessel it had been taken from. The temperature being thus reduced,

the evaporation proceeds more steadily, and the accidental boiling over

is prevented. The mother liquor, remaining after the crystals of saltpetre

have been removed, is returned to the evaporating pots, and mixed with

a fresh portion of the liquor from the filters, for a second boiling, and

crystallization. The extraneous salts, such as sulphate and muriate of

soda, which the filtered liquor from the earth always contains, are partly

found at the bottom of the pots, (the muriate of soda in particular,) and

partly in the mother liquor, remaining after the process of crystallization.

But to separate them more effectually, the manufacturer passes the li-

quor from the boilers through a piece of coarse cloth, placed in a basket ;

and when the liquor has drained through, the greater part of the ex-

traneous salts are found on the cloth. To do this effectually, it is ne-

cessary, that the liquor should be at the boiling point, otherwise the

saltpetre liquor would not leave the sulphates and muriates, but would

form an anhydrous mass.

The muriate of soda, or common salt, is rendered more pure by a sub-

sequent boiling. It is then called by the natives pakwa nimak, and

is sold in the bazars as an article for culinary purposes. The remaining

extraneous salts—sulphate of soda, nitrate of lime, &c. are returned to

the earth, to undergoa change by decomposition against another season.

The nitrate of lime is decomposed by the carbonate of potass, which the

vegetable ashes, used in the process, contain. When solutions of these

salts come in contact with each other, a mutual decomposition takes

place. The nitric acid of the lime combines with the potass, and the

carbonic acid of the potass combines with the lime. Thus two new salts

are formed, viz. nitrate of potass (saltpetre), and carbonate of lime. In

this manner, the old earth, which has already produced saltpetre, is re-

generated, and rendered productive against other seasons. The native

26 On the Manufacture of Saltpetre. [Jan.

manufacturers are aware of this fact, but not being able to account for

it on scientific principles, they say, that saltpetre generates or developes

saltpetre ; but I dare say that most scientific men will concur with me,

that the above idea of the natives is next to a physical impossibility.

Owing to the porous nature of the earthen crystallizing vessels, a part

of the saltpetre liquor oozes through the bottom, and is absorbed by the

earth on which the utensils are placed, occasionally they are broken,

and the contents of course falls into the earth below. This earth is

again subjected to the process of filtration, and the practice of the

manufacturer, in order to obtain what had been wasted in the above

manner. Thus the loneaks proceed from season to season, without

the least deviation or alteration in their manufacture. No persuasion,

however reasonable, by way of improvement, will cause them to alter

the plans which their forefathers had in practice ; and it is probable, that

the methods used at present were the same three thousand years ago.

The saltpetre obtained in the above manner, which I have attempted

to describe, is a very impure article, termed by the natives dhoah, and

is sold at the rate of from two to three rupees a maund. It generally

contains from 45 to 70 per cent. of pure nitre. The following analysis

was tried from an average of several hundred maunds of what was

stated to be of good quality, and brought three rupees eight annas per

maund. 100 grains operated upon.

Insoluble matter, sand, andmud,.............. 5.0

Sulplatetorsoday Vel Mh BOUEE a eRe ey 9A

Miuriatetordoc. .’ p. Sher ty, ar eet eee Sree ae 8.0

Rotel anmpmrbyen goer ie oa RE ode ou eae 22.1

Lcd eran Ree Sete cee 5k A TE, Pe eee OE eee he fe)

100.0

This may be taken as a fair sample of the quality that the loneahs

produce in general, but when it passes from their hands to the saltpetre

merchants, it is frequently adulterated with sand, mud, and dirty salts

of various kinds, to such a degree, that it scarcely contains 50 per cent.

of pure nitre. A sample of this adulterated article from 15,000 maunds

gave me the following result :

Insoluble matter, sand, and mud,./............ Oot

Dil plate Ol sOta,, 5,0. meee te taere seh aie ces alas 23.8

Wiuriate lo: do... eee ee. cr aie ee ee 4.2

Total witperity se. SA ens Se aE 50.7

Nat Gre: boos. Jeet. oti tsel. dante, ives Bere 49.3

1833.] On the Greek Coins in the Cabinet of the Asiatic Society. 27

To produce the article called by the natives kalmee (crystallized in

long prisms, meaning the best kind of saltpetre), the dhoah is

re-dissolved and crystallized; the percentage of nitre will then amount

from 85 to 95, pure; but this is only done by the opulent native

merchants who supply the Calcutta bazar.

In conclusion, I have only to observe, that the above methods of

manufacturing saltpetre, used by the natives of this country, although

rude, yet are very simple, and more effective than most of our

scientific chemists, at first sight, would suppose. No manufacture in

Europe can equal it in point of cheapness and simplicity; and when it is

considered, that these simple people have no knowledge whatever of

chemistry as a science, it is surprising how well they manage to make

the rough article. At least, such were the ideas that struck me during

the many hours (and I may add pleasant ones) that I have spent in

observing the simple, but not altogether ineffective, plans and operations

of this industrious manufacturing people.

The above notices claim no merit, except that of truth. They are

the result of observations and notes taken on the spot, during a resi-

dence of two years in the district of Tirhit; province of Behar.

Tirhit, 7th December, 1832.

IV.—On the Greek Coins in the Cabinet of the Asiatic Society.

By James Prinsep, Secretary.

Having in the first volume of the Journau described the Roman

Coins of the Society’s Cabinet, with such explanations as might, I

hoped, be of use to those who were untutored in the mysteries of nu-

mismatology, so that, by the aid of the drawings, they might be able

to recognize the type of Roman fabrication in any antique specimens

which they were likely to discover on the continent of India, I now pro-

pose to follow up the subject, as promised in my former paper,

by extending my examination of the Society’s Cabinet, through their

series of Greek and Persian coins, (leaving the Indian Coins for a fu-

ture occasion ;) and I believe that although the specimens of the two

first are far from being numerous in our collection, still the drawings

of them will be found sufficient to furnish tolerable guides for the

assistance of the student in discriminating the coins of these countries

at different periods of their history.

I cannot say how many out of the whole have been found in India

itself; many on the contrary appear to have been brought from Persia.

E 2

28 On the Greek Coins of the [Jan.

Both Grecian and Persian coins however are met with frequently in

India, and it is very easy to know them when once their forms have been

presented to the eye. Several were brought by Col. Wilson from Per-

sia, who kindly permitted me to take drawings of them; Lieut. Conolly

obtained a few in his overland journey to India: and Lieut. Burnes has |

favored me with one or two specimens of a number of coins collect-

ed by him in Ancient Bactria, a country but recently opened to the in-

vestigation of the antiquarian.

It is from this unexplored part of Asia that we may confidently ex-

pect a multitude of Grecian antiquities gradually to be developed. Tra-

vellers of all nations are already flocking thither to trace the steps

and discover the monuments of Alexander’s Indian conquests. The

most successful in this interesting line of research, partly from the ad-

vantage of his rank in Maha-raja Ranjit Singh’s service, has been Ge-

neral Ventura, who, imitating Belzoni at the Pyramids of Egypt, instead

of conjecturing and speculating upon the origin of the celebrated Tope

or mound of Manikyala in the Punjab, set boldly to work in 1830 to

pierce into its solid mass by digging. | He was rewarded by the disco-

very of numerous coins and other relics which had lain untouched for

perhaps twenty centuries*. A Russian antiquary I understand had pre-

viously amassed a vast collection of Greek coins in the same country.

But it is by no means in the Punjab alone that we are to look for an-

tiquarian riches: the north-western provinces of India offer as large

a field of enquiry—and if the coins of Kanouj and Oudh are less inter-

esting from the nature of the characters in which their legends are

graven being wholly unknown, they should nevertheless be regarded as

more curious because they speak this unknown language and remain

the only records of kingdoms and revolutions whose existence is but

faintly discernible on the page of history.

It is principally to instigate those who have opportunities of forming

collections in the upper provinces, that I have drawn up these notes,

and I cannot adduce a more powerful motive for studying and search-

ing, than the example and success of that indefatigable investigator of

history and antiquity,“Major Tod, who thus describes his method of

forming a collection in the Ist vol. of the Trans. Roy. As. Soc.

“For the last twelve years of my residence in India, (amongst

Mahrattas and Rajputs,) the collecting of coins as an auxiliary to histo-

* An account of General Ventura’s operations was communicated to Col. James

Young and by him printed in the newspapers of the day : it is reprinted in the se-

venteenth volume of the Researches, page 600.

1833. ] Cabinet of the Asiatic Society. 29

ry was one of my pursuits: and in the rainy season I had a’pérson

employed at Mathurd and other old cities to collect all that were

brought to light by the action of the water while tearing up old foun-

dations, and levelling mouldering walls.

In this manner I accumulated about 20,000 coins of all denomina-

tions; among which there may be not above one hundred calculated to

excite interest, and perhaps not above one-third of that number to be

considered of value: but among them there is an ApoLLopotus anda

MeENANDER, besides some rare medals of a Parthian dynasty, probably

yet unknown to history.”

The coins of Greece are divided by numismatologists into two prin-

cipal series: the civic, and the monarchical. The former comprehends

all the moneys of the different states of Ancient Greece, bearing the

names of their cities and people, and the symbols and devices em-

blematical of them, or the figures of the tutelary deities under

whose especial protection they considered themselves placed. The

monarchical series begins with the Macedonian dynasty, or about

500 years before Christ, continuing throughout the kings of Macedon,

and, after the division of Alexander’s empire among his generals and

successors, subdividing itself into the several branches of the Seleucian

or Syrian, the Egyptian, the Bactrian, the Parthian and Armenian

dynasties ; besides, which may be enumerated the Pontine kings and se-

veral of minor importance.

The civic coins, of which the Hunterian Cabinet at Glasgow contains

so magnificent a collection, are generally supposed to be more ancient

than the monarchical series; they are mostly of ruder fabrication, but

the figures of animals and gods are sometimes executed with great

skill: the period of the highest proficiency in the arts is, however, uni-

versally acknowledged to be the age of Alexander, or the third century

before Christ : the coins of this distant age, even the meagre and

scattered specimens which we have picked up in India, are so exquisitely

finished as to furnish models to artists and sculptors of the present day,

while they almost defy their best powers of imitation.

The inscriptions found upon the earlier coins are generally the rude

initials of the names of cities or people, becoming more complete as we

descend in the series: the names of chiefs or principal men and priests

are introduced sometimes at a later period, but as no dates are given

it is impossible to assign any exact age to most of the civic coinage.

Throughout the Macedonian series the names of princes are introduced,

and history affords chronological data for their classification. The inscrip-

tions are generally written in straight and parallel lines, differing in

30 . On the Greek Coins in the [Jan.

this respect from the legends of Roman coins which are peripheral, as

are those of the imperial Greek coins, which are merely translations of

the latter.

It has been urged that the Greek coins although inferior to the Ro-

man, because they afford no record of important events or of dates to

assist in the elucidation of history, yet have an intrinsic value of their

own, from the service they have rendered to Geography in preserving

and exhibiting the names of a multitude of cities and colonies, and by the

frequency of their occurrence, or by their superior workmanship, throwing

light upon the relative importance of states. Other local peculiarities are

marked by the devices they bear, the origin of many of which is easily trac-

ed in the history or mythology of this classical nation : thus, the emblem

onalmost all the coins of Athensis an owl, the bird of Minerva: for

Corinth, we have, according to Pinkerton, the winged horse: a wolf’s

head for Argos; abull’s head for Bceotia; a minatour’s head and the

labyrinth for Crete; a horse’s head for Pharsalia ; a lion for Marseilles ;

a tortoise for Peloponnesus; a sphinx for Scio; three legs joined for

Sicily; a horse for Thessaly; a crescent for Byzantium, the origin of

which deserves mention from its having since become the badge of

Mohammedanism. When Philip of Macedon besieged the place, and was

going to stormit ina cloudy night, the moon shone out and discovered

his approach, so that the inhabitants observed and repulsed him. The

Turks upon entering Constantinople found this ancient badge in many

places, and suspecting some magical power in it, assumed the symbol and

its power to themselves*.

The general demonination of the silver money among the Greeks was

the drachma, or eighth part of an ounce, which according to Pinkerton

was about ninepence, or a penny more in value than the denarius : from

the drachma were derived the half, double, and quadruple, or hemi drachma,

didrachma, tetradrachma, &c. The smallest silver coin was the obolos,

but that was also, and generally, a copper piece,

After these few introductory remarks I will proceed to notice the coins

in our possession, beginning with those of the

Greek Cities.

Plate I. Fig. 1. A silver coin in the Society’s Cabinet.

Obverse. A lion walking with head erect. Double triangular symbol

Xx} and stars,

Reverse. Jupiter sitting. Legend illegible ; tetradrachma : weight

250 grs.

* Pinkerton, i. 241.

1833.] Cabinet of the Asiatic Society. 31

The lion occurs but seldom on the coins of Greek towns in the Hunterian col--

lection, and no where with the obverse of Jupiter. It is found on the coins of

Messana in Sicily, and Velia in Italy (TEAHTON) ; also in some of Smyrna

but by the figure of Jupiter it is more probable that this coin belongs to the Alex-

andrine series.

Fig. 2.—A silver coin, brought from Persia, by Col. Wilson.

Obverse. Head of Minerva with helmet, facing the right.

Reverse. Pegasus flying towards the right.

It is impossible to say, for want of letters or signs, to what town this coin be-

longs. Many used the same devices, as Leucas, Cleone, (Hunter 100,) Corinth, &c.

Fig. 3.—A silver coin, belonging to Col. Wilson.

Obverse. Man astride upon a dolphin.

Reverse. Man riding on a horse.

This device is very common indeed on the coins of Taras, or Tarentum, in Italy,

(Hunter 305.)

Fig. 7.—A small copper coin, purchased from an Armenian in Cal-

cutta, bearing on one side a handsome head of the city,

with a turret-crown. On the reverse—a Griffin, with

something in her mouth. Above—the inscription is of

three lines, of which the letters LCA...

ANTI TIOXO

HTE

are visible. It may probably be of Antioch, in Syria.

Macedonian Coins.

Fig. 4.—A silver drachma of Alexander the Great. (As. Soc.) wt.

62 grains.

Obverse. Head of Hercules, beardless, covered with a lion’s skin,

coming under the ear likea horn.

Reverse. Jupiter seated, holding an eagle in the right hand: a staff

in the left, along the left side AAEZANAP OY, and

below A SIAEQ. (BuctAcws)-

Fig. 5.—Another, similar, but of half of the size, hemidrachma.

Another, tetradrachma, (220 grs.,) of similar device. As. Soc.

Fig. 10.—Another, legend illegible. Ditto.

The head of Alexander himself occurs very rarely on the coins of his reign :—

they are known by the ram’s horn on his forehead introduced as a mark of his dis-

cent from Jupiter Ammon : the ram’s horn is quite different from the lappet of the

lion’s skin in the present specimens, which might at first mislead the student,

Fig. 8. Obverse.—Head of Hercules in the lion’s skin.

Reverse. A club, with the inscription A ET KAAIQN TIMOOEOS.

Fig. 9.—Another coin, of the same device, witharEYTKAAIQN

AAMYAOS. Both in possession of Col. T. Wilson.

32 On the Greek Coins in the [Jan.

These two coins were struck at Leucas, a town near the celebrated promontory

of the same name in Acarnania, whence Sappho precipitated herself into the sea.

The Hunterian Cabinet contains a multitude of coins of this place, but none with

these names of Timotheos and Lamulos, or Damulos.

Syrian Coins. (Fig. 11.)

Next to the Alexandrine series, in point of time, and of merit, rank

the coins of the princes of Syria, the descendants of Seleucus Nicator,

who, upon the partition of Asia among the officers of Alexander, took

possession of Syria, and subjected to his sway all the provinces up to

the Indus. Of the Seleucide kings, I lately obtained one silver coin

from a Babylonian Jew; it is represented in Fig. 11, and is in beauti-

ful preservation ; the head, in high relief, and of exquisite workman-

ship, wears the fillet or diadem, which belonged exclusively to royalty,

and was not even assumed by the Roman emperors, until the reign of

Diocletian. On the reverse, is a sitting figure of Ceres, with a cornucopia

in her left hand, and a sceptre (or torch?) in her right, She sits on an

ornamental chair, the leg of which is formed of a winged Cupid with a

Dolphin tail. Beneath is a symbol compounded of the letters A and T

which is supposed to stand for Antioch. The inscription is distinct

BAZIAAENS AHMHTPIOY SIAAAEA®OY NIKATOPOS, which

refers to Demetrius II. Nicator, who reigned 145 —— before Christ.

It is a tetradrachma.

Fig. 6.—A small salve drachma in the Society’s cabinet. Head, in

good relief, with simple band. .

_.B.c, 292. Jupiter seated on a solid altar, holding thunderbolt, or

| priest sitting on the veiled stool. Down the sides

BASIAEOS AHMHTPIOY.

This coin of Demetrius is recognized to be Seleucidan, from the figure of Appollo

sitting upon a peculiar altar described by Pinkerton as “a hamper inverted. Some

think this seat is that upon which the priest of Appollo at Daphne, near Antioch,

used to sit to return oracles. It was placed over an aperture of the floor of the

temple through which the gale of inspiration was thought to raise.’”’ A Demetrius

occurs in the Macedonian series—and also among the Bactrian princes.

Egyptian Series.

The coins of the Ptolemzan dynasty equal, in beauty and interest,

the others of Macedonian origin: the silver pieces are very numerous,

the brass and copper pieces exceed in dimensions all other an-

tiques : they weigh about two ounces. The Eagle almost always

appears as the reverse of the Egyptian kings; the date of the reign

is also marked on the silver in Greek numerals preceded by L or auka Bavros.

i Sourn.As. Soe Vol Hl. Fl.I

GREET COINS.

— . -

ee So _ Se

1833.] Cabinet of the Asiatic Society. 33

All of the silver specimens in our possession seem to belong to the

same Ptolemy, from the marked physiognomy and projecting chin.

Fig. 12.—A silver tetradrachma, brought from Egypt by Mr. Drew.

Obverse. Head, with curly hair, bound with a diadem.

Reverse. The Eagle of Jupiter standing on a thunderbolt, with the

inscription ITOAEMAIOY BASIAEQS MA L1H (anno 18).

A coin of Ptolemy the First of Egypt, or it may be of Ptolemy the Fifth, B. C. 204,

as Pinkerton says his coins have mostly the letters IA or SA, explained to signify

Paphos or Salamis, both cities of Cyprus, which island was part of the Egyptian

monarchy. The weight of all these coins is about 212 grs. ;

Another. Same device Lu or Anno 8 belong- J. P.

Another. Ditto Fawr is Annoy 13 ingtos Ji, P.

Another. Ditto Lia Anno 14 oP.

Another. Ditto Lia Anno 14 As. Soc.

Another. Ditto Lie Anno 15 a

Another. Ditto Liz Anno 17 te

Another. Ditto Eph } Anno; 17 A

Another. Ditto L1H Anno 18 ee

A large copper coin of one of the elder Ptolemies, bearing

MNTOAE MAIOY BASIA EQS. / Same head and eagle. The

copper coins seldom had any date. Yveight 740 grs. JP:

After the subjection of Egyptas a Roman province, the Emperor’s

head always appears on the obverse; the eagle remaining still the most

common device on the reverse. Fig. 14 is a drawing of the reverse of

two coins of Nero in my possession: the legend is AYTOK PA (for

avToKparopos imperatoris) with the date L1a (anno 11.)

Fig. 16.—Is the reverse of a Greek coin under the Roman Emperor

Trajanus Decius, (A. D. 250.) It represents the metropo-

lis of the Samosasan colony, as Cybele, with her turretted

crown sitting on a cliff overhanging the ocean; inher

hands are an eagle and a spike of corn, at her feet a horse,

and around her the legend #4 CAMOCATEQN MHT KOM

Flaviorum Samosatensium metropolis Commagenes. On

the obverse around the head of the emperor is the in-

scription AYTOKP..TPAIANOC CEB.

According to Pliny Samosasa was a town of Commagenes on the Euphrates. It

was called Flavia when taken by Coesennius Poetus and Vespasian. The coin is no-

ticed in Baudurius’ work on the medals of the Emperors. The Society procured

it from an Armenian, with other Roman coins, and I have here introduced it as a

better example of the Grecian colonial coinage than that of Prusa in my former

plate.

34 On the Greek Coins of the [Jan.

Parthian or Arsakian Coins.

The Parthian monarchy was erected by Arsaces, who filled the office

of satrap in Bactria, in the year 256 B. c.. He had opposed the designs

of Theodotus, who had first revolted from the third Syro-Macedonian

monarch, and had raised the Bactrian provinces into an independent

kingdom. Being unsuccessful, he fled to Parthia, where he expelled the

governor, and declared himself independent. Vaillant, the numismatolo-

gist, has written a copious history of this powerful dynasty ; and has en-

deavoured to classify the coins of the 29 Arsacide kings : but it is gene-

rally acknowledged that there is too much of the fanciful in his appro~

priations, and most antiquarians have given up the attempt. The greater

number of the Parthian coins have thesamename, apzakor, with different

epithets,—king of kings, the great, beneficent, lover of the Greeks, &c. :

the heads however, are very distinct and numerous.

The most rational mode of arrangement is, to place those which are

best executed first, (for Greek workmen were doubtless then employed.)

And, as the execution falls off, and the Greek characters become obscure,

we may suppose the dynasty to progress towards its absorption into the

Persian empire, in the reign of Alexander Severus. a. p. 226. There is

aremarkable distinction in the head-dress of these princes ; beginning

with the simple band or diadem of the Greek monarchy, it gradually

changes into a deep turban, and at length becomes a high-mitred cap,

like that of the Persian monarchs.

We have two specimens of the larger silver Arsakian coins, and seve-

ral of the smaller ones: the latter, upon which the characters begin to

deteriorate rapidly, I have placed in Plate II. with the Persian coins.

Fig. 13.—One of two silver tetradrachms in the Society’s collection.

Obverse. Head of Arsaces I. (dubious) facing the right ; with broad

diadem and straight hair.

Reverse. Victory offering a crown to the king, seated, with the legend

BACIAEQC BACIAEQN EYEPFETOYT AIKAIOY EMI¢ANOY

$IAEAAHNOY; the third word apCakor is probably ex-

cluded by the die being two large for the coin.

Before passing to the rest of the Arsakian coins, I would here

introduce

Fig. 15.—One of three copper coins belonging to the As. Soc.

They bear on the obverse, a well-executed head, bearded,

and wearing a high-mitred cap. The characters and

device on the reverse of two of them are nearly oblite-

rated, but sufficient remains to shew the portrait of a

female, (probably the wife of the king.) On the third,

1833.] Cabinet of the Asiatic Society. 35

which forms the subject of the engraving, some of the

letters are distinct, and appear to read SoO#IA Or OIA

(quasi @cop:Aos), and on the left hand are some illegible

characters, (Pheenician ?) differing in each.

Below the portrait are the three Greek numerals

VNa or YNA (anno 454,) but of what era, I am at a loss

to conjecture ; it may be of the Arsakian or Armenian,

- but I must leave the point to those better versed in the

subject.

To continue the Arsakian coins :—

Fig. 1. Obverse.—Head with wart on the forehead: hair dressed

in rows of curls: plain band, with fillets hanging be-

hind: an eagle apparently with a wreath in its mouth.

Reverse. Figure seated, holding out a bow over the characters [+

around BASIAEOS BASIAEQN APCAKOY EYEPIFET AIKAI

EMI@ANO SIAEAAH.

Colonel Wilson had four coins with the same symbol, which Vaillant attributes

to Arsaces Vonones XVIII, The eagle may also denote Chosroes ( Vail. ii. 195.)

Fig. 5.—Obverse. Head of peculiar features, with pointed beard and

hooked nose.

Reverse. Sitting figure in trowsers, with bow, very rudely executed

. and the legend BACIAEOS APCAKOY ENI@ANOTS IAEAAH

Colenel Wilson has one similar, and both correspond with one in Vaillant,

marked Arsaces Mithridates II. (V. i. 69.)

Fig. 6. Head with plain turban and bow behind: same inscription

on the reverse, very rudely cut.

Fig. 2. Head with mitred cap, and arched nose, well executed :

type, same as fig. 1, BASIAEQ= METAAOY APSAKOY EON

ATPOS NIKATOPos, of better execution than either of the

foregoing.

Vaillant ascribes the mitred cap to Arsaces Orodes. Col. Wilson had another coin

of similar character.

Another, Mitred head similar to fig. 2, but without the hook orna*

ments: sametype, BASIAENS BASIAEQN APSAKOY AIKAIOY

EYEPFETOY #IAEAAHNOY.

Fig. 8.—Head with mitred cap, as in fig. 2, with a peculiar symbol

behind it: same reverse.

Colonel Wilson has another similar to this in head-dress, it is ascribed to

Arsaces Orodes (Vail. i. 145.)

Fig. 7.—Head with deep turban and mitred cap about it, and bow

behind, with fillets of rudest fabrication: character

quite perverted.

F 2

36 On the Greek Coins in the _[Jan.

Another. Plain head-dress and device very rude, BAIIArrS OAIIATAN

AIIVNO fvylIIN AIXAIOV ..KANOVC.

In this the knowledge of the Greek letters seems

very fast declining, and it is almost impossible to re-

cognize the inscription to be identical with that of fig. 11.

Another. The same, but more legible; under the bow of all these

there is a kind of altar formed like the letter A

The average weight of the above Arsacide drachme

is 60 grs.

Besides the devices given above, Col. Wilson had one head similar

to fig. 1, with the symbols of the sun and the moon, and a star (fig.

4,) referred by Vaillant to Arsaces Artabanus (I. 221), and another

with two small victories, holding wreaths over the head (fig. 3), which

is not found in Vaillant.

Sassanian Coins.

The Sassanian monarchy in Persia commenced with the year 223,

A. D. when Artaxerxes overturned the Parthian dynasty. It continued

until itself overturned by the Mahomedan caliphs in the year a. p. 636.

No mode of adjusting the numismatology of this period can be attempt-

ed until we are able to read the ancient Peh/evi characters in which their

legends are expressed. Perhaps ifa considerable collection of these

coins was made (and they seem to be very common in Persia), some

key might be discovered to the value of the alphabet, for the titles

will be alike in all, and the names are known from history. It seems

a great reflection upon the art, that the coinage of the celebrated Nou-

shirvan should not be known even to his countrymen.

Fig. 9.—A silver coin in the cabinet of the As. Soc.

Obverse. The head of the king facing the left, with curly beard,

and a large tuft of curly hair: a peculiar crown or cap

with two feathers behind : around it a legend in Pehlevi

characters, very distinct, but the purport unknown: it is

given more clearly in A.

Reverse. _A fire altar (mithras), with two priests or defenders, bear-

ing swords or sceptres.

Another coin, similar, and inscription partly identical. (B)

Fig. 10.—Another similar com. In lieu of the sacred fire on the

altar is substituted the head of a king: little of the le-

gend is visible.

In Colonel Wilson’s collection are one or two more of a similar

character, but the fire is the most common symbol: the legend on one

of his (C) differs from the two above given in part, but one word is evi-

1833.] Cabinet of the Asiatic Society. 37

dently the same, so that probably that word and the one which precedes

it in A and B are all common titles of the ruling monarch, as ‘‘ King

of Kings,” &c. (the Pehlevi reads like the Persian from the right to the

left hand.)

Fig. 12.—A crescent head-dress of this form occurs in one of Col.

Wilson’s coins, in other respects similar to the rest;

also upon another coin the emblems represented in fig. 31,

as variations of the priest’s wand or sceptre.

Fig. 14.—(of Col. Wilson’s series,) has characters which might be

mistaken for Arabic, also emblems of the moon, stars,

and the sacred fire.

Fig. 15.—A small gold coin, of very rude fabrication, brought by

Lieutenant Conolly, from Khorassan: the head has a

crescented cap, and the commencement of the second

part of the inscription agrees with that of figs. A and B.

Reverse. The fire-altar, and priests rudely executed.

This coin was noticed in the GieaninGs, vol. ili. 295.

Bactrian Coins.

In the reign of Antiochus II. the third of the Seleucid, Theodotus,

the governor of Bactria, revolted and established an independent monar-

chy. His capital was the modern Balkh, and his extensive kingdom

included parts of modern Kabul, Khorasan, and Bokhara. It is remarked

by Major Tod as singular, that, although the Arsacidan money is so

plentiful, antiquarians have seldom met with those of the Bactrian princes,

and indeed the names of only nine of them have been rescued from

obscurity. So little was before known, that Major Tod himself may be

said to have commenced the development of this new branch of numis-

matology, and in a worthy manner,—by adding two new medals dis-

covered in India to the only two hitherto known ;—one of Apollodo-

tus, found in the site of an old town, Sirapura, between Agra and

Etaweh ; the other of Menander from Math’ra*. This example has

instigated others to the search, and a number of Bactrian or Indo-

Scythian coins are now coming to light in the upper provinces. I have

before alluded to General Ventura’s discoveries ; and to those of Messrs.

Burnes and Gerard, in their route through ancient Bactriana ; Gel. Swiney

of Kurnal has also been successful in collecting and examining, and we

may therefore soon hope to have the subject thoroughly elucidated. Such

coins as were in the Society’s cabinet, I have already depicted in the se-

venteenth volume of the Researches, to illustrate the learned remarks of

Mr. Wilson, which should be perused by those who are now eager to pro-

* Trans. Roy. As. Soc. i. 314.

38 On the Greek Coins in the [Jan.

secute the inquiry. I have introduced into the present plate a few of

the same figures, with a view toshew the general appearance of these

curious coins.

Fig. 17.—Is taken from a cast made from the sealing wax impres-

sion of agold coin found at Manikyala by Gen. Ventura.

Obverse. A standing figure with right-arm outstretched, and a kind

of glory round the head : letters not decypherable.

Reverse, Figure of a warrior holding a spear in the right-hand, and

apparently (from comparison with more perfect speci-

mens of a similar coin) presenting an offering on an

altar : the name illegible.

Fig. 18.—Is a drawing made in a similar manner from another of

the Manikyala gold coins.

Obverse. ‘The Persian head-dress and flowing hair are here appa-

rent, but on the reverse the seated prince has rather

the Indian costume. The characters on both sides are

quite distinct, and have some similarity to Greek, but

they have not been yet interpreted. There is a curi-

ous symbol upon all this class of coins, resembling a

grid-iron or key, with sometimes three sometimes four

prongs.

Messrs. Reinaud and Saint Martin of Paris (Journal Asiatique 1831) read part

of the inscription on the obverse NANOBAOOY .... PKIKOT, and on the reverse

MANAOBA .... FO but nothing is gained therefrom. They ascribe the coin to

Greek or Asiatic Princes who inherited the authority of Alexander’s successors in the

countries watered by the Indus.

Fig. 19.—A small copper coin, sent to me in a letter by Dr. Gerard,

from the neighbourhood of Manikyala.

Obverse. The head of a king, with a kind of glory.

Reverse. An Equestrian figure, with the flowing ribbons of the Per-

sian diadem: the characters are here decidedly Greek,

and appear to form the usual title of BaciAcws BactAcov.

Fig. 20.—Is a copper coin resembling the last, procured by myself

at Benares.

The greater portion of the coins found at Manikyalaare stated by Lieut. Burnes,

to whom a copy of the plates of Mr. Wilson’s Essay was sent by dak, to have figures

of a Raja dressed in a tunic sacrificing on an altar, on the obverse; and a figure

standing by a bull on the reverse (As. Res. xvii. pl. ii. figs. 26 to 30): others are found

with the impress of an elephant, and a kind of dagger (a female figure?) But as the

inscriptions on these are rather Indian than Greek I have not included them in the

present collection, and beg to refer the reader to the Asiatic Researches and to Col.

Tod’s Essay.

1833.] Cabinet of the Asiatic Society. 39

Muhammedan Coinage of Persia.

To complete the sketch of Persian coins, it seems necessary to offer a

few brief remarks on the coinage of the Muhammedan powers which suc-

seeded the Sassanian dynasty,

At the period of the promulgation of the religion of Muhammed, the

money of the lower Roman empire was current in all the neighbouring

countries, and it was not untilthe Khalifat of Abd-ul-malek, in the year

of the Hejra 76 (a. p. 695), according to Marsden, that a distinct coinage

was instituted with a view of superseding the currency of Greek, or

Byzantine, and Persian, gold and silver.

The circumstances that led to this event are thus detailed by the

Arabian writers. —‘‘ The Khalif having adhered to the practice of com-

mencing his epistles, addressed to the Greek Emperor, with the Mus-

sulman formulary sentence, declaring the unity of the Godhead, and the

ministry of the prophet; the Christian monarch took offence at what

appeared to him an insult, and threatened that if it were persisted in,

he should retaliate by introducing into the inscriptions on his coinage,

with a view toits being circulated throughout the dominions of the for-

mer, words not likely to be acceptable to the professors of Islamism*.”

This impolitic contention produced the effect that might have been

expected, and Abd-ul-malek determined to be beforehand with him in

blazoning the creed of the faithful upon a new coin of his own fabrica-

tion, and he procured the ablest artisans from Damascus to cut the

dies. Many of the first Muhammedans were however scandalized at al-

lowing the sacred name of God to be profaned by the contact of impure

hands.

The names of the Arabic pieces of money are uniformly inserted in

their marginal legend, and are all taken from the coins of the lower Roman

empire. Thus the copper piece was called us felus from follis ; the

silver eo dirhem, from drachma, and the gold coin yess dinar, from

denarius, which though properly a silver coin, was used generally to

denote coins of other metals, as the denarius eris and the denarius auri,

or aureus.

The Society’s cabinet does not possess any of the early Muhammedan

coins; but one brought by Lieut. Conolly from Persia (fig. 16, Pl. IT.)

will serve as a general specimen of all those of the Ommiah and Abbas

Khalifs. They contain the date and place of fabrication, but not the

name of the prince. The coins of the Samanian dynasty in Persia dif-

fer but little in appearance; but they bear the name of the sovereign

under that of the prophet. The Sultans of the Seljuk dynasty, who

* Marsden’s Numismata Orientalia xvi.

40 On the Greek Coins in the [Jan.

arrested the whole of Asia Minor from the Empire in the 11th century,

struck the emblem of the sun in the constellation of the lion upon the

obverse of their coin, and these devices have since become well known

as the chivalric order of distinction in Persia: its origin is referred by

Marshman to the horoscope of Gheat-ud-din Kai Khusri, who began

to reign in 1236. The earliest mention. of it is in Tavernier’s Travels,

1676. The kings of the Turkman or Ortokite dynasty, in the 13th

century, introduced heads on their coin in imitation of the Syro-Mace-

donian kings, notwithstanding the supposed prejudice of the faithful

against such devices. The Persian term shdh, rex, occurs for the

first time on the coin of Kutb-ud-din Ghazi, a. u.580. The coins of

this period are so irregular, that Christian marks and names are some-

times visible on them: signs of the zodiac were also frequently intro-

duced. The Fatimite dynasty restored the primitive form and purity

of the Kufic inscriptions. Their coins have generally more than one

concentric circle of inscription. They also exhibit the several localities

of Arabia, Syria, Egypt, and Sicily.

- The coins of the J/-Khanian or Moghul dynasty of Persia are known

by the title of Kaan, Khan, and Sultdén Ahzem,in connection with the

name of the sovereign. The writing is generally contained in an orna-

mental or scalloped frame, such as is now common in the coins of:

Persia, Nipal, and other oriental countries.

These very general remarks will be sufficient to afford a clue to the

classification of the coins of Persia, when the legend may not be

sufficiently legible to determine them: the subject has been most ably

expounded by Mr. Marsden, in the work already quoted from; and to it

all must refer who would pursue this branch of numismatic study.

Fig. 16.—A silver coin of the Khalifs of the second century of the

Hejra, bearing on the area of the obverse the usual

formula in the Kufic character :

;

y} ab) 9 Non est Deus preter

tdo,al!} Deum unicum

a eh ytd cui non est socius.

In a circle around which is inscribed

In nomine Dei cusa est hec drachma in Wasit. Anno 129, nono

et vicesimo et centesimo. (A. D. 746.)

On the reverse it has the usual inscription.

ol) ool al] | Deus unus, Deus

Journ As. Soo, Val. Pl 7

PERSIAN COINS

A WLR wri LY es py rar any rs 6

Benepe wp... aN Leaps at :

C sstJtvsd39 0 32D ‘

DD pI IIe) jy? (fr- gold Colm PL. VIE) x

Kastnally Scadps.

’

a eee ee re

see © ea “ted he. Tie |

aN a ee ae ee

« r ke wt Pao _—

oo) END: SAR sash dere ae

Sone rele

faa

a an ee

fae

1833.] Eclipses of Jupiter’s Satellites. 41

elas elebeal eternus, non gignit, et

ws ¢ dy non generatur et non

da] |,aSaJ ei compar unus,

On the margin it has a quotation from the Koran (Sura ix. 33.)

SS pall gle ebilgrledy esdgly Alu) all) yu dase

Ww rm § yitnon])

Muhammed est legatus Dei, qui misit eum cum doctrina

et religione vera, quo eam extolleret super religiones omnes

si vel refragarentur associantes.

In Hallenberg’s Numismata Orientalia are described several coins of the

same age, the nearest in point of date is one of 126 Hij. (a. p. 743.)

Merwan, the son of Muhammed, &c. and 14th in descent from Ommiah,

came to the Khalifat in a. n. 127; and was killed in 132, being the

last Khalif of that race.

Wasit, the town at which the coin was struck, was so called, says the

same authority, from being half-way (middle) between Basra and

Kufa, it was built by Ibn-Gjuzi in 75 Hij. and remained the seat of

the Khalifs and of the coinage until the Abbaside succeeded to the

Ommian Khalifs, when the capital was established at Mohamadiah (or

Bagdad) as proved by coins struck in the year 137 Hijra.

In the third volume of the Gizanines, Plate XXIII. are depicted four

Persian gold coins, also brought from Persia by Lieut. Conolly, which

appear to belong to the Seljuk dynasty. In fig. 3, the words ul-malek'

are legible, but it requires some experience in the Kufic character to

decypher the remainder.

IV.—Eclipses of Jupiter’s Satellites.

Observations by Walter Ewer, Esq. at Chaprah.

Meam time. Difference from Nautical Almanac,

h Mm & he ™ &

aue December. Km. I. Sat. at 8 46 34...........- 5 38 50

33 ft. achrom. Troughton. power 80—capital observation.

Be idles «j---%2 Bmw Sat atin VSR oii.) eak 5 39 27

same telescope, not so good, noon being too bright.

Msi eta 3. A ae ee aL ET Ae ec aime noms 5 88 59

5 ft. achrom. Troughton, clear and good.

SE aligns = | ag = se: NET: ys a 5 39 14.5

same telescope, rather hazy.

49 A method of preparing Strychnia. [Jan.

V.—A method of preparing Strychnia. By J.T. Pearson, Esq. Assistant

Surgeon.

The enormous price of 120 rupees having been paid at the Hon’ble

Company’s Dispensary for a single half ounce of strychnia; it became

my duty to attempt to prepare it, by a process, more expeditious and

less expensive, than that recommended in the formulary of Magendie* ;

and which, at the same time, should be equal to the demands made upon

the department. I hope that both these objects have been effected by

the following method:

Infuse a determined quantity of Nux Vomica in boiling distilled

water, until it becomes soft; take it from the liquid, bruise it coarsely

in a large metal mortar, and treat it with successive infusions of boil-

ing distilled water, till it becomes nearly tasteless. Strain the liquids,

and having mingled them together, boil with calcined magnesia for half

an hour, and collect the precipitate upon a filter of fine muslin. When

the precipitate has become free from the liquid, wash it gently, twice,

as it lies on the filter, with cold distilled water, and afterwards dry it

upon a water bath.

Treat the precipitate, dried as above-mentioned, with successive por-

tions of boiling alcohol, sp. g. .838, or stronger, until it becomes

quite exhausted, then mix the whole of the filtered alcoholic liquid, and

evaporate in a water bath, tilla thickcrust forms upon the surface ; set it

aside to crystallize for twelve hours; pour off the mother waters, and

collect and dry the strychnia upon filtering paper.

In this state, the strychnia is in small, but by no means microscopic,

irregular crystals, of a light-brown colour; and it may be purified by

redissolving and re-crystallizing it in boiling alcohol, or by pouring

over it portions of rectified ether.

* The following is the process given by Magendie. “ Add a solution of liquid

subacetate of lead to asolution of alcoholic extract of the Nux Vomica in water,

until no more precipitate be thrown down ; the foreign matters being thus separat-

ed, the strychnine remains in solution, with a portion of colouring matter, and

sometimes an excess of acetate of lead. Separate the lead by sulphuretted hydrogen,

filtrate it, and boil with magnesia, which will unite with the acetic acid, and preci-

pitate the strychnine. Wash the precipitate in cold water, redissolve it in alcohol,

to separate the excess of magnesia, and by evaporating the alcohol, the strychnine

is obtained in a state of purity. If it be still not perfectly white, it must he redis-

solved in acetic or hydrochloric acid, and reprecipitated by means of magnesia.’

To prepare the alcoholic extract, the Nux Vomica must be rasped and exhausted

by repeated macerations in alcohol, which must then be evaporated ; a process the

tediousness of which can only be duly appreciated by those who have tried it, and

which it was my object to avoid.

1833.] _ Asiatic Society. 43

By the foregoing process, sixty-five grains of strychnia were obtained

from four pounds of Nux Vomica, at a cost of three rupees: a saving

at the rate of more than two hundred rupees upon a single ounce. It

was much purer than that purchased, as mentioned in the beginning of

this paper; and a dose of half a grain, given to rabbits, killed one

in a minute and half; and another in five minutes; whilst a small dog,

after having taken a grain and half fell in fourteen minutes and half,

and died at the end of twenty-five. The delay in the death of the se-

cond rabbit, which did not take place until a second dose was in the act

of being administered, may perhaps be attributed to the strychnia

having been given in crystals instead of in powder; a state in which

the difficulty of its solubility in watery secretions would of course be

greatly increased. After this, I need scarcely add, that strycunta, like

ARSENIC, MORPHIA, CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE, and other strong poisons,

should never be given but in souution; it being impossible in any other

manner accurately to measure the dose.

Note.—I wish it to be understood, that for the foregoing process I do not

lay any claims to originality. I may however mention that beyond a knowledge

that Robiquet’s process for morphia had been pursued with strychnia, the details

of which I have not met with, itis new to me. Should you think the subject wor-

thy of attention, I propose to give you, in a future paper, my views of the rationale

of the process, together with the results of more extended trials now going on under

my superintendence at the Hon’ble Company’s Dispensary.

VI.—Proceedings of the Asiatic Society.

Wednesday Evening, 9th January, 1833.

The Hon’ble Sir Edward Ryan, President, in the chair.

After reading the Proceedings of the last regular meeting and of the

special meeting of the 19th December, the Society proceeded to ballot for

the officers of the ensuing year, when Sir C. T. Metcalfe, Bart., Sir John

Franks, and the Rev. Principal Mill were elected Vice-Presidents.

Mr. James Prinsep was unanimously elected Secretary.

The Rev. Dr. Carey, Mr. J. Calder, Mr. J. Tytler, Rev. Mr. Proctor,

Baboo Ram Comul Sen, Mr. J. R. Colvin, Mr. D. Hare, and Dr. J. Pearson,

were elected Members of the Committee of Papers.

Mr. Clemishaw and Baboo Radhacant Deb, proposed at the last meeting,

were elected Members.

The Hon’ble Sir R. W. Horton, Governor of Ceylon, proposed at the

last meeting by Mr. Wilson, seconded by Mr. J. Prinsep, was upon the

favourable report of the Committee of Papers, unanimously elected an

Honorary Member.

Sir Benjamin Malkin, Recorder of Penang, was proposed by the Pre-

sident, seconded by Mr. Prinsep, as an Honorary Member, and referred to

the Committee of Papers.

& 2

Me e

44 | Asiatic Society. . [Jane

Upon the Report of the Native Secretary, that since the retirement of

Mr. Colebrooke, in the year 1830, from the office of Agent to the Society

in England, no new appointment had taken place ; it was resolved, that a

letter be written to Mr. Wilson, requesting him to act as Agent, and to

take charge of any property or money belonging to the Society in England.

Upon the suggestion of the Secretary, it was resolved, that an extract from

the Proceedings of this Society, containing the Address presented to Mr. H.

H. Wilson, by the Society, on the occasion of his departure from India, and.

his reply, be printed to accompany the Seventeenth Volume of Researches,

just published under his superintendence.

Read a letter from H. M. Parker, Esq. Officiating Secretary to Govern.

ment, announcing, that Government had complied with the application for

freight to England of 100 copies of the Seventeenth Volume of the Researches.

The accounts of the past year were submitted, exhibiting the following

Balance in the Society’s favor on the 31st December, 1832.

RECEIPTS. PAYMENTS.

By Balance on the Ist May, 11,242 4 9}| To Cash drawn from Mac-

By Collections to the 31st kintosh & Co. since 1st

Dec. since paid in to Map fe, «a 1u/e)5 0 soloisrepe a¥4 - 5,625-11 11

Mackintosh & Co. .... 6,131 1 10| ToPurchaseof Govt. Loan,

By Legacy of £2000, left Rs. 25,000, lodged with

by Will of the late C. K. the Govt. Agents, .... 25,386 14. 2

Bruce, with interest, recd. Balance with Mackintosh

from Cruttenden & Co. 25,037 0 0 and CO... 5 os oes oe 0700 513397 12 4

42,410 6 7 42,410 6 7

The Balance 11,397 12 6 is unfortunately involved in the failure of Messrs.

Mackintosh and Co.

The sums due by the Society are as follows :

To the Military Orphan Press, for Seventeenth Volume of Re-

SCArCHES; ae ese be cee ee Ore Meraleraicclsl | ersteee erie aia: oes ora oot - 4,286 14 0

Mr. J. Prinsep’s Bill, for Plates of the Physical Transactions, House

Repairs, &c., passed by the Committee of Papers, .......... eee 1,023 15 1

Establishment for December, and sundries, .......0sceeeeeeeee 249 0 O

Total, Rs. 5,559 13 1

Resolved, that the accounts be referred to the Committee of Papers, to

determine upon the best mode of liquidating the present demands.

Museum.

1. Read a letter from the Private Secretary to the Right Hon'ble Sir

R. W. Horton, forwarding two antique coins for examination.

2. Three small Buddha images, presented by Baboo Ram Comul Sen,

in the name of Mr. Wilson. i

3. Specimens of Coal from the Kasya Hills, presented by Mr. Cracroft.

Some hundred maunds of this Coal have lately been sent on trial to the Calcutta

Mint, where it has'been found of a quality far superior to any from the Burdwan

1833.] Asiatic Society. 45

Collieries, for Engine and Reverberatory furnaces, in the ratio of 5'to4, The

composition of the Coal tried at the Assay Office, was,

Volatile matter or gas, .....- 38.5

Carbon or coke, .. .. ...... 60.7

Earthy impurities or ash, .. 0.8

100.0

The ash is wonderfully small : specific gravity of the Coal 1.275.

4. Specimens of the Sandstone of Sikrigali, with vegetable impressions

of ferns, &c. by Dr. Langstaff.

“‘ The sandstone appears to correspond with that from Chira Punji with vege-

table remains. This rock forms the bluff termination of the ridge immediately

adjoining the river: below it, and I believe interstratified with it, is the perfectly

horizontal stratum of silicious schist with impressions of ferns and mosses, and

apparently the remains of shells.

“ In the same situation are blocks of the hornblende rock, and basalt, abounding

from Monghyr to Rajmahal. Although the trap formation is contiguous to the

sandstone, the latter does not seem to have undergone any disturbance of its hori-

zontal position, which would argue its formation to be more recent than the trap.”

5. A letter from Dr. Spilsbury, announcing the dispatch of a specimen of

fossil bone from Jabalpur.

Library.

A copy of his work on the “ Muhammedan Law of Inheritance,” present-.

ed by N. B. E. Baillie, Esq.

Ditto, of the 2nd edition of Wilson’s Sanscrit and English Dictionary, by

the author.

Read a letter from M. Burnouf, the Secretary, forwarding the follow-

ing works from the Asiatic Society of Paris :

Burnouf’s Vendidad Sadi, parts 5th to 9th.

Cassin,—Almanach Philanthropique, 1 vol.

Levassseur and Rutz,—Tableau d’Elemens Vocaux de l’Ecriture Chinoise.

Brosset Jeune,—Chronique Georgienne, 1} vol.

Deslongchamp’s Manava Dharma Sastra, 3rd part.

A. L. Chezy’s Sacountala, 1 vol.

The following Books from the Book-sellers.

Niebuhr’s History of Rome, 2nd vol.

Lardner’s Cabinet Cyclopedia ;—the United States, 2nd vol.

Literary.

A Paper on the Origin and Classification of the Military Tribes of Nipal,

by B. H. Hodgson, Esq.

A Note by the same gentleman, on the Law and Legal Practice of Nipal,

in matters of adultery or connection between a Hindoo and an outcast.

Note on the Ceylon Coins, by the Secretary.

The two coins transmitted by His Excellency, the Governor of Cey-

lon, belong to the class described by Mr. Wilson, in the seventeenth

volume of the Researches, and depicted in Plate V. figure 109 to 113,

which are stated, like the present coins, to have been found by Colonel

46 Miscellaneous. {JsNe

Mackenzie at Dipaldinna. No. 3, according almost exactly with the pre-

sent copper coin, “‘ is a drawing of one found at Kandya in Ceylon.”

Mr. Wilson does not attempt to explain them further, than they

evidently belong to a Hindoo dynasty, either on the island of Ceylon,

or in the south of the peninsula. The letters are distinctly Hindi in

all, although it is difficult to make out their ig The word “ Sri”

1s also evident in all of them.

Description.

No. 1. A gold coin, weighing 60 grains.

Obverse. A male figure, seated in the Indian manner, with dhof?.

Left hand raised, and face looking to the left: on the

side, the Nagari characters 3t wa ac, Sri Lankeswar ?

Reverse. A rude standing figure, with a flowing robe, right hand

extended over two emblems ¥ +

Left hand supporting a crown or globe? Beneath a scroll, with cir-

cles or flowers on the right.

No. 2. A copper coin, very similar, but more rude. The inscrip-

tion on the obverse is, At Wat aay, Srig nya dy m th?

On the reverse, the standing figure as before.

In Davy’s Ceylon, page 245, will be found a drawing of an antique gold

coin, called a Dambadinia Rhatra (rhatra, gold), which was found in the

neighbourhood of Dambadinia, in the Seven Korles, a place of royal resi-

dence (no doubt identical with Dipaldinna of Col. Mackenzie.) The.

drawing of this coin is precisely similar to those of Plate V. and to the

one now before the Society, and so is the copper coin alluded to by Davy’

as the Dambadinia chally (chally, means copper.)

Davy does not seem to have comprehended either the device or the

characters on his coin, for he has reversed the engraving of the side

bearing the inscription, and he supposes both to be mere hieroglyphics.

To an eye accustomed to such objects, however, the standing and sitting

figures are very evident, as are the Nagari characters, although their

purport is not so clear: indeed, of the half dozen, to which we can

now refer, no two seem to bear the same name, nor are we acquainted

sufficiently with the ancient history of Ceylon, to be able to fill up the

doubtful names on the coins from any well certified list of princes of the

Hindi dynasties in Ceylon of the Soorea-wansé (or Stérj-banst) race.

VII.— Miscellaneous.

1.—Hot-spring at Pachete. By C. Betts, Esq.

As a correspodent of the Journal is desirous of knowing the localities of any hot-

springs met with in India, I beg to put on record this notice of one found by me

in the river Damuda, near the TAntotya village, and about six miles distant from the

Pachete hills. In the cold season, when the river is very low the thermometer plung-

ed into it rose to 190° Farh. The spring is slightly chalybeate.

1833.] Miscellaneous. 47,

2.—Evtraordinary Banyan Tree at Kulow Nagty Hally, near Bhuoma Naik Droog.

in the territory of Mysore.

This tree assumes to the traveller’s eye the appearance of a very beautiful grove,

which in reality it is.

The centre tree is about fifty or sixty feet in height, and its branches cover an area

of seventy-six yards in one direction, and eighty-eight in the other, while the drops

now dependent from, or rather supporting, its gigantic branches, amount in number

to one hundred and twenty-one, of which some are of enormous size. The place

exhibits on all sides vast branches, broken off, which have been evidently once con-

nected with thirty trees, now disunited from the centre stock; but the original con-

nexion can still be sufficiently traced to render unnecessary the testimony of the

villagers, who state that they and their fathers have been in the habit of disuniting

these trees by separating the intermediate parts for the construction of solid cart

wheels, for which, from their size, they are well suited. On measuring the trans-

verse diameters of the whole area, they were found to contain more than 100 yards

each way. This single tree thus affording a circle of foliage and shade exceeding

300 English yards in circumference.

3.—Discovery of the Silhet Coal Mines.

Mr. James Stark discovered, early in 1815, some coal mines on the lower hills of

Silhet, and worked them sufficiently deep to send down samples to the Government

through Mr. Dacosta. By directions from Mr. A.Trotter, then Secretary, Public De-

partment, about 50 maunds were sent to the foundery in Fort William, the same

quantity to the gun-carriage yard at Cossipore, and an equal quantity was tried in

the Mint, as also 25 maunds at Mr. Jessop’s. The reports on these samples proving

favorable, Mr. Stark submitted proposals for supplying Government with coals, at

1 rupee 8 annas per maund, to any extent required, of the quality of the samples sent,

and even superior ; these being declined, he next obtained the indulgence of Govern-

ment to import into Calcutta duty-free, for five years. The first thousand maunds

having arrived in Calcutta, and remaining on hand unsold, he abandoned the mines.

5.—Questions proposed by the Burmese Heir Apparent.

‘¢ The Philosopher Burmese Prince is an extraordinary man. He is self-taught,

and although of naturally good talents, he is very timid, and much alarmed that

his turn for scientific subjects should be known to the King and Ministers. A

gentleman who has also a turn that way, and has seen him frequently, declares him

to be a wonderful man, and if in any other country but this, where he could with-

out fear follow the bent of his mind, he would soon prove himself a person of su-

perior acquirements. He is anxiously looking out for a Comet that is to appear

this month, and which [I believe by the calculations of some French Astronomer is

to destroy the earth. He has a very good Telescope—a Thermometer—a Barome-

ter—a Stomach Pump, and I believe an Air Pump—all of which he is obliged to

keep shut up. Subjoined are some questions put by him to a gentleman here, which

it is hoped some one may be able to solve for his satisfaction.

1st. He has observed, that the last three Comets have appeared in the same sign

in the heavens, that the Moon’s node was in at the time; is this accidental, or has

the node any connection with Comets ?

2nd. On what data does Sir Isaac Newton found his hypothesis of the heat ofa

Comet being 900 times greater than that of red-hot iron ?

3rd. Is not the height of the atmosphere increased at new and full moon in the

same manner that the waters of the ocean are raised, but to a much greater extent ?

If so why does not the Barometer indicate it by rising ?”’

48 Progress of European Science. (Jan.

VITI.—Progress of European Science.

PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY.

Under tiis head may be comprehended all proceedings intended to bring us

better acquainted with the phenomena of the heavenly bodies through the medium

of observation and experiment :—the labours of astronomers in their observatories ;

the construction of new instruments; of new tables to facilitate calculations ; of

new maps of the heavens, &c. to which may be added pendulum experiments and

the various geodetical operations on a grand scale, destined to the determination

of the earth’s figure. Of the latter branch of our subject, we have on a former oc-

casion taken a cursory review, adverting to the survey now in progress in our own

neighbourhood. In our last number also we anticipated the present notice by in-

serting an abstract of the contents of the new Nautical Almanac, which itself marks

the progress of astronomical science, by the new wants that it is found necessary

to supply to the practical astronomer to save the waste of his time in intricate cal-

culations. We will now advert to the increased means set at work inthe world for

the pursuit of this noble and heart expanding-study, taking as our guide the annual

reports of the president of the Astronomical Society : for in the present day, thanks

to the systematic division of the sciences among their proper societies, informa-

tion on each separate branch can be obtained at once without spending much time

in searching through scattered notices in journals of general science.

Mr. Sours, in his address on the anniversary of February, 1830, congratulated

the Society on the prosperous appearance of the astronomical horizon. He attri-

buted with justice to the influence of the institution over which he presided, a part

of the unusual activity prevalent, as well abroad as at home, in prosecuting obser-

yations, and in perfecting the theories and tables of celestial phenomena.

He noticed the establishment of no less than two new observatories endowed by

the British Government: one at the Cape of Good Hope, under the Rey. Mr. Fat-

tows; the other, the Paramatta Observatory, originally founded by Sir Taomas

BrisBane in New South Wales, now converted into a permanent public institu-

tion. The East India Company had been equally active : they had remodelled their

observatory at Madras, furnishing it with new instruments and appointing tothe charge

of them Mr. Taytor, an experienced astronomer from the Greenwich Observa-

tory. An attempt had before been made to found an observatory at Bombay, which

had failed through the bad management of the astronomer nominated there. At

the anniversary of last February, the same illustrious president noticed the founda-

tion of another observatory by the Company, in the Islandof St. Helena, under the

charge of Mr. Jounson : and pari passu, the British Government had presented a

35 feet transit, by Troughton, and other valuable instruments, to the private ob-

servatoryofM. Dasaniz, on the Island of Mauritius, whither also a number of ex-

cellent instruments had been carried by Captain Luoyp, Surveyor General to the

colony. Monsieur DaBapie’s observations on the Comet of 1830 have brought

this well-merited reward, not to himself alone, but generally to the zealous exer-

tions of this scientific little island, which can boast of more than its due proportion

of naturalists and literary men. Astronomy is well adapted to be the study of an

insulated quiet seat of contemplation like this isle, or St. Helena, and some ques-

tions of great practical importance, such as that of the refraction on the oceanic

horizon, might here be more successfully investigated than any where else.

1833.] Progress of European Science. 49

Captain Kine, R. N. also is mentioned as proceeding to New South Wales, pro-

vided with superior instruments for his own use.

Here is a goodly list of the astronomical emissaries from our own island, and

yet it is doubtless full of omissions: for the amateurs must be more numer-

ous in this than in any other science. Nothing of course was yet known in Eng-

land of the appointment of Captain HERBERT as astronomer to the Kine of Oude.

From the magnificence conspicuous in all oriental undertakings, we may safely

prognosticate, that the Lucknow Observatory will become a richly endowed esta-

blishment, if the life of the founder be spared to complete it. We cannot pause to

follow the list of illustrious observers enumerated in Great Britain itself, at Cam-

bridge, Dublin, Greenwich, Kew, London, and Edinburgh : nor of those on the con-

tinent, where the activity of the new observatories of Brussels, Cadiz, Cracow, and

Geneva, are stated to be already rivalling the older establishments of Paris, Berlin,

Moscow, Florence, and Vienna. Now let us see what has been produced at these rival

observatories, for that is the best way to judge of their relative and positive merits.

The Greenwich Observatory has lately issued a catalogue of 720 stars : selected and

reduced from the catalogue formerly published by the Astronomical Society. This

fundamental catalogue has now reached a degree of accuracy unexampled in astro-

nomical history, and bids fair to preserve the credit of “ the British Catalogue’ of

the good old times of FLAMSTEAD.

The Paris Observatory seems to have been dormant for along time. A new

transit and a splendid equatorial by Gambey have once more set it in activity, and

an excellent rule of the Institute has imposed upon the superintendent the necessity

of never being more than a year behind hand in publishing the results of his labours.

Professor BEssEL has been employed upon pendulum investigations, and has come

to the mortifying conclusion, that the corrections employed by British experimen-

talists are by no means correct! Mr. Francis Baity alsohas demonstrated the ex-

istence of certain imperfections in the apparatus which point out the necessity of

fresh inquiries before the standards of weights and measures, upon which such care

has already been spent, can be considered as finally settled !

Professor ENcKE has entitled himself as much to the gratitude of astronomers in

general, as to the medal so justly awarded him by the Astronomical Society, for the

Berlin Ephemeris, which bears his name. While the Nautical Almanac has been

gradually retrograding, and the Connoissance des tems stationary, the Berlin Almanac

has suddenly stept inadvance of both, and so full are its contents, and so excellent its

arrangement, that, as Mr. Sours says, ‘‘ with itan observatory scarcely wants a sin-

gle book ; without it, every one.’”’” The new Nautical Almanac will be one of the

fruits for which we are indebted to EncKn’s example, and we hope it may prove,

according to the President’s promise, “ as superior to ENcKE's, as ENCKE’s is now

superior to it.”

The Royal Academy at Berlin has carried into complete effect its plan for a mi-

nute survey of the heaven, and for the formation of a new set of celestial charts.

Three portions of this useful and valuable undertaking are already published : viz, .

the 10th hour in AR by professor Géget of Coburg, the 14th hour by the Rey. T. J.

Hussey of Chisleburst, and the 18th hour by Padre Giovanni INGHIRAMI of

Florence, and M. Capocct of Naples. The catalogues contain a list of all the stars

(reduced to the year 1800) within 15% of the equator down to the 10th magnitude ;

and when complete, will be a most valuable acquisition to the practical astronomer.

Of the labours of one member of our own Royal Observatory, we must take a fuller

review : we allude to those of Mr. RicHarpson on the constant of aberration.

50 Progress of European Science. [Jan.

In extracting for this purpose the words of Mr. Sovru’s address on presenting

the author with the gold medal, we are in fact giving a most luminous and inter-

esting review of the history of this subject, so closely connected with the demon-

stration of the Copernican system.

“‘ Three hundred years have now elapsed since CopERNicUs proposed to the world

that system which bears his name ; and if we except the labours of Tycuo BRAHE,

who, besides a catalogue of 800 stars, made attempts to determine the altitude of

the pole-star at different seasons of the year, little was done by practical observa-

tion to support or refute the ideas of Copernicus till the time of GattLEO. Ob-

servations of the eclipses of Jupiter’s satellites induced him to propose them as a

means of determining differences of longitude, whilst his discovery of the phases of

Venus removed a serious objection to the truth of the Copernican system, and

which Copernicus himself predicted would be removed, though he had not the

means of doing so himself. About the year 1665, HuycrEns, by his invention of

the pendulum clock, gave to astronomical observations an accuracy hitherto un-

known ; and Cassini, by means of the excellent glasses of CaMPANI, accumulated

a vast mass of observations of the eclipses of Jupiter’s satellites, and deduced from

them tables whereby astronomers could predict their occurrence.

‘* Notwithstanding the powerful arguments advanced in its favour, the

Copernican hypothesis was not generally entbraced ; for in the year 1669, nearly

a century and a half subsequent to its promulgation by Copernicus, even the

celebrated Hoox, to use his own words, ‘ would not absolutely declare for

it*.’ To settle the matter, therefore, this extraordinary man, feeling that

the instruments of Tycuo, although magnificent beyond all others, were,

from the nature of their construction, and from their being unprovided

with telescopic sights, incompetent to detect minute alterations of sidereal

positions, and knowing that the laws which governed refraction were so little un-

derstoodt as to render all observations in which that element was materially in-

volved, liable to errors greater probably than the quantities he was in search of,

invented the zenith sector. It was erected at Gresham College, and consisted of a

telescope, 36 feet long, a divided arc, anda plumb-line. The star selected for observa-

tion, and with reference to which, indeed, his instrument was entirely construct-

ed, was one which passed within two or three minutes of the zenith of Gresham

College ; it was visible in the day-time throughout the year, and was y Draconis : by

observing its zenith distance when the earth was in opposite points of her orbit, he

found (as he erroneously concluded) a sensible parallax, amounting to about 20

seconds, and, consequently, determined that the Copernican system was the true

onef.

“ In the mean time, the eclipses of Jupiter’s satellites, thanks to the facilities of

predicting them, afforded by Casstn1’s tables, had been assiduously observed ; and

in the year 1675; the discordances found between the predicted and the observed

eclipses enabled the celebrated Roemer to demonstrate that light was not instanta-

neously propagated, and that the discordances between the tables and the observa~-

tions might be considered as the measure of its velocity.

“The year of RomMER’s discovery was further marked by another epoch in astro-

nomical history, namely, the foundation of the Royal Observatory. FLAMSTEAD,

* An attempt to prove the motion of the earth from observations made dy RoBERT

Hooks, F. R. S. pp. 5 and7.

“+ Tdem, pp. 10 and 11.

+ Idem, p. 25,

1833.] Progress of European Science. 51

with his mural quadrant, detected a change of place in the pole-star, amounting to

35, 40, or 45 seconds, attributed it to parallax, and regarded it as confirmatory of

Hoox’s discovery. Indeed, the observations of Hook, as well as of those who

preceded him, although nominally in search of parallax, had for their object little

else than the confirmation or verification of the Copernican system ; and this arriv-

ed at, there seems to have been but little disposition to repeat them.

** Hence it was that the brilliant discoveries of Newron having placed the accuracy

of the Copernican system beyond all possibility of doubt, the investigation of

parallax was not resumed till the latter end of November, in the year 1725, at

which time Motynevx erected his 24-feet zenith sector, by GraHaAM, in his ob-

servatory at Kew*. ‘On the 3rd of December, y Draconis was, for the first time,

observed as it passed near the zenith, and its situation carefully taken with the

instrument ; and again, on the 5th, 11th, and 12th, when, no material change in

the star’s place having been detected, further observations seemed needless, since it

was a time of the year when no sensible alteration of parallax could soon be ex-

pected.” Bsapury, however, being on a visit to his friend MotyNeux, was

‘tempted by curiosity to repeat the observation on the 17th, and perceived the

Star pass a little more southerly than when it had been observed before :’ suspect-

ing that the apparent change of place might be owing to erroneous observation, it

was observed again on the 20th,and he found the star still farther south than in the

preceding observations. This sensible alteration surprised himself and MotyneEvx,

in as much as it was the contrary way from which it would have been, had it pro-

ceeded from an annual parallax of the star; but being incapable of accounting for

it by want of exactness in the observations, and having no notion of any other

cause from which such apparent motion could proceed, they suspected that some

change in the materials of the instrument itself might have occasioned it. Under

this apprehension, they remained some time, but being at length fully convinced, by

repeated trials, of the great exactnesss of the instrument, and finding, by the gra-

dual increase of the star’s distance from the pole, that there must be some regular

cause which produced it, they examined nicely at the time of each observation how

much it was; and about the beginning of March,1726, the star was found to be 20”

more southerly than at the time of the first observation. It now, indeed, seemed

to have arrived at its utmost limit southward ; for in several observations made

about this time, no sensible difference could be detected in its situation. By the

middle of April, it appeared to be returning towards the north, and about the be-

ginning of June, it passed at the same distance from the zenith as it had done in

December, when it was first observed. From the quick change in the star’s de-

clination about this time (it increasing a secondin three days), they concluded that

it would now proceed northward, as it before had gone southward of its present

situation ; and it happened as was conjectured ; for it continued to move north-

ward till September following, when it again became stationary, being then near

20” more northerly than in June, and no less than 39” more northerly than it had

been in March. From September, it returned towards the south, till it arrived, in

December, at the very same situation it had been at that time twelve months, al-

lowing for the difference of declination ‘on account of the precession of the

equinox.’

“Such is a brief history of the Kew observations ; commenced, indeed, for the

determination of sensible parallax, but which, as subsequently in the hands of Her-

* Philosophical Transactions, vol. xxxv. p. 639.

H 2

52 Progress of European Science. [Jan.

SCHEL, led to a very different result. In reading it, we are at a loss whether most

to admire the mode in which the observations were conducted, or the modest un-

assuming manner in which they are recorded : no possible source of error is allow-

ed to pass without the most rigid examination—no theory suffered to embarrass

the observers in their observations ; the slightest anomaly became the subject of

suspicion, till in presumed anomaly was found the most perfect regularity.

“That observations so conducted, leading to results so unexpected,could be aban-

doned till the law which governed them should be unfolded, was impossible. But

Braptey rejected all inquiries into the cause till the effects were accurately deter-

mined; and feeling that the apparent motion was obtained by observations only of

one year—by one instrument—and by one star,—he erected at Wanstead, aided by

his friend GRawAmM, on the 19th of August, 1727, his zenith sector of 12% feet

focus, formed, indeed, upon the same general plan of MoLyNEvx’s, but furnished

with a divided arc of 6% degrees on each side of the zenith point, for the purpose

of enabling him to ascertain, by direct observation, whether other stars than y

Draconis would he similarly affected. The instrument’s situation, when adjusted,

‘might be securely depended upon to half a second,’ and its telescope could be

directed to ‘not less than 12 stars, bright enough to be seen in the day-time,’

throughout the year: the same changes were observed as had been previously de-

tected with MotyNervx’s instrument. Inflexible, however, in his resolution not

to generalise till sufficient means were collected to lead him to a ‘ probably just

conclusion,’ the year of probation was suffered to be completed before ‘ the ob-

servations were examined and compared :’ ¢hen it was that he satisfied himself of

the general laws of the phenomena, and ¢hen, and not fill then, did he endeavour

to find out their cause. Convinced that the apparent motion of the stars which

he had observed was not owing to nutation—persuaded, that a change in the

direction of the plumb-line with which the instrument was rectified was insuffici-

ent to have occasioned it—and having appealed unsuccessfully to refraction,—he

perceived, ‘ that if light was propagated in time, the apparent place of a fixed object

would not be the same when the eye is at rest, as when it is moving’ in any other

direction than that of the line passing through the eye and the object; and that

when the eye is moving in different directions, the apparent place of the object

would be different.’ He therefore announced his discovery in these words : ‘ That

all the phenomena proceeded from the progressive motion of light and the earth’s

annual motion in its orbit,’ or, as he afterwards called it, aberration of light.

“But he who determined its existence determined also its constant, and fixed it

at 20’; giving us, therefore, the interval of time in which light travels from the

sun to the earth, as eight minutes and seven seconds, differing from that deduced

by Roemer nearly three minutes of time, a circumstance not at all to the disere-

dit of RoumMER, considering the imperfect knowledge of the theory of Jupiter’s

satellites at the time he made his important discovery.

“The observations, however, which led BRapLEy to the discovery of aberration,

and to the determination of its constant, being as yet unpublished, have given rise

to insinuations certainly ungenerous, and probably unjust. Impelled by more ho-

nourable feelings, our illustrious associate BrssEx, alluding to the observations of

+ Draconis made by BRADLEY when the sector was removed to Greenwich, says*,

‘ Ceterum BRADELII observationes Wansteadiane liberari possunt a sectoris mu-

tabilitate, quum se@pius, eodem tempore, observate sint stelle, in quibus aberrationt

* Fundamenta Astronomiz, p. 124.

1833.] Progress of European Science. 53

contraria fuerunt signa: qud de cansd et propter observationum prestantiam, opta-

bile esset reperire ipsa BRADLELI autographa.’ It will, therefore, be highly grate-

ful to him, and to astronomers in general, to be informed from this chair, that the

manuscripts of the Wanstead observations are found !—that to the honour of the

University of Oxford, twenty-three sheets of them are already printed ; and that

the volume will be presented to the public with as little delay as possible, under

the superintendence of Professor Ricaup.

** Till within these few years,the constant, as determined by BRADLEY, was uni-

versally employed in all our astronomical reductions ; recently, however, astrono-

mers have re-investigated it. DrLamBre, from the eclipses of Jupiter’s satellites

regards it 20”,25. BussEL, from BRapLEy’s Observations made at the Royal Ob-

servatory, after he was appointed Astronomer Royal, has deduced for the con-

stant 20,68. Linpenavu, by comparisons of Brav.Ley’s, MASKELYNE’s,

BesseEx’s, and Ponp’s observations of Polaris, has obtained for it 20”,61. Brinx-

LEY, from his own observations, considers it as 20”,37. Whilst Srruve, by his

observations, draws almost the same inference, namely 20,35.

‘* Such were the results most entitled to our confidence, when Mr. RicHarpson,

in the hours allotted to him for repose or recreation, undertook those labours

which form the subject of our present consideration, and of which the following is

a brief outline. A second mural circle by Jones, after the model of that of

TRovuGHTON’s, having been erected at the Royal Observatory, in the April of 1825,

corresponding observations with the two instruments were carried on simultaneous-

ly ; they were confined, indeed to a few stars, but every precaution to render them

as accurate as possible was adopted. Thus, the index error of each instrument was

ascertained by observing the same star alternately, by direct vision and reflection ;

each pair, therefore, giving to its respective instrument one horizontal point per-

fectly independent of astronomical tables, the final accuracy of the determination of

the index error being directly as the number of pairs observed. Throughout the

observations, the place of each star was arrived at by reference to the six micros-

copes of each circle ; care also being taken to equalise, as nearly as possible, the tem:-

perature of the observatory with that of the external air, so that errors to any ex-,

tent, arising from partial expansions or erroneous divisions of the instrument, were

effectually excluded.

“From such unexceptionable data, fourteen stars were selected by Mr. Ricuarp-

SON as the fittest for his purpose, being those the least affected by refraction, and the

most affected by aberration, so that the errors of observation might have the mi-

nimum influence upon the results, Upwards of 4000 observations he separately

discussed, and in no instance was the actual aberration of each observed star less

than 14” ; and the conclusion to which he has arrived is, from TrRouGuHTon’s cir-

cle, that the Constant of Aberration is 20,505 ; whilst by Jongs’s, it is 20,502;

the one differing from the other but three-thousandths of a second.

“ Hook, in searching for parallax, was misled by his instrument. BranpLry, in

detecting it was unsuccessful, but discovered aberration. Hook’s instrument was

the work of his own hands ; BRapLEy’s was the work of Grauam. Sensible that

much of his astronomical glory was referable to the accuracy of his instrument,

the amateur astronomer of Wanstead was ever ready to acknowledge it ; and when

we consider that one hundred years’ improvement in astronomical manipulations

can alter the constant of aberration as determined by him but one half second, we

are almost led to exclaim ‘ guando ullum inveniemus parem. ?’

54 Progress of European Science. fJan.

“‘ Our Grauam is amongst us ; to him we are indebted for the instruments with

which results thus important have been obtained, and also for the mode of using

them, through which the maximum of accuracy has been acquired. One of them,

was made with his own hands, the other under his direction; and it is not too

much to say, that the disciple has shewn himself worthy of his master. The bene-

fits which Epwarp TRrouGuHTon has conferred on science are too well known to

need enumeration. His Majesty the King of Denmark, not insensible to the im-

portance of science, and feeling that for much of the accuracy to which astronomy

and navigation have arrived, we are indebted to the genius of our revered member,

has recently acknowledged his gratitude to him, by the presentation of his gold

medal, inscribed with the word ‘ Mrriro.’ Never was inscription more appropri-

ate. May he live long to enjoy this token of respect ! alike honourable to himself

and to the princely feelings of its royal donor.

“On looking over the constant as determined by each star, nothing definitive, as

Mr. RicHARDSON justly observes, can be concluded, as to whether light emitted

from different stars is propagated to us with different degrees of velocity : the idea

is not irrational, but its validity future astronomers must determine.”

Before concluding our imperfect sketch of what have been the labours of astro-

nomers in Europe, we must not overlook the works of our countrymen in the East.

The Madras Observatory has been newly modelled, it is true ; but in its olden state,

under the indefatigable GoLDINGH AM, it was turned to the best purpose, as is proved

by the creditable volumes published from time to time under great disadvantage

from the want of a good printing establishment. A volume of the observations in

1831 is just announced to the public, and we know that they have been reduced and

arranged with great care by Mr. Tayuor, who, although now commencing a new

career with more powerful and perfect means at his command, knows how to ap-

preciate the talents and care of his able predecessor.

Among the deaths of eminent astronomers noticed at the last annual meeting

were those of the Rey. F. Fattows, late astronomer at the Cape of Good Hope ; Capt,

Foster, R.N;—M. Pons of Marlia, and the ABsz Grecorre. Mr. FatLows was

appointed to the Cape early in 1821, and he reached it in the 12th August.

‘* His first undertaking was an approximate catalogue of 275 principal stars, pub-

lished in the Phil. Trans. 1824. From the description of the instruments employ-~

ed, it will be seen, that they were of avery humble description, viz. a portable tran-

sit of only twenty inches focal length, and a very indifferent altitude and azimuth

instrument by Ramsden, ill divided, and unstable in its adjustments, being indeed

originally constructed as an equatorial. It is probable that the length of time

which must necessarily elapse between the design and completion of a first-rate ob-

servatory, in a foreign station, was not fully taken in to account, either by the

Government or the astronomer, otherwise the temporary instruments would, doubt-

less have been of a very different class. The plan of the observatory was received

by Mr. Faxuows in the latter part of 1825, and he immediately proceeded to carry

it into effect. A site was selected about three miles from Cape Town, and Mr. Fat-

Lows lived ina tent on the spot, to determine the lines of the building and to super-

intend the workmen. The foundations were dug out before the clerk of the works

arrived to relieve him from this task.

“Tn the beginning of 1829, the transit and mural circle were fixed in their places,

and we might now have anticipated a season of enjoyment for the Cape astronomer

but for some cause hitherto unexplained, the circle to which he had looked forward

with pride and exultation proved for a long time a source of bitter uneasiness, Some

1833. ] Progress of European Science. 55

part of this must doubtless be attributed to the shattered state of the observer’s

health ; but the fact, that ‘ the index error of two opposite microscopes was ever

variable in different parts of the instrument, while with three microscopes, at 120°

distance from each other, or with the whole six, the index error was nearly con-

stant,’ was sufficiently startling to harrass a person of less sanguine and zealous

temper. Finally, Mr. FaLtows was of opinion, that some permanent injury had been

received by the circle and axis, from a fall which the package received whilst it was

removing from the hold of the ship at the time of landing, but that the mean of the

Six microscopes might be fully depended upon, since high and low stars, when ob-

served directly and by reflexion, gave the same position of the horizontal point.

Before he had come to this conclusion, which seems to have been some time in the

middle of 1830, sickness deprived him of the services of his assistant, Capt. Ronaxp,

and Mr. Fatitows was left, unaided, to do the best he might with a transit and mural

circle. He was relieved from this difficulty by the affection and intelligence of Mrs.

Faxiows, who offered to undertake the circle observations while he was engaged with

the transit, a very little instruction sufficed to render her perfectly competent for this

task : andthe Cape astronomer had like Hevetius, the pleasure of finding his best

assistant in the partner of his affections. Some of his letters, written at this time,

express a strong hope and confidence that he should at length be able to justify the

high expectations which had been formed of the observatory, and that his work

would bear a comparison in accuracy, though not in extent, with that of any other

establishment.

“* But the labours of the observatory were too much for a constitution already

much enfeebled by previous illness. He had suffered very severely from a coup de

soleil, soon after his arrival at the Cape, while fixing the small transit ; and besides

some less serious complaints, experienced a dangerous attack of scarlet fever in the

summer of 1830, from which he seems never to have fully recovered. In the begin-

ning of 1831, his health was visibly impaired, but he could not be induced to leave

the observatory before the equinox. ‘Towards the end of March, he became inca-

pable of struggling any longer with the disease, and went to Simon’s Town : but it

was now too late, and he breathed his last on the 25th July, 1831, in the forty-third

year of his age.”

Mr. T. HENDERSON, well known as one of the most active and enlightened culti-

vators of astronomy, has been appointed to succeed Mr. Fatuows, with Mr.

MeEapows, as his assistant.

Captain Foster (known as the companion of Capt. Parry in his voyage to the

north pole) was unfortunately drowned while descending the River Chagres, in a

canoe, towards his ship the Chanticleer, then lying at anchor. He had nearly com-

pleted his experimental voyage, the object of which was to swing Kater’s convertible

pendulum near the equator, and in various places in the southern hemisphere. He

had performed this task at fourteen different places, and had amassed a series of

1017 observations, arranged with such system in printed registers that there will

be little difficulty in digesting the results.

M. Pons belonged to the observatory of Marseilles, where he became known from

his steady attention to the discovery of comets : indeed in the beginning of his

career he was put at the head of an observatory at Lucca by Maria Louisa of Bour-

bon, with provision that he should receive 100 dollars from the Queen’s purse for

every comet he might discover !

(Jan. 1883.]

‘onyerodur

sey 3L "979

a} ‘ainssord Jo soduer ay} Mays 0} SB OS ULIOJ ayy 10ITe 07 puL ‘aoUZO Avssy ou} 7e epeUr SUOTIBAIASqO JO aIGe,L 94} O}NIHSGQns 0} UeTUaAUOD puNog waaq

‘Amoi BY} JO oAnjeroduso} oY} OJ SUOTIaLIOD ay} NOY}IM panssi MOU ST BdYFO setousD Jahaaing ay} ye jdey Jaysiday peolsooroajeyy ayy SV—'3.LON

‘rayyeom Arp Ieap) ouy

*A]8110 *0#1p °0731)

“110 "0371p "0341p

*0731p *0}1p “0731p

°0331p "0331p *0731p

Be “read *reayo

“Snquutu "wn? *snjeqjs

‘:~p bP (=) a) “0731p

“119 “SAID *0VIp

*O}71P "0731p *0931p

*0331p "01D “0771p

*0331p "0131p ‘0791p

"0331p "0731p “ov71D

4 “read *rea]o *IvapD

S *UNd1d *snquitu *snquitu

S "ulnd *0}}1p *ASSO3

“2 *071D "0731p *0331p

> 0731p "0731p “rea]o

fe 0}, Ip i At) a) *snai0

*OVIP *I4SI19 "SOF

~ *Iva]d “read "0331p

-< *I10 *sndi10 0771p

dS “T8119 *0731p °0731p

RS *07;1p *07 1p *0}41p

S °0731p *O3IP “aBayo

= "0331p “0731p *BOJ

3S ‘o131p "0331p “0331p

= °0331p *“reayo “OVP

*0731p “13810 0771p

"0771p “o71Ip °0731p

“rea]o “199 *Iva[o

Ss Z Ss

® S S

z. 5 B.

B cS

"19429 MA

-cegy ‘hunnupe fo yiuou ay. 1of ‘pqInI7D) ‘sol fvssyy ay1 19 annum su0rjnasasgQ 1091h070.109}2 AT

‘s(etouey) IOABAING OY} Ye JUOUINAYSUT ay} UL} IeMOT OZ" Spueys Jo}oWIOIeg ayy, *ApjoeduIOD a10UN 2in}stou pue

60‘0 *Aaoygaou } 94 98 pls | ott | ¥'8 | 8fo_ p99 | F°3L | €°18 |0'89 | 1°19 [990° | 646° | 960° | ge0‘0Rfsueary

oN ‘op “op | 08 8 FstZ | rar} 16 | 9°¢ [8°89 | BOL | SIs | 6502 00° | TI6‘ | 080‘ Ie¢

‘op ‘op ‘op | 82 8 fc‘s | per | 16 | I'L [e‘99 | 8FZ | 8.08 16°69 686° | GF6° | L80‘ 0g

‘op ‘op ‘uf 92 G8 FOOL | [st | 28 | Z6 }a‘89 | SZ | 9°18 18°69 €Z1* | GIO. | GET‘ 66

“ul oct ‘wo | 62 G8 Tal | SIL | 68 |G [369 | 8'EL | GGL ‘89 SITS | L00* | Ost’ 8z

‘uw mM UE O08 rs Zr | 211} ¢6 | 269 | L'g9 | 6eL | Z6L 18°89 BIL | 886° | OOS i

s Ss ‘op | 08 €8 Fs | SIL | 256 | ¥9 Fa‘Z9 | OFZ | o'BZ |S°89 981‘ | 820‘ | Oar‘ 9%

GL | LIL] BOT | &8 $089 | S‘bZ | 9°82 18°89 BOIS | 9805 | OSTS c%

SL | ror] 16 | O'S FOFO | BTL} TZ | 2°89 OST | 905 | OFT’ tS

LL | OTL | OOL | G9 BF L‘b9 | O'SL | 782 |8‘99 OTS | O&0S | sar‘ &3

&% | pel} 6 | 8S Treo | PTZ | G'8Z 16'99 6805 | 6GE0S | Bar‘ Bo

Ig | OT | BEL | O'S Facog | FOL} ‘6z | 8°99 GOS | €90° | Ler‘ it

98 | Ss] 8 | 9 F199 | OTL; ‘0g | &°L9 GOLS | S80" | Ser’ 0z

8c | OSL | P9 | O Fet99 | SIZ | f0g 10°89 &60* | 966° | 960° 61

yL | os | ZZ | Se Fots9 | 002 | ‘Ig jO'TZ 6r0* | 266° | 616‘ 8

cor | BOL | &Z | Te Pool | 8°r2 | 0829 |9°OL BE6‘ | 688 | 996° LI

P9 | ISL | v6 | S'9 FI'Z9 | BFL | oEg |9'0L LI6* | SEB‘ | O10S 9

08 | SIL; SIl! 6 Fo6o |; BEL | ‘Fg i8TZ B10‘ | PFE. | TG0* CL

69 | Ger) eZ | 6SITP sco | Srl | ase |80L 646° | OF8* | TE6‘ +1

1% | PCL] GL | Itt gp e‘2Z9 | S‘hZ | ‘9g |a‘89 198‘ | 028° | 996° SI

POL | 9861 | ZZ | 9% Faso | OFZ | 8°98 | 2°29 1e6* | 198° | L66. ZI

09 | BIL | 9fZ | OfG Fa‘Lo | CSL | seg 1a‘89 £96° | 986 | Lo0* Il

IL | oer, UZ | 68 FstZo | 0G | ‘98 (8°89 GOS | S66‘ | OSI‘ OL

68 | SSL} OL | HT FH99 | BZ | L98 \E°89 $90° | G66S | LIL‘ 6

66 | SIL; US | Lm Pro, , eZ) ‘Gg 2°69 8z0* | G46" | L60‘ 8

a9 | 9 | 6S | Sse Pro | OfGZ | s'98 |L‘°Z9 Lco* | 966° | zor‘ L

gL | 96 19°99 | eG Fa69 | OL | G08 0°99 GELS | OS0S | Sar‘ 9

LL | 96 | GL | St Petco | FOL | P18 \9'S9 LIL‘ | 160° | GILS g

6G | PIL | O8 | Be Fs‘t9 | 0°69 | L08 |0F9 e408 | OOS | TITS t

86 | 86 | G8 | Bh FOTO | S°99 | Z9L \8°ZO cgo* | 9TOS | Bers €

ei | Lil | $6 | Of% Fakes | sG9| ‘Gl ‘09 PLT | OOLS | [za° 1

> > > > b> S > > Pehl fz aie > > s)

gig Sie) eee eine ies eis ee el Sen) ope iar allege BS

g g 5 > S S a =) S) > SR = =a eS iS om

BS ees Bee alee ec ieeteeelae |e. |e be gee ee Bo

o BUSES Belge. Gee] eo) Boles” © Bo lle Sone eee | ce Ps

oi ass @o

‘ *9jeul *IOJOMLOW IBY, qTn4 ‘epuvisA uado ue *YIeT oZE OF

“UIey PULA -o18A Yq IZ} Astouray) Jo uotssaadoq, | uLary ey} jooinjersdwmay | poonper sojomoieg

JOURNAL

THE ASIATIC SOCIETY.

No. 14.—February, 1833.

1.—Note on the Origin of the Kdla-Chakra and Adi-Buddha Systems.

By Mr. Alex. Csoma de K6rés.

The peculiar religious system entitled the Kdla-Chakra is stated, ge-

nerally, to have been derived from Shambhala, as it is called in Sanscrit,

(in Tibetan “‘ bdé-Abyung,’” vulgd ‘“<dé-jung,” signifying ‘‘ origin or

source of happiness,””) a fabulous country in the north, the capital of

which was Cdlapa, a very splendid city, the residence of many illus-

trious kings of Shambhala, situated between about 45° and 50° north

latitude, beyond the Sita or Jaxartes, where the increase of the days

from the vernal equinox till the summer solstice amounted to 12 Indian

hours, or 4 hours, 48 minutes, European reckoning.

The Kdla-Chakra was introduced into Central India in the last half of

the tenth century after Christ, and afterwards, via Cashmir, it found

its way into Tibet ; where, in the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth cen-

turies, several learned men, whose works are still extant in that country,

published researches and commentaries on the Kala-Chakra system ;

among these authors the most celebrated are Puton, or Bu-stom,

Kuerur, or mKuas-crus and Papma Carpo, who lived respectively

in the three centuries above-mentioned.

Papma Cappo (on the 68th leaf of his ‘« Origin of (the Buddhistic)

religion” AChhos-hbyung (vulgo “ Ch’os-jung,”’ consisting of 189

leaves,) thus describes the introduction of the Kdla-Chakra into, or at,

Nalanda (or Nalendra, a large religious establishment in Central India),

and the doctrine which it contained :

_ «© He (a certain pandit called Tsttv or Cutiv) then came to Nalanda

in Central India, (S. Madhyam, Tib. dvus, or vulgd U.) Having designed

58 Origin of the Kdla-Chakra and Adi-Buddha Systems. [F xs.

over the door of the Bihar the ten guardians (of the world), he wrote

below them thus:

«* He, that does not know the chief first Buddha, (Adi-Buddha),

knows not the circle of time. (Kadla-Chakra, dus-kyi hkhor-lo, in

Tibetan*.)

He, that does not know the circle of time, knows not the exact enu-

meration of the divine attributes.

He, that does not know the exact enumeration of the divine attri-

butes, knows not the supreme intelligence (S. Vajra dhara jnydna, Tib.

rdo-rjé hdsin-pahi yé-shes.)

He, that does not know the supreme intelligence, knows not. the

Tantrica principles (Tantra Ydnam.)

He, that does not know the Tantrika principles, and all such, are

wanderers in the orb of transmigrations, and are out of the way (or path)

of the supreme triumphator (8S. Bhagavan Vajra dhara, Tib. b,chom-

Idan-idas rdo-rje Adsin-pa.)

*« Therefore, Adi-Buddha (Tib. mchhog-gi dang-pohi Sangs-rgyas)

must be taught by every true bLama (S. Guru, a superior teacher,

religious guide), and every true disciple who aspires to liberation (or

emancipation) must hear them.” Thus wrote he:

** The venerable (the lord) N&Xrorapa (Narotrama ?) being at that

time the principal (S. Upddhyaya, Tib. mkhan-po) of the Bihar ; he,

together with five hundred pandits, disputed with him, but when they

saw that he excelled them all in disputing, they fell down at his feet,

and heard of him Adi-Buddha; then this doctrine was much propa-

gated.”—See leaf 68, by PApMa CArpo.

Here follows the text of the above quoted passage by Pa’pma Ca’rpo,

both in the Tibetan and Roman characters.

* The Kdla-Chakra and Adi-Buddha systems are probably the same with that

ofthe Samanians in the north, in Transoxana, and beyond the Jaxartes, as it has

been described by M. Deguignes, in his ‘‘ Histoire Générale des Huns,” Livre III.

p. 223, &c., recently criticised by M. Remusat ; since the doctrine of the Samanians

is exactly the same, as I have found in the Tibetan volumes.—Besides the mystical

theology and philosophy, there are in the Kdla-Chakra system several works on

astronomy, astrology, and prophetical stories on the rise, progress, and decline of the

Muhammedan faith.—In the dstan-Agyur collection (of 225 volumes) the five first

volumes contain fifty-two tracts or treatises on the Kdla-Chakra, all translated from

the Sanscrit ; but, besides these, there are many other volumes written by Tibetan

authors on the same subject. In the Asiatic Society’s library, there are also some

printed volumes, containing commentaries on the Kdla-Chakra, by Khétup or more.

properly mKhas-grub, mentioned in this paper as a very celebrated writer in the

fifteenth century. Should I find any interesting article in it, I shall take occasion to

notice it hereafter.

Jour As. Jo. PLM. Kot. 17.

Fpigra3y ‘aa rails 7%

eee ATTN TRS |

; 17 bas NBA’ a ai Ag eel ey qe zy"

aad es 2 fA" Bay “8 ayy qa" aN

aeons ar wt NF aS aa

-< 45 A, 19 I q5 stig pain "ya"

oy NS. oer aap aN A" NFEEF Ae

Ape ae aie ue it

abla A" WH Al ai ao eg

aq ae a ei a y 9 Sion

ag A ez teapha 7 pe Ay neal

an oad ts ey aay Qa fai ars

fee 344: HT” 7 jae 43. ae i)

ms. cae Bean ict oe

Lin G3” aq , an 24° ‘gia DN

i. 43 BS vont mal nee ial

7 3N az ARF Zi Ng ie) Ati oe

ABN ART AN A ages XT, AGS AN any

ARTY FR AD NSN ENGI AN AK 9 IAG

PU Nge yp?

oe) Tussin lth

PP ed

i de

ml fie 1 at a mangle

1833.] Journal of a Mission from Ava to Kendat. 59

Dé nas dvus Nalandar byon, gtsug-lag khang-gi sgo gong-du rnam-

pa dchu dvang /dan bris, déhi gsham-du : ‘‘ Gang-gis mchhog-gi dang-

pohi Sangs-rgyas mi-shes-pa dés ni dus-kyi Akhor-lo mi-shes-so; Gang-

gis dus-kyi Akhor-lo mi-shes-pa dés ni mtshan yang-dag-par brjod-pa

mi-shes-so; Gang-gis mtshan yang-dag-par brjod-pa mi-shes-pa dés

rdo-rjé hdsin-pahi-yé-shes-kyi sku-mi-shesso ; Gang-gis rdo-rjé Adsin-

pahi yé-shes-kyi sku mi-shes-pa dés snags-kyi thég-pa mi-shes-so ;

Gang-gis snags-kyi thég-pa mishes-pa déthams-chad_ ni Akhor-va-pa sté

bchom-/dan-hdas rdo-rjehdsin-pahi, lam dang bral-vaho. Dé-lta-vas-na

mchhog-gi dang-pohi Sangs-rgyas ni 6L4m4 dam-pa-rnams-kyis bstan-

par-bya-zhing, thar-pa don-du gnyér-vahi slob-ma dam-pa-rnams-kyis

mnyan-par-byaho,”’ zhes bris-pa.

Jovo N&rorapa dé dus déhi mkhan-po yin-pas, dé la sogs-pa Pan-

dita dna drgyas brtsad-pas phul-du phyin-par mthong-nas zhabs-la btud-

dé dang-pohi Sangs rgyas nyan-pas chhér dar-var gyur-pa yin-no.

No mention is made of the Kdla-Chakra, nor of Adi-Buddha, by ancient

writers in India, till the 10th century, except in the first volume of the

rGyut class in the Kah-gyur, where it is evidently an interpolation

from true historical works of later ages.

Since the passage above exhibited is an authentic text for the name

of Adi-Buddha, while it furnishes a general idea of the Kdla-Chakra

system, I have thought proper to bring it to the notice of the Society,

and hope it will be of some interest. |

U1.—Journal of a March from Ava to Kendat, on the Khyendwen River,

performed in 1831, by D. Richardson, Esq. Assistant Surgeon of the

Madras Establishment, under the orders of Major H. Burney, the

Resident at Ava.

20th January, time 5 h. 20 m. distance 10 miles; direction N. 40°

W.; at noon, started from Ava; 12 h. 25 m. crossed the river, which,

with waiting on the northern bank for two horses and some coolies from

the Myo Woon of Tsa-gain, detained us till 2 h. 45 m. when we again

proceeded, and at 3 h. 25 m. passed Pa-be-dan, or Blacksmith’s Vil-

lage, of from seventy to oné hundred houses, all inhabited by black-

smiths from Tsa-gain, (the city on the northern bank of the river oppo-

site to Ava:) to this place the houses are nearly continuous. At 3h.

35 m. pass Kyouk-tsheet, nearly the same number of houses; the

inhabitants employed in making marble images for the pagodas, and

other religious edifices. At 4h. pass Magee-tzen, a village nearly the

60 Journal of a Mission from Ava to Kendat. [Fes.

same size as the others: about 4 h. 30 m. pass within a furlong east

of the Koung-mhoo-dau-gyee pagoda, to the S. W. of which, about half

a mile, is a swamp of some extent, and to the east of it, and of the

road, another, called Ye-k,ha, the waters of which are extremely bitter.

5 h. 20m. halt at Tsa-ye, a large village; the road throughout the

day has been level and good: about two and a quarter miles west from

the foot of the Tsa-gain hills ;—the soil light and sandy : nearly the whole

country, on both sides of the road, has been under cultivation, and

the cholum* and paddy stubble is now covered with many hundred black

cattle, in high condition. No Tés had been built for us here, though

orders to that effect had been issued by the LAwot-tau many days.

21st. Time 3 h. 5 m., distance nine miles ; direction N. 20° W.; 94. mM.

leave Tsa-ye;9 h. 30 m. pass through Padoo, a large village, perhaps

160 houses. 12 h. 5 m. halt at Kek-ka, about 90 houses (in the

Zarat) ; appearance of the country much the same as the latter part of

yesterday’s march. Cattle numerous, water sufficient, and cultivation

extensive, but slovenly in most places, with the exception of the spots

where grain is sown, which is about a foot high, green and vigorous, and

the fields well cleared: the jungle has been only partially grubbed out, and

the paddy, sesamum, and cholum sown amongst the remainder. The road

to-day level, and still light and sandy, has run along a plain, between

the Tsa-gain hills to the eastward, running about N. 20° W. distant

three miles, and a ridge of elevated ground to the westward, running

nearly in the same direction, distant about eight miles. Great part of

this plain is, and the whole might be, brought under cultivation.

22nd. Time 7 h. distance 21 miles, direction N. 20° W.; 8 a. mu.

leave Kek-ka ;—8 h. 50 m. pass Thughe, a small village, perhaps 20

houses :—9 h. 20 m. pass Pay Thughe, about 60 houses :—9 h. 45 m.

pass Oun-ngay-bouk, about 70 houses :—10 h. 20 m. Kamday, small vil-

lage ; in the palmyra tope, preparing to make sugar :—11 h. 10 m. En-

bay taung-cong ;—11 h. 40 m. En-bay, rather a large village :—1 h. 20 m.

They-yoin, small village, some remarkable pagodas :—3 h. 8 m. halt at

He-len, large village, about 150 houses. The road light sandy, as before,

as far as They-yoin, from which commences a rich loamy clay, and the

crops of grain seem from the stubble to have been heavier. The

range of hills, to the westward of which we have been marching, termi-

nated at Kek-ka, and exposed to view a second range somewhat higher

than the first ; the highest called Seew-koo-taung, perhaps 1500 or 2000

feet, bounding the Shan country, running nearly in the same direction

* Burmese, Pyowng; Iam told the whole country from this to Mouxobo is

under water in July, August, and September.

1833.] Journal of a Mission from Ava to Kendat. 6}

(N. 20° W.) and distant from the road perhaps 15 or 20 miles. After

leaving En-bay, up to which place the cultivation of all the common grain

of this country was almost uninterrupted, with large and numerous herds

of cattle and villages at short distances,—the horizon to the westward

was bounded by apparently a thin strip of palmyra trees, running some

way north, then coming round to the eastward, increasing in

numbers, crossing the road, and running on towards the hills; im-

mediately within these, to the westward, is a grassy, apparently marshy,

plain of some miles, and immediately on the borders of this, about quar-

ter of a mile from the road, small clusters of huts called Tsha-doun,

from the occupation of their inhabitants, who are salt-makers ; and

between these andthe road, the paddy grounds, from which the salt is

also obtained, continue to He-/en. i

23rd. Time 8 h. distance 22 miles ; direction N. 40° W.; 8 a. mM.

leave He-len, immediately after which, cross for a few minutes some

high broken ground, at the foot of which cross some marshy grounds

in the salt fields ; at 8 h. 30 m. the paddy fields and cattle of the village ;

—9 h. 30 m. grassy plain with open jungle; 9 h. 45 m. jungle closer:

—10 h. pass a small village of 10 or 12 houses, called Tha-men-khyet-

tshain, or cooked-rice shop, where three people may dine well for 4 of

a tikal ; the inhabitants of this place belong to Mout-tsho-bo, and come

out here, and to some other villages of the samename in this neighbour-

hood inthe fine monsoon, to keep these shops ;—10h. 30m. asmall vil-

lage or salt station with its paddy ground and cattle ; 11h. 50 m. arrive at

Mout-tsho-bo, famous as the birthplace of ALompra,a walled city of two

miles square: the walls principally of bricks, partly of a kind of slate,

are still in pretty good repair, though the city was at one time, since

Atompra, entirely abandoned, and has only of late years been re-occupi-

ed; it is said to contain 1000 houses, which I should think rather under

than over the true estimate, though there are extensive paddy fields,

(amongst which many of the descendants of Atompra are living by their

labor) to the northward and westward, between the inner brick walls

and the outer wall, or earthen mound, round which is the ditch. To

the southward, there is no earthen wall, and the ditch is close to

the brick walls. The inner small fort or rather palace enclosure (for

it is without flanking defences of any sort, as indeed, is the large

one to any extent), is entirely without inhabitants. The old palace

nearly all down, and overgrown with long grass and creepers; it must

have always been confined, as the LAwot-tau and platform for the gong

for striking the hours are divided from it, within the same enclosure,

by a brick wall. The large pagoda called Shwe-ta-za, or Nae wadi see

62 Journal of a Mission from Ava to Kendat. (Fes.

thoo Koung-mhoo-dau, is of considerable size, but no gilding is now

visible on it. 12h. 20 m. start, and at 1 h. 25 m. pass out of the

Kathee gate of the outer wall; the ditch, which on the south side is

empty, and might be crossed without notice, is here in tolerable repair,

and between the gateways to the right, full of water*. 2h. 35 m.

a small village (Thamen-khyet-tshain). 3h. pass Ka-daun, a village of

50 or 60 houses : at four, halt at Kya-yowa, a village of about 200

houses. The first part of to-day’s march has been less under cultivation

than the same distance during any former part of the route from Mout-

tsho-bo ; hitherto it has been almost continued: cattle and water abun-

dant, the road good throughout : the eastward hills have been visible all

day, but extremely distant in the afternoon: no high land visible to

the westward, many of the villages surrounded with cocoanut trees,

and the palmyra numerous throughout, notwithstanding the extensive

production of salt. For the last two days, I have not tasted any water at

all brackish. Of thesalt, three different kinds are obtained—the red,

the bitter (probably containing a portion of sulphate of magnesia), and

the white; the two former are entirely used in making Gna-pee or

Balachong ; the latter only is good and fit for culinary purposes.

94th. Time 7 h. 10 m. distance 19 miles,—direction N. 65° W.

‘S a.m. leave Kya-yowa; 9 h. 15 m. pass the second Kya-yowa,

of which there are three established by Bunpoota when he was

Myo Woon of Debay-en, and governor of the northern provinces: to

pass a small grassy lake, and the third Kya-yowa ;—10 h. 30 m. pass

Men-daun. nthe jungle to the north of this, which is scantily in-

habited, there is a herd of 50 or 60 elephants, which are exceedingly

destructive to the crops in this neighbourhood. 12 h. 45 m. came on

the banks of the Moo river now easily fordable on horseback, but of

much greater extent and depth in the rains. There are now two

streams of nearly equal size, with an extent of perhaps 100 yards of

land between; the whole from bank to bank cannot be less than 400

yards. Crossing which riverand waiting at Ye-oo, a large village on the

western bank, for some fresh horses, detained us till 2h. 5 m. and

at 3 h.15 m. halt at Pha-lan-goun. Paid my respects in the evening to

the Debay-en Myo Woon, (a relation of the Queen’s,) who is a Men-

gyee, and in addition to his Myo Woonship, also governs the northern

provinces: he is a man of about 45 years of age, of intelligent and ra-

ther prepossessing appearance ; he was engaged in the usual important

duty of witnessing a pwe (or natch) on the occasion of calling Thadoo

* T was told that the ditch could at any time be filled from the Kan-dau-gyee, or

great royal lake, which lies about two or three miles to the N. E.

1833.] Journal of a Mission from Ava to Kendat. 63

to a new pagoda, many of which edifices and some magnificently gilded,

with Phoun-gyee houses and tanks attached, have been constructed by

him, and his predecessor, proclaiming the richness of his government.

The hills to the northward were visible till noon, since which I had

not seen them: inhabitants, cattle, cultivation, and water, plentiful; and

the roads good for any description of carriage at this season.

25th. Halt at Pha-lan-goun, whichis a large scattered village of pro-

bably 150* houses ; the governor of thenorthern provinces has now his re-

sidencehere. The city of Debay-en, from which he takes his title, is situat-.

ed about six miles to the south-westward; it is nearly depopulated, and the

walls entirely out of repair. He (Myo Woon) furnishes from his government

(which extends now, since the removal of the Myo Woon of Mout-tsho-bo:

from the Tsa-gain territory, to the Khyendwen), 3600 soldiers and six bés

or officers. 300 of them have been exercising with muskets last even-

ing and to-day, assisted by some natives of British India, six of whom left

Ava three months ago, receiving 25 tikals each ; they say, they have been

drilling recruits to the northward, and are now about to return to Ava.

Grain is here plentiful, and tolerably cheap ; paddy sells at from 15 to 20

tikals per 100 baskets ; cholum, 10 tikals per 100 baskets, and the sesamum

oil 4 tika] the vis, and palm sugar (a large quantity of which is made here,

and sent to the other parts of the country, even exported at Rangoon ;

the season for entering on the manufactory commences the end of next

month), I understand it sells for 15 tikals the 100 vis. Though cattle

are so plentiful here, IT am told that as much as 80 tikals is sometimes

given for a good caste bullock, with the proper marks ; but cows and

the common bullocks sell from 5 to 8, or 10 tikals ; and for common

draught cattle, from 10 to 15. Got some coolies and horses here.

26th. Time 4 h. distance 12 miles; direction N. 60° W. left Pha-

lan-goun at 8 h. 55 m. p. m. Pass Sedi Mee, a village of 30 houses ;—9

h. 25 m. Way They, of the same size;—10 h. 10. m. Yowatheet, about

100 houses, which is called Yowama, or chief village, from which many

little nameless villages in this neighbourhood are offsets.—11 h. 25 m.

cross a small nala, and 8 h. 12 m. halt at Myago. The whole march

to-day has been one uninterrupted sheet of cultivation; the soil, rich

clayey loam, the crops heavy and close, and the whole country studded

with palm trees, round which the paddy is sown with no more loss of

room than the size of their trunks. The trees most numerous in the

jungle are the Theet-tse, which were in full flower on my return on the

19th February.

* I discovered on my return that I had considerably underrated the population

of this part-of the country.

64 Journal of a Mission from Ava to Kendat. [Frs.

27th. Time 9 h. 15 m. distance 25 miles,—direction N. 80° W. ;

7h. 35 m. leave Myagoo ; at 8 h. pass a small village, where sugar is

made; 9 h. 30m. another small village, of 5 or 6 houses, —small stream.

12 h. cross the wide bed of a nameless mountain stream, in which the

stream of water at this season is not ankle-deep; from this there is a

slight gradual ascent ;—at 4 h. pass the village Yowa-ngay, 20 houses;

4h. 50m. halt at Benthee in the jungle. No village, and very little

water; the road has been as good as usual, but entirely in the jungle.

Since 9 h. 30 m. with the exception of the little village of Yowa-ngay*,

we have seen neither inhabitants, cultivation, nor cattle, and the pal-

myra has entirely disappeared; the jungle has been open, principally

composed of Ent} trees; some teaks of fair size, and a great number

of Theet-tse trees.

28th. Time 6 h. 30 m. distance 19 miles; direction S. 60° W. 7

h. 30 m. leave Benthee; 8 h. 15 m. pass the end of a deep ravine,

running N. from the road. Since noon, yesterday, have been ascend-

ing ;—now (8 h. 45 m.) descend} into the broad bed of a river (without

a name), along which in deep sand, the road runs all the way to

Thoun-bouk, when it falls into the Khyendwen, and along which a

small stream of water finds its way, occasionally on the surface, oc-

casionally lost in the sand; the banks, which are of soft sandstone,

vary from 20 to 100 feet, often perpendicular; sometimes on both,

sometimes only on one side of the river, the other being low, covered

with jungle, as the high banks are to their edges. In width the river

varies from 40 to 120 yards, or more; and in the sand are many larger

rolled masses of granite and sienite; but I saw no other rock in situ but

the argillaceous sandstone, of which the whole of the bank is composed,

and which is in a state of decomposition wherever it is exposed to the

action of the atmosphere. 11 h. Kimdogue,asmall village, with 10 or 12

houses, some cattle, baffaloes, and cultivation about it; there is a ravine,

running away to the N. W. and a small stream comes down from the

westward, running apparently in much the same description of bed as

that down which we have come, which joins here; and the ground is more

* This is the only village left of several very large ones,which were situated here,

and were destroyed by robbers before Bundoola, who immediately preceded the

present governor, was appointed to this province ; they came from Lado, about 11

miles S. E. of Moutshobo. Their chiefs, wearing gold chattahs, ransacked the country

sometimes with 2000 followers. Bundoola however cleared the country, which has

remained quiet since, and travelling now is perfectly safe.

+ A large forest tree; the timber of which is used in boat-building, and the

leaves in the thatching of houses where grass is scarce.

t All the streams to the eastward fall into the Moo, those to the westward into

the Khyendwen.

1833.] Journal of a Mission from Ava to Kendat. 65

swampy (with long grass) than any part of the country since leaving

Ava; the road is however still very passable for any common carriage :

1 p. m. low range of hills, S. 70° W. distant six miles, running S. 20°

bed of the river, which is now a continued stream, and march along its

banks till two :—halt at Thoun-bouk, a village of about 20 or 30 houses

on the E. ; leave the banks of the Khyen-dwen. The road we have come

to-day is the only one by which communication is held with the capital,

even in the rains, though the torrent is so impetuous during and imme-

diately after heavy rain as not to be fordable, yet it soon runs off and

never sends a continued body of water into the Khyen-dwen for any

length of time.

29th. Time 4 h. 15 m. distance 12 miles, direction about N. 75° W.

8h. 30 m. send the baggage by the river, by which greater part of

the communication to the N. W.is carriedon; we leave Thoun-bouk ; for

a few minutes we travel through a thick jungle, then ascend a low but

steep hill, down the descent of which we are obliged to dismount and

lead the horses. At 9 h. 10 m. in sight ofthe Khyen-dwen, and proceed

along the broad bed of a mountain torrent in deep white sand, with

high perpendicular banks running off in ridges from the stream :—

9h. 35 m. enter the jungle, and immediately ascend another hill;

pass along a narrow ridge, and descent very steep; continue cross-

ing steep ridges of low sandy hills, covered with jungle, and winding

amongst them in the dry beds of torrents, till 12h. 15m. when we

pass a small village in a cultivated plain:—12 h. 30 m. cross a small

stream about knee-deep, in which the horses suddenly sink up to

their girths in the sand, and we are obliged to dismount, to allow them

to extricate themselves; they crossed with some difficulty. 12 h.

45 m. at Mouk-ka-dau, a village of perhaps 80 or 100 houses, close to

the banks of the Khyen-dwen. About one day to the north of our march

to-day, are a considerable number of cassia trees. In the bed of most of

the streams and on many of the hills also, saw numerous (calcareous)

woody petrifactions, but could hear of no fossil organic remains in this

neighbourhood ; there are two pretty large boatson the stocks here, and

teak timber of good size cut in the neighbourhood, ready for the con-

struction of others. |

30th. Time 6 h. 20 m. distance 17 miles; direction N. 30° W.;

7h. 30m. leave Mouwk-ka-dau, and in a few minutes descend slight-

ly into the valley of the stream in which the horses swamped yes-

terday :—pass along a bad and swampy road through paddy fields, in-

to which the water has been turned for cultivation; cross and

recross the stream till 9 h. 45 m. when we proceed up a small

branch more to the westward, with high sandstone banks on the west-

66 Journal of a Mission from Ava to Kendat. [Frs.

wardand jungle on the eastward side, along which we proceed till 11

h. 25 m. when the water is lost in the sand; halt till 12; then to

Pa-doo-yee, where we halt at 3 h. 15 m. in a small bamboo Za-yat

inthe jungle: the road has much the same character as yesterday, with

the addition that some of the ravines close to the road have a consider-

able appearance of danger; both sides of the first stream, along which

we passed till 9h. 45 m., are well cultivated and inhabited, with many

buffaloes and some black cattle. We followed the cart road of the val-

ley till 11 h. 25m. when we left it to the eastward ; the jungle prin-

cipally composed of En trees, with a considerable number of teak and

Theet-tse trees: we have seen numerous marks of deer, wild hogs, and

cows throughout the march ; passed some small pieces of petrified wood,

but not nearly so abundant as yesterday.

31st. Time 7 h. 45 m. distance 20 miles—direction N. 35° W. at 7h.

45m. a. m. leave Pa-doo-ye, and proceed along a jungle path in all re-

spects the same as that we have followed for the lasttwo days,

till 4 ep. m., when we pass some paddy fields with a few buffaloes belong-

ing to the small village of Balet, which consists only of 4 or 5 houses,

at which we halted at 4h. 25 m. Some high hills to the westward of

the Khyen-dwen, within a few miles of which this village is situated.

One visible from this, bearing N. 80° W. distant 15 miles—direction of

the range is about N. 10 W.

lst February. Time nine hours; distance 25 miles; direction N. 20°

W.; were nearly losing some of the horses in the night by a tiger, which

has done a good deal of mischief between this and the next stage; 5 h.

50 m. leave Balet by a sandy road, on the side of a small stream,

with paddy fields along its banks, till 8 h. 30 m. when we halted at

Ma-tsen to breakfast; had cold dew or fog all the morning, so hea-

vy as to fall from the trees, as after a shower. We have had during

the night ever since entering the jungle, and it will continue it is

said till the beginning of the rains, which set in here about the mid«

dle or end of this month. 10 h. 25 m. leave Ma-tsen, by a pretty

good buggy road along the edge of the stream we have followed from

Balet, and which here runs in a valley of about a mile in width. This

valley is nearly all under cultivation, with a good many black cattle and

buffaloes; it is bounded on the west by a low range of hills, and to the

east by high hills running off in ridges to the northward; the little vil-

lages in this valley go by the general name of Ma-tsen, and are said to

amount in all to about 400 houses. 12h. 30 m. leave the valley, and

cross some steep, but low hills, by a rugged path, in rather thick

jungle, till 1 h. 20 m.; pass a small village. From this to Nanthee the

1833.] Journal of a Mission from Ava to Kendat. 67.

course of the river is exceedingly circuitous amongst low rugged

hills, across which our path has lain : after passing three small villages,

each in its little valley by the stream, which is here perhaps two and

half feet deep, at 4h. 45 m. halted at Nanthee, a village, 40 or 50

houses, with extensive paddy fields, many black cattle, and a few horses.

2nd. Time 5 h. 40 m.; distance 16 miles; direction N. 20°

E. 7h. 50m., leave Nanthee, and proceed along the banks of the stream

in a little valley, two or three miles in width, in which the Nan-

thee villages are scattered in the same way as were those of Ma-tsen

yesterday ; road partly good, till 9h. 30m. when we entered the jun-

gle, and the path assumes the same character as the jungle of the

last few days, from 1 h. 30 m. till 2h. 30m. when we halted at

Kendat : the road is level, and the country open and cultivated to

the N. W. as far as the Khyen-dwen river ; immediately on the wes-

tern side of which, distant about six miles, the rugged hills of the Ma-

nipuir territory rise to some height, and run away in confused and

broken ranges to the N. E. close to the edge of the river. Kendat,

the present residence of the Khambat or Kendat Woon, (for the

former title is still given him by the Burmans, though the town from

which he takes it, is at present subject to Manipir ;) is a long, narrow

jungle-wood stockade close to the east bank of the river, containing

perhaps 12 or 1400 inhabitants, situated in a long narrow swampy

valley, lying along the river, about 15 or 20 miles in length and aver-

aging one-half or two miles in width, with a strip of swampy ground,

which appears atone time tohave formed the bed of the river running

to the eastward of it. The number of cattle is smaller in proportion

to the number of inhabitants than in the villages nearer the capital. Bad

as the road is from Thoun-bouk to this, Iam assured, that ALomMpRA

once travelled it in a carriage! and that it is the best, perhaps the only

one by which any number of people ever come in this direction, I have

little doubt. It is called by all the poor people in the villages, who can-

not be suspected of any motive to deceive, and who could not have been

warned to do so, Lan-ma-dau-gyee, or great royal road (king’s high

way), and is I dare say very passable to a Burmese army, who have no

commissariat, and whose artillery is not the most extensive, and is often

moved by manual labor, assisted by elephants.

10th. Waiting to this date for the arrival of Captain Grant from

Manipir, who joined me this evening ; have seen a good deal of the Kam-

bat Woon, since my arrival here; he tells me the Payen-dwen or amber

mine, so called, is in the bed of this river, about 40 days from this place ;

but that the amber is found most abundant, about four miles inland, on

the eastern side of the river, where it is obtained in pieces sometimes

K 2

68 Journal of a Mission from Ava to Kendat. [Fes.

one and ahalf foot or more in length, and images of Godama are formed

of it; its price increases with itssize and transparency, but good amber

may be bought on the spot for one tikal and a half a viss, and I am

assured that the best would not cost five tikals.

The principal deposit of coal, which is found here in large quantities,

in the bed of the river, is about 12 or 14 miles above this, in the small

valleys, on both sides of the river. It is of that species denominated

lignite, and some of it is so highly bituminized as to be converted into

jet. In some specimens, whilst the outside contains this large proportion

of bitumen, internally there is very little; the longitudinal fracture is

dull, the woody structure perfect, and some of the fibres retain slight

elasticity ; the transverse fracture has in all instances some degree of

lustre in situ; it is formed in sand, and soft sandstone rock, in large

pieces, retaining the form of the trees, from which it was originally

formed: the Burmans say it is useless as fuel, going out unless used

with a large quantity of wood.*

17th. Having been provided by the Khambat Woon with three boats,

we started this day at noon, on our return to Ava. The river which runs

here to the southward and westward is wide, probably 600 yards; but

the water is at this season confined to a narrow channel on the western

side. In 1829, the river rose higher than has been remembered here,

and the same was the case with the Me-ping, and rivers in north Laos,

where a good deal of damage was done, and the crops, in many places,

totally destroyed. Six p. m. halt at Matsein, the largest of the villages

of that name; the river has been very circuitous throughout the day ;

the banks generally high sandstone hills, covered with jungle to the water,

which is so shallow, where it extends nearly across the bed of the river,

that the boat has grounded once or twice; the villages four in number,

generally small; no cultivation visible on the immediate banks of the

river.

18th. Seven h. 20 m. a.m. leave Mat-seim, and at 6 h. 30 m. Pp. m.

halt at Oo-yowa; passed eight villages on our route to-day, some of

them (as Kea-dzet, which we passed at nine o’clock,) larger than any of

those we passed yesterday ; at 11 h.40 m.a small river falls into this

from the north-eastward, which the people in my boat say is the Myeet-

tha. The nature of the country has been nearly the same as yesterday,

viz. high hills, often nearly perpendicular towards the river ; covered

with jungle, till 3 p. m. ; since which the hills have retired from the

river, and the country has been more level, but covered with jungle ;

we have passed a good many fishing stakes, and several parties of fisher-

men hutted on the sands.

* Vide GLEANINGS IN ScrENcE, III. 125.

1833.] Journal of a Mission from Ava to Kendat. 69

19th. Seven h. 15 m. leave Oo ;—10 h. 30 m. the river gives offa

branch nearly as wide as the main stream. 10 h. 45 m. pass the

city of Men-gen, about 150 houses with gardens, tastefully disper-

sed along the banks of the river: where also are the boats of the

village, (for a village it is now,) amounting to about 100 or up-

wards, many of them good sized. 12 h. 20 m. the branch men-

tioned at 10 h. 30m. here rejoined the main stream. 3 h.35 m.

Mouk-ka-dau, and at 5 h. halt at Thoun-bouk, where the horses had

arrived about a quarter of an hour before us ; we passed six villages

to-day, including Men-gen and Mouk-ka-dau ; all small, but the two

named ; the course of the river was very circuitous, and the hills (which

are of sandstone, soft and friable at the upper part and more compact

near the bottom) again close to it, but to-day frequently only on one

side, the other being level.

20th. From this we returned by the same route we travelled in the

way up, making longer marches, and reached Ava in six days. We had

heavy rain the first three marches, from which the people look on the

rains as set in, and are in many places preparing the ground for the paddy.

The last three days, however, it cleared up again, and the sun was exceed-

ingly powerful till our arrival at Ava, where we halted on the 25th, at

noon.

Should it ever be necessary to move a force across this part of

the country, the way in which I have returned is the only practicable

one. From Ken-dat to Thoun-bouk, the road is impassable for all sorts of

carriage, but boats may be had on the river: from Thoun-bouk to Ava

the road is good; water, cattle, grain, every necessary in greatest abun-

dance.

It may be worthy of remark here, asa little clue to the feelings of the

people towards us, that I was very well received by the Debayen and

Kambat Woons; that after the third day’s march, ¢és or little tempo-

rary houses were invariably erected for us as had been ordered by the

Woon-gyees, and the people voluntarily appeared to pay us more atten-

tion in proportion as we receded from the capital. On my return, the

lower orders were universally anxious to learn the result of my Mission,

with the object of which they all appeared acquainted ; and on being told

that every thing was quiet and right, I was always greeted by the excla-

mation of ‘‘ thadoo,” ‘‘ thadoo*,’’ (counting beads at the same time)—an

expression which entitles the person making it to a portion of the merit

arising from a good work, whilst it increases, or at all events does not

diminish that accruing to the performer of it.

* A term of approbation in Burmese, ‘‘ well done—that is right.”

70 Journal of a Mission from Ava to Kendat. [Fus.

Remarks on the Route Protraction, Pl. V.

The Irrawaddy and Moo rivers, in this sketch, have been copied

from the Map of Ava in Mr. Crawford’s Mission, and the Khyen-dwen

river from Lieutenant Montmorency’s Survey, as given in Lieutenant

Wilcox’s Map of the countries to the E. and N. E.of Bengal. The

position of Kendat and Mouk-ka-dau, as well as of Ava, being fixed

according to the above authorities, an attempt has been made to lay

down Mr. Richardson’s route, so as to correspond with those points.

The following table wiil show the direction and distance travelled on

each day, as computed by Dr. Richardson, and the corrections, on ac-

count of the windings of the road, and alterations made in order to

reconcile his route with the situation of Mouk-ka-dau and Kendat.

Dr. Richardson’s Computation. Correction and Alteration.

Ist day, 20th Jan. From Ava to Tsa-ye, N. 40 W. 10 miles, N. 40 W. 8miles

Qnd do. 2Ist do... To Kek-ka,....... N. 20 W. 9 do.... N. 20 W. 7 do.

8rd do. 22nddo.. To He-len,........ N. 20 W. 21 do.... N. 20 W.16 do.

Ath do. 23rd do... To Kya-yowa,..... N. 40 W. 22 do.... N.40 W.17 do.

5th do. 24thdo... To Pha-lan-goun,.. N. 70 W. 19 do.... N.70 W.16 do

6th do. 25thdo... To Mya-goo,...... N. 60 W. 12 do.... N. 60 W. 103 do

7th do. 26thdo... To Ben-thee,...... S. 80 W.25 do.... S. 80 W. 20 do.

8th do. 27thdo... To Thoun-bouk,.... S. 60 W.19 do.... N.10 W.17 do.

9th do. 28th do. . To Mouk-ka-da, .. N. 80 W. 12 do.) ; N.40 W. 9 do

10th do. 29thdo... To Padoo-ye, ..... N. 30 W. 17 do. E N.30 W. 143 do

Ilth do. 30thdo... To Balet,......... N. 35 W. 20 do.| § N. 0 W.15 do

12th do. 3lst do... To Nan-thee,...... N. 20 B. 25 do.) ° N.15 E. 17 do

13th do. Ist Feb. To Ken-dat,....... N. 10 W. 10 do.... N. 15 W. 9 do.

Total, 22] miles. Total, 176 miles.

The most important deviation from Dr. Richardson’s computation

was found necessary to be made, in the direction of the route from

Ben-thee to Thoun-bouk. Captain Baker, who visited Mont-tsho-bo in 17

hours, 55 minutes, estimates Ava to be 45 miles distant, and states that

he stopped and landed at Khoun-meon, (Kyouk-myoung,) onthe Irrawaddy,

and that this place is 12 miles due east from Mout-tsho-bo.—(Dalrymple’s

Oriental Repertory, vol. 1. 147, 169, and 176.) Kioum-young, in Mr.

Crawfurd’s Map, is due east from the position given to Mont-tsho-bo in

Dr. Richardson’s route, which makes this city 40 miles from Ava.

But it would appear, that the Irrawaddy, in this part of its course, must

have a direction 14 miles more to the westward, than what is marked

in former maps. Dibayen, Dr. R. learnt, is only six miles to the S. W.

of Pha-lan-goun, and not so near to the Irrawaddy as before supposed.

The situation of the great lake, or Kan-dau-gyee, also must be differ-

ent. Dr. R. understood, that water can be let into the ditch of Mout-

tsho-bo fort from that lake.

Dr. R. on his return from Kendat, came down the Khyen-dwen in a

boat in three days to Thoun-bouk, and thence to Ava he travelled by

the same route as before,

}

{q Gendu or Kendat ,

| ‘Mal-kyswon Oung Mye

|| 9° Nan-thee

f : “4

‘

{

(

‘

Jou: As. Soc Vot IT. Pl. 1V.

PROTRACTION

eee ee

Lt Richardson route

Srom

AVA toKENDAT

f : Dua, 4 0 40 20

E: Weuwee eM Fu f

ys Matsen Scale of Mies.

lsA Thounbouk

22? North

JB. Tassin lilh.

jhkuin -dau gwe

ana - mohy i tae.

"OS

fo)

“Mou t-tshobo

Q Heten

Oun-ngay-bouk>,

io “Fast :

ala (:

bas s salt on; , x sili San

ae en cian Aiteal reertt: reiies eae ——

* is a

AR, ee Devas

BE veseues &Y

1833. | Trisection of an Angle. 71

III.—Trisection of an Angle. By Col. Nasmyth Morrieson.

Proposition 1st, Theorem.

If, from the vertical angle of a triangle, having one of the angles at

its base double of the other one, and the vertical angle greater than

half a right angle, a straight line be drawn to cut the base, making an

angle with the greater side of the triangle adjacent to the vertical

angle, equal to the lesser angle at the base; and if from the vertical

angle as a centre, at the distance of the lesser side of the triangle ad-

jacent to the vertical angle, a circle be described ; the circle, and the

' line drawn from the vertical angle to cut the base, and the base of the

triangle, have one common intersection.

Let ABC (fig. 1) be a triangle, having the angle BAC, one of the angles

at its base double of the angle BCA, the other angle at its base, and its

vertical angle ABC greater than halfa right angle; and let the straight

line BD be drawn from the vertical angle ABC, to cut the base ACG in

D, making with CB, the greater side of the triangle adjacent to the

vertical angle, the angle CBD equal to BCA, the lesser angle at the

base (23.1) ; also from B as acentre at the distance BA, the lesser side

of the triangle adjacent to the vertical angle, let the circle ADE be

described; the circle ADE, the line BD, and the base AC intersect one

another in one common point D.

Because, by construction, the angle DBC is equal to the angle DCB,

the side BD is equal to the side CD (5.1), and D is the point of inter-

section of BD and AC. Again, because BDA, the exterior angle of the

triangle BDC, is equal to the two interior and opposite (82.1) and also

equal angles DBC, DCB, therefore, BDA is double of DCB, that is ACB;

but, by construction, the angle BAC is double of ACB, therefore BAC

is equal to BDA (6 ax); and because the angle BAC is equal to the

angle BDA, the side BD is equal to the side BA (5.1); wherefore

the circle ADE described from the centre B, at the distance BA passes

through D, the extremity of BD, or D is the point of intersection

of the circle ADE and the line BD; but it bas been already shewn

that D is the point of intersection of BD and AC, consequently the

circle ADE intersects, in the point D, the line AC ; therefore the circle

ADE, and the straight lines AC and BD intersect in one common point

D: ».Q.E: D.

Proposition 2nd, Problem.

To draw the base of a triangle, so that, of the interior angles at the

base, one shall be double of the other, the vertical angle of the triangle

being a given rectilineal angle greater than half a right angle.

‘

72 Trisection of an Angle. [Fes.

Let ABC (fig. 2) be any given rectilineal angle greater than half a right

angle. Having placed it for the vertical angle of the triangle ABG,

it is required to draw the base AG, so that of the interior angles it

shall make with BA and BC, at the base of the triangle ABG, the one

shall be double of the other.

From the centre B at any distance BA describe the circle ADE ;

again, from the centre B at twice the distance BA describe the arch of a

circle FH, cutting BC, in F; also from the centre A at three times the

distance BA, mark the point C in the line BC ; divide the segment FC

into three equal parts (9.6); make FG equal to one-third part of FC

(3.1); through Gdraw GH at right angles to BC (11.1), meeting the

arch FH in the point H; jom BH and GA; the line GA is so drawn

that BAG, one of the angles at the base of the triangle ABG, is double

of BGA, the other angle at the base.

Because the two straight lines BH and AG and the circle ADE in-

tersect in D, the two sides BD, BA of the triangle ABD, being radii

of the circle ADE, are equal to one another (11.def.) ; also BH, which

is equal to BF (11.def.) and double of BA or BD, is bisected in D;

again, because BGH is a right angle subtended by BH, it is an angle

in half the circle, having BH for its diameter and DB for its radius

(31.8); and because GD joins the vertex of the right angle BGH and

D, the point of bisection ofthe diameter, it is equal to DB (11.def.):

Now because DG is equal to DB, the angle DBG is equal to the angle

DGB (5.1); and they are the two interior and opposite angles to BDA,

the exterior angle of the triangle BDG, therefore BDA is equal to

them both (32.1), and double of either of them, that is, it is double of

DGB; but the angle BAD is equalto the angle BDA, because BD is

equal to BA (5.1), therefore BAD, that is BAG, is double of DGB, that

is, AGB. Wherefore the base AG is drawn so that the angle BAG, one

of the angles at the base of the triangle ABG, is double of BGA, the

other angle at the base. Which was required to be done.

Note.—The truth of the above demonstration rests upon the straight

lines BH and AG and the circle ADE having one common intersection;

but as the circle and any two right lines have not of necessity one

common intersection, it may perhaps be objected to, on the ground,

that though it states the fact, it does not prove the intersection of the

circle ADE and the right lines BH and AG in the common point D.

To remove that objection, the following demonstration is given.

The construction being the same as above, instead of joing GA,

proceed thus :—join BH, and let BH cut the circle ADE in the point D;

join GD and DA; AD, DG are in the same straight line, and AG, the

our, As. Soc. |

FLV. bet I.

4 a z' : 4

sree pea tr: te and hy

fas. 3

i om ie

a takin

eee AN |

124 /

1833.] Trisection of an Angle. 73

base of the triangle ABG, is so drawn that BAG one of the angles at

the base is double of BGA the other angle at the base.

AD and DG are in the same straight line ; for through D draw DK,

making the angles KDA, KDG equal to one another (9.1); take any

point L in the line KD, and from the centre L at the distance LD

describe the circle DNMK ; if necessary, produce DB to meet the circle

DNMK in M; join MK; and make the angle MND in the segment

DNM of the circle DNMK. Now the angles KDG, KDA are either

together, equal to, or greater, or less than two right angles ; if greater,

then KDG is greater than a right angle, and GD being produced in

the direction of D, will fall within the circle DNMK on the opposite

side of KD from DG (Cor. 16.3), which it does not, therefore KDG is

not greater than a right angle: neither is it less than a right angle, for

then DG would fall within the circle DNMK (16.3), which it does not;

therefore KDG must be a right angle: and because at the point D the

extremity of the diameter DK, DG makes a right angle with DK,

therefore GD touches the circle DNMK (Cor. 16.3), and because DM,

drawn from the point of contact D, cuts the circle DNMK, the angle

MDG is equal to the angle DNM in the alternate segment MND

(32.3). Again, because the angle KDA is equal to the angle KDG, it

is: a right angle, and also touches the circle KMND (Cor. 16.3); and

because DM, drawn from the point of contact D, cuts the circle DNMK,

the angle MDA is equal to the angle MKD (82.3); and because

KDNM is a quadrilateral figure, described in a circle, the opposite

angles MKD, DNM are equal to two right angles (22.3), therefore

the angles MDG, MDA, being equal to the angles DNM, MKD are

also equal to two right angles ; and since at the point D, in the straight

line MD or BD, the two straight lines DA, DG, upon the opposite sides

of MD, make the adjacent angles MDA, MDG, equal to two right

angles, AD is in the same straight line with DG (14.1) : and the figure

AGB being contained by three straight lines, is therefore a rectilineal

triangle (16 def.) Now BD is equal to BA, being radii of the same

circle ADE (11 def.), and because BH is a radius of the circle of which

FH is an arch, it is equal to BF and double of BA or BD, and bisected

in D by the circle ADE; also because BGH is a right angle, subtended

by BH, it is anangle in half the circle, having BH for its diameter and

DB for its radius (31.3); and because GD joins the vertex of the

right angle BGH and D, the point of bisection of the diameter, it is

equal to DB (11 def.) Now, because DG is equal to DB, the angle

DBG is equal to the angle DGB (5.1), and they are the two interior

and opposite angles to BDA, the exterior angle of the triangle BDG,

therefore BDA is equal to them both (32.1), and double of either of

74 Trisection of an Angle. [Frs.

them, thatis, is double of DGB; but the angle BAD is equal to the

angle BDA, because BD is equal to BA (5.1), therefore BAD, that is

BAG, is double of DGB, that is, AGB. Wherefore the base AG is drawn

so that the angle BAG, one of the angles at the base of the triangle

ABG, is double of BGA, the other angle at the base. Which was re-

quired to be done.

Proposition 3rd, Problem.

To divide any given rectilineal angle into three equal angles.

Let ABC be any given rectilineal angle, it is required to divide it

into three equal angles.

Consider whether the given angle is greater or less than three half

right angles. First, let the angle ABC be less than three half right an-

gles. Takeany point Din AB, and through D draw DE, parallel to BC

(31.1); then the angle BDE is the angle to be placed as the vertical

angle of the triangle BDL; which having obtained, draw the line BL

in the same manner as was done in the diagram for the foregoing pro-

position No. 2; and bisect the angle ABL by the straight line BO

(9.1). The straight lines BL and BO divide the angle ABC into three

equal angles.

Because DE is parallel to BC, and LB falls upon them, the angle

DLB is equal to the angle LBC (29.1); and because the angle DBL is

double of the angle DLB, as demonstrated in the 2nd proposition above

written; thereforethe angle DBI. is double of the angle LBC; also

because the angle DBL is bisected by the straight line BO, the three

angles DBO, OBL, LBC are equal to one another.

Secondly. But if the given angle ABC be greater than three half

right angles, bisect it by the straight line BN (9.1); and take any

point D in AB, and through D draw DE, parallel to BN (81.1). Hay-

ing thus got the vertical angle for the triangle BDL, viz. BDE, draw

the line BL, as was done in the diagram for the foregoing proposition

No. 2; and bisect the angle LBC by the straight line BO (9.1); the

straight lines BL and BO divide the given angle ABC into three equal

angles.

As before, because the angle DBL is double of the angle LBN, it is

two thirds of the angle DBN ; but because the angle DBN is one-half of

the angle ABC, and that two-thirds of the half is one-third of any given

whole, therefore DBL is one-third, and the remaining angle LBC is

two-thirds of the whole angle ABC; and because the angle LBC is

bisected by the straight line BO, the three angles ABL, LBO, OBC

are equal to one another. Wherefore the given angle ABC is divided

into three equal angles by the straight lines BL and BO. Which was

required to be done.

1833.] Mines of Precious Stones in Ava. 75

IV.—Short Description of the Mines of Precious Stones, in the District

of Kyat-pyen, in the Kingdom of Ava.

(Translated from the original of Pe\RE Giusrerrr p’AMATO.]

The territory of Ayat-pyen* (written Chia-ppitn by d’Amato) is

situated to the east, and a little to the south of the town of Mon-lhd,

(which latter place is by observation in latitude 22° 16’ North,) dis-

tant 30 or 40 Burman leagues, each league being 1000 taa, of seven

cubits the taat; say 70 miles. It is surrounded by nine mountains.

The soil is uneven and full of marshes, which form seventeen small lakes,

each having a particular name. It is this soil which is so rich in mine-

ral treasures. It should be noticed, however, that the ground which

remains dry is that alone which is mined, or perforated with the wells

whence the precious stones are extracted. The mineral district is divided

into 50 or 60 parts, which, beside the general name of ‘‘ mine,” have

each a distinct appellation.

The miners, who work at the spot, dig square wells, to the depth of

15 or 20 cubits, and to prevent the wells from falling in, they prop

them with perpendicular piles, four or three on each side of the square,

according to the dimensions of the shaft, supported by cross pieces be-

tween the opposite piles.

When the whole is secure, the miner descends, and with his hands

extracts the loose soil, digging in a horizontal direction. The gravelly

ore is brought to the surface in a ratan basket raised by a cord, as water

froma well. From this mass all the precious stones and any other mine-

rals possessing value are picked out, and washed in the brooks descend-

ing from the neighbouring hills.

Besides the regular duty which the miners pay to the Prince, in kind,

they are obliged to give up to him gratuitously all jewels of more than

a certain size or of extraordinary value. Of this sort was the tornallina

(tourmaline ?) presented by the Burman monarch to Colonel Symes.

It was originally purchased clandestinely by the Chinese on the spot;

the Burmese court, being apprized of the circumstance, instituted a

strict search for the jewel, and the sellers, to hush up the affair, were

obliged to buy it back at double price, and present it to the king.

* The Kyat-pyen mountains are doubtless the Capelan mountains mentioned as

the locality of the ruby, in Phillip’s Mineralogy—‘‘ 60 miles from Pegue, a city in

Ceylon.” Though it might well have puzzled a geographer to identify them withou!

the clue of their mineral riches.

+ Estimating the cubit at 1§ feet, the league will be 10,500 feet, or nearly two

miles ;—about an Indian fos,

L 2

76 Mines of Precious Stones in Ava. [Fus.

You* may ask me, to what distance the miners carry their excavations ?

I reply, that ordinarily they continue perforating laterally, until the

workmen from different mines meet one another. Iasked the man who

gave me this information, whether this did not endanger the falling in

of the vaults, and consequent destruction of the workmen? but he re-

plied, that there were very few instances of such accidents. Sometimes

the miners are forced to abandon a level before working to day-light, by

the oozing in of water, which floods the lower parts of the works.

The precious stones found in the mines of Kyat-pyen, generally speak-

ing, are rubies, sapphires, topazes, and other crystals of the same family,

(the precious corundum.) Emeralds are very rare, and of an inferior sort

and value. They sometimes find, I am told, a species of diamond, but

of bad qualityt.

The Chinese and Tartar merchants come yearly to Kyat-pyen, to pur-

chase precious stones and other minerals, They generally barter for

them carpets, coloured cloths, cloves, nutmegs and other drugs. The

natives of the country also pay yearly visits to the royal city of Ava, to

sell the rough stones. I have avoided repeating any of the fabulous

stories told by the Bnrmans of the origin of the jewels at Kyat-pyen.

There is another locality, a little to the north of this place, called Moo-

kop, in which also abundant mines of the same precious gems occur.

Note.—While I am writing this brief notice, an anecdote is related to

me by a person of the highest credit, regarding the discovery of two

stones, or, to express myself better, of two masses (amas) of rubies of an

extraordinary size, at Kyat-pyen. One weighed 80 biches{, Burmese

weight, equivalent to more than 80 lbs.! the second was of the same

size as that given to Colonel Symes. When the people were about to

convey them to the capital to present them to the king, a party of ban-

dits attacked Kyat-pyen for the second time, and set the whole town on

fire. Of the two jewels, the brigands only succeeded in carrying off

the smaller one ; but the larger one was injured by the flames : the cen-

tre of the stone, still in good order, was brought to the king. I learned

this from a Christian soldier of my village of Mon-/hd, who was on guard

at the palace when the bearer of the gem arrived there.

* The letter seems to have been intended for some scientific friend in Italy.

t+ Probably the ¢urmali or transparent zircon, which is sold as an inferior dia-

mond in Ceylon. [Vide vol. i. page 357.]

~ The Pere d’Amato’s Biche is the bisse of Mendez Pinto, and the old travellers,

and the diswa or vis of Natives of India. The Burmese word is Peik-tha, which

is equivalent to 33 lbs., and to a weight on the Coast of Coromandel called vis. B.

1833.] Note on Saline Deposits in Hydrabad. 77

V.—Note on Saline Deposits in Hydrabad, By Assistant Surgeon

J. Malcolmson, Madras European Regiment.

From the interest which these possess, and the discussions they

have excited, without any precise information as to their geological

position, I believe the following notice will be interesting.

The summits of most of the detached hills and minor ranges north

of Cuddapah are composed of a sand-stone, stratified in a perfectly hori-

zontal manner, It is often white, and the grains are large; but towards

Tripetty, where it meets the granite, it is very compact and white, and it

is agood deal inclined to the east. The red soil of the district is loaded

with salt, which is manufactured by the natives, principally for their

cattle; but as it is prohibited by the Government on account of the reve-

nue from the salt monopoly, it is seldom extensively worked in the

districts I visited. The range of hills through which the Benar river

passes at the ancient fortress of Gundicottah is formed of this sandstone ;

but inclined towards the east at a slight angle, and by no means regu-

larly. This is separated by a narrow valley from hills exhibiting the

horizontal strata on their caps, and the remains of these could be clearly

traced on insulated conical hillocks, and had all belonged to one vast

sheet. Below the sandstone caps, a clay slate, easily broken down, is

found, and the lower strata over the country is a-stratified blue limestone.

In the slope of the hill of Gundicottah are springs of very pure water |

very profuse, and forming small rivulets, tumbling over the rocks in

fine cascades, but evidently deriving their source from no great distance,

as in a day or two after the rain we had, the streams were much dimi-

nished where they emerged from between the strata. The Benar and

these streams have formed cliffs round the fortress of 200 or 300 feet,

all of sandstone, but at the very bottom, a deep ravine. I found one

or two clay slate strata of about an inch thick interposed; and a

few miles below, the blue limestone appeared in the bed of the river.

At a place eight or ten miles lower, the same rock abounds over

the plains, and in the town is a salt well celebrated from its use in

washing cloths of fine colors manufactured there, and to the fixing of

which it is essential. I descended the well, and with some difficulty

broke off specimens of the rock, which was deep blue slate-like stone,

as if the clay were passing into the limestone, and between the thin

slabs were layers of salt. The specimens were lost, but I hope to pro-

cure others. The salt was in great part composed of muriates of soda

and carbonate of soda, but they were not examined. Carbonate of soda

effloresces on the surface not far off, and this on being melted with

78 Note on Saline Deposits in Hydrabad. [Frs.

powdered quartz in the manufacture of bangles affords, attached to the

glass, a hard solid pure white coat of muriate of soda, 3 of an inch

thick. . Copious springs abound in the blue limestone, and those I saw

were sweet, and probably flowed from the neighbouring sandstone. In

a cavern in the lime opening above by a great longitudinal fissure, like

that of Duncombe park, after a rapid descent of perhaps 30 or 40 yards,

{ found further progress stopt by a stream of water running over a

quartz sand. When the water was low, the natives told me they could £0

further, but at that time it reached within half a foot of the roof of the

contracted extremity. The sand was probably derived from the cap

of the adjoining hill. The sides were rough, with stalagnite exceed-

ingly like the kankar found in great beds lying on the limestone.

It is probable that the stream is not long subterraneous, as numbers of

small fish approached the torches. The natives gave them a name,

but I regretted I could not catch one for examination. Superstitious

stories led me to examine this, and other likely places for organic re-

mains, and I think it probable, such may yet be found. In the sand-

stone are the celebrated diamond mines of Banganopilly. Shafts

being sunk through the rock, till they reach the conglomerate contain-

ing the numerous species of minerals which experience has shewn to be

associated with the gem, this is excavated and sent out of the mine

to be broken up in search of the diamond. This conglomerate does

not occupy a complete stratum, but generally varies in thickness.

The sandstone in many places has been subjected to violent forces

injecting, between its layers, a reddish iron-looking sandy rock, which

has bent the thin strata above and below out of its place, and at others

forced a way through the numerous vertical divisions of the stone, and

appears to have flowed in a semifluid state over the surface, and to

have carried along with it angular fragments of the rock, which

are fixed in it like plums in a cake. In one or two _ instances,

the fragments seemed to have been broken, but not removed from

their original situation; the lines of separation being filled with the

same matter that flowed out. The end of a neighbouring hill is covered

with round stones, several feet in diameter, hard, black, and apparently

composed of trap, and called in the language of the country ‘“ black

balls.”’ The trap rocks are not known to exist within 50 miles.

Amongst the ‘“‘ diamond stones,” as they are called, there is one of a

jet black, and very hard, suggesting that it might be of a carbonaceous

nature ; and the appearances of the action of fire would favour an hypo-

thesis of the carbon of this mineral being changed by that action into

the diamond. This is a mere fancy, but it seems sufficient to direct

1833.] Note on Saline Deposits in Hydrabad. 79

inquiry. The Chinir mines are in general formed by the destruction,

by water, of hills, such as Banganopilly. The blue limestone has also

experienced violent changes, forcing the strata into vertical and curiously

contorted shapes, but in general it is little disturbed. I did not find

nor hear of the remains of shells, although I looked anxiously for them ;

but there were, in many situations, numerous tubular perforations

usually full of a kankar like matter mixed with iron, and very subject

to decay. They were often arranged in rows, and sometimes lost in

the stone gradually. If these are justly regarded as peculiar to lacus-

trine deposits, the absence of shells is singular ; but at Ellore, I have

seen the trap perforated by similar shaped calcedonies, most properly

compared to tobacco-pipe stalks. These rocks abound with curious

minerals and phenomena, but these are the principal facts I observed

connected with the question of the relations of the sandstone. I

met with a blue limestone perforated as above, in the Guntoor Circar,

running into the white lithographic marble of Manopilly, on the Kist-

nah, and probably in some way connected with the diamond deposits

of the district. The identity with the Hindustan sandstone appears

from the number of variegated marks and of grits in the beds; from its

use for architectural purposes, in being horizontally stratified; in the

strata being sometimes unconformable ;—in its being in the neighbour-

hood of saline deposits of the same kind, and in both containing diamond

mines and various iron ores;—in its passing into quartz rock, and being

snterstratified with clay slate, though rarely. If there is no misprint, it

differs in lying on instead of being covered by a blue limestone, without

fossils: vide GuEANINGs, vol. iii. p. 213.

P. S. The clay slate is sometimes wanting, and the sandstone then

lics on the blue limestone as at Pushpagarry, immediately above the

Chintr diamond mines; and here there are larger grits than in most

other places, and small veins of quartz. Below the mines, the limestone

is much contorted and dislocated. The limestone is not one of the dia-

mond stones of the miners, although it abounds with the gem in the

beds of Chintr. Nor is there any trap rock amongst them, although

Werner asserts they are found in Orissa at the foot of trap inaumteeeg

The subject of the origin of the ‘‘terreins de transport, in which

they are found, is demonstrated by the associated stones in my posses-

n; but it appears very doubtful, whether they are of diluvial origin,

810 4

as asserted by Buckland, using the word as opposed to alluvial. See

Reliquie, page 220, and Brongniart’s Traité.

80 Means of making Ice by the Natives of Bengal. (Fes.

VI.—An Experimental Inquiry into the Means employed by the Natives of

Bengal for making Ice. By 'T. A. Wise, Esq. M. D.

(Read 3rd October, 1832.)

A large quantity of ice is used during the cold season in Bengal, for

purposes of luxury, which is supplied by natives at a comparatively

cheap rate, from their employing a process by which they can make a

large supply at a moderate expence. As very imperfect accounts have

hitherto been given of the means they employ, and as most erroneous

opinions are generally received regarding the causes by which the re-

quired degree of cold is produced, I hope a short account of the princi-

pal ice-manufactory in Bengal will not be considered unworthy the

notice of the Society.

A particular field in the neighbourhood of the town of Hooghly has

been many years in requisition as the place for making ice, and is said

by the natives to be the only one in this part of the country in which

it can be produced in any considerable quantity: this seems the more

reasonable, as the trials to make ice at Serampore, Calcutta, &c. may

be considered to have failed when the quantity is compared with that

obtained at Hooghly. This peculiarity may be owing to the elevation,

exposure, and distance of the latter from the sea. The soil of the field

in which the ice is made is a black loam upon a substratum of sand: it

is more elevated than the surrounding country, is liable to partial in-

undations in heavy rains, and is skirted on the south, east, and north

by trees, and on the western and northern directions has an open plain

for some extent.

The manufacturing commences towards the end of November, and

generally continues until some time in February. These periods vary

in different years, owing to such circumstances as the quantity of water

upon the ground at the close of the rains, the early or late cold season,

its length, &c.

The best months for making ice are the latter part of December and

the whole of January ; and during November and February, there are

generally only a few nights in which ice is made in any quantity.

The natives commence their preparations for making ice by marking

out a rectangular piece of ground, about 120 feet long, by 20 broad, in

an easterly and westerly direction, from which the soil is removed to

the depth of two feet. This hollow is smoothed and allowed to remain

exposed to the sun for some time to dry, when rice. straw in small sheaves

is laid in an oblique direction in the excavation, with loose straw upon

the top, to the depth of a foot and a half, leaving its surface half a foot

1833.] Means of making Ice by the Natives of Bengal. 81

under the level of the ground. Numerous beds of this kind are formed,

with a narrow path between them, in which large earthen water-jars are

sunk into the ground for the purpose of having water near, to fill the

shallow unglazed earthen vessels in which it is to be frozen. These

dishes are nine inches in diameter at the top, diminishing to 4,5 inches

at the bottom, 1,3, deep, and 5 of an inch in thickness; and are so

porous as to become moist throughout when water is put into them.

During the day, the loose straw in the beds above the sheaves is oc-

casionally turned up, so that the whole may be kept dry, and the water-

jars between the beds are filled with soft pure water from the neigh-

bouring pools. Towards evening, the shallow earthen dishes are ar-

ranged in rows upon the straw, and, by means of small earthen pots tied

to the extremities of long rods of bamboo, each is filled about a third

with water. ‘The quantity, however, varies according to the ice ex-

pected; which is known by the clearness of the sky and steadiness with

which the wind blows from the N. N. W. When favourable, about

eight ounces of water is put into each dish, and when less is expected,

from two to four ounces is the usual quantity; but, in all cases, more

water is put into the dishes nearest the western end of the beds, as the

sun first falls on that part, and the ice is easier removed from its solu-

tion being quicker. There are about 4590 plates in each of the beds

lately made, and if we allow five ounces for each dish, which presents a

surface of about four inches square, there will be an aggregate of 239

gallons, and a surface of 1530 square feet of water in each bed.

In the cold season, when the temperature of the air at the ice-fields is

under 50°*, and there are gentle airs from the northern and western direc-

tion, ice forms in the course of the night in each of the shallow dishes.

Persons are stationed to observe when a small film appears upon the

water in the dishes, when the contents of several are mixed together and

thrown over the other dishes. This operation increases the congealing

process. A state of calmness has been discovered by the natives to

diminish the quantity of ice produced; and this is confirmed by the fact

well known in our laboratories, that water may be gradually cooled down

many degrees below the freezing point without congealing, provided

it be kept perfectly still. When the sky is quite clear, with gentle

steady airs from the N. N. W. the freezing commences before or about

midnight, and continues to advance until morning, when the thickest

ice isformed. I have seen it 5th of an inch in thickness, and in a few

very favourable nights, the whole of the water is sometimes frozen ;

* Fahrenheit’s thermometer is used in the following essay : a minute having

been allowed for each experiment.

82 Means of making Ice by the Natives of Bengal. [Fus.

when it is called by the natives solid ice (pakka baraf) ; when it com-

mences to congeal between two or three o’clock in the morning, thinner

ice is expected, called papert ; and when about four or five o’clock in

the morning, the thinnest is obtained, called phul baraf. The freezing

is frequently retarded in its formation during the night by the wind

rising to a breeze about 11 or 12 p. m.,—by clouds, &c. and the ice in

consequence does not begin to form until towards morning.

In the most favourable nights, the dishes are generally found en-

crusted with ice, both on their inner and outer sides, which adheres to

the rough surface of the plate with such a degree of firmness as to

require it tobe partially dissolved before it can be separated from the

dish. I have often seen the natives wait until the sun was two hours

and a half above the horizon, before they could remove it.

Seven or eight persons, generally women, are allowed for each bed,

who with semicircular blunt knives remove the ice and water into

earthen vessels placed near them, which are moved along as they pro-

ceed in their work. When these vessels are full, they are emptied by

men employed for that purpose, into conical-shaped baskets placed upon

the jars between the ice-beds which retain the ice, and allow the water

to flow into the water-jars. When the baskets are filled, their contents are

conveyed to temporary ice pits, which are about six feet deep, by four

in diameter, and are lined with mats. The iceis covered with straw, and

allowed to remain until evening, when it is again taken out and placed

in large pits. These consist of circular holes in dry situations from 10

to 12 feet deep, by 8 or 10 feet in diameter. These pits are well lined

with mats, and when nearly filled, some more straw and a shed of the

same material is placed over the ice. These non-conductors of caloric

are not sufficient to prevent the influence of the neighbouring media,

and a slow solution of the ice is the consequence, the water of which

is conveyed by a small hole, below the level of the pits, to a well near

it, from thence it is occasionally removed.

During the colder months, the ice is conveyed in the evening, in bags

of coarse country cloth, to boats in which it is putin bulk, and defended

from damp and heat, and is sent to Calcutta during the night, the dis-

tance being about 40 miles; but, as the wastage is very considerable at

the beginning and towards the end of the season, when it is most required

and bears the highest price, it is then conveyed thither in baskets lined

with straw and mats, and arrives before sun-rise.

The ice which is not immediately required remains in the pits while

the ground is dry, where it slowly dissolves, especially along its sides ;

but as soon as rain falls in any considerable quantit its high tempe-

rature quickly dissolves what remains.

1833.] Means of making Ice by the Natives of Bengal. 83

Repeated trials have been made at different times to accomplish the

desirable object of keeping the ice during the hot season; but so

great is the first expense, and so smalla quantity of that produced yields

any return, that hitherto every trial has proved unsuccessful, and has

entailed a heavy loss on the speculator. For the two last seasons, ano-

ther attempt has been made to keep ice, but although every precaution

was employed to guard against the influence of the surrounding media,

so powerful was it found during the last season, when the trial was for

the first time properly made, that the experiment proved unfavourable,

or only partially succeeded. The ultimate success of the measure must

now however depend in a great measure on the encouragement it re-

ceives in Calcutta, through which the best hopes may be held out of

introducing one of the greatest luxuries in a tropical climate during the

hot-season.

When the ice bed is examined after a favourable night, the straw ex-

posed between the plates and their sides is found covered with hoar-

frost, and near the water on the inner side small irregular nodules of

ice appear.

When the night has been very favourable, so as to freeze a consider-

able portion of the water, numerous small globules of air, naturally

combined with water, are disengaged during the freezing process, and

are found swimming upon the surface of the water, while others remain

attached to the bottom of the plate.

The separation of air from the water increases as the congelation

advances, and retards its progress more and more, as the proportion of

ice is greater, until nearly all the water is congealed, when a large glo-

bule of air is left at the lower and central part of the ice.

_ By expelling the air naturally contained in the water, by boiling, an

increased quantity of ice is produced, but the expence of doing so is

too great to admit of its being generally employed. On an evening in

the cold season, I boiled some water for a short time, and found next

morning more ice, but apparently as much air as in the neighbouring

dishes.

When the wind attains a southerly or easterly direction, no ice is

formed, from its not being sufficiently dry, not even, though the tem-

perature of the air be lower than when it is made with the wind from a

northern or western point. The most favourable direction of wind for

making ice is the N. N. W. diminishing in power as it approaches the

north and west: im the latter case, more latitude is allowed than from

the N. N. W. to the north. So great is the influence of the direction of

the wind on the ice, that when it sometimes changes in the course of a

night from the N,N. W. to a less favourable direction, the change not

M 2

84 Means of making Ice by the Natives of Bengal. (Fes.

only prevents the formation of more ice, but dissolves what may have

been formed. On such occasions a mist is seen hovering over the

ice-beds, from the moisture upon them, and the quantity of humidity

contained in the wind. A mist in like manner forms over deep tanks

during favourable nights for making ice.

Another important circumstance in the production of ice is the degree

of wind. When it approaches a breeze, no ice is formed. This is ex-

plained by such rapid currents of air indicating a considerable difference

of temperature between the situation from whence it passes, thus re-

moving the cold air before any accumulation has taken place in the

ice-beds. It is for these reasons that the thickest ice is expected when

during the day a breeze has blown from the N. N. W. which thoroughly

dries the ground, and towards evening and during the night diminishes

to gentle airs, which steadily proceed from the same quarter, so as to

allow the full influence of radiation and the impressions from the clear

sky.

The ice dishes present a large moist external surface to the dry

northerly evening air, which cools the water on them, so that, when

at 61°, it will in a few minutes fall to 56°, or even lower. But the

moisture which exudes through the dish is quickly frozen, when the

evaporation from the external surface no longer continues to produce

much effect.

To detect the influence of evaporation in producing ice, one of the

dishes was placed in the evening upon a patch of grass, five feet above

the level of the ice-beds, so as to be exposed to the full influence of

the sky and the cold northerly wind. This was the most favourable

situation for promoting evaporation. The night proved a favourable

one for the formation of ice, and in the morning the dishes in the beds

were covered with it, but the dish upon the elevation had lost weight

‘during the night, and had no ice upon its surface; the water soon after

sun-rise was at 46°, on another morning the water stood at 50°. This

experiment was varied by placing a brass vessel of the same size and

form as the common plates upon a sprinkling of straw on an elevated

piece of ground near the ice-beds. In the morning it was found about

the same weight, without any ice, although the plates on the beds were

covered with thick ice. On the same morning one of the porous

earthen vessels similarly situated, and covered on its under side with

tinfoil, presented the same result.

As a further proof of the cold not being produced by evaporation,

I next carefully weighed a number of the unglazed dishes in the even-

ing and again in the morning, when I found that they had gained con-

1833.] Means of making Ice by the Natives of Bengal. 85

siderable weight, which was owing to the absorption of moisture on

the surface of the water exceeding the loss by evaporation from the

external surface. The quantity of cold water which is sprinkled over

the dishes is not sufficiently large to explain the great increase in the

weight of the dishes, which I found was about the same when no water

had been thrown over the bed. Glazed vessels of different colours

were placed amongst the unglazed, which in the morning were found

to have thicker ice, and to have gained more weight than the common

dishes.

In eight experiments with the common unglazed ice-dishes, the aver-

age gain in weight, was 68.5 grains; and of five experiments with

smaller black-glazed slightly porous dishes, this average was 110

grains. As the surrounding media must have a great influence on the

formation of ice, I noted their different temperatures. The air at the

ice-fields was always found warmer in the evening, and much colder

in the morning, than at the neighbouring village of Bandel, where the

ground is more sheltered by trees, from the direct influence of the

sun’s rays. The average of a number of experiments in favourable

weather for making ice, gives, at Bandel, 70 degrees in the evening,

and 56 in the morning; and at the ice-fields 72° in the evening,

and 46° in the morning.

The temperature of the different substances in the neighbourhood, or

forming part of the ice-beds, was examined a little before sun-set and

soon after sun-rise: on a clear evening and favourable morning, they

were found to be as follows:—

Morning. Evening.

The air 5 feet above the ice-beds, ...... ........ 49° to 46°: 72°

Water in the large jars between the ice-beds,...... 44 to 60 68

Water in a deep tank in ice-fields,................ 57 77

Ground in the neighbourhood, immediately under

202 ALLS A ME Pn oe Se 54 57

Straw in the ice-beds, 3 or 4 inches under the surface, 42 to 46 48

Ditto, of a thatched hut in the ice-fields, obliquely

Sumosed tothe sky,.... 0.0.00 cs eees sere ewee sess 44 61

The temperature that generally prevails on nights fitted for the —

manufacture may be learned from the following table, for which I am

chiefly indebted to Mr. Herklots, Fiscal of Chinsurah.

86 Means of making Ice by the Natives of Bengal. [ Fes.

Abstract of a Table of 11 years’ Observations onthe Temperature of the Air at Chin-

surah between the dawn of day and sun-rise, during the season of Ice manu-

facture, by Mr. Herklots, Fiscal of Chinsurah. The thermometer at the Ice-fields

generally stood 6 or 7 degrees lower; but this is not shewn, except im the last

year from Dr. Wise’s Observations.

1831-32. 1831-32

s 2 Ss >)

Mean temperature of the rr |= E\o\ 5

air at Chinsurah. 3 é z = 5 é z =

Sic = 5/8 |S] =

o 0 Q

1819-20. Dec. ...... 54.6 |Nov. 6 to 20,| 59.0 clo

Aion sueoc 49.9 |December 8,|56.0|..| a@| NE. |January 52|..1q] Sw.

HED ai scicisic 55.0 9 to 23,|56.7|.. Nw. 7,152|45| @| sw.

1820-21. Dec........ 52.5 January 3,| 51. is 6 |NNW 28 54149 Ww.

Jan. osns+. 51.4 4,|49. |44| @| Nw 29,|56/47|. | sw

To . 53.1 5,| ? |45/6| Nw. 30,|60|59| ..| sw.

1822-23. Nov 3 to 29, a o pes ra b| Nw. 31, 56/46). sw.

Rye .olobenele , " 6 a\ Nw.

Jan. 1 to 21, 55.0 B52" (45a | iw. Pere eet

1824.25. Dec. 7 to 28, 54.6 9,/53. |50|..|NNW 3152/43 ae

Jan. 2 to 19, 54.0 11,)58. |55| a| sw 4159\43 gp Oe

1825-26. Dec.16 to 28, 54.2 12,/58. bo .. | NNW. 7 \57 52 i eh

Ja. fe) ayers 53,0 13,|56. |54|..| Nw 18.160 ~~

Feb. 1 to 10, 55.0 14,/53. |47| a | NNW. 20.158 :

1826-27. Dec. ...... 54.5 15,|52. 146) 6 [NNW 28° 60

IAW baodoe 52.3 16,|49. |44| c| Nw. 29. 56

1827-28. Dec. ...... 55.4 17,48. |42| c! nw. ii

Wie son ace 52.2 18,|47. |41| ¢ | Nw.|March 1,|56

Feb. ] to 19, 55.0 19,,49. |45| 6 | nw. 3,|56

1828-29. Dec.18 to 31, 56.1 20,| 48. ; 16) Nw 9,|59

Janse aysioee. 54.4 21,)50. 131|6! nw 11,|56

Feb. 1 to 17, 54.8 22,|48. |45|a| nw. 12,158

1829-30. Dec.5 to 31, 54.8 23,52. 147; b| nw. 14,|56

Pisseutdee 52.5 24/50. |48) a) Nw. 15, 60

Feb. no ice. 25,) 51 a! sw. |

1830-31. Jan. J,..... 30.0 Number of days on which ice was formed in small

Z ie BO ,0+°1B3-2.\"" "quantity (er), is.s «\shnal were anes enseiaing kant ee ae

apepe ieee 55.2 Ditto ditto of an average amount, (Ohe SB hase

Mar to Gth,. 54.4 | Nitto ditto very abundantly, (c), ...... nis jo. wees iene aatsd

Total Ice-days in 1831-32.. 27

Note. In lieu of the more copious table given by Dr. Wise, we have condensed his

own and Mr. Herklot’s Observations into one table, which in fact shews all that bears

upon the question of Ice-making, namely, the general temperature under which it can

be formed, and the prevailing wind.—Ep.

The result of the observations of last season, as shewn in the above

table, proves that it is not by the temperature alone we are to judge of

the number of nights in which ice is produced, for, owing to the frequent

and heavy falls of rain and the number of cloudy days last season, there

were very few nights in which ice was formed, although the tempera-

ture was for an unusual number of mornings at the degree required for

producing it. ‘The average number of nights in one season in which

ice forms is from 25 to 30; of these there are about 18 favourable, in

which the air is cold, the thermometer at Bandel under 54°, or, at the

1833.] Means of making Ice by the Natives of Bengal. 87

ice-fields, 48°. The very cold nights are from six to eight in one season,

or in which the thermometer is below 48° at Bandel, or in the ice-fields,

42°. The careful record of last season shews there were 27 nights on

which ice was formed, of which only three nights were very favourable,

seven favourable, and 17 less so.

As the influence of straw in producing the necessary degree of cold

must be considerable, the following experiments were tried. One of the

common unglazed dishes was placed at the bottom of one of the ice-~

beds, with a very small quantity of straw between it and the earth, and

another dish of the same kind was placed in the same way without any

straw under it. Next morning I found ice had formed upon the water

in the dish which was put upon the straw in the ordinary way, but

there was none on the dish which had been placed without, nor on

another at the bottom of the ice-beds ; the water in the dish upon the

sprinkling of straw being at 50°, and the other upon the earth at 52°.

Soon after sun-rise on the same morning, the water in an ice plate,

put upon the walk between the ice beds, stood at 46°, and in the large

water jar between the beds at 60.5°.

As a further proof of the influence of straw in producing the degree

of cold necessary for forming ice, a register thermometer was placed

upon the straw with its bulb exposed to the sky near the side of one of

the beds, after several of the plates had been removed, when it was

found to indicate as follows :—

2 |'Tempera-|Difference be-

Time res CU es a : : FE ture of the|tween the air

Beis # 1% lair 4 feetlat the surface

Date. -——]-- oe | a 1 Ie g |above the |ofthe straw &

= eb ue | tb 5 g paar 3 -§ | beds. 4 feet above it,

‘sie FI se he aH [a] Ss le : ;

5 2 Pi haem ea SS ee emt nS >

= cs = |e aA lala] = cs)

1832. 6 © é 0 6 oO | 6 ie) 6 oO $

Jan.20.|7 a.M.| -. |) 28: | .. |covered|26 47 | 65 | 21 oe

22.17 a.M.| 5 P.M.| 47 | 70 . nit 121 42. 5 48 a Ne 60

23.)7 a. M. Se 34 | .. |covered|/29.5] 114/34 | 47 |. 17.5 ee

BE lh... |) Shri ...4 59 nor TIA), 3 sill ia si: 4 ae

all Dias ats .. | .. ‘covered! 29 | 124 0

This table presents a high maximum and very low minimum tempe-

rature, which is to be explained by the non-conducting and powerful

radiating property of the straw, &c. and, in the morning, in part to the

production of hoar-frost.

As the kind of dishes employed must have a considerable influence on

the temperature of the water they contain, I employed the following

means to detect the influence of the material of which the dishes were

formed. A morning was selected when the wind had suddenly changed

88 Means of making Ice by the Natives of Bengal. (Fes.

towards daybreak to the S. W. direction, when the air was mild and

moist, and ice had formed on very few of the dishes placed upon the

straw. Soon after sun-rise a mist appeared over the ice-beds. The

air was at 53.5°, and the temperature of the straw 42°. The tempera-

ture of the water, which in one of the common unglazed dishes in the

evening was 56°; in a black glazed one was 58°; ina white glazed one,

59°; in the morning the temperature of the water in one of the common

unglazed dishes, with a film of ice on its surface, was at 34°, in the

dish next it without ice 35°. The water in a white saucer had a thin

sheet of ice upon its surface and was 35°, and in a deep white cup,

without ice 39.5°, ina black glazed cup 36°, in a deep one of the same

material 38°, and in a flat glazed plate 36°. On another morning of

the same kind, a black coloured copper vessel had no ice, while a white

painted brass vessel was covered with it.

The influence of brass dishes in conveying away the heat was made

evident by the ice being thicker than on the other dishes, and extend-

ing from the under edge of the plate of ice upon the surface of the

water for some distance along the inner surface of the brass dish.

(February 2.) The ice was thick, and numerous small triangles were

found a little to one side of its centre, which were not completely closed

at their apices, and around this central point the ice was bulged out and

thin, and, on examining its under surface, numerous crystals were found

to have formed at the raised part where the ice was thinner ; from whence

they shot obliquely towards the centre of the water, underneath the

upper plate of ice, where a small aperture was situated.

On the 2nd and 3rd of January, (1832,) there was only a thin film

of slightly irregular ice on the surface of the brass dishes without any

appearance of ice upon the water, in most of the plates, which with

the exposed portions of straw, grass, &c. were moist. The water in

the dishes which had not frozen near the sides of the beds, stood at

from 32° to 33°. In a dish put upon another with water in it the upper

stood at 32°, and the under at 33°. From these experiments the water

appears to be influenced by its depth, exposure, and the materials and

colour of the dishes employed for making ice.

In Bengal the day is always hot, and the tendency of caloric to ar-

rive at a state of equilibrium would soon render bodies on the surface

of the earth of the same temperature, were it not that each has an apti-

tude to receive and a power to discharge caloric, which is influenced

principally by the nature of the surface of the body and its temperature.

The degree of heat will vary with the power of the body, which may,

however, be influenced by the evaporation from it by winds and air

1833.] Means of making Ice by the Natives of Bengal. 89

heated by contact with the earth becoming specifically lighter and ris-

ing on the atmosphere. By the continual operation of these causes an

accumulation of caloric in the earth is prevented during the day, and

as soon as the sun sets, the increase of heat is checked and the night

is generally cool under a clear and sparkling firmament even during

the hottest season. This is in consequence of the generality of bodies

on the face of the earth radiating caloric in large quantities, especially

when exposed to the clear sky, as they receive few rays from the neigh-

bouring bodies in return for what they radiate into space. So power-

ful are these causes in producing a great degree of cold, that in very

favourable mornings drops of dew may sometimes be found congealed

in Bengal upon thatched roofs, and upon the leaves of some plants

during the cold weather. The cooling process advances more rapidly

than could be supposed by one who has not experienced it himself, and

proved the justness of his feelings by the aid of the thermometer. In

the open plain in which the ice is made, I have seen the temperature of

the air four feet above the ground fall in the time the sun took to de-

scend the two last degrees before its setting from 70. 5° to 57°.

Pieces of glass and tin were placed under the common dishes in the

ice-beds : in the morning they were carefully examined, and their under

surfaces were covered with large drops of moisture. A piece of glass

eight inches long and seven broad was placed on the evening of the

24th January, 1832, under an ice plate among the other dishes upon

the straw in the beds, after it had been weighed; next morning,

the dish was found to have gained 120 grains in weight, and, as

there was no ice, the water was found to stand at 34°. A dish placed

upon a plate of tin similarly situated with the last, gained 60 grains,

and the water stood at 38°. On the 26th January, there was very

little ice upon the plates, and a piece of glass and another of tin of the

same size as the last were placed under two dishes which had been ac-

curately weighed. In the morning the dish upon the tin had very

little ice upon its surface, and had gained 70 grains ; the dish upon the

glass had no ice and had gained 160 grains.

(17th January, 1832.) This evening the following varieties of dishes

were placed among the common dishes. A brass dish of the same

shape and size as the common unglazed dishes weighed the same even-

‘ing and morning. On another morning the experiment was repeated

with the same result. The ice however was thicker and more equal

throughout on the brass dishes than on any of the others; as water

boils more readily in metal, so it freezes more readily—hence little

30 Means of making Ice by the Natives of Bengal. [Frs.

appearance of crystallization was observed, and near the centre of one of

the plates of ice a small triangular opening was left. The ice was

sooner detached from the dish by the heat of the sun, and a thin rim of

ice several lines in breadth was found descending along the metal

beyond the under surface of the ice.

One of the common dishes, lined with a coating of gum-lac on the

inside, weighed the same evening and morning :—another coated on

the outside had less ice, and more crystals, and lost a quarter of an ounce

by weight; and one lined with tinfoil on the inside was of the same

weight evening and morning.

The ice on these dishes was thicker, presented fewer crystals, and

had less air in the interior ; more especially on the one lined with lac

on its inside. The brass vessels had less bubbles than the common

dishes, probably from the air flying off as it was detached from the

water, as it had less hold on the smooth surface ; and on the two lined

on the inside the ice was easily detached from the plates.

The application of these results to the explanation of the manner in

which ice is formed in Bengal becomes sufficiently evident. The influ-

ence of the soil and the elevation of the dry ground, its inland situation

and free exposure to the sky, and the quantity of dry straw presenting

a large mass of a bad conductor of heat, which penetrates but a short

way into it during the day* ;—and as soon as the sun descends below

the horizon this large and powerfully radiating surface is brought into

action upon the thin porous vessels,—themselyes powerful radiators.

The night air descends to the earth’s surface by the removal of the

heating cause, and deposits a portion of its moisture upon the power-

fully radiating and therefore cold surface of the straw and the large

moist surface of the dishes. The cold dry north-west breeze of the day

dries the ground, and declines towards the night into moderate airs,

which pass slowly over the dishes and prevent the accumulation of

caloric on their surface from the deposition of moisture.

The combined influence of the above agents seem sufficiently power-

ful to account for the degree of cold required for forming ice, as the

above experiments appear to me to prove.

* I have strong reasons for believing that electricity has a considerable influence

on the formation of ice, but I have not had sufficient opportunities of investigating

this important point, which I must leave to form the subject of another communi-

cation.

1833.] Asiatic Society. 91

VII.—Proceedings of the Asiatic Society.

Wednesday Evening, 20th February, 1833.

George Swinton, Esq. in the Chair.

After the Minutes of the last meeting had been read, the Society

proceeded to ballot for Colonel John Briggs, Dr. J. N. Casanova, and

Rev. John Macqueen proposed on that occasion, who were unanimously

elected Members.

Sir Benjamin Malkin, Recorder of Penang, proposed by Sir E. Ryan,

seconded by Mr. J. Prinsep, was upon the favorable report of the Committee

of Papers, elected an Honorary Member.

The Secretary announced, that the Committee of Papers had, upon the

authority of the resolution at the last meeting, disposed of two notes, value

Rupees 5,500, for the liquidation of the debts standing against the Society.

The Secretary also reported, that in consequence of new arrangements

made by him as Editor of the Journat of the Astrartic Socrrty, he trusted

that he should in future be able to supply that work gratis to the

members of the Society. Mr. W. H. Macnaghten remarked that no

notification had been circulated to the members acquainting them with

the resolution of the 7th March, and giving them the opportunity of pos-

sessing the Journal then allowed to be published under its auspices ; he

thought that such notice should be issued both with reference to the former

volume, and to the future numbers ; and it was ordered accordingly.

The Secretary explained to the meeting, that Mr. Wilson, previous to his

departure, had reported to Government the completion of Mr. Csoma de

Kérés’ Tibetan Grammar and Dictionary, and had offered to take the

manuscripts to England for publication ; but that the Honorable the Vice-

President in Council, being of opinion that the works might more appro-

priately be published in this country, under Mr. Csoma’s own eye, Mr.

Wilson had made them over to the Society. He had therefore followed up

the subject by a second application to Government on the 30th January, to

which the following reply had just been received:

To James PrinsEp, Ese. Secretary to the Asiatic Society.

Sir,

I am directed to acknowledge the receipt of your letter, dated the 30th ultimo,

reporting the inability of the Society to defray any part of the expense which will

attend the publication of Mr. Csoma de Kris’ works.

2nd. In reply, I am directed to acquaint you, with reference to the concluding

paragraph of your letter, that it was intended by Mr. Swinton’s letter to Mr. Wil-

son under date the 47th ultimo, to intimate that Government would take upon it-

self the expense of the publication of Mr. Csoma de Kérés’ works, and I am now

directed to acquaint you, that the Right Honorable the Governor General in Coun-

cil will be happy to sanction the estimate furnished in your letter.

N 2

92 Proceedings of the [Fxs.

3rd. It is obviously desirable that the work should have the benefit of the learned

author’s superintendence during its progress through the press, and His Lordship

in Council trusts, that it may be entered upon immediately. I am further directed

to tender to yourself the acknowledgments of Government for the valuable assist-

ance you have offered on your own part.

I have, &c. &c.

(Signed) W. H. MacNacuten,

Offg. Chief Secy. to Government.

Council Chamber, 12th February, 1833.

The Secretary stated that arrangements had accordingly been made with

the Baptist Mission Press, to commence upon the Tibetan Grammar and

Dictionary immediately.

Read, a letter from Mr. W. Twining, Secretary to the Medical Society,

acknowledging the receipt of the 1st volume of the Journal of the Asiatic

Society, and vol. xvii. of the Researches.

Library.

The following books were presented :

8rd vol. of Flora Indica, or Description of Indian Plants, by the late

Wm. Roxburgh, M. D. F. R. 8. &c. &ce.—by Capt. James Roxburgh, on

the part of himself and brother, Editors of the work.

Proceedings of the Zoological Society for 1830, 31, and 32—by the Society.

The following works,—by their author Sir J. F. W. Herschel.

On the Separation of Iron from other Metals.

On a New Method of Computing Occultations of the Fixed Stars.

An account of Observations made with a twenty-feet Reflecting Telescope in

the years 1826-27-28-30, on the Parallax of the Fixed Stars.

An account of Determining the Difference of Meridians.

Herschel’s Micrometrical Measures.

Ditto’s Account of the Repetition of M. Arago’s Experiments.

Humboldt’s Fragmens de Geologie.—By the author.

Vaillant’s Numismata Imperatorum Romanorum, 3 vols. and

Agostini on Medals, 1 vol.—by C. R. Prinsep, Esq.

Nos. 54, 55, 56 of the Jour. of the Asiatic Society of Paris.—By the Society.

Meninski, Thesaurus Linguarum Orientalium, 3 vols. and

Federici Borromzi Thesaurus, 1632, vols. 4.—by Baboo Ramcomal Sen.

A complete cepy of the Calcutta Journal, bound in quarto,—by the

Secretary.

Essai sur le Madar (Calotropus Madarii),—by J. N. Casanova, Esq.

A copy of “ Vidvunmoda Tarunginee,” by Maha Raja Kalikissen Bahadur.

A copy of the New Testament and the Psalms of David, translated into

the Malagasy language, at the Missionary establishment of Tananarivo,—

by C. Telfair, Esq. President of the Nat. Hist. Soc. Mauritius.

Meteorological Registers for December, 1832, and January, 1833.—by the

urveyor General.

1833.] Asiatic Society. 93

Lardner’s Cabinet Cyclopedia—Chemistry 1 vol.—veceived from the

Booksellers.

Physical,

Read a letter from Mr. G. Swinton, communicating correspondence be

tween Mr. Robison, Sec. Ed. Roy. Society, and several paper manufacturers,

on the subject of the Nipal Paper Stuff.

The experiments tried by the paper manufacturers at home upon the dried pulp

of the Nipal paper stuff made up into bricks (as described in the Journal, 1st vol.

page 10,) and sent home by Mr. G. Swinton in 1831, do not seem to have been

at all successful. The specimens furnished by Mr. C. Cowan to Mr. Robison

possess neither the softness nor toughness of the paper manufactured in the valley

itself, according to the methods detailed by Mr. Hodgson. They are brittle and

stiff ; transparent, as if impregnated with varnish, and full of gritty brown spots.

The colour of the specimen marked “ strongly bleached’’ is still far from being of

a good white. It took about 10 lbs. of strong dry chloride of lime, and two lbs. of

sulphuric acid, to bleach 90 lbs. of the material, being four or five times as much

as is necessary with ordinary stuff, and the texture was doubtless injured thereby.

It retained the water very obstinately on the sieve, and shrank remarkably on dry-

ing. The thin sheets made in Nipal and sent home in 1829, by Mr. Swinton, were

on the contrary exceedingly tough, flexible, though not quite white; they more re-

sembled what is called ‘‘ India paper,’’ and took the minute impression of a bank

note plate with perfect fidelity.

Mr. Charles Cowan mentions in his notes on working-up the stuff, that it was

found to be as tough as any material with which he was acquainted, which proves

that it must have deteriorated since. The value of the cakes was estimated by this

manufacturer at £6 to 8 per ton, or if fit for cartridge paper, at nearly double. No

hopes were entertained of turning it to any more refined purpose.

Read a letter from the same Member on the subject of the Garjan or

wood-oil procured in the forests of the Tenasserim provinces, a large quan-

tity of which he had also transmitted to the Sec. of the Ed. Roy. Society, to

ascertain its value in the English market.

This oil is in general use among the natives here for mixing with colors, and is

chiefly imported from Chittagong, but it would appear on Major Burney’s authority

to be still more abundantly produced in the Tavyoy district, and at much less cost ;

the bazar price in Calcutta averaging about 9 or 10 rupees per maund, whereas at

Tavoy it may be procured at about one-fourth that price. Both in India and in

England it has been found to be a good substitute for linseed oil, for outside work,

especially in light colors, being worth for this purpose about £12 to 15 per ton.

Mr. Dowie, a currier of Edinburgh, read 4 paper before the Ed. Society of Arts,

on the mode of applying this vegetable oil alone or mixed with tallow to the pre-

paration of leather for shoes, and he considers it as far preferable to fish oil: this

application is quite new, and at Mr. Swinton’s suggestions some similar trials have

since been made in Calcutta, by Mackenzie and Macfarlan, with success. The

leather absorbs a great deal of the oil, and the specimens presented to the Society

appear to be very soft and tough.

Major Burney describes the tree whence the Garjan oil is extracted, as forming

large forests in Tayoy, growing to a great height and size ; its native name is Ka-

94 Proceedings of the [Fes.

niyen; the flag-staff at Moulmein, 92 feet high, is formed of a single Kaniyen tree.

Mr. Maingy says, that the oil is much improved by boiling, which gives it drying

properties ; be has often used it for boats, and has found it excellent in preparing

tarpauling. The inhabitants of Tavoy and Mergui do not burn earth-oil like other

Burmese, but torches made of this wood-oil and touch wood. ‘The imports into

Calcutta for the last three years were as follows :

In 1829-30, Bazar maunds 759, Average price 7 8

1830-31, 914, 6 4

1831-32, 1708, 7 2

Read a letter from Dr. F. W. Malcolmson, Mad. Euro. Reg. Hyderabad,

announcing that he had fallen in with a box of Dr. Voysey’s Geological spe-

cimens, which he should forward to Calcutta by the first opportunity.

“ Among them are two fossil bones (of which he sends drawings)—descriptions

and localities may be found in Dr. V.’s. papers. Fig. 1 is part of one of the long

bones of a mammiferous animal (probably a goat or deer) ; its fibrous structure is

very distinct, and presents fine yellow veins when cut and polished: internally the

remains of the ridges to which the concellated structure was attached are visible.

Fig. 2 is one end view of the same filled with a reddish earth, common near some

of the granite rocks in the neighbourhood, and it is filled with small pieces of felspar.

It is mineralized with the carbonate and a little phosphate of lime. All the other

stones appear to have been collected in this district, and there can be no doubt of

the locality from which this was obtained.”

Dr. Malcolmson also sends the drawing of a chambered univalve fossil

shell, in a white limestone, found among Dr. Voysey’s collections.

Read a letter from William Onslow, Esq. C. S. dated Futtehpoor, 6th

December, begging the Society’s acceptance of some old Roman coins dug

up upon his father’s estate in England.

The sixty-one coins transmitted consist chiefly of the small brass of Constantine,

among which are some of URBS ROMA and URBS CONSTANTINOPOLIS : also

two of the Antonines, two of Domitian, one of Tetricus ; the rest are in so decayed

a state as not to be decypherable.

Read a letter from Lieut. A. Burnes, dated Bombay 26th Jan. announ-

cing that he had dispatched forthe Society some Bactrian coins, collected in

his recent journey to the Oxus: also some belemnites and other fossil shells

from the deserts.

Specimens of copper ore from Nellore were presented on the part of

Mr. Kerr.

The mines appear to lie to the northward of the Pennar river, 369 N. N. W. of

Nellore and 37° W. from the sea, near a village called Ganypenta in Arrowsmith’s

Map.

The copper ore prevails over a considerable tract of country—it consists of ma-

lachite, and of black anhydrous oxide of copper with red and yellow ochre imbed-

ded in micaceous schist. Mr. Kerr points out that the ore differs from the English

coppers essentially, in being free from iron pyrites and other deteriorating ingre-

dients, as lead, antimony, sulphur, &c. which make that ore difficult to purify,

whereas the Nellore ore becomes quite pure by simple smelting. The specimen of

1833.] Asiatic Society. 95

reduced metal sent with the ores is of a very fine color and highly malleable,

Doctor Thompson, 20 years ago, analyzed the ore and found it to contain,

CALWONTEIACTO Meera cis Ueleclcte a a clvietbiccc cece sctes act LORS

lacks OXIGEICOPPET, celecciseierce ts wecevtcescde GULTD

VEO OXIGEMLON sate ee a weipicie asec cress cote ee t LOO

SUICACAMGHIOSSaTh ye tlerewicsles oslo ec cfs cinid se ies so 6 3.05

100

Four different varieties examined by the Secretary contained from 13 to 47 per

cent. of red oxide of iron and silex. The appearance of the ore seems to promise

ample success to those who have engaged in the working of these mines.

Specimens of the copper ore of Nipal were presented by the Resident

Mr. B. H. Hodgson.

This ore is a sulphuret of copper, mixed with a large proportion of ferruginous

sulphuret.

A stuffed albatross, presented by Mr. J. Kyd on the part of Captain

Henry Hutchinson of the Ship Lord Wm. Bentinck.

Some fossil bones supposed to belong to the Drenti or the Dodo, from the

Isle of France, presented by C. Telfair, Esq.

Also a specimen of the silk produced from the Madagascar worm, by the

same gentleman.

This silk is reported by competent judges in Calcutta to be “‘ well reeled in the

Italian method—the thread is harsh, uneven, and gouty, of 14 or 16 cocoons. The

specimen appears old and damaged.”

Specimens of the Scincus Bojerii and the S. Boutonii (J. Duss.), and the

squille de YI. Maurice, preserved in spirits ; also some fossil bones of the

turtle discovered in an estate at Flacq, in the Mauritius. By Mons.

J. Desjardins.

A letter was read from Monsieur Desjardins, Secretary to the Mauritius ~

Society, presenting to the Asiatic Society, manuscript copies of 24 notes,

memoirs, descriptions, &c. composed by himself, on various subjects of na-

tural history. Several of them have been published in the scientific jour-

nals of Europe.

The first two papers relate to the organization of the Society for the study of

natural history in the island, to which allusion was made in the JOURNAL, Vol. i.157,

There are also the rules and the report of the third anniversary meeting, (we have

already received the two former reports.) Of Monsieur Desjardins’ contributions

to natural history, the following list will give the most flattering proof.

Sur une couleuvre prise vivante a l’Ile Maurice, 1829.

Description physique del’Ile d’Ambre, 1829.

Ditto de la Becasse de Maurice.

Ditto d’une caverne située 4 la riviere du rempart, 1829.

Ditto des mammiféres de l’Ile Maurice.

Ditto des 20 oiseaux de Madagascar.

Sur une annelide du genre Erpobdelle, (Lam.)

96 Asiatic Society. [Fzs.

Sur trois espéces de lézard du genre scinque.

Sur un tandree de Madagascar.

Sur trois espéces d’echassiers (gralle) de do.

Sur une coucou pris 4 1’Ile de France.

Sur quelques poissons de la cote N. O. de Sumatra 1831.

Description d’un oiseau (scolopax totanus glottis), 1829, &c. &c.

Literary.

Mr. Telfair also transmitted by the same opportunity a variety of manu-

script essays by Mr. Baker and others, connected with the literature of

Madagascar, besides the Missionary publications already noticed.

1. Translation of the fable of the alligator and hedge-hog.

2. Ditto of a song concerning the dead.

3. On the ordeal of the Tangéna.

4. Sur les maladies epidemiques de Madagascar.

Portions of some of these papers were read.

Resolved, that the last paper be made overto the Medical Society, and that

the best thanks of the Society be given to the President and Secretary of

the Mauritius Natural History Society.

Thanks were also voted for the other contributions of the evening.

After the business of the evening was concluded, Mr. W. MacnacuTEen

begged to remind the meeting that this might be the last occasion in which

they would enjoy the society of the gentleman who now occupied the chair,

in this country—nay perhaps for ever! He had seen his friend in the morn-

ing overwhelmed with the fatigues of preparation for embarkation on the

morrow, and little thought it possible for him to attend to other engage.

ments ; but his ardent zeal for the cause of literature and science had urged

him to devote the very last moment of his residence in this land to the In-

stitution with which he had been connected so long. For the affection

and interest thus manifested to the last, the gratitude of himself and

of his brother members was most due,—and for the modesty which had

marked his services to the Society, and which alone had prevented his rising

long since to the highest dignity it could bestow. From the time of his

quitting college, Mr. Swinton had been distinguished as an Orientalist, and

his unimpeachable conduct had marked him as one of the brightest orna-

ments of the Civil Service. Mr. Swinton, he knew, would wish him to spare

such eulogium in his presence, but it would be unjust in him and in the

Society to allow their associate to quit them without testifying their anxious

solicitude for his safe and happy return to his native land.

Mr. Swinton returned thanks for this expression of feeling on the part of

his associates, which he attributed rather to their partiality than to his merits.

He had always felt the warmest interest in the Society, and had endeavour-

ed to contribute to its success, whenever an opportunity occurred. He could

but now for the last time tender his sincerest wish for its lasting fame and

prosperity, and once more returning his best thanks, he bade them farewell.

1833.] Catalogue of the Mammalia, &c. 27

VIII.—Systematically arranged Catalogue of the Mammalia and Birds

belonging to the Museum of the Asiatic Society, Calcutta. By Dr. W.

Warlow.

MAMMALIA.

Ord, CARNASSIERS.

Fam. Cheiroptera. Gen. Galeopithecus.

Galeopithecus vulgaris. The Colugo.

Fam. Insectivora. Gen. Sorex.

Sorex giganteus, Geoff. Indian Shrew.

Fam. Carnivora. Tribe Plantigrada. Gen. Ictides.

Ictides ater. This specimen was presented to the Society by Col. Farquhar under

the title of long-tailed Bear of Malacca, and has been described by Sir S. Rafiles

as the “‘ Benturong”’ in the 13th vol. of the Transactions of the Linnean Society.

Sir Stamford is incorrect in his enumeration of the molar teeth, which are not

six on each side in both jaws ; there being six in the upper and only five in the

lower. In every other particular his description corresponds. The exact num-

ber of teeth in Ictides [am unacquainted with. Baron Cuvier’s account would

lead me to the supposition that there are six in each jaw, as in Procyon, whilst

I find in the Bulletin Universel, that the teeth are 18 in number in each jaw,

namely six incisors, two canines, and 10 molars. There can be no doubt of the

identity of the specimen with the Ictides ater of Frederick Cuvier, though it

may be necessary to separate the latter from the species with which it has been

generically connected.

Tribe Digitigrada. Gen, Lutra.

Lutra nair, F. Cuvier, Indian Otter.

Gen. Viverra.

Viverra Bengalensis, Hardw.

Gen. Felis.

Felis kutas, Pearson.

Felis catus, a variety of the common cat ?

Ord. MARSUPIALIA.

Fam. Dasyuride. Gen. Thylacinus.

Thylacinus striatus. Zebra Thylacine. Didelphis cynocephalus, Harris.

Ord. RovENTIA.

Gen. Rhizomys, Gray.

Rhizomys Sumatrensis. Bambu Rat, Rafiles. This specimen has also been described

by Sir S. Raffles, and from his description, Mr. Gray has referred it to his new

genus Khizomys, adding however a note of interrogation as to the correctness of

the location. It certainly does belong to the genus, but it would be very desir-

able that a specimen should be sent to Mr. Gray, especially as it is by no means

clear that it may not be identical with his R. Chinensis.

Gen, Hystrix, Subg. Atherina.

Atherina fasciculata. Brush-tailed Porcupine.

Ord, EDENTATA.

Gen. Manis.

Manis pentadactyla. The short-tailed Pangolin,

ce)

98 Catalogue of the Museum

Ord. MonoTREMA,

Gen. Echidna,

Echidna Hystrix. Porcupine Echidna.

Ord. RUMINANTIA.

Gen. Moschus.

Moschus Javanicus. The Kautchil.

Gen. Bos.

Bos pies ei Monstrous specimens of the Ox and Buffalo.

—- Taurus.

Ord. CeTAcEA.

Gen. Delphinorhychus.

Delphinorhychus Gangeticus, Indian Dolphin.

BIRDS.

Ord. II. INsessorEs.

Tribus 1. Fissirostres.

I. Fam. Meropide. Gen. Merops..

‘ Merops viridis. Yndian Bee-Eater.

Gen. Alcedo.

Alcedo Bengalensis. Indian Kingfisher.

Gen. Halcyon.

Halcyon Smyrnensis. Smyrna Kingfisher.

Gen. Dacelo.

Dacelo gigantea. Great Brown Kingfisher.

Tribus 2. Dentirostres.

I. Fam. Muscicapide. Gen. Muscipeta.

Muscipeta cerulea. Azure Fly-catcher.

Ul. Fam. Laniade Susf. Dicrurina. Gen. Dicrurus.

Dicrurus macrocercus.

Ill. Fam. Merulide Sudf. Oriolina. Gen. Oriolus.

Oriolus Melanocephalus.

IV. Fam. Sylviade. Gen. Jora.

Jora Scapularis.

Gen. Accentor.

Accentor modularis ?

V. Fam. Pipride. Gen. Parus.

Parus cristatus. Crested Titmouse.

Tribus 3. Subf. Alaudina. Gen. Alauda.

Alauda cristata. Crested Lark.

Gen. Emberiza.

Emberiza Bengalensis.

Ill. Fam. Covide. Subf. Gen. Barita.

Barita Destructor.

Tibicen.

Subf. Corvina. Gen. Pica.

Pica vagabunda. The Rufous Crow.

Subf. Coraciana. Gen. Coracias.

Coracias Bengalensis. Bengal Roller.

V. Fam. Loxiade. Gen. Cocothraustes.

Cocothraustes vulgaris. Common Grosbeak.

1833.] Of the Asiatic Society.

Tribus 5. Scansores.

Il. Fam. Psittacide Subf. Psittacina. Gen. Psittacus.

Psittacus erythrocephalus. The grey Parrot or Jaco.

Subf. Paleornina. Gen. Nanodes.

Nanodes pulchellus. The Turcosine Parrakeet.

Gen. Platycercus.

Platycercus eximius. Nonpareil Parrakeet.

Gen. Palzornis.

Paleornis flavirostris. Yellow-colored Parrakeet.

erythrocephalus. Blossom-headed Parrakeet.

III. Fam. Picade. Gen. Bucco.

Bueco Philippensis. Yellow-throated Barbet.

——- Gyanops, Cuv.

Gen. Picus.

Picus viridis. Green Woodpecker.

tiga. Horsfield.

IV. Fam. Certhiade. Gen. Upupa.

Upupa Epops. The Hoopoe.

V. Fam. Cuculide. Gen. Cuculus.

Cuculus Orientalis.

Coromandus. Colored Cuckoo.

Gen. Centropus.

Centropus Philippensis. Philippine Cuckow.

Gigas ?

Tribus 5. Tenuirostres.

V. Fam. Meliphagide. Gen. Melithreptus, (Vieill.)

Melitreptus Nova Holandie.

Gen. Orcadion, Vieill.

Orcadion carunculatus. Wattled Bee-eater, Lath.

Gen. Prinia, Horsf.

Prinia familiaris.

Ord. III. Rasorss.

I. Fam. Columbide. Gen. Treron, (Vinago, Cuw.)

Treron militaris. Saint Thomas’ Pigeon. The Green Pigeon.

II. Fam. Phasianide. Gen. Tragopan, Cuyv.

Tragopan Satyrus. The Nipal Pheasant.

Ill. Fam. Tetraonide. Gen. Perdix.

Perdix Chukar, Gray. Chukar Partridge.

Gen. Ortygis.

Ortygis Pugnax. The fighting Quail.

Ord. IV. GRALLATOREs,

II. Fam. Ardeide. Gen. Platalea.

Platalea lencorodia. The Spoonbill.

Gen. Ciconia.

Ciconia leucocephala. ‘The Violet Stork, or Manikjore of the Natives.

Gen. Ibis.

Ibis falcinellus. The Green Ibis.

o 2

100 Indian Natural History. [Frs.

IV. Fam. Rallide. Gen. Parra.

Parra Melanochloris. Indian Jacana.

—— Chinensis. Chinese Jacana.

— Africana ?

Gen. Porphyrio.

Porphyrio Indicus. Indian Porphyris.

Gen. Crex.

Crex porzana. Spotted Gallinule.

III. Fam. Scolapacide. Gen. Totanus.

Totanus Glottis. Green-shank Snipe.

V. Fam. Charadriade. Gen. Vanellus.

Vanellus macroptera, Cuv. V. Tricolor, Horsf.

Gen. Charadrius,

Charadrius morinellus. The Dottrel.

Gen. Himantopus.

Himantopus melanopterus, Tem. Long-legged Plover.

Ord. V. NaTATOREs.

I. Fam. Anatide. Gen. Clangula.

Clangula Histrionica. Warlequin Duck.

Gen. Fulgula.

Fuigula rufina. Red-crested Pochard.

Gen. Marcia.

Marcia cana (et Casarca), Brown. Grey-headed Goose. The Brahminee Duck.

arcuata. Anas Sili, Ham.

Gen. Querquedula.

Querquedula Crecca. Common Teal.

IV. Fam. Pelecanide. Gen. Phalacrocorax.

Phalacrocorax vulgaris. The Cormorant.

V. Fam. Laride. Gen. Sterna.

Sterna Hirundo. The Great Tern.

Gen. Diomedea.

Diomedea exulans. Wandering Albatross.

I am aware that in the preceding list there are a few omissions and there may be

some errors, but I have not at present the opportunity of correcting the one or

supplying the other. The list should also have comprised the reptiles, of which

the Museum contains some very fine specimens.

[X.—Evrorrean Notices or Inp1an Natura History.

1.—The Dugong.

The animal sent home preserved in spirits by Mr. G. Swinton, in 1830, to

Mr. J.Ropison, Secretary of the Edinburgh Royal Society, was delivered over to

Dr. Knox, for dissection. That eminent anatomist writes to Mr. Rogison in the

following terms:

‘* This very splendid gift to science can be appreciated only by those who, having

visited inter-tropical climates and warm countries, generally know well the extreme.

difficulty of procuring, preserving, and transmitting specimens such as the Dugong,

1833.] Indian Natural History. 101

which you have now received from Mr. Swinton, and which you have done me the

honor to place in my hands for examination and dissection.

It may not perhaps be altogether uninteresting to that gentleman to be informed,

that two portions of the animal have arrived and have been examined, though in

avery cursory way, by me; the shortness of the day and darkness of our climate

during the winter months forbidding all attempts at more minute inquiry for the

present. These portions are, the head and upper or anterior part of the trunk,

including the arms, and seemingly the pyoid bones with the connected soft parts.

This portion seems in excellent condition, and will no doubt afford ample scope for

dissection ; the details of which, together with illustrative sketches, I shall so soon

as they are properly arranged and finished, put into your hands, in order to be trans-

mitted to Mr. SwinToN, this being the very smallest return we can make for his so

great kindness in transmitting the specimen.

The other portion is the posterior part of the vertebral column and tail; but the

middle portion, containing all the viscera, I have not yet seen. It will be readily

understood by every anatomist and naturalist, and I hope also by Mr. Swinton,

that this division of the animal into three portions was the greatest misfortune

which could have happened, since it involved the cutting across so many important

parts, the division of all the great vessels and nerves, the displacement of almost

all the organs, and the destruction of many; so that it is not to be concealed, that

the value of the specimen has been incalculably diminished. It would I fear

be presuming too much to hope that the Dugong might one day reach us entire,

in a good state and untouched; inasmuch as the difficulty of procuring these

animals is very great, and when taken would require to be immediately placed in a

cask of ardent spirits, and carefully enclosed. But however this may be, I shall

bestow every pains in my power to make the most of those portions which have

already come to hand, and beg to return you and to the Royal Society my thanks

for having placed at my disposal an anatomical specimen deemed by me of so great

value.”

2.—WNepal Specimens.

[Extract from the Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, Jan. 24, 1832.)

William Yarrell, Esq. in the Chair.

“‘ Specimens were exhibited of various Mammalia and Birds, collected in Nepal by

B. H. Hopecson, Esq. Corr. Memb. Z. S., British Resident at Katmandoo. For’

this exhibition, the Committee was indebted to the kindness of Dr. N. Watuicn,

to whom the skins had been transmitted by Mr. Hopeson.

The Mammalia included specimens of a new species of Felis, L.; of two Antfe-

lopes, one the Chiru and the other new to science ; and of the wild Dog of Nepal.

They were accompanied by colored figures, and, except in the instance of the

latter*, by accounts of the several animals from the pen of Mr. Hodgson. These

accounts were read.

The new species of Felis is described as the Moormi Cat, a name derived from

that of the tribe which inhabits the part of the hills in which the animal was taken.

It was entirely unknown to the natives, and had consequently no local name. It

may be thus characterizedt.

* This account will be found to be supplied in the 2nd pt. Trans. Phys. Cl. As. Soc.

+ Mr. Hodgson’s description is given in the GLEANINGS, iii. p. 177.

102 Indian Natural History. [Fes.

The only specimen of this species which Mr. Hopeson has been able to procure

was a fine mature male, sent to him alive, about two years back, by the Prime

Minister of Nepal ; it was accompanied by an intimation that the animal presented

to him was the first of the kind ever taken, the people of the country having been

by its capture first apprized of its existence in Nepal. It was caught in a tree by

some hunters in the midst of an exceedingly dense forest, situated in about the lati-

tude of the great valley : the habitat of the species may therefore be presumed to

be the central part of these mountains, or that portion which lies equidistant from

the snows of the Himalaya and the hot plains of Hindustan. Though only just

taken when it was brought to Mr. Hopeson, it bore confinement very tranquilly,

and gave evident signs of a tractable disposition and cheerful unsuspicious temper ;

so much so as to convince that gentleman that a judicious attempt at taming it

must succeed. None such, however, was made, and when the animal, after six

months confinement, died of disease, it was still, of course, unreclaimed from its

wild state of manners and temper ; in which state it manifested considerable fero-

city and high courage, the approach to its cage of the huge Bhoteah Dog exciting

in it symptoms of wrath only—none of fear.

In a note appended to his description of this second new species of Felis from

Nepal, Mr. Hopeson refers to that of the Fel. Nepalensis, published by Messrs.

HorsFIELp and Vicors, in the ‘ Zoological Journal,’ vol. iv. p. 383. The ground-

colour of this latter animal is there described as “ grey, with a very slight admix-

ture of tawny ;”’ whereas in five specimens possessed by Mr. Hopeson, the tawny

prevails over the grey to such an extent that the tawny should be regarded as the

ground-colour in the mature animal of both sexes. One adult male is almost as

brightly tinted as a Leopard : the females are paler than the males. He adds that

the common species of wild Cat is frequently met with in Nepal of the fullest

European size, and so like to the Occidental type as not even to constitute a

variety.”

The new species of Antelope distinguished by Mr. Hopeson as the Bubaline

Antelope, has been already made known to our readers*.

The skin of the wild Dog of Nepal was compared by Col. Sykes with a specimen

of the Kolsun of the Mahrattas, recently described by him in the ‘ Proceedings,’

(Part 1. p. 100,) under the name of Canis Dukhunensis. He stated his impression

to be, that the animals are identical, differing only by the denser coat and more

woolly feet of the Nepal race, a difference readily accounted for by the greater cold

of the elevated regions inhabited by it. He declined, however, pronouncing a

decided opinion, which, he thought, could only be arrived at by more extensive

comparison, and by a full acquaintance with the habits of the wild Dog of Nepal.

Among the Birds contained in Mr. Hopgson’s collection was exhibited a speci-

men of the Hematornis undulatus, a species described in the first part of the Pro-

ceedings of the Committee, p. 170, and figured in Mr. Gouxp’s ‘ Century of Birds.’

The specimen agreed accurately with that which had been previously exhibited to

the Committee, except in size ; the present specimen being about one-third larger.

From this difference in size it was conjectured to be a female. Specimens were also

in the collection of the Myophonus Temminckii, the difference between which spe-

cies and the Myophonus flavirostris (metallicus, Temm.) had been pointed out in

* Vide GLEANINGS, iii. 122,

1833.] Indian Natural History. 103

the same part of the ‘ Proceedings,’ p. 171. The separation of the two species was

thus further justified by the accurate accordance of several specimens of the Nepa-

lese bird, in those characters which separated them from the Archipelagan species,

A specimen of Zoothera monticola was also included in the exhibition, which de-

viated in no respect from that already described in the ‘ Proceedings,’ p. 172, and

figured by Mr. Gould.

An interesting species of Hornbill, which has been described by Mr. Hongson in

the ‘ Asiatic Researches,’ vol. xvii. p. 178, but which had never before been seen in

Europe, accompanied the former birds.

Among some drawings of this species which accompanied the collection, one was

observed in which the tail was elevated in the same manner, although not to the

same extent, as in the Toucans of South America when at rest. Mr. Vicors called

the attention of the Committee to this peculiarity in the Touwcans, which he had

ascertained from a living bird in his own collection, and which he described in the

‘ Zoological Journal,’ vol. ii. p. 480; pl. xv. And he dwelt on the additional proof

thus afforded of affinity between these two families of the Old and New World,

which are equally allied by the most important characters of their structure.

A male and female Pheasant were also exhibited from the collection, which

appeared to be the species described by Dr. LATHAM under the name of Phasianus

leucomelanos, (Ind. Orn. ii. 633.) Mr. Vicors pointed out the difference between

this species and the Phasianus albo-cristatus, which he had described in the first

part of the ‘ Proceedings,’ p. 9. This difference consisted in the deep black colour

of the crest in the Phas. leucomelanos; in the lanceolated feathers of the under

part of the body extending no further than the breast ; and in the plumes of the

lower part of the back being doubly fasciated, by a slender violet-black band in

the first instance near the apex, and seeondly by a slender. white apical band. In.

the Phas. albo-cristaius, on the contrary, the crest is white, with a somewhat

dusky base ; the lanceolated feathers on the under body extend over the abdomen ;

and the feathers on the lower part of the back are fasciated with one rather broad

white apical band, without any vestige of the black violet markings observed im

the other species. Mr. Vicors added, that these two species, together with the

Phas. lineatus of Dr. Latuam, exhibited to the Committee on the 11th Jan. of last

year, and described in the ‘ Proceedings’ of that date, p. 24, as well as the fire-

backed Pheasant, Phasianus ignitus, Lath., formed a group among the Pheasants,

which appeared intermediate between the typical birds of that family and the genus

Gallus, or Jungle Fowl. This group, distinguished by their crests, and by the tail

partaking equally of the elevated character of that of the Jungle Fowl, and the

recumbent character of that of the Pheasant, had been set apart by MM. Tem-

MINCK and Cuvier under the name of Houppiferes, and by the former naturalist

under the scientific name of Euplocamus.

The only species apparently undescribed in the collection was the following Pigeon,

which Mr. Vicors expressed his pleasure in having it in his power to dedicate to

the enterprising and scientific discoverer.

Cotumsa Hopesonit. Col. capite colloque pallidé, dorso crissoque intensitis

vinaceo-griseis ; alis, regione interscapulari, abdomineque vinaceo-brunneis, hoc

albo variegato ; scapularibus albo guttatis ; nuchd vinaceo-brunneo notatd ; remi-

gibus rectricibusque, his intensius, fuscis ; guld albescenti-grised ; pedibus satu-

raté ceruleis, unguibus flavis.

Longitudo corporis, 15 unc.

[Fus. 1833.]

104

Meteorological Register.

iwou vpueiaA YINOS e UL paoeyd ore “Wa OT pue “Ww

‘ouy AT[RIeues

*0}1p ‘OWWIP 48tur AdSoy

“01 IP *o}7Ip “und

“0331p ‘oyIp ‘0741p

“Iva *aea[o *0791p

*a'SApnojo *0771p "0371p

"NI ‘uno “und *0}11p

‘0731p "0731p “Iea[9

*Iva[o P(t) a} ‘O1p

“und no “SOF

*I9}S9M ‘UL 4s "no "Ou1p

*Apnoyo “uno 0731p

*0}}1D 0} *0}31D

*0171p “0171p ‘01D

*0}} 1p *onIp "0731p

‘OVIP oP U2) fa) *oVWIp

"A *N] ‘1 "0791p *0331p

“SULIOYeS -ouIp *reayo

“snquira “wud ‘snje.ys

“119 ‘0731p ‘sD

0731p 0131p *0}ITp

*073ID *07}1p *Ov1Ip

*IRa[o *reajo *OuIp

“Teas *01VIp "0p

“Apnoyo “und "und

"0731p ‘0741p “reayo

"119 “119 0791p

op d=) fo) *rea]o *SO}

“Kep je re]

5 Z E

3 8 3

et 5 es

R R

*IOY}CO MA

*sIIe JUST

WOODS AHS Sag SHI GNSS SST IP roa soy AS

DAWOANWMAMADSAANDOSASHOSCUHOMANAA AH He

‘Wd OLIV

LE | 68

6°81 | 96

£°ES | 3B

6ST | 86

SOL | 68

LOL | 38

6.0 | LZ

OTL} ZL

L0r | 92

0) | (656

GL OF

OL | r8

I‘cl | FOL

EBL | o°S1

OSZT | LST

SOL | GGL

O*OL | 66

OIL | 99

B8 | Sv

LOI ; 0'9

SFL | 08

OOL | SOL

BZ | SFL

68 | S‘°9

06 | 8g

OIL | 8°9

TOL | ¢*¢

66 | 8%

GOL | 6°¢

me | ee

i =

v >

3 3

*19JOULOULIIY, |,

ASO ANTS HPSOLP SAA Sos Hana co oT

AVEC PRC ELL IC Pee)

COM AAD OD

vg zy |

-O19A}] ALEPH} Q[tiq-}s10Ul Jo uoissardeq

‘JUBUINIJSUI S[eIAUAH IOAPAING ay} UeY? IaMOT ZO‘

"VG IOJ BsOYT, *AIOJwIOGe] ay} JO Ue va1z ay) UI papusdsns ore “WwW

1Z | L‘8L

—-

Co ee

Sona

i=)

nen) Cory

DAWA

Con

oom oS

Oreos

WRRERRSRRRRRRRRRRDSDOOOS

DIA AIA A AS HID NO TRIAS NS HO AIS DS

Ney

0°82

“ITY 9Y} Ul JoJOUIOUIIEY, J,

"eest ‘Auonsgag fo yzuoum ay, 4of ‘nyjnaynQ ‘any hvssp ayn yo yday wajsibayy yoavb0j0.10970 Ar

TIAL

Aq °XeIN

“WW *V ¢ ye

UN ULE

*‘IOy,L “sor

purys sla}oulOIeg oyT,

‘dp pure Ww

“L9 | 196°

0g6*

168°

9165

£60

ogos

PS0*

960°

“WV OL IV |

"YIET ob 03

poonpal Jojouloieg

‘erpayyen a

*V OL JOJ syueumMsIsuyz eae eat

696°

——

mA TIN ORO

“yuoUL

is}

XS)

fo)

Lick:

LAL or

. ‘siecle

ent Pe

el os ad se

+. geen

AG aa

tar

Dea eet

‘

pairs ee

5 > re) ee

“

site

wAsT Hr re ol yea

: ~ ae pee eave © a! re

B> MIHIT

\227PP HY pobaams way pow spy Leary Duurne ry] fo won.sod Pop 3, ° On’

TY DLOYY

2 sof syd

pan pW ysl

os UD SIG a

: WQYoyy 0 PODYT

woodyo'7, A AS

ynJoOW

VS A

D hy BULB YOL)

ro}

DYD Wut 77 g

(co)

Peyoyayn,

le a0. DUOOYUMET ag ae

viimupg

DUD 411 YT °

See Pippy v.r0g @

DOH Er

Loodpoumg ae

UNW]OT o pire

POOL 0

Darpunyyo-“ \

£ Suvnyy UL = WTA OE | 20S”

Pde mop Sars ag

: chayy suapg) Loh was peonpoy

hoparapnyaeuyn wun wyywotf-

STVNVD GHL AO

HOLA SS

JOURNAL

THE ASIATIC SOCIETY.

No. 15.—March, 1833.

I.—On the Restoration of the Ancient Canals in the Delhi Territory.

By Major Colvin, Engineers.

(Extracted from that Officer’s Report to Government as Superintendent of Canals. ]

I. THE CANAL OF FEROZ SHAH.

The original branch of the canals lately re-opened, to the west of the

Jamna, was excavated under Frroz Suan, about the middle of the

fourteenth century. The neighbourhood of Hissar was his favorite hunt-

ing ground, where he evidently must have passed much time, attended

by his court, if we may judge from the extensive ruins of buildings and

tombs still existing, and occupying a space of several square miles, all

attributed to that period; the advantages of an abundance of good

water for so large an assemblage, in a country of such extreme aridity,

where the wells are 130 feet deep, and the springs often salt, may have

been the principal incentive to this great undertaking.

Probability and tradition point out the head of the original canal to

have been where it now is, immediately at the point where the Jamna

issues from the lower range of hills, and nearly opposite to another

hunting seat of the same emperor, marked in the maps as Bddshah

Mahal ; from whence it was apparently conducted along one of the many

old water-courses of the Jamaa, till it fell into what was then the mouth

of the Sdmbe river*. This channel, under the operation of time and

floods now become the western branch of the Jamna, was then probably

* A mountain-torrent nearly dry, except in the rains, when it receives the drain-

age of the mountains south-east of Nahun, and of the plains east of its course, nearly

to the Jamna, from which and a strong fall, its floods are most violent and sudden

in their effects.

106 The Ancient Canals in the Delhi Territory. [Marcu,

of more moderate dimensions, and, to turn the water into the cross-cuts

formed, must have been closed below Fattehgarh, probably by an earthen

dam renewed annually, no remains whatsoever of any permanent work

remaining in that vicinity. By one or other, or all of the channels, the

remains of which now exist, the water was conveyed across a tongue

of land into what is clearly another old channel of the Jamna under

Burya, being a wide hollow, skirting the high ground to its north

and west, which is continuous, though with numerous and deep inden-

tations, from the hills along the right bank of the Svmbe river, and then

following this water-course as far as Karndl ; towards the hills rising

little short of 100 feet, and sinking south of Karndl, near Uncha Sumdnd,

(where the canal enters on the high land, and diverges from the Jamna,)

to about 15 feet. Above this point the land on the left bank is

uniformly low, extending to and forming the Kadir land of the

Jamna, a most fertile tract, almost entirely under cultivation, and

from its composition, and the closeness of water to the surface, almost

independent of irrigation.

From Uncha Samdnd, a canal must have been excavated, at first

of great depth, but gradually diminishing as it approached Suffi-

don, near which it opened into a branch of the Chittang river,

said to come from near Teradrié by Baréd, a few miles east of

Suffédon*, along which the canal was led with partial excavations, of

which the remains exist, in some places more, in others less, (as would

be the case in clearing out a river bed,) until it rejoined the other

branch of the Chztang, at Dhdtrat. From Dhdtrat the marks are more

apparent of its having been an ancient river bed, simply cleared out

to pass on a stream of water to Hissar, and a few miles beyond the

latter, apparently with a view to provide an escape for the surplus water

of the canal into the old bed of the river ; as within a few miles of Hissar

all trace of former excavation ceases, whilst the river bed is continu

ous; latterly, winding among the sand hills of Bhikanér, or more properly

speaking, along the northern bounds of the sandy desertt, until the

bed unites with that of the Ghaghar river, near Badhopal, and about 22

* Of this branch all I am aware of is, that in heavy seasons of rain great floods

pour into the canal near Baréd, said to be consequent on the destruction of the

earthen dams of the Chitang.

+ The grounds of this remark are, that south of the bed of the Chitang the

country is merely a succession of hills, and swells of sand, in some parts rising 200

feet, whilst to the north the sand is chiefly in detached ridges and patches ; the sub-

soil, when it gets clear of the drift sand, being a hard flat, covered with low tree

jungle, totally different from the sandy desert of Bhikantr.

1833.] The Ancient Canals in the Delhi Territory. 107

miles south-east of Bhatnir, whence it has been traced by Mr. W.

Fraser to open on the valley of the Satlej, north-east of, and about 20

miles from Bahawalpir ; thus securing an outlet for the waters, should

such ever be needful: but as the Ghaghar river, which receives the

drainage of the hills from Ndhan to Plassta, and generally of the

country between the Jamna and the Satlej, does not in the heaviest

season pass in force beyond Bhatnir, no stream by the Chéitang is

likely to effect the junction, and the period when this river ceased to

flow as one is far beyond record, and belongs to the fabulous periods

of which even tradition is scanty.

It may not be out of place here to advert to the causes which are

even now operating to destroy the utility of the Ghaghar and such

rivers, and tending to extend the limits of the desert, which forms our

north-western boundary in this quarter. What the country about and

west of Rdneah, now inhabited by the Bhattts, has been, may be in-

ferred from the numerous sites of towns and villages scattered over

a tract, where now fixed habitations are hardly to be met with. I allude

only to the vicinity of the bed of the Ghaghar, with which I am per-

sonally acquainted ;—when the depopulation took place, lam not prepared

to say; it must have been long since, as none of the village sites present

one brick standing on another, above ground,—though, in digging be-

neath it, very frequent specimens of an old brick are met with, about

16 inches by 10 inches, and3 inches thick*, of most excellent quality:

buildings erected of such materials could not have passed away in any

short period. The evident cause of this depopulation of the country is the

absolute absence of water, most probably the effect of the system now

in use in the Sikh states, through which all these rivers pass from the

mountains ;—namely, the erection of dams of earth across the streams at

all favorable points, to raise the water so high as to flow over the face

of the country and irrigate it, the surplus escaping by the sides till

stopped by other dams, and so on, it might almost be said, ad infini-

tum.

It will easily be conceived, that in forming this string of lakes, the

consumption of water by absorption and evaporation disposes of the

greater portion, whilst the irrigation takes a very small share, which

could be equally well, though more expensively, drawn off by small

canals from the main stream, leaving the latter open to proceed onward

* Such bricks were all found marked thus Q evidently by a revolution of the

fingers extended with the thumb as a centre, and gradually drawn round and up to

the thumb. Similar bricks of an age anterior to the Mahomedan conquest, have

been excavated at Hansi.

ep 2

108 The Ancient Canals in the Delhi Territory. (Marcu,

as far as it would go, and such an unincumbered stream would by being

in constant action prevent the accumulation of impediments in the river

bed, which, under the system of damming, have eight months of each year

to accumulate, and in a country liable to drift sand, any vegetation in

the bed is sufficient to collect and stop it, and form banks, which

from the effect of the next rains is spread and deposited in hollows,

gradually raising the bottum, and thereby widening the water way, and

diminishing its power of sweeping clean the channel—an operation which

with an open river would have been constantly going on, as no particle

of water passes onwards without moving somewhat nearer to its final’

receptacle some portion of the river silt. In the Ghaghar, the outlet

no longer existing, the operation is that of a gradual filling up from

the tail of the river upwards, and the consequent shortening of the point

to which water reaches from its source. At present the stream in the

dry weather reaches to Dindhal, and it is only in the rains that any

portion of water reaches our provinces when heavy floods sweep along the.

bed of the Ghaghar, sometimes as far as Bhatnir, and convert all the

hollows into lakes, which are gradually shoaling, by the amount of silt

in the water filled into them. The bed of the river, thus saturated and

aided by irrigation from the patches of water, yields the most splendid

crops of wheat in the neighbourhood of Rdneah (a space several miles

wide)—a benefit our landholders must lose as the river retrogrades,

but which might be much extended, as was shown the year we occupied

the Bhatté country, when, a number of the lower dams being cut, the

floods of the rains reached and passed Radneah in abundance, where

they had hardly been for years previously. The most beneficial effect

of insisting on aright to a share of the waters which do not rise in, but

only pass through, the Sikh states, would be in affording a sufficient

supply of water for the nala or canal from the Ghaghar, at Minok,

into it again near Raneah. The general line of it is shown on the map

passing by Fattehdbad, and being in a great measure within our frontier,

it would be an extension of the benefits of irrigation from the Ghaghar

to our own subjects, who now derive so little from the vicinity of what

the acts of our neighbours make but a nominal river nearly. This old

water-course is well defined at its head, and so far open that, in the

rains, the freshes send down a supply of water for the rice cultivation

near Fattehabdd. Feroz Suan is said to have made a canal from the

Ghaghar, and it is possible that this is the channel alluded to. The ad-

vantages of its being re-opened (only however after the Ghaghar river

shall have been cleared of dams, for at least 100 miles up) should not

be lost sight of. The only thing further I have to say on the canal of

1833.] The Ancient Canals in the Delhi Territory. 109

Feroz Suan is, that as no marks of irrigation channels exist along its

banks, it is natural to suppose no system of extensive irrigation had

time to take root, and that, with the decease of its founder, it fell into

neglect, and discontinued flowing ; had it flowed long enough to get up

any system of irrigation, the remains of water-courses would not have

been utterly obliterated, whereas there are no traces of them west of

Suffédon.

ALI MARDAN KHAN’S, OR, THE DELHI CANAL.

Whether the above canal continued to have a stream in any part of

its course or not, at the time the Delhi branch was thought of, early

in the seventeenth century, does not seem very clearly known ; though

the expression of ALI Marpan Kuan “ having brought his canal

from Karndl to Delhi’ would imply that, the original canal still

flowed as far as Karnal, and thence probably into the Jamna, from

the choaking up and neglect of the excavated portion between Karndl

and Suffidon. Anxiety to take advantage of the ancient canal of

Feroz Suan, so far as suitable in direction, probably induced Aur

Marpsn Kun to follow it as far as Madloda, whence turning south,

he would fall in with a natural hollow near Kordna, which is in fact

the head of a great drain of the country ending in the Farkhnagar

Jhil, about 15 miles 8. W. of Delhi, and this he unfortunately follow-

ed to Gohdna. Thence diverging south-east, he appears to have pursued

a line, the traces of which are most prominent from Gohana to Jatola ;

and thence on, or nearly on, the present line, he made his way to Delhi.

A terrible catastrophe is recorded to have happened on the first trial

of the works, when the water, having got into the deep hollow at

Gohdna, could not escape thence by the channel formed, and accu-

mulating, until it overtopped the embankments across this hollow

way, destroyed the town of Lalpir, of which the extensive ruins still

exist in a low hollow west of the present town of Rhotak. The correc-

tion* of his error appears to have been made with much judgment,

passing closely to the natural ridge of the country, where the land

falls off on each side. From Jatola, the departures from his old course

are of less moment; although, to account for the remains of bits of canal

here and there, he must have made another detour near Bhowana, where

entering on the low ground between that and the rise on which the city

stands, he had his most difficult task. He appears to have secured him-

self, by an outlet, at the upper end of this dangerous spot, sufficient to

reduce the level of canal materially in case of accident. Aheadof this point

to maintain the level required in the city and palace, the canal, instead of

* By excavating anew from near Rair to Jatola.

110 The Ancient Canals in the Delhi Territory. (Marcu,

being sunk in the ground, is carried along an elevated mound, in many

parts of which the bottom rises much higher than the surrounding

country. The lowest portion of this hollow was crossed on an aqueduct

of masonry, under which escapes the surplus water of the Farkhnagar

Jhél into the Jamna. The canal, shortly after entering on and

skirting the base of the range of hills west of Delhi (the drainage

from which crosses over the canal by ancient aqueducts), is finally led

directly across thé ridge by a channel cut out in the rock, to the depth

of about 60 feet at the crest. It then enters the city, and passing

through it by an open channel, traverses along another extensive

aqueduct into the palace, throughout the whole of which it ramifies,

in open or covered water-courses, having outlets to the Jamna, thus

permitting the passage of constant streams of fresh water. Similar to

these, in the space between the range of hills and the palace, numer-

ous underground channels were led off to the various residences of the

nobles, and the divisions of the city, yielding to the whole city and its

suburbs a supply of good water, from the open well shafts connected

with these underground water-courses, and necessary to admit of their

being cleared out.

On a review of the ancient works in Delhi, connected with the

canal, money must have been expended with a most lavish hand,

to effect what is known; and much is yet hidden in the ruins of

the neighbourhood. The branch thus successfully opened, appears

to have been maintained in a state of efficiency, until the year 1760,

including a supply down the Gohdna branch, and another down a

portion of Frroz’s canal, in which latter the water ceased to flow at

Suffidon about 1740. The decay of the canal was probably gradual ;

and final only, when the power of the emperor was too much circum-

scribed, and his attention too much engaged by the perilous circumstances

of his reign, to attend to such matters : to which may be added the gra-

dual increase in size and depth of what was then the western branch

of the Jamna, rendering the annual formation of the earthen dam

across it in time for the irrigation of the crops, a work of more diffi-

culty and labor, than was compensated by the advantages deriv-

ed. During the long period that it did flow, the system of irriga-

tion from its waters appears to have been most extensively diffused,

judging from the multitudes of water-courses which intersect the coun-

try on both banks, from below Karnal to Delhi: the amounts of the

revenue derived from it must however be deemed fabulous, or must

be misunderstood ;—villages, which have from 12 to 15,000 digas of

land, being stated to have paid a lakh of rupees a year—a sum about

1833.] | The Ancient Canals in the Delhi Territory. 111

equivalent to the gross produce of the land, supposing every part of it

yielded one first-rate crop annually, and that the whole of the lands

were under irrigation, a matter for which the capacity of the canal was

perfectly inadequate. Either the price of produce must have been much

higher then, or the village bounds much more extensive; or what is

more probable, districts were designated by the names of the principal

towns or villages, and thus the rents stated include the total revenues.

Certainly no such results are now witnessed in villages of the first

magnitude, where irrigation is used to the extent of 1500 Rs. per

annum for the use of the water. One such village, Bhatgaén, yields

the Begum Sumroo 20,000 rupees a year, I believe ; and another, Sissa-

na, pays, I think, to our Government 16,000 rupees. Another, Kordna,

pays about 14,000 rupees, and is one of our finest villages on the ca-

nals, though not so large as others: these villages irrigate extensively*.

THE DOAB CANAL OF ALI MARDAN KHAN.

Iamless acquainted with the former history of this canal. It certainly

bears the name amongst others of Aut Marp&én Kun, and must therefore

be coeval with the Delhi canal; but having undergone several reparations

in parts, its names are various. It was originally led from the Jamna

shortly above the ruins of Bddshah Mahal, along a nala of the Jamna

to the village of Nya Shahr, from which an excavated channel

conducts it into a small mountain-torrent near Raipir, in which it

proceeds about two miles, and is then led slanting across the beds of

two great mountain-torrents, (the Nyagaén and Maskareh Rao ;) on

getting clear of which, it was led by Sahdranptr, apparently along

the crest of the ridge between the Jamna and Hindan rivers, from the

feeders of the latter leading off from its left or east bank; whilst it is

ascertained that several hollow ways lead towards the Jamna from its

right bank. In its course from Sahdranpir to near Delhi, there is

nothing particular to notice, beyond the absolute absence of the re-

mains of any trace of ancient bridges or water-courses. Near Delhi, it

descends into the valley of the Jamna, and passing partly direct, and

partly through the grounds of a Royal preserve, it rejoins the Jamna

opposite the city. From the above-mentioned want of traces of ancient

works, I conceive the task of maintaining the passage across the

mountain-torrents at its head, of which three are first-rate, was found

to be so great, that the canal was abandoned almost as soon as formed,

and that the repeated attempts at reparation afterwards were only

* In these sums I do not pretend to perfect accuracy : they are noted from recollec-

tion. Bhatgaén and Kordna are two of those stated to have yielded a lakh of rupees

a year.

112 Restoration of the Canals in the Delhi Territory. [Marcn,

efficient for a season, and were overcome by the increasing difficulties.

Had irrigation existed to any extent, 100 years could not have

obliterated all traces of it; and had the water flowed for any length of

time, results analogous to what are now experienced elsewhere

would have followed, and must have left a trace behind them. Of the

former condition of this canal, I must therefore content myself with

these inconclusive remarks.

‘ Restoration of the Canals in the Delhi Territory.

The attention of Government seems to have been drawn to the

canals shortly after these provinces came under our dominion. I

have understood the first suggestion was the offer of a gentleman

(Mr. Mercer) to re-open the Delhi canal at his own expence, un-

der the engagement of having secured to him the whole benefits

resulting for a period of 20 years, which was not accepted;

and under orders of Government, a survey and design for the work

was completed and submitted for consideration by Lieut. Macartney,

of the Cavalry, in the year 1810; this was further followed up, if not

preceded, by several reports from other officers on the subject; (Lieut.

Wuire of the infantry and Lieut. Forpycr of the engineers, amongst

the number,) whose reports are lodged in the Chief Secretary’s Office :

and the whole subject seems to have elicited such a variety of opinion

from Colonels Kyp, Garstin, and CoLeBRookg, either as Surveyors Ge-

neral or Chief Engineers, that the matter seems to have fallen into abey-

ance, until revived during the government of the Marquis or Hast-

incs. In the same year, a survey of the Doab canal was made by

Lieut. Top, followed up by a notice from Lieut. Hopeson, from which

nothing resulted. The canal of Feroz Suan is merely incidentally

noticed, and appears not to have engaged any attention until the peri-

od of Captain Buanz’s appointment to the canals. I am unable to give

any special notice of what may be called the preliminary measures,

from the want of records in my office, where nothing further than the

original reports by Lieuts. Macartney and Top exist.

Restoration of the Delhi Canal, from the Hills to Delhi, 185 miles in

length.

This subject appears to have early engaged the attention of the Mar-

quis oF Hastines, although it was not till the beginning of 1817, that

Lieut. Buanr of the engineers was appointed to conduct the work; his

estimate was framed on the report of Lieut. Macartnry: although in

the progress of the work, it was found necessary to depart considerably

from the ideas of that officer, in consequence of the changes effected

by the river in this interval. The work was carried on by Lieut. Blane,

1833.] The Ancient Canals in the Delhi Territory. 113

with great-zeal and in the face of numerous difficulties, and the water

being partially brought down as the work progressed, irrigation com-

menced from it in 1819, and by the end of May, 1820, the water was,

brought to the city of Delhi, and passing through the main conduits in

the palace, rejoined the parent stream.

Lieut. BLaNE, instead of drawing his supply of water from the

river by any of the old heads near Birya, or as pointed out by

Lieut. Macartney, from near Dadidpir, (either of which, in the

then state of the case, would have entailed the closing up of what

had become the western branch of the Jamna, either by a per-

manent work eminently liable to destruction, or by an earthen

dam renewed annually, at a great expence and loss of time, besides

the almost certainty of its destruction, from the floods of the cold

weather,) wisely selected the vicinity of Chiharptr, to draw the sup-

ply from, although it entailed the passage of two rivers, one the Patralla,

of no great moment, the other the Sumbe, of considerable difficulty,

from its being the sole drain of the mountains south-east of Nahan

nearly down to the Jamna : these two rivers between them drain also

the whole country nearly between the Siimbe and the Jamna, and

as their streams united before reaching the Jamna, one crossing would

be saved. He unfortunately drew his new line of canal from the junc-

tion to Burya, too close to the Jamna, instead of leading it under

Bellachor and Kharwdn, which though much more expensive in the

onset, would have proved less so hereafter ; it would at least have been

much safer, as it has now become necessary to take measures against

the encroachments of the Jamna*, which this season have been to a

formidable extent, and may this year, require expensive means, to

prevent its continuance, which can only be decided on after the rains.

The water led from the Jamna near Chitharpir is conducted along a

* The effects of this, supposing the Jamna to cut into the canal, may be here

noticed: the present bed of the canal is above the low-water surface level of the

Jamna ; the fall of the Jamna is more rapid than that of the canal, the level of the

latter being maintained to attain the upper surface level of the country, and the

maximum rise of the Jamna would suffice to throw about 12 feet water into the

canal at height of floods ; this would probably cause much damage in times of heavy

floods, and might permanently be injurious by sweeping out the bed, and inclining

the river to take this course from its lying direct in the line of current. In such

case, it would break into the river again either at Kanjnin, or at Karnal, or both,

and its strength of current would suffice to clear for itself such a channel as would

remedy the evils it could not fail to bring about in the meantime. The superior

slope of the bed of the Jumna is likely to prevent this, and means may be devised

to lead off the strength of the current from the bank, it has this year so fiercely

attacked.

114 The Ancient Canals in the Delhi Territory. [Marcn,

natural channel to. Jhydart, thence by a new cut into the Putralla,

which it follows to its junction with the Sémbe, where Lieut. Buanz

projected a dam of masonry, but was deterred from its execution by

the heavy floods of 1820: the earthen dam then required was in extent

500 feet, now it has extended to a serious work of 1200 feet; the ex-

tension is attended with the advantage of the floods attaining less height,

as none have reached since within three feet of the height he noted.—

From this point an entirely new channel connected this work with the.

old line of canal near Burya, whence its bed was simply cleared or

restored as far as Delhi ; in the vicinity of which a number of old bridges

were repaired and some new ones built, besides which the only other

works done were the formation of a new escape dam at Kanjniin to-

wards the head of the canal, and the restoration of anoldone near Bowana,

for the tail of it; both works of vital importance, though still insufficient

from want of a more centrical escape (as at Karnal), to pass off the

heavy land floods from the north of Karnal, which are added to those of

the canal in the rains: the old channel by Budakhera presents a suitable

site for such a work. On Lieut. Buanu’s unexpected death in June, 1821,

the canal was considered finished, and the bills rendered, amounting

to somewhat more than half of the estimate—many works noted in

them were not even commenced. The canal was however in fact com-

pleted, so far as conducting the supply of water then needful was con-

cerned. When this supply came to be increased, and that for Feroz’s

canal to be also brought down by the same head, the canal was no

longer efficient ; to prevent inundation, it became necessary to embank

the canal nearly from end to end, and when the water became so deep

as not to admit of a loaded hackery (or cart) passing through it, it

became necessary to build bridges, so that from within a few years of

Captain Buanr’s death, the works of the canal, suited to its present

purposes, have been in almost constant progress, and upon an enhanced

scale, from the canal being kept full of water during their execution ;

for the irrigating villages had then become dependent on it for the means

of paying their revenue. These works are only now drawing to com-

pletion.

Restoration of Feroz’s Canal. Main branch, Rair to Bahaderah, 1514

miles in length ; Rhotak branch, 45 miles long ; Darbah branch, 32 miles

long ; New Supply Head, 12 miles long. Total length, 240 miles.

The idea of the advantages of this work appears to have presented

itself to the mind of Captain Buanz, when employed on the Delhi canal,

in its vicinity ; but they were first specifically brought to the considera-

1833.] — The Ancient Canals in the Delhi Territory. 115

tion of government by the civil commissioner Mr. Forrsscus, through

whom I received instructions in May, 1820, to make the requisite sur-

veys and estimates ; these added to other duties were not completed

till June, 1822, and were then submitted to government, and sanctioned

during that year; and I was honored, by being appointed to carry my

own ideas into effect. The work commenced in March, 1823; the exca-

vation of the channel was completed, and, a few necessary works of

masonry for regulating the water being finished, the water was turned

down the canal in May, 1825. This measure may appear precipitate,

but water to the country, to which this was destined, was so valu-

able a boon to both man and beast, and the soil was generally

so good, and the canal relatively to the Delhi one so small, that the

extra expence of working in water was of much less moment, than the

benefits of the supply of water to the country. Since that period the

completion of original works, as well as the extension of the advantages

of the canal, have been progressive.

The original works consisted in the clearance of the old line

of canal from Rair to Chaminz, with the formation of bridges, as

detailed in the abstract of estimates. The extensions are of the main

line to Bahaderah,—of an additional branch into our newly settled

frontier towards Darbah,—and of the Rhotak branch to Rhotak, with

all the works necessary thereon :—these works like those of the Delhi

canal are close on completion. In reference to the two canals, which

have one common head, I may here allude to the formation of the ma-

sonry dam across the Stimbe, now in execution, to supersede the

earthen dam there, premising that this dam is swept away annually

in the end of June, after which, there is no regular supply of water in

the canal, and that it is extending in dimensions. With every exer-

tion, it occupies about 25 days in construction, and as it cannot be

commenced before the rains are over, it cannot be completed before

the 20th October, and in these 25 days, the fall of the Jamna is be-

tween two and three feet (exclusive of temporary rises from floods), so

that although there is an abundant commencing supply for the sea-

son without any work in the Jamna on the 1st October,—it is no longer

so on the 25th, and it takes 10 days further to stop up the escape

channels in the Jamna near Chéharpir (which can only be commen-

ced after the bunds below are capable of retaining the water) ; by this

time the river is a foot lower, and the channels at the separation of

the eastern and western branches have to be cleared out, which brings

the full supply into the canal about the lst December. With the masonry

dam, which may be thrown entirely open down to the level of the bed of

Q 2

116 The Ancient Canals in the Delhi Territory. [MarcH,

the Stimbe during the rains*, and which may be planked up to full

water level in two days, and sanded in front in three or four ; this will

be ready for the reception of water on the Ist October, at which peri-

od also may be ready a single small intermediate dam, then necessary

to bring down water, and the other works may be kept in progress

according to the fall of the river, so that the supply, being kept steady

from the Ist October, will reach the most distant parts by the 10th,

just when wanted, and will not fail, as there will then be leisure to have

each necessary work in advance ready at the moment it is wanted ;

these alone are advantages outweighing.a cost beyond what this will

be, the temporary work, with all its disadvantages, costing about as

much as the interest at four per cent. on the outlay of the permanent

one, which supersedes it.

Restoration of the Doab Canal, East of the Jamna. Main branch, 135

miles long ; side branches, about 25 miles in progress.

In July 1822, Lieut. DeBupr of the engineers was appointed by

the Marquis or Hastines, to survey and report on the then state of the

Doab canal. The field work of this duty carried on throughout the

rains was completed by the end of March, 1823, when Lieut. DeBupr

was relieved by Captain Smirn of the engineers, appointed 3lst De-

cember, 1822, to complete the surveys and prepare the estimates of

expence of restoration of the Doab canal, which preliminaries being

completed in May, 1823, the work was authorized in December of that

year, and commenced on in 1824; and on this canal the great portion

of original work of all descriptions being completed before the water

was turned in, it was only opened in January, 1830. The general

completion of works being immediately followed by the departure of

the superintendent, Major Smiru, for Europe, on sick certificate,

the duty devolved on his assistant, Lieut. P. T. Cauruzy, of artillery,

under whom the supply of water has been kept up in the face of diffi-

culties, some of which could not be and others were not anticipated.

The deranging causes were, first, the great fall in the upper and lower

portions of canal combined with looseness of soil; and next, the many

mountain-torrents crossing its course. The first, though from end to endf

only equal to that of the Delhi canal, was disposed of in a much shorter

space, andwithout the strong soil general in the line of the Delhi canal

* Practice in the management of the dam, if ultimately completed according to

the original design, will admit of its being regularly worked in the rains, so as to

keep up a constant supply.

+ The separation from and junction with the Jamna being at points almost on

Opposite sides of the river.

1833.] The Ancient Canals in the Delhi Territory. 117

to counteract its effects. The consequence has been the displacement of

the bottom of the canal at its head and tail, where in consequence of

the natural inclination of the country, the great portion of the slope

was concentrated. The only remedy for such a defect is, a system

of lockage ; this has been applied where of most urgent necessity,

and for the completion of which a design is now under the considera-

tion of Government, which if sanctioned will do away with the

evil. Thesecond cause of disasters, the mountain-torrents which cross

its course, (the Baidht Jamna, the Nyagain, and the Maskarrah raos,

besides smaller ones,) are now I would fain hope nearly, if not entirely,

provided for, by the arrangements which last year’s operations have

completed, and which, there is reason to suppose, are such as are not

liable to be injured to any serious extent : but the power of these

mountain-torrents is such, as to defy all calculation ;—unseen, their ope-

ration in times of flood must almost appear incredible, and in their

progress they are so capricious, it is impossible to provide for every con-

tingency, that a series of years may present. These three great torrents

have been each provided with extensive masonry dams, laid open dur-

ing the rains, but capable of being shut up to supply water when re-

quired at that season, besides which, the Maskarrah, the most danger-

ous one, has three extensive openings leading into the Hindan river,

and each now, at least 100 feet in width ; and so much has altogether

been done, that, there is no reason to apprehend any further heavy

expenditure on this account, except under some operation of nature,

which may destroy any portion of the works, These remedial works,

and the completion of portions of the original design, which Lieut.-

Colonel Smiru was unable to finish, have with a few additional, bene-

ficial, or necessary works, been continually in progress since the

canal was opened. One of the heaviest labours has been, that

of keeping the embankments of sufficient height to prevent the inun-

dation, which would otherwise occur from the deposit of the silt

brought down from the upper part of the canal, raising the bot-

tom of the canal wherever the current was sufficiently slack to allow

its subsidence; this evil and expence will cease, with its cause above

noted.

' Having detailed as far as could be done the former and present state

of the canals,and the original expenditure, incurred thereon, it remains

to notice the purposes for which these canals were reopened, the results

to the present period, and the current expenditure for their maintenance

in efficiency.

118 The Ancient Canals in the Delhi Territory. [Marcn,

lst.—Of the purposes for which the Canals were re-opened.

The original and almost sole purpose of the government in under-.

taking these works appears to have been to convey a large supply of

water from the Jamna, for the purposes of irrigation of the crops, lst,

on lines of country where the natural depth of the wells was so great

as to render the cost of irrigation from them so heavy as to impede

the improvement of the districts, and delay the resettlement of waste

villages, as on the Delhi canal. 2nd, to supply the means of cheap and

easy irrigation to districts, as on the Doab canal, where although the

wells are not so deep, yet the irrigation from the canal would be so

comparatively cheap and easy as to afford the probability of great ex-

tension of the benefit: and 3rd, as on Frroz’s canal, to confer the

means of irrigation on districts where from the excessive depth of the

wells none was heretofore in use, and to convey a supply of good and

wholesome water to a country where generally it is brackish or salt ; in

some districts so much so, as to preclude their occupancy, except for a

few months grazing in the rains. To these points alone the general in-

structions of government tend,—and with such in view, the original

estimates of the Delhi canal were framed; with the progress of this

work, the advantages derivable from water-carriage, brought promi-

nently forward after the water was first turned in, and the means of

using the water as a motive power for machinery, of which the late

Capt. Bans, the first superintendent, made a commencement, led to the

original designs of the other canals being formed with reference to

these ends, which have been followed up on all the canals by further

works designed to render one or other of the above purposes more ef-

ficient ; so that on the completion of the designs either sanctioned or

now before government, little further work can be necessary, excepting

such as may be for the extension of these various benefits to new parts

of the country.

2nd.—Of the results to the present period.

The annexed abstracts will show in a condensed form the results up to

the end of the last official year. In elucidation of which, and explanation

of comparative small returns, with such works, I may possibly be oblig-

ed to be more diffuse than I would have wished, to be enabled to convey

a correct idea in regard to both the present results shewn by these papers

and the future prospects; and first I have to notice, as having general

reference to all the canals, the often repeated declaration of the

government to the superintendents, as their main rule of guidance,

that, the object of government in collecting a rent through them was

1833.] The Ancient Canals in the Delhi Territory. 119

not so much to form a productive source of revenue from the actual

price paid for the water, as to give them an efficient control over its

expenditure, by making it of value sufficient to prevent its being wan-

tonly wasted; and that they looked alone to the general improvement

of the country, as the source from which they should derive the return

adequate to the outlay. This announcement completely prevented the

superintendents’ disposing of the water so far as irrigation was con-

cerned to the best advantage, and led to the settlement of a fixed rate

of assessment so low, that it is not sufficient to prevent carelessness,

entailing much waste of water; from which it may be presumed, that,

the instructions of government have been fully acted up to, and the

rates levied are sufficiently moderate. Iam unable to state from want of

knowledge whether the improvement of the revenue in canal villages

has been commensurate with the expense: I know the rents of many

have been raised, and that others, which were reckoned highly assessed,

have been by the canal enabled to pay their revenue; and I also know,

that tracts of jangal have disappeared in many parts, and are super-

seded by cultivation, supported by the canals. This point might be

elucidated on the Delhi canal by a statement showing the revenue derived

from all canal villages for a series of years before 1820, and for the

subsequent years, compared with an account of the revenue derived

during the same years from villages not irrigating from the canal, and

in which the wells were equally deep. The length of leases being consi-

dered,—the advantage I believe would be with the canal villages, and

the comparative difference would be fairly attributable to the canals;

the improvement which would doubtless appear on the inland villages,

as well as a correspondipg proportion of that on the canal villages, being

attributable to the benefits arising from a settled government super-

seding an unsettled one. On Feroz’s canal a similar comparison

might be made, commencing with the year 1826; but the Doad canal

is too recently opened to afford any room for comparison. I may be

permitted here to observe a fact which has forced itself on my notice

in my constant intercourse with the inhabitants of canal villages, that,

wherever a lease is for any long period of years, of 10 or upwards, or

even of five years, improvement, and the use of the canal water

make most rapid strides; and that wherever the settlement is too sud-

denly raised, or is for a short period, or from year to year,—the

sole object of the cultivators appears to be to deteriorate their lands,

often until they fall into a state from which it is difficult to recover

them ; and to this the deadly epidemic of 1829-30 has much added,

by leaving valuable villages without hands sufficient to cultivate their

120 The Ancient Canals in the Dethi Territory. [Marcn,

lands*. The abstracts show that on the Delhi canal, an immedi-

ate and satisfactory commencement was made by the cultivators, in

availing themselves of the benefits put within their reach; on the other

canals this is apparently much less the case, the explanation of which

appears to me to be simply, that, on the Delhi canal and upper parts

of Frroz’s canal, irrigation from its waters was merely the resumption of

an old practice, of which the memory still remained, and the country

being intersected by old water-courses, the villagers had merely to fol-

low up their traces to the canal banks, and clear them out with a tole»

rable assurance that when opened they would be serviceable, and that

their money expended on the clearance would not be thrown awayt. On

Frroz’s canal, below Sufzdon, and the Doab canal, the case was totally

different ; no remains of ancient water-courses existed to point out to

the inhabitants the mode of drawing the water to their lands; they had

not the recollections of such a system of irrigation having existed, and

had to buy all their experience of the disadvantages of adopting what

was the cheapest mode, a direct cut from the nearest point of the canal to

their lands without reference to level; and it was not until they had

bought this experience, and failed, that, they would listen to the advice

given them, and lead their water-courses so as to answer the purposes.

On Frroz’s canal, the system too led to a perfectly new mode of life:

instead of continuing a pastoral people, who depended on the periodical

rains raising them grain sufficient for their food with little trouble,

they early made the discovery, that, with plenty of good water for their

cattle, if they used it for irrigation, they must give up a life of idleness

for one of comparative labour, and it was only by very slow degrees

they acquired the knowledge, that, the advantages derivable from

it would compensate them for the labour, and it is only now that

the advances are beginning to be rapid, and advice sought as to the

best means of availing themselves of the water. It cannot however be

expected, that the benefits of the canals in Haridna will be developed

until the rising generation brought up on the line of canals to labour,

forms the majority of the-inhabitants; and will not be fully so, until

time and good government does away with the recollections of the life

of general inactivity, added to the predatory habits, of their forefathers

* This epidemic was not confined to the canals, but extended from Lédianah

to Jaipur, as also east of the Jamna, when the Doab canal was not opened. The

abstracts will show its effects, from which many places have not yet recovered.

t The expence of clearing out the water-courses, from 100 to 200 rupees per

mile, is always incurred by the cultivators, sometimes aided by a loan from

government free of interest.

1833.] The Ancient Canals in the Delhi Territory. 121

On the Doad canal the change is not so great, being only of one sys-

tem of irrigation for another. It is almost too much in its infancy to

allow of comparisons, but the results are consistent with the premises,

and the progress of irrigation has been infinitely more rapid than on

Frroz’s canal, though less so than on the Delhi canal; the decrease in

the last crop, shown in the abstract, compared with the corresponding

one of the preceding year, being solely owing to the excess of rain dur-

ing the last cold season, diminishing the necessity for water, a cause

which has frequently had corresponding results on the Delhi canal. It

being a clear matter of course that, where rain falls in sufficient quan-

tity to ripen the crops, they will not draw upon the canal for a supply

to be paid for.

_ It was found, chiefly on Frroz’s canal, that many villages were in-

clined to go on as they had heretofore, without employing the water

for irrigation, but freely using it for all village purposes, and for the

supply of their cattle, saving themselves the expence and trouble of

drawing water or maintaining their wells and tanks efficient. As they

benefitted considerably by the canal in this way, it appeared rea-

sonable that they should contribute their share to its support; and it

was submitted to government, that although villages paying above a

certain sum annually (fixed at 100 rupees) in shape of water rent

on irrigation, should still have the free use of the water for village

purposes, yet that those paying less should contribute to the expences

of what they benefitted from, by paying a moderate rate on the number

of cattle of all kinds belonging to the village. This rate was fixed at six

rupees per 100 head of cattle per annum,—a rate so infinitely below the

cost of watering from wells, that, to the westward, cattle are brought to

the canal from villages distant many miles. The distinction made in

favor of irrigating villages has led to many irrigating up to and beyond

the limit, which gives free water to the cattle; and in villages within

reach of canal irrigation, this source of income will gradually cease,

but will still be continued, and go beyond what it has now attained by

the watering of cattle of villages, either so distant, or so situated, as

to be unable to irrigate, and it is one so fair and reasonable, that it may

safely be continued. The filling of village tanks at certain rates is in

fact only a modification of the above, and requires no special notice.

Of the Employment of the Water for moving Machinery.

The only application of the water of the canals for the movement

of machinery hitherto put in practice has been of a very simple nature,

yet producing what will appear comparatively great results, as a

source of revenue. The use of the water is let out to those who

122 The Ancient Canals in the Delhi Territory. (Marcu,

offer most for it, and as the rent offered can never exceed a rate which

must be under the cost of other modes of doing the same work, the

employment in this way of surplus water, or of streams again returned

to the canal for irrigation, is a general benefit to the community, and

tends to cheapen commodities for which the demand is constant.

The first introduction of the system was by Captain Buanz, who per-

mitted the erection of three small mills for grinding flour in Delhi, on

payment of an annual rent of 25 rupees. Since these, mills of superior

powers have been erected at the cost of government, which in Delhi and

its vicinity are rented at rates varying from two rupees to five rupees per

day, each mill; according to its power, which depends on the height of

head water available at the different sites. The produce of the flour

mills in Dedhi fluctuates considerably, but with the supply of water now

becoming annually more constant, the range will become from 25 to

30,000 rupees per annum, beyond which it is not likely to go. Similar

mills are being constructed at Karndl, the income from which is ex-

pected to realize from 9 to 12,000 rupees,—as the large cantonment,

added to the city, will probably yield abundance of work, and time and

leisure will enable future superintendents to select many advantageous

spots for the erection of small flour mills suited to the demand,

every one of which may be more or less a productive source of revenue,

compared with the expenditure, if due attention be paid to suit the sup-

ply of mills to the probable work. On Frroz’s canal, the only mills erect.

ed are those at Hans?, less powerful than the Delhi ones, but as yet

too powerful for the demand; their produce however compared with

their expence is satisfactory, and in such a rising town as Hansi,

full employment for them may be anticipated. With exception of

the vicinity of Jhind, no other place holds out work for any extensive

sets of mills on this canal, and there the slope of the canal appears

sufficient to promise a return of about 15 per cent. on the outlay.

The capabilities of the Doab canal in this respect, as in many others,

are very great. Flour mills have been erected at Sahardnpir, and near

Delhi, and the produce shown in the abstract is the return from them;

others are just completed at Shamli : and there are other large towns

capable of affording work for many more, some of which are authorized

and others contemplated, the waste water from all being available for

irrigation below the mill sites. Besides the above, saw mills are about

to be tried at Delhi and Karnal, places which would yield much of

such work, being the marts from which the upper part of western India

is supplied with timber, from the forests of the Jamna and the Ganges.

Models of oil and sugar-cane mills have also been prepared, which

1833.] The Ancient Canals in the Delhi Territory. 123

promise not only to be successful, but likely to find an abundance of

employment, the lines of the Delhi and Doab canals producing much

sugar-cane, with very imperfect modes of expressing the juice,

It will be apparent, that all these modes of employing the water are

highly advantageous, and do not interfere with the main purpose of the

canals, that of irrigation ; the mills being established either where sur-

plus water escapes, or where it is returned below the mills into the

canal again, no loss of water is entailed to irrigation, beyond the ab-

sorption and evaporation of the mill streams.

Of the Employment of the Canals for the Transit of Merchandize.

This object has as yet been only very imperfectly attained, being

chiefly limited to the transit of rafts of timber on the line of canals

between the forests of the Jamna, from which the rafts enter the canal

at its head, to all intermediate places, along the canal of Feroz Suan,

as far as Hissar, a distance of 200 miles. Downthe Delhi branch from

Rair, few if any rafts, except for canal works, have passed down, as

they could not reach nearer to Delhi than 12 miles, from the obstructions

presented by the ancient bridges and reduced dimensions of the canal.

It is therefore preferable for rafters to use the Jamna for such purposes,

conveying their rafts to within a mile of the city, though attended often

by great danger in the rains, or delays in the hot-weather.

I do not conceive for these reasons, that the Delhi branch will ever

come into use for rafting, beyond the demand of the vicinity of the

canal, which with so much jungle-wood, available for common purposes,

is not likely at an early period to be great. The Doad canal, it is pro-

bable, will be so employed as soon as the completion of the works in-

tended to rectify the disadvantages attendant on the heavy fall at head

and tail of this canal, shall afford means of locking the whole line of

strong descent. This canal will ultimately come into use for rafting,

not only on account of its safety and more equable depth of water, when

compared with the Jamna, but because Saharanpur is the general

mart for all timber brought from the range of hills between the

Jamna and the Ganges, and the merchants will doubtless see the ad-

vantages of at once rafting direct from Saharanpir to Delhi by a

safe and expeditious line of water carriage, instead of incurring the

cost of a land carriage of 16 miles to the Jamna, added to the dan-

ger and delays of the river navigation.

In regard to boat navigation, all that has yet effected has been

done by the superintendent, in using boats for the transport of

lime, from the upper to the lower parts of the canal, which has

R 2

124 The Ancient Canals in the Delhi Territory. [Marcu,

been a matter of great convenience, from the difficulty of procuring

land carriage; indeed more so than one of saving, on account of

the unformed condition of the canal banks for the purpose of track-

age. In this respect, the Doab canal is well advanced; to make its

banks available, nothing beyond a clearance of trees is necessary,

when it may become an object to cut them down, on completion of

the locks. Ona the Delhi and Haridna branches, the necessary work

is rapidly progressing, and the last lock necessary is just completed. To

establish such a novelty however will, I fear, require the experiment, to

be made by the government, of establishing some boats suited to the ca-

nals, to ply for the carriage of goods; for instance, between Karnal, or

Rair and Hans?, and I think such might shortly be done with advan-

tage. There is at present a most extensive traffic existing across from

the Dodb, through Panipat, and Sontpat to Hanst, for the export of

sugar ; the return being salt, and coarse grain, and Hansi being one

of the chief entrepdts in that quarter, for the supply of the western

states. It appears to me, it would conduce greatly to the prosperity of

Hanst, if the line of trade could be diverted from Pdnipat to the

canal at Rair, where the Hanst and Delhi branches separate, instead

of proceeding direct from Pdnipat to Hansi via Neaulta, by a land

carriage of about 70 miles. From Rair, the sugar loaded on the canal

boats could either proceed to within 12 miles of Delhi*, saving about

40 miles of land carriage, or by FxEroz’s canal to Hansi; on this lat-

ter line a return cargo would always be secure; and north of Karnal,

being a great sugar country, it is probable much would be exported

thence, independent of that reaching the canal from the Dodd, by

Panipat. Another mode in which it is probable such a trade might

be established would be the offer of a premium, to the individual

who should have conveyed the greatest value of imports and exports

by the canal, beyond some fixed sum, up toa stated period. Some

mode which would give the merchants a knowledge of the ad-

vantages to be derived from water over land carriage, without en-

tailing on them present expence and risk, will I think be necessary, to

set the matter going, after which it may be safely left to its own

merits.

Of rafting on Frroz’s canal, the knowledge of relative cost and

charges was first given, by all timbers for the canal and garrison works

at Hansé being rafted by the canal; and the result has been, that, the

* At the cost of a single draw-bridge, boats could be enabled to reach within six

miles of Delhi, and alterations to three old bridges would take them to within two

miles of De/hi.

1833.] The Ancient Canals in the Delhi Territory. 125

import of timber from Karndl to Jhind, Hanst, and Hissar, by land

carriage, has been completely superseded, the canal being capable of

carrying rafts, of the heaviest timbers, including all charges and the

canal duty, at a cost of about one-half of the land carriage ; and corre-

sponding results may be expected elsewhere, when once the advantages

of transport of merchandize by boats is clearly shown. The boats suit~

able to the canals should be long and narrow, and of burthen from 100

to 200 maunds*, sharp at both ends, and with a falling mast, and sail, to

take advantage of the wind so often favorable for a return passage

against the stream. The current however is no where sufficient to offer

any serious impediment to tracking up.

Of sundry minor Items of Revenue.

With the view of preventing waste, and discontent, or complaints

of partiality, it has been made a rule on the canals, that, nothing, the

produce of the canals, shall be given free of payment of what is deem-

ed an equivalent, and that whoever chooses to give the equivalent

may have the right purchased. This leads to sundry small collections,

which individually trifling are collectively sufficient to pay a most con-

siderable portion of the outlay in improving this source of income, by

planting timber trees on the canals. In the rains, the canal bounds pro-

duce annually a strong growth of various descriptions of grasses, and

jungle; these have to be cleared annually to admit of repairs and

access to the banks; what is unprofitable is burnt, and what is

useful is stacked and sold. The bounds are in many parts covered

with trees of natural growth, of which such as would impede the

ultimate purpose of -trackage are disposed of when wanted in the

neighbourhood. Licences are also granted for cutting forage from

the canal bounds. These together produce the sums stated in the

column of ‘‘ sale of produce of canal bounds,” in the annexed ab-

stracts, which though as yet trifling will ultimately become of material

amount, when the useful forest timber trees, now planting on the

canals, shall attain value with age, of which an idea may be formed

from the canal banks, west of the Jamna, affording space for about

200,000 trees to attain maturity ; they are planted in such numbers

that from 10 to 15,000 get past the age of danger annually, at an

expenditure limited to 2000 rupees. At the age of 20 years, the

average value of each timber, if only rated at 24 rupees, would admit

* 1 to 200 maunds of sugar, grain, and such heavy articles would lie inside a

boat of three feet depth, of suitable length, and 7 to 8 feet beam, which might be

safely loaded to draw two feet water, so as to pass under the bridges freely at com-

mon water level.

126 The Ancient Canals in the Delhi Territory. (Marcu,

a similar number to be cut down annually, being in value, at the above

average, 30,000 rupees; though when once the regular cutting com-

mences, it will of course only be picked trees which are felled in

number suited to the demand for public and private purposes, and

which individually will be far more valuable. The produce of the canal

bounds may therefore I think be ultimately of considerable importance,

and probably much more than I anticipate, from the destruction of

the natural forests of the country from want of protection*, and the

total absence of any system of plantation in this part of the country.

The only other item of income noticeable as having been one anti-

cipated by Captain Buanz is that, from renting out the fishing of the

canal; as yet it is hardly worth notice, and can never be of any mo-

ment, if I may judge from past experience.

As a source of revenue fines should not properly be estimated : the

object of levying them is to aid in the prevention of waste or wilful

misuse of the canal waters ;—to protect the embankment from injury,

and thereby save its vicinity from inundation :—and to secure the

plantations from depredation and negligence.

Norse.—The above report concludes with accurate statements of the

various items of expence incurred upon the canals, for which we cannot

find space ; we have however endeavoured to condense their contents into

the following table, under such heads as could be readily separated.—Eb.

Abstract of Expences incurred, or estimated, upon Permanent Works gt the

three Canals, up to the present time.

Denomination of work. Delhi Canal. Hariana Canal.| Doab Canal.

Rs. A.P.| Rs. A.P.j Rs. A. P.

Excavations and embankments, | 1,60,309 2 10] 3,50,653 3 411,76,426 8 0

Overfalls, escape dams, weirs, re-

gulators, and sluices, ....... 1,03,113 8 9) 26,769 3 2/1,20,656 14 1

Bridges (some with locks), ....} 1,02,547 10 9] 69,658 15 9} 95,315 2 3

Under ground channels, ...... 3,099 1 9 6,500 0 0 Bred

Irrigation outlets, &c. ........ 4,500 0 O} 35,769 14 0! 36,234 11 2

Experimental works,.......... 4,938 14 0 s0Ke sda

Water-mills for saws, flour, &c...| 45,538 10 8 6,351 9 4] 25,192 14 0

Depéts, choukis, &c.......... : 4,414 6 0 etohus 8,195 0 9

Plantations of trees on banks,.. 220k No ol 2.203 oo 5,490 13 4

Establishment, ie .ee/siaiipacieleele 52,264 911} 52,175 8 4

Muialof Estumtes and Hilll=2=———

for Works, .........-| 4,83,007 15 9] 5,50,162 5 2/4,67,511 15 7

* The forests of the Jamna are nearly destroyed from indiscriminate cutting,

since they fell under our authority: any one is allowed to cut what he pleases,

and where he pleases, on payment of a merely nominal duty, and the whole country

resorts here for supplies. Formerly it was not so: the result is, that now there is not

a. saul tree fit for public purposes, within six miles of the river; no roads exist, and

the cost of timber in consequence in my recollection has doubled.

1833.] The Ancient Canals in the Delhi Territory. 127

The total first outlay for the restoration of the system of canals will by

this table appear to have been about fifteen lakhs of rupees :—it is im-

possible on the present occasion to specify the particulars of the various

works of engineering skill which the nature of these canals rendered

necessary :—one of the sluice dams was described in our number for Oct.

1832 (vol. i. p. 454), and we hope hereafter to select for insertion other

works equally novel and interesting to Engineers, from among the numer-

ous plans and designs transmitted by the Superintendent to Calcutta.

Meanwhile, we must conclude this notice with a condensed abstract

of the revenue of the canals, and the ordinary outlay in maintaining

them, also compiled from Major Colvin’s statements.

Abstract of the Revenues and ordinary Expences of the several Canals

since the period of their restoration.

REVENUE.

Canals west

Hansi or |of the Jamna,

Delhi Canal, for} Feroz’sCanal,

From what source. | 23 half years, }11 ote years,| counts were | for 4 half

up to p to united for | years, up to

1830—31. 1830—31. one year, 1831—32.

1831—32.

since the ac-| Doab Canal,

Rs. AYP ORS > ASP. Rse ALP: Rs. AG P;

Rent of ground under

-_————— |

irrigation, Radi crop,|1,88,070 5 5/38,185 10 6/27,698 3 4) 9,559 12 0

» Kharif ditto,..11,47,522 4 1/30,012 1 3/23,318 1 7| 4,074 11 10

Rent for watering cattle, 2,098 5 7| 8,334 13 10| 4,210 9 7 snboe

Rent of water-mills, ..} 80,029 14 5! 8,332 13 9/19,002 3 7} 3,361 6 8

Transit duty on rafts of

MME OD. thereto wssaie ¢ 2,933 4 0) 3,957 3 7} 2,061 15 0 =0A0

Sale of produce of canal

ES ee eerter 4,299 14 9} 1,469 13 10] 1,810 6 11; 1,271 11 9

Sundries—fishing, filling

TAUTCS OCC. ela fe ia «Tals of 2,250 15 4) 1,547 11 11} 317 0 1 ecee

Fines for breach of canal |

regulations, ........ 15,711 5 | 8,047 11 7| 2,463 2 af 1,985 10 0

Total income,....;4,42,916 5 4/99,888 0 ‘leva 10 11/20,253 4 3

Annual income, say, ..| 42,000 0 0/20,000 0 0/81,000 0 0j10,000 0 0

EXPENDITURE.

Establishment for su-

perintendence of

works, _ collections, |

COTES Se Be Se Ny ae a 3,47,195 7 911,51,770 10 0|79,722 14 7)74,715 6 2

Amount of the ordi-

nary repairs, as per

monthly bills,......| 69,169 12 4| 5,803 6 6|18,342 8 5|10,509 5 6

Total expenditure, |4,16,365 4 te 397,074 0 6|98, 065 7 0/85, 224 11 8

Annual expense, say,.... ~ 40,000 0 0| 28,000 0 0|98,000 0 0)42,500 0 0

128 Climate and Altitude of Nastrabad. [Marcu,

II.— Abstract of Observations of the Temperature, Pressure, and Hygro-

metrical state of the Air at Nasirdbad. By Major T. Oliver.

The barometer is the same I used at Delhi, and the observations

have been reduced by the same quantity (.055), to make them compa-

rable with those in the Surveyor General’s office. The thermometers

are also the same. I have not been able to note the barometer at 10

A. M. excepting for two or three months: the daily range appears to be

about 0.10. The mean temperature of the day has throughout been

taken as the mean of sunrise and 2h. 30 m. p. m.; and of the night,

the mean of sunset and sunrise. I lately obtained from Calcutta one

of Daniell’s hygrometers, intending to compare its dew-point indica-

tions with the wet thermometer depressions in this dry climate; but I

cannot procure ether that will produce a depression of more than 5°

or 6° below what water will effect, and this of course is useless here,

unless in the rains. We have already a sufficient number of comparisons

of this sort in moist air, but it would be desirable to have them in the dry

air of this part of the country. As the moist thermometer sinks

sometimes as much as 40°, some freezing mixture must be requisite to

get the dew-point in such cases, where I imagine the best ether

would not answer the purpose.

Regarding the Tables I now send, it will be observed, that in Table

III, I confine myself merely to temperatures and wet thermometer de-

pressions: these can be reduced at any time into tensions, when the

subject may have undergone due investigation: in the mean time,

the dew points and mean comparative tensions have been calculated,

as in my former communication.

Taste I.—Barometer reduced to 320; Temperature of the external Air

and Deduced Elevation of Nastrabad above Calcutta.

Month. 4 p.m. jof Air.|tion. Month. 4p.™. jof Air.} tion.

In. © In. © Feet.

Dec. 1830, ..| 28,513 | 72,8 28,467 | 65,2 1462

Jan. 1831, .. SOON aA2e2 ,483 | 68,8 1430

February, .. 398 | 68,4 ,365 | 69,6 1488

March, . | 3338 | 85,1 »312| 79,7 | 1493

April, 2 3).)0). 5230 | 95,3 3218 | 95,9 1526

BYS pipers 117 |102,7 ,161] 98,2 1497

June, .. ..-. 27,979 | 99,4 28,000 |100,1 1526

July, é 28,003 | 94,5 27,951 | 91,4 | 1539

August, .. .. 3040 | 87,2 28,032) 85,8 1425

September, .. ,138 | 85,9 | 1493 [September,.. ,183 | 88,3 | 1504

October, .... »278| 87,6 | 1444 [October, .... »340] 89,2 1466

November,. . am 76,1 | 1431 {November, .. ,461| 81,3 | 1473

Means, .. .. 28,246 | 85,6 | 1487 [Means, ....| 28,248] 84,5 1486

1833.] Climate and Altitude of Nasirdbad. 129

Tasux II.—Mean Temperature of each Month, with the differences From

the Mean of the Year.

Diff. from Diff.from Diff. from

Month. Day Mean. Night. Mean. | Sunset. | Mean.

to) | o 0 o oO o

MARIATY ica. 20. « 60,3 — 16,3 Dine — 16,0} 65,4 — 14,2

February, .. . 60,0 — 16,6 57,6 — 15,6 64,5 — 15,1

Leics eee (meme Ad — 4,9 69,0 ee ASMA do — 17

Bee ccs-5 es..] 86,0 + 9,4 82,0 + 88), 90,0 + 10,4

May, e -! 90,5 + 13,9 86,5 + 13,3 | 93,6 + 14,0

June, 91,6 + 15,0 86,7 +13,5 | 91,3 + 11,7

July, 86,7 + 10,1 83,0 + 9,8 | 86,7 + 7,1

August, 82,1 + 5,5 79,0 + 5,8| 81,7 + 2,1

September,.. ... 81,4 + 4,8 78,7 + 5,5) 83,0 + 3,4

@cfover, .<.'.,.':.. 79,3 + 2,7 75,6 + 2,4} 83,1 + 3,5

November,......| 6857 — 7,9 65,0 — 8,2 7p — 6,3

December, ...... 60,6 | = 16j0WNp' 57,7 | —15,5| 64,3 | — 15,3

MeansS ob. ees 76,6 — 73,2 79,6

Taste II].—Temperature of the Air and Depression (D) of Wet Ther-

mometer.

Sunrise. len. 30m. P. x 4 P.M. Sunset.

Year and Month. -_——— |! ————_—_ ee OT

Rescia D. |Temp D. |Temp D. |Temp.| D.

0 o 0 o to) 0 0 o

December, 1830, .} 49,8 OF | fase | 19,1 | 72,8 | 18,8 | 67,3 16,2

January, 1831, ..}] 50,3 9,6 | 72,9 | 17,8 ) 72,2 | 17,7 | 68,2 16,4

February, ...... 50,0 5,5 | 68,9 | 13,9 | 68,4 | 14,0 | 65,1 12,2

IVEArEIN) wcisc css 62,5 | 10,1 | 85,3 | 22,2 ! 85,1 | 22,1 | 81,8 19,1

April, .. | 74,4 | 14,7 | 97,8 } 29,4 | 95,3 | 28,0 | 90,0 | 25,0

May, 82,5 |! 16,7 | 104,6 | 33,6 | 102,7 | 32,9 | 95,7 26,7

PIPER Siereie sicics ss 82,7 | 9,1 | 100,3 | 22,9 | 99,4 | 23,1 89,2 14,5

July, = AB, al eke) 5,1 | 95,5 | 17,5 | 94,5 17,0 | 86,9 10,8

August. ...:...: 77,1 2,7 | 88,6 | 10,2 | 87,2 9,6 | 82,1 ed

September, .. .... 76.2). S72) 87,47) 15,1 | 85,9 | 10,9 | 82,6 7,9

October, ......-- 69,1 8,5 | 89,4 | 22,1 | 87,6 | 20,7 | 82,6 | 14,9

November, ...... 55,3 150s. 4054 | 18,3: |. 76,1, |, 17,9 ,|4 70,0 14,3

Means, Ist Year,..]| 67,4 | 8,5 | 86,8 ! 20,2 | 85,6 | 19,4 | 80,2 | 15,3

DechAS51 55 .:<.15. 52,6 3,9 | 66,2 9,3 | 65,2 9,0 | 61,2 | 7,6

MEN. USOLs sce: 47,9 5,9 | 70,2 | 16,2 | 68,8 | 15,8 | 62,6 12,5

February, 51,1 7,0 | 70,4 | 16,6 | 69,6 | 16,7 | 64,0 13,3

Mancha). 2a'15 « 57,6 | 10,4 | 81,2 | 22,7 | 79,7 | 22,2 | 74,0 18,3

April, 73,7 | 16,0 | 97,3 | 32,5 | 95,9 | 31,3 | 89,9 25,2

ee 76,0 | 14,6 | 99,0 | 32,5 | 98,2 | 32,3 | 91,6 | 27,8

SUPE. sheds cbepels'c 81,3 | 10,4 |101,6 | 26,7 |100,1 | 26.2 | 93,3 21,3

SR 79,5 5,5 | 93,4 | 16,1 | 91,4 | 14,9 | 86,6 11,2

Angin, .. 62s. 75,6 3,2 | 87,0 | 10,8 | 85,8 | 10,0 | 81,2 7,0

September, ...... 72,7 6,3 | 89,5 | 17,9 | 88,3 | 17,5 | 83,3 14,5

October, ......-- 67,4 | 13,5 | 91,5 | 28,9 | 89,2 | 27,6 | 83,6 | 24,2

November, ...... 59,3 | 10,5 | 83,8 | 22,8 | 81,3 | 21,5 | 76,6 | 18,5

Means, 2nd Year,| 66,2! 8,9! 95,9! 21,1 | 94,5 | 20,41 79,01 16,8

130: Further Experiments on the [Marcw,

Taiz IV.—Dew point (S), calculated from the Depression in Table II.

Comparative Tension (T), and Grains of Aqueous Vapour in a cubic

JSoot of Air (G.)

Year and S. T. | G. Year and Ss. | T. G.

Month. Month.

; 0 0

Dec. 1830, ..| 31,8 ,338 | 2,37.[Dec. 1831, ..}| 48,6 683 4,26

Jan. 1831, 34,0 370 | 2,57 JJan. 1832, ..| 36,9 445 2,84

February, 41,6 3028 | 3,33 [February, .. 36,5 418 2,80

March,...... 45,5 ,372 ; 3,74 |March, 35,5 »299 2,66

Aprile. ater. ie 46,2 3200 Fe Se7 Aprile cons. 38,6 | 196 2,84

May,. ...... 48,9 | ,224 | 4,03 |May, ...... 40,4 ,201 | 3,00

June, ...... 67,9 5463, ||) 7DORUNE Tar) 6 61,9 379 6,20

July, 71,6 606 | 8,56 Duly, ...... | 71,4 617 8,52

August, 74,4 ,759 | 9,45 JAugust, .... 72,0 738 8,77

September, ..| 70,0 | ,685 | 8,21 |September, .. | 62,4 | 5533 | 6,43

October, .... 55,4 »449 | 5,17 |October, ....| 35,6 215 | 2,62

November, .. | 43,0 438 | 3,47 |November, .. | 40,2 3336 3,07

Means,...... 52,5 458 | 5,02 |Means, 48,3 422 | 4,50

a a ED

III.—Determination of the Constant of Expansion of the standard 10-feet

Iron Bar of the great Trigonometrical Survey of India ; and expansions

of Gold, Silver and Copper by the same Apparatus. By Jas. Prinsep,

F.R.S. Sec.

When I submitted the results of my former experiments on the exe

pansion of iron, brass, and lead, which were printed in the Gtranines

1n Scrence for December, 1831, I ventured to anticipate that the simpli-

city of the process then contrived for heating the metals would be a re-

commendation for its adoption in any future researches of a similar na-

ture. The opportunity has not been long wanting ; and as it has involved

the necessity of a more scrupulous degree of accuracy, from the import-

ant purpose to which the results were to be applied, I feel it incum-

bent upon me to enter into fuller detail in describing the course of

experiment pursued. The gigantic scale of the former trials, with bars

of twenty-five feet in length, was calculated to obviate most of the

errors of observation, as well as any want of extreme delicacy in the

measuring apparatus; but on the present occasion, although the bars

were of smaller dimensions, the other concomitants were much more

ratisfactory; and I may confidently maintain that, with the present and

the former series, we now possess amore correct table of the dilatations

of gold, silver, iron, copper, brass, and lead, than have been hitherto

published in works of natural philosophy. |

1833.] ‘Expansion of Metals. 131

It will be remembered, that the measurement of the base for the

great Trigonometrical Survey of India, on the Barrackptir Road, was

conducted with compensation bars of a peculiar construction, each of

them ten feet in length, or, bearing near their extremities two minute

points, intended to represent that distance without liability to alter

by change of temperature. Their construction has been accurately

described by Major Everest in the 18th volume of the Asiatic

Researches. To prevent the possibility of derangement in all or

any of these compound bars, and to serve as a term of compa-

rison for the whole, a standard iron bar was furnished along with

them from England, upon which was laid off at a eertain temperature

with all imaginable accuracy, the measure of the English parliamentary

standard, to which all the measures of the Indian meridian line should

be thus reducible.

After the completion of the Barrackpir base, the compensation bars

underwent a most rigid comparison with THE STANDARD; as did also

the steel chains used in measuring the several bases of Col. Lambton’s

Survey in the peninsula. The particulars of these comparisons, conduct-

ed with that most elaborate care and precaution, which has distinguished

all the operations of the new survey, will be described by Major Ever-

est himself, when he shall favour the public with the result of his labours.

At present it is but one item of these precautionary measures which

will come under our review.

The comparisons with the standard bar were made at a temperature

differing by many degrees from that at which the latter had been

proved in England. It became therefore necessary to apply a correc-

tion for its dilatation by heat: but to do this a question naturally arose

as to what constant should be employed? The expressions given by

different experimenters vary from 1.00144 (Troughton) to 1.00118

(Dulong et Petit), or one-sixth of the whole quantity,—a variation either

to be attributed to imperfections in the mode of experimenting, or to

difference of quality in the metal,—but in either way rendering it ad-

visable to have recourse to a new set of experiments, to obtain the

individual expansion of the standard bar itself. The experiments

made by myself in Dec. 1831 upon a rod of iron twenty-five feet in

length, though nearly agreeing with the results of Lavoisier and

Smeaton*, were for the same reason inapplicable to a metal which

might be of different quality. It was therefore determined by Major

* Expansion of wire-drawn iron by Lavoisier, .......4-0++-008 1.001235

SSINGAUGN, jaraetuolelsiaaiae es’ sie 1.001258

IPEHISED,, % cfuie ate s10' wuwree ale 1.001256

s 2

132 _ Further experiments on the (Marcu,

Everest to submit the bar to a new inquiry, attended with every

precaution to insure confidence.

The process adopted was framed on the principle pursued on the

former occasion, namely the employment of a steam-pipe, to heat the

metal uniformly to the boiling point. The section of the bar, 25 inches

by 3, prevented its application in the same simple manner, by insertion

in a leaden pipe; and it was determined to employ micrometers on

the microscope principle of Troughton to read off the expansions ;—

a new apparatus was therefore constructed by Mr. H. Barrow, H. C.

Mathematical Instrument-maker, of which the following description, with

reference to the perspective view in Plate VII. will explain the nature.

A double cylindrical case ab (fig. 3) was made, 9 feet 11 inches in

length, and four inches in outside diameter, the inner cylinder being of

copper, the outer case of tin. The space between them was shut in at the

two ends, with perforated discs, so as to allow the bar to be inserted

freely into the inner tube. The bar was supported in the tube upon

two brass rollers, enclosed in the steam-tight square boxes at c, d, and

situated at the same distance apart as the rollers upon which the bar is

always supported in its own wooden case. (fig. 1.)

The tubes were pierced through from above in four points e, f, g,

h, for the introduction of thermometers, the bulbs of two of which

(f, g,) penetrated into deep cavities apparently provided for the pur-

pose in the bar itself ; these were filled with mercury, to insure the right

reading of the temperature of the bar. The cylinder, a 6, was supported

on two of the brass tripods of the measuring apparatus, technically

called camels, k, 1, which are provided with vertical and horizontal

screw motions to adjust the position of the bar. The steam was admitted

from my small engine bya pipe at the northern extremity 4, and suffered

to escape freely from the waste pipe m at the other end.

Two micrometer-microscopes, , 0, were firmly attached by screws to

two isolated solid blocks of stone, p, q, built upon the stone pavement of

the laboratory at the requisite distance apart; the focus of the object

glasses being adjusted in true verticals to distinct vision of the minute

dots on the silver discs of the standard bar, when the latter was itself

adjusted horizontally to a perfect level by means of a theodolite placed

on the opposite side of the room.

The object of the double cylinder, according to the original design,

was, to encompass the bar with a steam jacket, and thus heat it to the

requisite point without allowing the steam itself to come in contact with,

and thus to corrode, the iron ; as well as to prevent its escape from the

two open ends, which would incommode the glasses of the microscopes :

Standard 10-feeb Bar

Vol, I. FL.VE.

ant) eae

YEE // |

, Se — LL Zz Fo ea WO),

5 Via

pee bjs /,

ae ee 2 AES Sa, 07 YW / —o hee

SSS OZ ea Li _LSS_SSS]_ Ss!

Journal As. Soc.

Apparaus for measuring the eapanswr of Meads.

Mode of annealing he gots and Stlver bars

sh hee

4 7

ranch

1833.] Expansion of Metals. 133

it was found however at the onset that the heating of the bar in dry

air, although surrounded closely by the copper tube, was a most tedious

process, whereas it was effected immediately by contact with the steam,

which, condensing on the colder surface of the metal, delivered its

latent heat, and did not issue from the vent until the whole apparatus

had been effectually brought to the boiling point. It was therefore a

fortunate circumstance that a leak in the inner tube, in the course of

the first experiment, threw open a communication for the steam to the

inner chamber : this was afterwards enlarged by piercing a hole through

the copper, immediately in front of the steam injection pipe 6. The

only inconvenience produced therefrom was, that a little steam escaped

from the two ends where the bar necessarily projected under the

microscopes. This was however obviated by packing with cotton, and

screening the object glasses with paper. The steam issued in plentiful

clouds from the thermometer apertures f and g.

Having thus described the apparatus as it stood during the experi-

ments, I must be allowed to add a few words on the capabilities of the

several parts of it: and first, of the micrometers. The northern mi-

croscope was immovable, bearing fine cross wires in its field, to which

the centre of the corresponding dot on the bar was brought by the

lateral screw of the camel K. The cross wires of the southern micro-

scope on the contrary had a range of about a tenth of an inch, which

it subdivided by 20 revolutions of the centesimally-divided screw-head

into 2000 parts. The micrometer was therefore sensible to the 20000th

part of an inch, or more rigidly, each division of the index was equal

to 554,, inch, and the error of reading did not amount on several trials

to more than one or two such divisions.

Secondly. Of the thermometers. There was some difficulty in pro-

curing good instruments with naked bulbs, and it was necessary to

remove common ones from their metal scales to adapt them to the appa-

ratus, and to scratch the degrees on the tubes ; many thermometers were

broken from this and other causes. As the precaution was taken of com-

paring their boiling points, and their indications at the general tempera-

ture of the air, with a standard instrument, no error on this score was to

be feared beyond the necessary difficulty of reading off to fractions of a.

degree, where the instruments were only divided to every two degrees.

The mean thermometric error cannot however be estimated at more than

0.2 of a degree, which upon a range of 140 degrees will not affect the

resulting dilatation more than ;;%aths, or about 2 in the sixth place of

decimals. The fact is that the bar itself was a much more delicate

measurer of the mean heat of the apparatus than the thermometers.

134 Further experiments on the (Marcu,

The error of the readings therefore upon a length of 10 feet (assum-

ing it even to a 23 divisions of the micrometer) will not surpass

0.000001, while the error of the thermometer reading may amount

to 0.000002: it will be seen from the tables which follow, that the

general run of the experiments fully confirms this estimate of accuracy ;

at the same time it would be useless to carry the expression of the

dilatation beyond the sixth decimal, as is frequently done in cases less

entitled to reliance. ;

The order of each experiment was similar to that described in my

former paper. When several readings had been made at the temper-

ature of the room, the steam was let on and kept up for several hours,

during which the second readings were made. Cold water was not

introduced, as it took a long time to restore an equal temperature, and

it was found better to allow the apparatus to cool down gradually by

the following morning.

It was only in the third series of experiments that the bar remained

quite stationary at the higher temperature for more than two hours. In

general it was remarked that the reading of the micrometers gave the me-

tala maximum dilatation at the first moment of its being brought to the

boiling point, gradually falling off even to the extent of 20 divisions

(zccc0th of an inch), as the steaming continued. This was evidently not

attributable to change of temperature in the steam, for the thermometers

were not affected. I imagined that it must be produced by torsion or

curvature of the bar, from the under part of it being at first less heated

than the upper ; for, by the construction of the apparatus for steaming, it

is evident that, on the introduction of the steam, the upper parts of the

tube would become heated first, while the condensed steam collected in

the lower part of the cylinder imparted a lower temperature to the

under surface of the bar: but this would cause the bar to assume a

slight curvature upwards, which, as the supporting rollers were situ-

ated in distance one-fourth from the ends, would tend to depress the

dots below the true focus of the microscope; the effect of this and of the

curvature would be to make the bar shorter than otherwise, so that this

explanation cannot be admitted.

Some very curious experiments, however, which are described by

Captain Kater in the Phil. Trans. for 1830, may serve to afford an

explanation of the anomaly. That gentleman found that the error in the

linear measurement of a flat bar of 36 inches in length, might amount

to .001 inch, simply by its resting upon an uneven surface, and assum-

ing a curvature therefrom, the versed sine of which amounted to no

more than .01 inch; now the difference between the chord and the’

1833.] Expansion of Metals. 133

arc is this case, is less than a hundred thousandth of an inch, and is,

therefore, inappreciable ; nor is it attempted to explain in what way

the effect observed should be one hundred times greater than could have

been expected. Captain Kater, it is true, immediately devised a reme-

dy for this anomaly, by seeking the neutral axis of the bar, and im-

printing the dots upon ledges formed at the two extremities in this

plane. The Indian standard bar was formed on this principle, the parts

bearing the dots being two-fifths in vertical height of the remainder of

the bar (figs. 1, 2.) : but upon a length of 10 feet, we may conceive that

a trivial error in the assumed position of this neutral axis may be suf-

ficient to account for the slight anomaly in the readings alluded to. It

will be evident that on the slightest slackening in the supply of steam,

the upper part of the bar would become cooler than the lower, for the

same reason as given above, and a contrary flexure would thus take place

to a similar amount. By taking therefore the mean reading of each

series of experiments, we need not fear any influential error from this

source, which I have the rather pointed out on account of its apparent

confirmation of Captain Kater’s curious discovery.

We will now proceed to the experiments, placing them in a tabular

form according to their dates, and correcting the thermometers, &c.

to a common standard.

First Series, 20th November, Standard Iron Bar A.

Thermometers. Micrometer

temperature,

Sz gare eee ;

bs s Inserted in the | Hour of | Re@dings-

2 S In the Bar. Obseryva- | Observations.

5 &| steam- |———— tion. Divisi

221 pipe. North South ivislons.

io) end. end.

Oo Oo

1 75,3 77,22) Noon —1067 The indications of the

2 152, 152,0 — 82 |micrometers and ther-

3 170,8 164,7 -+ 113 |mometers were read off

4 178,6 169,7 to + 211 {simultaneously at equal

5 184,4 185,4 + 314 {intervals of time, to as-

6 190,2 194,0 + 493 |certain theratio of calo-

7 212,0 212,0 | 4 P.M. +1157 |rific accession, but the

8 212, | broken +1151 Jopening of a leak pre-

9} 210,6 212,0 : +1140. |vented the completion of

10 210,2 212,6 +1133 | the series.

11 213,3 212,8 : +1152 Observers, Major Ever-

12 201,2 +1033 est and Captain Wil-

13 188,9 -+ 806 cox.

Difference of 136,0 = 2213

136

‘53 Thermometers. Micrometer

ae Inserted in the Readings.

<2 s| In the Bar Four or |—— Observations

5] steam- rs Reading. | .

7, She pipe. Now South Divisions.

co) bis end.

oO oO H. M.

] 80,1 77,9 78,0 —1050 Focal distance of mi-

2 79,9 77,6 77,5 |3 49 p.m.| —1071 |crometer 2,15 inches;

3 214,2 212,5 | 212,0 +1127 |barometer 29,97 inches ;

4 214,2 212,6 212,0 +1116 |stopcock of steam-pipe

‘i 217,2 212,4 212,0 +1099 {frequently opened and

6 215,4 212,8 212,5 +1114 |closed during this se-

a 212,6 208,2 211,6 +1083 |ries.

8 | 215,1 | 211,4 | 211,9 41089 sobahied ad Medsor

9 214,8 212,3 212,4 1101 Evevant Ba Capt. Wil

10°] 214,4 | 212,5 | 2121 )5 Op.m.| 1106 | sn haa

5 71,3 71,3 71,9 —1198 ra)

2 72,7 72,2 \7 Oa.M.! —1175 On the following mor-

71,6 Hales —1185 |ning ee W. and J. P.

Diferende of lisa 134,6 dilatation 2171 | Omics Ouising Nos. 7 & 8.

timpeenen's falling, 140,6 do. 2296

Third Series, 22nd November. Same Bar.

1 72,7 72,6 72,5 |110a.m.{ — 860 Barometer 29,99. Wil-

2 73,9 74,4 74,5 |1243p.m.} — 829 |cox and Prinsep.

3 213,9 212,6 212,7 | 20Pp.m.| +1447 The micrometer re-

BN e212,07 2a 4 22-2 t +1443 |mained perfectly sta-

5 | 212,0 212,4 212,2 e +1443 |tionary for half an hour,

6 212,0 212,4 212,2 | 40p.m.| +1443 [and the steam-cocks

5 were not touched.

7 76,3 81,8 80,0 | 50P.m.| — 774 _ |rejected, not evenly cool.

8 70,7 Jif, 71,8 | 90a.m.} — 926 {next morning. J. P.

Difference of @ ‘rising, 138,9 dilatation 2288

temperature, ) |falling, 131,5 do. 2218 [single reading.

140,7 do. 2370 following morning.

Fourth Series, 23rd November. Same Bar.

1 72,9 73,2 73,9 )1157a.m.] — 897 Barometer 30,02.

2 72,9 73,4 73,9 — 896 | Wilcox and Prinsep.

3| 2123 | 2125 | 212.3 |1217e.m.] +1394

4| 2125 |} 2125 | 2123 +1394

5 211,9 212,4 212,2 +1387

6 21257 212,5 212,2 +1379

7 | 212.8 | 2124 | 2122 |125P.m.1 1379

8 75,5 76,5 76,7 |415P.mM.| — 872 |rejected.

9 72,0 73,4 72,8 |110a.m.) — 920 |following morning.

Difference of | |rising, 138,7 dilatation 2283

temperature, f |falling, 139.2 ditto. 2306

Second Series, 21st November 1832.

Further Experiments on the

[Marcu,

Standard 10 feet Bar.

1833.] ‘Expansion of Metals. i 137

Fifth Series, 24th November. Same Bar.

‘Ss Thermometers, Micrometer

5 = 1h. | inserted in the Hour Readings.

a & chet Bar. of Observations.

i) - “ mine e é

z g pipe tthe Sdath Reading. | Divisions.

co) end. end. H. M.

1 72,8 72,9 73,2 |1140a.m.| — 906

2 42:5 72,9 73,3 11143 ,, — 906 Barometer 30,02.

3 7 (oye) 74,1 74,1 | 045p.m.| — 890 | Wilcox and Prinsep.

4 212,3 212,9 Po OTIS) Bld roti ay +1401

5 212,5 /ajileage, 212,5 120"3, +1401

6 212, 212,6 212,4 1 45,, +1395

7 | 211,5 | 212,7 | 2124 | 20 ,, | 1394

Differenceof| rising, 139,2 dilatation, 2298

temperature, { falling, 139,5 ditto. 2283 taking readings of 26th.

Sixth Series, 26th November. Same Bar.

1 71,3 71,5 71,9 \10 a. m.| — 916 |

2 72,9 #5 73,9 |1125a.m.| — 875 | Barometer 30,02.

3 yA) 74,1 74,2 | 030P.m.| — 865 |Wilcox and Prinsep.

4!/ 2130 | 2123 | 2123 |10,, | +1418

5 212,3 212,3 212,0 | 20 ,, +1405

6] 2129 | 212,4 | 212,2 | 215,, | --1400

7 | 2125 | 212.2 | 212,1 | 240,, | +1388

Diff.of | rising, 139,1 dilatation, 2288

temp., f falling, 139,7 ditto. 2288 |following morning.

Seventh Series, 27th November. Same Bar.

1 70,5 71,0 | 70,9 |100 Ae — 910 Bi

2 72,3 73,2 73,0 noon. — 875 Barometer 29,92,

3 73,0 73,6 | 73,5 |0 30P.m.| — 869 |Wilcox and Prinsep,

4| 2122 | 2125 | 212,12 110 ,, | +1422

Heelde Fy (io 2124.) 212,0 }1.30- os +1408

6 2122 212,5 ZZ 0% | E45 35 + 1404

7 212,7 212,5 242.0 12-0" OF +1398

Difference of ope " : :

temperature, 139,7 dilatation, 2293 |

The accordance of the observations, particularly of the latter series,

was so satisfactory as to render their further repetition superfluous :

it now only remains therefore to arrange the data of the several

experiments in a tabular form, and to calculate the resulting dilatations

according to the usual expression of ‘‘ the dimensions taken by a bar at

212°, whose length, at 32°, is 1,000000.”

138 Further Experiments on the [Marcu,

Abstract of the results of the foregoing experiments on the expansion of

“ the Standard 10 feet Bar of Iron.

a a ES,

No. of | Range of |Divisionsof} Total expansion Plaga ie hig Aaa tea

the se-|Temperature |the micro-|in decimal parts of

length at 32° is} mean in

ries. Farh. meter. a foot. 1, 1,000000, Hallion the

t+)

lr 136,0 2213 .0090980 1.001204 — 14

27 134,6 2171 -0089253 1.001194 — 24

St 140,6 2296 -0094392 1.001208 — 10

3 r 138,9 2288 -0094064 1.001219 + 1

St 131,5 2218? .0091185 1.001248 + 30

St 140,7 2370 ? .0097435 1.001246 + 28

ar 138,7 2283 .0093858 1.001218 0

Sf 139,2 2306 .0094804 1.001226 + 8

57 139,2 2298 .0094475 1.001222 + 4

if 139,5 2283 .0093858 1.001211 — 7

6r 139,1 2288 .0094064 1.001217 — il

of 139,7 2288 -0094064 1.001212 — 6

77 139,7 2293 -0094269 | 1.001214 — 4

Mean of the whole, 1.001218

The mean of these experiments is 1.001218, but if two of the series

(doubtful because they depend on single observations), be struck out,

the dilatation will appear to be 1.001213, and the greatest deviation

hardly amounts to the one hundred-thousandth part, while the general

accordance is much within these limits. The mean of the former ex-

periments upon an iron rod of 25 feet in length was 1.001256, deter-

mined by a single heating, and therefore liable to some uncertainty :

that of another wrought iron bar to be noticed presently, was 1.001216,

which agrees so closely with the above, as well as with the results of

Smeaton and Lavoisier, that I am inclined to think there is not so much

variation due to the quality of the metal as has sometimes been sup-

posed, and that 1.001215 may be safely employed on all occasions as

the constant of expansion for wrought iron.

Il.— Expansions of Gold, Silver, and Copper.

Having concluded the experiments upon the standard bar of the

trigonometrical survey, it occurred to me as very desirable to make

use of the microscopes, while fixed, to lay off a duplicate of the bar for

deposit in my own office. "When this had been done, it followed that

the constant of expansion might likewise be determined with ease for

the new bar by a repetition of the same process ;—and further that we

might arrange alongside of the iron bar such other metals as were

readily procurable in the mint of the desired dimensions.

Captain Wilcox kindly undertook to assist me in this new series,

which was conducted in every respect with the same attention to mi-

1833.] Expansion of Metals. 139

nute accuracy as before. We prepared in the mint two laminated

straps; one of pure gold*, 10 feet two inches long, 22 inches broad,

and about 4 inch thick, weighing about 320 lbs: the other of stand-

ard silver (; copper alloy), of the same dimensions or a little thicker.

The two ends were cut away, and marked with fine dots as nearly as

possible at the distance of 10 feet apart. As the run of the micrometer

was only one half of the expected expansion of the metals now to be

tried, the precaution was taken of inserting second dots about ;,th of

an inch within the first, the distance between the two dots being care-

fully measured under the microscope. I have said that the inner steam

cylinder was of copper; all that was necessary therefore to enable us

to measure the expansion of this metal along with the rest, was to fix

two small tongues to the two extremities of the tube, projecting under

the focus of the microscopes, and bearing the marks for measurement.

For consistency I will insert the new series of experiments with the

same detail as, before, to enable other experimenters to judge of the

measure of confidence due to our simple but somewhat tedious inves-

tigation.

Highth Series of Experiments on Expansion.

Thermometers. Readings of the micrometer.

Day. i Mails (Ie ra Gold. Silver. Copper.

South. | North. | pipe. f (add 2525.) | (add 2277.)| (add 2297.)

Se wed) Ug stmaht | oe ele ad) cape) pak wor af ino

Nov. | 76,0! 76,6| 76,4

Noon | 211,7 | 212,2 | 213,2 r

211,9 | 212,2 | 213,2 | +--+ 1290 —758,5 $358 —140

to | 211,8 | 212,1 | 213,8

211,9 | 212,2 | 214,3 + 1275

5 p. M.| 211,8 | 212,1 | 213,0 —776 +360 —129

211,8 | 212,0 | 211,2 + 1269 |

PEO 2het | 21207

aia | 2120 | a1t'o | ¢ + 1279 | —768 | 4362,| —129 i

IstDec] 72,9} 71,6] 71,4 : 7

za.m.i 72,41 71,6} 71.6 | ¢_ 1023 —960 —937 | —1058 |

= an wees bss

Ascendingrange, 135,6] dilatation, 2182 2649 3543 3133

Descending do. 139,9° ditto. 2301 2718 3574 2222

Ninth Series. ;

Dec. 1.| 76,0 | 75,6 | 76,5

Noon | 76.2] 76,0| 76,5 | \_ ee Te} 979

211,6 | 212,2 | 213,4 | ++ 1266 —798 +358 —157

to 211,8 | 212,1 | 214,4 | ++ 1267 —7/99 +365 —141

4 p.M.| 211,9 | 212,1 | 212,2| -+ 1254 —805 +364 —197 |t

Ascending range,136,0/ dilatation, 2229 2637 3503 : 3098

* Of the old gold mohur standard, or 1 car. 34 gr. Br., which, as far as such expe-

riments go, may be deemed pure.

+ Before this experiment, the hole had been pierced through the copper cylinder,

140 Further Experiments on the [Marcn,

I should have premised, that to prevent the straps of gold and silver

from curving within the cylinder, when heated, they were held flat,

one on each side of the iron bar, by coils of copper wire at distances of

six inches apart—these were not so tightly bound as to impede free

motion longitudinally.

' At this period of the experiments it was determined to anneal the

gold and silver bars, to observe what difference would be caused in

their rate of dilatation thereby, as well as what would be the perma-

nent elongation due to this change of condition.

' To effect the annealment of such long slips of metal in the most

equable manner without endangering loss or accident, required certain

precautions. They were laid upon a flat bar of wrought iron, supported

at distances of a foot asunder by fire-bricks, as represented in fig. 4,

Pl. vii. Their whole length was then enveloped in gobar, or cakes of

cowdung, in the same manner as is practised in heating the felly of

a wheel. The heat was thus gradually raised, until the whole length

was uniformly of a glowing red. But, not to lose the opportunity

which this experiment afforded of ascertaining the relative expansions

of the three metals at this higher temperature, an iron stake had been

firmly fixed in the ground at one end of the bars, against which all three

were made to abut firmly: the other ends were connected by an inter-

mediate brass rod (kept cold) with the nonius of a sliding scale placed

on the ground ina line with the bars, so as to measure off their elonga-_

tion with great facility. The results, and the temperature by Farenheit’s

thermometer founded on the assumption of an equal rate of expansion

throughout the scale of each metal, were as follows.

Absolute expansion in inches. Deduced temperature.

The gold, placed uppermost, ........ 1.638 L787 |

The silver, in the middle, .......... 2.008 1655

Theron, undermest,) !. Se. - sek 1.240 1609

That the upper position was much hotter than the lower was evident,

nor does it seem surprising that the difference of temperature should have

been so much as 180 degrees. No knowledge therefore could be gained

on the point sought, namely, the relative ratios of expansion ; but the

method of operating is itself capable of further application, and I hope

hereafter to be able to pursue it to more conclusive results.

The absolute elongation of the precious metals, by annealment, was.

measured by placing them once more under the microscopes at the

same temperature as before, (77°.2.) It was found to be much less than

was calculated from the difference of specific gravity before and after

annealment, shewing that the compression under the rollers was in the

gold 20, in the silver 8, times greater in the transverse than in the

longitudinal direction. The results were as follows:

1833.] Expansion of Metals. 14h

Specific gravity Increase Elongation by annealment, is

of in parts of | indecimal parts of

hard. annealed.} volume. an inch. 10 feet unit.

Pure gold, 19,313 | 19,136 00925 301973 ,000164

Silver

a ae t 10,404

To compare the relative expansions, the increase of bulk, or volume, must

be divided by three, to reduce it into linear elongation, when, as before

stated, the transverse will be found much to exceed the longitudinal ex-

10,239 01611 08244 | 3000687

pansion.

Having explained the Sects and results of this digression, and ima-

gining the bars replaced as before, we will proceed to the remainder of

the experiments with the steaming apparatus :

Tenth Series.

Thermometer, Readings of the micrometer.

sy hess in bar in Gold Silver Copper

aY- | south. | north.| steam.} Iron. | (add 2525)|(add 4065)| (add 2297)

eo Phe La SOO Wee Ales

Dec. 3.) 78,5! 78,3 — 937 —449 +865 —965

Ween 79,2 | 79,2

212,1 | 211,8 | 211,5 | +1279 —383 +224 —240

to 212,0 | 212,0 ices —381 +222

212,0 | 212,0 1264

5 P.M-1917,9 | 211,7 | | |

Ascending temperature, dif- C0) oO ts) oO |

ferent for each metal, ...... 133,6 133,4 133.1 132,83

Dilatation (adding nits be-

DPEEIIIOIS) co, oc ce csi seses. 2207 2592 3423 3022 r

Eleventh Series.

ial toes gs twa —9ll| —445 +865 | —977 |,

sa 212,3 | 212,0} full | +1278 —377 +227 —203

to | 212,2/212 | steam] +1266 —401 +220 —202

es | 212,1 | 212,1 | (steam} -++-1204 —404 +175 —226

. 211,9 ' 211,9 © less) | +-1202

o oO o 0

Range of temper. ascending,..| 133,7 133,7 133,7 133,5

Ditto for last readings,......; 133,6 133,6 133,6 133,5

Dilatation, first readings,....] 2183 2593 3423 3071

Second ditto, ........0..... 2114 2566 3375 | 3048

Tn this last series the steam was allowed to run down on purpose to

try the effect: and it will be seen that it was sensibly felt by all the

metal bars, even while the mercurial thermometer scarcely indicated the

fall; for as before remarked, the bars were far more sensible thermo-

meters than the small mercurial instruments.

The expansion however by the last experiment has been purposely cal-

culated, to shew the maximum influence of such a cause.

142 Further Experiments, &c. (Marcu,

The general results may now lL classed under their respective heads

as follows :

Range of Reading of Deduced dilatation

temperature. micrometer. for 180 degrees.

Duplicate Iron 10 feet Bar. 135,6 2182 1,001191

139,9 2301 1,001217

136,0 2229 1,001213

133,6 2207 1,001223

133,7 2183 1,001208

133,6 2114 1,001171?

Mean, rejecting the last, .... .... 1,001210

135,6 2649 1,001446

Pure Gold, rolled hard,, 18 9 2718 1,001438

136,0 2637 1,001435

133,6 2592 1,001439

annealed,..... 133,7 2593 1,001435

133,6 2566 -1,001421 ?

Mean, rejecting the last, eae 1,001438

Standard Silver, ;'5 alloy, mete 9 3543 auc

rolled hard, 136,0 3503 1,001906

133,6 3423 1,001896

annealed, 133,7 3423 1,001895

133,6 3375 1,001869 ?

Mean, rejecting the last, .... s+. 1,001904

3133 1,001697

Copper annealed, but parti- | 141 5 ses 1,001685

ally hammered in making< 135,8 peed 1,001688

cane 132,8 3022 1,001684

Q ecceeeccesceecsececs 1 133, 7 3071 1,001702

L133, 5 3048 1,001690

Mean of the whole, ...... Siete 1,001691

It must be remarked with regard to this series, that, besides other

sources, of error, the dots, marked with a needle-point by an unskilful

hand, were rather difficult to bisect; and further, the continual shift-

ing of the apparatus, to bring each bar successively under the focus

of the microscopes, was more than sufficient to account for irregulari-

ties greater than are observable in the present results.

In comparing the list with the former one, one is struck with the

close agreement between two metals of very different fusibility, namely,

standard silver, and brass ; a circumstance which permits the application

of silver divided circles to astronomical instruments of the latter metal.

Platina is by no means so well adapted for such a purpose. The opera-

tion of annealing does not seem to have the slightest effect upon the rate

of expansion, a fact well worthy of consideration, as it would be at all

times difficult to say what allowance should be made on such account,

where the degree of hardness of a metal might be uncertain.

The latest determinations of the dilatations of metals (which have

reached me since the above experiments were finished), are those of

Mr. Daniell; but the apparatus used by him, (a plumbago tube of six

inches in length, holding a rod of the metal to be operated on,) how-

ever well adapted for approximate measurement of intense heats, is

obviously not worthy of trust for minute measures at low temperatures, —

1833.] Continuation of Dr. Gerard’s Route. 143

I do not therefore insert his table from the Philosophical Magazine now

before me, but at once conclude with a general summary of the dilata-

tions which our experiments in India have established, in a manner

worthy, I hope, of entire confidence.

Dilatations of metals determined at Calcutta.

Standard 10 feet bar of the Trig. Survey, 1,001213

Tron, < Duplicate of do. of English bar iron,.. 1,001210 }1,001215

Wire-drawn rod, twenty-five feet,.... 1,001256

Gotp, nearly pure, (10 feet long) ........ -s00- ..0--» 1,001438

SILVER, containing one-twelfthalloy, (do.).......- .-..00.- 1,001904

Copper, sheet, annealed, .......... CEO EY. VOSS cee e 1,001691

Brass, wire-drawn, annealed, (25 feet) ..........s0000- 1,001906

LEAD, one-inch pipe, (25 feet) .........eee005 oe se. 1,002954

The apparatus used in the foregoing experiments is preserved, in case

it should ever become a desideratum to try the expansion of other metals

or substances by the same process.

IV.—Continuation of Dr. J. Gerard’s Route with Lieutenant Burnes, from

Bokhdéra to Meshid.

[Extracted from letters to his brother Captain P. Gerard.]

Mirabdd, 3\st July, 1832. We took leave of Bokhara on the 21st

ultimo, and are now in a Tuirkoman village, about 36 miles distant, await-

ing the arrival of the merchants, &c. who are to form the Kafila ; but we

may be here long enough, as the Urganj army is still in our way. Ghos

Bég sent for us before starting, and made us over to the Turkomans and

Kafila bashz, with every demonstration of good will, and enjoining them

to convey us safe to Meshid at their peril. * * * *

The weather has been uniformly sultry ;—thermometer daily above

‘100°, even as high as 110°, and our sitting room is but a few degrees

cooler, but the extreme dryness of the air counteracts the sensation of

heat. The nights have generally been pleasant and the mornings al-

ways temperate ;—thermometer 66°. Though it is now the middle of

August, the climate can scarcely be said to have changed, except that

the nights are cooler.

Meshid, 17th September, 1832.—Here we are safe in Persia, after a

journey of no ordinary difficulty. We left the village (Mérabad) so

long our prison, on the 16th of August, and crossed the Oxus on the

following morning, intending (as we had believedupon faithless resolu-

tions), to accomplish the trip in fifteen or sixteen days. Our first de-

tention commenced at Sarjué on the bank of the river, but as this

144 Continuation of Dr. Gerard’s Route. [Marcu,

‘was not occasioned by any untoward event we cared less. Other Aa-

jilas joined us here, and on the 21st we resumed the journey across the

desert. The weather had undergone a great change, and was now

temperate. We almost immediately entered amongst sand heaps, which

succeeded in rising heights, and extended till they bordered the horizon

on all sides; and the Shimal or north wind sweeping away the loose

surface, made it appear like the sea spray, while the heaps themselves

represented the waves. The camels trod heavily through the sand

drifts, and the horses plunged as if they were fording a river. Several

belts of this sort occurred between them, tracts of sand covered with

bushes or shrubs, and then a ridge of the desert composed of hillocks

or sand waves, which at a distance looked like a vast roller just going

to break. Scarce any track is visible, the wind defacing the prints

of the camels’ feet; but there is a general line of route which is fol-

lowed. The sand heaps are of every size and shape, but have com-

monly their cliff to the south ; deep chasms are formed by the junction

of their bases, and basins or cavities which would resemble pools if

filled with water. The scene was quite new and magnificent. It was

altogether a wilderness. We passed several dead carcases of camels

and horses, the drivers of which, having missed the wells, killed some

of them for sustenance. Mostof the wells were saliferous, but the water

answered for our horses and some of the people, who live little better.

The climate had evidently turned from its extreme temperature, and

in this respect we had not to complain. The nights, contrary to ex-

pectation, were very mild. A very long march brought us to a well of

bad water, after having been without any except what we brought from

a distance. This was a relief the more grateful, as we had nearly missed

the spot, and perseverance alone in feeling for the road kept us in a

proper direction, till the barking of a dog announced our proximity toa

Tiarkoman ‘camp. On the 27th we reached a baked arid plain, on

which was planted a tented village of Tarkomans. Here we were to

be taxed by the Urganj authorities, who came down to us from the

ancient city of Mdwur or Myhr, now almost level with the face of

the desert, and no longer an inhabited spot. The Urganj army

was close upon us, but on their homeward route. On the 28th the

collector arrived, and inspected the Kafila. The merchants presented

him, as customary, with various articles: we sat mute in our camel

panniers, and were duly reported as Musdfirs upon a pilgrimage to the

places of fire worship; our offering to the taxman consisted of loaf

sugar and tea. Our prodigality was nearly ruining us; fortunately a

Russian merchant (a Mahomedan who traded to Russia, whose avarice

1833.] From Bokhdara to Meshid. 145

had conquered all pride of self-sufficiency), from a regard to his own

interests, checked our liberality, and instead of presenting a couple of

sugar-loaves and a handful of tea, broke off the end of one, and witha

few raisins made up our nazar.

Several of his train peeped into our creels and asked after our

business, and were quite satisfied on being told that we were Afghans

from Kabél : so little are those people acquainted with the colour and

characteristics of Europeans. In this respect, therefore, our faces

are real masks, and it was here only the name of our country that we

had an object in concealing, since to the services of those in Abbas

Mirza’s army especially, not a little of the bad feeling between the

Khan of Urganj and the Persians is owing. Russians and Englishmen

are alike their enemies, or rather the Urganjis are hostile to both. In

the afternoon we ventured out of our camel baskets as the enemy was

departing, but as some of his dependents were lingering behind we

were warned back. In the evening we got out and laughed heartily at

the transaction. In truth we were quite at our ease all the time, not

believing that there was an individual in our camp who had any object

in betraying us; but it was not long till we discovered that wretches are

to be found in every community, and people whose fair faces belie their

feelings. We ,had only a week’s march between us and Meshid, and

we started again with fine prospects.

On the 1st of September we came in sight of the mountains of Persia,

and next day arrived at Shiraks, a Turkoman village with a fort. Here

we were to be taxed, but misfortunes seldom come single ; and if the mer~

chants had to complain of an imposition, we certainly had not bargained

for a share of their burdens and a load of our own besides. While in

our former embarrassment near Myhr, we superadded to it the plea-

sant prospect of meeting a body of Allemans, whom the merchants of

our Kafila actually saw marched off upon a predatory excursion to

the borders of Meshid. The tax-gatherer, who had an interest in the

‘safety of the Kajilas, exacted a promise from them, that should they

cross our path we had nothing to fear: but a robber’s pledge is like

lover’s vow graved upon some insect’s filmy wing, and lasts only till the

bait is thrown out. No fewer than seven hundred of those armed ruf-

fians were thus let loose. At Shiraks we learnt that the Allemans

were still in pursuit of booty, and the Kafila took up its position till

they should have passed us on their return. Apprehensions were now

turned into real horror, at least with me, when we beheld the cold-blooded

monsters racing into the village, with their spears poized and their

horses almost dead from fatigue in their infernal occupation. They

146 Continuation of Dr. Gerard’s Route (Marcu,

brushed past our encampment, some of them stopping and conversing

with the Kafila, and relating their adventures to the merchants, who in

pursuance of their trade took a heartless interest in that of the rob-

bers, as upon their success more or less would rest their own security.

Upwards of 100 Kuzlbashes were seized for the Bokhdra market,

and a number of camels and cows which they drove off from within

sight of the walls of Meshid. ‘Their encampment was close to us, and

we were almost tempted to take a look at it. Some of the Allemans

were disabled, while their horses were scarce able to carry them.

Many had returned empty-handed, finding the work too heavy; all

those who touched at the village came for refreshment or to visit

their friends. This is a strange state of society, yet these intrepid

adventurers, when seen in the ordinary relations of life, are not

only sociable companions, but even prepossessing in their natural

simplicity and easy manners. The guard of Tuirkomans we had

were the same people, and every individual of it could enumerate his

exploits in the inglorious field; but this is perhaps not quite fair, as it

requires a considerable share of courage to meet the various perils of

their vocation: pillage alone is their aim, and, of all others, human

beings are their greatest prize; nor is it much to be wondered at that,

amongst people who are naturally prone to rapine, their fellow creatures

should be most coveted, as long as the infamous markets of Bokhara

and Urganj offer a premium for the traffic. The Russians have, I

believe, succeeded in restraining slavery as regards Bokhdra : but what

reliance is to be placed upon any compact that is both adverse to mer-

cenary interests and religious zeal? There are several hundred Rus-

sian slaves now in the dominions of the Bokhara dynasty, and as long

as Tirkomans offer them for sale there will be purchasers ; and what

does Russia know of her black population or of her fugitive soldiers,

who wander amongst half savage hordes at the extremities of her ter-

ritory ? At Shiraks there was a Persian girl of unquestionable beauty

who had been in slavery for a couple of years, with the Tirkomans of

course; her transfer was delayed in hopes of an enhanced price, and a

Kafila which followed us, picked her up at what may appear a high va-

luation, if indeed we can make any estimate of what is in itself unappre-

ciable! But you will excuse me for treating the subject in this loose

way, having resided so long in a quarter of our own dominions where

female slavery is as notorious as the sun at noon day, and if not quite

so glaring, is, I fear, scarcely less remarkable, while it is as genial to

the people’s feelings as his rays to their frozen solitudes. The Persian

girl was sold for upwards of 60 t¢ilas, more than 420 rupees, a sum

1833.] From Bokhara to Meshid. 147

that would purchase at least a dozen of females in the Himalayan re-

gions. When this infernal traffic is so profitable, can we expect that

the hungry Tiirkomans of the desert will restrain their cupidity for

human flesh ?—but this is a subject for sages in their closet, and not for

travellers.

Our detention at Shiraks till the roads were cleared of lingering

robbers was necessarily prejudicial to us, as we were still in the Ur-

ganj territories, though virtually subject to Abbas Mirza: but you

may judge of his authority bythe successful obtrusions of the Turko-

mans even to the gates of this holy city. Our protests against imposi-

tion on the previous occasion of paying taxes had given umbrage to

several of the merchants, who seemed to have leagued together to make

what they could of us; and finding us still self-confident, had recourse

to the mean tricks natural to the trade, and betrayed us. We were now

to be locked up in the fort till the Khan of Urganj sent for us ; and

at first we saw nothing but certain misfortune, slavery at the very least,

and we prepared for flight with the evening’s twilight at the risk of

falling into the hands of the Allemans, or half perishing for thirst in

the desert. When thus turning over our thoughts, one of the mer-

chants, a Persian, whose state of health had made him extremely grate-

ful for our curative attentions, relieved us from our suspense, and, toge-

ther with the avaricious Russian trader, offered to conciliate the Tur-

koman chiefs, and pass us off as pilgrims or any other species of wander-

ers. A couple of tilas anda little tea and sugar, with sweet words,

satisfied their expectations ; but fortune favoured us more than our

presents, as it happened that our friend the Persian was a most inti-

mate acquaintance of the very people who pressed us so closely. Hav-

ing got out of this snare, we divested ourselves of every comfort we

might have had over our fellow travellers, sat in the sun or in our

creels, and ceased to cook our dinner as usual, as the fire collected

a swarm of Tiirkomans as acandle does insects. Still delayed, new

difficulties arose, a plot to extort money or tea was again begun, and

our apprehensions of rumours of our disguise reaching the chiefs of the

Urganj army were too well grounded. A fresh body of Allemans had

issued from Mdwar, and were approaching Meshid; our consternation

was further raised on learning that Abbas Mirza’s Elchee (ambassador)

on his way to Herat was seized by the very people we were amongst,

and was actually a prisoner in irons in the village, so that on every

side we were environed by difficulties of one sort or other; at last a

Kafila from Meshid made its appearance, and our irresolute associates

got under weigh, much to our satisfaction, after nine days of the most

vu 2

148 Continuation of Dr. Gerard’s Route, &c. [Marcu,

irksome durance, though we were not entirely without amusement

during part of the time, but upon the very threshold of a friendly port

such provoking interventions were quite unsupportable. Even here

we were obliged to take in a supply of water. On the 11th we resum-

ed our journey, and on the 12th crossed the mountain frontier of Persia

or rather Khorasan, which is continuous withthe hills which trend

along the Oxus and run into Hindu Kush. They are about 4,000

feet in height (water boiling at 2053°), and support the plains of Persia

which have a very considerable elevation.

At midnight of the 12th we were thrown into confusion by a report

of an encampment of robbers. The Kafila closed up in a great hurry ;

the camels were instantly squatted upon their knees and packed toge-

ther ; the utmost regularity prevailed ; fear having overcome their sur-

prise, both men and beasts were silent; the camels, as if they had been

accustomed to such scenes, trembled and sat still. The armed men

stood in front waiting the assault. I found myself close to a pair of

women who were bustling about seeking comforters, but I felt rather

abashed in such company, and making my way over camels’ backs and

bales of goods got outside, followed by our Haji Baba, who though

a very respectable man in his calling had no idea of showing fight, and

entreated me to make myself snug ; but his alarm was soon allayed, for

the enemy was not forthcoming, and the people we dreaded were equal-

ly afraid of us. They were travellers like ourselves. Had they been

Allemans we should have made but a poor figure in the contest, for not

half of us would have come to the scratch, as the phrase is, and too

surely the remainder would not have kept it up after the first onset.

In the evening we were within ten miles of Meshid, and before making

a final start of it, a custom-house officer paid us a visit, and delighted

us by intimating that Captain Shee was at Meshid, where news of some

kind or other must await us; but as Abbas Mirza was besieging a fort

in the neighbourhood, we could not reconcile the report. An hour be-

fore day-break on the 14th saw us at the gates of this city, and we are

now amongst Persians all gay and courteous, anew scene entirely,—no

more Usbeks ! We were very fortunate in having met with Mrs. Shee

here, who invited us to breakfast and dinner, and shewed us every

attention and kindness. There is also a serjeant in charge of the

arsenal, who is particularly useful to us ; he has engaged to keep a re-

gister of the thermometer here forme. We are going out to the prince’s

camp, 100 miles from this. He has just taken a fort, and concluded

his campaign. Lieut. B. will thence go on to Tehran, but I must return

here and start with a Aajila for Herat. The road is far from safe, but

1833.] Asiatic Society. 149

I only require to be with the Kajfila to be protected. This is a fine

city: the scene is entirely new. I am forced to make an abrupt con-

clusion to be ready for the Chop (post). * * *

10th October, I have been at the prince Royal’s camp, about 90

miles from this. Lieut. Burnes there left me for Astrabad and the

Caspian. We found Captain Shee, Mr. Brouski and Mr. Beck in camp,

all living in the Persian style: they were very kind to us. Captain

Shee and I went to the Turquoise mines, and since my return to this

I have not been very well. Every body hereisalso sick. My journey

to Herat is all fixed. I saw Yar Mohammed Khan, Prince Kamran’s

minister, who received me extremely civilly, but I am cautious in put-

ting myself under any obligations.”

V.—Proceedings of the Asiatic Society.

Wednesday Evening, 27th March, 1833.

The Honorable Sir Edward Ryan in the Chair.

The Proceedings of the last meeting were read.

Lieut. A. Burnes, Assistant Resident at Cutch, was elected a Member,

C. Telfair, Esq. President, and Mons. J. Desjardins, Secretary, of the

Natural History Society of Mauritius, were on the favorable report of the

Committee of Papers, elected Honorary Members.

Read letters from Captain Henderson and Mr. F. J. Halliday, expressing

their reluctance in being obliged to withdraw from the Society.

Read a letter from J. C. Morris, Esq. Secretary to the Madras Literary

Society, &c. requesting that copies might be made for the use of Cavelly

Venkata Lachmia pundit, formerly in the employ of Colonel Colin Macken.

zie, of the English Catalogue of the late Colonel’s collection of inscriptions.

Ordered that such information as can be given, regarding the Transla-

tions of Colonel Mackenzie’s collection of inscriptions, be forwarded in reply

to the Mad. Lit. Soc.

The Secretary announced that materials were collected for another vo-

lume of Researches, and that it was for the Society to determine whether it

should continue to publish in the same form as heretofore.

The Native Secretary submitted a memorandum on the subject, of which

the following is the substance :—

The first five volumes were printed by the Calcutta Gazette Press on its own

account, and copies supplied to Members at 20 Rs. each, after which the Society

took the responsibility of publication. Until 1810 a charge was made for the

volume; thenceforward Subscribing Members received their copies gratis.

The sale of the Researches either in India or in Europe has been very limited.

The cost of printing, gradually reduced from Rs. 10,000 to Rs, 4500 per volume, has

150 Asiatic Society. (Mancry,

amounted from the time that the Society became its own publisher to, Rs. 82000

While the return by sales has been { an E ngland, Bs. 3200

in India, 6000 9200

leaving a balance of loss on 13 volumes, Rs. 72,800

Baboo Ram Comul Sen proposed that in future the matter for publication should

be transmitted to Europe, where a printer may be found to print it on his own

account, Mr. Wilson kindly correcting the press*.

After some discussion a Committee composed of Dr. J. Tytler, Major

Benson, Dr. J. T. Pearson, and Mr. J. R. Colvin, was appointed to consi-

der on the best mode of publishing the continuation of the Researches.

Extract of a letter from J. F. Royle, Esq. to the Secretary was read, an-

nouncing the intended publication of his “ Illustrations of the Botany and

Physical Geography of the Himalaya mountains and Kashmere.”

Library.

The following books were laid on the table :—

Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. xi. 2nd part, and

vol. xii. Ist part—presented by the Society.

Professor Buckland’s account of the animal and vegetable remains and of

rocks collected in Ava by Mr. Crawfurd—by the author, through Dr. Wallich.

Ditto on the oceurrence of the remains of elephants, &c. in the frozen

mud of Behrings Straits—by ditto.

Proceedings of the Royal Asiatic Society at the Anniversary Meeting of

Saturday, 7th June, 1832—presented by the Society.

Proceedings of the Mauritius Natural History Society, for September and

October, 1832—by the Society.

Journal Asiatique, No. 56, August, 1832—from the Asiatie Society of Paris.

Meteorological Register for February—from the Surveyor General.

Syr-ul-Mutakherin, 1st volume—presented by the publisher and editor, Mulvé

Abdil Mojid.

Anglo-Persian Anecdotes, translated by Krishnachundra Ghose.—Pre-

sented by Raja Kalikrishna Buhddur.

The following works, received from the Oriental Translation Fund of

Great Britain and Ireland.

Fraser’s Annals of the Turkish Empire, from A. D. 1591 to 1659, 1st vol.

Stewart’s Tezkereh al Vakidt, or Private Memoirs of the Moghul Emperor Hu-

mayan, 1 vol.

Klaproth’s San Kokf Tsou Ran To Sets, ou Apergu general des trois Royaumes,

with a volume of plates.

Stenzler’s Raghuvansa, Kalidase Carmen, Sanskrité et Latiné, 1 vol.

The Geographical works of Sadik Isfahani, translated by J. C.

Julitn’s Hoei Lan-ki, ou Vhistoire du cercle, de craie, drame en prose et en vers,

1 vol.

* This is however hardly a fair way of stating the case: the members are in fact

the purchasers of the Society’s volumes, which they pay for by their subscriptions,

Publication is the main object and the main expence of every literary association ;

without which it would be of comparatively little utility or interest to the world.

1833.] Asiatic Society. 151

Col. Brigg’s Siyar-ul Mutakherin, a History of the Mahommedan Power in India

during the last century, Ist vol.

Atkinson’s Shah Nameh of Firdausi, translated in verse and prose, 1 vol,

Fourth Annnual Report of the Oriental Translation Fund.

The following books received from the book-sellers :

Gray’s Indian Zoology, part xii.

Lardner’s Cyclopedia, Spain and Portugal, vol. 4.

Natural History.

1. Dr. Wallich, Superintendent H. C.’s Botanic Garden, presented in the

name of Professor Buckland, specimens of the coprolite, or fossil albums

grecum, from the lias of Lyme-regis, Dorset.

Some of these fossils are in their rough state, some are cut and polished, and

there are plaster casts of other specimens in Dr. B.’s collection.

2. A fragment of fossil bone, brought by himself from Jabalpur, was pre-

sented by Major Benson.

This fragment is enveloped in a hard greenish siliceous coat, which has also

penetrated into the pores of the bone in many parts, and has taken the place of its

animal matter, probably by the same process of infiltration which is observed in

fossil wood from the same part of India.

3. A further selection of the fossil shells of the Himalaya were received

from Captain P. Gerard, on the part of his brother, Dr. J. Gerard,

Several of these shells differ from those depicted in the Rev. R. Everest’s paper

in the Physical Transactions, and will form the subject of a supplementary plate.

Read extract of a letter from Lieut. Burnes, presenting specimens of As.

bestos found between Peshawar and Kabul ;—

Ditto Native Muriate of Ammonia from the province of Hissar, north of

the Oxus ;—

Ditto of the sand or silt suspended in the river Oxus ;—

Ditto of sand from the Kharasm Desert between the Oxus and the Cas.

pian. ;

The President communicated the following circular, with a request from

the Rev. W. Whewell of Cambridge, for any information which Members of

the Asiatic Society might be able to supply on the subject of the tides of

the Indian Coasts.

Suggestions for Persons who have opportunities to make or collect observations of

the Tides.

“Ir was shewn by Newton, nearly 150 years ago, that the fact of the Tides and

several of their circumstances, resulted from the law of the Universal Gravitation

of matter. But in this interval of time scarcely any thing has been done which

might enable us to combine into a general view the phenomena of the Tides as they

take place in all the different parts of the world ; and at very few places have good

and continued observations been made and published. It is conceived that by

collecting such observations as have been made, or may easily be made, the con-

nexion and relation of the Tides of all the parts of the Ocean may be in a short

time clearly made out ; and that persons may be induced to make such careful

observations as may serve to be compared with the theory. In this hope the pre-

sent paper is circulated.

152 Asiatic Society. (Marcu,

The most useful Observations with reference to our general knowledge of the

Tides are the following, beginning with those which are most easily made :

1. The Observation of the Time of High water at a known place, on any day,

and especially at new and full moon.

2. The Observation of the Time of High water on several days in succession at

the same place.

3. The Observation of the Height of several successive Tides at the same place.

4. Observations of the comparative Time of High water on the same day at

‘different places in the same seas.

1. An observation of the Time of High water at a given place on any known

day may be useful.

If the Time of the Moon’s southing on the same day be noted, this will facilitate

the use of the observation, and will furnish an additional evidence of the correct-

ness of the date.

The Time of High water on the days of New and Full Moon is more particularly

useful than on other days.

Observations of the Time of High water may be made with sufficient accuracy

without a tide-post. A place ought to be selected where the water is tolerably

smooth.

2. If there be opportunity at any place, it is desirable to observe the Time of

High water every day for a fortnight.

If it be ascertained that the two tides on the same day occur at regular intervals,

one of them only need be observed.

But there are often irregularities in the relative Times of the morning and even-

ing Tide ; and these irregularities are different for different ages of the moon. In

‘this case boih daily Tides should be observed.

3. A single observation of the Height of the Tide is not of much value. But

a Series of Heights for a fortnight is valuable, especially if accompanied with ob-

servations of the times,

The morning and evening Tide are often unequal, and this inequality sometimes

varies considerably from one fortnight to another.

In observations of the Height of the Tide, the difference of High and Low water

ought to be taken.

The channel of a river is not a good situation for such observations.

4. The usefulness of tide observations will be greatly increased if those made at

places in the same seas can be compared so as to shew the Rare at which the

Tide wave TRAVELS:

For example, the time which it employs in passing along a certain line of coast,

or across a sea, or round an island, or up a bay.

N. B.—The Tide wave is the elevation of the waters by which High water is pro-

duced in many places at once. It is not observed as a visible wave, but is found by

drawing a line upon the globe through all the places at which it is high water at a

certain moment. The rate and direction of its travelling are known by comparing

the position of such lines at successive times.

N. B.—The Rare at which the Tide wave TRAVELS is quite distinct from the

rate at which the stream of ebb or flow runs.

N. B.—Also the Direcrion in which the Tide wave travels is quite distinct from

the direction in which the tide ebds or flows.

1833.] Asiatic Society. 153

The most proper observations for determining the rate and course of the Tide

wave are those of the Time of High water on the same day at different points (not

too near nor too remote) on a continued line of coast or sea.

This may often be done by a person residing in any country by making enqui-

ries of persons conversant with the coasts, or by directing corresponding observa-

tions to be made at different places for a few days only.

If the places differ much in longitude, this ought to be noted, that allowance may

be made for the difference of the absolute time of noon.

If there be any uncertainty as to the rate and course of travelling of the tide be-

tween two places, the doubt may best be removed by obtaining observations at some

intermediate point or points.

It is necessary to distinguish the Time of High water at the mouth of a deep bay

or sound, from the time of High water further in. The former is to be taken in

all such comparisons as are here spoken of.

Large islands and long promontories much disturb the regular progress of the

Tide wave.

Comparative Observations of the Height at different places in the same seas, es-

pecially if combined with those of the Times, may also be of great value.

All communications concerning any observations of the above kinds made or to

be made in any part of the world will be thankfully received. They may be ad-

dressed to the care of the Sec. Asiatic Society, or direct to

The Rev. W. WHEwWELL, Trinity College, Cambridge ;

or, at the Royal Society, London ;

or the Astronomical Society, London.”’

The President read a letter handed to him by Dr. Strong, addressed to

Major Benson, Mil. Sec. to the Right Honorable the Governor General, de-

scribing the progress and present condition of the borings in Fort William,

with the opinion of Sergeant Reid upon the causes of the repeated failures ;

and suggesting that the Government should continue the experiment upon its

relinquishment by the Society: Major Benson explained that the present

reference to the Society had for its object to obtain their opinion as a body

upon four essential points before recommencing operations ;—the probability

of ultimately finding a spring ;—the expediency of making the further at-

tempt ;—the mode of avoiding such accidents as have hitherto impeded the

auger :—and the estimated expense.

After some discussion, the following members were nominated a Committee

to draw up a report with advertence to these points. Dr. Mill, V. P. Dr.

Wallich, Dr. Langstaff, Mr. Seppings, Captain Forbes, and Dr. Casanova.

. Antiquities.

Read extracts of a letter from Lieut. A. Burnes, presenting to the Society

eleven of the coins collected by himself in his recent visit to Manikyala. —

Two or three of these coins are in excellent preservation, with very decypherable

Greek inscriptions, and are thus proved to be of Bactrian fabrication :—they bear

the several devices of the equestrian figure ;—the man in the tunic 3—the elephant ;—

&c. and agree in other respects with the coins described in Mr. Wilson’s paper

154 Madras Literary Society. [Manrcn,

plate II. Nos. 25, 26, 27, 28, &c.) : there are others of a pure Hindee character ; but

as Lieut. Burnes will soon be in Calcutta with the remainder of the coins procured

by him, any further notice may better be deferred until his arrival.

Literary.

A paper was read on the marriage rites and usages of the Jats of Bharat-

pur, by T.®. Lushington, Esq.

The marriage of Balwant Sinh, the present Raja of Bharatpur, to the daughter of

the Bechore Raja, in May 1832, afforded the author an excellent opportunity of

witnessing the numerous ceremonies punctiliously observed in its solemnization at

Deeg. Mr. Lushington describes the betrothal—the ¢ika or marriage present—the

settlement of a fortunate day by the pardits, and the consequent transmission of

the lagan patrt, orbride’s horoscope, to the bridegroom, which is considered to close

the marriage. Connubial feasts and concerts are then given in the parents’ houses.

The youth is anointed with jasmine oil, and makes pooja and offerings to the fa-

mily potter's wheel, to Sitla the goddess of the small-pox, and to the gohra or

place in which the filth of the palace is deposited: this is said to typify the increase

of progeny, as the heap of rubbish continually augments! The ceremony of the dhat

succeeds, in which vice and other presents, of horses, elephants, &c. are given to

the parohits, the Rani and Raja and their attendants, by the brothers and other

male relations. Deputations from foreign courts succeed. The Bardt or marriage

procession starts from the temple of the bridegroom’s mahant or head priest (he had

not a family géri%), and is attended with much splendour. Upon its arrival at the

bride’s house the ceremonies of tdran and hom take place. The former consists in

striking the image of a bird with a sheathed sword ;—the latter, the burnt-offering

and adoration of water, are described as the most interesting parts of the perform-

ance—they are followed by the Kanyaddn or giving away of the bride—the

Pradakshana, the Aghuna, and the marriage hymns.

The bride is then carried home, when feasting and curious games, resembling

‘* snapdragon and bran-cake,”” amuse the young couple.

After three days’ residence with her lord, the bride returns to her parents for three

or five years, when she is brought away with the ceremony of gona or gaman—but

this may be dispensed with by the performance of phir-pattah, or changing the

stools of the bride and bridegroom when the hom is celebrated.

Vi.—Maopras Litrrerary Society.

General Meeting held at the College on Saturday, 26th January, 1833.

The Hom’ble Sir R. Palmer, President, in the Chair.

The Secretary (J. C. Morris, Esq.), laid before the Meeting a statement

of the funds of the Society in both its branches.

Captain Chase, Lieut.-Col. Coombs, A. Robertson, Esq. and Capt. Row-

landson, were elected the Committee of management.

W. Hudleston, Esq. and Capt. Rowlandson, were added to the Committee

of papers,

Donations of various books from individuals and societies,—of a Baudha

image and a gold coin, were announced.

1833.] Madras Literary Society. 155

Seventeen new members had been elected since the last general meeting,

and fourteen had retired and gone home.

Read letter from Messrs. Arbuthnot and Co., stating that they are prepared to

receive the model of a pagoda the property of John Hodgson, Esq., which that

gentleman has requested may be transferred from the Madras Literary Society to

the Royal Asiatic Society.

Ordered that the model of the pagoda in question be forwarded to Messrs. Ar-

buthnot and Co., and that a letter be addressed to the Royal Asiatic Society, ex-

planatory of the delay which has occurred in its transmission.

Read letter from Lieutenant Chalmers, forwarding a translation from the Persian

of the 1st volume of the Akbar Namah of Abool Fuzl.

Resolved, that Lieutenant Chalmers be informed that on receipt of the second

volume, the Society will be prepared to submit his work to the favourable notice of

the Oriental Translation Committee of the Parent Society in England.

Read letter from the Baron De Ferussac, requesting to be furnished through the

medium of the Society with some information regarding Minerals and Shells, in

order to enable him to finish a work he is engaged in on these subjects.

~ Resolved, that the Baron De Ferussac be informed, that the Society will use their

best endeavours to meet the views and wishes expressed in his letter.

Read letter from Cavelly Venkatah Lutchmiah, submitting a letter from Sir Alex-

ander Johnston, and requesting assistance from the Society.

~ Resolved, that Cavelly Venkatah Lutchmiah’s letter be referred for the considera-

tion and report of the Committee of Papers.

Read list of books presented to the Society by a Jain Priest.

Ordered to be referred to the Committee of Papers,

Read letter from the Honorary Secretary to the Royal Asiatic Society, acknow-

ledging the receipt of several communications, and returning the Society’s thanks

for the same.

Ordered to be recorded.

Resolved, that all letters and communications which either from inadvertence or

other causes may hitherto not have received answers, be immediately replied to,

with suitable apologies; and that it be publicly notified that all communications,

however short, which may in any way tend to elucidate the history and sciences,

arts and customs of the natives of India, whether Hinds or Mahomedans, wut be

thankfully received by the Society, wil] receive ready attention from the Committee

of Management, and will be read at the quarterly meetings of the Society.

Resolved, that with the view of increasing the efficiency of the operations of the

Society by stimulating its supporters to exertion, regular meetings be held on the

second Thursday of the months of February, May, August and November, for the

purpose of reading the several communications which may be received, and of se-

lecting such as may be most deserving of publication.

Proposed by Lieutenant-Colonel Coombs, seconded by Mr. McDonell, and carried

by acclamation—

“ That this meeting hail with peculiar satisfaction the presence of The Right

Honorable Patron of the Society, and beg to return him their grateful and respect-

ful acknowledgments for his promised countenance and support.”

The thanks of the meeting were unanimously voted to the Honorable the Presi-

dent, for his able conduct in the chair.

156 Miscellaneous. [Manrcn,

VII.—Miscellaneous.

1.—Inp1an Botany.

Extract—Proceedings of the Linnean Society, 5th June.

The East India Company have presented to the Linnzan Society their magnificent

Herbarium, containing the plants collected between long. 73° to 114° E. and lat.

32° N. to the equator, by Kénig, Roxburgh, Riittler, Russel, Klein, Hamilton,

Heyne, Wight, Finlayson, and Wallich. It includes about 1300 genera, more than

8000 species, and amounts, in duplicates, to at least 70,000 specimens,—the labours

of half a century.

For many years a large portion of these vegetable riches were stored on the

shelves of the India House, without any one sufficiently conversant in Indian Botany

to arrange and render them subservient to the cause of science. On the arrival in

this country of Dr. Wallich, the distinguished superintendent of the Company’s

Garden at Calcutta, in the year 1828,—who brought with him an immense accession

to the Herbarium from various parts of India, especially Nipal and the Burmese

Empire,—the Court of Directors instructed him to make a Catalogue of the aggre-

gate collection, and to distribute duplicate specimens to the more eminent Societies

and naturalists throughout Europe and America.

This immense labour has occupied Dr. Wallich for the last four years ; and it is

the chief selection from these various Herbaria, destined for the museum of the

India House, which the Court of Directors have, with princely munificence, pre-

sented to the Linnzan Society.

The liberality of the East India Company has been duly appreciated throughout

the wide circle of science. It has been acknowledged by letters and addresses from

the different Societies and individuals honoured by their patronage; and this last

act of their bounty will endear them still more to the promoters of Botany, by

placing the treasures they possessed along with those of Linnzus and Smith.

The Linnzan Society purchased, two years ago, at an expense of 30007, the col-

lections of Linnzus and of the late excellent Sir J. E. Smith; and since that, the

Herbarium of the Society having been further enriched by the treasures of the East,

it forms collectively one of the most interesting and important in Europe.

The East India Company have set an example of a wise and liberal policy, which

will be followed throughout the world, not only by Societies, but by those enter-

prising individuals who have, to their own honour, made large collections of the

objects of natural history; and it is a source of national congratulation that at

this moment the naturalists of Europe feel indebted to this country for the most

extensive contribution that was ever made to their botanical collections. We owe

this general feeling of respect towards us to the enlightened conduct of the Court of

Directors, who have done more to diffuse a knowledge of Botany than was ever

done by any Government or association of persons on the globe.

A deputation from the council of the Linnean Society, headed by the President

Lord Stanley, waited on the Chairman of the Court of Directors, on the 26th in-

stant, with an address expressive of the high sense the Society entertains of the

honour conferred upon it by the liberality of the East India Company.

Dr, Royle’s Collections.

We are happy to perceive by an announcement made at the last meeting of the

Asiatic Society, and which we have inserted in the advertisement sheet of the pre-

1833.] Miscellaneous. 157

sent number, that Mr. F. J. Royle is about to give to the world the fruits of his

laborious researches in the Botany and Natural History of the Hills and the upper

provinces of India. We trust that his work will meet with a full portion of the

public patronage, without which it would be ruinous to attempt the publication.

2.—InDIAN GEOLOGY.

List of the specimens of Rocks from the Tenasserim Archipelago, situated between

the Parallels of 10° 50’ and 12° 10' N. presented to the Society, 15th Jan. 1831,

By Lieut. Lloyd, 1st Assistant to the H. C. Marine Surveyor General*.

No. 1. Clay slate, from a small detached islet on the western side of Sullivan’s

Island, in Lat. 10° 54’ N.

No. 2. Fine grained granite, decomposing, from a rock on the western side of

the same island, and distant about two miles more to the northward ? its top has a

very whitish appearance, perhaps from the action of the sun and salt-water.

No. 3. Quartz rock, from a rocky islet on the eastern side of Sullivan’s Island,

immediately opposite to No. 1, and distant from it about one mile, the breadth of

the island in that part.

No. 4. Granitic sandstone, from a small island of a reddish brown appearance,

situated on the western side Of Sullivan’s Island, in Lat. 10° 58’ N.

No. 5. Sandstone, from a point on the western side of Sullivan’s Island, near

to the last.

No. 6. Slate, from a point on the eastern side of an island named by Captain

Ross ‘‘ Lord William Bentinck’s Island,” in Lat. 11° 40’ N. It does not shew the

principal formation of the island, but merely a lump or patch on the point, and very

easily separated with the hand, being in regular horizontal layers.

No. 7. Quartz rock, from two hill islands situated off the N. end of Sullivan’s

Island, in Lat. 11° 1’ N.

No. 8. Granite, from the Alligator dry rocks, which are situated off the N. end

of two islands, called by Captain Ross, ‘‘ Sir Edward Owen’s and Sir John Mal-

colm’s Island.”

Nos. 9 and 10. Granite, from Sir Edward Owen’s Island, the former from the

eastern side, in Lat. 11° 13’ N. and the latter from the north side, in 11° 15’ N,

No. 11. Granite, from Sir John Malcolm’s Island, in Lat. 11° 16’ N.

No. 12. Limestone, (similar to that of Elephant rock, in the Quedah country,

described by Ward,) from a small round and steep island, in Lat. 11° 16’ N. and

situated on the eastern side of Sir John Malcolm’s Island.

No. 13. Jasper conglomerate, from the Northern Elephant Island, of which there

are four large and other smaller ones, between Lat. 11° 32’ and11° 36’ N. They are

from 6 or 700 to 1000 feet high, and resting on small bases, appear at a distance

like large peaked rocks: the northern one stands in six fathoms water, its sides

project outwards, so as, in parts, toadmit of a boat getting underneath, and the rug-

ged pieces of the rock beneath, at a little distance, resemble stalactites, of which

the specimens are pieces that have been knocked off.

‘* This list should have been printed with the proceedings of the same date, but the

localities were not at that time known to us; they may now be found immediately. by

reference to Captain Ross’s Chart of the Tenasserim Archipelago.

158 Miscellaneous. (Marcu,

No. 14. Quartz and micaceous schist, from the S. side of a small island, in Lat.

11° 47’ N. It is covered with trees of a great variety of foliage, and producing many

berries it attracts numberless pigeons of abeautiful cream colour, with wings and tails

tipped with black ; and from this circumstance it has been called Pigeon Island.

No. 15. Granite, from a small island on the south-eastern side of Sir Edward

Owen’s Island, in 11° 11' N. This island, when I visited it, was covered with “ Tu-

cans.”

Nos. 16 and 17. Limestone and decomposing Granite, from two small islets

distant from each other § a mile, in Lat. 11° 49’ N.

No. 18. Micaceous schist, from rocks that cover and uncover with the tide,

near to the last.

No. 19. Micaceous schist, from a smallisland, in Lat. 11° 50’ N. and has only one

or two fathoms on its summit, which gives it the appearance of a cap and feather.

No. 20. From an island in 11° 53’ N. It is formed by two hills connected by a

narrow sandy ridge, so that, at a distance, it appears like two small islands. The

specimen is taken from the south-west point of the western hill, the summit of

which has an even and flatish appearance.

No. 21. Fine grained granite, from rocks on the western side of Christmas Is-

land, in 12° 0’ N.

No. 22. Quartz, from a small island, in Lat. 12° 4’ N. (Hospital Island.)

No. 23. Quartz, from the north-east point of an island to the westward of it.

No. 24. Decomposed granite, from a small island, in Lat. 12° 9’ N,

3.—Inp1an ARTS AND MANUFACTURES.

Mode of dyeing Kharwa Cloth, practised in Bundelkhand. Translated from a

Persian account. By Babi Hari Mohun Sén.

To dye—say one bale of cloth, consisting of fifty-two pieces, the first step to be

taken is to wash them white in water. Thirteen seers of oil of castor, three seers

of impure soda (khak-ij-zamtn-shér, efflorescence on saline earth), and fifteen seers

of clear water, must then be mixed together, and the cloths dipped and drenched

in the solution twice a day for four days continually. At the expiration of

that time, the same operation is to be renewed fora period of seven days,

soaking the same in the liquor, and reducing the operation to once a day. But

care should be taken to put into it a little saline earth every day during the

process. After this, the whole bale of cloths must be rewashed in clear water,

and then steeped over again in another liquid composed of water and three seers

of Halelah (Terminalia Chebula), and afterwards dried. A similarcold solution of

water and three seers of alum is then to be prepared, in which the stuffs are again

to be steeped, and afterwards well dried. After all these operations are duly con-

ducted, a caldron or large vessel is to be filled with a sufficient quantity of water,

in which are to be mixed one maund and ten seers of A] (Morinda Tinctoria), a dye-

wood, and five seers of Dhdéwa (another wood). The formershould be well dis-

solved previously to the cloths being submitted to the process of dyeing. After

they have taken a deep dye in this liquor, they should be taken out of the vessel,

and then washed with soap and water. Then a solution of eight seers of gum

is to be made, and the stuffs immersed and washed in it for the last time. They

are afterwards to be folded piece by piece, and rubbed and scoured with a little gum

over their surface, and then beaten in order to make them smooth and compressed.

1833.] Miscellaneous. 159

To dye cloths of an Amua-sabz, or mangoe-green color.

The cloths require first to be dyed in a solution of indigo; the latter to be

used at the rate of two chitaks on an average per piece. Afterwards they must be

boiled in water with a mixture of rind of pomegranate init. In this operation, half

a seer of the lattershould be mixed for each piece. They are then to be steeped ina

strong solution of water and alum, which should be given in two chitaks on an

average. After this, a preparation of two chitaks of turmeric dissolved in water

should be made, and the stuffs kept dipped in the same for one whole night.

In the morning following, they must be washed in clear water, and lastly dyed with

the juice of Késwm flower, which when first extracted is naturally yellow, and

which is termed ‘‘ Pin’ in Hindustani. They are afterwards to be folded and

beaten smooth.

The dyeing of Staj Pakht, a red yellow—the color of a bird so called.

A composition comprising ten seers of oil of eastor, five seers of impure

soda, (khdk-i-zamtn-i-shér) one seer of goat’s dung; to be made, and to be all

dissolved in a sufficient quantity of water. Twenty pieces of stuff are then

to be washed in pure water, in a vessel all separately, and one by one, chang-

ing the water every time. This operation is to be kept in continuance for fifteen

days. They must afterwards be washed in clear water, and soaked in a solution

of alum and water. Twenty-five seers of powder of A/ should then be dissolved

in a necessary quantity of water, in a large vessel, and the cloths steeped and co-

loured in the liquor. They are thus to be wrought up for the space of six days,

and finally dried and folded.

4.—Note on Lieut. Burt’s instrument for trisecting Angles.

On reading the papers on the trisection of angles, in the number for November

last, I observed some inaccuracies, which as they were overlooked in the last num-

ber, I now beg leave to bring to notice.

Mr. Burt, in proving the correctness of the instrument, has made the truth of

the demonstration depend on a position which is itself in want of proof. He says,

(page 500, 1. 8), “‘ rad. bo-rad. ao,’’ but they are not necessarily equal from the

construction, and it should therefore be proved that the locus of the point 4 is in

the arc abe. The demonstration is consequently faulty. I think however the in-

strument will effect the purpose intended ; and perhaps when I have more leisure,

I may attempt to prove its accuracy, if not anticipated by some one whose avoca-

tions are more in accordance with such pursuits. Mr. B. says that A B the fourth

leg of the instrument, may be dispensed with. I do not think it can, but I don’t

understand this part of the paper, nor do I see how a line can be parallel to one or

two others, and also pass through the same point with them.

I have not tried to construct the instrument, but I should anticipate some difficulty

in applying it, as one may not readily know when the points A and O respectively

coincide with a and o,

I am, Sir,

Your obdt. servt.

A. K,

[Marcu 1833.]

Meteorological Register.

160

“WUSUIN.AISUT $,[e1UEH IOLIAING oY} ULYI TOMO] OZO' SPULIS IE “YSIOY JO adUEIEYTp ay} 1OJ po}d21109 st IoJOWOIET OL “UOHENITS Arve a10ul @ ul ‘asnoy

aUIRS OY} JO AXO}S PALY} OY} 0} POAOUIEI OIOM J9}}2] BS9Y} IZ 94} UO—[eIpayieD oY} Avot VsNOY v JO UPURIOA YINos ayy Ul AIep peAresqo aie ‘Wd OT puke “WV g IOF

S}USUINIYSUT 3Y,L, Lee ge Aq ut parry axe sarijue Aepung oy pue ‘Ar0j;er0qe] AY} JO ATG Bd1; ay} UT pepuadsns ore *W ‘df pue “W “VO JOJ SyUeUINI}sU] oY,L,

‘loyyeam Jueseeld ouy *uoosuOUt £00 | 02 og yah | eZt]8% | 9%e | o82 | 368 | 8'6 |o‘e8 | L°cL] rH8* | ZPZ* | O98" | cI8* ‘sueoW

‘op *kys Azey GL G8 1% ‘ol | O'GT | BT PHBL | ‘I6} 96] ‘68 006° | 082‘ | 106‘ 1€

"und I10 “W410 LL 06 PZT =| FFI | Of8 | Le FPL | 9°68 | 8°96 10°48 8rB! | ILL® | o9Bf 0¢

Oo. oO 69 68 Te9 | S06] BB | BIL} ‘08 | 8°06} ‘26 |9°S8 £18 | OaL‘ | ars‘ 66

oO Co) (AA e8 foe | UZ] SIt | OOTP OZL | 6568 | 8°46 \o°r8 G18* | €9Z* | 06‘ 86

to) C0) (0) l9 a Ycor | rer! Leet! efor} acs, | 268! ‘ce \o%e8 106* | 0z8* | Sees 16

oO (0) 0 uw “mA cu CU oL 28 fet | 89 | Oar | SZ ILL | 9668] ‘F6 |P'e8 ges‘ | cel’ | 128° 9%

‘und *13sO1119 ‘uno rr) ‘AU CM CO eZ cL 166 | O9T | ert | 9ILP eZ | 2998] ‘S6 j9°r8 ees’ | LLL‘ | 118° G

"MS YURG 0 “MS “Mm OL cL 109 91 | ‘FI | 6% |Zes | ‘88 leLOT | ‘98 928° | 09Z* | 028° 3

oO o o “A "s ‘oO 69 cL ize | ef9L | o'er} OF J 0%e | L616 | ‘00T 12:98 1F8* | 9&L* | LoB* &%

° o ‘uno J °S 0 ‘s 69 06 fee | PL! OL | 0% J 6.08 | O'T6 | “OOT !L*r8 928° | GIL. | 098. GS

fo) co) 0 ‘Ss ‘Oo ) 09 68 Jos | 9et | S01 | r9 [3°08 | 096 | {66 88 008‘ | 1zZ° | ¢¢8* 1G

(0) o snyerys f °S ‘s ‘Ss G9 68 Hr'¢ | S6t | BZ | 8G 1808 | O16} “86 |0'98 618° 1éLé oss* 0%

‘as WI0IS ° o Ss mu ‘Ss | e00] o£ + 18 fos | s6r | ser} 0% FLL | 06 | “26 |8'98 992 | 0&2" | 968° 61

o fo) o "Ss s °S 29 6 fz9 | II] 89 | SE | ‘ZB | oZG \S°LOL 10, F8 c68* | 692° | 168° 8I

oO fe) to) ‘s ‘Ss el t6 fe | S9L | oo | 6 18BL} 68} ‘96 | £8 198° | 982" | 18° LT

‘pnos AAvay oO oO “Ss *s i) 2 £6 |yo | ZL | 19 | OL | PBL | o88 | ‘96 {128 ¢98* eee" $98 91

o ‘doy | 'S "s “M's gl 8 Tete | SEL} BOL, SI 79°22 | 628 | 986 ,0:98 068° gLL* 188° CL

° © AS ee RY! 8 gg | 99 fate | 0% | GAT} ot | LL | aes | 196 (6.18 ees | IPL. | pFBS a!

o ‘azey] Amey fA 'S 3s Js cL | 96 |ofo | SST | Ep | HT PBIB | 3.06 | SOOT 16,18 169° | 965° | Bol‘ él

o “11119 ‘0771p | *S *s ‘Ss OL 18 Joe | 98t | Liat | oF POLL | O16 | 46 |Z'c8 g08* | TrZ* | 68° IL

“yueq o ‘snjetjs | “Ss ‘s “s 104 G8 10'S 11 | 36 | BS 1Z‘6L | gfZg | ‘96 |o'€8 L¥8* | 169° | 008* OL

“Apeays o “81 | °S ‘s ‘s aL | 18 Ie'e | er] 92 | Lit | ‘82 | ocZe | 696 | fr8 GeB‘ | O9L | Les 6

to) ° snii | °S ‘0 0 g 68 [Pb | OT) O% | LIT POLL | aicg | 806 | (FB gog* | PLL. | 088% 8

o oO (0) °S s Ss OL 16 |e‘t ‘gL | 0f8 | 03 18°92 | 0828 | S'h6 £°€8 ose’ | srZ° | eres L

‘pnos ‘sn_numo ‘snjetys | °S s s #9 Foe | 9f1e| StZ | OT gL | 768 | ‘88 |0°€8 oss’ | O22 | pZe° 9

sueyyed ° ° AU ee ES ‘0 6g | 8£ Jem | 1103 | oar | et [BtZZ | ot28 | 4°88 |) 9108 ges* | 16Z° | 116 g

° ssnynuind = “snyeris J *S ‘s 0 £8 £6 |r‘e | OFT | OG | OG J a'Bd | S48 | 88 608 106‘ | 892° | F68° v

oO “193819 ‘oyIp | °S ‘s ‘s 19 2 Nes =| HBT) 29 | 60 | ‘LZ | 8°88 | P88 |S°T8 G06‘ | SOLS | P98" | ¢

o *pnos “s*pnos | °S ‘Ss 0 ¢9 76 fee | 621 | 0S | GO | ‘oz | Lice | S28 [6°62 ose’ | IPLS | 828° | ¢r8* G

o *1ee]o ‘snqeqys J °S “1h ‘0 Lg w Ves | 70S) 39 | FG Paces | 0.98 | ‘48 |L°LL 898° | G8L° | 9L8° i

— , Lad & J »

iS) Az : a Zz an ese (es Be: es) ae Bee I ee eel oe Ie a fale li a Hy iS]

o 6 oO 5 4 > s a _ ~ —_ or _ ~ be _ 2. od a pal =I

3 5 3 5. 3 BI 3 = fae ee ies eS) 8 aca) = Bs

Ee} : S 5 : Siete ° PoE aie lites [ee den EG) ee Stat ee: |e cela? alles ot BS

= a a 2 Bose |B ole be | Bones) BS eo eee eB 7S

*19}0Ul *I9JOULOUIIOY I], “UIP oGE OF

“TOTIEO AA “PULA “UlEY) -orSk yy arepi| qiriq-3stou Jo uoisseideq Any SUL Ul eye Ouse paonpalr Jojemioieg

a 2 = Se ee a Se 2 eS a SS

‘eooy ‘youn fo yjuou ayz sof ‘nzynajny ‘aifQ hossp ay2 yw yday sagsibay poorbojo..oaja py

JOURNAL

THE ASIATIC SOCIETY.

No. 16.—April, 1833.

I.— Account of the Jain Temples on Mount Abi in Guzerdt. By Lieut.

Burnes, Bombay Army.

Tue mountain of Abd, Abujt, or Abvighad, is situated near the 25th de-

gree of north latitude and 73° 20' of east longitude, in the district of

Sekrii and province of Marwdr, about 40 miles N. E. by E. of the

camp of Désa. The magnificent temples are erected at the small village

of Dilwarra, about the centre of the mountain, which has an elevation of

about 5000 feet, where the summit is extremely irregular and studded

with peaked hills. There are four in number, all of marble, and two of

them of the richest kind. They are dedicated to PfrasnAru, or “‘ the

principal of the deified saints, who according to their creed have suc-

cessively become superior gods,’ and who are believed to amount to

the number of twenty-four, or as some told me, to have appeared, like

the Hindi gods, in twenty-four different Avatars.

These are the gods of the Jain, Shrdwak, or Banian castes, who

are a gloomy tribe of atheistical ascetics, not unlike the Budhists,

“« who deny the authority of God and a future state; believe that as

the; trees in an uninhabited forest spring up without cultivation, so

the universe is self-existent ; and that the world, in short, is produced,

as the spider produces his’ web, out of its own bowels; and that, as

the banks ofa river fall of themselves, there is no supreme destroyer.”

** They also deny the divine authority of the Védas, and worship the

great Hindu gods as minor deities only :” but Mr. Colebrooke and other

eminent scholars have already given the most minute description of this

class of people and their worship. The above abstract of their tenets will

at once show how little acceptable the followers of PArasnATH can be

to orthodox Hinds; and the costly materials of Jain temples are there-

fore attributable, uot to the holiness of the gods to whom they are de-

¢ x

162 Account of the Jain Temples [Apriz,

dicated, but to the riches that are to be so generally found among the

Banions their votaries.

Jain temples are to be met with in Guzerdt, Kattywdr, Cutch and

Parkur, as well as in other countries both in the southern and northern

parts of the Peninsula, but next to those on Abi, the most celebrated

ones on the western side of India, are at Politanaand Girnar in Katty-

war, at both of which places also they have been built on the tops of

hills. The antiquity of the schism between this and the Hind4 sect is

not accurately ascertained, but the oldest temple on Abd appears to have

been built An. Vicramajit 1016, (A. D. 960,) or something more than

eight hundred years ago.

The temple now alluded to is dedicated to Rrxaspezo, (or as Mr.

Ward has it, ‘‘ Rishusnu-pevu,’’) the founder of the sect and first in

order of their deified saints, and is known by the name of Adisurjé

deval. The four temples are built in the form of a cross, and this is the

most westerly. It is in the figure of an oblong square, forty four paces

long by twenty two wide (or perhaps 100 feet by 50) ; within the build-

ing, and in the centre of the area so inclosed, stands the pagoda, in which

the great image of the god is placed facing eastward. In front of this

there is an octagon of 24 feet, supporting, on pillars and arches of

marble, a cupola of the same: The pillars may be from 12 to 15 feet

high. The entrance to the temple is from a small door opposite this

cupola, and the grandeur of the building is discoverable at once on en-

tering it, and has a very imposing effect. On all sides of the area there

is a colonnade, the long sides having a double row of pillars supporting

small domes, within each of which are cells in the walls to the number

of 56, in all of which are marble images of the god. In the south west

corner, and inachamber detached from the building, is a colossal figure

of NE'MINATH cut in black stone.

The whole of the building is of the richest white marble, superbly

cut into numerous devices; and it is worthy of remark that there is not

an inch of stone unornamented, and not two domes of the same pattern,

though one hundred and thirty-three in number, and all are carved.

The grand dome is a most chaste piece of workmanship, and so light do

the pillars appear, that it could hardly be imagined they could + pied

the superincumbent weight.

Adjoining to this building is a room called ‘‘ Hdthésal” or the elephant

hall, which seems once to have also had a roof of domes, and in which

are the figures of ten marble elephants with drivers, each about four

feet high, and caparisoned in the modern style of those of the Native

princes, with every rope, tassel andcloth beautifully and correctly carved,

1833.) on Abi. in Guzendt. 163

and apparently, the cars and riders excepted, from one block of marble.

The workmanship is exceedingly good, and the representation of the

animal is very superior to Indian sculpture in general.

The floor of this room is of black marble, while that of the temple is

of white. At the door there is a large equestrian statue of the founder,

who by an inscription, is described as “ BrMALNATH, a Banian of

Chandoulé to whom the gods had been propitious.” It is rudely

executed, and is evidently the workmanship of later days.

The whole of this temple is said to have occupied a period of four-

teen years in building, and to have cost eighteen crores of rupees, in

addition to fifty six lacs spent in levelling the side of the hill,on which

it is built.

The next temple to be described is the northern one, which is dedi-

cated to Nz'mina‘ruH, the twenty-second deified saint of the Jains. It

is with regard to design and material much the same as the one men-

tioned, but although of equal length it is ten paces wider, from which

addition the architect has been able to make the colonnade double on

all sides without contracting the area too much, and which has a good

effect. The pagoda of the god is in the centre, and faces the west. It

has also a cupola in front of it, the same as the other in size, though

far inferior in execution : but the greatest ornament in this temple, and

indeed on Abu, is a portico between this:cupola and the pagoda. It

is supported by pillars, and the roof is formed by nine small domes most

exquisitely carved. The stones on both sides the entrance of the temple

are deeper cut than any marble I ever saw, and, if I mistake not, approach

in resemblance to Hogarth’s line of beauty. This part of the building

is said to have cost eighteen lacs of rupees, and I can well credit the

people who gave me the information.

All round the temple and in front of the colonnade, small images of

the god are placed to the number of forty-six, in front of each of which

are two sculptured domes.

The east side of the building is not divided into compartments, but

consists of one long room in which are placed ten marble elephants,

which are more minutely carved than those described, the very twisting

of the ropes being represented. In rear of these are the images of the

different contributors to the ‘‘ holy undertaking,”’ rudely cut out in stone,

and represented as holding purses full of money ready to be appropria-

ted. There are inscriptions under all these figures mentioning at

length the names of the different ‘ pious individuals,’ most of whom

appear to have been Banians.

xy 2

164 Account of the Jain Temples [Aprit,

In the south western corner of the building are two inscriptions cut

in marble and fixed into the wall, but they are in such a good state of

preservation that it becomes very questionable if they are of the same

age as the temples. They are in the Bdlbad character, and giving (as

I learnt from the people, there being no one who could read them with

me,) a genealogical account of the different founders and their relatives.

Above the niches containing the smaller images, there are also inscrip-

tions with the names of the builders in Giizerdti character. From all

of these it appears that this temple was built, An. Vicr. 1293, or

A.D. 1236, nearly six hundred years since, by two brothers, Bast and

Fest PAu, Banians also of the ruined city of Chandoulz, and one of

whom is said to have been Kdmddr to the Delhi Emperor. , The build-

ing is said to have cost twelve crores of Sonias, a coin equivalent to

ten rupees, in addition to the expense of the portico ; and although it is

superior to the other temple, this is undoubtedly an exaggeration.

The sculpture of the small domes in this pagoda, from being of a

higher order of architecture than the others, deserves remark. In se-

veral of them are representations of the gods, in particular a group of

the procession of Inpra King of the Gods, who is believed to have de-

scended from heaven at the birth, marriage and installation of Rr-

KaBDEO; also another of Neminath’s marriage, both of which are pretty

well executed in marble. Nothing more attracted my notice, however,

than the group next to the one just described, it being a representation

of one of the Mahommedan emperors of Delhi. I observed also that

very common ornaments throughout the temple were small Mahomme-

dan tomb-stones.

Superstition has however pre-eminently shown itself in the portico.

While admiring its beauty I observed the capital of one of the pillars

to be of coarse unpolished black stone, which induced me to ask the

cause of such a disfiguration ; when the people informed me that it had

been done intentionally to keep off the evil eye, as in a place like this

where all was beauty, it would inevitably fall and become bewitched if

there were no foil. The floor of this temple is of mixed marble, being

both black and white; and under the great dome there is a slab of yellow

marble, said to have been brought from Jesalmir.

The two remaining temples are about 365 years old, and very inferior

both as to workmanship and materials when compared with the others.

Under the dome of the southern one, there is some attempt at mosaic

work, and the floor is inlaid with five different kinds of marble.

The whole of these temples are in a good state of preservation, not-

withstanding the attempts that have been made to destroy them. The

1833.] on Abt in Guzerdt. 165

tails, trunks, and riders of the elephants have been broken off, though’

since replaced ; and the dome of ApusirJ1'-pDEWwat is cracked in one or

two places. The earthquake of 1819 is said to have had some effect.

on these buildings, but although the Brahmans and Jains formerly car-

ried on violent controversies, it does not appear that the former injured

the Jain temples. The natives themselves speak with horror of the

oppression of a Mahommedan prince known to them by the name of

** Boera Badshah,’’ who is said to have ordered the temples in Abé

to be levelled. Natives are at all times but bad chronologists, nor are

they in this instance able to give any distinct account either of the

time or of the individual whose name excites such irritating feelings.

It is on record however that a Sultan of Ahmeddbdd in Guzerat, by

name Mdhmid Begra, sent a force to levy tribute on the Parsees, A. D.

1450, and from the similarity of names, and the connection that sub-

sisted between two such mercantile places as Ahmeddbad and Chandoult,

it does not appear to me at all improbable that this is the individual*.

The hand of time is now however fast injuring these buildings, and

throughout the marble gives signs of decay.

Without placing too much reliance on the inscriptions above alluded

to, there is a circumstance which goes far to fix the date of these

temples at a period when the Mahommedan power was great in India.

All the figures are throughout represented with beards, which we

know to be at variance with Hindi customs, and which is without doubt

attributable to the same cause that induces the Hindi subjects of a

Mahommedan government to follow the custom of their rulers, namely,

submission to the powers that be.- In Sind, at the present time, such

is the custom of all Hindis, and it is perhaps owing to this that the

Moslem rulers ever spared the temples of the submissive people they

conquered. It is to the same cause, I presume, that we have the re-

presentation of the emperor of Delhi, though from the founder being

his ‘‘ Admdar,” it may be more easily accounted for.

With very few exceptions the people on Adu% do not worship at the

temples of Dilwdrra, and there are only one or two Gurjis at the

place, who could give, from sheer ignorance, little or no information

concerning the surrounding scene of grandeur. They have, however,

* J should have been more disposed to attribute the injury which the temples

of Abé have received to Ma’amup of Ghizni, who came by Ajmir into Guzerat,

in 1024, through Patan, and who was so zealous in the destruction of Hinda

gods and temples, and has been rendered famous by the demolition of the one at

Patan Somndth in Kattywar ; but if the inscription be true the whole of these tem-

ples, even the oldest of them, are of a posterior date to that conqueror’s inroad,

166 Account of the Jain Temples. [Aprin,

one good quality which our countrymen can well appreciate, a total

freedom from all prejudice, so that we entered the ‘‘ sanctum sancto-

rum”’ of the inner temple without a murmur on their part, nor did they

object to our handling the gods themselves.

There were besides two inmates of the temples whom I must not

omit to mention. They were women who had taken a vow of chastity,

retired from the world, and dedicated themselves entirely to religion, or,

as they themselves say, had become ‘‘ Sadz.”’ One of them was young,

and had retired on the death of her husband. They spent their time

in reading their religious books, which they readily showed, and were

quite free from that prevailing reserve in Indian women, so much so

that they followed us through the ‘‘ atria’”’ of the temples, and were

ever ready to explain, as far as in their power, the different objects of

our curiosity.

It was from them I learnt the names of the twenty-four deified saints

or gods of the Jains, which are as follows—1 Rikabdeo,—2 Ajilnath,—

3 Sambunath,—4 Abumandji,—5 Sumtanath,—6 Padan Prabi,—7

Suparisnath,—8 Chanda Prabu,—9 Subatandth.—10 Sitalnath,—11

Siansnath,—12 Waspuji—13 Bimalnath,—14 Anandnath,—15 Darn-

n4th,—16 Santinath,—17 Kuton4th,—18 Ar4nath,—19 Milinath,—20

Muni Subartji,—21 Nawinath,—22 Néminathji,—23 Prisnathji,—24

Mahavari, and it is not difficult to distinguish by the expressive affix

of <‘‘ ji,” even from among this long list, the favored or favorite gods

to whom the temples are dedicated.

I also learned from these people, that there are large assemblages of

people on Adz at different but unfixed periods, and that they chiefly

come from Guzerat, Marwar, Ajmere, Malwa and Bombay, all of which

except the latter are, in fact, the surrounding countries. The natives

of India are, as it is well known, fond of perching their temples on the

tops of hills and other remarkable places; and it is no doubt owing, as

well to the isolated situation, as the great size of the mountain, that

such a position has been chosen. There is, however, no marble on Adi,

and certainly at present, no roads by which the enormous blocks of it

could have been brought up from the pits that are at the base of the

mountain, so that it is to be presumed they have been destroyed.

From some specimens in my possession, it would seem that the sum-

mit of Abu is granite ; but great part of the exposed rocks are in a state

of decomposition, and break off in flakes.

The vicinity of 4bé, though now without a large town, has been, as

is discoverable from ruins, and according to tradition, a well cultivated

and thickly peopled country.

1833.] Catalogue of Indian Woods. 167

About nine miles from Girwar, a village at the base of Abiz, and half

that distance or less from the Bands river, are the ruins of a great and

ancient city called ‘‘ Chandoulé,” said to have been eighteen miles in

circumference, and which is now without an inhabitant.

The natives have numerous fabulous accounts concerning the place,

and believe it to have been one of eighty-four towns or villages that

were destroyed by ‘‘ a shower of stones’’ three hundred years ago; and

that a famine and scarcity of fuel ensuing, the people fled to Guzerdt,

and settled at Ahmedabdd. 1 myself had not an opportunity of visiting

the ruins of this city, but am informed that all its buildings are thrown

down as if by an earthquake, the occurrence of which could, I have no

doubt, be accurately ascertained by inquiry on the spot. Its antiquity

may be readily discovered from the temples on Abd having been built

by the Banians of this once opulent city, as proved by the inscriptions

before alluded to, and great numbers of small marble images of PAras-

n’aTH, the same as those on Adu, being constantly dug from among thé

ruins.

Il.—List of Indian Woods collected by N. Wallich, M.D. F.R.S.,

Corresponding Member of the Royal Institute of France, and the Aca-

demy of Sciences at Berlin, &c. and of the Society of Arts of London ;

Superintendent of the Botanic Garden at Calcutta.

[Re-printed from the Transactions of the Society of Arts, xlviii. 1831.]

Dr. Wallich was sent by the Governor-General of India on several

botanical missions, especially m 1820-1, to Nipal, a hilly country situ-

ated between the lower part of the valley of the Ganges and the Hima-

laya mountains, and to the Burmese territory in 1826-7. On each of

these expeditions he collected specimens of the native woods, which

were sent to England, and deposited at the India House. To these

were likewise added some that had been grown in the Botanic Garden

of Calcutta. On the arrival of Dr. Wallich himself in England, I had

the pleasure of forming a personal acquaintance with him, having before

occasionally corresponded with him respecting various Indian products

that at different times he had sent to the Society of Arts.

Under an apprehension that the arrangement and description of the

vast botanical collection brought over by him, would occupy the whole

of his granted time of absence from Calcutta, he suggested that his

collection of woods should be transferred to the Society of Arts for

arrangement and examination. This plan having been sanctioned by

the Court of Directors of the East India Company, between four and

168 Catalogue of Indian Woods. [Apriz,

five hundred specimens were placed in our possession. Here they

were examined, and were cut up into three or four sets of specimens

more or less complete. Some of them were found to be worm-

eaten; and several of those from Nipal being only portions of

small branches, are not ina state very favourable for shewing the

qualities of wood with reference to its value as timber. Their

native names, and the scientific ones of those that have any, as well as

the uses to which they are applied by the people of the countries where

they grow, were supplied by Dr. Wallich*, partly from his own observa-

tion, and partly from a catalogue of Burmese woods collected in 1827

by A. Maingy, Esq., and presented by him to Dr. Wallich. Some notices

have likewise been obtained from a catalogue of woods sent by Dr.

Francis Hamilton (late Buchanan), from Gualpara in Assam, on the

Burrampooter, and which were put into the hands of Mr. James Kyd,

master builder to the Hon. East India Company at Calcutta, for exami-

nation. These notices are distinguished by the letters Ham., though

some of Dr. Wallich’s are intermixed with them. The observations on

the structure of some of the woods from Nipal were made by myself,

and relate chiefly to the longitudinal fibre, to the medullary rays, to the

longitudinal tubes, and to the annual Jayers. For some practical

observations the Society is indebted to the carpenter employed in cut-

ting up the specimens.

A. Arkin, Sec.

CATALOGUE OF INDIAN WOODS.

1 Acacia mollis, fr. Nipal. '

A large tree: wood yellowish white, shining, coarse, rather soft.—Sp.t

2 inch. diam. Fibres and rays of the same colour, the latter very distinct :

tubes large,

2 Acacia fragrans, fr. Nipal.

A large tree.—Sp. 2 inch. diam. Wood glossy, coarse: a bad specimen.

3 Acacia. Joolchumahl, N.+ fr. Nipal.

Tree very large: wood excellent for chests and boxes.

4 Acacia. Popeeah, B.§ fr. Tavoy.

A very large tree: the wood used for posts, bows, and rollers for ginning

cotton. A

5 Acacia. Paingadoo, fr. Tavoy.

* It has been thought better to leave the spelling of the native names as in the ori-

ginal catalogue, since it is difficult to know in many cases how they ought to be ren-

dered orthoepically.—Ep.

tT Sp. the individual specimen examined.

+ N. Newar, the language of the Hind conquerors of Nipal.

§ 6. The Burmese language.

1833.] Catalogue of Indian Woods. 169

Acacia odoratissima. Jatikorai, fr. Gualpara.*

Trunk very lofty, but not straight ; often 6 feet in girth: wood hard, and

used in furniture —Ham.

Acacia marginata. Korui, fr. Gualpara.

5 cubits in girth. Makes good planks.—Ham.

Acer levigatum. Suslendi, N. Cherouni, P.+ fr. Nipal.

30 to 40 feet high: 3 to 4 inches in diameter; of slow growth; used for

rafters, beams, and other building purposes.—Sp. 3:5 inches in diam. Wood

varied brown and cream colour, with a wavy lustre.

Acer sterculiaceum, fr. Nipal.

A very large tree, 3 feet in diameter.—Sp. 3°5 inch. diam. Wood light:

fibre pale cream colour, with considerable lustre: rays in distinct brown

ribands: tubes large, giving a coarse appearance to the wood.

Acer oblongum, fr. Nipal.

A very large tree. Wood moderately hard and compact.—Sp. fibre cream

brown, with considerable lustre: rays in narrow ribands of a flesh colour :

tubes small. :

Adamia cyanea. Bansook, P. and N. fr. Nipal.

Wood pale coloured, not used,

Aggur. See Aquilaria.

sae \ See Dipterocarpus.

Ahnaun, fr. Tavoy.

3 to 6 fathoms long; 12 to 15 inches diameter. Yields good crooked

timber, the strongest and most durable of any in Tavoy; used for anchors

to the largest boats.

Alesi. See Justicia.

Alnus nepalensis, fr. Nipal.

Wood as firm as English birch, and of a deeper colour; very hard, and

difficult to cut; lustre considerable.—Sp. 5 inch. diam., 20 layers in 1°7 inch

(but in another specimen 5 layers in 1°8 inch). Heart pale brownish red :

fibre glossy: rays reddish brown, very distinct. Bark fibrous, rather thick,

composed of many thin laminz.

Alstonia (Echites) scholaris. Chatiyan, fr. Gualpara.

A beautiful tree, often 3 cubits in girth, used for coarse furniture—Ham.

Alstonia antidysenterica (Nerium antidys.). Dudkhuri, fr. Gualpara.

A large tree, often 3 cubits in circumference. Is considered a powerful

medicine. Beads are made of it, to be worn round the neck.—Ham.

Amari. See Guarea.

Anacardium latifolium. Bhela, fr. Gualpara.

Grows to a good size ; used for making chests and couches.—Ham,

Anacardium? Thubbamboo, B. fr. Tavoy.

A large tree, used in boat-building.

Andrachne trifoliata. Uriam, fr. Gualpara.

3 cubits in girth, used for coarse furniture.—Ham.

Andromeda ovalifolia. Angaree, P.; Juggoochal, N.; fr. Nipal.

Grows 1 or 2 feet in diameter: wood soft and spongy, used for fuel.—

Sp. wood moderately hard, compact, reddish brown, with some lustre. Bark

with layers of stringy fibres.

Andromeda formosa. Sheaboge, N. fr. Nipal.

A tree of considerable size.—Sp. 4°5 inch. diam.: wood pale brown, fine-

grained, moderately hard ; rays very distinct in the outer layers.

* The Gualpara specimens are not as yet in the Society’s possession.

+ Parbuttea, the language of the natives of Nipal.

170 Catalogue of Indian Woods. [Aprin,

Andromeda cordata, fr. Nipal.

Sp. 4°5 inch. diam.: wood brown, nearly dull; rays distinct: bark flaky,

not at all stringy.

Andromeda, fr. Nipal.

Angaree. See Andromeda.

Anjoo. See Jasminum.

Annah-beng. See Fagreea.

Antheel. See Ludia.

Antidesma. Boro-helock, fr. Gualpara.

oe in the mountains ; 6 feet in girth; the wood used for furniture.—

am. .

Aquilaria agallochum. Aggur and Langchi, fr. Gualpara.

Attains a great size in the low-lands of Assam, and on the lower hills of

Gualpara ; but in these situations the wood is white, and in no estimation. In

the Garo mountains certain parts of the heart of the wood become of a dark-

brown colour, and are strongly impregnated with a highly scented oil. When

in this state it is usually called Eagle-wood.— Ham.

Aralia digitata. Leesaong, N. fr. Nipal.

A rambling shrub.

Aralia nodosa, fr. Nipal.

Sp. small, imperfect, and worm-eaten.

Aralia, v. Panax, fr. Nipal.

Said to be excellent wood ; used for boxes and other articles. Sp. 4°5 inch.

diam. ; light-coloured, rather soft.

Aroo. See Prunus.

Artocarpus. Thounben or Thoun-pine, B. fr. Tavoy.

A large tree; used in boat-building. It produces a sort of caout-choue,

with which the Burmese pay their boats.

Artocarpus, fr. Tavoy.

A large tree.

Artocarpus. Pynyathe or Tanabeng, B. fr. Tavoy.

Wood not used.

Artocarpus Chama. Kangtali chama, fr. Gualpara.

The glory of the forests of Gorakpur, where it attains a very great size:

used for canoes, for which it is well fitted, being both very buoyant and du-

rable in the water.—Ham.

Bah-nah-thoa (probably the same as Laurus Panatha of this Cata-

logue), fr. Tavoy.

Timber 4 to 6 fathoms long ; 15 to 24 inches in diameter ; used in boat and

house-building.

Bajarmandi. See Fagraza.

Bakhalpani. See Ficus.

Bakuri. See Bauhinia.

Bambusa. Bamboo, fr. Pulo-Geun, in Martaban.

The largest and tallest sort known ; the stem 100 feet high, and attaining at

the base a diameter of 11 inches, with sides 1 inch thiek.

Banatha. See Laurus.

Bancha. See Ligustrum.

Bauhinia Tucra. Tukra, fr. Gualpara.

A close-grained, soft, tough wood, of a yellow colour.—Ham.

Bauhinia Bacuria. Bakuri, fr. Gualpara.

ae open-grained, soft, tough wood ; 3 cubits in girth: used for furniture. —

Lam,

1833.) Catalogue of Indian Woods. 171

Bauhinia. Koila, P. fr. Nipal.

The flower-buds are eaten in curries.

Bauhinia, fr. Nipal.

A large tree.

Berberis pinnatifolia. Milkissee, N.; Jumne-munda, P.; fr. Nipal.

Rarely exceeding a foot in diameter.—Sp. 3 inch. diam. : wood strong, close,

compact, yellow.

Berberis asiatica. Matekissee, N.; Chitra, P.; fr. Nipal.

Wood small.—Sp. rays rather large, distinct ; layers 12 in 1°5 inch. : wood

tough, compact, greenish yellow.

Bhela. See Anacardium.

Betula leptostachya, fr. Nipal.

Wood not to be distinguished from English birch.—Sp. 2°8 inch. diam. ;

3 layers ; rays in numerous, straight, narrow, parallel, ribands; bark thin,

smooth, spotted like common alder.

Betula cylindrostachya, fr. Nipal.

Sp. 4°5 inch. diam. ; wood shaky, of no value; layers not distinct enough to

be counted ; fibre white, glossy; rays dark nut-brown, in very distinct, nar-

row ribands ; bark thick, tubercular.

Betula Bhojpattra, N. fr. Nipal.

Sp. 5°8 inch. diam.; about 20 layers ; wood moderately hard and compact ;

cuticle used for writing on, and also for covering the inside of the tube of the

hookah and kalioun.

Bhaleo. See Rhus.

Bheza Moya. Moj, fr. Gualpara.

A close-grained hard wood.—Ham.

Bhoea. See Conyza.

Bhoelasi. See Salix.

Bhongyena. See Decadia.

Bhosee. See Salix.

Bhojpattra. See Betula.

Bignonia Colais. Kolai Beng. Parijat, fr. Gualpara.

Often 5 cubits in girth ; used only for fire-wood.—Ham.

Bignonia, fr. the higher parts of the Saluen river in Nipal.

Bignonia. Thathee, B. fr. Tavoy.

A very large tree.

Bignonia? Thuggainee, B. fr. Tavoy.

A large tree, used in house-building.

Bignonia. Lainbha, B. fr. Tavoy.

A middle-sized tree.

Bignonia chelonoides, fr. Nipal.

A large tree.

Billae. See Ligustrum.

Bireesee. See Myrsine.

Birouni, P. Kurauni, N. fr. Nipal.

Stem 6 to 8 inches in diameter.

Bojhinsi. See Coriaria.

Bonjam. See Gardenia.

Bonkapash. See Hibiscus.

Boro-belock. See Antidesma.

Borogotadhara. See Guarea.

Boropatiya. See Eleocarpus.

Bosuniyapoma. See Guarea.

1972 , Catalogue of Indian Woods. [Aprit,

595

Briedelia stipularis. Kohi, fr. Gualpara.

Grows to a large size; wood close, hard, tough ; used for -chests, stools,

&c.— Ham.

Briedelia? fr. Nipal.

Wood not very hard, but fine-grained, and fit for ornamental cabinet-work,

Sp. 2°5 inch, diam. ; colour lighter than box ; no tubes nor rays visible.

Brucea napalensis, fr. Nipal.

Bukkiamela. See Rhus.

Buddleia paniculata. Narum-pattee, P.; Sinna, N. ; fr. Nipal.

Sp. 1°6 inch. diam. ; rays very indistinct; wood pale brown, dull,

Bukaena. See Melia. é

Bulsima. See Symplocos.

Bunamb. See Spherocaria.

Bunaroo. See Quercus.

Bundhali. See Gardenia.

Butea frondosa. Polash, fr. Gualpara.

Sometimes 6 feet in girth ; wood open, soft, and tough, but not strong ;

used in coarse furniture.—Ham.

Cesalpinia? fr. Nipal.

Cesalpinia Sappan. Sappan-wood.

A native both of the peninsula of India, of the Burmese country, and of

the Malayan Islands. A large and valuable tree ; the wood red ; used in dying.

Calophyllum. Thurappe, B.; Choopee, N.; fr. Martaban.

A large tree, used for masts and spars, and for pestles for. oil presses.

Calophyllum. Turra-phee, B. fr. Tavoy.

Very different from the preceding; used for masts and spars.

Callicarpa arborea. Khoja, fr. Gualpara.

6 feet in girth ; used for mortars, pestles, and common furniture —Ham.

Calyptranthes. Jam, fr. Gualpara.

8 feet in girth ; made into planks, but not considered as of good quality—Ham.

Calyptranthes. Saljam, fr. Gualpara.

Seldom more than 3 cubits in girth. A close, hard, tough wood, used for

posts, beams, and planks.—Ham.

Camellia Kissi. Kissi, fr. Nipal.

Wood close-grained ; no sapwood.—Sp. 1°5 inch. diam. ; wood pale brown 3

bark very thin.

Capparis, fr. Nipal.

Sp. 2 inch. diam. ; wood white, moderately hard, dull.

Capparis, fr. Nipal.

Carapa. Taila-oon, B. fr. Tavoy.

Timber 13 to 15 cubits long, 15 to 18 inch. diam. ; used in house-building.

Careya. Kaza, B. fr. Martaban and Tavoy.

Timber of large size ; used for posts and other common purposes.

Careya. Kombo, fr. Gualpara.

Abont 3 cubits in girth ; wood close, hard, tough, and strong. Stocks of

matchlocks are made of it.— Ham.

Carpinus viminea. Chukisse, N.; Konikath, B.; fr. Nipal.

Wood esteemed by carpenters.—Sp. pale purplish, with little lustre, hard,

rather heavy ; tubes small.

Cassia Fistula. Sonalu, fr. Gualpara.

6 feet in girth ; an open, hard, tough wood, used for ploughs.—Ham.

Cassia nodosa, fr. Bot. G*.

A very large tree, .

* Bot. G., the Company’s Botanic Garden at Calcutta.

1833.] Catalogue of Indian Woods. 173

Castanea tribuloides. Cotoor and Chisee ; also Makoo Shingali, N.

(Shingali, is the general name for oak and chestnut.) Fr. Nipal.

Used for large mortars and pestles for grinding grain in ; becomes brown by

steeping in water ; wood hard and heavy.— Sp. rays like English oak ; that is,

every 5th or 6th much larger than the others. Another specimen, said to be

of the same species, wants the large rays.

Castanea martabanica. Nome and Zitha, B. fr. Tavoy.

Castanea. Golsinggur, fr. Gualpara.

Branched prickles on the cup of the fruit; leaves entire; timber excellent,

close, hard, and tough.—Ham.

Castanea. Nikari, fr. Gualpara.

Oak or chestnut ; cup covered with strong prickles; leaves notched ; 5 cubits

in girth ; timber close, hard, tough ; used for furniture and canoes.—Ham.

Castanea. Kangta Singgur, fr. Gualpara.

Not exceeding 3 feet in girth ; inferior in strength and toughness to the pre-

ceding.— Ham.

Cedrela hexandra. Toon-wood, fr. Nipal.

Sp. the wood has a great general resemblance to Laurus; the outer layers

have white glossy fibres, with yery distinct brown rays ; the inner layers are

brownish red, harder and more compact ; bark with white fibres.

Cedrela Toona. Toon or Tungd; Poma; Jeea; fr. Gualpara.

5 cubits in girth; a close, hard, but rather brittle wood, of a brown red

colour ; very durable, and esteemed for furniture. It has an agreeable smell.

—Ham. The wood, under the name of Toon, is extensively used among the

Europeans in Portugal for chairs and other furniture.

Celastrus, fr. Nipal.

An enormous climber.—Sp. trunk deeply channelled externally ; wood light,

reddish brown ; tubes large and numerous ; rays deep and very distinct, but

of the same colour as the rest of the wood; bark, outer, orange yellow ; inner,

deep brown.

Celastrus verticillata, fr. Nipal.

A small tree.

Celastrus ? fr. Nipal.

Sp. 1°8 inch diam. ; wood rather soft, very fine-grained; tubes and rays

very indistinct ; inner bark nearly black ; approaches in most of its characters

to Turpinia.

Celtis australis, fr. Bot. G.

Celtis. Khori, P. ; Koosikma, N.; fr. Nipal.

Cerasus. Puddom. Nipal cherry, fr. Nipal.

Sp. 3°5 inch. diam. 14 layers: rays reddish brown, distinct ; wood rather

soft, with some lustre.

Cerbera Manghas. Kullooa, B. fr. Tavoy.

From the fruit (probably the kernels) an oil is drawn with which the Bur-

mese anoint their hair. Wood not used.

Chacrésila. See Eleocarpus.

Chalita. See Dillenia.

Chamerops Martiona, Wall. Nipal palm, fr. Nipal.

Champa, white, fr. Nipal.

Sp. part of a plank: a free-working wood, soft and light like deal: fibre

wavy, white, and very glossy : rays shallow and slender : layers very distinct,

32 in 4°5 inches. Compare Michelia.

Chabsee. See Michelia.

Chasehoo. See Laurus.

Chatiyan. See Alstonia.

Cheriala. See Rhododendron.

174

Catalogue of Indian Woods. [Aprin,

Cherouni. See Acer.

Chickooni. See Eurya.

Chillounea. See Gordonia.

Chitra. See Berberis.

Choopee. See Calophyllum.

Choo-kha. See Pongamia.

Choo-mulloo. See Diospyros.

Choo-muna. See Xanthoxylon.

Choopee. See Calophyllum.

Choorosi, N. fr. Nipal.

A very fine sort of wood, said to come from the north. I only. knew it

from having a walking-stick of it, which was presented to me by the Vice-

regent of Nipal.

Chose. See Rhus.

Chaulmoogra odorata, Row. fr. Bot. G.

‘A very large tree.

Chotagotadhora, Bengal, fr. Gualpara.

Chukisse. See Carpinus.

Chusee. See Eleagnus.

Chrysophyllum acuminatum, Roxb. Pithogarkh, fr. Gualpara.

3 cubits in girth ; wood white, tough, used in furniture—Ham.

Chung, fr. Gualpara.

Perhaps a species of Chilmoria. It grows very large, and affords a close

tough wood used in furniture.—Ham.

Cinchona gratissima, Wall. Tungnusi, N. and P. fr, Nipal.

A native also of the mountains in Bengal, where it is called Usokuli : used

in Nipal for posts and rafters.—Sp. wood brown, light, coarse-grained; bark

with many compressed coarse fibres.

Clerodendron phlomoides. fr. Bot. G.

Coccoloba uvifera, fr. Bot. G.

Conyza candicans, Wall. Phusrae, P.; Bhoea, N.; fr. Nipal.

Cordia Myxa? fr. Nipal.

A large tree.

Coriaria nepalensis. Bhojhinsi, N. fr. Nipal.

The fruit is eaten : trunk 4 or 5 inches in diam. Wood not used.

Cornus oblonga, Wall. Easee, N. and P. fr. Nipal.

A tree of middle size.—Sp. 3 inch. diam. Wood fine-grained, rather hard ;

fibre white and shining : rays very numerous, reddish brown.

100 Cornus Capitata, Roxb. fr. Nipal.

101

102

103

104

105

Grows sometimes to a great size. Wood very hard.

Corylus ferox, Wail. fr. Nipal.

Grows at the top of Sheopore, one of the highest mountains in Nipal ;

flowers in September, and produces fruit in December : shell of the nut hard

and thick. A tree 20 feet high, 2 feet in girth ; wood light, compact.

Cotoneaster affinis, Lindl. fr. Nipal.

Cotoneaster obovata, Wall. fr. Nipal.

Catoor. See Castanea.

Cou-moo, fr. Tavoy.

Timber 5 to 10 fathoms long ; 20 to 30 inches in girth ; used in boat and

house-building ; not much inferior to Hopza. ;

Cratzgus arbutiflora. Rooes, N. fr. Nipal.

A small tree, or rather shrub ; wood exceedingly strong: used for walking-

sticks.

1833.] _ Catalogue of Indian Woods. 175)

106

107

108

109

110

lil

112

113

114

115

Croton oblongifolium, Rorb. Parokupi, fr. Gualpara.

5 cubits in girth ; aclose-grained but rather brittle wood ; used for coarse

furniture.— Ham.

Croton. Lalpatuja, fr. Gualpara.

3 cubits in girth ; a hard close-grained wood, used for small canoes.

Cusroo. See Quercus.

Cyathea spinulosa. Fern-tree, fr. Nipal.

Cynometra. Maingga, B. fr. Martaban.

A small tree.

Daine-oksi. See Dillenia.

Dalbergia Momsita, Ham. Momasita, fr. Gualpara.

Attains a considerable size : wood close, hard, and tough ; used in coarse

furniture.— Ham.

Dalbergia (Rangoon Sissoo), fr. Rangoon, Ham.

Dalbergia, fr. Nipal.

Daphne Gardneri, Wail. fr. Nipal.

Wood not used. Bark used for paper stuff.—Sp. 3°75 inch. diam.; wood

light, soft, coarse, of a grey colour, with little lustre ; bark finely fibrous.

Daphne cannabina. Loureir, fr. Nipal.

A shrub, from 6 to 8 feet high ; grows on the most exposed parts of the

snowy mountains of Nipal. Paper made of the bark is strong, tough, not

liable to crack, nor to be eaten by the white ant or other insects.

Decadia spicata. Bongyera, fr. Gualpara.

3 cubits in girth. A close, hard, tough wood, used by carpenters.—Ham.

Deodae. See Ficus.

Dheyri. See Taxus.

Dhoree. See Gualtheria.

116 Dillenia. Zimboon, B. fr. Tavoy.

117

118

119

120

121

122

123

124

Timber 3 to 5 fathoms long, 8 to 10 inches diameter. Wood used in

house-building ; it also affords small crooked timbers for boats.

Dillenia pilosa, Roxb. Daine-oksi, fr. Gualpara.

Trunk 6 feet in girth. Wood open, but hard and tough ; used for canoes.

—Ham.

Dillenia Pentagyna. Oksi, fr. Gualpara.

Wood closer, but in other respects very like the preceding.—Ham.

Dillenia speciosa. Chalita, fr. Gualpara.

6 feet in girth. Wood close and hard, but rather brittle.

Diospyros. Tendoo, N. fr. Nipal.

Diospyros? Ryamucha, B.; Choomulloo, T.; fr. Martaban.

Wood used in house-building.

Dipterocarpus grandiflora, Wall. Ain or Aintha, B. fr. Martaban,

on the banks of the Atran ; also from Tavoy.

A stupendous tree : one of those which yield wood-oil and dammar.

Dipterocarpus. Kunnean-phew, B. fr. Tavoy.

5 to 8 fathoms long ; 18 to 24 inches in diameter; grows to a great size;

used for beams and planks.

Doduan. See Smilax.

Dubdubia. (See Rhus.) fr. Nipal.

Sp. 4°2 inch. diam.; layers 10; rays distinct; tubes few, rather large.

Wood very white, light, and soft. Bark thin.

Dudkuri. See Alstonia.

Eandorkomul-soong. See Gardenia.

Earansa. See Eurya.

Easee. See Cornus and Rubus.

176 Catalogue of Indian Woods. (Apri,

Eea. See Loranthus.

125 Ehretia serrata, Roxb. Nalshima, N. fr. Nipal; also fr. Gualpara.

5 cubits in girth; gives planks from 12 to 18 inches wide; wood soft and

open-grained, but rather tough ; not durable ; used for posts and other com-

mon purposes.

126 Ehretia serrata, or macrophylla. Poegulsee, N. fr. Nipal.

Sp. 3 inch. diam.; layers 10; tubes few and small; rays distinct; wood

white, moderately shining, soft.

127 Ehretia levis, fr. Bot. G.

128 Ekebergia. Jiyakohi, fr. Gualpara.

5 cubits in girth ; wood like mahogany, very durable, and much esteemed.

129 Elzagnus, fr. Nipal.

Wood similar to, but whiter than, common hawthorn.—Sp. 4 inch. diam. ;

layers 27 in 1:7 inch: neither tubes nor rays visible in the cross section ; bark

thin.

130 Eleagnus. Chusee, N. fr. Nipal.

131 Eleocarpus. Boropatiya, fr. Gualpara.

A close hard wood, of good size, used for canoes.— Ham.

132 Elzocarpus Chacrosila, Ham. fr. Gualpara.

A close hard wood, used for mortars, chests, &c.—Ham.

133 Elzocarpus. Thaumagee, T. fr. Martaban.

Timber very large, used for masts and posts for houses.

134 Embelia, fr. Nipal.

Sp. very imperfect.

135 Eriobotyria elliptica. Mihul, P. and N. fr. Nipal.

Wood cinnamon-brown, hard, compact, and reckoned good.—Sp. 7 inch.

diam. ; rings indistinct, about 26 in 3°] inches ; tubes very small.

Esealoo. See Rubus.

136 Euonymus. Veysoor, N.; Junghuree, P.; fr. Nipal.

Grows large ; wood close-grained, not very hard, perhaps good for carvers.

—Sp. rays and tubes scarcely visible : outer bark yellowish gray.

137 Euonymus tingens. Kusoori, N. fr. Nipal.

Wood brown, compact, hard, very fine-grained, dull.—Sp. tubes not visi-

ble; rays small and indistinct : bark, outer, orange yellow; inner, brown

with fine white fibres : the yellow bark is used for painting the forehead.

138 Euonymus echinata, Wall. fr. Nipal.

139 Euonymus pendula (japonica, Thunb.), fr. Nipal.

Sp. wood brown, moderately hard, fine-grained dull ; tubes and rays as

E. tingens : outer bark yellowish in places ; inner, brown.

140 Euonymus, fr. Nipal.

Tall, but of a slender stem.

141 Euphorbiacea. Yamala, B. fr. Tavoy.

Wood used for frames of lacquered ware.

142 Eurya nepalensis. Jeegnee, P.; Earansea, N.; fr. Nipal.

A small tree.—Sp. 5 inch. diam.

143 Eurya variabilis (probably the same as the preceding). Chickouni,

B. and N. fr. Nipal.

Grows large; wood compact, fine-grained, cinnamon-brown ; good for

turnery ware.

144 Eurya? fr. Nipal.

Sp. 2°5 inch. diam.: tubes small; rays distinct, red brown; fibre pale

brown, with moderate lustre : wood reddish brown, fine-grained, moderately

hard.

145 Eurya. Thaun, B. fr. Tavoy.

A small tree, used only for fuel.

1833.] Catalogue of Indian Woods. 177

146

147

148

149

150

151

152

153

154

155

156

157

158

159

160

161

162

163

164

165

166

167

Exceecaria ? Thurrotha, B. fr. Tavoy.

Fagara floribunda, fr. Nipal.

Sp. 2°2 inch. diam.: tubes many and Jarge: wood coarse, and of remarke

ably open grain, but more compact near the axis ; colour brownish yellow,

nearly dull.

Fagara, fr. Nipal.

Fagara Rhetza, Rorb. Bajarmondi, fr. Gualpara.

Wood close, hard, tough; fit for the joiner.— Ham.

Fagreea fragrans, Rovd. Annah-beng, B. fr. Martaban.

Timber not large ; wood yellowish, compact, and beautiful, but very hard,

and on this account not much used by the Burmese.

Ficus. Doodae-kath, N. P. fr. Nipal.

Ueed for water-courses, drains, and gutters.—Sp. 4°5 inch. diam.; layers

63 in 2 inches ; wood soft, free-working, closer than deal ; lustre considerable,

satiny.

Ficus? Kaffrea, P.; Pillaksi, N.; fr. Nipal.

Sp. 1°75 inch. diam. ; layers about 59; rays brown, indistinct : wood soft,

light, of no use.

Ficus, fr. Nipal.

Small specimen ; rays distinct ; wood soft, light.

Ficus, fr. Nipal.

A climber.

Ficus, fr. Nipal.

A climber.—Sp. rays nut-brown, strongly marked ; wood light, not very

soft, pale brown, with some lustre.

Ficus, fr. Nipal.

Sp. 4 inch. diam. ; rays brown, very distinct; layers very many; wood

moderately hard, with some lustre.

Ficus, fr. Nipal.

Sp. 2°4 inch. diam. ; rays brown, strongly marked ; layers very indistinct ;

tubes large, giving the wood a coarse grain: wood reddish brown, rather

hard.

Ficus, fr. Nipal.

A large tree.—Sp. 4°5 inch. diam.; layers very numerous ; wood soft,

worm-eaten.

Ficus. Thubboo, B. fr. Tavoy.

A middle-sized tree ; wood used in house-carpentry.

Ficus. Thuppan, B. fr. Tavoy.

A large tree ; wood not used.

Ficus undulata. Bakhalpani, fr. Gualpara.

rhs cubits in girth; makes good canoes: wood open, soft, rather tough.—

am.

Ficus oppositifolia. Khoskadumer, fr. Gualpara.

3 cubits in girth ; wood open, soft, brittle.

Fraxinus floribunda. lLakkuree, N. fr. Nipal.

ae “4 layers in 2'1 inches ; in colour, grain, and toughness, just like Eng-

ish ash,

Freziera ochnoides, fr. Nipal.

A middle-sized tree ; wood pale brown, close-grained, and moderately

hard.—Sp. 2'5 inch. diam.; rays hardly distinguishable ; resembles pear-

tree.

Gambhari. See Gmelina.

Garcinia. Pullowa, B. fr. Tavoy.

A large tree, used for posts, &c.,

Garcinia paniculata, fr. Bot. G.

Gardenia florida. Eandorkomul-soang, N. fr. Nipal.

178

168

169

170

171

172

173

174

175

176

177

178

179

180

181

182

183

184

Catalogue of Indian Woods. [ApRin,

Gardenia, fr. Nipal.

Sp. wood cream-brown, fine-grained, hard, compact; probably useful for

turnery ware.

Gardenia. Bonjam, fr. Gualpara.

3 cubits in girth ; well adapted for all kinds of turnery ware—Ham.

Gardenia. Bundhali, P. and N. fr. Nipal.

Gardenia latifolia, fr. Bot. G.

Gardenia lucida, fr. Bot. G.

Gastonia palmata, fr. Nipal.

Ghese. See Quercus.

Ghonas. See Rhododendron,

Ghorans. See Rhododendron.

Gillaephul. See Spondias.

Gmelina arborea. Gambhari, fr. Gualpara.

Wood light, but durable, does not warp, and is not readily attacked by

insects ; used for turnery ware of all kinds, and cylinders of a proper size are

turned very thin for drums: other musical instruments are also made of it.

Goechassee. See Gordonia.

Golsinggur. See Castanea.

Gomulsee. See Quercus.

Gooki. See Symplocos.

Goonsi. See Podocarpus.

Goopor. See Pyrus.

Gordonia integrifolia. Chillounea, P.; Goechassee, N.; fr. Nipal.

The bark contains white spicule, that produce violent itching when rubbed

on the skin in their recent state. The Burmese have a superstition, that one

beam in a house should be made of this wood. Wood brown, nearly dull,

moderately hard and compact.

Gordonia? Kaza, B. fr. Martaban.

Large timber, used for ordinary building purposes.

Govorpongyata. See Guarea.

Grewia. Meaya, B. fr. Tavoy.

Gualtheria fragrantissima. Dhoree, N.; Dhoseongree, P.; fr.

Nipal.

Guarea, fr. Nipal.

Sp. 3°5 inch. diam. ; wood moderately hard, compact, pale reddish brown,

Guarea. Amari, fr. Gualpara.

5 cubits in girth ; wood close, hard, and tough; used for canoes.—Ham.

Guarea Gobara. Govorpongyata, fr. Gualpara.

Used for canoes.—Ham.

Guarea Alliaria. Bosuniyapoma, fr. Gualpara,

Used for canoes.— Ham.

Guarea Gotadhara. Borogotadara, fr. Gualpara.

5 feet in girth ; wood close and hard ; used by joiners.—Ham.

Guarnasi. See Rhus.

Hakoolual. See Limonia.

Harobaer. See Ziziphus.

Hleritiera Fomes, Ham. (minor, Roxb.) Kunnazoo, B. fr. Tavoy,

Soondree of Bengal.

A very large tree ; wood exceedingly hard and durable ; used for pestles

for oil-mills ; shafts of gigs, spokes, and naves, are made of it :; an excellent

fuel for burning bricks ; grows to a much greater size on the Martaban coast

than in Bengal.

1833.] Catalogue of Indian Woods. 179

185

186

187

188

189

190

191

192

1938

194

195

196

197

198

200

201

202

203

Hibiscus macrophyllus, Rowbd. fr. Tavoy.

A middle-sized tree, used for common building purposes, bark tough and

stringy ; is made into cordage.

Hibiscus (perhaps a Sterculia), fr. Tavoy.

Applied to the same uses as the foregoing.

Hibiscus Lampas. Bonkapash, fr. Gualpara.

6 feet in girth ; a soft, open wood, used for coarse furniture— Ham.

Holboellia (Stauntonia) latifolia. Bagul, T. fr. Nipal.

A vast climber.

Hopea odorata. Tengaun or Thaengong. Common on the Ten-

asserim and Martaban coasts.

Canoes are made of this tree, which grows to an enormous size: it also

produces a valuable resin or dammar.

Hopea floribunda, Wall. Tantheya, fr. Tavoy.

A very large tree.

Hovyenia dulcis, fr. Nipal.

A very large tree.—Sp. 3 inch. diam. ; layers 9 ; wood light, coarse-grained.

Hydrangea altissima, fr. Nipal. 5

A climber.

Hydrangea trigyna, Wall. fr. Nipal.

Hymenodictyon flaccidum, Rowbd. fr. Nipal.

Sp. 1°125 inch. diam. ; wood dirty grey, nearly dull; moderately hard.

Ilex dipyrena, Wail. Karaput, P.; Munasi and Gulsima, N.; fr.

Nipal.

Wood heavy, hard, fine-grained, and much like common holly, said to be-

come black with age ; used for various purposes of carpentry.—Sp. 3 inch.

diam. ; tubes very small; rays distinct.

Jambolifera pedunculata. Hulhholi, fr. Gualpara.

3 cubits in girth ; used for stocks of matchlocks.— Ham.

Jasminum arboreum. Anjoo, N. from Nipal.

Sp. 4 inch. diam. ; wood pale brown, nearly dull, fine-grained, hard, com-

pact.

Jasminum dispermum, fr. Nipal.

Jasminum chrysanthum. Roxb. fr. Nipal.

Sp. 18 inch. diam. ; neither tubes nor rays visible ; wood white, fine-

grained, moderately hard ; brittle, hard concretions in the bark,

Jeea. See Cedrela.

Jeegue. See Eurya.

Jhoori. See Osyris.

Jiyakoki. See Ekebergia.

Joolchumahl. See Acacia.

Joolshima, N. fr. Nipal.

Juggoochal. See Andromeda.

Juglans pterococca, Roxb. from Nipal.

An exceeding large tree.—Sp. 3°5 inch. diam.; wood pale reddish brown,

with considerable lustre, but rather coarse-grained.

Julsi. See Rondeletia.

Jumnemandoo. Sce Berberis.

Junghurree. See Euonymus.

Juniperus excelsa, Bieb? The Cedar of Himalaya.

ae and less odorant than the West Indian cedar; an excellent light

wood.

Justicia Adhatoda. Kath, P.; Alesi, N.; fr. Nipal.

A bee 2

180

204

205

206

207

208

209

210

211

Catalogue of Indian Woods. [AprRIL,

Kaantha, B. fr. Tavoy.

3 to 5 fathoms long, 12 to 15 inches in diameter. Yields a small but va-

luable timber for oars and paddles.

Kadabusi. See Ziziphus.

Kaffrea. See Ficus.

Kaintha-phogee. See Symplocos.

Kaizai. See Laurus.

Kalajiya, fr. Gualpara.

Common over all India ; remarkable for the facility with which it grows

from cuttings, and from truncheons ; yields much gum; wood of no use.—

Ham.

Kalikat. See Limonia.

Kalikath. See Symplocos.

Kalikaut. See Myrsine.

Kanaput. See Ilex.

Kangtali-chama. See Artocarpus.

Kangta-singgur. See Castanea.

Kath. See Justicia.

Kaunzo-Kurro, B. fr. Tavoy.

5 to 7 fath. long, 15 to 20 inch. diam.; used in boat-building. See also

Meliacea.

Kayzai. See Laurus.

Kaza. See Careya and Gordonia.

Keahnaun, B. fr. Tavoy.

15 to 20 feet long, 15 to 20 inch. diam. ; strong crooked timber, used for

musket-stocks. See also Xylocarpus.

Keannan. See Xylocarpus.

Kee-tha. See Syndesmis.

Keounlak. See Rottlera.

Keysoor. See Euonymus.

Kheemna. See Laurus.

Kheera, N. fr. Nipal.

An Euphorbiaceous tree, of no value.

Khori. See Celtis.

Khoskadumor. See Ficus.

Koila. See Bauhinia.

Kohi. See Briedelia.

Kolai. See Bignonia.

Kombo. See Careya.

Komkath. See Carpinus.

Kongeea. See Rondeletia.

Korui. See Acacia.

Kooathoe. See Myristica.

Koosikma. See Celtis.

Kuddoot-Alain, B. fr. Tavoy.

Grows to a great size; used by house and boat-builders.

Kuddoot-nee, B. fr. Tavoy.

6 to 8 fath. long, 15 to 20 inch. diam. ; an inferior wood, used in boat-

building.

Kuenmoonee. See Lagerstroemia.

Kujulsee, P, and N. fr. Nipal.

Trunk 2 feet in diam. ; wood strong and durable ; used for door-posts.

1833.] Catalogue of Indian Woods. 181

212

213

214

215

216

217

218

219

220

Kullooa. See Cerbera.

Kullowa. See Laurus.

Kummi, B. fr. Tavoy.

Kunna. See Pierardia.

Kunnazoo. See Heritiera.

Kunnean-phew. Sce Dipterocarpus.

Kunneen. See Myristica.

Kunneen-keunke.

Kunneen-keunla.

Kunneenee. See Sterculia.

Kurauni. See Birouni.

Kurrowa. See Laurus.

Kusoori. See Euonymus.

Kuzzo. See Pierardia.

Kyakle. See Quercus.

Kyamucha. See Diospyros.

Labtesee. See Panax and Rottlera.

Lagerstroemia. Kuenmounee or Peema, B. fr. Tavoy.

Used in house-building, and for oars.

Lagerstroemia parviflora, Rorvb. Sida, fr. Gualpara.

A large tree, 6 feet in girth, and very common; wood close, hard, and

tough, forming excellent timber.— Ham.

Lagerstroemia Regine. Jarul, fr. Gualpara.

6 feet in girth, used in boat-building ; but the wood is soft, and deficient

in toughness.—Ham. It is extensively used in Bengal under the name of

Jarul.— Wail.

Lakhurree. See Fraxinus.

Lalpatuja. See Croton.

Lambha. See Bignonia.

Langchi. See Aquilaria.

Latasishnoo. See Urtica.

Laurina. Tapahaw, N. fr. Nipal.

Laurus. Lumpatch, P.; Chasepoo, N.; fr. Nipal.

4 to 6 feet in diam. ; wood soft and pale when young, hard and pale red

when older; used in carpenter’s work, and for beams.—Sp. 27 layers in 1°8

inches ; lustre considerable ; rays mostly distinct.

Laurus glandulifera. Sassafras and Camphor-wood of Nipal, fr.

Nipal.

Sp. fibre pale flesh colour, with considerable lustre; rays small, dark red-

brown ; wood soft, coarse.

Laurus. Very like the preceding. Kullowa or Kurrowa, B. fr.

Tavoy.

Produces the sassafras-bark and camphor-wood of Martaban.

Laurus caudata, fr. Nipal.

Sp. fibre light-coloured, shining ; tubes not numerous but large ; rays dis-

tinct, dark brown; 4°2 inch. diam. ; layers 12 ; axis very eccentric.

Laurus albiflora, fr. Nipal.

A large tree.—Sp. 3°8 inch, diam. ; fibre, tubes, and rays, as the fore-

oing.

aeas. Panatha (Banatha ?), B. fr. Tavoy,

Used in house carpentry.

} See Symplocos.

182

223

224

225

226

227

228

229

230

231

232

233

234

235

236

237

238

239

240

241

242

243

Catalogue of Indian Woods. [ApRIL,

Laurus. Maythen, B. fr. Tavoy.

5 to 6 fath. long, 18 to 26 inch. diam. ; a very large tree; wood used for

furniture, in house carpentry, and for planks and upper decks for proas.

Laurus. Pahela, N. fr. Nipal.

Laurus? Kheemna, B. fr. Tavoy.

Timber small ; used for posts and rafters. ;

Laurus. Phetpetta, N.; Balukshee, P. ; fr. Nipal.

Wood red-brown, of a fine grain, used for chests, &c.—Sp. fibre and rays

as other Lauri ; tubes filled with a dark red-brown substance.

Laurus. Chausoma, N. fr. Nipal.

Sp. fibre light-coloured, with considerable lustre ; tubes rather large ; rays

distinct, dark-brown.

Laurus. Sami-lumpata, P. ; Chikihul-tussipoo, N.; fr. Nipal.

Sp. fibre cream-colour, shining ; tubes and rays cinnamon-brown ; rather

fine grain.

Laurus. Keebula, N.; Kalechampoo, P.; fr. Nipal.

Sp. 3°2 inch. diam. ; fibre, tubes, and rays, as other Lauri.

Laurus. Pumlasi, N.; Khorkula, P.; fr. Nipal.

A large tree ; wood strong and durable.—Sp. 1°6 inch. diam.

Laurus. Khulsi, N. fr. Nipal.

Laurus (or Tetranthera), very like T. pulcherrima. Bulooksee,

N.; Sengoulee and Tijpaut, P.; fr. Nipal.

Wood excellent, used for spinning wheels.—Sp. 3°5 inch. diam. ; fibre,

tubes, and rays, as other Lauri.

Laurus. Phusree, N. and P. fr. Nipal.

Wood grayish brown.

Laurus lanuginosa, Wall, fr. Nipal.

Sp. wood cream-brown; moderately hard; rays, tubes, and fibre, as

others.

Laurus. Thuggoo, B. fr. Tavoy.

4 to 6 fath. long, 12 to 18 inch. diam. ; used for oars and rudders.

Laurus, (Tetranthera bifaria, Wall.) Juttrunga, N.; Pahelakath,

P..; fr. Nipal.

Large and useful timber ; wood soft, rather spongy.—Sp. 6 inch. diam. ;

rotten at heart ; fibre pale yellow, glossy ; rays distinct, dirty brown.

Laurus? Thitya, B. fr. Tavoy.

A very large tree ; wood used for house-building, and for mortars in which

rice is husked.

Laurus. Kayzai, B. fr. Tavoy.

Wood used in house carpentry.

Laurus salicifolia. Horisongher, fr. Gualpara.

6 feet in girth ; wood has a strong smell of camphor; used for coarse

articles of furnitnre—Ham.

Laurus Champa. Kurka-champa, fr. Gualpara.

3 cubits in girth ; used for coarse furniture.—Ham.

Leucosceptrum, fr. Nipal.

Wood used for rafters ; soft and of no value.—Sp. fibre with some lustre ;

rays moderately distinct ; axis very eccentric.

Leycesteria formosa, Wail. fr. Nipal.

Ligustrum napalense. Billae or Bancha, N. and P. fr. Nipal.

Timber about a foot or more in diameter ; used for building purposes.—

Sp. 4 inch. diam. ; layers about 10 in an inch: wood heavy, hard, compact,

tough, and very fine-grained ; for the purposes of the engraver will probably

a found nearly as good as Mediterranean box; bark with coarse white

res,

1833.] Catalogue of Indian Woods. 183°

244

245

246

247

248

249

250

257

258

259

260

261

262

Limonia. Kailkat, P.; Hakoolnal, N.; fr. Nipal.

Timber large for the genus; wood white, soft, but close, strong, and

tough ; fit for fine turnery ware.—Sp. 7 inch. diam. ; neither rays nor tubes

visible ; inner bark very fibrous.

Limonia crenulata, fr. Nipal.

Wood yellow, very hard ; used in house-building.

Lissokatta. See Loranthus.

Lolsi. See Taxus.

Loranthus. Kea, N.; Lissokatta, P.; fr. Nipal.

Loshima. See Viburnum.

Ludia. Mulloka, N.; Antheel ; fr, Nipal.

Used for posts and walking-sticks.

Ludia spinosa, fr. Bot. G.

Lumpatch. See Laurus.

Lushpoo. See Spherocaria.

Luzun. See Pongamia.

Magnolia insignis, Wall. fr. Nipal.

Sp. 3 inch. diam. ; 12 layers ; wood rather soft, moderately fine-grained,

and with some lustre.

Mainaban, B. fr. Tavoy.

Resembles lance-wood ; used for beams, posts, and rafters ; also for lances,

bows, sword-handles, &c.

Maingga. See Cynometra.

Magor. See Vernonia.

Mako-shingali. See Castanea.

Makusal. See Gordonia.

Malpighia lucida, fr. Bot. G. A native of America.

Masoochi. ‘See Laurus.

May-chin-chan-jay. Probably a species of Ebenus.

May-klen, fr. Tavoy.

Scarce and dear ; used for rudders and anchors.

May-maka, fr.

Used for timbers of junks.

May-rang, fr. Tavoy.

Said to be very durable, and much esteemed for the posts of houses built

on the bank of rivers.

May-tobek, fr. Tavoy.

Imported in long planks, and used in preference to teak for the bottom

planks of ships.

Mathen. See Laurus.

Meaya. See Grewia.

Meenaban, fr. Martaban.

5 to 8 cubits long, 6 to 10 inch. diam. ; a durable and pliant wood, used

for sword-handles and spear-shafts.

Megeongee, fr. Tavoy.

A very large tree, used in house-building.

Mehul. See Pyrus.

Melia. Bukaena, P.; Baksi, N.; fr. Nipal.

Meliacea? Kanzo-Kurroo, B. fr. Nipal.

Meliacea. Tokor, fr. Gualpara.

A large tree, used for planks, canoes, and coarse furniture.—Ham.

Menispermum laurifolium, Rovb. fr. Nipal.

A large tree, very remarkable for the grain and irregular layers of its wood,

184

263

264

Catalogue of Indian Woods. [Aprit,

Mhasoosee. See Spondias.

Michelia Kisopa, De Cand. Champ or Chaump, P.; Chobsse,

The wood much used for light works.—Sp. piece of a plank, 30 layers

in 3°75 inches ; another Sp. 2°5 inch. diam. 12 layers in 1°1 inch. Similar to

white Champa, No. 87, but the colour is more yellow, and the rays less dis-

tinct.

Mihul. See Eriobotrya.

Mikay. See Murraya.

Milkissee. See Berberis.

Millingtonia pungens, fr. Nipal.

A middle-sized tree.

265 Mimosa capensis, Bot. G.

266

267

268

269

270

271

272

273

274

275

276

277

278

279

280

Mimosa odoratissima, Bot. G.

Mimosa polystachya, Bot. G.

Minusops. Thubbae, B. fr. Tavoy.

Wood used for masts and spars ; affords also good crooked wood.

Minusops Elengi, fr. Tavoy.

Slow-growing ; reared only on account of its flowers, which smell like

Russia leather.

Mimusops? Chalpata, fr. Gualpara.

A tree of moderate size, used for coarse furniture—Ham.

Moj. See Bheze.

Momsita. See Dalbergia.

Morinda citrifolia, Bot. G.

The root yields a yellow dye.

Morus levigata, Wall. fr. Nipal.

A large tree.—Sp. 1°5 inch, diam.; wood coarse brownish yellow, with

considerable lustre.

Morus mauritiana, fr. Bot. G,

Motikissee. See Berberis.

Moyen. See Vauqueria.

Mucuna, fr. Nipal.

A superb climber (a kind of cowhage).

Mullokath. See Ludia.

Munasi. See Ilex.

Munachoo. See Rottlera.

Murraya. Maikay, B. fr. Tavoy.

4 to 5 feet long, 3 to6 inch. diam.; used for handles of daggers and

of other weapons. A strong, tough wood, in grain like box.

Myginda. Silapoma, fr. Gualpara.

5 cubits in girth ; used for coarse furniture—Ham.

Myrica sapida, Wall. ; Kaephul, P.; Kobusi, N.; fr. N ipal.

Grain like birch, but the colour darker.—Sp. 2°5 inch. diam. ; fibre brown-

ish white, nearly dull; rays very distinct, dark brown in the outer layers ;

the interior layers harder, heavier, and more compact. The fruit is eaten.

Myristica? Thounsanga, B. fr. Tavoy.

A large tree ; the wood used in boat-building.

Myristica. Koathoe or Kunneen, B. fr. Tavoy.

A large tree ; the wood used for flooring houses : perhaps the same as the

foregoing.

Myristica. Jheruya, fr. Gualpara.

A sort of nutmeg, but neither the nut nor mace have any aroma: timber

5 cubits in girth, used for furniture.—Ham,

1833.] Catalogue of Indian Woods. 185

281 Myrsine capitellata, fr. Nipal.

Wood compact, hard, with a handsome grain.—Sp. 3°5 inch. diam.; fibre

cream-colour ; rays very distinct, broad, heavy, pale brown.

282 Myrsine semiserrata. Bireesee and Kalikaut, N. and P. fr.

Nipal.

Wood excellent.—Sp. 2°5 inch. diam.; rays large, deep flesh-colour, and

very ornamental.

283 Nauclea Cadamba, Rorb. Kodom, fr. Gualpara.

A noble tree, 6 feet in girth ; wood yellow, used for coarse furniture.—

Ham.

284 Nauclea undulata, fr. Bot. G.

Nalshima. See Ehretia.

285 Nerium tomentosum. Adhkuri, fr. Gualpara.

3 cubits in girth ; used for furniture—Ham.

286 Nerium antidysentericum. Dudkhuri, fr. Gualpara.

Of the same size and uses as the foregoing : beads are also made of it.—

am.

287 Nikari, fr. Gualpara.

An oak or chesnut; cup covered with large prickles; leaves notched ; 5

cubits in girth ; used for canoes and furniture—Ham.

Niyor. See Schinus.

Nome. See Castanea.

Novum-pattee. See Buddleia.

Odla. See Sterculia.

Okchi. See Dillenia.

288 Olea glandulifera, fr. Nipal.

A large tree.—Sp. 5 inch. diam.; rays very thin and indistinct ; wood

pale brown, very hard, heavy, and compact.

289 Oleina, fr. Nipal.

A middle-sized tree.—Sp. 3 inch. diam. ; wood pale brown, with consider-

able lustre, handsome grain, and very hard.

Oosihu. See Podalyria.

290 Ormosia glauca.

Sp. 3°5 inch. diam. ; wood light brownish yellow, with some lustre, hard,

and coarse-grained.

291 Osyris napalensis. Thoori, P. and N. fr. Nipal.

A large timber tree, the fruit of which is eaten, and the wood is in estima-

tion.—Sp. 1°5 inch. diam. ; tubes very small ; wood red-brown, rather hard,

compact, and very fine-grained.

292 Osyris peltata. Phaoun, B. fr. Tavoy.

Pahela. See Laurus.

Paingodoo. See Acacia.

Palash. See Butea.

Paluepean. See Sapota.

Panatha. See Laurus.

293 Panax polyacanthus, fr. Nipal.

A large tree.

294 Panax. Lubtesee, N. fr. Nipal.

Sp. about 2°5 inch. diam.; wood soft, light, spongy, with high lustre ;

bark with short thick tubercles or spines, broad at the base.

295 Panax? fr. Nipal.

Sp. 4 inch. diam. ; wood soft, light, spongy, nearly dull; rays numerous,

and very distinct in the outer layers.

296 Panax, fr. Nipal.

186

297

298

299

300

301

302

303

304

305

306

307

308

309

310

311

312

Catalogue of Indian Woods. [Aprit,

Panax pendulus, fr. Nipal.

A middle-sized tree; wood pale reddish brown, light, moderately hard ;

rays distinct, giving a handsome grain.

Pangeh-petiya. See Tetranthera.

Panmuja. See Tetranthera.

Parijat. See Bignonia.

Paro-kupi. See Croton.

Passy. See Pyrus.

Paunlah. See Symplocos.

Peema. See Lagerstroemia.

Penlay-peen, fr. Tavoy.

5 to 6 fathoms long ; 8 to 15 inches diameter ; used in house-building.

Phaoun. See Osyris.

Photinia dubia, Lindl. fr. Nipal.

Grows about 20 feet high ; wood hard, fine-grained.

Photinia integrifolia, fr. Nipal.

Sp. 2°1 inch. diam. : works freely ; somewhat coarse ; colour reddish brown,

with scarcely any lustre.

Phrarat. See Quercus.

Phurasee. See Turpinia.

Phusrae. See Conyza.

Phutki. See Eurya.

Phyllanthus Emblica, fr. Nipal.

Sp. 3 inch. diam. ; layers about 8, very indistinct ; rays distinct : a hand-

some, nut-brown, glossy, hard wood.

Phyllanthus? Horinhara, fr. Gualpara.

A tree of moderate size ; the wood used for coarse furniture.— Ham.

Pienmahne, fr. Tavoy.

4 to 6 fathoms long; 18 to 20 inches diameter; affords the best and

strongest crooked timber, and is very durable ; used also in house-build-

ing.

Pienmah-pue, fr. Tavoy.

See Lagerstroemia.

Pierardia ? Kunna or Kuzzo, B. fr. Tavoy.

Pillaksi. See Ficus.

Pinus excelsa, fr. Nipal.

Wood remarkably compact.—Sp. 3 inch. diam. ; 6 layers.

Pinus longifolia, fr. Nipal.

Excellent timber, like Memel deal.

Pinus Brunoniana, fr. Nipal.

Wood soft, and of no value.

Pinus Webbiana, fr. Nipal.

Sp. 7 inch. diam. ; exterior layers soft, and of no value; interior ones

harder and finer-grained.

Pinus Dammara ? fr. Tavoy.

A very large tree ; used for beams and rafters.

Pinus Deodara. Himalaya Cedar, fr. Nipal.

Wood very fragrant.

Pithogarkh. See Chrysophyllum.

Plumeria alba, fr. Bot. G.

A West Indian tree.

313 Plumeria acuminata, fr. Bot. G.

A West Indian tree. Every part, both of this and of the foregoing, full

of milky juice.

1833.] Catalogue of Indian Woods. 187

314

315

316

317

318

319

320

321

322

323

324

325

326

327

328

329

330

331

Podalyria napalensis. Potugalla, N.; Oosihu, P. ; fr. Nipal.

Podocarpus macrophylla. Goonsi, N. fr. Nipal.

The peduncle of the fruit, but not the fruit itself, is eaten.

Polygonum. Tuknee, P.; Tauntul, N. : fr. Nipal.

Used only for fire-wood. The young shoots have a pleasant acidulous

taste, and are eaten.

Polypodium giganteum. A tree-fern, fr. Nipal.

A stem, 45 feet in height, and proportionately thick, was presented by the

Directors of the East India Company to the British Museum.

Poma. See Cedrela.

Pongamia atropurpurea, Wall. Lazun, B.; Choo-kha, T.; fr.

Martaban.

A noble forest-tree ; native of environs of Amherst and Moulmein, on the

Martaban coast : the wood used in boat and house building ; flower of a dark

purple colour.

Popeeah. See Acacia.

Potugalla. See Podalyria.

Premna spinosa, fr. Bot. G.

Premna. Toomulse, N. fr. Nipal.

Premna hirsina. Chikagambhari, fr. Gualpara.

Is often found 6 feet in girth ; the wood has a strong odour like the musk

rat; it is used for making musical instruments, and for other uses. It is

said that no insect will eat it.—Ham.

Premna flavescens. Bukdholi, fr. Gualpara.

3 cubits in girth ; wood very inferior to the foregoing.—Ham.

Pregulsee. See Ehretia.

Prunus glaucifolia. Ranipeeplee, N. fr. Nipal.

A large tree.

Prunus adenophylla. Aroo, P. fr. Nipal.

A large tree.—Sp. 2°5 inch. diam. ; fibre white and glossy ; rays brown,

distinct ; tubes rather small; wood light and soft, but harder and reddish

brown near the centre.

Prunus ferruginea, fr. Nipal.

Psychotria rotata, fr. Nipal.

Sp. 3°5 inch. diam. ; axis very eccentric; wood pale reddish brown, dull,

fine-grained, moderately hard.

Pterocarpus? Puddow, B. fr. Tavoy.

A large tree ; wood used for furniture and musical instruments.

Pterocarpus? Thoun-kheea, B. fr. the river Attran, in Martaban.

Puddow. See Pterocarpus.

Pullowa. See Garcinia.

Puzzeen-zwa. See Ternstroemia.

Pynathe. See Artocarpus.

Pyrus indica, Roxb. ? Mehul, P.; Passi, N.; fr. Nipal.

Sp. 2°5 inch, diam. wood brown, compact, moderately hard, very fine-

grained; tubes exceedingly small; bark very thin, composed of 9 brown

layers alternating with as many white ones; the thickness of the whole

scarcely § of an inch.

Pyrus vestita. Goohor, N. fr. Nipal.

Sp. 3°6 inch. diam. ; about 20 layers ; wood soft, compact, of a pale colour,

nearly dull.

Pyrus foliolosa, fr. Nipal.

A climber.—Sp. 2°5 inch. diam. ; wood pale brown, fine-grained, nearly

dull, moderately hard.

B B-2

188

332

333

304

335

306

337

338

339

340

341

342

343

344

345

346

347

348

349

350

Catalogue of Indian Woods. [Aprin,

Pyrus ursina, fr. Nipal.

Quercus spicata, fr. Nipal.

A very large tree ; wood very like English oak ; every 7th or 8th ray much

thicker than the others.

Quercus semecarpifolia. Ghese and Cusroo, N. fr. Nipal.

A very large tree, from 14 to 18 feet in girth, at 5 feet above the ground ;

clear trunk from 80 to 100 feet.—Sp. 3°5 layers in 2°4 inches; wood light

pale brown ; rays small, uniform.. .

Quercus lamellosa. Shulshee and Phrarat, N. fr. Nipal.

Wood very hard, straight-grained, and good, of a pale brown colour ; rays

uniform.

Quercus. Bunaroo, P.; Gomulsee, N. fr. Nipal.

Wood soft, works as easily as deal; fibre grey, with considerable lustre ;

rays uniform, reddish brown, very distinct ; layers indistinct ; heart reddish

brown.

Quercus lanata, fr. Nipal.

A very large tree.—Sp. bad.

Quercus lamellata, fr. Nipal.

Quercus polyantha, Lindl. Soosi-Singhali, N. fr. Nipal.

Quercus. Tima, fr. Gualpara.

Leaves entire ; acorns covered entirely by an unarmed cup formed of con-

centric rings ; timber not more than 3 cubits in girth ; used for coarse furni-

ture.—Ham.

Quercus Amherstiana, Wall. Tirbbae, B. ; Ryakle, T.; fr.

Martaban.

Grows to a large size ; wood used in boat-building, &c.

Quercus, from the mountains called Taong-Dong, near Ava.

Ranipeeplee. See Prunus.

Rhamnea, fr. Nipal.

A large climber.—Sp. 1°8 inch. diam. ; heart moderately compact; outer

part coarse-grained, rather hard.

Rhamnea. Bungla, fr. Gualpara.

5 cubits in girth ; used for chests, stools, and other coarse furniture.

Rhamnus (Premna?) Gondsori, fr. Gualpara.

5 cubits in girth ; used for canoes and chests.

Rhamunus virgatus, fr. Nipal.

Wood very hard and heavy ; the heart a bright-red brown, not unlike

English yew.—Sp. 35 inch. diam. ; tubes very irregular ; rays scarcely visi-

ble.

Rhododendron arboreum. Ghorans or Ghonas, P. ; Tuggoo, N. ;

fr. Nipal.

The wood resembles plum-tree ; used for gun-stocks.

Rhododendron arboreum (white-flowered variety). Teuggoo

Tuggoo (Teuggo means white), N. ; Saphed Gonos or Ghorons,

P.; fr. Nipal.

Grows to a large size.—Sp. 6 inch. diam. ; wood rather hard, pale brown;

rays in the outer layers very distinct; tubes few and large ; layers indistinct.

Rhododendron campanulatum. Cheriala, P.; Teotosa, N.; fr.

Nipal.

A large tree—Sp. 3°1 inch. diam. ; 26 layers, very distinct ; rays indis-

tinct : tubes hardly visible.

Rhus Bukkiamela, Roxvd. Subuchunsee, N.; Bukkiamela, P. ;

fr. Nipal.

Timber good and large.—Sp. 3°5 inch. diam.; greyish white, with consi-

derable lustre ; soft, light.

1833.] Catalogue of Indian Woods. 189

351

352

353

354

355

356

357

358

359

360

361

362

363

364

365

366

367

368

369

370

371

372

373

Rhus? Dubdubea? P.; Guarnusi, N. ; fr. Nipal.

Sp. 3 inch. diam. ; layers about 10: fibre light cream-colour, with high

lustre ; rays distinct, reddish brown ; wood very light and soft ; bark thin.

Rhus succedaneum, fr. Nipal.

A large tree.

Rhus juglandifolium, Wall. Chose, N.; Bhalaeo, P. ; fr. Nipal.

Very like the Japan varnish-tree.—Sp. 3°5 inch. diam. ; heart red-brown,

the tubes being filled with a substance of this colour ; wood soft, bears a

considerable resemblance to the Lauri, with indistinct rays.

Rondeletia cana, Wail. fr.. Nipal.

Rondeletia coriacea, Wall. Kongeea, P.; Julsi, N.; fr. Nipal.

Wood close-grained, and becomes of the colour of mahogany some time

after it has been cut ; layers very indistinct: used for rafters, tools, &c. A

red dye is also prepared from it.

Rosa macrophylla, Lindl. fr. Gossain-Than, in the Himalaya.

Rottlera. Teeta-kath, N.; Labtesee, P.; fr. Nipal.

Rottlera (perhaps tinctoria), fr. Nipal.

Wood pale brown, compact, hard, fine-grained ; bark very thin.

Rottlera tinctoria, fr. Nipal.

Fruit used as a red dye.

Rottlera arborea, fr. Nipal.

Wood light, coarse, soft, worm-eaten ; inner bark stringy.

Rottlera? Keoun-lae, B. fr. Tavoy.

A large tree ; wood used for rudders, &e.

Rottlera. Memasho, B. fr. Tavoy.

Rubus Gouriphul. R. ellipticus, Sm. LEscallo, P.; Eesi, N.;

fr. Nipal.

Common in hedges ; as thick as a stout arm ; fruit eatable.

Sabia parviflora. Mhasoosee, P. and N. fr. Nipal.

Bark spongy, of a yellow colour; sometimes used for marking the fore-

head.

Salix. Bhoelasi, P. and N. fr. Nipal. Z

A small tree, not more than 8 or 10 inches in diameter.

Salix babylonica. Tissee and Bhosee, N. and P. fr. Nipal.

Attains an enormous size.

Salix, fr. Nipal.

Saljam. See Calyptranthus.

Sandoricum. Thittoo, B. fr. Tavoy.

Wood used for furniture.

Saora. See Trophis.

Saphed-gonos. See Rhododendron.

Saphew. See Xanthoxylon.

Sapindacea. Dophari, fr. Gualpara.

A small tree ; used for coarse furniture—Ham.

Sapotea? Palaepean, B. fr. Tavoy.

Leaves most beautifully silky and gold colour beneath. A very large tree ;

wood used in building.

Saul or Sal. See Shorea.

Schinus Niara, Ham. Niyor, fr. Gualpara.

5 cubits in girth; a hard, close-grained rather brittle wood, with a resin-

ous scent ; preferred by the natives to almost any other for furniture.—Ham,

Schoepfia fragrans, fr. Nipal.

Sp. 2°5 inch. diam. ; a Coarse, light, soft wood,

Scytalia Longan, Bot. G.

190

374

375

376

377

378

379

380

381

382

383

384

385

386

387

388

389

390

391

392

393

Catalogue of Indian Woods. [ApRIL,

Scytalia Litchi, Bot. G.

Securidaca reniformis, fr. Nipal.

Sp. a soft white wood ; rays of the same colour as the fibre.

Seesaong. See Aralia.

Semecarpus Anacardium. Marking-nut, fr.

Wood soft, and full of acrid juice ; not used.

Shorea robusta. Saul or Sal.

This is the staple timber of Hindostan for building purposes : vast quan-

tities of dammar, or resin, are extracted from it, as well as from Dipterocar-

pus and Hopea, all of which belong to one family, the Dipterocarpee.

Sida. See Lagerstroemia.

Signa. See Turpinia.

Silapoma. See Myginda.

Sinna. See Budlea.

Sissoo. See Dalbergia.

Smilax. Doduan, P. and N. fr. Nipal.

Sonalu. See Cassia.

Sonneratia? Thaumma, B. fr. Tavoy.

A small tree.

Sonneratia apetala, Bot. G.

Soosi-Singhali. See Quercus.

Spherocaria edulis. Bun-amb, P.; Lushpoo, Ael, or Ealmarisee,

N.; fr. Nipal.

Used for posts and for fire-wood.—Sp. the wood has a handsome grain,

like Sycamore, but with scarce any lustre: rays very distinct, of the same

yellowish grey colour as the fibre.

Spherosacme fragrans, fr. Nipal.

A coarse, rather soft, dusky-coloured wood, without lustre.

Spondias axillaris. Lupshe, N. fr. Nipal.

Sp. 2°8 inch. diam. ; layers about 11; fibre white, with considerable lustre ;

rays moderately distinct ; tubes rather large.

Spondias. Sillaephul, N. fr, Nipal.

Spondias acuminata, Bot. G.

A large tree.

Spondias Amara. Amra, fr. Gualpara,

Grows to a good size, but is not made use of.—Ham.

Sterculia? Kuneenee, B. fr. Tavoy.

Attains an enormous size. An oil is extracted from the wood by incision,

which is used for torches.

Sterculia. Thikadoo, fr. Tavoy.

Sterculia angustifolia, fr. Bot. G.

Sterculia. Bahelli, fr. Gualpara.

5 cubits in girth ; used for canoes.—Ham.

Sterculia urens. Odla or Hatchanda, fr. Gualpara.

5 cubits in girth ; used for canoes. A coarse rope is made from the bark

which is used in taking wild elephants.—Ham.

Stravadium acutangulum. Hendol, fr. Gualpara.

3 cubits in diameter ; the wood much used, but neither strong nor hand-

some.— Ham.

Subuchunsee. See Rhus.

Suslendi. See Acer.

Syndesmis Tavoyana, Wall. Kee-tha, B.; red-wood; fr. Tavoy.

A very large tree ; used in building, and for boxes, &c.

1833.] Catalogue of Indian Woods. 191

394 Symplocos. Gooki, N. fr. Nipal.

A tall, slender tree ; wood not esteemed. Most of this genus produce a

yellow dye.

395 Symplocos floribunda, fr. Nipal.

A large tree ; wood fine-grained.

396 Symplocos? Kalikath, P.; Paunlah, N.; fr. Nipal.

A large tree.—Sp. wood white, compact, of a very fine-grain, and as soft

as deal; no tubes visible ; rays indistinct ; bark as thin as paper.

397 Symplocos. Bulsima, fr. Nipal.

398 Symplocos? fr. Nipal.

A large tree.—Sp. 3 inch. diam. ; wood cream-brown, moderately hard.

399 Symplocos pulcherrima, fr. Nipal.

A small tree.

400 Symplocos lucida, fr. Nipal.

Sp. 3 inch. diam. ; rays indistinct ; wood rather hard, very fine-grained,

with little lustre.

401 Symplocos? Kain-tha-phogee, B. fr. Tavoy.

13 to 17 feet long, 6 to 12 inch. diam.; used for posts and oars ; affords

good but small crooked timber.

402 Symplocos. Kunneen-keunkee or Kunneen-keunla, B. fr. Tavoy,

Used for beams, posts, &c.

Taila-oon. See Carapa.

Tantheya. See Hopea.

403 Tantheya, B. fr. Tavoy.

Tapahaw. See Laurina.

404 Tanguet nee, fr. Tavoy.

6 to 8 fathoms long, 15 to 20 inch. diam. Does not saw kindly.

Tauntul. See Polygonum.

405 Taxus virgata, Wall. Dheyri, P.; Lolsi, N.; fr. Nipal.

Grows to a large size: the green branches are used to adorn houses dur-

ing certain festivals ; timber strong and good.—Sp. 6'5inch. diam. Axis

very eccentric, 5 | 1°5; all the layers cannot be counted. On the widest

side of the axis are 27 layers in 0°85 inch. beginning from the axis ; near the

outside are 18 layers in 0°9 inch. ; wood softer, of paler colour, and less

lustre than English yew.

Teak. See Tectona.

406 Tectona grandis. Teak, fr. Martaban.

Several specimens of various qualities.

Teetakuth. See Rottlera.

Tendoo. See Diospyros.

Tengaun. See Hopea.

Teotosa. See Rhododendron.

407 Terminalia. Thuphanga, B. fr. Tavoy.

-408 Terminalia bialata, fr, Martaban.

409 Terminalia Bellerica. Bauri, fr. Gualpara.

as 6 feet in girth ; used for canoes: the fruit and bark used by tanners.—

am.

410 Terminalia Catappa, fr. Bot. G.

A noble and most ornamental tree : wood very good.

411 Terminalia moluccana. Joynal, fr. Gualpara.

3 cubits in girth ; used in boat-building, as the timber is both light and

durable.-—Ham.

412 Terminalia Hilka. Hilkha, fr. Gualpara,

6 feet in girth ; used for canoes and for furniture—Ham.

192

413

414

415

416

417

418

419

420

424

425

426

427

428

Catalogue of Indian Woods. [Aprit,

Ternstroemia napalensis, De Cand, fr. Nipal.

Sp. 3 inch. diam. Outer layers with very distinct rays, of a reddish

brown ; wood soft and spongy.

Ternstroemia. Puzzeen-zwa, B. fr. Tavoy.

A rather large tree, used for posts and rafters.

Tetradium? cymosum, Wail. fr. Nipal.

Tetradium ? fr. Nipal.

A very large tree.

Tetranthera caduca. Pangch-Petiya, fr. Gualpara.

6 feet in girth ; used for chests and common carpentry.— Ham.

Tetranthera. Haola, fr. Gualpara.

3 feet in girth ; wood close and soft ; used for coarse furniture.—Ham.

Tetranthera Paromouja. Paromouja, fr. Gualpara.

6 feet in girth ; wood close and soft ; used for coarse furniture—Ham.

Tetranthera Dorodmeda. Vagnal or Bagonal, fr. Gualpara.

3 cubits in girth ; used for coarse furniture—Ham.

Teutha, B. fr. Tavoy.

Thathee. See Bignonia.

Thauga-et-thittoo, fr. Tavoy.

3 to 5 fathoms long, 8 to 12 inches diam. Aninferior wood, used in

small buildings.

Thau-baun-po, fr. Tavoy.

5 to 8 fathoms long, 12 to18 inches diam. An inferior light wood, used

for small canoes.

Thau-baun-thau-lay, fr. Tavoy.

6 to 12 fathoms long, 13 to 20 inches diam. Wood very pliant; little

inferior to Hopea, but does not saw so kindly.

Thaumma. See Sonneratia.

Thaun. See Eurya.

Theyah, fr. Tavoy.

4 to 6 fathoms long, 10 to 15 inches diam. An inferior wood, used in

small buildings.

Thikadoo. See Sterculia.

Thittoo. See Sandoricum.

Thitya. See Laurus.

Thoun-ben.

Taounenie. \ See Artocarpus.

Thounkheea, See Pterocarpus.

Thounmynga, B. fr. Tavoy.

A middle-sized tree, used in house-building.

Thounsanga. See Myristica.

Thubbae. See Mimusops, Uvaria, Ficus.

Thubboobamboo. See Anacardium.

Thuggainee. See Bignonia.

Thuggoo. See Rhododendron.

Thunbergia coccinea, fr. Nipal.

Thaumagee. See Eleocarpus.

Thuphanga. See Terminalia.

Thuppan. See Ficus.

Thurape. See Callophyllum.

Thurratha. See Exceecaria.

Thymboo, B. Thau-baun-po, fr. Tavoy

5 to 10 fath. long. 15 to 20 inches diam. Good strong durable light

wood ; used in boat-building ; does not saw kindly, ~

‘

1833.] Catalogue of Indian Woods. 193

429

430

431

432

433

434

435

436

437

438

439

440

441

442

443

444

445

446

447

Tima. See Quercus.

Timbhus. See Xanthoxylon.

Tirbbue. See Quercus.

Tissee. See Salix.

Tomex, or Litseea Japonica. Uluyaohama, fr. Gualpara.

6 feet in girth ; used for small canoes.— Ham.

Toomulsee. See Premna.

Toon. See Cedrela.

Town-pine, fr. Tavoy.

7 to 8 fathoms long, 18 to 30 inches thick ; used in boat-building ; reck-

oned little inferior to Hopza.

Trophis? aspera. Saora, fr. Gualpara.

3 cubits in girth ; used for joiner’s work.—Ham.

Tuknee. See Polygonum.

Tukra. See Bauhinia.

Tunabeng. See Artocarpus.

Tungnusi. See Cinchona.

Turpinia pomifera. (Dalrymplea), Phurasee and Signa, N. fr.

Nipal.

A large tree ; wood of a dull grey colour, light, soft, compact, free-work-

ing, splits easily ; not applied to any particular use.—Sp. 3°2 inch, diam. ;

rays indistinct ; tubes very small ; bark thin, and the inner layer almost black.

Ulderoo, fr. Bombay.

Very little liable to split, and therefore used for fuses for bomb-shells.

Uluyaohama. See Tomex.

Uncaria pilosa, fr. Nipal.

A small and imperfect specimen.

Uriam. See Andrachne.

Urtica. Jeonagkun, N.; Latasishnoo, P.; fr. Nipal.

Urtica salicifolia, fr. Nipal.

Urtica pulcherrima, fr. Bot. G.

Uvaria. Thubboo, B. fr. Tavoy.

A large tree, used in boat-building.

Uvaria suberosa. Bandorkola, fr. Gualpara.

3 cubits in girth; a close-grained, soft, brittle wood; used for posts,

beams, and planks.—Ham.

Vagnal. See Tetranthera.

Vangueria edulis. Moyen, fr. Gualpara.

A small timber tree, 4 feet in girth ; used for coarse furniture.—Ham.

Vernonia. Magor, fr. Gualpara.

3 cubits in girth ; used for coarse furniture. The only one of the numer-

ous tribe of corymbiferous plants that grows to be a timber tree.

Vibernum? Loshima, N. fr. Nipal.

Vibernum erubescens, fr. Nipal.

A small-sized tree.

Vibernum cordifolium, fr. the Himalaya.

Vitex acuminata. Angchhui, fr. Gualpara.

3 cubits in girth. A very close, hard, brittle wood ; used for mortars of

oil-mills, feet of bedsteads, &c.—Ham.

Vitex Babula. Babla, fr. Gualpara.

3 cubits in girth; wood close, soft, tough ; used for coarse furniture, but

in little estimation.— Ham.

Vitex Leucoxylon. Bhodiya, fr. Gualpara.

3 cubits in girth ; used in making ploughs ; will grow on land that i

inundated for weeks together.— Ham> plougas 5 g is

194. Table for ascertaining the Heighés of [Aprit,

448 Vitis or Cissus, fr. Nipal.

Sp. 4°5 inch. diam.; wood spongy and very coarse-grained; fibre very

small in proportion to the tubes, which are many and large; rays very dis-

tinct, of a reddish brown colour, forming a handsome waved figure ; bark

stringy.

449 Wrightia gigantea, Wall. fr. Nipal.

A large climber.—Sp. 2'5 inch. diam. ; 10 layers; wood whitish, with con-

siderable lustre ; rather soft.

450 Wrightia antidysenterica. Lathon, B. fr. Tavoy.

A small tree ; not used.

451 Wrightia tinctoria. (Indigo tree.)

The leaves yield indigo. The wood is “ beautifully white, close-grained,

coming nearer to ivory than any other known to me.’’—Rowd.

452 Xanthophyllum. Saphew, B.; Choo-muna, T. ; fr. Martaban.

Very large ; wood used for posts and rafters.

453 Xanthoxylon alatum. Timbhus, P. and N. fr. Nipal.

Wood soft and open-grained, like aspen ; bark very tubercular.

454 Xylocarpus. Keannan, B. fr. Tavoy.

Timber from 10 to 20 feet Jong ; very durable; used for furniture and in,

house-building.

Zeethee. See Ziziphus.

Zimboon. See Dillenia.

Zitha. See Castanea.

455 Ziziphus incurva. MHarobaer, P.; Kadabusi, N.; fr. Nipal.

Wood in considerable estimation.—Sp. 3°5 inch. diam.; fibre brownish

white, with little lustre ; rays in the outer layers distinct, but of the same

colour as the fibre ; bark coarsely fibrous.

456 Ziziphus. Zeethee, B. fr. Tavoy.

Wood hard and durable. ‘

IlI.—Table for ascertaining the Heights of Mountains from the Boiling

Point of water. By James Prinsep, Sec., &c.

A correspondent has suggested to me that many readers of the

JourNAL are anxious to possess a ready means of measuring heights

by the temperature of boiling water, as it frequently happens that they

find themselves in situations where this simple method may be appli-

cable when it is out of their power to resort to the more generally

practised operation with a barometer.

I have accordingly drawn out a table founded on the best procurable

data of the present time: but it must not be concealed that sufficient

accuracy has not been attained in experimental researches on steam of low

temperatures to warrant implicit reliance upon the results; for although,

since the important application of steam as a motive power, numerous

experiments have been made to ascertain the elastic tension which it

exerts at different temperatures both below and above the ordinary

boiling point ; still, below 212°, the points fixed by experiment are

at intervals of several degrees asunder, and there is no thorough

accordance between those of different experimenters.

1833.] Mountains from the boiling point of water. 195

Perhaps it is necessary to explain, that the boiling point is that degree

of heat at which the elastic force of aqueous vapour is just capable of

counterpoising the pressure of the atmosphere, or the weight of the co-

lumn of mercury in a barometer. The method then of discovering the

law of progression of the tensions has generally had for its basis the ex-

posure to heat of a portion of water in a closed vessel, such as a glass tube

or a small boiler, under the pressure of a column of mercury, measuring

the height to which the latter is raised at different temperatures.

Betancourt, Scumipt, Datton, Watt, Creicuton, SourHern,

Taytor, and more recently Ure, Arsspercer, Perkins, and DuLone

(assisted by a commission of the French Academie), are some of the

illustrious names which are connected with these researches experimen-

tally ; while Ropison, Youne, Ivory, Lapiacz, Prony, Trepcoxp,

Cortouis, Larocue and others have attempted to construct mathema-

tical formule, capable of embracing the range of their experiments from

the freezing point up to 500° Farh.* _It is quite unnecessary for me to

enter into any lengthened history of this branch of physics, which the

reader will find ably discussed in Robison’s Mech. Phil., Biot, Tredgold

on the Steam Engine, Daniell’s Meteorology, and in the report of

Dutone to the Academie on the experiments made by order of the

French Government to determine the elastic force of aqueous vapour at

high temperatures. (An. Chim. xliii.]

All the experiments agree in proving the elastic force of steam to

follow a geometrical ratio with arithmetical increments of heat. The

index of the power representing the law of variation was assumed as

5.13 by Sourusern, 6 by Creicuton,7 by Youne, by Coriotts 5,355,

and by Dutone 5. But the formula of Trepcotp is acknowledged to agree

more closely with experiments below 300° than any other :—his ex-

ponent is also 6, with a different co-efficient ; if f = elastic force, and

¢ temperature, then by his formula

i tt, 100 ; ort = 177 f 1 —100

( 177 ) t

in logarithms

log. f = 6 (log. (¢+ 100) — 2.247968)

* The experiments of the French Academicians Baron de Prony, Arago, Gerard

and Dulong, in 1829, extend to the temperature of 435° Fahrenheit, or apressure of

24 atmospheres, which they measured by absolute pressure of a column of mercury

sixty feet high ina glass tube attached to the tower of the Old Church of Sainte Ge-

neviéve:—they were afraid of passing this limit, as the least explosion would have

brought down the tottering fabric. Their glass tube was jointed and ingeniously

supported: Mr. Daniell has however since worked with single glass tubes of 40 feet

long, in his water barometer experiments. We deal now-a-days boldly with feet,

where inches were formerly thought sufficient !

cc2

196 Table for ascertaining the Heights of [APRIL,

With this formula I had constructed a table from 214° to 180°, when

I perceived that the calculated pressures gradually gained upon the ex-

perimental ones within the same range, until at 180°, the difference was

a full third of an inch. This will be seen in the diagram of Plate VIII,

and in the following comparative table :

Temperature Calculated Tension Observed Differences Observer

by Tredgold’s formula Tension

e in, in.

212 30.00 30.00 5 assumed

210 28.86 28.88 + .02 Ure

210 28.86 28.82 —.04 Robison

202 24.68 24.37 —.31 Wollaston

200.75 24.07 24,00 ~- —.07 Dalton

200 vari | 23.60 —.11 Ure

200 23.71 22.86 —.85 Robison

190 19.50%) - 19.00 —.35 Ure

189.5 19.15 18.80 —.35 Dalton

182 16.35 16.01 —.34 Southern

180 15.67 15.16 —.51 Ure

180 15.67 14.73 ? —.94 Watt

178.25 15.10 14.60 —.50 Dalton

173 13.46 13.18 —.28 Dalton

172 13,17 £2:72 —.45 Southern

Ropison’s numbers are much too low: the others, DaLTon’s, Soutn-

ERN’s,and Urg’s, agree pretty well together, gradually separating from

the curve of Trepeoip’s formula. On the supposition that the experi-

mental results, when they evince so much regularity, are more trust-

worthy than the calculus, (which is indeed empirically formed to suit

them), I have made a deduction of [0.01 inch X number of degrees be-

low 212], from the numbers in TrepeoLtp’s column, and then I find that

the experimental and theoretical curves coincide very well throughout

the range required for our purpose.

The extreme difference at 180° will thus amount to

inches.

LOR NG Weal Phas. Oe aes 15,67 = 1.19511

hag Of ira te aR EP A, PERS 15,31 = 1.18611

-00900

=90 fathoms or 540 feet, a quantity of too much magnitude to be

passed over.

Having thus explained the construction of the following Table, I

will proceed to make a few remarks on the mode of using the instru-

ment to which it applies.

1833.) Mountains from the boiling point of water. 197

The Rev. F. J. H. Woutuasrton was the first to introduce the ther-

mometer practically as a substitute for the barometer in measuring

heights. His plan was merely to render the thermometer more deli-

cate by increasing the bulb, and allowing og mercury to enter the

capillary tube only when it approached the boiling point, so that a few

degrees occupied the whole scale, and by a sliding nonius each degree

could be divided into 200 parts or more. But it is evident that to

compete with the barometer in accuracy of indications, the scale must

have a range of the same length as that of the barometer,—say 15

inches, and the instrument would thus become fragile and unwieldy ;

to obviate this inconvenience, he formed a reservoir above the capillary

tube, containing a small supply of mercury, so that when the boiling

temperature should be so reduced as to bring the reading point to the

foot of his 6-inch scale, a portion of mercury was to be added to bring it

to the top of the scale, by an operation so delicate and difficult that I

may safely say, and from experience too, that few travellers would re-

sort to it in the field, and fewer still succeed if they attempted it. In 1817,

he exhibited his thermometer to the Royal Society, and in 1820, he ap-

plied it to the measurement of Snowdon. On the latter occasion, he drew

‘up a table of the value of the degrees between 214° and 202° in feet,

founded on Doctor Urz’s empirical formula of tensions; but, as this

range only extends to an altitude of 5405 feet, it is evidently quite in-

sufficient for the traveller in India, who may ascend to 18,000 feet and

still see Snowdons towering above his head.

The error into which Wottasrton fell was an attempt at too great

sensibility. His instrument is beautiful in a laboratory, where it will

serve to shew minute variations in the index error, as it may be called,

of a barometer in the course of years, as I have frequently proved. But

for rough work out of doors, accuracy must in some measure be sacri-

ficed to strength and portability, the points in which alone the thermo-

meter can boast superiority over the barometer. Captain Hersert

was so well aware of this, that he had provided himself from England

with ordinary thermometers divided, from 180° upwards, to the tenths of

degrees: half a division thus represented about 25 feet, which in

most cases was ample, especially when the zero of elevation, or level of

the sea, was 1000 miles distant.

All who possess thermometers, therefore, divided to tenths of inches,

may convert them into measurers of height, by attending only to a few

trifling precautions in their use.

1. The prime boiling point 212° should be accurately verified by com-

parison with a good barometer, for the divisions of the instrument-

makers are by no means to be trusted within the requisite limits. Thus,

198 Table for ascertaining the Heights of ~ [Aprit,

on some standard thermometers in the Surveyor General’s office, in our

experiments on the standard bar, we found the boiling point erroneous

two degrees: and Lieut. Burnes found his thermometer boil on the

Caspian Sea at 21303 which would make its surface 700 feet below the

level of the Mediterranean, whereas it is only suspected of half that

depression.

2. The metal or wooden scale should be cut off at some height above

the bulb, as otherwise it is very difficult to obtain the temperature cor-

rectly, oreven to attain full ebullition, on account of the rapid abstrac-

tion of heat by the scale, particularly if it be of metal.

8. The vessel in which the water is boiled should be of metal,

closed loosely with a cover or cork through which the thermometer

may pass, so that the bulb may remain a trifle above the surface of the

water. To those who cannot provide themselves with a boiler similar

to that of WotLasTon, a shaving pot will be found to answer sufficient-

ly well. The steam should issue freely through the vent for some time

before the reading is taken.

A word or two, now, on the mode of applying the following table

to the calculation of the height required. .

1. When the thermometer has been boiled at the foot and at the

summit of a mountain, nothing more is necessary than to deduct the

number in the column of feet opposite the boiling point below, from

the same of the boiling point above:—this gives an approximate

height, to be multiplied by the number opposite the mean temperature

of the air in Table II. for the correct altitude.

feet.

)

Example. Boiling point at upper station ........ 201.5 = 5600

Ditto at lower station ........ 211.3 = 350

Approximate height, 5250

Temperature of air, above, 35°

below, 50

Meani42,0 —"multiplier,.... sieeiss ecae= IeOee

Correct altitude, ........ft. 5365.5

2. When the boiling point at the upper station alone is observed, and

for the lower the level of the sea or the register of a distant barometer

is taken, then the barometrical reading had better be converted into

feet by the usual method of substracting its logarithm from 1,47712

(log. of 30 inches) and multiplying by .0006, as the differences in the co-

umn of “‘ barometer’’ vary more rapidly than thosein the ‘‘feet’’ column.

1833.] Mountains from the boiling point of water. 199

feet.

Example. Boiling point at upper StARIOMs. 4 os tase 185° = 14548

Barom. at Calcutta (at 32°) 29.75

Logar. diff. = 1.47712— 1.47349 = ,00363 x.0006 = 218

. Approximate height 14330

Temperature, upper station, ee 80 = multiplier ........ 1.100

Calcutta, .. 84

Correct altitude, ft. 15763

3. Assuming 30.00 inches as the average height of the barometer at

the level of the sea (whichis however too much), the altitude of the

upper station is at once obtained by inspection of table I, correcting

for temperature of the stratum of air traversed, by table II.

Tasie I.—To find the Barometrical Pressure and Elevation correspond-

ing to any observed temperature of boiling water between 214° and 180°.

a é Total Altitude

pone mt a dified from Tred-} ferences.(or fa-

Barometer (mo-| Logarithmic dif- from 30.00 i Value of each

Water gold’s formula.) | thoms). the level of ‘he Algtade: ok a ae

oO inches. era feet. feet.

213 30.59 _ ot

84,5 —507

212 30.00 84.9 509

211 29.42 , + Her +

85,2 511 51

210 28.85 85.5 1021 513

209 28.29 85.8 1534 515

208 Dhe 86.2 2049 517

206 26.64 87.1 3085 529

a3 Jae 87,5 3607 524

204 25.59 4131

87,8 526

203 25.08 88.1 4657 528

202 24.58 2 5185

88,5 531 53

201 24.08 88.9 5716 533

200 23.59 “5 6250 =

89,3 536

199 23.11 89,7 6786 538

198 22.64 ? 7324

90,1 541 54

197 22.17 7864 F

90,5 543

196 7A) | 8407

91,0 546

195 21.26 91.4 8953 548

= ote 91,8 9502 551 55

193 20.39 92.2 10053 553

192 19.96 z 10606 :

92,6 556

191 19.54 11161

93,0 558

ae x3 93,4 igo 560 56

189 18.72 93.8 12280 563

188 18.32 2 12843

94,2 565

187 17.93 13408 4

94,8 569 57

186 17.54 95,3 13977 572

185 17.16 95,9 14548 575

184 16.79 } 96.4 15124 578 58

183 16.42 96.9 15702 58]

182 16.06 97 4 16284 nad

181 15.70 oo 16868 Bey

130. | 15.35 , 17455 59

The fourth column gives the heights in feet,

200 Table for ascertaining Heights, &c. (Apri,

Taste II, of Multipliers to correct the approximated Height for the

Temperature of the Air.

Temp. of Air. Multiplier. Temp. of Air. | Multiplier. Temp. of Air. Multiplier.

Q & 6

32 1,000 52 1,042 72 1,083

38 1,002 53 1,044 73 1,085

34 1,004 54 1,046 74 1,087

35 1,006 55 1,048 75 1,089

36 1,008 56 1,050 76 1,091

37 1,010 57 1,052 77 1,094

38 1,012 58 1,054 iyi 1,096

39 1,015 59 1,056 79 1,098

40 1,017 60 1,058 80 1,190

41 1,019 61 1,060 81 1,102

42 1,021 62 1,062 82 1,104

43 1,023 63 1,064 83 1,106

44 1,025 64 1,066 84 1,108

45 1,027 65 1,069 85 1,110

46 1,029 66 1,071 86 1,112

47 1,031 67 1,073 87 1,114

48 1,033 68 1,075 88 1,116

49 1,035 69 1,077 99 1,118

50 1,037 70 1,079 90 1,121

51 1,039 7 Neer T, 088 91 Vase 28

Enter with the mean temperature of the stratum of air traversed ; and multiply

the approximate height by the number opposite, for the true altitude.

The table of Tensions (tab. I.) is still avowedly imperfect. We see that

the force of vapour for 210°, as found by observation, differs several hun-

dredths of an inch from the formula of either Datron, Urs, or Trep-

GOLD, although only two degrees distant from the fixed point 212°. Nor

can it surprise usto find it so, because its experimental determination, by

heating vapour inclosed within the thick glass of a barometer tube, is ne-

cessarily subject to much more uncertainty than the obvious measurement

of the boiling point, under a given pressure of the air. On the moun-

tains of India, at Simla, Sabatha, Chirra Piinji, and even Spité, where-

ver in short there may be observers in possession of good barometers,

the power exists of rendering an essential service to physics by fixing

so many points on the scale of tensions, in the latter more unexception-

able manner. For instance, an observer at Chirra, by carefully noting

the heat of his boiling tea-kettle every morning, and inserting it in his

termine that part of the thermometric scale corresponding to 25 and

26 inches of pressure. So with observations at SAgur, for 28 inches;

at the Nilgherries for 21 inches; and in the Himdlaya for even 15

inches : and I hope that this notice may have the effect of inducing this

new and interesting species of synthetical research, as a check upon the

scales framed on an opposite system in the laboratory.

1833.] Translation of a Tibetan Passport. 201.

IV.—Translation of a Tibetan Passport, dated A. D. 1688. By M.

Alex. Csoma de Kords.

[Read 24th April, 1833. ]

In Hyde’s Historia Religionis Veterum Persarum (2nd edition, page

552-3), there is an engraving of a passport granted by the governor

(or grand Lama) of Lassa, toan Armenian, of which, at the time of its

publication, no European was able to decypher the characters. The

learned author’s account of it is in the following words :

* Secundd damus Seripturam Tatarorum de Boutan* (al. Boutunt) citra Imaum

supra Indiam. Hujuslectio est 4 dextraf: et hocce ejusdem elegantissimum spe-

cimen est, id quod vulgd sonat, wn passport, seu salviconductis litere, A principe

urbis et provinciz de Boutan date, nuperis annis, Chogja Ouanni (i. e. Domino

Joanni) mercatori Armeno ibidem negotianti : et dictus princeps nomen suum (ut

vides) sigilli loco et forma majusculis et implicatis characteribus infra apposuit.

Talis sigilli impressio arabibus dicitur eae) taukia; Persis et Turcis |x togra,

unde, apud eos, talis majusculorum characterum scriptor, aut talis sigilli factor, vel

appositor seu principis subsignator, vocatur Togra@i. Hanc chartam nobiscum com-

municavit singularis amicus D. Joh. Evans S. T. D. nuperis annis ex India redux.”

The character of this curious manuscript proves to be the small

running-hand of the Tibetans, written and engraved with hardly a sin-

gle error. The following is a version of it in Roman characters,

which may be interesting to those who possess Hyde’s very learned

volume.

Chhos-Akhor dPal-gyi Lha-sa nas.—rGya-gar hAphags-yul bar-gyi Sa-lam-du

Akhod-pahi Ser, skya, drag, zhan, Lhahi mi-rje rdsong dsdod gnyer las-hdsin, Sog,

Bod, Hor, ABrog, ir-Achhihi Agrul Agrims, lam Aphrangs bsrung dkag, rgan mi

dmangs bya-va zhi drag-gis sné slébs dchas mthah-dag-la_ springs -pa.—Lha-sa

p’hun-ts’hogs /chang-lo-chan-gyi Agron-po mGo-dkar}{ It’hang-na-chan mi dzhi

zhon khal déchu-drug dchas nyé-khohi ts’hong gyur grubs-nas rang yul-du log

hgro-var stahur-gyi (? Lhahur-gyi) mts’hon gang spyihi par rog nyan-du gang

Agro-las sné gor hp’hrog dchom sogs gnod fgol-du log-par Agro-va nyan ma byed-

par phar phyir-du dde-var Agrims-chhug.—Zhes sa-hbrug zla ts’hes-la lugs gnyis

kyi mdun-sa Chhos-hkhor chhen-po dPal-gyi Lha-sa nas bris.

* Boutan, though applied by Europeans and Mohammudans to Tibet generally, is

properly the name of one of the southern provinces, called in Tibetan Liopato :

Lhassa is the capital of Tibet Proper or U-tsang. [See Journ. As. Soc. i. 123.]

+ This is of course a mistake : the Tibetan reads like the Sanskrit from the left

hand.

t The name mGo-dkar (properly white-headed, but rendered by me, above, by

Mohammedans) formerly was applied in Tibet both to the Muhammedans of India

and to the Europeans. But of Jate the Tibetans have commenced calling the Euro-

peans by the name of Philing-pa, and an European of British India by that of

rGye-Philing (-pa) or Indo-European.

DOD

202 Translation of a Tibetan Passport. [ApriL,

Bod-pahi zla hdres med-ching lo-thog mi-khal-gyi Akhri sgrub dés Agré byung

phyin Jdé-var Agrims chhug.

A square

seal.

Translation.

‘From the noble (city) Lhassa, the circumambulating race of

religion.—To those that are on the road as far as Arya Desa or India,

to clerical, laical, noble, ignoble lords (or masters) of men; to resi-

dents in forts, stewards, managers of affairs, to Mongols, Tibetans,

Turks, and to dwellers in tents in the desert; to ex-chis (or el-chis,

envoys, or public messengers, vakils or ambassadors, &c.) going to

and fro; to keepers and precluders of bye-ways (or short-cuts) ; to the

old (or head) men, collectively, charged to perform some business of

small or great importance; to all these is ordered (or is made known).

These four foreign (or travelling) persons residing at Lhassa, /chang-

lo-chan, Mohammedans of It’hang-na, after having exchanged their

merchandize, going back to their own country, having with them six-

teen loads on beasts; having nothing for their defence except some

Lahori-weapons,—do not hinder, rob, plunder, et cetera, them; but let

them go to and fro in peace.

Thus has been written from the noble Lhassa, the great religious

race, from the senate-house of both ecclesiastical and civil affairs, in

Sa-hbrug* (in the year of T. ch. 1688). On the day of the

month. (These dates are wanting).

Note.—There is no Tibetan joined with them. They have about a

man’s load of victuals wrapped up in a bundle; with that there has been

made an increase (of packages), but let them go in peace.”

A square

_ Seal. ee

Mm hort ch arnetic

——=—————

* Sa-hbrug (earth’s dragon) is the title of the second year of the Tibetan cycle of

sixty years: it corresponds with Vibhava of the Indian and Véi Dhin of the Chinese

cycle. The Tibetan reckoning commences from February, 1026: as therefore

Hyde’s first edition was printed in 1701, and he uses the expression “ nuperis annis

ex India redux,’ the MSS. has been referred to the twelfth cycle, then current,

which fixes its date to the year 1688.

Colonel Warren in the Kala Sankalita (Chron. tab. xxi.) has given a full de-

scription of the Indian system ;—a ‘catalogue of the Tibetan cycle, which is two-

fold, one following the Sanskrit, the other following the Chinese system, will be

published in the Tibetan Dictionary now preparing for the press.

1833.] Asiatic Society. 2038

V.—Proceedings of the Asiatic Society.

Wednesday Evening, 24th April, 1833.

The Honorable Sir Edward Ryan, President, in the Chair.

The minutes of the last meeting were read.

Mr. B. H. Hodgson, Resident at the Nipalese Court, the Rev. Josiah

Bateman, and Mr. D. Macfarlan, were elected Members.

Read a letter from the Secretary to the Right Hon’ble Sir R. W. Horton,

Governor of Ceylon,expressing acknowledgments for his Excellency’s election

as an Honorary Member, and presenting a copy of the Ceylon Almanac for

1833, containing much unpublished information on the history of Ceylon.

Read a letter from the President of the Central Committee of the Geo-

graphical Society of Paris, acknowledging receipt of the 6, 7, 8, 12, 13, 14,

15, and 16 volumes of the Researches.

Read a letter from J. Forshall, Esq. Secretary to the British Museum,

acknowledging the receipt of the Journal As. Soc. 1832.

Read a letter from Col. Wm. Casement, Secretary to Government, Mili-

tary Department, forwarding on the part of the Madras Government :

“* Results of the Astronomical Observations made at the Madras Observatory,

yol. 1st, 1831, by T. G. Taylor, Esq. H. C. Astronomer.”

The following books were presented by the Venerable Archdeacon Corrie,

on the part of the Rev. Joseph Wolff.

1. Armenian Calendar, printed at Constantinople in the Armenian Era 1151 or

A. D. 1702.

Mr. J. Avdall pointed out the following historical memorandum written on the

cover of this work in Armenian, probably at Cabul.

‘In the year 1824, on the 23rd July, Habib Ullah Khan was conquered by Dost

Mohammed Khan.”’

2. Devotional Meditations, written by St. Gregory Narekenses, in the beginning

of the 11th century, and published at Constantinople in 1185, Armenian Era, or

A. D. 1736.

3. Tawdrikh Khan Jahdni o Makhzani Afghané, Ist vol.

4, Tarikh Akberi.

5. Shojrawalosat Afghani o Faris.

6. Qoran Sherif.

The following books were presented by Monsieur Murelatour, their author.

1. Premier fruit des trois jours de Gloire, Paris 1831.

2. Le Siege D’Eden Allegorie Orientale, Paris 1827.

3. Triomphe de L’Amour sur le Fanatisme et le Materialisme, Paris 1828,

The following book was presented by the author.

Rasselas, translated into Bengalee, by Maha Raja Kalikishen Bahadur.

Mr. Csoma de Kérés presented a Catalogue of the Tibetan Books in the

Society’s Library, with a recommendation that the numerous duplicates and

extra copies of several of them should be presented to learned Societies in

Europe”.

* As soon as we are in possession of Tibetan type, we shall give insertion to this valuable catalogue-

—Ep.

pd 2

204 Asiatic Society. [ApRIL,

Antiquities.

Read a letter from W. Storm, Esq. presenting for deposit in the cabinet,

the three coins exhibited to the Society on the 5th September, 1832.

These coins were found in estate No. 100 (No. 74 of Captain Prinsep’s Soon-

durbun Map), west of the ruins of Bishenpur, on the Ishamati or Jabuna river, near

an old temple called Met Bure.

» The Secretary noticed asimple method employed by the natives in taking off fac-

similes of coins on paper : they daub a little printer’s or pakka ink on the projecting

parts of the coin, and then transfer it by pressure on to the fleshy part of the thumb

—thence a faithful representation is impressed upon the paper, previously wetted,

which has the advantage of not being reversed.

Four silver coins found at Agra, 1 of Akber, 2 of Jehangir, and 1 of

Alamgir Il—presented by Capt. J. T. Boileau, Engineers.

Literary.

Translation of a Tibetan Passport, engraved in Hyde’s Religio Persarum.

By M. A. Csoma de KGrés,

[This will be found in the present number, p. 201.]

Selections from Mr. Csoma’s translations from the dStan-hgyur were also

read—among them, the letter of Ratnavaut, a young Princess of Ceylon,

to Suaxya, and the reply of the sage. This letter is generally known in

Tibet, and is introduced in every collection of epistolary forms.

[The want of Tibetan type obliges us to defer the insertion of this curious mor-

ceau, which however is but a literal translation from the Sanskrit.]

Physical.

A gigantic specimen of Fossil Ammonite, from the Carboniferous Lime-

stone of Swansea, was presented by Lieut. J. A. Crommelin, Engineers.

Read a letter from Lieut. J. T. Smith, Masulipatam, forwarding the Geo-

logical specimens of the late Dr. Voysey, alluded to at the last meeting ;

also the following mentioned in Dr. Malcolmson’s letter.

1. Fragment of the Meteorolite, which fell in the Cadapah district 2nd

January, 1831*.

2. Fossil Shell and Bone, noticed at the meeting of the 20th February.

3. Limestone from Warapilly, which seems well adapted for Lithogra-

phic purposes.

4. Fragment of Bone, from a Cave in the neighbourhood of Hyderabad,

explored by Dr. Malcolmson, who gives the following description of it.

“‘Some interesting facts occurred to me the other morning in a ride to a large

mass of granite rock near this, whichis rent into fissures of great depth, forming

dens inhabited by hyznas and chitas, extending through the bottom of the little

Fil to unknown depths. Having entered one of the rents, I was struck with the

masses of fallen rock on each side being covered with stalagmite formed from the

water running down from the sides of the rent 40 feet above, and still more by observ-

ing that the sides of the narrow passage bore a fine polish, which my companion im-

mediately exclaimed, must be caused by the animals passing out of a cave at the end

of the fissure he had beenexamining. I had the same thing in view, and was at

the time observing how far it could be caused by the water. In tracing the same

appearance in other places, it was only observed where the animals would necessa-

* Vide GLEANINGS, ili. 389.

1833.] Asiatic Society. 205

rily pass, and, when the stones projected by a sharp point into the path, the angles

only were polished. The den was low, and numerous bones lay scattered in the

outer parts into which I crawled: the foot marks of the animals were dis-

tinct and fresh. Most of the bones were much broken, and the dung of the

hyenas near the place were full of large pieces of ribs, unbroken tarsal bones, &c.

During the search, I was astonished at the vast numbers of rats’ heads and

bones found in the place in little heaps, evidently out of reach of the hyznas,

and often onthe top of insulated blocks ; these were below the fissures open at

the top, and the dung of hawks readily suggested that they were dropped by

these birds, which was confirmed bya large feather of one found with the bones.

Some of the bones were surrounded with the fur of the animal, and had been only

recently voided; and what was remarkable, the upper and lower jaw were not sepa-

rated, but the flesh beautifully cleaned away by the digestive process ; the other bones

were entire, although disunited. In the larger skulls, the back part had been

broken, and in one only, crushed. In a few minutes, I removed a plate full of

skulls and other bones, amongst which are three species of mus, squirrel, sorex, bats,

and birds. Had the rock been of lime @#t stone, fossil animal remains would have

been found. The curious confirmation of Buckland’s supposition regarding the

polished blocks in the caves appears to me very interesting, as his views stood

much in need of illustration from the habits of living species.”’

Specimens of Fossil Shells from Jabulptr—presented by Dr. Spilsbury.

“ The locality of the fossil shells, which I have at length the pleasure to send to

the Society, lies about 18 or 20 miles east of Jabalpur. The first three miles cross a

sandy plain, which abruptly terminates at a small rivulet ; when the soil changes

to the black alluvial one of the valley. At six miles cross the Gour river, a rough

ghat of trap: the road winds on between trap hills varying from 50 to 300 feet

high. I encamped at Suleya on the same river (here 200 feet broad) : the bed in-

tersected with veins of heliotrope, quartz, massive and crystallized. The road then

led through an undulating country, with irregular masses of trap, and for less than

a mile beyond, masses of the accompanying shell breecia, from a single shell to large

blocks of two feet, extend, mixed with the trap, over a space about 300 feet square.

The spot had been under fillee cultivation. There was no nd/d or ravine near,

whence I could judge of the nature of the substrata, but at no great distance I could

see the trap appearing precisely as in the bed of the river. JI asked the lime-burner

how he came to discover them ? His account was, that he isin the habit of taking

small quantities of lime to the neighbouring villages for sale, and in his travels has

an eye to the geological features of the country as far as limestone is concerned :—

passing this field some nine or ten months ago he was struck with the very differ-

ent appearance and color of the stones,—and hence the discovery of these fossil

shells.’’

The matrix of these shells appears to be indurated clay, and the forms of the

shells are in most cases replaced with silicious matter ; they resemble, as Dr. Spils-

bury suggests, the buccinum and other shells in the Gawelgir range of hills de-

scribed by Voysey, (GLEANINGS, vol. i. p. 356*.)

Some specimens of Minerals from Manipur, Kachar, Kabi, and Assam,

including fossil wood from the Ningti river—presented by Captain R. B.

Pemberton.

* We hope ere long to present our readers with drawings of these shells.—Eb.

206 Miscellaneous. [ApRIL,

V1I.—WMiscellaneous.

1.—Inp1an MetTEoROLOGY.

1.— Meteorological Register kept at Bijnore, Workers Moradabad,) by

E. J. Ravenshaw, Esq,

AT 10 a.m. At 4p. M.

Remarks.

July 21 28,86 | 86 | 28,77 | 87 Rain in the morning.

22 ne os 28,75 87 Fair all day.

23 | 2885 | 88 | 28,75 | 90 Ditto, very cloudy at sunset.

24 | 28,83 | 82 | 28,75; 83 Rain in the morning and more or less all day.

25 | 28,90 | 85 | 28,75 | 85 Fair all day.

26 | 28,83 | 83 | 28,75 | 86 Rain in the morning ; fair after 11 o’clock.

27 28,78 85 28,74 84 Wind and rain at noon.

28 | 28,76 | 86 | 28,74] 37 High wind at 10 ; cloudy; all day rain.

29 | 28,75 | 86 | 28,73! 88 Cloudy ; all day rain.

30 28,79 | 86 28,73 | 88 Cloudy ; all day rain.

31 | 28.76 | 87 | 2874 | 87 Ditto.

Aug. 1 28,84 83 28,74 84 Rain ; in morning clear.

2 | 28,79 | 85 | 28,74 | 87 Fair all day.

3 2878 85 28,75 88 Slight rain at 10; clear afterwards.

4 | 28,86 | 84 | 28,80 | 85 Clear at 10; rain morning.

5 28,86 85 28,76 84 Heavy rain at 1 P. M.

6 } 2883 | 85 | 28,76! 85 Clear all day till 4 v. a. slight rain.

7 | 2882} 84 | 28,74 | 85 Cloudy.

8 | 28,90 | 82 | 28,83 | 843 | Thunder storm and very heavy rain in the

morning ; clear after 10 a. mM.

9 | 2895 | 823 | 28,85 843 | Fair all day, with clouds.

10 | 28,96 | 833 | 28,85 | 864 | Fair all day, ditto.

ll 28,92 842 | 28,83 86 Ditto.

12 | 28,85 | 834 | 28,75 | 85 Ditto.

13 | 28,80 | 824 | 28,80 | 843 | Light rain in the morning; fair all day.

14 | 2886 | 813 | 28,80 | 84 | Fair all day, with clouds.

15 ee .. | 28,80 | 83 Ditto.

16 28,90 824 | 28,80 843 Ditto.

17 | 2886 | 843 | 28,80 | 87° | Ditto.

18 | 28.88 4 ae oe Very cloudy in afternoon.

19 BO . | 28,76 | 864 | Fair, with clouds and distant clouds.

20 | 28,85 } 82 | 28,76 844 Fair, with clouds.

21 | 28,93 | 81 | 28,84 | 81 Heavy rain at night, and in morning.

22 | 28,90 | 812 | 28,80 84 Fair, with clouds.

23 28,86 84 25,77 86 Ditto.

24 28,90 82 28,86 $2 Ditto ; west wind.

26 28,80 83 28,76 86 Ditto.

27 1 28,90 | 82 | 28,87 | 80 Rain at night and afternoon.

28 | 28,96 | 804 | 28,88 | 83 Rain in morning ; fair afternoon.

29 28,94 $2 28,84 86 Fair.

30 | 28,89 | 823 | 28,80 | 86 Strong westerly wind ; fair.

31 | 28,86 | 82 56 ee | Ditto.

Sept-1 | 28,92 | 83 | 28,84 | 86 Ditto.

2 28,97 85 28,87 87 | Ditto.

3 | 28,95 86 | 28,92 87 Wind and rain in the afternoon.

4 28,99 85 28,89 87 Fair.

5 | 28,93 | 85 | 28,85 | 87 Ditto.

6 | 28,92 | 84 | 28,83 | 86 Ditto.

7 ac aot 1/28 780 Ss Ditto.

8 28,90 83 28,82 84 | Ditto.

9 28,90 83 28,80 86 Ditto.

10 28,91 83 28,84 | 86 Ditto.

1 ef .. | 2890 | 843 | Ditto.

12 | 2809uls B50 a | er,

13 | 29,00 | 834 | 28,93 | 86 | Ditto.

1833.] ‘Miscellaneous. 207

Meteorological Register kept at Bijnore, (Northern Moradabad,) by E. J. Raven-

shaw, Esq. (continued.)

At 10a. ™. At 4p.M.

= ae “Ban | Ther. = Remarks.

ar. | er. ar. ner.

Sept.l4 | 29,00 : 83 28,95 | 87 Strong west wind in the morning.

15 | 29,03 | 83 | 28,97 |} 87 Ditto west wind ; fair.

16 |; 29,04 | 80 | 28,96 | 87 Ditto ; ditto; cloud of locusts.

17 | 28,96 833 | 28,88 87 Ditto.

18 28,96 84 28,90 86 Fair.

19 29,07 84 29,03 86 Ditto.

a aul 2 29,05 | 87 Bitte.

50: * oe ee itto.

23 29,10 82 29,00 84

24 | 29,10 792 | 29,00 82

25 ; 29,10 | 80 ! 29,00 | 82 Rain about 1 Pp. M.; cloudy evening

26 | 2910 | 79 | 2904! 82 | Fair.

eae ee

: i 29.10 | 83 itto.

29 | 29,23 803 | 29,15 | 83 Ditto.

30 | 2918} 81 we ce

Oct. 1 29.16 82 | 29,10 814 Cloudy with rain.

2 29,15 79 29,9 82 | Clouds,

3 |2916| 81 | 299 | 84 | Fair.

4 | 29,20] 80 | 299 | 83 | Ditto.

: | 29,21 79 29,10 | 84 Ditto.

,20'| 8 29.6 83 itto.

7 29,10 82 28,98 84 Ditto.

8 | 29,00 | 79 | 28,97 | 85 | Ditto ; high wind, w.

ia a Fd | a | 85 Pitta; shite.

10 7 29,0 84 itto ; ditto.

1] 29,10 76 29,03 82 Ditto.

12 | 29.15} 77 ay sto High easterly wind.

13 | 29,23 | 77 | 29,17 | 81 Fair ; no wind.

14 | 29,23 | 71 | 29,19 | 80 Ditto.

15- | 29,25 76 29 20 803 Ditto.

16 | 29,30 | 75 | 29,20 | 80 | Ditto; W. breeze.

NZ, 29,34 733 | 29,23 78

18 29,30 74 29,20 78

19 | 29,27 72 ie ate

20 29,25 72 | Sc A

a1 | 2996] 73 | 2919! 71

22 | 29,24) 713 | 29,18 | 78

a ae 73 ‘oa | Be |

; 72 ae sia

ey i. -\.. | 2912)

26 | 29,24 | 72 = meee |

bis ae i 71

Zs eet 743 | 29,24 | a5

2 29,36 75 aie ats

30 | 2935] 74 | ie

31 29,24 73 : | - Clouds in the evening.

Noy. 1 | 29,24) 74 : ote High easterly wind ; clouds.

2 | 29.33 | 74 | 0915 | 77 | Ditto,

3 29,22 75 29,15 77 itto.

4 29,24 73 | aoe Be | Ditto.

5 ae at 29,2 75

6 | 29,34 | rif 50'30 | 7a" |

10 ry ats 29,20 | 75 | Rain in the evening.

12 29,37 70 - .

26 OO Sa 68 -

27 29.30 68 ° we

29 | 29.32] 69 a4 | we Cloudy ; wind easterly ; light rain.

30 | 2933 | 70 rt]

N. B. Fever and ague prevalent from the beginning of September to end of October.

208

Miscellaneous.

2.—Meteorological Register kept at Mozufferpir, Tirhoot, by T. Dashwood, Esq.

Ther.

: Barometer. doors. of doors.

=) 93a.M.|43P.M.|934.M|43PmM] Mx. | Min

Dec.

1 |29, 69 78,5 160

2| ,71|29,67] 69 | 73 |79 |57

3 | ,74| 67] 67 | 71 |78 {60

4| (80) ,68| 68 | 71 175 {59

5 | (78| ,70| 67 | 70 |73,5 |57

6 73 | 68 [73 [57

7 | ,78| ,69| 66 | 68 |74 |58

8 | ,72! ,67; 66 | 68 |74 [59

9| (77| 70] 66 | 69 |75 {61

10 | ,77| ,69| 66 | 67 {71,5161

11 | (77| .70| 66 | 66 |67,5|56

12! (75| 66] 64 | 65 {67,5 (53

13 | (72) ,70| 62 | 62 |66 147

14 | 575] ,66| 61 | 63 |67 153

15 | ,71) ,65| 61 | 64 |70 [53

16! °76| .66| 60 | 66 |72,5155

17 | ,80| 570! 63 | 65 173.5155

18 | ,78] ,67| 62 | 65 |70 |52

19 | 68) 64] 61 | 63 |68 [50

20 | .76| ,66, 60 | 63 \68 {47

21 | (73; .65| 59 | 62 '67 149

22 | .70| .61] 60 | 63 |68 [52

23 | 61} 99) 60 | 63 |70 |49

24! (66| ,60| 60 ! 63 |71 153

25 | ,67| ,66! 60 | 64 |73 !49

26 | 70! ,66| 59 | 62 166 |45

27 | ,76| .63| 57 | 61 |66 |48

28 | ,79| 470; 58; 61 |67 147

29 | ,77| 69] 58 | 61 67,5 |45.5

30 | ,79| 272) 57 | 60 |65 |42

31; ,87| .78] 54 | 59 (62 |4]

Jan. | |

1 {29,96 /29,86'55 157 1|62,5/43

2| ,92| 80155 [58 |64 |45

3 | (87| 74155 158 |66,5|50

4| (86| 573156 |60 |66,5|48

5 | ,86| .89/56 !60 {71 {49

s | ,91) .83157 162 |72 [53

7} ,90| .77\60 |63 |72 |53

8 | .79| 71,60 |61 |70 {49

9} ,81} .71\60 1615169 '52

10 | ,85| --/59,5].. |70 |54

11 | ,80; .69\61 |65 {71 {54

12! 66} ,60/61 |65 !73 [53

13 | ,70| ,60161 165 |73 |55

14 | ,68} ,60\62 |65 |73 [51

15 | ,79| ,70\60 {62 |68 [51

16 | 66} .60'60 |63 |72 [54

17 | 572] ,61\60 |62 167 149

18 | 73] .6659 |63 |70 {50

19 | ,78| .74'60 |62 |68 {48

20 | 5831 .77|59 |61 |68 |47

21 | ,88| ,8058 |61 167 {47

22 | (87| ,78|58 |61 |68 (48

23 | (86! ,77158 |61 |69 {48

24 | (90! ,80/59 161 |69,5|48

25 | (90| ,80157 162 170 153

26-1 590; ,80\60 |63 |71 [53

97 89 77\60 |63 |71 '54

28 | ,90! .78'60 |64 /71,5 |51,5

29} .90| 8061 '64 173 |55

30 | 794] {70/59 ies 74,5 |56

31 | ,77' ,67°64 |67,5|76 |58

in |Ther, out

Wind.

Pemannsaesegemaaehearsehenness SASS SApSS SSR SON NSAMIE RAS ARTE |

‘| Cloudy all d

Weather.

Clear, but foggy morning.

Clear, ditto.

Clear ; thick fogs.

Ciear, but drizzling rain in fhe morning.

Clear all day.

Clear.

Clear,with light clouds in the afternoon.

Fair, with light floating clouds.

Light floating clouds all day.

ay.

Rainy morning, fog ; but clear evening.

Thick fog ; clear evening,with high wind

Clear, with morning fog.

Fog, and clear day.

Fog, but fine day.

Clear.

Clear, but morning fog.

Clear.

Clear,

Clear.

Clear ; fine frosty.

Clear ; frosty.

Clear ; light clouds.

Rainy morning, and cloudy afternoon.

Fine, with tight clouds.

Fog, and clear day.

Fog, and clear day, and west wind.

Clear.

Fine, with light clouds.

Clear, and strong west wind.

Rain, and cloudy.

Clear, and strong wind.

Light clouds all day.

Clear.

Clear, and east wind in afternoon.

Slight fog, and light cloudy afternoon.

Clear, with flying clouds.

Clear.

Clear, and N. wind in afternoon..

Foggy morning, and wind in afternoon.

Be and hazyall day,and wind afternoon.

ear.

1833. ] Miscellaneous. 209

Meteorological Register kept at Mozufferpir, Tirhoot, by T. Dashwood, Esq. 1833.

ss a

—_—_——., ee

Ther. in|Ther. out

Barometer.! doors. fof doors.

= —|———- | —-—_} Wind. Weather.

A | og | 43 | 92 | 43 .

A.M |P.M. |A. M.\P. M. Mx. | Min.

Feb. |

1 |29,80)29,70163 |67 |75 155 E. Rainy morning, but clear day.

2] 79; 70/63 69 79 |58 | EB. Clear.

3 | .80) (68164 '68 {74 |59 | E. Cloudy all day and rain in the night.

4 88) ,71/64 |66 |74 |58 | S. W.| Cloudy, a rainy morning, fair afternoon.

5 567| 61/63 (66 173 [58 E. Thick fog, and clear and W. wind in

6 360} ,60/64 |66.5'71,5 151 W. Thick fog, and clear day. [afternoon

7 | 63) 59/62 [68 |70,5/53 | W. | Clear.

8 | 67) 59162 |67 {74 |53 | W. | Clear, and strong wind.

9; 66) 59/63 |66 |74 |53 | W. | Clear,and afternoon cloudy & one show-

10 ,60| ,58162,5)67 |73 156 W. | Clear. [er of rain.

1] 60! 58/64 165 |70 {55 W. | Hazy and cloudy all day.

12 369 064 68 |75,5 |54 W. | Clear with strong wind.

13 70) ,60163 {69 |77 152.5) W. Clear with violent W. wind.

14 | 470) ,61|/63 |67 |74,5|52 | W. | Clear with violent W. wind.

15 .74| 61/63 166 |72 ,51,5, W. | Clear.

16 | 72) ,63|62 166 |72.5150,5| W. | Clear. [of rain at night.

17 63 67 |76 |52 | E. Hazy morning and clear day,and shower

18 | 78| 566/65 |70 |73 |53,5| E. | Strong wind and clear day.

19 | ,84| 73,62 |68 |76 [5 W. ,; Fair.

20! ,82! .75165 |68 |77 '53 B. Clear morning and cloudy day.

21 76| 66/64 |68 {77,5 |55 W. | Clear morning and cloudy afternoon and

22 | .74| 63/65 |69 {78 |60 | W. | Clear. [wind inclining to S. W.

23 | ,67| ,60\67 |71 1|80,5/55 | Ww. | Clear.

24 | 69! .61'66 {71 179 '56 | W. | Clear.

25 | ,75| .66/66 |70 |79 |56 | W. | Clear.

26 | ,71) ,60)67 |73 {81 |58 | W. | Clear, and strong wind.

27 | ,68| ,60/67 2 81 {54 | W. | Clear, and strong wind.

28 | 473! ,60!66,5 |72 |80,5 157 W. | Clear.

2.—InNDIAN ARTS AND MANUFACTURES.

Glazed Pottery.

In an essay, published in the Transactions of the Society of Arts, by Mr. A. Aikin,

occur the following speculations on the origin of the art of glazing earthen-ware,

which he traces to China, and allows no higher a period of antiquity than the thirteenth

century. That the art however was known inearly ages to the Egyptians is proved

by the frequent discovery of porcelain figures, enamelled or glazed in various colors,

and it seems curious that this circumstance should not have been noticed by the au-

thor. Glazed tiles were certainly much used in ornamenting tombs and mosques by

the Mohammedan conquerors of India, as most of our readers have had oppor-

tunities of seeing, in the Upper Provinces, and it would be worth while, in illustration

of Mr. Aikin’s remarks, to ascertain the age of the most conspicuous dargdhs of

this nature.

*‘ The ancient Greeks appear to have been wholly unacquainted with the art of

covering earthen-ware with a vitreous glaze ; at least neither Pliny nor other authors

say any thing on the subject, nor am I aware that any specimens of glazed ancient

Greek or Roman pottery exist. For heating water and other liquids in, metallic

vessels were generally employed: and for cold liquids, the natural porousness of

the ware was corrected by a varnish of wax or resin, which may be seen on all the

so-called Etruscan vases,

210 Miscellaneous. - (Apri,

“ Vitreous glazes, whether employed simply for closing the pores of baked clay,

and thus rendering it impermeable to water, or with the further intention of con-

cealing the coarseness and bad colour of the body by a covering of enamel, appear

to have originated in China; for the earliest European travellers in that country

make mention of temples covered and encrusted by varnished tiles of various

colours.

“ The invasion and conquest of China by Zencuts Kuan, in 1312, was probably

the event that made known to the rest of Asia and to Europe the art of glazing

earthen-ware. The empire of ZENGurs extended from China across the Steppes or

pastoral regions of Asia to the Caucasus, between the Black Sea and the Caspian,

and his son Ocrar pushed through Russia into Poland and the confines of Ger-

many. They likewise, in their victorious progress, held hostile or friendly inter-

course with many of the Mohammedan sovereigns who possessed the countries to

the south and west of them; and the whole Mohammedan world, though broken

into independent, and frequently conflicting states, was nevertheless pressed into

close union by the crusades, which had hardly yet subsided, and by the now imminent

danger of Tartar conquest. The Moslems were also at this time not only a war-

like but an active, ingenious, splendid, andinquisitive people, possessing alanguage,

the Arabic, in a great measure common to all who professed the faith of Moham-

med. The similarity of their architecture, in the wide extent of country from the

Ganges to Gibraltar, shews not only a coincidence of feeling but a community of

intercourse. It appears therefore to me by no means improbable, that an invention,

which was largely and generally applied to decorative purposes in Mohammedan

architecture, should have travelled in a few years from the confines of China to

Spain.

* The palace of the Moorish kings at Granada, called Alhambra, was built in 1280,

and many of the rooms are represented as ornamented by lacquered tiles. The

tomb of SutTAN ManomMeEpD Kuopa-BENDEH, at Sultdnieh, in Persia, was also

built in the thirteenth century: and of this the cupola and minarets are still in

many parts covered with a green lacquered tile, and the great architrave is formed

of a dark-blue one.

““Tn 1475 was built the painted masjid in the now ruined city of Gaur, in India:

it derived its name from the profusion of glazed tiles with which it was ornament-

ed ; specimens of which are preserved in the East-India Museum.

“The mother of SHam Axppas, about 1550, built a caravanserai at Mayar, near

Isfahan, the front gate of which is inlaid with green tiles: and at present the domes

of the mosques of that city are covered with green and blue tiles.

** Marco Poto, the Venetian, visited in 1270 the Court of Kusiar Kaan, the

grandson of ZenGuis, and remained in the employ of that sovereign for several

years ; at the same time, merchants from many of the commercial cities of Italy

were travelling for the purpose of trade, in most of the countries between Syria and

India. By some of these the art of covering baked earthen-ware with an opaque

vitreous glaze might be imported into Italy ; and Florence and its territory soon

became celebrated for the fine works executed on plates of this ware, which met

with a ready sale throughout Europe. The name given in France to these works

was faience, supposed to have been derived from Faenza, a village near Florence, or

perhaps the word is a mere corruption of Firenze, the Italian name of that city,

TIRABOSCHI mentions one “ Luca pELLA Rozsta, a Florentine, born in 1388,

1833,] Miscellaneous. ‘ 21%

who appears to have been the first who made figures of terra cotta and covered

them with a varnish, to preserve them from the injuries of time and weather. He

also adorned flat surfaces of terra cotta with various colours, and painted figures

on them, by which he rendered himself so famous that he received orders for them

from all parts of Europe.”

However early the introduction of the art of glazing tiles in India may have

been, it is certain that as regards vessels for holding liquors, it was little used, or at

least that it has since become obsolete. Enamelling with various glazes on metal

is still practised with great success up the country, but to common cheap pottery

this branch of the art would be inapplicable. We have seen in Dr. Wisr’s De-

scription of the Hooghly Ice Manufacture (vol. ii. page 80), that the cheap earthen

dishes are only rendered impervious to water by smearing their interior with grease,

or wax, as was customary in Spain and Italy, in olden times, and is even so in the pre-

sent day. The clay of which the common earthen-ware is made in Bengal is of so

fusible a nature that it would not stand the heat necessary for the application of

what is called stone-glaze, made by the vapours of salt at an intense heat, and

metallic glazes are too expensive for so cheap a commodity ; still there are many

cases in which it is most desirable to teach the native potters how to perform this

useful process, and we therefore extract Mr. Aikin’s short account of the various

methods of glazing now in use in England. The Khari-mattt or porcelain clay of

the Rajmahl and Vindya hills has been applied to the manufacture of stone-ware

bottles for soda-water, by Dr. J. Jeffreys, at Farakhdbad, with perfect success ; and

this, being infusible, is capable of receiving the salt glaze, as described below, of

the Vauxhall manufacture.

“* T shall now proceed to give a brief account of the manufacture of the common

red pottery ware as practised in the neighbourhood of London, and in various

other parts of the kingdom; for the principal particulars of which, as well as for

the specimens in illustration of it, lam indebted to Mr. Jones, of Lambeth. The

material is a yellowish brown clay, from Deptford, there being no other near

London on which the glaze will spread with the equality that is required. In ge-

neral the clay is used without any addition; but such parcels as are too fat or

tenacious are brought to a proper state by mixture withloam. The clay is watered

and turned, but not being an alluvial clay, contains no stones, and therefore, does

not require to be washed over. It is finally passed through the pug-mill in order

to temper it. The required form of a pot or pan, or any other article, is given to

it on the wheel, and the ware is dried under coyer till it has acquired a consider-

able solidity. The glaze is then put on in the state of cream, by means of a brush,

care being taken to cover the whole surface as evenly as possible: for small articles

such as pipkins, that are glazed only internally, a little of the cream is poured in

and then poured out again, a sufficient quantity of the glaze adhering to the sur-

face of the ware.

‘“¢ The materialsof the glaze are galena, commonly called potter’s lead-ore, ground

to an impalpable powder, and then mixed with clay diffused in water, technically

called slip. This glaze is transparent, and of a pale yellow colour, and consequent-

ly shews through it the colour of the ware ; if a black opaque glaze is required, one

part of common manganese is added to nine parts of galena. After the glaze is

laid on, the ware is again dried, and is then piled in the kiln in order to be burnt or

fired. For the first twenty-four hours a very low heat is applied, in order to drive

EE 2

212 Miscellaneous. [Aprit,

all the moisture out of the ware; it is then exposed for twenty-four hours more to

a heat as high as it can bear without fusion, which has the effect of baking the

clay, of driving off the sulphur from the lead-ore, and of causing the oxide of lead

to form a frit or imperfect glass with the clay, the other ingredient of the glaze.

The fire is now fed with bavin-wood instead of coal, by which the heat is increased,

the furnace is filled with flame, and the frit being converted into a perfect glass,

flows uniformly over the surface of the ware. The fire is then allowed to go out,

and when the furnace has become cool, the contents are removed. If the air has

been still during the burning, and due care has been observed, the articles in every

part of the kiln will be properly baked; but a high wind always renders the heat

very unequal, so that the ware in the windward part of the kiln will not be baked

enough, while that in the leeward part will be over-burnt and run to a slag.

“ All articles of earthen-ware which after being baked are opaque, are more or less

porous ; and if a heat somewhat approaching to their point of fusion, so as to ren-

der them slightly translucent, cannot safely be applied, it is evident that such ware

is not very proper for vessels employed in cookery, and for several other purposes,

from the difficulty of keeping them clean, and from their liability to crack when set

on the fire in a dampstate. In England, we endeavour to obviate this imperfection

by means of a thick vitreous glaze; but as the ware itself is very fusible, the glaze

must be still more so; and as oxide of lead forms the cheapest and most fusible

glaze, this accordingly is the material universally employed by us. But there is a

very serious objection to the use of this glaze, namely, that it is soluble in vinegar,

in the juice of most fruits, especially when hot, and also in boiling fat; the conse-

quence of which is, that the food of the lower classes, by whom alone cooking

vessels of glazed red-ware are employed, is often contaminated with lead, so as seri-

ously to impair their health by occasioning colics, and the other usual effects of lead

poison. Possibly borax, which is now a cheap article and is very fusible, might be

made to supersede the use of lead ; if not, the only way of avoiding this very seri-

ous hazard to health, will be the use of more refractory clay, which, consequently,

would allow the employment of a less fusible glaze free from lead. This has been

done by Mr. Meigh, a potter in Staffordshire, to whom the Society awarded a me-

dal for his invention ; the ware produced by him is far superior to that in common

use, and well deserves the encouragement of the public. A species of ware, some-

what superior to our common red-ware, is made at Lambeth, of Maidstone clay,

being of a paler colour and a more compact texture than the latter, but does not

take a uniform covering by the common glaze for red-ware ; it is therefore chiefly

used for purposes which admit its employment in an unglazed state, or in situations

where the imperfection of the glaze is not perceived, as in ornamented chimney-pots,

gas-consumers, &c.

‘* A more perfect, and indeed very excellent species of earthen-ware, is that called

stone-ware, originally introduced from Holland, and now made in several parts of

the kingdom, and especially at Lambeth. To one of the principal manufacturers of

this ware, Mr. Wisker, I am indebted for the following particulars :

‘‘ The materials are, pipe-clay from Dorsetshire and Devonshire, calcined and

ground flint from Staffordshire, and sand from Woolwich and Charlton.

** The clay is pulverized and sifted dry, andis either used alone, when an article of

great compactness is required, as soda-water bottles, or is mixed with sand to

diminish its contraction in the fire. For retorts and other large vessels, instead of

sand, the refuse stone- ware, ground to a fine powder, is used. For the finer arti-

1833.] Miscellaneous. 213

cles, such as figured jugs, ground flint is employed in place of sand. The com-

position is brought by the addition of water, to the state of mortar, and is then

tempered in the pug-mill. All round articles are made on the horizontal wheel ;

and those of great size, 7. e. of a greater capacity than two gallons, are at first of

extraordinary thickness below to support the upper part ; when they come off the

wheel they are dried, and then put on the wheel again, and shaved down to a pro-

per thickness. For oval, and other figures not circular, as pans for salting hams

in, the clay is formed in a mould to the required shape. ‘The drying, especially of

large articles, must be very carefully performed; and as, from custom, the tops or

bottoms of jars and various other vessels made of this ware, are required to be of

a deeper brown than the natural colour of the materials, they are dipped in a mix-

ture of red-ochre and clay slip. When perfectly dry they are piled in the furnace,

bits of well-sanded clay being put between each piece to prevent them from adher-

ing. A slow fire is kept up for twelve to twenty-four hours, according to the

thickness of the ware, capable of bringing it just to a low red heat. The fire is

then to be raised till the flame and the ware are of the same colour, and is so to

be continued for several hours. At this time the glaze is added, which is done

by pouring down the holes in the top of the kiln, twenty or thirty in number,

ladlesful of common salt. This, being volatilized by the intense heat of the inte-

rior, attaches itself to the outer surface of the ware: here itis decomposed, the

muriatic acid flying off, and the soda remaining behind in union with the earth,

with which it forms a very thin, but, on the whole, a perfect glaze ; at least quite

sufficient, with the compactness of the ware, to render it completely proof against

the percolation, not only of water, but of the strongest acids. So perfect, indeed,

is the texture of the best ware now made, that it has of late been very largely used

in the construction of distillatory vessels for manufacturing chemists, instead of

green glass, as being more durable and also cheaper. Pickling jars, and many

other vessels in which acid substances for food or condiment are kept, as also

those earthen vessels in which great strength is required, are best made of stone-

ware. Vauxhall is the chief seat of this manufacture. There are now about

eight houses engaged in this fabric, most of which are very actively employed, as

the use of it is considerably on the increase.”

In the porcelain of China, so justly celebrated for its beauty and excellence, the

glaze is produced by a wash of clay of a kind more fusible than that of the body

of the ware.

Three materials are known to be employed in this manufacture. 1. Petuntse, which

is quarried from certain rocks and contains shining particles : (mica ?) the lumps of

this clay are broken up and ground in iron mortars, then lixiviated, and the creamy

matter only used. Mr. Aikin supposes it to be a compact felspar; perhaps it may

be a decomposing granite, from which the felspar is thus coarsely separated. 2.

Kaolin, true porcelain clay, or decomposed felspar found in lumps in the clefts of

mountains, covered with a reddish earth (just as it occurs in India). It is prepared

for use like the petuntse. 3. Hoaché, which has a soapy feel, and is either steatite

soapstone, or agalinatolite. It is also prepared in the same way, but is whiter, more

transparent, and is used only for the more expensive wares.

For the finest porcelain, four parts of hoaché are added to one of petuntse. Some-

times the body is made of kaolin, dipped when dry into the cream of hoaché, which

gives a white coat. Hoaché is also laid on with a pencil on the parts intended to

have an ivory-white colour,

214 Miscellaneous. [AprIL,

*“‘ The white semi-transparent glaze is thus prepared. The whitest petuntse with

green spots is pulverized and washed over ; to 100 parts of the cream thus obtained

is added one part of che-Xao (burnt alum) previously pulverized. A caustic ley is

also prepared into which che-kao is stirred, and the cream thus produced is collect-

ed. The two creams are mixed together in the proportion of ten measures of the

former to one of the latter, and this composition, washed over the dry unbaked

ware, gives it its whiteness and lustre. A brown glaze is made of common yellow

clay added to the above. The Chinese porcelain is never brought to the state of

biscuit, by a prior baking, before it is glazed.

“The flux used with colours laid on the glaze is made of one part calcined

quartz and two parts ceruse. Red is given by peroxide of iron, and a finer red

by copper, but the process is not known. The enamel colours are brought to a .

proper consistence by a solution of glue, except those containing ceruse, which can

only be tempered with water*.”’ ;

3.—Phenomenon of the Japanese Mirror.

The Philosophical Magazine of Dec. 1832 contains Sir D. Brewster’s explana-

tion of the magical effect of the mirror, of which a notice was published by myself

in vol. 1. p. 242.

Sir David had only received a written description from Mr. G. Swinton, and

therefore it was hardly fair to expect him to give a categorical reply to that gen-

tleman’s question, ‘‘ how are these strange effects produced?’’ After alluding

however to Mr. Swinton’s conjecture that the phenomena may originate in a differ-

ence of density in different parts of the metal, occasioned by the stamping of the

figures on the back, which, if metals were absolutely opaque, and if the lights they

reflect never entered their substance, would, he says, be the only possible way in

which the stamped figures could be reflected,—the learned Doctor proceeds to offer

his own theory.

“‘T believe, however, on the authority of the phenomena of elliptical polarization,

that in silver nearly one-half of the reflectedlight has entered the metal, and in

other metals a less portion. So that we may consider the surface of every metal

as transparent to a certain depth, a fact which is also proved by the transparency

of gold and silver leaf. Now this thin film having its parts of variable density, in

consequence of the stamping of the figure, might reproduce the figure by reflection.

It is well known that silver polished by hammering acts differently upon light from

silver that has received a specular polish; and I have elsewheret expressed the

opinion that a parabolic reflector of silvered copper, polished by hammering, will

from the difference of density of different parts of the reflecting film, produce at

the distance of many miles a perceptible scattering of the reflected rays, similar

to what takes place in a transparent fluid or solid, or gaseous medium. I am

satisfied, however, that at the distance of a few inches from the Chinese mirror,

this evanescent effect will be altogether imperceptible, and that we must seek for

another cause of the phenomenon under consideration.

“‘ Some years ago I had occasion to observe the light of the sun reflected upon paper

from a new and highly polished gilt button, and I made a drawing at the time of the

figure, which appeared in the spectrum. It consisted of radiations exactly like the

spokes of a carriage wheel,the radiations being sixteen in number, and a little con-

fused in the centre opposite the eye of the button. On the back of this button several

words were deeply stamped, but these words did not appear in the reflected image.

* Trans. Soc. Arts and Repository of Inventions. - + Ed. Trans. vol. xi. p. 47.

1833.] Miscellaneous. 215

I have since examined several varieties of such buttons, and I find that they almost

all give either radiations or great numbers of narrow concentric rings, (and some-

times both,) whose centre is the centre of the button, and the smallest one of which

is always like a dimple in the centre. .

“Upon examining the surface of these buttons in the sun’s light, and at the edge

_ of a shadow*, I have invariably been able to see the same rings excavated in the

polished face that appeared in the luminous image, which it reflected. They obvi-

ously arise from the button being finished in a turning lathe, and the rings are

produced by the action of the polishing powder, or probably in some cases they

may be the grooves of the turning tool, which have not been obliterated by the

subsequent processesf.

“ These facts will, I presume, furnish us with the secret of the Chinese mirror.

Like all other conjurors, the artist has contrived to make the observer deceive him-

self. The stamped figures on the back are used for this purpose. The spectrum in

the luminous area is not an image of the figures on the back. The figures are a

copy of the picture which the artist has drawn on the face of the mirror, and so

concealed by polishing that it is invisible in ordinary lights, and can be brought out

only in the sun’s rays.

“« Let it be required, for example, to produce the dragon described by Mr. Swinton

as exhibited on one of these Chinese mirrors. When the surface of the mirror is

ready for polishing, the figure of the dragon may be delineated upon it in extremely

shallow lines, or it may be eaten out by an acid much diluted, so as to remove the

smallest possible portion of the metal.

“The surface must then be highly polished, not upon pitch, like glass and specula,

because this would polish away the figure, but upon cloth, in the way that lenses

are sometimes polished. In this way the sunk part of the hollow lines will be as

highly polished as the rest, and the figure will only be visible in very strong lights,

by reflecting the sun’s rays from the metallic surface. When the space occupied by

the figure is covered by lines or by etching, the figure will appear in shade on the

wall, and vice versa.”’

In spite of the overwhelming authority opposed to me, I feel reluctant to give up

the theory I ventured to advance, in explanation of the anomaly in question, and I

am emboldened to maintain it by the simple fact, that Sir David had not yet seen the

mirror: indeed in this respect we stand an equal ground ;—the mirror was gone from

Calcutta before I had attempted to solve its nature: it had not arrived when Dr.

Brewster offered his ingenious theory, The best arguments which I can advance in

favor of my own are—l1, that the mirror underwent several rude processes of polish-

ing in Calcutta, so much so, that most of its silvered surface was worn off, and yet

its reflective faculties were unimpaired. 2, no signs of engraving were observed on

the surface, under the strongest horizontally reflected light, which ought to have

shewn its presence as explained, by Sir David.

Dr. Brewster’s theory cannot fail however to win converts: it would be pre-

sumption in me to go farther in opposing it, than to request a suspension of judg-

ment until the mirror shall have arrived in England; meanwhile its magical powers

must continue, as he says, “‘ to perplex the philosophers of our eastern metropolis !’’

* “By this method the figure in the Chinese mirror could be rendered visible beneath

its polish.”

+ “In polished steel buttons the reflected light is crowded with lines running at right

angles, indicating the cross strokes by which they have been ground and polished.”

[Aprit 1833.)

Meteorological Register.

216

*pasn add} ayy JO oz1s ayy Aq poyuasoided SI PUIM JO Bd10J aY{, “WEY} B[TIUOIEL 04 apqissoduut st 41 ‘yuLod Surzaery ay}

0} paonpad are 10992] OYy JO SUOTJLOIPUT 9Y} UAAS USM €B0'— 0} 10 wor Area sanuasayrp Aprep ay} se qnq ‘ooyJO s,[eiaued IoAeAIMs oY} 4v IY} VEY) TOMO] GPO" eSvIdA¥

ue UO YAR SupNp pooys “Ww “a f pue “WV YT OJ JojowOIeG oY L —“TeApUIW) Out ieau asnoy & JO EPULIVA YINOs 94} Ul Ajrep paarosqo oie ‘W *d OT PUB “WV g Ioy

sjuaUINAIsUL AY ‘WoULpodsezur Aq Ut pally O18 seltjue Kepung oy} pue ‘Aroyeroqey ay} Jo Ite aaxz oy} Ul pepuadsns are “IW “dp pu“ ‘Vv OL TOF s}UoUINIsUy ay I)

*suII0}s JUENDarZ | ‘uoosuour YNOs Jace ze tee | sor] a9 jets | sos jot | 326 |o‘Z8 |B°8L [669° [099° | S9Z° | G69° ‘sueay

J | — | | — | 9 | | |

*spnoyo op 4S S °s 16 49°F zor} of% | 9% fotss | re6| ‘26 |o%88 | L°T8 | OIZS | OF9S PPL‘ | 919‘ 0g

*pnos op op <5 “MA ‘s 06 Fas BOL | ¢9 | BL Ja‘es | €°E6 | 9°96 |2‘88 “08 | OOL' | ar9% ops 2998 66

op *1R9]0 reo[o cs ‘0 AS 16 Joe | sor | so | 0% [as | oie6 |sTOr |Z‘e8 | 18] 89° | OOS | OPL* |or9 86

“190 Ul ‘yyes = “TyNuINs “a *s °S 6 OF POL! of9 | IF 18 | 9°86 | 800T 18°88 BF os9* | Lacs ogL* 169° 1K6

op ‘uno = tyNuIND "s .s “ALS 06 Ves | Ost! Hz | oe | ‘Ie | Z'e6 | ‘FOr [9°68 | S*T8] BI9‘ | T4S° | PIO’ | 969° &%

op *1ea]9 reajo *S ‘Ss "s 68 18'S PSL | 0% | BL Tees | 9°76 [SPOIL | ‘06 | B°6LFSE9° | 9z9° | OZ‘ | LOS 3

op op *s pnos S *s “Mh t6 [Es GEL} L6¢ | 0% F 1'%8 | L'V6 | ‘EOL |Z‘06 “08 | GaL* | 049° | 9LL* | Z69° &3

op *1ynuIMs op “MS °s “M ‘Ss 26 fog | 9F1! ZG | st Feces | 9826 | ‘cor | ‘88 | “os] TPZ | oso. | LrZ* !9n98 Gs

op op reo “M's "s se) t6 Ite OGL | HG | ES Was) “e6 | ‘86 13°06 | P08 § P89‘ } OS9* | OL‘ | 12

*rea[o “SIBeTo qynuims ‘Ss °S *S 16 1a? OOL | og | OF %B | 0°66 | “G6 } ‘88 | BBE LPOS | G6g* | GOLS 06

‘jenbs ASp qe3 ‘ws reayo “aS O'S *S 66 foe | $9 | po | GT ‘T8 | 9°06 | *86 | ‘88 18 BO9* | geg* | LrOF 6I

“1919 op “11s wind "Ss s Ss we fice | $9 | of¢ | 9 Joes | 24:06 | ‘86 je°98 | “084 869% | C6g* | IaL' 8

‘TTMuNo op xeayo ‘Ss °s “5 e6 }ee | 89 | occ | ee | ‘18 | 2688| 606 {7°98 | PPL} Lo0° | Lege | Lel Lt

“Srayges *s op op “3g *s *s #6 fo%¢ | SZ | eH | 98 | ‘eB | L'88 13'o6 |o°s8 | B°LL] GOL‘ | 899° | O08. 9I

“snqeiys Tez Apnojo 2 “UL oO "s t6 49°9 08 | Ifo | BE Faiz 181 ‘16 | ‘98 | GFL 4 ores | 0G‘ | oss | +1

pudgye a “MA uled 2M ‘Ouse (cH-S t6 18% 89 | of¢ |} SP 1Z | L°e8 | ‘86 1°98 | S*rZ 9 G18* | SEZ‘ | 808s eI

Ul 8 DMO op *pnos ‘a's aC <c og tae | 06 | o2 |e Pesce | 8°06 |a°s6 |2‘28 ‘6L Gch’ | oL9* | sol‘ rat

op “Azey “und ‘Ss Ss °S 06 fos | O'1T | a2 | GE | 2508 | 706 | F'E6 19°98 LLG TOL. | oF9* | O62‘ II

op op op ‘S s “ 06 TZ | FIL) eZ | OF F26L | 9°26 | *G6 |0°L8 | 9°8L 7 G0L* | 09S | Eel‘ OL

Gr) f) op op 's “5 ‘Ss 16 hoe | 941 | PZ | OS | 08 | 8°16 | £46 \a°L8 | “GLE OGL. | 99S | ezBS 6

‘\suypm's op “rea]9 °s To) 0) 16 fer 1 OL} 9 | SS F {08 | 0°26 “TOL | “88 | Z°BL4 084" | O69* | OBS 8

“Azey op “und 5 s Ss a6 Ves | OL] ag | BE Fess | 6 | ‘LOL |9°L8 | GOB FSTB. | GBD‘ | OBS L

*1R9]9 op pnoyo ‘Ss *S “s 26 let | 98 | eo | BL |sI8 | 816 |FS6 \P2Z8 | OL] GCL. | cLo* | PELs 9

pnoskavay op op nS 'S °S 06 Vre | LOL | stZ | BS Petes | FSG \Sc0T 10°88 ‘LL gel‘ | g99° | SLL‘ G

op op op ‘Ss *s 2 16 4 9'€ eg | 1% | Se 1208 6 18°96 |9°88 Lisl La9° | LLa* | LOL’ 4

op op op oS Ws Ss a foe | LIT] 0% | BL 708 | 8°E6 | G66 \9°s8 | BfOL GOL‘ | 9g9* | TO8S €

op *1ea]o “1ea]0 Sg S 6 16 WzZ'e | 98 | og | 8% | 1°08 | 0°61 “96 | ‘98 | “61 F 28° | c69* | TaB* | 068° (a

“Azey “Azey *pnos ‘S Ss 1S 16 War | SFL 199 | LS Foes | PG | 8°S6 19°98 | G°LZ} BuB* | EBL‘ | co8* I

2 fay > > > > eS aa Pa st a teed ta fine > >

Ss a s a 4 5 B = o ot o + cS + [op = os = o> i 3 9

o ° 4 7) ro) tat > 5S S ~ Ss ox S > val S a > 5 5s

= 5 5. = 5 Ih 2 g > > y le > rs rg Bo

= E E 5 e |] e Ae HS jer Shae ele Ge. Ee (ech a oe ee Be,

= m8 ® Ele le le ile] e is seis |Faye |e | Pe

——— ®

B 4 *1ayoul *19j9WIOULIS ; “UIT oe 03

EU ESVANN PUrM UU! -or3A pq arep| qmmq-ystow Jo TOS SRY: SH) Ut <GsOOUONT paonpar Jejawoieg

“ecg, udp fo yiuow ay) sof 0qjnIIV) ‘sou hossy auz yo day sagsthaay 790h07010999 TAT

JOURNAL

THE ASITIATIC SOCIETY.

No. 17.—May, 1833.

1.—Origin and Classification of the Military Tribes of Népal. By B. Hi.

Hodgson, Esq.

{Read at the Meeting of the 9th January, 1833.]

Tue great aboriginal stock of the inhabitants of these mountains,

east of the river Kdli, or in Népal, is Mongol. The fact is inscribed,

in characters so plain, upon their faces, forms, and languages, that we

may well dispense with the superfluous and vain attempt to trace it

historically in the meagre chronicles of barbarians.

But from the 12th century downwards, the tide of Mussulman con-

quest and bigotry continued to sweep multitudes of the Brahmans of

the plains from Hindistan into the proximate hills, which now com-

pose the western territories of the kingdom of Népdl. There the

Brahmans soon located themselves. They found the natives illiterate,

and without faith, but fierce and proud.

Their object was to make them converts to Hindtiism, and so to

confirm the fleeting influence derived from their learning and politeness.

They saw that the barbarians had vacant minds, ready to receive their

doctrines, but spirits not apt to stoop to degradation ; and they acted

accordingly. Tothe earliest and most distinguished of their converts they

communicated, in defiance of the creed they taught, the lofty rank and

honors of the Ashatriya order. But the Brahmans had sensual passions

to gratify, as well as ambition. They found the native females—even

the most distinguished—nothing loath; but still of a temper, like that

of the males, prompt to repel indignities. These females would, in-

deed, welcome the polished Brahmans to their embraces: but their

offspring must not be stigmatised as the infamous progeny of a

Brahman and a Mléchha—must, on the contrary, be raised to eminence

218 Origin and Classification of the (Mar,

in the new order of things introduced by their fathers. To this pro-

geny also, then, the Brahmans, in still greater defiance of their creed,

communicated the rank of the second order of Hindiiism ; and from

these two roots, mainly, sprung the now numerous, predominant, and

extensively ramified, tribe of the Ahas—originally the name of a

small clan of creedless barbarians, now the proud title of the Ksha-

triya, or military order of the kingdom of Népdl. The offspring of

original Khds females and of Brahmans, with the honorsand rank of the

second order of Hindiiism, got the patronymic titles of the first order ;

and hence the key to the anomalous nomenclature of so many stirpes

of the military tribes of Népdl is to be sought in the nomenclature of

the sacred order. It may be added, as remarkably illustrative of the

lofty spirit of the Parbattiahs, that, in spite of the yearly increasing

sway of Hindiism in Népal, and of the various attempts of the Brah-

mans in high office, to procure the abolition of a custom so radically

opposed to the creed both parties now profess, the Khds still insist

that the fruit of commerce (marriage is out of the question) between

their females and males of the sacred order shall be ranked as Ksha-

triyas, wear the thread, and assume the patronymic title.

The original Kids, thus favored by it, became soon and entirely de-

voted to the Brahmanical system*. The progress of Isldém below daily

poured fresh refugees among them.

They availed themselves of the superior knowledge of the strangers

to subdue the neighbouring tribes of aborigines, were successful beyond

their hopes, and, in such a career continued for ages, gradually merged

the greater part of their own habits, ideas, and language (but not phy-

siognomy) in those of the Hindus.

The Avhds language became a corrupt dialect of Hindt, retaining not

many palpable traces (except to curious eyes) of primitive barbarism,

The Hkthariahs are the descendants more or less pure of Rajpits

and. other Kshatriyas of the plains, who sought refuge in these moun-

tains from the Moslem, or, merely military service as adventurers.

With fewer aims of policy and readier means in their bright swords of

requiting the protection afforded them than had the Brahmans, they

* That is, they agreed to put away their old gods, and to take the new; to have

Brahmans for Gérés ; and not to kill the cow: for the rest, they made and still

make sufficiently lightly of the ceremonial law in whatever respects food and sexu-

al gratification. “Their active habits and vigorous character could not brook the

restraints of the ritual law; and they had the example of licentious Brahmans to

warrant their neglect of it. The few prejudices of the Khds are useful rather

than otherwise, inasmuch as they favour sobriety and cleanliness.

1833.] Military Tribes of Népdl. 219

had less motive to mix their proud blood with that of the vile abori-

gines than the Brahmans felt the impulse of, and they did mix it less.

Hence, to this hour, they claim a vague superiority over the Khds,

notwithstanding that the pressure of the great tide of events around

them has, long since, confounded the two races in all essentials. Those

among the Kshatriyas of the plains, who were more lax, and allied

themselves with the Khds females in concubinage, were permitted to

give to their children, so begotten, the patronymic title only, not the

rank. But their children again, if they married for two generations

into the Khds, became pure /fhds, or, real Kshatriyas in point of pri-

vilege and rank, though no longer so in name! They were Khas, not

Kshatriyas: and yet they bore the proud cognomina of the martial

order of the Hinddés, and were, in the land of their nativity, entitled

to every prerogative which Kshatriya birth confers in Hindistan !

Such is the third and less fruitful root of the Khas race.

The Ekthariahs speak the Khés language, and they speak no other.

The Thdkurts differ from the Hkthariahs only by the accidental

circumstance of their lineage being royal. At some former period, and

in some little state or other, their progenitors were princes.

The Sahi are the present royal family.

The remaining military tribes of the Parbattiahs are the Magar

and Girding, who now supply the greater numbers of the soldiers of

this state.

From lending themselves less early and heartily to Brahmanical

influence than the Kids they have retained, in vivid freshness, their

original languages, physiognomy, and, in a less degree, habits.

To their own untaught ears their languages differ entirely the one

from the other, but, in very truth, only as remote dialects of one great

tongue, the type of which is the language of Tibet. Their physiogno-

mies, too, have peculiarities proper to each, but with the general Cal-

muk caste and character in both. The Gurdngs are less generally and

more recently redeemed from Ldmdism and primitive impurity than the

Magars.

But, though both Girdngs and Magars still maintain their own

vernacular tongues, Tartar faces, and careless manners, yet, what with

military service for several generations, under the predominant Kids,

and what with the commerce of Kids males with their females*, they

* Here, as in the cases of the Brahman and Khds, and Kshatriya and Khds, there

ean be no marriage. The offspring of a Khds with a Magarin or Giringni is a

titular Khds and real Magar or Giéring. The descendants fall into the rank of

their mothers, and retain only the patronymic.

F ¥ 2

220 Origin and Classification of the [Mar,

have acquired the Khas language, though not to the oblivion of their

own; and the Khds habits and sentiments, but with sundry reserva-

tions in favor of pristine liberty. As they have, however, with such

grace as they could muster, submitted themselves to the ceremonial

law of purity, and to Brahman supremacy, they have been adopted as

Hindés. But partly owing to the licenses above glanced at, and

partly by reason of the necessity of distinctions of caste to Hindéism,

they have been denied the thread, and constituted a doubtful order

below it, and yet not Vaisya nor Sudra, but a something superior to

both the latter, what, I fancy, it might puzzle the Shdstris to explain

on Hindé principles.

The Brahmans of Népal are much less generally addicted to arms

than those of the plains ; and they do not therefore properly belong to

our present subject. The enumeration of the Brahmans is neverthe-

less necessary, as serving to elucidate the lineage and connexions of the

military tribes, and especially of the Khas.

The martial classes of Népa/ are, then, the Khas, Magar, and

Gurdng; each comprising a very numerous clan or race, variously rami-

fied and subdivided in the manner exhibited in the following tabular

statement.

The original seat of the Khds is ordinarily said to be Gorkhd, be-

cause it was thence immediately that they issued, 70 years ago, under

the guidance of Prairavi Narayan, to acquire the fame and dominion

achieved by him and his successors of the Gorkhdli dynasty.

But the Khds were long previously to the age of Priravi Narayan

extensively spread over the whole of the Choubésya ; and they are now

found in every part of the existing kingdom of Népal. The Khds are

rather more devoted to the house of Gorkha, as well as more liable to

Brahmanical prejudices than the Magars or Gértngs; and, on both

accounts, are somewhat less desirable as soldiers for our service than

the latter tribes. I say somewhat, because it is a mere question of

degree; the Khds having, certainly, no religious prejudices, nor pro-

bably any national partialities, which would prevent their making

excellent and faithful servants in arms; and they possess pre-eminent-

ly that masculine energy of character and love of enterprize which

distinguish so advantageously all the military races of Népdl. The

original seat of the Magars is the Bara Mangrdnth, or Satahung,

Payung, Bhirkot, Dhor, Garahung, Rising, Ghiring, Gulmi, Argha,

Khachi, Musikot, and Isma; in other words, most of the central and

lower parts of the mountains between the Bhéré and Marsydndi* rivers.

* The Marichangdi of our maps.

1833.] Military Tribes of Népal. 221

The attachment of the Magars to the house of Gorkhd is but recent,

and of no extraordinary or intimate nature. Still less so is that of

the Guriings, whose native seats occupy a line of country parallel to

that of the Magars, to the north of it, and extending to the snows in

that direction. Modern events have spread the Magars and Gurtngs

over most part of the present kingdom of Népal. The Guirdngs and

Magars are, in the main, Hinds, only because it is the fashion; and

the Hinddism of the Ahds, in all practical and soldierly respects, is

free of disqualifying punctilio,

These highland soldiers, who despatch their meal in half an hour, and

satisfy the ceremonial law by merely washing their hands and face, and

taking off their turbans before cooking, laugh at the pharisaical rigor

of our sipdhis, who must bathe from head to foot, and make pija,

-ere they begin to dress their dinner, must eat nearly naked in the

coldest weather, and cannot be in marching trim again in less than

three hours.

In war, the former readily carry several days provisions on their

backs: the latter would deem such an act intolerably degrading. The

former see in foreign service nothing but the prospect of glory and

spoil: the latter can discover in it nothing but pollution and peril

from unclean men and terrible wizards, goblins, and evil spirits. In

masses, the former have all that indomitable confidence, each in all,

which grows out of national integrity and success: the latter can have

no idea of this sentiment, which maintains the union and resolution of

multitudes in peril, better than all other human bonds whatever.

I calculate that there are at this time in Nipal no less than 30,000

Dakhriahs, or soldiers off the roll by rotation, belonging to the above

three tribes. I am not sure that there exists any insuperable obstacle

to our obtaining, in one form or other, the services of a large body of

these men; and such are their energy of character, love of enterprise

and freedom from the shackles of caste, that I am well assured their

services, if obtained, would soon come to be most highly prized.

In my humble opinion they are by far the best soldiers in India;

and if they were made participators of our renown in arms, I conceive

that their gallant spirit and unadulterated military habits might be

relied on for fidelity ; and that our good and regular pay and noble

pension establishment would serve to counterpoise the influence of

nationality, especially in the Magars and Girtngs.

The following table exhibits a classified view of the Brahmanical and

Military tribes, with their various subdivisions.

222

Ayjal.

Pondyal.

Khanal.

Régmi.

Bhattrai.

Niréla.

Acharya.

Bhatt.

Sapan kotya.

Maharashtra.

Koirala.

Pakonyal.

Sattyal.

Dohal.

Lamsal.

Rimal.

Dévakotya.

Parbatya Vash.

Parbatya Misr.

Davari.

Koikyal.

Nepalya.

Baral.

Pokaryal.

Bagyal.

Takuryal.

Palami.

Gadar.

Khulal,

Raghubansi,

Sutar.

Powar.

Lakanggi.

Kalikotya.

Thami.

Dhami.

Kalikotya.

Bagalya.

Sijapati.

Origin and Classification of the

Tabular View of the Tribes.

[May,

Dhurari.

Bhartyal.

Panéra.

Loityal.

Sigdhyal.

Baral.

Gotamya.

Ghorasaini.

Risyal.

Chalisya.

Dhéngana.

Bharari.

Bagalya,

Dulal.

Parajuli.

Bajgai.

Satola.

Gharchéli.

Kélathoni.

Gilal.

Lahéni.

Muthbari.

Khapotari.

Parajuli.

Deoja.

BRAHMANS.

Rupakhéti. Osti.

Khativara. Utkalli.

Dhakal. Kandariah.

Adhikari. Ghart mél.

Deoja. Ghartyal.

Rukai. Nivapanya.

Sywal. Témrakoti.

Rijal. Uphaltopi.

Dhingyal. Parijai Kavala.

Loiyal. Homya Gai.

Dotiyal. Champa Gai,

Kandyal. Gura Gai.

Katyal. Subéri.

Dangal. Pandit.

Singyal. Téva panya.

Bikral. Timil Sina.

Ukniyal. Kaphalya.

Bhattwal. Gaithoula.

Gajniyal. Gairaha Pipli.

Chayala Gai. Ghimirya.

Vasta Gai. Simkhara.

Banjara. Phanwal.

Dagi. Chamka saini.

Soti. Pura saini.

Kuas.

lst. Subdivision of the Khas, called Thapa.

Gasgliya. Powar.

Suyal. Ghimirya.

Maharaji. Khulal.

Lamichanya. Sunyal.

2nd. Subdivision of the Khas, called Bishnydt.

Khaputari. Sripali.

3rd. Subdivision, called Bhandari.

Lama. Sijapati.

4th. Subdivision, called Karki,

Lama. Mandala.

5th. Subdwision, called Khangka.

Maharaji. Partyal,

Lamichanya. Khulal.

6th, Subdivision, or Adhikari,

Tharirai.

Khadhséna.

Pokriyal.

Thakari.

7th. Subdivision, or Bisht.

Puwar.

8th. Subdivision, or Kunwar.

Khulal.

Khangka.

9th. Subdivision, or Baniah.

Puwar.

Khilal.

Khaputari.

Palpali.

Musiah.

Ayjal.

1833.] Military Tribes of Népal. 223

10th. Subdivision, or Dani.

Sijapati. Powar.

11th. Subdivision, or Gharti.

Kalikotya. Sijapati.

12th. Subdivision, or Khattri.

Pandé. Khulal. Lamichanya. Arjal.

Tewari. Suvéri. Dhakal. Sapkotya.

Panth. Poryal. PhanyAl.

Adhikari. Sakhtyal. Bural.

True Khas not yet classified.

Dhongyal. Sijal. Satouya. Ripakhéti.

Loyal. Chouvala Gai. Parsai. Khatiwata.

Lamsal. Am Gai. Chalatani. Bhatt Rai.

Khukriyal, Baj Gai. Kilathoni. Neopanya.

Dangal. Satya Gai. Muri Bhis. - Dahal.

Sikhmiyal. Devakota. Alphaltopi. Soti.

Bhiryal. Garhtola. Parijai Kawala. Osti.

Pouryal. Séora. Bamankotya. Bhatt Ojha. ©

Bikral, Balya. Tewari. Kadariah.

Kanhal. Gilal. Porséni. Kala Khattri.

Batyal. Chonial. Homya Gai, Dhingana.

Ganjal. Régmi. Tumrak ot. Pungyal.

EKTHARYA, or insulated tribes ranking with Khas.

Barathoki. Chohan. Bohara. Kutal.

Raya. Boghati. Chiloti. Dikshit.

Ravat. Khatit. Dangi. Pandit.

Katwal. Savan. Raimanjhi. Parsai.

Khati. Mahat. Bhukhandi. Chokhal.

Maghati. Barwal. Bhusal. Chohara.

Durrah.

Tuakurt, or Royal lineages, ranking with Khas.

Sahi. Singh. Chand. Jiva.

Maila. Maun. Hamal. Rakhsya,

Séna. Chohan. Ruchal.

Maaars.

I.—Subdivision of the Magars, called Rand.

Bhusal. Gyangmi. Byangnasi. Kyapchaki.

Aslami. Pulami. Phyuyali. Durra Lami.

Yahayo. Gacha. Lamichanya. Maski.

Sara. Pnsal. Gandharma. Charmi,

Arghounlé, Thada. Datt.

IL —Subdivision of Magars, called Thapa.

Granja. Chumi. Kéli. Baréya.

Nanjali. Langéli. Shangdi. Maski.

Darrlami. Sunari. YAngdi. Phyayali.

Marsyangdi. Chitouriah. Shari. Arghounlé.

Gelang. Sinjali. Sart. Rijal.

ILl.— Subdivision of Magars, called Alaya.

Y angmi. Sarangi. Ping. Lamjal.

Surya Vaasi. Gonda. Sripali. Sayal.

Khali. Dukhehaki. Sijapati. Panthi.

224 Description of Bokhara. [May,

Thokchaki. Meng. Gharti. Rakhal.

Sithing. Maski. Lamichanya. Palami.

Lahakpa. Arghounlé. Khaptari. Phydyali.

Kyapchaki. Durra. Khulal. Chermi.

Pachain.

GuRUNGS.

Guring. Lamichanya. Khaptari. Tangé.

Ghallé. Siddh. Ghindané. Ghénya.

Byapri. Kardmati. Dharén. Paindi.

Vunjan. Gosti. Jimél. Méngi.

Lama. Bagalya. Lopate. Dah Lama.

Thathing. Chanda. Lothang. Knrangi.

Gothi. Charki. Baling. Kholal.

Gondik. Khati. Shakya Lama: Surya Vansi Lama.

Gohori. Guaburi. Golangya. Madan.

Barahi. Pengi. Khangva. Palami.

Gharti. Dhakarén.

II.—Description of Bokhéra. By Lieut. A. Burnes, Bombay Army, Asst.

Resident at Kutch.

Our first care on entering Bokhdra was to change our garb, and

adopt the usages prescribed by the laws of the country. A peti-

tion to the minister might have perhaps relieved us of the necessity,

but to do so was in consonance with our own plans, and we did not

delay a moment in fulfilling them. Our turbans were exchanged for

shabby sheep-skin caps with the fur inside, and our kamarbands were

thrown aside for a rude piece of rope or tape. The outer garment of

the country was discontinued, as well as our stockings, since these are

the emblems of distinction in the holy city of Bokhdra between an in-

fidel and a true believer. We know also that none but a Muhammedan

might ride within the walls of the city, and we had an inward feeling

which told us to be heartily gratified if we were permitted, at such

trifling sacrifices, to continue our abode in the capital. A couplet* which

describes Samarcand as the paradise of the world, also names Bokhdra

as the strength of religion and of Islam ; and impious and powerless as

we were, we could have no desire to try experiments among those who

seemed, outwardly, at least, such bigots. The dress which I have de-

scribed is nowhere enjoined by the Qordn, nor did it obtain in these

countries for two centuries after the prophet; not till the bigotry of

Lit fh} 9 y 84-0 SiS pom *

1833.] City—Gosh Begt. 225

some of the Khaliphs discovered that the faithful should be distinguished

from those who were not Muhammedans.

On entering the city, the authorities did not even search us, but in

the afternoon an officer summoned us to the presence of the minister.

My fellow-traveller was yet prostrated by fever, and could not accom-

pany me; I therefore proceeded alone to the ark or palace where the

minister lived along with the king. I was lost in amazement at the

novel scene before me, since we had to walk for about two miles through

the streets of Bokhara before reaching the palace. I was immediately

introduced to the minister, or as he is styled, the Gosh Begi, an

elderly man, of great influence, who was sitting ina small room, with a

private court-yard in front of it. He desired me to be seated outside

on the pavement, but evinced both a kind and consideratemanner, which

set my mind at ease. The hardness of my seat, and the distance from

the minister, did not overpower me with grief, since his son, who ap-

peared during the interview, was even further removed than myself. I

presented a silver watch and a Kashmir dress, which I had brought for

him ; but’ he declined to receive anything, saying that he was but the

slave of the king. He then interrogated me for about two hours, re-

garding my own affairs and the objects which had brought me to a

country so remote as Bokhara. I told the usual tale of being in pro-

gress towards our native country, and produced my passport from the

Governor General of India, which the minister read with peculiar atten-

tion. I then added, that Bokhdra was a country of such celebrity among

eastern nations, that I had been chiefly induced to visit Turkistdn for

the purpose of seeing it. But what is your profession, said the minis-

ter? I replied that I was an officer of the Indian army. But tell me,

said he, something about your knowledge :—and he here entered upon

various topics as to the customs and politics of Europe, but parti-

cularly of Russia, on which he was well informed. In reply to his

inquiries regarding our baggage, I considered it prudent to acquaint

him that I had a sextant, since I concluded that we should be searched,

and it was betterto make a merit of necessity. [informed him therefore

that I liked to observe the stars, and the other heavenly bodies, since it

was a most attractive study. On hearing this, the vizier’s attention was

roused, and he begged, with some earnestness, and ina subdued tone of

voice, that I would inform him of a favorable conjunction of the planets,.

and the price of grain which it indicated in the ensuing year. I told him,

that our astronomical knowledge did not lead to such information; at

which he expressed himself disappointed. On the whole, however, he

appeared to be satisfied of my character, and assured me. of protec.

226 Description of Bokhara. [May,

tion while in Bokhara; he however prohibited our using pen and ink,

since it might lead to our conduct being misrepresented to the king,

and prove injurious. He also added, that the route to the Caspian Sea

by the way of Khiva had been closed for the last year ; and that, if we

intended to enter Russia, we must either pursue the northern route

from Bokhara, or cross the Tvirkmdn desert below Organj to Astra-

bdd on the Caspian.

Two days after this interview, I was again summoned by the vizier,

and found him surrounded by a great number of respectable persons, to

whom he appeared desirous of exhibiting me. I was questioned in

such a way as to make me believe that our character was not altoge~

ther free from suspicion ; but the vizier said jestingly, I suppose you

have been writing about Bokhara. Since I had in the first instance

given so true a tale, I had here no apprehensions of contradiction, and

freely told the party that I had come to see the world, and the wonders

of Bokhara, and that by the vizier’s favor, I had been already perambu-

lating the city. The minister was the only person who appeared

pleased with the candour, and said that he would be happy to see me at

all times in the evening : he inquired if I had any curiosity to exhibit

to him, either of India or my own country ; but I regretted my inabi-

lity to meet his wishes. On my return home, it occurred to me

that the all-curious vizier might be gratified by the sight of a patent

compass, with its glasses, screws, and reflectors; but I also feared that

he might construe my possession of this complicated piece of mechanism

mto a light which would not be favorable. I however sallied forth with

the instrument in my pocket, and soon found myself in the presence of

the vizier. I told him that I believed I had found a curiosity that

would gratify him, and produced the compass, which was quite new and

of very beautiful workmanship. I described its utility, and pointed out

its beauty, till the vizier seemed quite to have forgotten, “‘ that he was

but a slave of the king, and could receive nothing ;” indeed he was pro-

ceeding to bargain for its price, when I interrupted him. I assured

him that I had brought it from Hindustan, that I might purposely

present it to him ; since I had heard of his zeal in the cause of religion,

and it would enable him to point to the holy Mecca, and rectify the

Kibla of the grand mosque, which he was now building in Bokhara.

I told him, that I could receive no reward, since we were already re-.

warded, above all price, by his protection. The Gosh Begi packed

up the compass with all the haste and anxiety of a child, and said that.

he would take it direct to his Majesty, and describe the wonderful inge-

nuity of our nation. Thus fell one of my compasses. It was a fine

1833.] Régistan or great Bazar. 227

instrument, by Schmalcalder, but I had a duplicate, and I think it was

not sacrificed without an ample return. Had we been in Bokhadra in

disguise, and personating some assumed character, our feelings would

have been very different from what they now were. Like owls, we

should only have appeared at night ; but after this incident, we stalked

abroad in the noon-tide sun, and visited all parts of the city.

My usual resort in the evening was the Régistan of Bokhara, which

is the name given to a spacious area of the city near the palace, that

opens upon it. In two other sides there are massive buildings, col-

leges of the learned ; and on the fourth stands a fountain filled with water,

and shaded by lofty trees, where idlers and newsmongers congregrate

around the wares of Asia and Europe, which are here exposed for sale.

A stranger has only to seat himself on a bench of the Régistan, to know

the Uzbeks and the people of Bokhara. He may here converse with the

natives of Persia, Turkey, Russia, Tartary, China, India, and Kabiil.

He will meet with Tarkmans, Calmuks, and Kuzzaks, from the sur-

rounding deserts, as well as the natives of the more favoured lands.

He may contrast the polished manners of the subjects ‘‘ of the great

King” with the ruder habits of a roaming Tartar. He may see the

Uzbeks from all the states of Mawarulnahr, and speculate from their

physiognomy on the changes which time and place effect among any

race of men. The Uzbek of Bokhara is hardly to be recognized as a

Turk or Tartar, from his intermixture of Persian blood. Those from

the neighbouring country of Kokan are less changed, and the natives

of Organj, the ancient Kharasm, have yet a harshness of feature pecu-

liar to themselves; they may be distinguished from all others by dark

sheep-skin caps, about a foot high. A red beard, grey eyes, and fair

skin will now and then arrest the notice of a stranger, and his attention

will have been fixed on a poor Russian, who has lost his country and

his liberty, and here drags out a miserable life of slavery. A native of

the Celestial Empire will be seen here and there in the same forlorn

predicament, shorn of his long cue of hair, with his crown under a tur-

ban, since both he and the Russian act the part of Muhammedans.

Then follows a Hind, in a garb foreign to himself and his country:

a small square cap, and a string, instead of a girdle, distinguishes him

from the Muhammedans, and, as the Moslems themselves tell you,

prevents their profaning the prescribed salutations of their language,

by using them to an idolator. Without these distinctions, the native

of India is to be recognized by his sombre look, and the studious man-

ner in which he avoids all communication with the crowd. He herds

only with a few individuals, similarly circumstanced with himself, The

GG 2

228 | Description of Bokhara. EMar,

Jew is as marked a being as the Hind« ; his costume differs from

the follower of Brana, and a small conical cap marks the children of

Israel. No mark however is so distinguishing as the well known

features of the Hebrew people. In Bokhara they are a race remark-

ably handsome, and J saw more than one Rebecca in my peregrinations.

Their features are set off by ringlets of beautiful hair, which hang over

their cheeks and necks. There are about 4000 Jews in Bokhara, origi-

nally from Meshid in Persia. They are chiefly employed in dyeing

cloth. They receive the same treatment as the Hindas. A strayed

Armenian, in a still different dress, represents that wandering nation ;

but there are few of them in Bokhara. With these exceptions, the

stranger beholds in the bazars a portly, fair, and well-dressed mass of

people, the Muhammedans of Térkistan. A large white turban, and a

chogha or pelisse of some dark colour over three or four other of the

same description is the general costume; but the Régistan leads to the

palace, and the Uzbeks delight to appear before their King in a mottled

garment of silk, called ‘‘adras,” which is of all and the brightest

colours, and would be intolerable to any but an Uzbek. Some of the

higher persons are clothed in brocade, and one may distinguish the

gradations of the chiefs, since those in favour ride into the citadel, and

the others dismount at the gate. Almost every individual who visits

the King is attended by his slave; and though this class of people are

for the most part Persians, or their descendants, they have a peculiar

appearance, It is said, indeed, that three-fourths of the people of Bo-

khara are of slave extraction, for of the captives brought from Persia,

into Turkistdn, few are permitted to return, and, by all accounts, there

are many who have no inclination to do so. A great portion of the

people of Bokhdra appear on horseback. Whether mounted or on foot,

they are dressed in boots, and the pedestrians strut on high and small

heels on which it would puzzle a Corinthian to walk or even stand.

They rise about an inch and a half, and the pinnacle is not one-third the

diameter. This is the national dress of the Uzbek. Some men of rank

have ashoe over the boot, which is taken off on entering a room. I

must not forget the ladies in my enumeration of the inhabitants.

They generally appear on horseback, riding as the men ; a few walk, and

all are veiled with a black hair-cloth napkin. The difficulty of seeing

through it makes the fair ones stare at every one as in a masquerade.

There however no one must speak to them, and, if any of the King’s

harem pass, you are admonished to look in another direction, and get

a punch on the head if you infringe the advice. So holy are the fair

ones of the holy Bokhdra.

1833.] Fruit—Tea—Ice—Shops. 299

My reader will have now become familiar with the appearance of the

inhabitants of Bokhara. From morn to night, the crowd which assem-

bles raises a humming noise, and one is stunned at the moving mass of

human beings. In the middle of the area, the fruits of the season are

sold under the shade of a square piece of mat, supported by a single pole.

One wonders at the never-ending employment of the fruiterers in dealing

out their grapes, melons, apricots, apples, peaches, pears, and plums ;

for the continued succession of purchasers proves that the tide of men

still flows. With difficulty a passage can be forced through the

streets, and it is only done at the momentary risk of being run over by

some one on the back of a horse or anass.. These latter animals are

exceedingly common and very fine, they amble along at a quick pace with

their riders and burthens. Carts of a light construction are also driving

up and down, since the nature of the country, and the streets which are

not too narrow, admit of wheeled carriages in all parts of the bazar.

Everywhere are seen people making tea, which is done in large European

urns instead of tea-pots, and kept hot by a metal tube. The pen-

chant of the Bokharis for tea is, I believe, without parallel ; for they

drink it at all times and places, and in half a dozen ways, with and

without sugar, with and without milk, with grease, with salt, &c.

Next to the venders of this hot beverage, one may purchase “‘ rahet-i

jan,” or the delight of life, grape jelly or syrup mixed up with chopped

ice. The abundance of ice is one of the greatest luxuries in Bokhara,

and it may be had till the cold weather makes it unnecessary. It is pitted

in winter, and sold so cheap that it is within the reach of the poorest

people. No one ever thinks of drinking water without icing it, and a

beggar may be seen purchasing it as he proclaimshis poverty and entreats

the bounty of the passenger. It is a nice and refreshing sight to see

the huge masses of it with the thermometer at 90°, coloured, scraped,

and piled into heaps like snow to tickle the Uzbeks’ palate. It would

be endless to describe the whole body of traders : suffice it to say, that

almost every thing may be purchased in the Régistan ; the jewellery

and cutlery of Europe (coarse enough however), the tea of China, the

sugar of India, the spices of Manilla, &c. &c. One may also add to

his stores of learning, both Turki and Persian, at the book-stalls,

where the learned or would-be-so pore over tattered pages at a

hawker’s board, As one withdraws in the evening from this bustling

crowd to the more retired parts of the city, he treads his way through

arched bazars, now empty, and passes mosques surmounted by hand-

some cupolas, and adorned by all the simple ornaments which are ad-

mitted by Muhammedans. After the bazar hours, these are crowded

230 Description of Bokhara. [May,

for evening prayers. At the doors of the colleges, which generally

face the mosques, one may see the students lounging after the labours

of the day, not however so gay or so young as the tyros of an European

university, but many of them grave and demure old men, with more

hypocrisy, but by no means less vice, than their youthful prototypes

in another quarter of the world. These people however are stained by

vices which there find no shelter even among the most depraved liber-

tines. With the twilight this busy scene closes, the King’s drum beats,

it is re-echoed by others in every part of the city, and at a certain

hour no one is permitted to move out without a lantern. From these

arrangements, the police of the city is excellent, and in every street

large bales of cloth are left on the stalls at night in perfect safety. All

is silence till the morn, when the bustle again commences in the Régis-

tan, the busy hive of men. The day is ushered in with the same guz-

zling and tea-drinking, and hundreds of boys and donkeys laden with

milk hasten to the busy throng. The milk is sold in small bowls, over

which the cream floats: a lad will bring twenty or thirty of these to

market, in shelves supported and suspended by a stick over his shoul-

der. Whatever number may be brought, speedily disappear among

the tea-drinking population of this great city.

Soon after our arrival, I paid a visit to our late travelling com-

panions, the tea merchants, who had taken up their abode in a

caravansery, and were busy in unpacking, appraising, and selling

their tea. They sent to the bazar for ice and apricots, which we

sat down and enjoyed together. One of the purchasers took me for

a tea merchant from the society I was in, and asked for my invest-

ment. The request afforded both the merchants and myself some

amusement, but they did not undeceive the man on my mercantile

character, and we continued to converse together. He spoke of the

news of the day, the late conquests of the king at Shahr Sabz, and

of the threats of the Persians to attack Bokhdra, all without his ever

suspecting me to be ought but an Asiatic. In return, we had visits

from these merchants, and many other persons who principally came

to gratify their curiosity. We were not permitted to write, and

it was an agreeable manner of passing our time, since they were very

communicative. The Uzbeks are a simple people, with whom one gets

most readily acquainted: they speak in a curious tone of voice, as if

they despised, or were angry with, you.

They never saluted us by any ofthe forms among Muhammedans, but

appeared to have another set of expressions, the most common of which

is, ‘‘ May your wealth increase” (doulat zydda). They nevertheless

1838.] Lhe Slave Bazar. 231

always said the “‘fathaa’’ or blessing from the Qordn, stretching out

their hands and stroking down their beards before they sat down.

Many of our visitors betrayed suspicions of our character, but still

evinced no unwillingness to converse on all points, from the politics of

their king to the state of their markets. Simple people, they believe a

spy must measure their forts and walls, they have no idea of the value

of conversation. With such ready returns on the part of our guests, it

was not irksome for me to explain the usages of Europe; but let me

advise a traveller to lay in a good stock of that kind of knowledge, be.

fore he ventures to travel in eastern countries. One must have a

smattering of trade, arts, science, religion, medicine, and, in fact, of

every thing; and any answer is better than a negative, since ignorance,

real or pretended, is construed into wilful concealment.

I tookanearly opportunity of seeing theslave bazar of Bokhdra, which

is held every Saturday morning. The Uzbeks manage all their affairs by

means of slaves, who are chiefly brought from Persia by the Tarkmans.

These poor wretchesare here exposed for sale, and occupy thirty or forty

stalls, where they are examined like cattle, only with this difference, that

they are able to give an account of themselves viva voce. On the

morning which I visited the bazar, there were only six unfortunate

beings, and J witnessed the manner in which they are disposed of.

They are first interrogated regarding their parentage and capture,

and if they are Muhammedans, that is, Sunnis. The question is put

in that form, for the Uzbeks do not consider a Shiah to be a true

believer, since with them, as with the primitive Christians, a secta-_

ry is more odious than an unbeliever. After the intended purchaser

is satisfied of the slave’s being an infidel (kaffir), he examines his body,

particularly noting if he be free from leprosy, so common in Téarkis-

tan, and he then proceeds to bargain for his price. Three of the

Persian boys were for sale at thirty tillas of gold a piece*, and it was

surprising to see how contented the poor fellows sat under their lot. I

heard one of them telling how he had been seized south of Meshid,

while tending his flock ; another, who overheard a conversation among

the bystanders regarding the scarcity of slaves that season, stated

that a great number had been taken. His companion said with some

feeling, You and I only think so, because of our own misfortune ; but

these people must know better. There was one unfortunate girl, but

she had been long in service, and was now being sold by her master

because of his poverty. I felt that many a tear had been shed

in the court where I surveyed the scene, but I was assured from every

* 200 Rupees,

939 Deseription of Bokhara. [May,

quarter that slaves are well treated and well fed, and the circumstance

of so many of them remaining inthe country after they have been

manumitted seems to establish this fact. The bazars of Bokhdra are

chiefly supplied from Organj. Russians and Chinese are also sold

but rarely. The feelings of an European revolt at this odious traffic; -

but the Uzbeks entertain no such notions, and believe that they are

conferring a benefit on a Persian when they purchase him, in hopes that

he may renounce his heretical opinions.

From the slave-market I passed on that morning to the great bazar, and

the very first sight which fell under my notice was the offenders against

Muhammedanism ofthe preceding Friday. They consisted of four indivi-

duals, whohad been caught asleep at prayer time, and a youth who had

been seen smoking in public. They were all tiedto each other, and the

tobacco-lover ledthe way, holding his hooka or pipein hishand. The of-

ficer of police followed with a thick thong, and chastised them ashe went,

calling aloud, ‘‘ Ye followers of Islam, behold the punishment of those who

violate the law !’’ Never however was there such a series of contradic-

tion and absurdity as in the practice and theory of religion in Bokhara.

You may openly purchase tobacco, and all the most approved parapher-

nalia for inhaling its narcotic qualities; yet if seen smoking in public

you are straightway dragged before the Qazi, punished by stripes,

or paraded on a donkey witha blackened face, while the innocent hooka

hangs before you asa warning to others. Ifa person is caught flying

pigeons on a Friday, he is sent forth with the dead bird round his neck,

seated ona camel. If seen in the streets at the time of prayers, and con-

victed of such habitual neglect, fines and imprisonment follow ; yet there

are bands of the most abominable wretches who frequent the streets in

the evening, and encourage the violation of the Qoran. The laws

ofthe Faithful punish this offence with death, but the Commander of the

Faithful (the King is so called) sets an example to his subjects, and follows

the customs of his fore-fathers. Every thing indeed presents a tissue

of contradictions, and none were more apparent to me than the punish-

ment of these culprits, who were marching with all the pomp of publicity,

by the very gate way of the court, where human beings were levelled

with the brutes of the earth, no doubt against the laws of humanity, but

as certainly against the laws of Muhammed.

The Hindés of Bokhara sought our society with great avidity, for

that people seem always to look upon the English as their superiors.

They visited us in every country we passed, and would never speak

any other language than Hindustani, which seemed a bond of union

between us and them. In this country they appear to enjoy a suffici-

1833.] A wanderer, an Indian sepoy. 233

ent degree of toleration to enable them to live happily. An enume-

ration of their restrictions might make them appear a persecuted race.

They are not permitted to build temples, set up idols, or walk in pro-

cession; they do not ride within the walls of the city, and must wear

a peculiar dress. They pay the jzzzya, or capitation tax, which varies

from four to eight rupees a year; but this they only render in common

with others, not Muhammedans. They must never abuse or ill use a

Muhammedan. When the King passes their quarter of the city, they

must draw up and wish him health and prosperity. When on horseback

outside the city, they must dismount if they meet His Majesty, or the

Qazi. They are not permitted to purchase female slaves, as an infidel

-would defile a believer ; nor do any of them bring their families beyond the

Oxus. For these sacrifices, the Hindiis in Bokhdra live unmolested, and

in all trials and suits have equal justice with the Muhammedans. I could

hear of no forcible instance of conversion to Isldm, though three or

four individuals had changed their creed in as many years. The de-

portment of these people is most sober and orderly: one would imagine

that the tribe had renounced laughter, if he judged by the gravity of

their countenances. They themselves however speak highly of their

privileges, and are satisfied at the celerity with which they can realize

‘money, though it be at the sacrifice of their prejudices. There are

about three hundred Hindaés in Bokhdra, and they live ina caravan-

sery of their own. They are chiefly natives of Shikdrpir, in Sinde,

-and their number is on the increase. The Uzbeks and indeed all

the Muhammedans find themselves vanquished by the industry of these

people, who will stake the largest sums of money for the smallest gain.

Among the Hindis we had a singular visitor in a deserter from

‘the Indian Army at Bombay! He had set out on a pilgrimage to

-all the shrines of the Hindé world, and was then proceeding to

the fire temples on the shores of the Caspian. I knew many of

the officers of the Regiment (the 24th N. I.) to which he had be-

longed, and felt pleased at hearing names which were familiar to

me in this remote city. I listened with interest to the man’s detail

of his adventures and travels, nor was he deterred by any fear that I

would lodge information against him and secure his apprehension.

looked upon him as a brother in arms, and he amused me with many a

tale of our friend Murap Bue of Kindiz, whom he had served as a

bombardier, and followed in his campaigns. This man, when he first

‘shewed himself, was disguised in the dress of a pilgrim ; but the carriage

234 Description of Bokhara., (May,

of a soldier is not to be mistaken, though he has traversed the moun-

tains and deserts to Bokhara.

The house in which we lodged was exceedingly small, and over-

looked on every side’; but we could not regret it, since it present-

ed an opportunity of seeing a Tuirkt beauty, a most handsome young

lady, who promenaded one of the surrounding balconies, and wished

to think she was not seen. A pretended flight was not even neg-

lected by this fair one, whose curiosity often prompted her to steal

a glance at the Firingzs. Since we had a fair exchange, she was

any thing but an intruder, though unfortunately too distant for us to

indulge in the sweet ‘‘ music of speech.” The ladies of Bokhara stain

their teeth quite black, they plait their hair and allow it to hang in

tresses down their shoulders. Their dress differs little from the men;

they wear the same pelisses, only that the two sleeves, instead of being

used as such, are tucked together and tied behind. In the house even

they dress in large Hessian boots, made of velvet and highly ornamented.

What a strange taste for those who are eternally concealed, to choose

to be thus booted as if prepared for a journey. On the head they wear

large white turbans, but a veil covers the face, and many a lovely coun-

tenance wastes its fragrance beneath this netting. The exhibition of

beauty, in which so much of a woman’s time is spent in more favored

countries, is here unknown. A man may shoot his neighbour, if he

sees him on a balcony at any but a stated hour. Assassination follows

suspicion. The laws of the Qorda regarding the sex are here most

strictly enforced.

In my travels through Cabil I had often enjoyed the luxuries of the

bath, according to the custom of the Orientals. I now had the same

pleasure in Bokhara, but it was only admissable in some buildings,

since the priests had asserted that the water of certain baths would

change into blood if polluted by a woman or aninfidel! A bath is too

well known to require a description, but the operation is really most

singular, You are stretched out like a fish, rubbed with a hair brush,

‘scrubbed, buffetted and kicked about, but it is still very refreshing.

‘The baths of Bokhdra are most spacious. They are constructed on the

plan of a panoptagon, many smaller domes surrounding a great one,

and heated to different temperatures. In the day time the light is

admitted from coloured glasses over the large dome, in the night a

single lamp under it suffices for all the cells. The portion of the circle

towards Mecca is appropriated as a mosque, where the luxurious Mu-

hammedan may offer up his orisons while he is enjoying one of the

1833.] Interview with the Minister. 235

promised blessings of his prophet’s paradise. There are eighteen baths

in Bokhara, one or two are of very large dimensions; but the generality

of them bring in an annual income of 150 ¢il/as (1000 Rupees). This

is a calculation which may serve to number the inhabitants. Each indi-

vidual pays to the keeper of the bath ten pieces of brass money, of

which there are 135 in a rupee. About an hundred people may there-

fore bathe for a ¢illa, and 150 tillas will give 15,000 people to each

bath. Eighteen baths will give a total of 2,700,000, who enjoy the

luxury yearly. But the baths are only used during the cold months,

and some of the poorer people are never able to afford the ex-

pense.

I did not omit to pay my respects to the minister while I ram-

bled about the city, and Dr. Gerard in the course of ten days was

sufficiently recovered to accompany me. The Vizier was equally

inquisitive with the Nawab at Cabul regarding the manufacture of

medicines and plasters, and the Doctor endeavoured to meet his

wishes. We had however got into a more civilized region on our

approach to Europe, since the Vizier had received quinine and other

medicines from Constantinople. We sat with the minister, while he

was transacting business, and saw him levy his duties on the mer-

chants, who were never more liberally treated in any country. The

webs of cloth are produced, and every fortieth piece is taken in place of

duties. This gives the merchant his profits, nor distresses him for

ready-money. A Muhammedan indeed has only to take the name of

the prophet, stroke down his beard, and declare himself poor, to be

relieved from all duties. One man said he had witnesses to prove his

being in debt, and would produce them. The minister replied, Give us

your oath, we want no witnesses: he gave it, every one called out

‘«< God is great,” and said the ‘‘ fdtaha,”’ on which the goods were re-

turned without an iota ofcharge. With every disposition to judge fa-

yourably of the Asiatics, (and my opinions regarding them improved, as

I knew them better,) I have not found them free from falsehood : I fear,

therefore, that many a false oath is taken among them. No people

could be more liberal encouragers of commerce than the rulers of

Bokhara. During the reign of the last monarch the duties on goods

were never paid till they were sold, as in the bonding system of a Bri-

tish custom-house. The Vizier on this occasion conversed at great

length on subjects of commerce relating to Bokhdra and Britain, and

expressed much anxiety to increase the communication between the

countries, requesting that [ myself would return to Bokhara, and not

HH 2

936 Description of Bokhéra. [May,”

forget to bring a good pair of spectacles for his use. Our’ intercourse”

was now established on a footing which promised well : I took occasion

therefore to express a wish to the Vizier of paying my homage to the

King. I had touched on a tender point, forit appeared that the minister

had feared our being charged with some proposals to His Majesty,

which we concealed from himself. ‘‘ I am as good as the Amir,” (so-

the King is. called,) said he, ‘‘ and if you have no matters of business

to transact with the king, what have travellers to do with courts?” I

told him of our curiosity on these points, but he did not choose that

we should have the honor, and that was sufficient for abandoning the

suit.

I’ was nevertheless resolved to have a sight of Royalty, and at

mid-day on the following Friday repaired to the great mosque, a

building of Timourlane, and saw His Majesty and his court pass-

ing from prayers. The King appears to be under thirty years of age,

and has not a prepossessing countenance; his eyes are small, his:

visage gaunt and pale. He was plainly dressed ina silken robe of.

“audrus,’ with a white turban. He sometimes wears an aigrette of:

feathers, ornamented with diamonds: The Qordn was carried in front:

of him, and he was preceded and followed by two golden mace-bearers,

who exclaimed in’ Turkish, ‘‘ Pray to God that the Commander of the

Faithful may act justly !’’ His suite did not exceed an hundred people ;

most of them were dressed in robes of Russian brocade, and wore gold

ornamented swords—I should call them knives, the mark of honor in

this country. His present Majesty has more state than any of his pre-

decessors; but he may consider it necessary to affect humility in a tem-

ple, and in returning from a religious ceremony. The people drew up

by the way side as he passed, and with a stroke of their beards wished

His Majesty peace; I did the same. The character of this King, Bana-

puR Kuan, stands high among his countrymen ; at-his elevation to

the throne, he distributed all his wealth. _He is strict in his religious

observances, and less bigotted than his father Mir Hyper. He acts

according to the Qordn in all cases, and it is pretended that he even

lives on the capitation tax which is levied from the Jews and Hindis.

The revenues of the country are said to be spent in maintaining

mullahs and mosques ; but this young King is ambitious and warlike,

and I believe that it is therefore more probable he turns his treasure

to the increase of his power.

The life of this King is less enviable than that of most private

men. The water which he drinks is brought in skins from the river;

1833.] Russian Slaves. 237°

under the charge and seal of two officers. It is opened by the Vizier,

and first tasted by his people, and then by himself, when it is again

sealed and dispatched to the King. The daily victuals of His Majesty

undergo a like examination: the minister eats, he gives to those around

him, they wait the lapse of an hour to judge of their effect, when they

are locked up in a box and dispatched! His Majesty has one key and

his minister another. Fruit, sweetmeats, and every eatable undergo

the same examination, and we shall hardly suppose the good King of

the Uzbeks ever enjoys a hot meal or a fresh-cooked dinner. Poison

is in frequent request, as we may judge by the homely occupations of a

‘minister of state. The rise of His Majesty himself to the throne he

now holds is not however without strong suspicion of a free distribu-

tion of such draughts ; but the detail of those events belongs to another

portion of my subject.

I expressed a wish soon after reaching Bokhdra to see some of

the unfortunate Russians who have been sold into this country. One

evening, a stout and manly looking person fell at my feet and kissed

them. He was a Russian of the name of Gregory Putuxorr, who

had been kidnapped when asleep at an outpost, about twenty-five

years ago; he was the son of a soldier, and now followed the

trade of a carpenter. I made him sit down with us, and give an

account of his woes and condition. It was our dinner time, and the

poor carpenter helped us to eat our pilao. Though but ten years of

age when captured, he yet retained his native language, and the most

ardent love to return to his country. He paid seven tillas a year to

his master, who allowed him to practise his trade, and keep all he

might earn beyond that sum. He hada wife and child, also slaves. ‘‘ I

am well treated by my master,” said he, ‘‘ Igo where I chose, I asso-

ciate with the people and personify the part of a Muhammedan, I appear

happy, but my heart burns for my native land, where I would serve in

the most despotic army with gladness. Could I but see it again, I

would willingly die.. I tell you my feelings, but I smother them from

the Uzbeks. I am yet a Christian, (here the poor fellow crossed himself

after the manner of the Greek Church,) and I live among a people

who detest with the utmost cordiality every individual of that creed.

It is only for my own peace that I call myself a Muhammedan.” The

poor fellow had acquired all the habits and manners ofan Uzbek, nor

should I have been able to distinguish him but for his blue eyes, red

beard, and fairer skin. He inquired of me with much earnestness if

there were any hopes of him and his comrades being released; but I

238 Deséription of Bokhara. [May,

could give him no further news than the floating rumours which I had

heard of the Emperor’s intention to suppress the traffic by an army.

He told me that the last embassy to Bokhdra under M. Neert had

failed to effect that desired end, but that the sale of Russians had

ceased in Bokhdra for the last ten years. There were not at present

130 natives of Russia in the kingdom.

The whole of those in Bokhdra would have been released by the

Ambassador, had not some religious discussion arisen on the propriety

of allowing Christians who had become Muhammedans to relapse into

their idolatry ! The mullahs had seen the pictures in the Greek Church,

and no argument will reverse what they state to be the evidence of

their senses, that the Russians worship idols. There is generally some

difference of opinion on all points, and that of the Russians and Bokhd-

rés on the subject of slavery was much at variance. The Muhamme-

dans are not sensible of any offence in enslaving the Russians, since

they state that Russia herself exhibits the example of a whole country

of slaves, and particularly in the despotic government of her soldiery.

‘« If we purchase Russians,” say they, ‘‘ the Russians buy the Kazzaks

on our frontier. We are Muhammedans, and they tamper with these

people by threats, bribery, and hopes to make them forsake their creed

and become idolators. Look, on the other hand, at the Russians in

Bokhara, at their liberty, comfort, and toleration, and compare it with

the black bread and unrelenting tyranny which they experience in their

native country, and which has on some occasions driven them voluntarily

to us.”’ We shall not attempt to decide between the parties, but it is a

melancholy reflection on the liberties of Russia, that they admit of a

comparison with the institutions of a Tartar kingdom, whose pity, it is

said, is only upon a par with the tyranny of the Afghan.

With Russians, Hindiis, and Uzbeks, our circle of acquaintance at

Bokhara soon increased, and most of the Afghan and Cabdél merchants

sought our society, and we could not but feel gratified at the favorable

Opinion entertained by them of the British in India. One of them,

Sirwar Kuan, a Lohanee merchant of great opulence, to whom we

‘were never introduced, offered us any money we might require, and did

it in a manner that left no doubt of his sincerity. We were assailed

by him and his countrymen, and even by Uzbeks, to give notes of

hand, certifying our acquaintance with them; for the Afghans be-

lieve the hand-writing to be a bond of union between English-

men, and that the possession of it secures them an honorable recep-

tion in India. We complied with the wishes of those who deserved

1833.] On the Climate of Nagpir. 239

our confidence. Among our other friends was a Cashmér merchant,

who wished me much to assist him in the preparation of cochineal,

which is, I believe, found in Bokhdra, as a worm attached to the root of

a wild shrub. There was also an old man named Hasr Mirux, who had

seen the world from Canton to Constantinople, and secretly brought

many old coins and rarities which are acceptable to Europeans. The

most intimate perhaps of all our acquaintance was our landlord, an

Uzbek merchant, named Maxusum, who traded to Ydrkand. He paid

us a daily visit, and generally brought some of his friends along with

him. I shall mention an incident regarding this person, which is cre-~

ditable to him. He was a most communicative man, and gave me much

interesting information: as our intimacy increased,I interrogated him

closely on the revenues and resources of Bokhara, on its extent and

power, and produced a small map of the country to exhibit before him.

He replied to all my inquiries, and then begging me to shut up the

map, besought me never again to produce such a paper in Bokhdra,

since there were innumerable spies about the King, and it might be

productive of very serious consequences. He still continued his visits,

and his information with the same freedom as before. On our first

arrival in the city, the keeper of the caravansary refused us quarters,

because we had no character, that is, we were neither merchants nor

ambassadors ; but this good man had let his house tous. He had

been attacked by his neighbours, terrified by his friends, and he

himself trembled at the risk which he had incurred. The keeper of

the caravansary now hid his head in shame, and the landlord shared

our intimacy; his neighbours curried favor with him to be brought to

us, and our society was more courted than was agreeable.

III.—On the Climate of Nagpar. By W. Geddes, Surgeon, Mad. Eur. Reg.

To the Editor of the Journal of the Asiatic Society.

At the request of my friend, Mr. Maucoumson, of the left wing,

Madras European Regiment, I have the pleasure to forward the result

of some meteorological observations, which he tells me may be inter-

esting to you. Iam much afraid that he may have given you reason

to expect more useful information on this subject than I have it in my

power to give you; but the truth is, that I have generally confined my

observations to the appearances on the sky, in the shape of clouds, and

have paid less attention to the indications given by instruments; as J

240 On the Climate of Nagpur. [May,

have been so situated that I have either not had sufficient: leisure to

make a regular series of observations on the latter, or those instru-

ments in my possession have not been sufficiently correct to allow me

to depend much upon them. This you will at once observe from the

circumstance of my barometrical inquiries being made on the sympie-

someter, in the accompanying table ; and you will perceive that the in-

strument I have, which was received here apparently in good order, in

the month of January, 1831, from England, has become liable to the

objections made to it, by yourself, in the 15th volume of the Asiatic

Researches*, and this to such a degree, that Iam doubtful whether you

can make any use of the results which I now send you. They fully

bear out however your own observations. In Europe, it appears, the

instrument is conceived to rise in its indications, instead of lowering, as

with us, at least if I may judge from a note made in the 10th volume of

Brewster’s Journal of Science; although, by the bye, the remark israther

obscure. With respect to the hygrometer used by me, it is one upon

Kater’s plan of the oubina grasst, made by Rosrnson, in Devonshire

Street, which is convenient from the facilities of ascertaining its indi-

cations. Its extreme dryness is 0, extreme moisture 9.05, and the

state of the atmosphere is at once shown from the index on the top of

the instrument. By some trials made with DaniE.u’s hygrometer, 1.64

of Kater was equal to 31 degrees of dryness, and 1.96 of the former to

26 of dryness, and 3.69 to 10 degrees, as indicated by the dew-point

on Danreti}. You will perceive that I have not made my observations

at the extremes of the diurnal changes in the atmosphere; but as I have

already said, I have been in the habits chiefly of noting the state of

my instrument more as explanatory of the appearances on the sky,

than with other objects, and have accordingly chosen the periods which

were most convenient to myself, for recording their indications. The

state of the seasons, as extracted from my medical reports, will explain

some points regarding the thermometer, and the quantity of rain given

is that observed to have fallen at Nagpur at the distance of nine miles

of this place, and which was recorded by Dr. Wruuiz, late Residency

Surgeon there.

* Vide also GLEANINGS IN SCIENCE, i. 201.

t+ (Andropogon contortum.)

t As the temperature, at which these comparisons were made, is not mentioned,

it is impossible to form a correct scale for KATER’s hygrometer : the safest plan will

be to assume that equal increments denote nearly equal accessions of aqueous ten-

sion ; 9.05 being 100 or extreme moisture, each indication may be divided by 9 to

find the tension roughly.—Ep.

= “a +732} pazjyoM B JO soUaNYur ay} Aq PoyelA » : : :

wee “1 68 | 62 | 28 | S8 },08 | 68 | 89 |_09 |¥9z 1g'0)9¢°0 98°0|F9'0;48'0| 28°0)12'0 |st'olge LiF —|0'— | F' —| G0'— ,00°82| 0%'— | 1" — 81’ — | 8e"— | °° * yore

“ 1 gg | &Z | 62 | 82/62 |7E8 | 69 FOS | 89 |20°1\62'0|Z8°L 90'129'0|66'1|Z8°1162'0|0F'@| Le — [ele 9¢'— | 91'—|ce'— |8h'—|26'— 2g — | **Arensqad

“ «1 es lEg9 | aZ | eZ |#89 | 82 [299 | Zh | 29 oT |€e'1)122) Fo 1/80'1|09%)82 108 [ros | GP" |ce"— 19 €p—|8e'—|9G°— 85 — | 0P'— |Z — | ‘east “uer

ce ee bglé ['29 [E04 fez €29 | 22 \€pG | Sp )€69 IGLI|FL'T86°C/P2 TPL) 80'S 01%! Le L028! Fr —| le'—|09'— | Ze" — 96 — |G" — |eG'— | 66199" | saquia20q

“ “leez | ez si8z [Foz [Fez | 08 [F389 | PS |Fe9 |29T/8P'L/68 TFS] Zo 1/281) LL% /06'T weal Le'—| Le'—|9q'— or — | ee" —|sr'—| 99 —| 2h] 69 — [s2quoson

og \€zz | pg |€18 |_8Z 1298 | 29 [#89 | 92 [6811960] 20'S |/eZ'1!48'0|49°%| G4'% | 96° |0G'E|82' — | EL — | &P'— | F'—|90'— 6E'— |8E'— | 06 — | EG f° *xaq0790

LZ“2 {18 |€9z | 8 | eg l¥42 |_98 |_%Z | 8Y | GZ |En'E|9% G26) 7L°5|99'L) 18'S 66") 80°F |82°) 06 — | 80° 0¢'—|PI'—|00'8z/Sl'— | 96'— | G1 — 88° — |Aaquiaydeg

9F'e |F62 | 8Z jFIS | 08 | 8Z iFeB |PeZ | GZ | SZ lear 62'¢|99 Sl 6r'r|4c'e| SG'G| FEF SL’ P|£9°G|Z1'— | F0'8G|&B'— |60°8G|86'—| 06 — | 8L'— 1083/86" — | °° *“Fsusn y

6rrtlses | 62 | 98 [fs | 62 | ze |t9z |¥ez |_6z OEP |0e's FE'S| 8T'F|80°|8h'S|e9'F| 79'S |4r°S| 00 82\ Z8'—| OL —] 46 —|€8'— | 01 — 90° — |@6'—|8L-— °° ** “Ayn

108 | 98 | zg | £6 | FG | 8 |FPorlFIs | 94 [Fos |eo/€9'0/69'9]08'T/€2'0/02'¢| 18 Z) 22'0| G8°G|26-Ze) 08 |P0'— [68°26 )08'—)20"— BO'—|06'ZU}9I'— |*** **‘aung

6 a £16 68 | 6 | 46 | G6 | got} Os |Z \f98 | — | — — | — | — | x; 18°0199'0! zr'1| 90° —|86'2e|€ —|r0'— £6'26|21'—|S1'— | 90 —|96— ress Kony

S “ “ltzs | 8 | 6 | 86 | 48 | 66 [92 | 02 | 68 )12'0/ZE'0/S€'1)99'0/£€'0) ee 1| 26°0/£9°0| 291 Fe — 90'—|%h'— |S’ —|S0'— |9¢'— 198° — |@@'— bg — [°° °° “qudy

S eh | 22 | £4 | 28 | 08 | £4 | 78 #29 | €9 | 04 [Te L/S0'T91'E|2e'T| 16'0/88'¢|E2 1/911] 99'e| 0S — | 26’ — 89 — | Fh’ — | 08 | L9'— | P9°— |ea'—| 18" |" * Pozen

> 86%, tLZ | 69 | ZZ | PZ \€89 |%08 169 | GE |€99 |19°%| Zo'L| £o°S| che 02'I| Z9°S| G0°S| 66'1|89'S| 69'— | 9P'— |F8'—| 19°— |p" 1242 — 82" | 19 | F6'8G | * Aten agony

“a9 | 99 | az |F69 #99 | HZ [Fea | Lp | 69 /66'R|SP'L|C8'E| 19% Ge"1) Gz'¢| Fe 09% |E0'S 73'—|08'—|¢6'—| Zz’ |0z'—|Z8'— |86 — | 28— | 90"— | * ‘est wer

> #28 | 2 | 04 | HZ [F%z | 04 | LZ |.€9 | 09 | 69 |1TS/86'S) £8°S) 26°F) Loe | €6'9! E'S 067/929 19'—|P4—|e6'— | 08'—|04'— |68'—| 16 —|£8'— | 00°66 | “4oquieoeg

wo 466 | eZ | 02 | 64 lire | LZ | Is |fs¢ | 6P | IZ |99°%'19'T|62°S| €9'%! Ze LSPS] e%'€|9e'%)g9°S|82'—| 19° — | 48° |¢z'— |g —|@8'— | £8 — | 02 — | 96'— | “taquroaony

S rez | 18 | oz | og [tte | 221 o8 [TZ | 69 | zz lecre/ZTB/0l'S /ce'e| 6° 01'S| SPP /S2'/e8"G|09'— | 09 — |92—| Ea" |e 102189 aa 198 ** aqo~O

= so 1llt1s | 0g | es \f28 1,64 |_48 [Faz ; &2 | 82 |68'h| OP's | 98'S) 19°F |€0°€) 96'S e1'S| Ge'F/G1'9|09'— [OF — |€9'"— | Pr’ [ee aa o0— la — g9'— |‘equisydog

es SFPl! [8 | 62 | €8 | 28 #82 |fog \faz | ez [#gz |zer|es'r|029|01's|ze'¢lzz¢| ene! 2o'b|Gz-c\6r'—| Ze —|09'—| 9p’ —|Ge'—|99°— | 99 —¢h"— | Z9-— |" + “gsnsny

~ o@4 | 81 08 | 16 |F98 £94 | €6 |,82 | 84 /fe8 |T8'E 91%, 89°C|gz'e|Z1 Gi se'e|ce | 0Cs|Gaa| Py — |€e — 69 — | IP — |e — ce—|1¢—ler—lzo— [+++ ‘Aimg

ns 84 EI) 68 ) zg | 66 \f68 | 18 | 66 \f18 [tz | o6 |9cz| 2701867! 69°%|8F'0| Io'e|az'o|24'0) 297 | Ze — | FL — |€9'— | 98" |e — |09'— | Sh |08' —]09'-~ | °°" * * “anne

Sc «| 96 1,86 | 86 |f96 | %6 | 66 ¥S8 | 08 | €6 |89'0|S@'0|76°0|Z9'0/Ze'0| £0'T |69°0|€¢'0|Ze'I | 6E'— | Go — | 40'— | 9¢"— |0G'— |9P'— | OF CE |6S"— |” * ‘AETK

S . «| 48 |f08 | &6 | 88 | £8 [fe6 |F8z | 69 | 98 |Sr'1/Sr'0 LPS) PSI 8h O10E'| ZZ°T|€S'0]|E9'% | E9'— | Sb'— |@8'82| 09'— | OF —108'8t|P4'— IFS" |G6'Se | °""* judy

« «1 og | az | 98 [fos | Z| 98 |t69 | oo | 8 [IZ T/ST'1) 98 |68'L|£0'1|s1-¢/€0'%| 0G 1] 9E"e 68'— |S9°— | E0"— 16229" | FO €6'86|92'—|a1'— |" ** “yore,

‘pz | iz 108 \goz | oz | ¢8 | 29 | t¢ | 89 | —] —| —} —] — 1 —] 7] | — ]06'86/92'82|Z1 63] 28'86/2'82| E166 |C0'6G)| 16 8GiFE'GS | 1EBL “Gd

el elelelzlrlelelFlelFleeFlPe FS EIFIFIEIFILIZIEIEIE

2 o O° — D> fo) = o ° _. oO ° oo oO °o =r - ° =o - ro) — oD fo} —s oO ° ts

oe = Z| & g oe 3 ool 2 ge oa og oe 3 0g

st | eh a * $a oe ei : * ; * : ™ "gyno

‘asno “asnou ‘ule dado =... re ., 7 =) —.

on ayy Ut ie g | 043 ar‘ os zg | ay} at astiung eos W'dG aN ag) Wd eek

as *19J9WOUIY, J, “Ae, | *19JaWOISA FT 8,19}8 *rajamosatduikg

aa “aUsngoun “EESl YOLDYT 97 “LEST “Gaq mous ‘andbogy wvau ‘Yydwoy 7p appus $u01,0a.1asqO yoovboj0.10870 Ay

242 On the Climate of Nagpir. [May,

Extracts of Meteorological Remarks made in the Periodical Returns from the

Medical Department of the Right Wing, Madras European Regiment, stationed

at Kamptt.

First quarter of 1831.—‘‘ The period includes the last half of

the cold and the commencement of the hot season. In January of the

present quarter, the sky was for the most part clear throughout the

month, the cloudy appearances never extending beyond a little cirrus,

or cirro-cumulus, or a few cumuli dissolving in the evening ; and the

wind was most generally from some part of the west in the morning,

and the east in the course of the day, but seldom blowing with great

strength from any quarter, or continuing past sunset. The last day of

January and first five days of February exhibited appearances of a more

moist state of the atmosphere, with a greater variety in the cloudy for-

mations, and there was a slight rain through the greater part of the

second of this month, and again more heavily in the afternoon of the

fourth. During the remainder of February, likewise, a greater degree of

humidity prevailed, than in January, and nimbal masses were frequent-

ly to be seen around the horizon in the afternoon, or evening. The

sky was generally covered with a layer, more or less dense or irregular,

of a cirro-cumulous nature in the morning, and from this occasionally a

few drops of rain were found to fall about sunrise, while cumuli succeed-

ed to this in the course of the day. On the third the sky was obscured

by a fog in the morning, and again on the 2ist and 22nd a less degree

of this description of cloud was present at the same time, in either case

ending in cumuli. These cumuli, from whatever source originating,

often changed into cirro-cumuli in the evening, and in other cases

went on at an earlier part of the day, to form cumulo-strati, or nimbal

clouds on various parts of the horizon. Excepting from the latter clouds,

cirrus was but rarely seen, and there were only three perfectly

clear days throughout the month. The wind, which was occasionally

modified in the afternoon by the presence of clouds, observed the same

general course as in January; but occasionally southerly wind began

early in the forenoon, changing afterwards to one from the north-east,

and this also was often found blowing more steadily than in the pre-

ceding month. The month of March presented occasional short peri-

ods of a moist description, having cumulo-stratus masses formed in the

afternoon, and from one of these a considerable fall of rain took place

on the night of the 10th. At other times, the appearances were much like

those of the preceding months, but in a less degree, and the wind in

general followed the same course as in February.”

Second quarter of -1831.—‘ This period, as mentioned in former

report, includes the height of the hot season, and the commencement of

1833.] On the Climate of Nagptr. 243

the rains. The seasons in general in this country, succeed to each

other with so much regularity, and each in its appropriate period exhi-

bits so little variety in the circumstances of different years, that it ap-

pears unnecessary to enlarge upon those of the present season, further

than to point at same period of last year. Referring therefore to my

report for this quarter of 1830, I have to state, that the chief peculiari-

ties of the present season have been a greater, and more continued,

degree of heat, than in the hot months of last year, a somewhat more

early occurrence of the rains, and their being in greater abundance

than during the month of June, in 1830. In the beginning of April,

several showers fell, andone* of these, on the 8th of the month, consist-

ed of hailstones, the largest of which varied from six to nine inches in

circumference. From this period, however, on to the commencement

of the monsoon, with the exception of a few drops at distant periods,

no rain took place, and this space of two months was one unbroken

continuation of hot-weather. During this time a registering thermo-

meter, exposed to a breeze in an outer room, shewed the rising of the

quicksilver daily from the 27th of April to the 7th of June, with three

exceptions, to from 100 to 107. To this succeeded the rains, which

commenced on the afternoon of the latter date, and throughout the re-

mainder of the month showers took place almost daily ; the quantity of

rain by the end a the month being nearly double that of the same

ede of last year.”

‘ Third quarter of 1831.—*‘* This period comprises the chief part

of the rains, and at the same time the most unhealthy portion of the

year, As mentioned in last report, a great quantity of rain fellin June;

but this was followed by a dry period of twenty days, viz. from the

22nd of June, until the 11th of July. The remainder of the latter

month was, generally speaking, wet, especially towards the end of the

month ; but altogether the rain which fell in July was somewhat below

the quantity in the same period of last year. The month of August in

both years has been attended with the most continued rain of the sea-

son, and this has kept upa continued degree of moisture on the surface

throughout the month. In September, there have been a few larger

intervals of fair weather, but occasionally heavy falls of rain have taken

place, and the ground has been in a constantly moist state in conse-

quence. The monsoon, on the whole, has been accompanied with the

average quantity of rain, the chief peculiarities being the extensive fall

m June, and the succeeding dry weather until the middle of July.

The wind, as usual, has been chiefly from the westward, and, at times,

in the early part of the season, has blown with considerable strength.

oer * Vide page 5.

244 On the Climate of Nagpur. [Mar,

In the month of August, however, and more especially in September,

there have been occasionally north or south easterly winds, and some of

these have been attended with heavy falls of rain.”

Fourth quarter of 1831.—‘‘ The weather throughout the quarter

has shewn little of that settled appearance which formed its principal

feature in the same period of last year, and which is usual at this season.

A greater tendency to the formation of cloudy masses upon the sky,

and the frequent deposition of rain from these, has continued to prevail

after the termination of the usual rainy months, than was manifested

during the same period of 1830, and has given altogether to the pre-

sent season the peculiarity of a combination of cold and moisture; but,

at the same time, a less degree of extreme heat and cold, than are usual

at Kampté at this period of the year. The rain has fallen particularly

from the 15th to the 20th of October, in the first and last week of

November, and in the beginning, and from the 15th to the 26th of

December. ‘The winds have in the intervals of settled weather fol-

lowed their usual course in these months, of blowing slightly from the

eastward in the fore and afternoons, and occasionally in the evening ;

while, in the night and morning, there has either been a calm, or a

slight wind from the westward. In the more unsettled portions of the

quarter, the wind has either been irregular, or modified by the presence:

or passage of raining clouds, or it has shifted from either the north-

east or south, to another quarter, from whence it has blown for a day

or two, and the chADeR has been generally attended by a greater or less

degree of rains.’

First half yearly return of 1832.—‘ The period, comprising the.

last half of the cold season, the whole of the hot-weather, and the

commencement of the rains, has altogether been a favourable one with

respect to the health of the regiment : and this circumstance appears to

be referrible to the genial nature of the season, the temperature of

which remained cool to a much later period than is usual; while along

with this coolness, there has been more generally present a dry state

of the atmosphere, than in the same seasons of the preceding years.

The extreme heat, in the table prefixed, of Fahrenheit’s thermometer ap-

pears greater, from the observations being taken in the two latter

months, on a registering thermometer, and the records being made

from the hottest period of the day. The general features of the wea-

ther have, as recorded in former reports, consisted, in the early

part of the half year, of cool, generally cloudless, days, with little wind,

diversified on the 20th of February by a considerable fall of rain, with

wind from the eastward ; and, latterly, until the 8th of June there has

been a gradual or irregular increase of temperature, with occasional

1833.] On the Climate of Nagpir. 245

marks of greater moisture in the atmosphere ; but excepting slightly on

the 20th of March, no rain has fallen beyond a few drops till the peri-

od of June above-mentioned.. The course of the season altogether has

been observed to be more backward than is usual. The temperature

has remained low to a later period ; the progress of vegetation, as exhi-

bited in the time of flowering of trees, and the maturation of their fruits,

has been considerably behind what has been observed in previous years ;

and connected perhaps with the same cause, the rains have been be-

yond their more regular season of shewing themselves. Thus, after a

little partial rain on the 8th of June, the hot winds recommenced, and

there was no further fall of rain until the 17th of the month; since

which period, till the date of this report, the season has resumed its

usual course, and the weather has become moist and cool, with occa

sional falls of rain.”

6th. Second half year of 1832.—‘‘ The period which includes the

greater part of the rainy season, and half of the cold weather, has been

distinguished by the abrupt cessation of the former, and the long con-

tinuance accordingly of a dry state of the atmosphere, with its neces-

sary consequence ofa less degree of moisture of the soil, and of vegeta-

tion ; and, as will be supposed also, of sources of malaria. The regular

rains may indeed be said to have terminated in the end of July in the

present season; for in the month of August, in which usually the most

continued or heavy falls take place, there has only been about a quarter of

the usual supply, divided however very generally over the whole month;

while in September, about half the quantity of the last two years has fallen,

the greater part of which took place in the first four days of the month,

and again on the 20th and 2lst. Since this period, with the exception

of a single shower on the 7th of October, and a slight rain on the 10th

of December, the weather has been perfectly dry, exhibiting a settled

appearance, with a cloudless sky ; or it has been more or less disturbed

by the presence of rain or storms in neighbouring latitudes, chiefly, it

would appear, from other observations, to the eastward. Altogether,

the quantity of rain of the present season does not exceed half of that

of 1831, or two-thirds of 1830; and the fall is further peculiar in this,

that unlike that of last year, which continued heavily on through the

months of August, September, October, November, and December, and

of 1830, which was also heavy in August and September, with a consi-

derable fall likewise in October, the chief portion of the present year

has taken place in the months of June and July, with only a scanty

supply afterwards.”

During the months of January, February, and March, 1833, the chief

feature has been the continued dry state of the atmosphere; and, accord-

246 On the Climate of Nagpir. [May,

ingly, the cloudy appearances, which have for a day or two, at times,

shewn a less degree of this state, have never gone on to rain further

than a few drops; while the weather has generally continued for long

periods of an extremely settled appearance.

The hail-storm on the 8th of April, 1831, was referred at the time to

the occurrence of an opposite current of dry winds, which appeared to

impinge upon the sheet of rain presented to its influence, and the fol-

lowing: description, taken from notes immediately afterwards, seems to

‘confirm this idea. Neither the sympiesometer or thermometer shewed

any thing worthy of notice at this period. The hygrometer had

through the 6th and 7th of the month ranged from 1.40 to 1.72, and

during the 8th, it stood at 2.17 at 9 a. M., 2.12 at 2 Pp. M., and 2.22

at 8 p. m. Until past 2 p. m. the appearances on the sky had been

cirrus from a distant nimbal cloud in the morning, cirro-cumulus,

loose cirro-stratus, and some cumuli, passing below this, also of a loose

structure. The wind had been blowing from the eastward in the morn-

ing, changing in the forenoon to the south-east, and continuing from

thence afterwards; but towards 2 p. m. the course of the cumuli above

shewed a current of air flowing there from the westward. Shortly af-

ter two, some distant thunder was heard, and the sky had become

nearly covered with cirrus. Cumuli were observed to commence rain-

ing in the west, and they increased in size, and approached from that

direction about 4p. m. Another nimbus was seen in the south-east-

ward, while that in the west was advancing, and loud gusts of wind

with much dust began blowing from the former towards the latter. In

the mean time, the western cloud kept approaching, the rain falling

from it, presenting a whitish appearance above the dust, some scud

was seen passing before it, in a course towards the east, and immedi-

ately a heavy fall of hail took place, driven by a wind from the west-

ward. The hail continued to fall for several minutes, and the course

of the cloud towards the east could be traced for at least four miles, by

the damage done to the fruit trees, glazed windows, &c. in the canton-

ment. The breadth of the shower however was extremely small, the

ground being found quite dry at a few hundred yards to the south-

ward from where the hail, or rather the masses of ice, fell in greatest

quantity. These masses were irregular, and clean on the outer surface .

but in the centre presented a white crystallized appearance. Through-

out the evening afterwards, several large cumulo-strati were seen in the

east, with much lightning there; and a cool breeze blew from thence,

with cumulous fragments of cloud on a clear sky.

W. G.

18332] Rise of Spring tides in Bombay Harbour. 247

IV.—Table shewing the Rise of Spring tides in Bombay Harbour, during

night and day, for the year 1832, communicated bg Ben. Noton, Esq.

SS TS

——_ ———

Rise of the Tide.

Date and state

Date and state Rise of the Tide.

of the Moon. ;————— -—} of the Moon. =

Day. Night. Day. Night.

#¢.' tint ft. lik ft. in. ft.” ine

January 14 | 0 0 145 406 11 0 Oo | 14 6

15 3) G 16 0 12 13 9 15 6

16 14 9g 16° "5 13 14 6 15 9

O17 1 0 E74 9 14 15 6 16 0

18 1 9 7 it Old Mb 9 16 0

19 16 0 7 su 16 16 0 | 1 5

20 | 16 0 17 6 17 15.¢8 14 6

21 1 6 | 0 0 18 15 (2 | 0 Oo

28 | 0 0 12 6 26 0 0 12 9

29 ae: 6 297 12 9 13S

30 | 12 0 1483 28 12°) 6 4 3

31 12. 1.6 | 1 0 29 | 14 6 4 9

February 1 | tS ) 2 1 Se ees) 30 TD: 4, 1G 15 O

@2 13/6 ee 1 16 3 15 5

3 14 0 1 2 ripe iy A is 3

4 14 2 | 0 oO 3 16 9 | 0 0

12 | Ld atals 6 10 0 0 | 13. 3

13 12 6 1478 11 3 14 0

14 15%) ¢ 1 9 12 | a2 |g 4 3

15 14 6 16 9 13 14 9 | 4 1S

O16 ae, | 7-3 O14 1 0 a 3

17 16 9 DOOM 15 15 0 13° 9

18 15 9 tr 0 16 14 9 3 3

19 5 3 a 6 17 3 0 O

27 0 0 | il 6 26 | 0 0 | 13 «0

28 mT 6 12 9 27 16 is 6

pot hepa 'é | 14 0 8° | “ta ee Pages

March 1 3 10 Loe 20 29 16 £0 14 «6

@2 | 123-6 1 9 @30 16 3 i146

ep eeeange |. tae. 9 31 | ee od ae ae

4 1 0 15 6 1 16 9 | 13

5 a1 9 0 0 2 | 16 6 0 0

12 | 0 0 1.6 9 0 0 | 13. 0

13 iz 6 1 0 10 | 14 0 136

14 14 0 166 3 11 ‘| ‘da 4-9 | 14 0

15 14} .9 16 9 12. (hts. 13 he

O16 15 6 17.0 O13 15 6 | 14 6

17 1b 9 17 ew 14 5 9 14 9

18 16 0 16 6 15 P..) bl 4 9

19 | 16 0 0 0 16 | 1 9 0 0

27 0 Oo 12..3 24 0 Oo Iu. 0

28 "6 iy 6 25 14 0 if. 6

29 12 9 14 9 26 15 6 14° 6

30 1G 15 0 27 16 6 | 4 9

31 14 6 is 3 @28 7 |) 6 1 0

Apri @1 mB 3 15 9 29 17 6 15° M8

2 1 9 16 0 30 17-59 4

3 16 0 0 0 Wuly 1 17 4 0 Oo

248 Rise of Spring tides in Bombay Harbour. ‘[May,

Date and state Rise of the Tide. } Date and state Rise of the Tide.

of the Moon. = a a of the Moon. —e

Day. Night. § Day Night

ft. in. ttn. F | ft. in ft. in.

July 8 0 0 | 12 0 .October 5 0 O | ll 6

9 | RR) 13. 76 6 | 12 9 12 6

10 13. «9 12 9 7 131.9 | 13. 6

Tat aa 8 13. 0 8 uo im Ss

12 Ti 13 0 9 14) 205 | 1 0

O13 a 13. 0 O10 15. (On ls der tee

14 1411 | 13° 0 11 | 15 0 1 66

45 | 1411 | 0 of 12 £8 | 0-20

23 0 0 12 0 20 | 0 0 | 13 9

24 | 14 0 13. 0 21 to) .9 14 9

25 1403 iO 22 | ee RS | 1 6

26 | 16 4°3 | Geo 23. 115°) Gaal te Ses

275) 2 plF Sheep ANS p06 @24 | 15 6 | 16 3

298 17 | Gat 16° 20 25 5s 3 16. 0

29 | 17. «9 16° °3 26 | 14 9 1 6

30 phi 0 0 a7 | 13 5 0 0

August 7 | 0 O 11 9 November 4 0 0 | 12 6

8 12) \ 33 12 38 5 13 13 16

9 14 3 12 8 6 i 9 6

10 | i ‘6 | ise Ss 7 Tees 15 9

Oll 14 9 LShe.'6 O 8 14 19 IGo03

12 | 1 0 13 10 9 14 11 16 6

13 15 1 13 10 10 14°09 16°°3

14 | 15.))-1 0 O 11 14 0 0 0

22 0 O oes 18 o-@ 14 0

23 14.493 | 3) was 19 14 0 14 9

24 1 «6 14 6 20 14 6 15 6

25 | 16 6 1 0 21 a) 16 3

@26 16 9 1 9 @22 | 14 9 16 3

27 16 9 16 0 ad a 16; .3

28 16 9 Ts | 9 24 14 0 1 9

29 | 16 3 0 0 25 13. 6 0 O

September 5 0 0 11 6 [December 3 0 0 | 13. (0

6 | Tih 9 ahh NO pie Ee ee ee

7 13. 6 12 6 5 13 6 1 0

8 14 3 | i37"'3 6 143 16 6

9 | 14 9 14 0 7 4 9 1750

10 15 (OO 4 8 O 8 1b 0 7 8

ou 1 3 14 6 9 1 0 7)

12 1 3 0 Oo 10 15 Oxy ton, Duet

20 | 0 0 | 12 0 18 06 TAS '9

21 TAj3 13. 0 19 13.43 14 9

22 15 0 Tia 20 i313 1b 43

23 16 0 5.8 Oy hie a a 15 9

@24 16pu 3 15 10 92 13.,\.,6)9ipiglaiaes

25 16 3 16 0 23 13. 6 16 0

26 16 0 15 6 24 13°? rsa |

27 14 9 0 O 2 | 13 0 0 0

1833.] On the Native Manufacture of Turpentine. 249

V.—On the Native Manufacture of Turpentine.

It would be an useful point of inquiry to discover in how far we

may turn the natural as well as artificial products of this country to

account, without looking elsewhere, and particularly to England: in

the shape of magazine stores, Government has from the beginning been

importing articles of various descriptions at a great expence, and at

great risk; many of which are not only procurable in the country, but

to be purchased at a rate much lower, and of a quality infinitely superi-

or, to those from England. No person acquainted with the interior of

an arsenal or magazine, who has given the matter any consideration

whatever, can be at a loss to see how the question applies, and both as

a matter of economy, and as a method of introducing stores of a better

description into the public depéts, a professional officer could not

better apply his attention, than in endeavoring to prove to Govern-

ment the value of such an inquiry. I will, as opportunity offers, bring

forward points that come under my immediate observation; and al-

though to many people the subjects of discussion may appear trifling

and uninteresting, or unworthy of that consideration, that I am inclined

to give them, it must still be recollected, that a very trifling saving on

the rate of an article much in requisition is a matter of considerable

importance, where the consumption of the article in question is great.

In commencement of the subject, I will take the common fir (Pinus

longifolia), native name chr, in great abundance in the lower line of

hills that skirts the Duns, or valleys (at the foot of the Himalayas),

and separating them from the plains. From this tree the natives obtain,

in their rough way, tar and turpentine, and use the wood for work

where lightness is required. The tar made by them, I imagine, is equal

to that obtained by a more refined process, and the turpentine merely

requires that attention which every establishment under the eye of

skilful management could give, in producing the article as good as

that from Europe. The method of obtaining tar, as put into practice

by the natives at the foot of these hills, is more simple, and apparently

better than what is described as the custom in Norway, and other

countries in Europe, where tar is made by the foresters. The wood

selected for the purpose is that which has either been cut or blown down

the previous season, and which is dry. This is cut up into small pieces,

and put into large earthen pots, holding about 10 seers (or gurtass),

with narrow necks, through the bottom of which holes of about } of

an inch have been drilled. A pot so filled with the wood is then luted

over with wet mud on the top and sides, and a hole being dug in the

K K

250 On the Native Manufacture of Turpentine. [May,

ground, a smaller pot, holding about 3 of a seer of the same descrip-

tion as the above, is placed in it, over which the large one is put, and

the space round refilled with earth; a heap of cow-dung, about 15

seers, is then piled over the whole, (which during the operation requires

replenishing with about an equal quantity;) this is set fire to, and kept

burning for about eight or nine hours, after which, the pots are remov-

ed, and the tar which has run off into the lower vessel, is put aside into

a receptacle for that purpose: each pot runs off about five chittaks of tar,

and gives a refuse of about a seer of charcoal—five men will make about

two maunds and 10 seers, or nine’ of these pots full of tar, during the

month, and the expence of the article will be as follows:

1, One head man; at:per month... ea 8 SES S00

Four men, at each four rupees,...........5.... 16 0 0

Purchase of pots and sundries, 1 ne)

ecre ee ee ee ee Oe ww

Which on 24 maunds will give arate per seer of three annas and 11 pie,

nearly, from which is to be deducted the value of the charcoal, which in

a large manufactory is considerable ; in the above seven maunds, 35 seers,

which in the forests would sell fer two rupees, reducing the rate per seer

of tar to three annas seven pie nearly. This tar is used on the boats on

the Doab Canal, and also on the wood-work of the dams and regulat-

ing bridges, and wherever a weather boarding mixture is required ;

and I believe it may be recommended in every way. The common native

turpentine is used also with the tar for these purposes. The fir wood

itself is good for boxes, table, planks, and articles of that description,

and also makes floats for rafting the heavier varieties of wood: it has

also been used in making boats, (an experiment tried from its lightness,

and cheapness of working,) but without that success that was anticipated,

the planking having become completely rotten and unserviceable after

the work of two seasons. The natives hold the wood in no esteem what-

ever, but experience has shewn that for the purposes above-mentioned,

namely for boxes, &c. this fir is as good as the common deal, and

from its excessive lightness is certainly to be highly prized.

Fig. 1. of Plate IX. exhibits a sectional view of the simple turpen-

tine-still of the natives; a is the vessel in which the wood is heated ;

b that in which the turpentine is collected.

Northern Doab, March 26th, 1833.

1833.] Sun Dial at Agra. 251

V1.—Description of a Sun Dial in the Court of the Moti Masjid, in the

Fort of Agra. By Capt. J. T. Bowweau, Engineers.

Among the curiosities of this once great emporium of learning and

art, which have attracted the attention of strangers, is a dial-plate of

white marble, with lines inlaid on its surface of a black slate; similar

to the accompanying sketch. The style, which appears to have been an

upright round pin, is gone, and the inlaying has been pulled out ; but

the configuration of the lines is still perfect, being marked by the chan-

nels wherein the inlaying fitted. The breadth of these channels is

about 3th of an inch.

The dial-plate is set up in the court of the Mote Masjid, a building

which was constructed in the latter end of the reign of AuraNnaziB,

about the year 1673, and it is probable that this dial was put up about

the same time ; but whether in its present site and position, or elsewhere,

I have not been able to ascertain.

The absence of hour lines, excepting xm and vi a. M.and p.m. would

lead to the supposition, that the object for which the dial was con-

structed had reference only to the times of Mussulman prayer; but the

object of the circular arc, which subtends an angle of about 95 degrees,

has never been explained, although many celebrated Moulavés have

visited the Masjid and examined the dial as it stands.

The surface of the dial inclines south about ths of an inch, which leads

me to believe, that it has been removed from the place where it was ori-

ginally fixed ; for the inclination is too small to affect the projection of

the shadow of the gnomon in any sensible degree, and I believe, there-

fore, that it stood originally in a perfectly horizontal position.

With regard to the true north point of the dial, it is difficult from

the mere inspection of the lines upon it to come to any determination.

The Moti Masjid stands in lat. 27° 9' nearly, and the sun’s greatest de-

clination N. being 23° 274’, he of course can never approach nearer

our zenith than 3° 41’ to the south. It is not possible, therefore,

that the circular arc, which is inclined about 29° to the present meri-

dian line, could under any circumstances mark the path of the shadow

of a style placed as the style of this dial was, in a vertical position.

Agra, March 2\st, 1833.

952 Catalogue of Celestial Objects [May,

VII.—Catalogue of the most remarkable Celestial Objects visible in the

horizon of Calcutta, arranged in order of Right Ascension.

We have obtained permission to give publicity to the following ca-

talogue, which was drawn up by Sir J. S. W. HerscHe tt, to accompany

the ten feet reflecting telescope sent out to India by that distinguished

astronomer for the private use of his relations in this country. Tt will

of course answer equally well for other telescopes, and will in some

measure serve as a test of their goodness and space-penetrating power.

The names and numbers in the last two columns refer to Bopr’s

maps of the constellations, which afford a ready means of finding the

place of the object in the heavens, as they represent the stars of the

celestial sphere direct, whereas upon the globe they are necessarily

reversed. But to those who do not possess Bopr’s maps, the right

ascension and declination will, with a little more trouble, enable the

common observer to discover their position, while the astronomer with

his transit will find out the whole with ease*.

Explanation of the signs used in the Catalogue.

Column 1, contains an enumeration of the whole. One asterisk (*) placed against

a number denotes that the object is striking ; two asterisks (**) that it is

particularly curious.

Column 2, contains the right ascension in hours, minutes, and seconds.

Column 3, the declination in degrees and minutes.

Column 4, N and S, indicate whether the declination is north or south.

Column 5, gives the authority whence the objects are extracted. The Roman numbers

‘LIL IIE.’ &c. refer to Sir W. HeRScHELL’s catalogue of nebule and double

stars by classes.

A refers to Duntop’s catalogue of southern nebule.

A’ ditto to ditto, double stars.

M ditto to Messier’s nebule.

Column 6, describes the object by the following signs.

N, nebula.

D, double.

@, globular cluster.

O, planetary nebulz.

&, cluster of irregular figure.

©, nebulous star.

Column 9, refers to the numbered maps of ‘‘ Bode’s Constellations.”

* Our readers will remember the announcement at Bombay, in October last, of

the discovery of Biela’s Comet, which from its being so stationary was supposed

to be coming direct towards the earth: the situation of the object proved it to be

the nebula in Andromeda, No. 3. When really seen by Sir John HerscueExt on the

23rd September and again in November, the comet did however really appear ex-

act.y similar to a faint circular nebula.

1833.] Visible in the Horizon of Calcutta. 253

1 0m CR es a ait at Be

eet Pe) eB. ; y Oe £ Ob; Ze {2

a ke d 5) SS] 5 Description o ject. 22 |%

° s ov ae = (os) 2 a 5

2 a ten 2 = A

h. oka .

1 an 0/40 i S.|A 507| N. |‘ A beautiful long nebula.”’ Appara- |17

tus

Sculp-

i toris.

mag. a superb D. Star—but

barely rises above the Calcutta

0 23 16/63 56/S.JA’ 1] D. {|B Toucani. iv. class. 4th—=4th}Toucan, |20

. horizon.

**3/ 0 33 26|40 21|N N. |The great nebula in Androme-]Andro- ! 4

da. meda.

A} 9 38.51/56 55|N, D. |n Cassiopeie. A Binary star, of|Cassio- |4

finely contrasted colours, peiz.

*51 039 .13}26 3 Vv. 1] N. |A very large long neb. Cetus. 17

6 .

| 1 4 6] 639)N. D. |¢ Piscium. Pisces. {11

Ciel OAS | SaSLIS.A! +. 3 ““ A star 7m of a very uncom-|Machina |17

mon red-purple colour. Very|electrica.

; dusky, &c.”’

9| 124 15!2952|N.]M. 33] @& |A fine large cluster, 18’ diame-jPisces, !11

ter.

10; 144 13/18 27|N. | D. |y Arietis, 2nd or 3rd class. Aries. ll

1lj 147 20/36 55|N./ VII. B2 & (A large and very rich cluster. Andro- 4

meda.

*12|} 15316] 1561N. D. |a Piscium. II Class. Pisces, |11

13} 153 29)41 31|N. D. |y Andromede. A superb dou-!Andro- | 4

ble star of strongly contrasted| meda.

| | colours.

A pair of fine rich clusters,|Perseus. | 4

ic 3 aye Pe ad af Mee ss re almost joining.—In the

9 | | 34 sword-handle of Perseus.

*16) 231 0/41 ies M. 34] & |The Brilliant cluster in Perseus.|Perseus. | 4

17 2 34 ia 0 44'S, In 77, N. ,Very bright nebula. Cetus. {17

18] 25119)41 Pe “ D. {6 Eridani. Magn. 4 and 6 ; dist.| Eridanus. |20

10%;

19} 3 747/55 55|S, pot @ IA small bright globular cluster.|Horolo- {20

20 gium.

21) 351 40/60 25IN./IV. 53; O !A ag , bright planetary ne- Canela: 5

| bula. 1’ diam. invis. to naked pardalis.

eye.

22] 358 28/30 20|N.|IV. 69| $3 |A star 8m with a nebulous at-!Perseus. | 4

mosphere. A most curious ob-

ject, but probably difficult to

| find, being invisible to the

| | naked eye.

23) 4 638,13 11|S.|IV. 26] © |A very bright planetary nebula. | Eridanus]17

24! 443 52/28 141N. A ruby-coloured star 8m. Taurus, {12

25] 5 622) 8 24/S. D. |Rigel. The companion is very|Orion. {12

small, and only 9” distant from

the large star.

*26, 5 7 0/40 15|s A 508} @ |Described by Dunlop, as_ the|Cela. 18

| brightest small nebula he has

seen, diam. 1/3.

27) 514 34}35 38|N.|M. 38] @& |The cluster in Auriga. Auriga, || 5

*28| 524 8'2149\N. 1| N. |An irresolvable nebula (near| Taurus, |12

954 Catalogue of Celestial Objects [May,

1 s ¥ ott 1 ‘

a3 s d * § > gst 5 Wie g § <

ap Sey ral es 5 Description of Object. es ig

ae ASIA), rt |Z

Sj —— |) OO ee es s fFeReeee e e e e e e eee eee Os eeeeeeeeeee eee- "

| | ¢ Tauri). A very curious ob-|

ject.

*29) 5 24 40 F 11)N.|M. a & jLarge brilliant cluster in Auri-|Auriga. | 5

ga.

30] 5 25 36] 949 ey D. {a Orionis. Orion. {12

*31) 527 13] 531)S. © |The great nebula about 6 Orio-|Orion. 112

nis. The most extraordinary

| & | object perhaps in the heavens.

32| 532 6 4 - D. |¢ Orionis. Very close. Difficult.!Orion. {12

Sal pie2 of 9 0|N.{IV. 34] © |Planetary nebula. Orion. !12

34; 558 26/24 3)N./M. 35| |A fine large brilliant cluster. Gemini. {12 _

35] 614 se ai}. D 3 Monocerotis, 3rd class. Monoce- |18

H ros.

W 6 48 “Ni le | D. |u Canis Majoris, Ist class. Canis 18

Maj.

i 65455; 8 ‘ls ie 50 & |Beautiful cluster of large stars. |Monoce- |18

ros.

38! 7 936)2217'N. | D. |}6 Geminorum, 3rd class. —— 12

*39| 7 23 44/32 a | D. |Castor, 3rd class. Superb Binary;Gemini. |12

star.

| | Period of revolution 262 years.

ao 731 48/26 a A’ 53; D. |« Argis. Superb D. star 3rd|Argo. 18

class.

41} 734 16|14 25|S.|M a && {A very singular object. A cluster|Officina |18

of stars which has within it a} Typo-

planetary nebula, 7f the 10} graphi-

| feet will shew it, which is] ca.

| doubtful.

*42) 7 3438/17 50/S. IV. 64! © JA beautiful planetary nebula, 12;Argo. 18

| or 15’ in diam.

*43| 8 227/1810|N. D. |¢ Cancri. Triple [F] Ist and $rd|Cancer. |13

classes. The close small star

revolves about the larger in

90 years.

44) 81618/2730|N D. | ? Cancri, 2nd class. Cancer. {13

45] 836 23/29 23\N. D. |: Cancri. 4th class. Strongly|Cancer. 113

contrasted colours. Large

star yellow, small deep blue. |

46| 842 8]1230|N.[M. 67| @/An immensely rich cluster. Cancer. 113

47| 9 4050/69 55|N.|,, 81,82] N. |A nebula 15’ long in Ursa. Ursa. 6

*48/10 10 35/20 42|N. D. }y Leonis. A most beautiful close| Leo. 13

double star. Rather difficult.

Binary. Period of revolution

probably about 700 years.

*49/10 16 49}17 48|S.|/IV. 27} © |A beautiful planetary nebula, 40”|Hydra. !19

or 1' diameter, like Jupiter.

*50/11 8 48/32 30|N. D. |¢ Urse Majoris Ist class. Binary.| Ursa. 6

| Period well ascertained 587

| |

| years. One of the most re-

markable D. stars. Rather dif-

ficult, being only 2” apart.

1833.] visible in the Horizon of Calcutta. 255

cS TS ES LE

1 r= U U 1! s

“Oo 3 Oy =

< me = 3 w| 2s Description of Object. a S r)

9 | 33 = ish og °

fe A IA| <a © Ne al

h.m. 8.

51}11 11 30)13 56/N.|M. 66] N.j|A very bright lengthened ne-|Leo. 13

bula.

*52112 1650/62 7:S.|a’ 123! D. Ja Crucis,2nd class. Thebrightest! Crux. 20

and most remarkable double

very large and splendid globu-| rus.

lar cluster—the finest in the

southern hemisphere.

star in the southern hemis-

pheret. Barely rises above the

Calcutta horizon, high enough

to be tolerably well seen.

+ a Centauri excepted.

53|12 27 52|2655|N.|v. 24| N. 1A long sword-shaped nebula. Coma 7

Beren.

*54)12 33 3) 031)S. D. |v Virginis. One of the most re-|Virgo. [14

markable of the Binary stars.

Period of revolution 513 years.

Close and difficult, and becom-

ing more so.

*55/12 33 56/33 29|N.|/V. 42] N. |A very long narrow nebulous|Canes 7

ray. Venatici.

56|1247 9/39 16|N. D. ja Canum. Cor. Caroli, 4th class.|Canes 7

Contrasted colours. Ven.

57|12 48 32|22 361N.|M. 64| N. |A nebula with a nucleus and a|Coma 7

| black recess. Ber.

58)13 447|19°7|N.IM. 53) @® B condensed globe of stars. out { 7

. er 14

59|13 7 4/4258'N.i1M. 63] @ 1A very bright extended mass of|Canes 7s

stars like the finest dust. Ven.

60/1315 3)2858|S.|a 628] @ |A globular cluster suddenly con-|Centau- {19

, densed toward the centre to an} rus.

extraordinary degree.

**61,1316 0/46 34/S.;Aa - @® |w Centauri—not a star, but a]Centau- {19

**62113 22 i, 3|N.|M. 51] © JA most wonderful object. A/Canes 7

globe surrounded by a dou-| Ven.

ble ring of nebulax—It has a

| neb. near it, as a compani-

on. It is unique in the hea-

| | vens.

6313 34 49129 13)N.|M. 3] @ \* much compressed cluster. Canes 7

Ven.

64/13 58 11/55 13)N.|M.101, N. JA very bright nebula. Ursa 6

Maj.

65|14 10 27157 40|S.|A’ 159| D. !y Centauri, 3rd class, 5 and 8 m.|Centau- |20

rus.

*66|14 28 0|60 6|S.|A’ 165] D. |a Centauri, 4th class,1st and 4th|Centau- |20

magnitudes. Distance 19.” The! rus.

| brightest double star in the S.

hemisphere. Very low in the

| S. horizon, but may be occasi-

onally pretty well seen.

256 Catalogue of Celestial Objects (May,

< & % wo} Ee z | a

¢ 3 a5 s Fe bic Description of Object. é = E

et le ee fo) e= Iz

h.m. s j

67|14 37 34|27 48|N D. |e Bootis. A delicate but beau-

tiful object. Small star. Blue.

Ist class.

rae

6811451 8|/3221/S.)A 611] €) !A star 78 m. with a nebulousjLupus. {15

burr round it.

69)1510 6} 242;N..M. 5] @ |Very compressed globular clus-|Libra. {14

ter, diameter 7 or 8’. A fine

object.

70115 32 8137 11)N. D. j& Corone. Corona. | 7

7111546 1}3330{S.]| A’ 196} D. |¢ Lupi. An elegant D. star. Lupus. |15

72)15 55 0)19 18|S D. | Scorpionis. Scorpio. |15

73\16 6 49|22 311S.|M. 89 @ |A very compressed beautiful|Scorpio. ;15

globular cluster.

#474116 36 22136 s7)N 13] @B |One of the finest and most con-|Herculis. | 8

| densed of all the globular

clusters between 7 and ¢ Her-

culis.

*75/16 37 18/24 7|N.)Struve.| © |Very bright planetary disc, 6” in| Hercules.

diameter.

77\16 48 22| 349!S. Iw. 10

SP)

Beautiful cluster of very small/Ophiu-

| stars. chus.

78|1652 10/26 O|S.|M. 19] @ |A compressed cluster, 4’ or 5’|Scorpio

diameter. or Ophiu-

| chus.

79117 65414 35|N. a Herculis. Contrasted colours. | Herculis.

80}17 9 6{18 18}S.|M. 9] @ | Very large bright @ of ex-|Ophiu-

tremely small stars. chus

*811/1713 1/4318'N.|M. 92] @ lA globe of stars crowded toge-;Herculis.

82/1719 1

ther beyond imagination.

diameter

*76'1643 647 55|N.|IV. 50 © |Very bright planetary nebula 4’|Hercules.| 8

23 37

a 11; O |Pretty bright, 30” diameter. A aad

well defined planetary disc. chus.

44 38S. i 457| €3 |A nucleus, 15’ surrounded by,;Normaet}15

8317 23 40

a nebulous atmosphere, 5’ dia-| Regula.

meter.

*84/1752 1/23 2!S, D.N|A Ist class double star in the cen-|Sagittari- |15

| tre of a triple nebula. N. B.| us,

The star is triple.

85117 53.47/22 28|S.|M. 21] €% |A rich cluster of large stars. Sagittari-|15

| us.

86|17 55 14/43 38|/S.J)A 473. @ |Globular cluster, 3’ diameter.|Telesco- | 0

Excessively compressed at the; pium.

centre.

D. |70 Ophiuchi. Binary ; period|Ophiu- | 9

of revolution about 80 years.) chus.

ag of the most remarkable of

the well ascertained Binary

systems.

¥*8711756 6] 233IN.

88/18 0|66 38|N !IV. 371 © |35’ diameter. Edges hazy. Draco. 3

1833.] Visible in the horizon of Calcutta.

Description of Object.

R. As-

cension.

Declina-

tion.

| N. or S

Authori-

Constel-

lation

| No.ofMap..

| Object.

f very bright planetary disc, 5”|Scutum | 9

diameter. ‘Sobieski.

90118 cue 15|S.{M. 17

shew this as an oval nebula, but} Sobi-

its true shape is=a=z=,//QL, and} eski.

it is one of the most curious

objects in the heavens.

N. |The 10-feet will probably only|Scutum |

91/18 19 37)3231|S.|M. 69 Very bright and pretty large. |Sagitta- (15

® :

rius.

@ |Very large globular cluster, 8’|Sagitta-

92118 25 41/24 3/S.|M. 22 15

diameter. rius.

. |e Lyra. A double — double star, | Lyra.

each pair, being a Binary, and

probably the whole a com-

pound quarternary system : |

a very pretty object, and very

easily found.

1) :

lar object. Is easily found, as

*9311838 6|39 30 m EI 8

184159] 628/S. |M. ul

nous.

Lyra.

*95/18 48 10/3250|N.|M. 57 An elliptic ring—a most singu-

tween 6 and vy Lyre, and is

visible in the finder (but

barely).

| |

*96|19 23 52/27 37 x

BCygni. A beautiful coarse D| Cygnus.

star of finely contrasted co-

lours.

M. 55 Sagitta-

rius.

Sagitta-

Trius,

Vulpecu-

la.

Very large rich cluster, 9’ dia-

meter.

The cluster in Antinous. Anti-

it lies hardly half way be-

s or 15” diameter. Considera-

97|19 28 55|31 at

*98/19 34 6/1433 s. lv. 511 0

| bly bright.

19 52 48/22 20|N.|M. 27] N. most extraordinary object.

#*99

A nebulous mass,’ shaped like

a dumb bell, and involved in

an elliptic faint atmosphere.

N.B, The 10-feet reflector will

not shew the atmosphere, but

the body will be well seen. :

100/19 58 56 Very bright, large, round. Sagit-

19 33

101)2015 5

bright.

Very beautiful, large, easily re-| Delphi-

die 16

102 N

20 2517] 710

Oe 38 8/15 29|N

s selte LS. iTV... 4

22 col M. 75

| solveable. nus.

y Delphini. Delphi-

| nus.

oy 2086

One of the largest and finest of|Aquari-

the planetary nebule, near vy} us.

Aquarii, by which it is easily

found,

45” diameter. Round, pretty|Do. |

258 Description of a Compensation Barometer, [May,

i i a

—_—_

ter. peiz.

' | s 5 on u a

ae Bane ecg eee | Se is

<3 2 djs} 26 | 8 Description of Object. eo. |2

S (Se} = . P a} ae lo}

o Poe BS = os Ics

a ANZ) < ° o z

h. m. 8.

105/20 59 17137 55|N, D. |61 Cygni. Binary period about|Cygnus. | 8

400 years. This star has a

very great proper motion in

the heavens, and the two go

together.

106/21 22 4)1126)N.|M. 15] @ |In Equuleus. A fine object. Equule- {10

— us.

107/21 2458) 1 a M. 2| @ !A very condensed fine cluster. |Aquari- ;16

us.

108/21 37 18|37 10,N A beautiful ruby star 9 m. Cygnus. |10

oe 2219 8| 05a|S. D. \¢ Aquarii, 3rd class—(fine.) Aquari- |16

us. 10

110 23.17 31/60 38!N.|M. 52) @ {A beautiful cluster, 12’ diameter.|Cepheus.; 3

nif 17 55/41 “abs IV. 18} © {Superb planetary nebula in/Andro- | 4

il 4k Andromeda. meda,

112!23 30 0/47 36 te 251) D. | Pheenicis 6 and 6m. 3.” Pheenix. |20

113}23 49 16|55 48 alg 30| £33 |Beautiful compressed rich clus-|Cassio- | 4

ee —

VIII.—Description of a Compensation Barometer, and Observations on

Wet Barometers. By J. Prinsep, Sec. &c.

Where a daily register of the Barometer is kept, it becomes a seri-

ous labour to apply the correction for temperature to every observa-

tion : this inconvenience has led to the suppression of the correction alto-

gether in the tables published at the Surveyor General’s office; but who-

ever may have occasion to use these valuable meteorological records must

himself reduce the indications of the Barometric columns to the freezing

point, and therefore little is gained by omitting the correction in the

first instance.

With a stationary barometer, in a climate liable to but small and

regular alternations of atmospherical pressure, it is very easy to avoid

all this labour, by attaching a compensation tube for the adjustment

of the index point. I have been in the habit of using one with the

instrument of which a register is kept at the Assay Office, and as it is

very simple and easily made, I shall beg leave to describe it, referring

to the drawing of it in fig. 3, Plate VIII.

The height of the mercurial column in a barometer depends directly

upon the weight of the atmosphere, and inversely upon the density, or

specific gravity, of the quicksilver, which is liable to alteration by

Jour As.Soe. ‘ a

| Temperature” Tension of Vapour

fegd Page 104

D, Dalton

S, Southern

U; Ure / j

Ry; Robison ‘ f

fig

Sig. 3

Revd. Wollaston’s

) dip Thermometric

| Barometer

STPrinsep des. e€ sculp.

Barometer

Comp ensatton

Prinsep ate

Vol IM Pl. Vil

ad cer |

—— ~.

: Saks

yrsowxtas.

€uraqye=

Eire ¥-

pane

at ig

3 oe

1833.] and Observations on Wet Barometers. 259

change of temperature. When the accurate pressure of the air there-

fore is required, the height of the column must be reduced to what it

would be at some fixed temperature ; and the freezing point, 32° Farh.

has been universally adopted for this purpose.

Suppose, therefore, by the side of the barometer tube another truly

cylindrical tube of glass to be arranged (as in the plate), closed at its

lower end, and having mercury filled in to the same height as that in

the barometer: it is evident that this mercurial column will expand

and contract with heat and cold, (or alter its density) in the same

proportion as that within the barometer itself ; and if thescale of inches

be connected with an index-mark or sight capable of sliding on the

second—or, as it may be called, the compensation tube, so as to afford

the means of adjustment with the variable surface of the mercury within

the latter, the barometrical height will be read off at once with the requi-

site correction. It may be objected, that a different length of mercurial

column will require a different length of compensation tube ; but where,

as in India, the utmost variation of the pressure does not exceed

one inch, nor the variation of temperature, 40 degrees; the trifling er-

ror from this cause may be neglected; for the expansion of mercury

being 0.0180 from 32° to 212°, or .0001 per degree, we have the ex-

pansion of 30 inches for 40 degrees =.0040 x 30= .120.

ditto for 29 inches, .0040 xX 29= ,i16.

extreme difference, 004

which is not more than the usual errors of observation.

There is another point to be attended to, however, in which the cele-

brated meteorologist DanrELt was at fault, until corrected by Gay Lus-

sac, On account of the expansion of glass with heat, mercury will

appear to expand /ess in a glass tube than it actually does expand in the

proportion of ;,, to ;2,*: that is, in the example given above, the ex-

pansion in the compensation tube of 30 inches long, for 40 degrees,

instead of .120 will only be .103; whereas in the barometer, which is

open to the cistern below, the height of the mercury is determined on

hydrostatic principles, and is altogether independent of the dimensions

of the glasstube. To obviate this source of error, the length of the

compensation column must be increased in the above ratio of 555 to

648, or where the barometer stands on an average at 30.000 inches, the

compensation column must have a length of 30 £48=35.0 inches.

where the mean height is 29 inches the length will be

* Many mountain barometers have an ivory scale of correction for mean expan-

sion of mercury and glass, which the makers have probably copied from DANIELL’S

original scale and haye not since rectified.

260 Description of a Compensation Barometer, [May,

fer 29-inches. 5). .20.4/. ser 33.8

QS dittoer 1.2405. arcieto dee $2.5

Dk OUEOn sto dk tdci Lawl 31.3 &e.

But, should such length be inconvenient, advantage may be taken of

tubes that are not quite cylindrical, by placing the tapering end upper-

most, and calculating the effect of the excess of mercury below upon

the range of the narrower part of the column: thus, in the instrument

of which the drawing is given, 32 inches was the compensating

length required.

To prove that the indications of this instrument were equally trust-

worthy with the equated results of a common barometer, a series of

comparisons was made both with the Surveyor General’s standard

instrument (through the medium of the printed register) and with an

excellent Dottonp’s barometer placed close to mine: the results were

as follows :

My barometer lower than Surveyor General’s in June, 1832. —.043

' in March, 1833. — 044

Ditto lower than a Dollond’s barometer, ....in Nov. 1832. —.101

in April 1833. —.102

12 comparisons at 10 a. m. in May gave.... ...... —.093 Therm. 86.3

10 Ditto at 4Pp.Mm._ ditto ditto.... ...... —.093 88.7

These accordances at opposite seasons of the year are sufficient to

establish confidence in the compensation barometer. I should add, that

am indebted to Mr. Barrow, H. C. Instrument maker, for carrying

my views into practice, and adapting the slow-motion screws and clamps

in a neat and efficient manner.

While on the subject of barometers, I would take occasion to can-

tion all observers who are in the habit of using ENGLEFrELp’s open tubes,

that they should only be filled with mercury when the air is in a very

dry state. This remark was elicited by a series of experiments made

by Lieutenant Waueu of the Engineers, when comparing his stock of

ENGLEFIELD barometers, with my standard, before his departure on sur-

vey to the hills of Amerkantak.

One tube having been filled with every precaution was found to

stand 0.211 lower than the standard Barometer. It was emptied and

Tenbed sy Mtien S6QOUs, . che crt, os Sine 6 a6 sce a Sodas eee —.499

A tiie Cie TERMCC is cielo wks Lise 5 cde ve u's vie wlclene —.609

BP AOULGM oir see taistits NORM Eee sic ie) a, oa tet ee ce ee —.652

CRS pee ep Tee ea oats -clvaie, pis (oc Uta each cae rata ee meee —.659

Be SUREHES OSs TCO tS Seen Wah etr tee ete ceione ee Niete sisters —.653

a seventh, eo eoeereore Peo ere oeHT oo POP OPE He OH HO EO —./00

1833.] and Observations on Wet Barometers. 261

mn Cie htha se bila lislbe sales ieidls Wl oie salaiade oe ees ale alee —.687

eT eho ee) Roepe ys ees) Pecans ee ae ae —.702

It is needless to say, that in all these cases every care’ was taken to

exclude air. It appears, therefore, that after filling two or three times,

the mercurial column stood nearly .70 too low. The hygrometer at

the same shewed that the aqueous tension was .60, which so nearly

agreed with the former (making allowance for capillary action), that

we had no doubt at the time that the depression was caused by mois-

ture, attracted by the tube from the air, the frequent renewal of which

allowed the surface of the glass to attain a state of hygrometric equi-

librium with the latter. That such was the case was further proved

by repeating the operation on a subsequent day, when the air was much

drier ; the hygrometer then shewing a tension of .45, the barometer stood

between .394 and .415 lower than the standard.

It is well known how pertinaciously water adheres to the surface of

glass: in damp weather an electrical machine cannot be worked unless

dried by heat ; and any glass tube, even in dry weather, if heated in one

part, will shew the presence of water by a condensation of minute glo-

bules in the colder parts of the tube. Such facts, in conjunction with

the positive testimony now adduced, prove that implicit reliance should

not be placed upon this kind of ‘barometer, especially for the measure-

ment of heights. The different quality of the glass may also have great

influence on the aqueous action, according to the predominance or

otherwise of alkali in its composition.

Mr. Farapay has recommended that borax should be substituted for

alkali inthe composition of glass for astronomical purposes, on account |

of the liability of the alkaline glasses to injury by the wet, but we have

not yet seen any notice of the result of such trial on a large scale.

Perhaps the barometrical effect now noticed might be turned to advan-

tage, as a mode of measuring the hygrometrical quality of glasses of

different founts. Of five dry tubes of the same bore, filled together

and placed upright in the same reservoir of mercury, no two were found

to agree together, whereas upon wetting the interior of the same

tubes, they then agreed very well together, and (after making correction

for the aqueous tension corresponding to the temperature of the mercury)

also very nearly coincided with the standard barometer, without any

allowance for capillarity.

This circumstance suggested an easy and certain method of turning

the tubes to account in the survey, namely, to use them always wet and

make the necessary addition. The most defective and dirty tube

might in this way be rendered as serviceable as the cleanest, and I

262 Asiatic Society. [May,

would certainly recommend those who possess such tubes to use them

in this manner. It is besides much easier to free them from air. All

that is necessary being to fill the tubes first with water that has been

well boiled, and then to pour in the mercury, allowing it to drive out

the water as far as possible before inverting the tubes. The tempera-

ture must be accurately noted at the time of registering.

Lieutenant Waveu has promised me a series of observations with

the wet barometer, which I hope ere long will be forthcoming.

IX.—Proceedings of the Asiatic Society,

Wednesday Evening, 29th May, 1833.

The Right Rev. the Lord Bishop of Calcutta, in the Chair.

The Proceedings of the last meeting were read.

Mr. W. M. Manuk, proposed by Babu Ram Comul Sen, seconded by

Mr. D. Hare, was elected a Member by ballot.

Some matters of account were referred to the Committee of Papers.

The Secretary brought up the Report of the Committee of Papers, on the

manuscripts of the late Mr. Moorcroft, put at the Society’s disposal by Go-

vernment in January last. It recommended the whole to be transmitted to

England to be published, either the whole or a copious digest, on account of

the Society, under the charge of Professor Wilson, who had kindly proffered

his services in arranging the matter for the press before his departure. Mr.

Trebeck, brother of the companion of Mr. Moorcroft’s travels, had also pre-

sented the whole of his brother’s journals, letters, and drawings, in order that

the valuable information contained in them might be incorporated in the

proposed digest, on consideration of his receiving 12 copies of the printed

work. The meeting adopted the suggestion of the Committee, and an offer

from Lieutenant Burnesto convey them to England was accepted with thanks.

Library.

The following books were presented :

Roxburgh’s Flora Indica, Ist and 2nd vols.—by Captain James Roxburgh, on the

part of himself and brother, editors of the work.

Journal Asiatique, No. 58—from the Asiatic Society of Paris.

Chezy’s Sacountala ; Sanskrit text and French translation—bdy the Translator.

Notice de l’ouvrage intitulé ’Lettre 4 M. Abel Remusat—dby the Baron Hum-

boldt.

* Baron Sylvestre de Sacy’s Recherches, sur les contes des mille et une nuits—

by the Author.

Ferussac’s Bulletin Universel, 1827-28-29, 36 vols.—presented by Mr. F. Corbyn,

in the name of Dr. Bogie.

* The letter accompanying the above three works was dated in 1830, they were pra-

bably detained a long time in England on their way.

1833.] Asiatic Society. 263

Stirling’s Cursory Notices on the Isle of France, 1827—by the Author.

Meteorological Registers for March and April—by the Surveyor General.

From the Society’s Booksellers :—

Lardner’s Cabinet Cyclopedia,—History of England, vol. iii.

Ditto ————— Military Commanders, vol. iii.

A letter was read from Captain F. Jenkins, presenting a Burma manu-

script from Sudiya, in the dialect of the Kamtis, the tribe who possess that

part of Assam.

Antiquities.

Lieutenant Burnes exhibited to the Meeting his collection of ancient

coins made between Cabul and Bokhara, and an explanatory note was read

by the Secretary.

Two papers were read by Lieutenant Burnes in further elucidation of the

same subjects. ’

1. On the Tope or mound of Manikyala, and other similar fopes in the

Panjab.

2. Account of asect calling themselves the descendants of Alexander the

Great in the valley of the Oxus.

[These will appear in a future number. ]

Physical.

The following donations for the geological cabinet were presented :

1. A fragment of a large fossil bone from Jabalpir—by Dr. Spilsbury.

In connection with the same subject Dr. Row writes from Benares, that he has

despatched under charge of Mr. Colley a box containing a further supply of Jabal-

pur fossil bones.

Doctor Spilsbury has since had the good fortune to make a further enviable dis-

covery at a place about 60 miles from Jabalpfir,—the jaw of a fossil elephant with the

teeth quite perfect. It remains to be seen whether this interesting specimen belongs

really to the elephant or to some of the gigantic quadrupeds of the same genus

brought to our knowledge by the great Cuvier ; the Mastodon of America, which

is supposed to occur in no other part of the world ; the hippopotamus of Peru ; or

the rhinoceros of northern Asia.

Dr, Row has forwarded the section and plan alluded to by Dr. Spilsbury in his

communication read to the Society at the meeting of March last.

The following specimens from Arracan—by Mr. H. Walters, acting com-

missioner.

1. Two bottles of water procured by Lieut. Mackintosh from a thermal

spring found near the top of the Aeng pass.

2. A bottle of mineral oil or naphtha, from Ramree.

3. A few specimens of rocks picked up at Ramree and the Aeng pass.

4. Coal from the Sandowy district.

The red hill of Ramree is composed of red clay iron, enclosing nodules of stea-

tite, of a light grey colour, black streaked steatitic iron oxyd resembling hematite

and a conglomerate of felspar and quartz pebbles. At the foot of the hill occurs

silicious breccia, which appears as if it had been an infiltration of silicious veins

in the crevices of the red clay which was subsequently crumbled or washed away,

the interstices being now filled with common mud.

264 Asiatic Society. [May,

Iron mines were worked on the island of Ramree by the Burmese, and the metal

was highly prized ; but it has been driven out of the field by the cheapness of Eng-

lish iron in all the bazars.

The limestones and corals of Arracan are deserving of attention ; lime might

be burnt and sent to Calcutta at a cheaper rate than that paid for the Silhet lime.

The sandstone of Ramree is of a softer nature than the best of Chunar ; it re-

sembles the Mirzaptr quarry, and is well adapted for minute and sharp sculpture.

The specimens from the Aeng pass are quartz rock, indurated clay, and decom-

posed talc-schist. A coarse granular limestone is stated to be very common in the

Sandowy district.

The coal from the Kingtellie circle in the same district, is a very rich lignite,

shewing the woody structure in great perfection : it has a spec. grav. 1.308, andgives

out much bitumen and gas on ignition. The coke was small in quantity but good.—

Composition. Volatile matters Silo atolcs cesar os eiere amet

Carb Oiig’ ti is ayant) <saksteteganstobote vaiebesetore niet oteleane 33.0

BSD, eiesis's outs Cietei «Suns sin'e 5-1 See eee

100.0

One specimen of coal mixed up with silicious matter is said by Mr. Walters to

form the substance of an entire hill.

Of the mineral water, cne bottle was found to be perfectly pure, sp. gr. 1000

and not acted on by tests: the other contained alarge deposit of yellow ochreous

silt.

Specimens of coal discovered in the lower range of hills in the North

Moradabad district—by Mr. E. J. Ravenshaw, collector, Bijnore.

The following extracts from Mr. Ravenshaw’s letters illustrative of this

discovery, and of the presence of gold in the streams of his district were

read.

Himalayan Coal.

“‘T had lately an opportunity of paying a rapid visit to the source of the coal of

which I lately sent a specimen to the Society. From Judpar, a town about 10

miles east of the Ramgunga, I gallopped about 18 miles to Ld/dhong, a village at the

foot of the lower range of hills, and situated on the banks of the Phika Nadi. The

latter nine miles of the road lay through the forest, which abounds with tigers,

wild elephants and other animals. In the evening I proceeded on an elephant three

or six miles along the foot of the hills in an easterly direction to Mohra Dhéla, a

village situated at the point where the river Dhé/a issues from the hills. We traced

the river about a mile within the hills, and the nyartas (gold-washers) whom I

had previously deputed to explore these regions, pointed out in several directions

thin seams of coal, varying from one to four inches broad, running along between

ledges of sandstone, which was covered with a white substance (decomposed py-

rites?) The coal is also coated with a yellow substance (iron pyrites), and smells

strongly of sulphur when burned.

About a mile up the river we came to a precipice about 200 feet high, composed

of a heterogeneous mixture of sand, clay, and stones, (from the specimen sent it is

a conglomerate with calcareous cement.) It was of various colours—red, bluish-

green, but the white coating predominated over all,

1833.] Asiatic Society. 265

The rains had washed down masses of the hill, and among these we found a great

deal of the coal, in fact it seemed to abound here more than in any other part. The

nyartas whom we sent up to scale the precipice, brought down their hamarbands full

of it. The next morning I rode about four or five miles up the Phika Nadt, and

found the coal in similar situations, in veins stratified with sandstone, and occasi-

onally conglomerate rocks. In the evening I explored the Chala Nadi to the west

of the Phika, and found several large veins in the face of a perpendicular rock of

the same description. I send specimens of the several varieties :—some appear to

be mere lignite, but others are genuine coal. It is found however in such narrow

veins as to give but little promise of a profitable application. The natives tell me

that it is found in almost all the rivulets up to Hardwar, wherever the lower range

is composed of kacha (unripe) materials; they call it momyai, and use it as a me-

dicine for curing wounds, and as an infallible remedy for Cholera! for the latter

purpose they pound up about half an inch square of it, and mixing it with a lota

full of warm milk, drink it off.’’

The specimens of coal sent down by Mr. Ravenshaw are all nearly of the same

character, strongly impregnated with sulphuret of iron, which forms thin fibres

streaking some of them, and passes into thick masses of pyrites decomposing in

others :—a clean lump had a specific gravity of 1.968 in consequence, and the re-

sidual ash was principally iron oxyd; it burns with good flame, does not coke,

and retains sulphur enough to ignite spontaneously after being charred.

Wolatilevmatters( cei. s cs dc) t.cyarlayel eae cnveretersi ean, Os

Gano naes sectapertelegaie: state’ alave!'s ol-aleadtonelh aves tara OULO

PERT ENO aS hpWibe dG AdAuin Mon Bolded Se .come ets

/ 100.0

Gold*.

Mr. Ravenshaw in other communications of a recent date, mentions a discovery

that all the rivers and streams descending from the same range of hills are im-

pregnated with gold. The river in which it is most abundant is the Koh, which

flows a few miles to the east of Naginah, and falls into the Ramgunga, four or five

miles below Sheakdt. ‘There are two parties of nyartas or gold-workers on

this river, one at Kot,kddir, twelve miles from Kot,dwar, whence the Koh issues

from the hills, and the other about ten miles lower down opposite to Barapura.

At the former the nyarlas pay 50 rupees per mensem to the zeminddr, and at the

latter 30 rupees. At Lakherghaut on the Ramgunga, about four miles from the

hills, another party is established, and a fourth to the eastward at Amangarh on the

banks of the Phika Nadt, a tributary of the Ramgunga.

* The reader will find some valuable remarks on the gold of the Ramgunga tributaries

by Captain Herbert, in his notice of Himalayan minerals printed in the Physical

Researches Asiatic Society. He notices the same curious fact of no gold being dis-

covered in these streams until they enter the lowermost range of hills :—he also men-

tions having a specimen of the gold inits parent rock, but properly concludes that

although we may be certain of the existence of the wetal within this range, we must

patiently wait until the progress of population and industry shall press upon the hitherto

_ unexplored resources of the mountains ere we reap the advantage of our knowledge.

An individual might be ruined in the search, unless indeed some lucky chance should

give him a prize in the mining lottery.

266 Asiatic Society. [May,

In the above rivers the gold is found at all periods of the year, but in the Dhéla,

about 10 miles to the eastward, it is only found in the rains. The nyarias live at

Khelorolt, about seven miles north of Kdstpér ; but the site of their researches is

about six miles higher up the river, between Sheondthpér and the hills. A tax of

2rs. 8ans. is levied upon each Aatouté or washing-trough, which (in the absence of

any other zeminddr) is paid to Government. The gold found in this stream is said

to be of a finer quality than that of any of the other rivers.

In the rivers to the eastward of the Dhéla, viz. the Kosillah, Dabka, &c. no gold

has been discovered ; I have no means of ascertaining whether it exists in the sands

of the rivers in the Bareilly district.

It is evident that these golden sands must have a source, and as they have

probably flowed for centuries from the mountains it is presumable that source is

extensive. The uniformity also with which it is found in all the streams from the

Ganges to the Kosillah where it ceases, seems to indicate the existence of a vein of

ore more or less interrupted, co-extensive with the above limits. Gold-dust is

found on the other side of the Himdlaya also: the Bhotéas bring it with their

borax from Hundés, where it forms the currency under the name of phdtdng, (a

small lump of gold-dust melted into a lump, value eight rupees.) I have employed

an intelligent nyarla to search the small rivers to their source in the first or second

range of hills, to wash the sand and mark where the gold-dust ceases, and to bring

away specimens of the rock on either side. He is also instructed to look for coal.”’

A minute portion of gold is found in the sands of most rivers, but it is seldom

plentiful enough to make it worth the labour of extraction. In the Indus, the Ira-

wadi, the Ningthi, and the Brahmupitra rivers, the process of washing is practised

with success, but it can only be undertaken where labour is cheap. A specimen of

the washed sediment extracted from 40 maunds of the sand of the Brahmapitra,

lately sent by Mr. W. Cracroft, weighed 396 grains ; from this the magnet separated

‘147.3 grains of magnetic oxyd of iron: the remainder digested in boiling nitro-

muriatic acid yielded 1.9 grains of gold, in value about 23 annas.

Specimens of the limestone rocks of Sehwan and of the banks of Indus

at and east of Tatta, of the Jesalmir yellow limestone, and of the bituminous

limestone of Persepolis—by Lieut. A. Burnes.

The limestone of the Zndus resembles much that of the Sithet hills :—it appears

also to contain shells : the specimen from the top of the Sehwan mountains is more

crystalline, and of a yellow colour like that of Jesalmir, of which a description is

given in the GLEANINGS, vol. iii. p. 108.

The limestone of Persepolis, used for most of the buildings of that ancient

town, is of a dull brown colour and semiconchoidal fracture ; it emits when rubbed

a strong bituminous smell.

Specimen of the granite of Abu in Guzerat, and of limestone Pater

the Oxus and Bokhdra—by the same.

The latter is an oolitic limestone, the first which has been discovered in India,

of fine small grains about as large as mustard-seed. It is compact and capable of

being quarried.

Belemnites from the eastward of the Aral, and a small fossil bivalve from

Bokhdra—by the same.

The shells are converted into a solid of white marble ; they are used in medicine

by the Persians ; the under valve is worn round as if from grinding.

1833.] Miscellaneous. 267

Specimen of the Indus Coal—by the same, from Kohat near Peshdwar.

The following note on the subject by Lieut Burnes was read:

Peshawar Coal.

On my arrival in the plains of Peshdwar in March 1832, I made various inqui-

ries from the Doorané chiefs of the country regarding coal and other minerals.

_ They did not comprehend the meaning of coal, but Peer Muhamud Khan, the

chief, who holds Cohut on the southern boundary of the plain, informed me that

there were wells in the petroleum or naphtha in Cohut, and that the people

used the substance in lamps instead of oil. He also told me that within these

few months, the villagers had found that the stones near these pits were

available as fuel. At my request he despatched a messenger, and brought the spe-

cimen of coal which I now present to the Society. It has been taken from the

surface, and can give therefore no correct idea of the substrata further than proving

that coal exists in the neighbourhood. The coal is slaty and of a greyish-brown

colour, it readily ignites at the candle and emits a sulphnreous smell.

The discovery of a coal-mine at the head of the Indus may prove of the utmost

importance in these times, since the navigation of that river is open from the sea to

the town of Aftok, which is only forty miles distant from the deposit. An excellent

road intervenes, and Peshdwar is a large city where labour is cheap.

It is a singular circumstance, that coal should have been discovered both at the

mouth and head of the Indus (in Cutch and Cohut) within these few years, and

since steam has been used in India. It is seldom that discoveries are so well-timed,

and I trust that they augur favorably for the opening of a new route of commerce

by the Indus.

The Indus coal is little better than bituminous shale—slaty and dull in structure

and appearance: specific gravity 1.670 : burning freely in a candle—not coking,

and leaving a large quantity of brown earth on incineration. Its composition

on analysis proved to be,

Wolatie matters. cy. '<is, 3 sions al Aeneas eciiernctent tad ame

oF Bs med ate Wi sii H aenlte he a Dales el Aa oh mee

DEM MMRULCE 2 aic.s's cahae casas et anes os ae ssica DOCS

100.0

It is most probable that where this shale is met with, coal of a superior quality

may also be found.

X.—Miscellaneous.

1.—Rustic Bridge. Pl. X,

The accompanying is froma hasty sketch, taken in the April of 1831. It represents

one of two bridges similarly constructed, which were thrown across the Jamna, at

a place where that river is divided into two branches by an island. These bridges

were for the convenience of communication to some iron-smelting works, situated

on the right bank of the river, at some distance below the bridge erected by Major

Young, where the Simla and Massiiri road crosses the Jémna,

As there is ingenuity displayed in their rough Shakesperian mode of construc-

tion, I am induced to send you this sketch, which I trust is sufficiently intelligible

to supersede the neécessity of a description. No rope was employed, the different

M M 2

frre

Hs cf

268 Miscellaneous. [May,

parts being bound and suspended by strong twisted withes. The bridges were as

may be supposed very vibratory, but were sufficiently strong to admit of the hill

men carrying their loads of iron or charcoal across them with safety.

If this short notice of a somewhat ingenious and picturesque object is worth

publishing in the JouRNAL oF THE Astatic Socrery, it is very much at your ser-

vice.

Notre.—We are always happy to give insertion to notices of this nature, and

especially of the simple inventions and processes of the natives. In the present case,

we regret that our correspondent has not given us the dimensions and span of his

rustic bridge.

2.—Remarks on the Paper on the Trisection of an Angle in No. 14 of the “‘ Jour-

NAL OF THE ASIATIC SOCIETY.”

The difficulty of the problem is touched on in the second proposition of the

paper in question, which is as follows: “To draw the base ofa triangle so that of

the interior angles at the base, one shall be double of the other, the vertical angle

of the triangle being a given rectilinear angle, greater than half a right angle.”

The construction is, to take B F=2 B A, inflect A C=3 A B, from the point

A on B & and make B C=BF3F C. The writer has failed, as he admits,

in his first attempted demonstration of this construction, nor in his supplementary

emendation of it is he more successful. The phrase ‘‘ which it does not,” in line

12th, and repeated in line 14th, is mere assertion ; the eighteen following lines are

superfluous; for if the angle K D G is a right angle, the question is settled.

A numerical example or two will perhaps be the easiest way of convincing Mr.

Morrieson of his failure.

Suppose then B=90° B G A is by hypothesis 309 and calling A B=1 AG

will be equal to 2, and B G=4/4—1 =v 3-1°7320508 ; but A C=3, BC=/9—1

= /8=2°8284271 and B F=2 #e B C—B F='8284271, § of which is 2761423,

and this taken from 2, leaves 1°723577, the length of B G by Lt. Morrieson’s shew-

ing ; but it ought to be 1°7320508.

If B be taken=45, the limit of Mr. M.’s problem B G will come out by Mr. M.’s

construction=1°65363908, but it ought to be 1°4142136.

If 60 be taken, the difference is smaller again ; B G ought to be 1°53207, where-

as Lt. Morrieson’s construction makes it 1°542579, &c. On the whole the method is

a very good mechanical rule for trisecting an angle; mathematical solution it is not.

Mr. M. has hit on the difficulty in the problem which is “ to draw the base of a

triangle, so that of the angles at the base one shall be double of the otherg.”’—In

different words, the problem comes to this, ‘‘ To draw a line GA such that G D

shall be equal to the radius of the circle which has Basa centre and BA asa

radius,” and this rule will answer in all cases where B is equal to 45. D and A

coincide when greater D falls between A and G, when less D falls beyond A, and

farther from G'. Low

But the problem is not to be solved by straight lines and circles : if a conchoid

(pl. ix. fig. 2) having A for its pole and B C for its assymptote be described, it will

cut the circle A D Ein the points D, D’ and D” and straight lines joining these points

with A, or their extensions will form with B G triangles B G A, B G’ A, BG”

A, &c. of the species required. This follows from the nature of the curve, in

which G D is a constant quantity, and here equal to B D the radius of AD E.

D E drawn parallel to { H gives I E an arc which measures § of AB G’ D’ E!

1833.] Miscellaneous. 269

gives HE’ which measures § of A B C the supplement of the former and D’ E”’

gives H E'—! A BH considered as Saltepfat B or of § (A B1+18@). The point 4’

corresponds in some degree to a pole and D, D’, and D”’ if joined from an equila-

teral triangle, as a little consideration will shew. .

Tirhoot, 27th March, 1833. LD:

Capt. ALrrep Burron, if Iam not mistaken, employs for the trisection of an

angle a cardigide of which the generating circle is E A D andthe constant quantity

AB. This curve at any rate answers very well, as will be evident on construction.

3.—New Patent Improved Piano-Forte.

Mr. T. Loup, jun. of Philadelphia has invented a new and usefulimprovement

in the horizontal Piano Forte, whereby the tone is greatly improved, the instru-

ment is less subject to get out of tune, and the strings are less liable to break, for

which invention and improvement he has taken out a patent.

The improvement consists in placing either the action above the strings, or the

strings and bridges turned upside down above the action. So thatthe hammer in

striking the string shall act in the direction of the bridge, instead of as at present in

an opposite direction. Upright Piano Fortes, it may be noticed, are already in

possession of this improvement.—Arcana of Science and Art.

We are not disposed to consider this improvement (for an improvement it is, as

far as tone is concerned) at all efficacious in preventing the instrument going out o¢

tune. Every one who knows any thing of the Piano knows that it is by the

slipping of the round iron pegs in their wooden sockets that a piano gets out of

tune; the extraordinary thing is that for an evil the source of so much vexation

and annoyance no remedy should have been yet discovered for, or we should rather

say applied By the trade : the remedy is in reality as obvious, as is the interest of

that trade to avoid applying it. We have seen the piano of a gentleman in Cal-

cutta much strengthened and improved by the adaptation of a cast-iron case to the

front block in which the pegs are inserted ; in fact if the whole frame could be made

of a triangle of cast-iron, the piano would be infinitely more durable than it is at

present, although it is probable that its tone might be prejudiced.

We must confess, however, that within the last few years, many real improvements

have been introduced in the adaptation of the Piano to the vicissitudes of our In-

dian climate: the metal bars, thrown across in the direction of the strain, tend ma-

terially to prevent the instrument form warping, and by themselves expanding and

contracting with heat and cold in the same ratio nearly as the wires} they keep the

latter under an uniform tension, and consequently always in tune ; whereas those

Pianos, which depend upon a wooden frame alone, require to be tuned with every

change of weather. Another real improvement in small Pianos has been the introduc-

tion of the metal plate, to which all the wires are attached: the advantages gained by

this construction are twofold, the sounding board is left free underneath, and the

strings of the upper octaves are deprived of that long neutral space between the

fixed pegs and the bridge, which always caused the upper notes of these instruments

to flatten much faster than the lower octaves. In fact, the liability to stretch or

slip, and the chance of flaws or imperfection of elasticity (which are the only causes

of getting out of tune), being in direct proportion to the length of wire, every wire

Should have the same proportion beyond the bridge to maintain uniform tune. Some

ma‘ers have ingeniously made use of the tail pieces of the wires, in grand pianos, to

produce a doubling of the tone ; the wires beyond the bridge have precisely the

same length to the fixed pegs as before the bridge, or within the action: on raising

270 Miscellaneous. [May,

by means of a pedal the damper that usually covers them, the sound will be dou-

bled by the reciprocal vibration of the extra strings : the thought has much ingenui-

ty, and all that can be urged against it is that the bulk of the instrument is some-

what increased, and with it the chances of derangement and getting out of tune.

4,—Specifie Gravity of Metallic Alloys.

In the second number of Brewster’s Journal N. S. are some curious results

obtained in experiments on the melting points and densities of different alloys, by

M. Kupffer. It appears that in every proportion of tin and lead from one of tin

with one of lead, to one of tin with four of lead, and from one of tia one of lead to

six of tin one of lead, there was expansion, i. e. the specific gravity of the alloy was

found to be less than that given by calculation. At two of tin one of lead, and still

more at three of tin one of lead, the difference was trifling ; and as the difference in-

creased each way it was conjectured that at some intermediate proportion between

those two, the resulting specific gravity would agree with the calculation. It was

found that one volume of lead to two of tin gave a specific gravity almost exactly

that of calculation.

In amalgams of tin and mercury, again, contraction was found to take place ; it

being null when one combining volume of tin was added to two of mercury. In

amalgams of lead and mercury the least contraction is found when one combining

volume of lead.is united to three of mercury.

The following melting points were observed :

Centigrade Fahrenheit.

JEGE Wen CIN IACI IC CCNCL CREO mt iii: PIE. Dh. SBT 63%.2

UT ee He ema Se OcIp aa0 CO Ore mniGat OC Of viatt -. 230 466

Tin 5 primes, Lead 1 ‘prime, pales ete! ou d.k wuetayate 194 34G.2

brs s Navapieys $e setre eee OD $62,u

By hep ides MO rae esters ne eo 356.8

Di rise a ; F 6.6196 3e¢.F

ee Deeds = . 241 WEI

Teas EE Ye MbLEE SSO ROR CRS 289 GFL,

2 volumes, 1 volume,. exes 194 DiS ee

These temperatures were determined iy noting the Een of mercury driven out

of a small bulb furnished with a capillary tube, in the same manner as practised by

Messrs. Dulong and Petit. They will therefore require some correction. D.

5.—Proportion of Recent and Fossil Shells.

The following notice of the numbers of known species of recent Testaceous

Mollusca and of Fossil shells is taken from Loudon’s Magazine of Natural History.

Simple Piva Multilo-

unival- |and mul-jcular Total.

ves tivalves. |univalves

Testaceous Mullusca of the present world,| 1961 874 08 2893

Species of British Fossil shells, ........ 401 634 230 1265

Of the 1265 Fossil Species, the following is the distribution.

Ist Division, 1st Section, Carboniferous |

order of Mr. Conybeare, ............ 27 | 80 33 | 140

‘Ist Division, 2nd Section, to the Lias in-

CIUSIVEN (oe Wis tic e ccntcaeRetis catty beter cseiate 9 38 50 97

2nd Division, from the Lias upward to the

Chalk inclusivess stad ce elie thee ste 106 375 139 620

3rd Division, Tertiary Beds above ae

LY AR ye a siel'sislalesai AAW tee 259 141 | 8 408

1833.]

Miscellaneous.

271

The author of this paper draws the conclusion “ that in proportion as we descend

the vast series of deposits that overspread this portion of the earth, so do we recede,

step by step, from the circle of existing organised beings, and from the phenomena

attendant on their structure, their habits, and their adaptations.”

6.—Table of the Lengths in British Miles of the Degrees of Latitude and Longitude

from 0°. to 30°. with the Areas bounded by them in Square Miles.

No. of

miles in

a Meridi-

onal De-

gree.

Parallels of Lat.

68.7160

68.7195

68.7233

68.7276

68.7321

68.7372

68.7425

68.7482

| 68.7543

17 | 68.7606

68.7675

68.7745

68.7820

68.7897

68.7977

68.8061

68.8147

68.8236

68.8328

68.8422

68.8519

68.8618

68.8720

ES SS

Mean.

Logarithm

68.7177

68.7214

68.7254

68.7298

68.7346

68.7398

68.7453

68.7512

68.7574

68.7640

68.7710

1.8370705

1.8370895

1.8371147

1.8371463

18371779

| 1.8372095

1.837241]

18372790

1.8373169

1.837361]

1.8374053

68.7782 | 1.8374495

68.7858 | 1.837500]

68.7937 | 1.8375506

68.8019 | 1.837601]

68.8104 | 1.8376516

68.8191 | 1.8377084

68.8282 | 1.8377652

68.8375 | 1.8378219

68.8470 | 1.8378850

68.8568 | 1.837948]

68.8669 | 1.8380112

e~)

—

No. of

miles in

a Lon-

gitudinal

Degree

68.4870

68.3097

68.1118

67.8933

67.6540

67.3944

67.1143

66.8139

66.4933

66.1525

65.7915

65.4106

65.0100

64.5896

64.1495

63.6900

63.2111

62.7130

62.1959

61.6597

61.1050

l=)

Mean.

Sums of

Logarihm| a +6

Nat. number.

Square miles.

3.6721139 |4700

4687

68.3983

68.2107

68.0025

67.7736

67.5242

67.2543

66.9641

66.6536

66.3229 |

65.9720 |

65.6010

65.2103

64.7998

64.3695

63.9197

63.4505

62.9620

62.4544

61.9278

1.8350434

1.833854

1.8325217

1.8310631

1.8294582

1.8277181

18258414

1.8238262

1.8216642

1.8193597

1.8169105

1.8143142

1.8115750

18086768

1.8056368

18024316

1.7990785

1.7955603

1.791887]

61.3823 | 1.7880410

60.8183 | 1.784032]

60.2356 | 1.779856]

3.6709439

3.6696364 |4673

3.6682094 |4658

3.6666361 |

3.6649276

3.6630825

3.6611052

3.6589811

3.6567208 |4536

3.6543158 |4511

3.6517637 |4485

3.6490751 | 4457

3.6462274 | 4428

3.6432379 |4398

3.6400832 | 4366

3.6367869 |4333

3.6333255 |4298

3.6297090 |4263

3.6259260 |4226

3.6219802 |4188

ork 4148

4603

|4582

4560

Note.—The above table was compiled in the Surveyor General’s Office, and will be

found of great use to Revenue Surveyors, &c. as it comprehends the latitude of all parts

of the plain of India.

Meteorological Register. [May, 1883.

272

OSE RE SIRES AG PURE SO SE 8 TAY TLE BREE AAD TS TS ERAN SE SAR SST ET OT EE IIIS AT eer

‘9SLI BY} SULIMP [ENSN SV polIMII0 a[eS ay} JO YySuess ayy pue ‘AjjeNpeAD asOr JL “ANOY 4eY} JoOIZe £451

aug Jo ‘Ww va $p 4% “ur /98 “9g 01 papuaosap Suravy “eIQNoTeD 3 [[eJ pajuepaderdun ue pasuatiedxe sJaj}owOAeY at, ‘seat Aueur Atoa sutAor}sap pue ArjuNOd afoym ayy Sut

yepunur ‘sarespay pue ansneg pourjayMsoao auvotimy & 4sTZ ey. UO “[VApay}eD oy} Ivaut asnoy v JO LPULIA NOs 9Y}-Ul A[lep PaAtosqO IV “IW “A OT PU “IW “Vv G 107

s]UaWMNAIsUy ay. ‘wMoNrfodszeyur Aq ur peT]y eae sorajue Aepung oy} pue ‘Ar0;eIOGRT oy} JO Ale darz ay} UI pepuadsns ore ‘WwW ‘dF PUL“ *V OL OF syuowNA}suy ayy,

‘duiep puv yeay aatssaiddo | "aTQeLIvA I 98°ZL} 06 c6 yath [aie | 9 | Pe | ‘8 | 0°06 [0G le*Ze | BoB] E6s° [EPs° |Z19° | cog" ‘sueayy

op op *Tynuin9 68 76 Tot | se | ste | £99 FOL | 36 | ‘66 |F06 | 8°9R4 SLPS | 9BP* | FOSS Ig

“10 op *1quaTu 66 66 for | 89 | e9 | s°9 10248 | 856 | ‘66 | 2°68 | ‘Ze ] OLS | Ter. | Tass 0g

op op snquitu G6 ch LOS 19 | 2% 169 TO'LZ8 | 8°26 | °86 2°68 | 484 99h° | OOF | B9PS 16 63

snjnumo = “110 “wand ‘azey 16 cé hZie’ | oF | oF | 2h | et48 | $606 | ‘26 \e°68 | P98 4 GErs | Best | SLFS 82

*snqeiys Tnuins “rea 96 16 46% Ly | ofe | 15S |Hle8 | Be 1 ‘86 \o%88 | TFA ROP | BOP. | 96PS 1Z

op op op 16 86 4e9 ee | eo | es I 1°88 | 8°68 | ‘86 |2°48 | OGe 4 Seo° | Srr* | 96P5 9G

‘Aep le azey 96 86 Lepr | Se | o's | 0% F698 | B68 19°46 0°28 | 0°S8 F99P* | GOES | OOPS oS

‘snjerjs uted §=— pute op 16 96 Ios | Se | ph | StL E1'89 | 6°28 \8°S6 | 2°88 | SEB hZOP’ | Ore. | 6S. ¥G

‘Suumdi,0 ‘punors -7 UIva}s $5 66 fu‘e | eh | ee | 1% Tatss | 8°F8 )€°06 |Z‘E8 | SG8 Fh 16h | Sar* | PPS &

SISNSJUITOIA “UIA pue ares 065% 86 86 lotr | 98 | 9fe | 0% “08 | 8°28 | “SB |Z‘cB | 0°BL F940‘ | 898% | 980° IZ

Ssuiuezeary} ured *Wnd-119 860 68 G6 hee Gee ato. y Tes 78 | $Z8 | 688 |o%e8 | L°08 8 OOPS | OZE* | Baas 03

op op op c8 06 fots OL | 6f9 | 9% FofEs | OC16 | “86 10°68 | OFTB HE TSS* | OOS* | O09S 6L

op op op | cg 88 fro | rOL| ag | sie Fors | €°16 |2°S6 | 2°68 | 1°08 9 Goss | TOSS | F99° 8L

*1ea]o op qeayo cg 06 Fes | 9fOL | sf 6% ha‘Es | 2° |8°S6 |0'68 | 1°08 § TE9* | 9gg* | E99° LI

*lynuins a iauecaate) *TTNUIND #8 16 9S COL | 269 | 956 fF 0%8 | F106 | “6 0°88 | 0°18 F989" | 6‘ | FIL 91

op oc) A} “IquiTU 00% 93 16 }ov | 06 |! eg | 0 7 8°ZB | GIG \S'76 \S°Z8 | BLE 8C9 | FESS | O&L< CT

*Iva]O *UIeI op 16 88 ies | FL 1 eG | ot Totes | 4°68 | “SOT | 1°68 | LEZ 9 9c9° | E99% | BEL< PIL

‘as durujyysy op op #8 % Hes | 80L | go | 0% Lote | PE6 \9°L6 |e°88 | GOB HR BIL’ | coos | Sols eI

op op op 98 06 FSS OL | go | Z°e | B°E8 | 0°66 | 2°96 | 2°88 | OFT F ZL9* | FROS | E6L< ZI

op op *Tvayo 6L 98 Tee | 081-166 | oe FOB | 606 |E°S6 12°88 | O08 FTEL® | OLO* | OLLZS IL

op op *Apnoja $8 08 Tle GOl | OO | oh FSIS | 1°88 |E°E6 | L°C8 | OTL GF G6L< | OPLS | GBS 6

“eeyo a) ‘ozey 68 96 Fas cL | of | ot 08 | 8°98 | 606 | 25GB | FEZ fF O08S | GEO | Goss L

WIND *119 ured *ajS "und $9'T G6 06 VES LG | co9 | 6% PL‘cl | L618 | 608 \9°%8 | 9f6L f O6L' | GOL‘ | 198° 9

urer Aavay spnoyo *Iv9IO , 98 68 Fa‘T GOT | 22 | 16 PSL | 8°16 ‘86 G06 | BEB 1 E08 | 69G* | OTL‘ g

*pnos Aavay op op 68 16 469 SB 1 o% | 6fe FESS | 2° $96 9°68 | BEB | FZ9* | OSg* | FEO* ¥

“4880190 op *4SB010A0 88 a Jos | £6 | o9 | oF Pets | 0'86 | ‘26 [os | 1'28 | 199* | 899° | 0695 €

*"WI0}S op *pnos 68 ew feo | 28 | 9 | pr J Z‘18 | 8°S6 | (86 |o°68 | “08 } PHOS | PES! | PODS | (a

“Azey “reayo “Teayo 68 2 V6 | 18 1 Sto | Of Paes | 8°S6 | 8°96 \F°68 | S°98 } ce9s | Gest | S69‘ I

al r i) »

< 5 = an ee pl | | MDa DR 1a f

Er § 3. 5 i > S| Eee oy ibe 2 a 3 S- lee Ik - 1s as

5 . 5 y a > i) e > > 3 oo | rea | ee ley ee oF > =o

5 3 #2 | FY] R 1S |B 1S Pe te 18s] 8 |esye | FE aes

— @O

“roUIPOM "PUTAL “Wey odin an pote ae ae! “ILY 9Y} UT Jo}IWIOULIOY.L cae

-orsAyy Arey] G[nq-jstow jo uorssaideq pooper Jajowoieg

‘eegy ‘Avy fo yquow ayy sof ‘v2jnaIny ‘effQ hossp ay7 qo yday ‘sagsibayy joovb070.100Ja AT

JOURNAL

THE ASTATIC SOCIETY.

No. 18.—June, 1833.

I.—On the Marriage Rites and Usages of the Jdts of Bharatpur.

By §.'¥€. Lushington, Esq. C. S.

[Read at the Meeting of the Asiatic Society, March 27, 1833.]

In the month of May, 1832, the present Raja of Bharatpur*, Bat-

WANT SINGH, was married to a daughter of the Bechore Raja, a Jat

chief, of a very respectable family residing near Gwalior.

Though there is no mention of the Bechore Rajas in the ‘‘ Ayeen

Akberi,” nor in any English work on India, that I am acquainted with,

I am assured by the Bharatpur ministers and other respectable natives

that the Bechore Princes once possessed territories inthe neighbour-

hood of Gwalior, which yielded an annual revenue of from three to

four lakhs of rupees. They add that the greater part of these territo-

ries are now in the hands of the Sinp1a family, and that the present

Bechore Raja has only a small Jagér of about fifteen thousand ru-

pees per annum.

The Bharatpur Raja was betrothed in 1824 (Samvat 1881), to the

Bechore Princess, by his father, the late Batpro Sineu, and under

ordinary circumstances the marriage would have been solemnized many

years ago. The Hindd law indeed censures the delay of marriage

(for females) beyond 10 years, but the Bharatpur Jats as ‘‘ Baran-

Sankdrs or a mixed caste, deriving their origint and military habits

* Then 14 years of age.

+ Such is the tradition of the Bharatpur Jats themselves. They assert their

(spurious) descent from the famous or fabulous Bisex Pat of Bidna, regarding

whose power, riches, and extent of dominion, many curious tales are still current

among them. In the “ Biye1-Pau Rasa,”’ a metrical romance or ballad (written

in Brij Bhakha), the Hind@ scholar will find a full and particular accqunt of this

NWN

274 On the Marriage Rites and Usages (Junz,

from the Lunar (Chandravanst) race of Rajpits, and possessing at

the same time the patient industry, agricultural skill, and religious

laxity of the Sddra or servile classes, do not strictly adhere to the

minutie of Hindi law. Whilst they retain many parts of the ancient

ritual they omit others, and substitute in their place peculiar forms and

usages (as will be noticed hereafter), which though evident innovations

are held, by them, in the highest esteem.

But in this particular case the delay alluded to arose not from Jat

laxity. It was owing in the first place to the untimely death of the

late Raja Batpro Sineu, and the troubles arising out of that event,

which were terminated only by the capture of Bharatpur, in January

1826, and the restoration of his son BaLwant Sineu, a minor, to the

masnad; and secondly, to the domestic intrigues and contentions

which took place at the capital between the Maji or Rant mo-

ther and the Regent ministers, as to the selection of a Géra or

spiritual adviser for the young Raja. The Majz is eldest wife

of the late Raja, and step-mother of the present Raja; and as she

once had the reputation of possessing some ability, the Supreme

Government nominated her in the first instance to the office of Regent.

Her subsequent conduct however speedily ‘did away with the favor-

able opinion entertained of her. It soon became evident that any

portion of talent or acuteness which she might once have possessed,

was neutralised by the lasting effects of a vicious education, and by a

more than ordinary share of feminine caprice and weakness. Being

naturally of a violent and imperious temper the possession of power

appeared, day by day, to strengthen and augment the worst features of

her character, until it at last led her to the commission of acts alike

injurious to her own reputation and fatal to the interests confided to

her.

Remonstrances and exhortations having been in vain addressed to

her by the British Government, it became necessary to place the ad-

ministration of Bharatpur affairs in other hands. The Rant was

accordingly removed from the office of Regent, (a suitable establish-

great Hindi monarch, who is fabled to have conquered Raja JomESwAR, the

father of Pintuu Raj, the celebrated Chouhan king of Delhi, and to have ruled

despotically over the whole of India. The Krror1* Raja too, boasts his descent

from Bise1 Pau, and if any faith can be placed in a “ Bansaoli”’ or genealogical

“ tree,”’ he has a fair claim to the benefits, real or imaginary, resulting there-

from. ABULFAZL has a short and pithy sentence regarding the ‘‘ Bansaolts.””

“And all of these tribes now carry in their hands genealogical tables for ages

back.” — Gladwin’s Ayeen Akberl, vol. ii. p. 399.

* Heis a Chandravansi Rajput.

1833.) ; of the Jats of Bharatpur. 275

ment being assigned her in the Mehdl or inner apartments,) and the

old ministers of the Raja appointed to succeed her. Of these, the

Dewan, or principal minister, Jewaurr Lat, was fortunately a person

of considerable knowledge and experience in business, having held the

Dewdni with distinguished honor to himself and advantage to the

state during the reign of Ransit, Rampyan, and Bautpro Sineun.

By his prudent and equitable measures tranquillity was speedily restored

and the old system of management re-established.

But though the Rani, as above stated, had been formally removed

from the Regency, she never relinquished her hopes of a return to

power. After repeatedly attempting to blacken the character of the

Regent ministers, and as often failing in her attempts, as the charges

advanced by her proved on investigation to be entirely groundless, she

determined to change her plan of attack, and to apply all the means at

her disposal to the establishing such an influence on the mind of the

young Prince as would eventually throw him into her hands. With a

view to this eud she revived a story which she had herself invented

and circulated when Regent, of the Raja’s initiatory necklace* having

been tied on by a favourite priest and emissary of her own, by name

Sri’ Ram; and on the strength of this story, she asserted the right of

this person to be elected Géré or spiritual adviser to the Raja,

well knowing that if she could effect this object, she would secure to

herself the greatest spiritual and political influence, and become de

facto mistress of the state.

The Regent ministers on the other hand had from the first attested

that the pretensions of Parohit Sri’ Ram to the Girtship were

altogether false and ridiculous; that the father of the Raja had ac-

tually selected as Gérd for his child the superior of the very temple

of which this Sri’ Ram was the mere Péjart or officiating priest;

that, the circumstance of Sri’ Ram’s being a Péjarf was a sufficient

refutation of his claim; as the Mehant or superior of a temple, alone,

was qualified for the office of Géré; and that in addition to these

proofs, Harr Das, the superior in question, was still living, and de-

posed that he had tied on the necklace with his own hands during the

life time, and in the presence of BaLpEo Sinqu.

* The ceremony of tying on the necklace is performed when the Giéré is se-

lected ; the Ch¢la, or disciple, being then an infant. This is preparatory, and in-

tended to show that a selection has been made. When the disciple has arrived at

the prescribed age, the ceremony of initiation is completed by the Gérd’s pro-

nouncing the ‘‘ Gér Mantra,” or mystical charm in the ears of the Chéla, who

thereby becomes a twice-born, or regenerated man.

NN 2

276 On the Marriage Rites and Usages (June,

To this statement, a flat denial was given by the Ranz and her

favourite priest, and amidst the bickerings and intrigues that ensued,

the Raja’s marriage was for some years considered inexpedient ; it being

contrary to usage that a person should be married prior to the cere-

mony of investiture being completed by his Guré’s pronouncing the

Gur Mantra, or mystical words of initiation.

Such was the state of this question up to the beginning of 1832,

when the advancing years of the young Prince convinced the regent

ministers that a further delay would only tend to ‘‘ defer* the remedy

of the evil, not the evil itself,” and that some decision must be forth-

with resolved on ;—after much doubt and hesitation they determined

to solemnize the marriage, leaving the choice of a Gari to be decid-

ed on by the Prince himself on his attaining his majority. Before

venturing on so unusual a proceeding, an opinion was obtained from

the Brahmans, that though it would doubtless have been proper for

the Prince to have become the disciple of some Guard previously to

entering upon the holy state of matrimony, still it would be better

for him to marry at once, and afterwards select a Gari, than con-

tinue in his unhallowed state of celibacy.

At the same time it was decided that the marriage ceremonies should

be solemnized at the town of Digt (24 miles to the north of Bharatpur),

that the bridegroom should go out thus far to meet the bride, and

after the performance of the ceremonies, conduct her to his palace at

Bharatpur.

It has been stated above that the Raja was betrothed in the year

1824, and I now proceed to describe the manner in which the betroth-

al (Suga?) takes place. Iam well aware that in doing so I run the

risk of wearying the patience of the reader. But it is necessary in

this as in other things to begin with the beginning ; neither am I igno-

rant that the ceremonies which form the subject of this paper have been

pronounced by the historian of British India (see vol. 1. note c.),

to be “‘ trivial, multiplied, and tiresome.” Such they would doubtless

appear to be to the philosopher and historian of Europe, who, calm-

ly seated in his study some thousands of miles from the country in

which these customs obtain, looks with wonder or contempt at the

* Remedia potius malorum quam mala ipsa differentes.— Tacitus.

+ The ‘‘ Bhowans’’ or garden-palaces of Dig, built by the celebrated Jat,

Su’ras Mot, may safely be compared with any of the buildings erected by the

Muhammedans at Delhi or Agra. They were constructed of the stone found in the

Ripbas hills about 80 years ago. For a short account of the antiquities of Dég,

see Appendix, A.

1833.] of the Jdts of Bharatpur. 277

“trivial and multiplied” details, and in sorrow or anger records his

opinion of their absurdity. But the Hindd, alas! looks upon these

very absurdities in a totally different light—he considers them as part

and parcel of his religion, as forms which were in the first instance

inculcated by his deities, and which the practice and veneration of

ages has hallowed. We may lament that he should do so, but we

ought not surely to condemn him without inquiry. It appears to me

that some of these very ceremonies, of which so sweeping a condem-

nation has been passed, are not only interesting and curious, but even

valuable, inasmuch as they tend to throw light* upon the feelings and

domestic genius of our subjects.

The betrothal takes place in the following manner—a message is

first sent by the father of the girl to the bridegroom’s father, intimat-

ing that as alliances have formerly taken place between their families,

and as Providence has kindly blessed him with a daughter, &c. he is

anxious to bind the knots of amity closer than ever. Should the father

of the boy approve of thesuggestion, he dispatches a Purohit or fa-

mily priest to the lady’s father, both to measure the height of the

girl and ascertain her personal appearance, &c. On the return of the

Parohit to his employer, the height of the young lady is compared with

that of the boy. Should it appear to be of the orthodox proportion, and

the report made by the Parohit of her beauty be favourable, the genea-

logies and affinity of the parties are then inquired into; and in the

event of their not coming within thet prohibited degrees, the be-

trothal is agreed to, and considered binding upon both parties.

The betrothal having been adjusted, and the Tika or marriage

present sent by the bride to the bridegroom, it remains for the Brah~

mans to select what they may be pleased to consider a ‘‘ fortunate hour”

for the marriage. Regarding this important point, long and tiresome

disputes are sometimes carried on between the astrologers of the two

* “We cannot,” says the talented and discriminating Sir H. Stracuey, “study

the genius of the people in its own sphere of action. We know little of their

domestic life, their knowledge, conversation, amusements ; their trades and castes,

or any of those national and individual characteristics which are essential to a

complete knowledge of them.’’ Perhaps the acknowledged existence of this lament-

able defect may excuse the attempt on my part to illustrate one of the most im-

portant events in the life of a Hinda.

+ The prohibited degrees among the Bharatpur Jats are the Gots or families

of the boy’s paternal and maternal grand-fathers and grand-mothers. In this,

as in many other points, they depart widely from the strictness of the Hinda system

as promulgated in the “Institutes of Menu’,’”’ where prohibitions of the most ex-

traordinary nature are enumerated, and directions for choosing a wife minutely laid

down.

278 On the Marriage Rites and Usages (Jung,

durbars. These disputes would indeed be endless but for the inter-

ference of the superior party, who may always command or obtain the

silence of the priests by a well-timed fee, or the promise of a grant

of land. All opposition then ceases ; difficulties and scruples founded

upon texts from the sacred writings vanish, as soon as the land of

promise appears in sight : a little ingenuity and a considerable portion

of hardihood is all that is required; for with the aid of these two

auxiliaries the very Shastras which at first appeared to condemn the

arrangement may be clearly shown to favour it. There is an especial

advantage in this sort of arrangement to the soothsaying Brahmans.

Should the Mohrat prove a fortunate one, they take good care to

attribute ail the happy results following it to the skill with which it was

arranged by them, but if on the other hand any untoward events

should happen; if for instance the bride should prove barren or pro-

lific only in female* children, they represent that they had from the

first had a divine presentiment of the evil, but yielding to the opinion

attempted by the anger of the Prince had consented to fix the

Mohrat agreeably to his wishes.

As before stated, many years elapse between the act of betrothal and

the celebration of the marriage rites. It is however expedient that

the number of years thus intervening should constitute an uneven sum,

as 3, 5, 7, not 2, 4, 6, which would be deemed unlucky. A similar be-

lief in the virtue of uneven numbers has obtained amongst many na-

tions from the earliest ages. It is especially laid down in the astro-

logical books of the Hindus. Thus in the Mohrat-Chintaman, (a

book abounding in the most extraordinary absurdities,) it is written.

that it is always fortunate to meet the black antelope on the right-

hand side, and if the number of antelopes be odd, it is even fortunate

to meet them on the left side. A bad omen occurring to a person

starting on a journey is removed by eleven inspirations, and twenty-five

steps with the right foot should then be taken. Perhaps this belief may

have given rise to the Hindi Triad, and triliteral monosyllable for

the three worlds—earth, sky, and heaven. The number three being

* There is a curious passage in the Koran, illustrative of the feeling which pre-

vailed among the Pagan Arabs on the subject of female offspring : see SALE’s

Koran, c. 16. ‘*‘ And when any of them is told the news of the birth of a female,

his face becometh black, and he is deeply afflicted ; he hideth himself from the

people, because of the ill tidings which have been told him, considering with himself

whether he shall keep it with disgrace, or whether he shall bury it in the dust.”

The feeling led, in Arabia as in India, to the crime of infanticide. It was formerly

practised by many of the Rajputs and by the J4ts. I wish I could persuade my

self that it has ceased.

1833.] of the Jats of Bharatpur. 279

uneven, and as such supposed to be of especial sanctity. At any rate,

wherever or however the belief originated, it was at one time prevalent

throughout the world. . Even the Platonists appear to have inclined

to it, and it was certainly esteemed by the other philosophical sects—

nor is it perhaps much more absurd than the belief in alchemy, which

formerly mastered the intellects of the sages and philosophers of

Christendom, and for a time at least is supposed to have influenced _

the sublime genius of NewrTon*.

The time for the marriage having thus been fixed, the day on which

the lagan-patri (or letter containmg the marriage horoscope) shall

be sent by the bride to the bridegroom, is then adjusted. This is

brought by the Parohit or family priest of the bride’s father, and is

simply a large scroll of paper, on which the day fixed on for the wed-

ding, the aspect of the planets, the number of days during which the

bridegroom’s body is to be anointed with jasmine oil (Chambéli-ka-tél),

and the number of rejoicings (mangal) or days during which the

ceremony is to last, are specified.

The Jagan is written in Sanscrit, and together with the khilat

which accompanies it, is received by the Raja in the inner apartments,

on which occasion none but the females of the family, the Brahmans

and Parohits (who have always access to the mehal), and Raja himself

are present.

The lagan-patri having been brought by the Parohit to the Raja,

the latter places it on his head, in token of respect, and delivers it

to the Brahmans in attendance, who read and explain its contents.

The Raja is then lifted} up by the zaé{ in waiting, and carried into

the inner apartments, where the Majz or Rant mother resides, and

to her he gives the lJagan-patri and khilat which accompanied it. I

should have stated above, that the dagan is tied up with yellow§

* Not less extraordinary was the enthusiastic belief of the Emperor JuL1an, the

hero, legislator, and philosopher, in the virtue of the Eleusynian Mysteries and

Grecian arts of divination. G1BBON observes, with his usual felicity of expression,

“« By a strange contradiction, he disdained the salutary yoke of the Gospel, whilst he

made a voluntary offering of his reason on the altars of Jupiter and Apollo.” De-

cline and Fail, chapter xxiii.

With regard to Sir J. Newron’s belief in the doctrines of pices I observe

that Sir D, Brewster, in his lately published Life, (page 302,) states, that there is

no reason to suppose that Sir I, N. did delieve in them

+ He is lifted up, because it is considered improper that he should come in con-

tact with the vile earth during the performance of the ceremonies.

+t Nai or barber ; the attendants on Rajas and Sirdars at Bharatpur are all

of this caste. Nains, females of the same caste, wait upon the Rani.

§ It is the fayorite colour of Krisuna ; hence his synonime PirAMBER, the

** yellow-clothed”’ deity.

280 On the Marriage Rites and Usages [Junz,

threads (this colour being esteemed fortunate) ; that déd* grass, an

emblem of increase, is put on it; and that gold coins, betelnut, rupees,

haldi or yellow curry-powder, and yellow rice are placed within the

folds of the paper.

The lagan-patri is intrusted to the keeping of the Rané mother

until the day of her death, whilst the kAi/at is sent out by her for

the inspection of the Sirdars assembled. When the Parohit or

his followers, who escorted the Jagan, have returned to their tents,

which are pitched outside the city, it being contrary to etiquette

that the bride’s party should partake in any way of the bride-

groom’s hospitality, Gur (unrefined sugar) is distributed to the po-

pulace. On the third day after this, the Parohit returns with pre-

sents to the bride.

From the receipt of the Jagan, the marriage is considered to begin.

Marriage songs (Barna and Barni) are sung in the houses of the

bride and bridegroom, and presents are distributed to the women

who sing; these are for the most part females of the same stock (1 Got)

as the bridegroom. The subjects selected by them, and the language

in which they are illustrated, are alike coarse and ludicrous, resem-

bling perhaps the “‘sales et convicia” sung by the Roman boys at

marriages, or the rude jokes and indecencies which pervade the songs

of our older poets.

The Raja’s mother sits in the midst of the singers, listening to the

songs, and frequently joins in the chorus herself. The singers are

rewarded for their labours, and their songs are always in proportion

to the reward. There is a common saying, taken from this cir..

cumstance, which has passed into a proverb, “ Jysa tera kourz wysa

meré gtt,” or the goodness of our song will depend upon the num-

ber of rupees bestowed on us.

The marriage songs having been instituted, and the body of the

bridegroom anointed with jasmine oil, which is applied with d&b*

* For an account of the sacred durva or déb grass, see Asiatic Researches, vol.

iv. Observations on select Indian Plants, by Sir W. Jones. The following text

is there quoted: “‘ May Durva, which rose from the waters of life, which has a

hundred roots and a hundred stems, efface a hundred of my sins and prolong my

existence on earth for a hundred years.”” Mr. Henry CoLeBRooKE quotes another

text in praise of Durva, in his learned Essays, and Colonel Toppt mentions that the

Rajputs are fond of comparing themselves to this valuable grass, which thrives in

almost every soil, and propagates itself for ages and ages. The comparison is not

confined to Rajputs alone, it is current throughout upper India.

+I quote from memory, not having Colonel Topp’s valuable work by me, the Is¢ vo-

dume of which 1 perused (with less attention than it deserved), two years ago, in Cal-

eutta, the 2nd volume I have not yet seen.

1833. | of the Sits of Bharatpur. | 281

grass to his feet, arms, and shoulders, the worship of the potter’s wheel

(Chakr-puja) is then performed by the Majz and female relatives of

the Raja. This consists in visiting the shop of the family potter, and in

offering up sweetmeats, betelnuts, and rupees on his wheel. The prais-

es of this instrument and the article produced by it are chaunted by

the women, and the ceremony concludes by a demand on the part of

the potter* for a present; upon which there ensues a mock dispute

between him, the Rdnés, and the women, the potter demanding ex-

actly twice the sum to which he is entitled, and the females as stoutly

refusing to comply with his demand. The dispute is generally ended

by a compromise between the belligerent parties, and the female dis-

putants return to the mehal.

Two days prior to the marriage, the women of the mehal repair to

a tank within the interior of the palace, and having with their hands

dug up the wet mud on its banks, bring it on their heads into the inner

apartments, where they proceed to construct a miniature store-house

or granary for the bridegroom. The meaning of which is obviously

this, that it becomes the bridegroom to lay up ample store of provi-

sions for his future wife and family, whilst it is no less incumbent on

them (his relatives) to assist him in so doing,

After the worship of the potter’s wheel the Raja and the whole of

his Sirdars repair in state to the shrine of Sztld, the goddess of

the small-pox. Propitiatory prayers and gifts are offered up to this

dreaded personage, and various articles of food and incense placed be-

fore her. So general, I may add, is the worship of this goddessf

throughout these parts, that every village has an altar consecrated to

her, which consists generally of a mere heap of stones loosely piled up,

with one slab placed perpendicularly, on which a rude image of the

goddess is engraved.

The appearance of this goddess is said to be similar to that of an

old and wrinkled woman, and, for this reason, the Hindus consider it

* Two reasons are assigned for the worship of the wheel ; Ist, that it is the wea-

pon of VisHnvu. 2ndly, Its great utility to the married couple, as furnishing them

with utensils of every description.

+ She is said to ride on a donkey and to have a potter as a groom, and for this

reason potters are entitled to the food offered up-at her shrine, should it be Sukri,

or food cooked in a chulha, but if Nikri or sweetmeats (which by some conveni-

ent textt are held to be lawful to all Hindus, though cooked by strangers), the

Brahmans take good care to secure them,

+ Provided they are inhabitants of the Mudh Des, or country between the Hima-

laya and Vindhya ranges.

282 On the Marriage Rites and Usages [Junn,

proper that persons seized with small-pox should be attended by old

women alone.

Another still more extraordinary act of devotion is then performed,

the worship of the Gohra or place in which the filth of the palace

is deposited. The worship consists in sprinkling water, perfumes, and.

sweetmeats on the mass; and it is said to be indicative of the wish on

the part of the worshipper, that his progeny may increase and multiply

even as the heap of rubbish before him. In like manner, the Hindts

are accustomed to throw their sucking teeth on a dunghill, uttering at

the time a prayer that their new teeth may quickly appear, and increase

even as the dunghill has increased. Strange as this worship may ap-

pear to us, we should not forget that it may be defended by classical

precedents. Ifthe Romans adored their ‘‘ Cloacina,’’ surely a less

civilized people may be excused for worshipping the Gohra.

Upon the termination of these several acts of devotion (rité peremp-

tis), there remains the ceremony of the Bhdt to be performed, which is

the presentation by the brothers and other male relatives (of the

Ranis), of marriage clothes, and presents to the Raja. The presents

consist of elephants, horses, camels, clothes for the Raja and

Ranis* and ashrafees; and are given first to the Parohits, then to

the Ranis and female attendants, and lastly to the Raja. In return

for these presents the donors receive rice from the Raja. Hence the

name of the ceremony.

When the Raja’s mother has put on the marriage dress thus: pre-

sented to her, and the circumstance has been communicated to friends

and people assembled, the marriage is considered to have commenced,

and the liveliest marks of rejoicing are exhibited.

The day before that on which the “‘ bardt’’ or marriage cavalcade

starts for the place at which the wedding is to be solemnized, the de-

putations sent by foreign states in honour of the marriage are feasted

by the Raja; after the entertainment is over the whole of the Raja’s

relatives stand up, and whilst the Prince himself remains seated on the

guddee throw rupees, &c. into a flat iron dish. The women singing the

following words:

“ Téiné khayo pett pusdr yun to lejaega minh mar,” or you have

* His mother, grand-mother, &c. not his future wife.

_ + The act of putting on the dress thus presented is called “ bhdét paharana,” a

curious idiom enough.

¢ This is an allusion to the Péthya, or allowance of food given by the state to

the relatives of the Raja. A Péthya is literally a bellyful, but varies in quantity and

quality according tc the pleasure of the granter and rank of the grantee. The

1833.] of the Jats of Bharatpus. 283

filled your bellies famously, In the same way shall it be taken from

you (even) by blows (i. e. should you refuse),

The time having at length arrived at which the marriage procession

is to set out, the attendants proceed to array the bridegroom in his

marriage garments, which, as will be seen from the following list, are

sufficiently numerous.

On his feet he has shoes of embroidered velvet. His pazjamas or

loose trowsers are composed of kimkhab, and under these he has a

dhotz of yellow silk.

As an under vest or garment he has a jamd of cotton cloth, trim-

med with silver lace, and dyed of a yellowish red colour (kesdria).

Over this jama he has an embroidered vest, studded with pearls, (jer-

réka jdma,) and over this again a girdle ornamented in the same way.

The panarth, a sort of long handkerchief, is tied to his girdle, and

thrown over his shoulder, to enable him to keep the dust from his eyes,

or wipe it off should any find access thereto. On his head he has the

mor*, or marriage chaplet, which is richly ornamented with pearls

and gold embroidery, and is supposed to resemble the helmet of Kanuya,

with its plume of peacock’s feathers.

His eyelids are stained with kajul or lamp-black, his feet and hands

with mehndit, and-on his feet, hands, arms, and neck, he wears a

Pethya of a Rant, for instanee (see Appendix, B.) comprises all sorts of grain,

Spices, sauces, &c. and that sine qua non of Indian life, shirnt or sweetmeats.

The fondness of all classes, highand low, men, women, and children, for these said

sweetmeats is to us quite marvellous. I have been assured, that some Brahmans

will eat a 100 balls of Jaddu (sugar, ghee, and pounded gram) at a sitting! ! There

is a curious character of an “‘ eating Brahman,’’ a ‘‘ grand gourmand,’’ in the

Hind Theatre.”

* It has a curious sort of veil in front, formed of gold threads, hanging loosely

from the head to the breast, which is intended to protect the wearer from the

“epil eye.’ A belief in demonology and witchcraft prevails’ throughout Hindi-

stan. As acurious instance of “ public opinion’? among the Jats on this subject,

I may relate the following anecdote, told me by a very respectable native of

Bharatpur. In 1815-16, the Bharatpur Raja, Ranpu1R SinGu, had an interview

with Lord Hastings at Futtehpur Sikri, and was received by that distinguished

nobleman with his usual kindness and affability. The Raja was highly pleased

with the interview, but happening in the course of the ‘next year to lose his eye-

sight, by an attack of ophthalmia, some of the people about him, who from the’

first had endeavoured to dissuade him from meeting the Governor General, gave

out that his blindness was the effect of ‘ witchcraft ’”’ practised on him by Lord

H. during the interview, and this tale was generally believed throughout the

Bharatpur Raj !!

+ Every one has witnessed the beautiful vermilion dye which the natives ex-

tract from this plant, It is considgred as essential an ornament by Hindi and

oo 2

284 On the Marriage Rites and Usages (Jung,

variety of jewels, both such as are peculiar to men, as also some which

are ordinarily worn only by women. Thus, besides bracelets on his

wrists, he wears the poncht, a sort of bangle usually worn only by

females. On his neck too, in addition to the common necklace which

all Hindis wear (kanth2), he has the hansli, a kind of collar made

of gold or silver, and the shape of which is that of a horse shoe,

thus &. He has also rings on his little and fore fingers.

Thus attired, the bridegroom proceeds to his mother’s apartment,

where he has one more ceremony to go through prior to starting :

after the usual obeisances, the Raja applies his mouth to his mother’s

breast, and affects to imbibe someof the milk contained (or supposed to

be contained) therein. This is of course a mere form, but it is never

omitted by any caste of Hindus, and is obviously meant to remind

them of the period when they derived strength and nourishment from

their mother’s breast alone, and of the duty imposed on them of pro-

tecting the parent who cherished them in the days of helplessness.

This sentiment is simply and beautifully expressed in one of SAp1’s

odes, of which I presume to offer the following version. (See Appen-

dix, C.)

Having received his mother’s benediction, the bridegroom leaves the

inner apartments, and joins the marriage procession, which is mar-

shalled outside the mehal. He is then lifted into a palankeen or

howdah, as the case may be, or rather as the Brahmans may have

directed. The chief thing at issue is the direction in which he is to

proceed, particular kinds of conveyances being considered fortunate to

persons travelling in particular directions: thus, should a person be

journeying towards the east, he should proceed on an elephant; if

to the south, in a rath; to the west, on a horse; to the north, in

a palki, | These directions are of course seldom observed by persons

of inferior condition; indeed, they are manifestly intended only for

indeed by all Asiatic women as rouge was (I will not venture to say is) by our own

fair country women. There is this distinction however to be observed in the two

otherwise similar cases, no Hindu would think it ungallant to inform his mis-

tress that she was in the habit of ‘“rouging.’’ The custom is prettily alluded to

in the ‘‘ Hindi Theatre,” Vikrama and Urvasi, Act 4, Parura Vas thus speaks:

** How shall I learn, if she hath passed this way : the pleasing soil, softened by

showers, perchance may have retained the delicate impression of her feet,

and show some vestige of their ruby tincture,’ The subject has been some-

what differently handled by the wits and poets of Europe from the days of MARTIAL

down -to those of BreBEuF, who is said to have produced no less than 150 con-

ceits on this topic. Some specimens are given by Bann in his “ Illustrations to

the Greek Anthology.”’

1833.) of the Jats of Bharatpur. 285

people of rank and wealth. The mohrarat, however, is never

violated even by the poorest Hindi, and judging from my experience

at Bharatpur, 1 would say their faith in its efficacy is as firm as ever.

On passing through the city, the Raja stops at the “ Behari ji

mandir,” the temple of the playful god Krisuna, and makes his

obeisances to the Mehant or high-priest of the establishment.

There is a tradition still current at Bharatpur of the ‘“ sable god*’”’

being the killedart of the fort (though not properly within the land

of Bruj), and for this reason, both he and his ministering priests are

entitled to greater honors than are rendered to the other forms of the

deity. On entering the mandir the Raja seats himself on the ground

near the Mehant, who does not rise from his gaddi or cushion.

The Raja humblyt invokes the blessing of the holy man, which is ac-

cordingly given, the Mehant throughout the interview maintaining

the tone and manner of a superior, whilst the Raja acts the part of

the suppliant. The same forms are observed when the priest visits

the Prince in fulldarbar. The Raja rises to meet the saint as he en-

ters the hall of audience, and taking him by the hand, seats him on the

masnad, himself sitting on the ground beside him. Some idea may be

formed from this circumstance of the important part which these Mehants

play in Hiwdt states. The high esteem in which they are held by

all classes of Hindus, from the Raja down to the ‘‘ unwashed artizan,”’

necessarily gives them the greatest influence in state affairs, should

they be of an intriguing turn of mind, and especially when they con-

trive to become the Guru or spiritual adviser of the Raja. The

notorious Sri’ Jz of Jeypur, the Guru, and as the Jats affirm

evil adviser of Dursan Saut, whom he instigated to his hopeless resist-

ance to our arms, may be taken as a good specimen of an unprinci-

pled intriguing Mehant ; nor is Bharatpur without a similar character,

as is well known to the supreme authorities. In general, however, the

Mehants are said to be quiet, well disposed personages, and I believe

that a political Mehant subjects himself to as much odium among the

Hindis as a political priest does with us. As all the mandirs$ have

* The favorite epithet applied to Krisona SYAMARE.

+ During the assault in 1804-5, our Sipahis protested that they saw the god

distinctly ! ‘‘ dressed in yellow garments, and armed with his peculiar weapons the

bow, mace, conch, and pipe !”’

t Previously to sitting, he performs the dandavat, a salutation which consists in

‘raising both hands joined to the head, which is, at the same time, slightly bowed.

§ The two principal temples at Bharatpur are those of Brwarti Ji and Lacu-

MAN Ji, the former belonging to the Nemdwat, the latter to the Rémdwat sect of

Byragls. The Mehants of these temples have each a Chanda or cess allowed

286 On the Marriage Rites and Usages (Jung,

grants of land from the state or a share in the assessments levied upon

villages, they are of course more or less dependent on the will of the

reigning Prince.

I may mention here, in order to: preserve myself from the imputation

of having mistaken the ground on which the extraordinary marks of

respect above detailed are paid by the Bharatpur Rajas, to the Mehant

of the Behari Ji Mandir, that the present Raja, for reasons which

have been already mentioned, had not become the Chela of any Guru

at the time of his marriage, and that consequently it was not as his

Guru or spiritual adviser that he reverenced the Mehant, but as being

the superior of a temple especially dedicated to Krisuna.

Quitting the temple, the cavalcade proceeds on its way. As it

passes through the city, the inhabitants crowd the tops of the houses,

anxious to obtain a sight of the precession, and compare it with those

of former princes. The streets are illuminated, with chiraghs fixed

upon bambu trelles work ; and as the Prince himself advances, the loud

cries of “‘Ram! Ram!” become more and more frequent; uttered as

they are by all ranks and ages, from the grey-headed men of sixty down

to the child of three or. four years old; add to these sounds, the ‘‘ con-

cordia discors’”’ of the large shankh or shell ; the blowing of fifes and

trumpets, and beating of drums on the part of the Paltans, which

precede the Raja; the deep bass sounds of the -Nakdras or kettle-drums

borne by the camel Sowars; the shrill piercing tones of the bambu

pipe; the tinkling of the elephants’ and camels’ bells; the waving of

chouries; ‘‘the dancing of the tall spears’ on which the national

standards* are fixed; the discharge of fire-works and jingalls, and we

have a pretty correct enumeration of the attributes of pomp (and melo-

dy !) with which a Hindi Prince goes forth to his wedding.

The women of the different villages through which the Bardt passes

advance to, meet it, singing the songs of rejoicing usually sung at the

Hilit. In return for this mark. of respect presents are given them,

generally about five rupees per each village.

them by the state upon all villages. The number of villages is about 1,200, and

the Chanda varies according to the Rakba, being seldom if ever above two rupees,

nor less than four annas. Besides the Chanda, they have the “‘ Changi”? or

tithe in kind, levied upon all sorts of grain when exported for sale in the bazars,

and a pious or superstitious Prince occasionally makes them a grant of a village,

i, e. of the government share of the produce, which is collected by the Mehant

instead of by the Sirkar.

* A yellow flag, with the figure of the monkey-general HANUMAN rampant

in the centre.

+ Phagua, so called from the month Phagun.

1833.] of the Jats of Bharatpur. 287

. The procession moves at a slow and measured pace: immediately in

front of the bridegroom’s elephant are stationed a number of water-

carriers, bearing skins of water, which they occasionally pour on the

ground before him; not with the intention of laying the dust, for that

would be considered absurd, but to convey to all beholders the notion

that the presence of the bridegroom is as grateful to his mistress and

all created things as water is to the parched-up earth.

When the barat has arrived to within a mile or two of the town

at which the wedding is to take place, it is met by the nearest male

relative of the young lady, who comes out thus far to honour the bride-

groom, and to conduct him to his tents. This is called the Peshwat

or Jstakbal, and is considered an -important part of native etiquette.

It obtains I believe throughout Asia, certainly in all Muhammedan

countries.

The whole of the bridegroom’s Sipahis, attendants, and sirdars,

constituting a body of about 8000 men, are dressed in marriage gar-

ments, as also those of the bride. In fact, no one would be allowed to

form part of the procession; or to be present at the marriage feast who

was not so attired. This piece of etiquette throws light on a passage in

Scripture, Matthew xxii. ‘‘ And when the king came in to see the

guests, he saw there a man which had not on a wedding-garment, and

he said unto him, Friend, how comest thou hither, not having a wed-

ding-garment? and he was speechless. Then said the king to the servants,

Bind him hand and foot, and take him away and cast him into outer

darkness.” A similar violation of established rule and etiquette would

meet with a similar punishment, I believe, in any native state.

I shall now describe as shortly as possible the ceremonies which are

performed after the arrival of the bridegroom, In the first place, a

hookah, bhang, tobacco, cardamums, and sherbet are sent to him by

the ‘‘ Samdhi’’ or father. of the girl, and the ‘‘ Samdhi’’ himself waits

on him. He is received. with much. respect by the Sirdars of the

court, but the bridegroom neither rises from his seat nor returns. his

salutation. The natives consider the bridegroom to be a sort of Di-

vinity* for the two or three days during which the ceremonies last, and

for this reason he neither returns his father-in-law’s greeting nor that

of any one else. When the two or three days are over, he relapses

to his former ‘‘ earthly’ state. -

* However low the caste and station of the bridegroom, he is called a ‘‘ arhai

voz ka Badshah,’’ or a “‘ King for two and half days,’’ i. e. during the performance

of the ceremonies, which last two or three days, according to the resources of the

bride’s father, who is expected to feast the cavalcade for at least two and gene-

rally three days, ;

288 On the Marriage Rites and Usages [Junz,

In the evening of the first day, the ceremony of the Toran takes place,

and at midnight that of the Hom. Though there is no mention of the

Loran in Mr. Couesrooxe’s Essays, nor any allusion to it in the “Hin-

du Theatre,”’ or law, it is considered by the Jats, and I am assured, by

all Hindts in Upper India, as a very important ceremony, andas such,

is never omitted. The Toran is a wooden ornament, or rather the figures

of certain little birds, carved in wood, and gilded over with gold leaf.

These are fixed above the doorway leading into the Mandap or

marriage pavilion, and the ceremony consists in the bridegroom’s strik-

ing or touching them with a sheathed sword.

As soon as this feat has been accomplished, a general sprinkling of

Hiuli powder and explosion of fire-works takes place. The Sirdars

partake of a zyafat at the Samdhi’s house, whilst the bridegroom

returns to his tents, it being considered improper that he should be

feasted by his father-in-law prior to the performance of the Hom.

Though I have made repeated inquiries as to the origin and mean-

ing of the Toran, I have not hitherto received any satisfactory explana-

tion of it :—one reason assigned, and it is certainly a plausible one, is

that the touching it with the sword is intended to represent the bride-

groom’s superiority over the bride, and to convey a hint to her and all

present, of the treatment she will receive, if refractory. The New

Zealanders, if I recollect aright, convey a similar hint to their intend-

ed wives, though in a somewhat coarser fashion, by knocking them down

with large clubs previously to the marriage ; or perhaps, the Toran is

some allusion to the kind of wedding or rape entitled Rakhasa, which

took place between Krisona and Rv’kumanr’, and is one of the

forms enumerated by MENv.

The sacred ceremony of the Hom or burnt-offering takes place at

midnight, and as it is decidedly the most classical and interesting of all

the Hindi sacrifices, I shall endeavour to describe it minutely. I shall

not attempt to give the Mantras, or incantations used on the occasion :

first, because on account of my very slight knowledge of Sanscrit I was

unable to determine the particular Mantra chaunted by the priests ; and

secondly because the Mantras generally used on such occasions have

already been given by Mr. Cotzsrooke in his admirable papers on the

religious ceremonies of the Hindus.

The Hom was performed under the Mandap or marriage pavilion,

at the gateway of which the ceremony of the Toran had taken place.

The pavilionis erected by the bride’s father, and is constructed of wood-

en posts, gaily ornamented and gilded with gold leaf, having niches for

the reception of the small earthen lamps which serve to illuminate the

1833.] * of the Jats of Bharatpur. 289

compartments into which it is divided. The whole of the pavilion is

carefully covered over with long cloth; and from the roof of it numer-

ous lamps of coloured glass or paper (in which the purest ghee is burnt)

are suspended by long strings; gilded cocoanuts are also to be seen

dangling after the same fashion, and the appearance of these and of

the many-coloured lamps is at once fantastic and pleasing.

The spot of ground on which the sacrifice is to be performed having

been selected by the Brahmans, the Nains or female attendants of the

bride proceed to decorate it in the prescribed manner: ‘‘ The figure of

the sacred lotus (nymphea nelumbo), on which, according to Hindi

belief, the deity floated amidst the waters of chaos, is drawn upon the

ground in the centre of the chouk or square. On the figure of the lotus

small wooden stools are placed for the bride and bridegroom, their

faces being turned to the east.

Immediately opposite to the chouk is the bedz, or altar on which

the Aghana or sacrificial fire islighted. The altar is square, formed of

earth, and ought to be one hat’h (cubit) in height, but the dimensions

vary. In the centre of it is placed the holy fire, which may be formed

of the six following woods; viz. the Pulas (Butea frondosa), Pepul

(Ficus religiosa), Chonkra (Prosopis spicigera—Shumat in Sanscrit), Akh

(Asclepias gigantea), Kher (Acacia Catechu), and Onga (Achryanthes:

aspera*.) i

- The father of the girl (samdhi as he is called), the bridegroom’s

nearest male relatives, and the Brahmans who are to perform the cere-

monies, having seated themselves round the sacrificial fire, the bride-

groom enters the pavilion, carried or supported in the arms of a nai.

The samdht honours him with a respectful salutation (dandavat),

and pronounces a short benedictory prayer, expressive of gratitude for

the high honour conferred on his daughter. To this prayer no answer

is given, nor is any return made to the salutation.

'The samdhi then brings a carpet for the bridegroom to sit on.

This is placed on the right-hand stool, that on the left-hand being

reserved for the bride. He also brings water for the bridegroom’s feet,

and the Brahmans chaunt a mantra in praise of water; but as the

mantra and this particular ceremony are both described in Mr. Coxs-

BROOKE'S third Essay, any further notice of them would be presumption

on my part. The holy element, water, which Pinpar declares to be the

best of things, is honoured with three adorations. The first, or the

ablution, is called snan; the second, or the pouring the water on the

* See PrppineTon’s Indian Plants, The Onga is the Upa Maya of Sanscrit.

P P

290 On the Marriage Rites and Usages [Jonez,

ground from a vessel in the shape of a boat, arghd ; and the third

is the sipping, or achimdn. Surely, there is nothing very ‘absurd

or trivial’’ in these allusions to the three great purposes to which water

is applied in India, and throughout the world, viz. ablution, irrigation,

and nourishment.

After the adorations of water, the bride enters the pavilion, and being

carried to her father, is by him received with extended arms. He then

presents her to the bridegroom, places her hand in his: the latter

joining his two palms together to receive hers; as is customary

throughout Hindiistan with persons when a gift is conferred on them.

The Brahmans now proceed to chaunt the sankalp, or votive prayer,

expressive of the solemn vow by which the bride has been dedicated

and given away by her father, and thus after one or two other man-

tras, the kanya-dan, which precisely answers to our giving away of

the bride, is accomplished.

The Bharatpur Pandits assert, that the kanya-ddn irrevocably fixes

the marriage, even though the Hom or burnt-offering should not take

place. This appears to be contrary to the text in Menu, which declares

that a marriage is irrevocable after the seven steps have been taken at

the Hom. Mr. Co.zsrook: also states that the seventh step renders

it irrevocable.

The kanya-dan is succeeded by the parkrama or pridakshana, in

other words, the circuits round the altar. The clothes of the bride-

groom are tied to those of the bride; their hands bound together with

kusa grass, or a yellow thread: and in this state they have to per-

form seven circuits round the altar. The Shastras indeed prescribe

four circuits as the proper number, but the Jats always make seven.

The number of circuits having been finished, mantras are recited and

ablutions offered in honour of Aghana, (the god of fire,) the purest

symbol of the all-pervading principle of life and power, which, as in

the Platonic scheme, is supposed to diffuse itself throughout the mass

of created things, and to vivify and animate the countless particles of

matter.

““ Celum et terras camposque liquentes

“* Spiritus intus alit, totamque infusa per artus

“* Mens agitat molem, et magno se corpore miscet.”’

Well would it have been for Hinduism, and the myriads who pro-

fess and have professed it, had all its symbols and objects of adoration

been equally pure and innoxious as Aghana.

The worship of Aghana being completed, andthe marriage render-

ed indissoluble and irrevocable by the seven steps, the attendant priests

1833.] | of the Jats of Bharatpur. 291

chaunt the Sakhochar or marriage hymn in honour of the affianced

parties’ ancestors. The priests present on the part of the Raja con-

tented themselves with enumerating the praises and virtues of three of

his forefathers. Of these Suras Mat, the founder or consolidator of

the Jat power, and Ransir Sineu, the fortunate opponent of Lorp

Laxg, naturally obtained the largest portion of the eulogium. There is

a very spirited ode in Brij Bhdkha in praise of Suras Mat, nor

has the martial prowess of Ransir S1neu been less honoured, but alas!

for the credit of poetical prophecy. The Jat bard who celebrates the

fame of Ransir Sineu, after describing with some minuteness and

most woful anachronisms the progress of the British power, which he

depicts as a raging flame, kindled in the south, and acquiring heat and

consistency as it spread through the country of Tirpu and Mahdrdsh-

tra, to the imperial city of Delhi, proceeds to immortalize the valour of

Ransit Srneu, by whom this raging element of destruction was

checked and extinguished.

But though the lapse of a few years has proved the vision of the

Jat bard (like most other poetic visions), to be vain and empty, it

would be ungenerous to deride the feeling which prompted it. The

Jats are and ever have been deeply national ; even in these (their) days

of weakness and prostration they cling to the memory of former tri-

umphs, nor are the feelings of the man to be envied who would sneer

at them for sodoing. The sentiment which inspired the glowing num-

bers of Tyrtzeus, which animated and immortalized the “ fatal elo-

quence*”’ of Demosthenes and Cicero, and which in modern times has

called forth the powers of the bards and orators of Europe, cannot and

should not be deemed unworthy of sympathy, though expressed by a

Jat poet in his own peculiar language.

After the praise of ancestors, the Pandits read a lecture on the mar-

riage duties to the bride and bridegroom, to which they are both ex-

pected to testify their assent. Presents are then distributed to the at-

tendant priests, and the bride and bridegroom proceed in one palan-

keen to the tents of the latter, where the knot which had been tied in

their garments is unloosed, and the damsel dismissed with a present of

fruits and flowers to her own house.

The next day, and sometimes the day after also, is spent in festivity

and rejoicing. The bridegroom, attended by his principal friends and

Sirdars, dines with the bride’s father. On this occasion also the etiquette

observed will remind the reader of a passage in Scripture. The bride-

* “ Mortifera facundia.’’ Juvenal. Sat. x.

Pe Pe 2

292 On the Marriage Rites and Usages (June,

groom is metvat the door of the house by his father-in-law, who re-

ceives him with every mark of honour, and with his own hands washes

his feet. The feet of the other guests are also washed by the bride’s

relatives. The whole party then proceed into the interior of the pavi-

lion, beneath which they seat themselves in their prescribed order, and

the repast, consisting of various kinds of sweetmeats, is served up on

platters of the leaves of the mango-tree. These with pure water and

clarified butter constitute the whole of the feast.

As I particularly wished to be present at a Hindu feast, I made a

point of attending on this occasion, having first of all ascertained that

by so doing I should not in any way hurt the feelings or prejudices of

the parties. The zidfat in fact consisted merely of sweetmeats, and these

as before stated are eaten by all classes without prejudice or observance

of the forms which attend a regular meat, such as purifying the ground

with cow-dung, constructing a chulha, drawing the lines around it, and

eating food cooked by your own hands, or bya Brahman. We were seated

near the Raja, and had our platters of mango-leaves filled with sweet-

meats, as had the other guests. The persons in our immediate vicinity,

whether ‘restrained by our presence, or from etiquette, did not appear

to do much honour to the viands. I observed however that those seat-

ed further off were either more hungry or less ceremonious, and I was

much amused by the prowess of one of the guests, ‘‘a good portly

man i’ faith and a corpulent one of a cheerful look, a pleasing eye, anda

noble carriage,” whose platter appeared, like the cask of the Danaidz, to

empty as fast as it was filled. On the third day largesse is distributed

by the bridegroom’s father to the Bhdts or bards who assemble in

large numbers on such occasions. The mode of distribution is as

follows :—For some days previous to the celebration of the marriage,

these votaries of the ‘‘ Gentile art’’ flock from all quarters to the place

at which the wedding is to be solemnized. To every man, woman, and

child, so assembling, a donation is made, generally to the amount of one

rupee per head, whilst smaller sums of from eight to four annas are

also given for the wretched tattdés or bullocks on which the owners may

have come, and frequently to any animals, such as monkeys, parrots,

or dogs which they may bring with them :—for it would be considered

a stigma on the bridegroom’s hospitality, should any creature attend

his marriage with the hope of largesse, and be sent away empty-hand-

ed. This custom of promiscuous .and_ ill-judging expenditure on the

occasion of marriage obtains amongst all classes of Hindus, from the

Raja, to the chumar or outcast. It even masters the well known

avarice of the Banya or merchant, who will squander in marriage re-

1833.) * of the Jats of Bharatpur. 293

Joicings, sums which it has cost him many a year of griping and pa-

tient avarice to accumulate, and which perhaps could not be extracted

from him by the severest tortures.

The multitude of Bhats, and their attendant bipeds and ocihinatci

is collected together in some secure and commodious place, where there

is but one egress. The distribution of money then commences, and

as each individual receives his allotted gift, he is directed to depart by

the single entry, which is guarded by sipahis, and closed as each

Bhdt departs with his reward. By this system, confusion is prevented,

nor is it possible for individuals to claim and receive their quota more

than once, as they would otherwise undoubtedly do.

Liberal presents are also made to the ‘‘ Negf-Jogi,’’ or persons

who have contributed by their handicraft towards the preparation of

the marriage, such as potters, sweetmeat-makers, and other professors

of the useful arts. Little distinction is made on such occasions between

the Bhat, whose vocation is (or ought to be) of an intellectual nature,

and the artizan whose labours are purely manual. If any distinction

is drawn, it is to the prejudice of the poet, and he obtains a less re-

ward than the maker of comfits. The reader may perhaps consider

this an unfair valuation of the merits of these two classes, or it may

remind him of the ingenious ‘‘ Maitre de danse’’.in Gil Blas, who in-

dignantly asks how four double pistoles per month can be considered

an extravagant remuneration for his labours, when a fourth at least of

that sum would be paid for a mere ‘‘ Maitre de philosophie*.”

The religious and family ceremonies of the marriage having been

concluded, the bride was escorted with much pomp to the house of the

bridegroom, at Bharatpur. On arriving at the fort, she proceeds;

to the deohrt or palace appointed for her reception ; at the thres-

hold of this building she waits for the arrival of the bridegroom, who

follows her at a short distance, and as soon as he has joined her, a knot

is again tied in their garments, and they proceed together into the

interior of the deohrz.

_ At the entrance into the first court, the couple is met by the eosle

ter of the bridegroom’s parohit, who stands as centinel of the sancto-.

rium, and refuses to admit them until her usual free has been granted :

on obtaining this she allows them to proceed.

* “ Combien prenez-vous par mois? quatre double-pistoles, reprit-il ; c’est le prix.

courant, et je ne donne que deux lecons par semaine. Quatre doublons par mois!

m’ecriai-je, c’est beaucoup. Comment beaucoup? repliqua-t-il d’un air etonné ; yvous_

donneriez bien une pistole par mois & un maitre de philosophie !”’

294 On the Marriage Rites and Usages [JuNE,

The household gods, images of whom are placed within the deohri,

having been duly reverenced by the bride, she is ushered into the

apartments allotted to her, and is shortly after visited by the female

relatives of the bridegroom, who claim the privilege of removing her

veil and of gazing at her hitherto secluded charms. This practice is

known by the name of munh-dikhaz, or the face-shewing, and the

females thus honoured by a gaze are expected to make a handsome

offering to the bride for the favour conferred on them.

The bride remains for three days and nights at her husband’s resi-

dence, but the marriage is not consummated on this occasion. Various

rites and usages are practised during the three days, but as this paper

has already far exceeded the limits to which I originally intended to

confine it, I shali content myself with briefly adverting to two of the most

singular customs. The one is the untying of the kankan or bracelet

of kusa grass, which previous to the marriage is bound on the right-

hand of the bride, and left of the bridegroom. ;

The bride and bridegroom being seated opposite to each other, pro-

ceed to unravel the knots and mazes of their respective kankans.

Should the husband succeed in undoing the bracelet of the wife before

she has untied his, the feat is considered typical of his future superi-

ority in domestic life, and great rejoicings are immediately made by

his attendant relations. If, on the other hand, the lady should first

unravel the bracelet, her friends celebrate her dexterity, in noisy and

triumphant songs of applause.

A curious game of chance also takes place between the newly mar-

yied couple. A large tub or caldron of water is placed before them,

and jewels, gold-mohurs, and rupees are thrown into it. The bride

and bridegroom plunge their hands into the basin, and whoever suc-

ceeds in extracting the larger quantity of jewels or money from its

depth, at one dip, is supposed to win the game. The old English

amusement of Snap Dragon was regulated, I believe, on similar princi-

ples.

Childish as these practices may appear to us, they are at any rate

harmless, nor with reference to the youth of the parties engaging in

them, would they appear to merit the censures of the cynic. Who has

not engaged in similar triflings, and felt the pleasure which such inno-

cent amusements excite, in the days of youth and joyousness, when the

heart is as yet whole, and unscathed by the cares and cankers of time ?

On the expiration of her three days residence at the house of her

lord and master, the bride returns to her relations for a period of 1, 3,

or 5 years, and she is then brought home by the bridegroom to as-

1833.] of the Jats of Bharatpur. 295

sume the duties of the married state. This second bringing home of

the wife is termed gona or gaman, and is usually the consummation of

the marriage; but the gaman may be altogether dispensed with by

the performance of the phir-pattah, or changing the stools of the bride

and bridegroom, when the Hom is celebrated.

Such then are the rites and usages by which the marriage of a Raja

is marked among the Jats. The same rites and usages are observed

by the meanest of his Jat subjects, who are equally tenacious as he

may be of the ways of their forefathers. ‘Some of the customs above

enumerated are of course omitted by parties in inferior circumstances,

such as the largesse to Bhats and others, the distribution of sweetmeats

to the marriage cavalcade, &c.; but this arises entirely from the want

of resources, and never from the belief that there is anything absurd

or unworthy in the ceremony itself.

The reader who has had the patience to peruse the above remarks,

will doubtless have observed, that agreeably to Hindd law and practice,

the father of the bride is by no means considered on an equality with

the bridegroom, but is obliged to demean himself as an inferior* to-

wards his future son-in-law. To this extraordinary and unnatural

custom, and to the feelings of degradation and wounded pride, excited

by it, we may attribute the dreadful crime of female infanticide.

I have omitted to mention that the marriaget of widows is permit-

ted and practised among the Jats, and that the rite of Suttee is conse-

quently unknown.

APPENDIX.

The ancient name of Dig was Diragh or Déirghpura, and will be

found mentioned in the Skand Puran, and 4th chapter of the Bhaga-

vat Mahdtama. After the disappearance of Sri’ Krisuna, Brij-

Mandal, the country of Brij, became deserted. Brisr Nas, the son

of PripHun and grand-father of Krisuna, presented himself one day

before Sanvix Risut, the celebrated sage (who had resided in that holy

quarter for upwards of a thousand years), and asked him where Kanuya

had fled to. The saint replied, he has not fled, he is still in Brij,

though invisible; perform tapasya (religious penance) and he will re-

* He washes the bridegroom’s feet as stated above, an unequivocal recognition

of inferiority on his part—Sic passim. , ‘

+ Perhaps the term marriage is too strong for this sort of alliance. It is what

we call a left-handed marriage, and yet the issue of such marriages is considered in

all respects legitimate,

296 On the Marriage Rites and Usages (Jung,

appear to you, fear nothing; Brisr Nas then asked, But where am 1

to reside ? He answered, In the following places, which will revive and

flourish under your auspices, make thou thy Royal abode ;—Govardhan,

Dtrghpura or Dig, Mathura, Mahaban, Nandgram and Barsana*.”

The above six towns are considered the most distinguished of all

the holy dans or places of pilgrimage in the circle of Brij.

Close to the fort of Dég, which is only separated by a wet ditch

from the bhowans or garden-palaces, are two places greatly distin-

guished in the Mathura Mahdtama, or traditionary history of Mathura,

and the Brimha Bybart, or transformations of Krisuna. One of

them is called Krishna-kund, or the pool of Krisuna, and the other

Sambar, a corruption of Swyambara, the free or self-election of a hus-

band.

At this public place the princes of the country used to assemble on

great occasions of marriage. The lady having performed the tour of

the circle where they stood, signified her choice by throwing a garland

of flowers upon the neck of the Prince she preferred. There are many

instances of this practice on record. In the pleasing history of the

loves of N&uat and Damyanti, the poet elegantly describes the

Swyambara or election of Damyanti, whose sagacity enables her

to distinguish the real from the false NAuas, and whose affection teaches

her to prefer the mortal object of a mutual passion, to the Deities who

from envy and malice had assumed the form of her lover.

The latest Swyambara perhaps known, occurred at Kanouj, and

was attended with serious. consequences, as the animosity it excited

between the father of the princess and her lord laid India open to

Muhammedan aggression, and paved the way for European ascendancy ;

(see Quarterly Oriental Magazine for 1825. The choice of Drovpant.)

For the edification of the curious in such matters I subjoin the trans-

lation of a Hindi paper, shewing the amount and quality of the pethya

of a Rani.

* For the satisfaction of the Sanscrit scholar I subjoin the Sanscrit shlok:

~~ ON = 2 ~

tiaea Seyt weet Hersey |

a °

aera crane erat craferfateas | y

+ An elegant edition of Na’La and DAMYANTI, as contained in the Mahabharat,

has been given to the public by Professor Borr.

1833.]

of the Jats of Bharatpur.

297

Amount of allowances, money, &c. issued from the godowns of the Sirkar to

Rani, Sambat 1885.

Cash yearly.

Pay for bearers, .....:...-

Ditto for Dewriban or Door-

keeper,, ...... -

To Hardeo, maker of sweet-

WIRED tetvhiess Was «sw 0 o's c

To Munsa, vender of pan (7

pans per diem), ....:...

For twine and pack-thread,

For Sewchoudassi or the

14th Phagun, presents to

MELO OLIS S| cc seo sbele-s 02

For Hult and Daséra,

For Tij Sawan, the 3rd day

of the month of Sawan,

For medicines, &c.........

For dyeing cloths,........

Attah, 5 mds. 20 seers,....

Dal, 8 mds. 10 seers,

Ghee, 5 mds. 2 seers, .

Salt, 2 mds. 11 seers, .. ..

Rice, 1 md. 5 seers, ......

PuPar, 37 SEEFS, «55 a0! cs

Gur, 2 mds. 5 seers, 2

Oil, 2 mds. 20 seers, .. ..

memley, PUGS... TS.

Dal of gram, 20-seers, ....

Sinkh, 20 seers, (grass, of

which brooms are made),

Spices, such as haldi, dha-

WARCEC sas WS 8. a.

Cloths.

Wrappers and quilts, .. ..

2 pieces printed cloth,

Rs. As. Ps.

39 12 O

24.0 «0

He Ld 6

ou Saal)

010 0

15 0 0

20 0 0

15*' 0" 0

TOheaK is

Sis) 10

58 13 0

84-0

D0 SenU

210 9

2 8 6

$f Gins

uno O

10 0 O

6 0°0

0 8 0

170) 10

5 8 Q

= a a

(chintz of Jeypur,) .

1 ditto ditto, (of Agra,) ..

1 piece Sallie cloth, .. ..

1 piece Jhoonah ditto, :

% piece Mashru of Agra,

(silk and cotton mixed,)

7 yards Gazi cloth, :

7 ditto Garrah cloth (coar-

ser-cloth), «.« «s+

3 hath Deriace cloth,. SOE Oe

3 pieces Metah cloth of Sha-

*jahanpur for Lahenga or

petticoat, .. .

4 ditto printed cloths (green

chintz), .

2 ditto ditto ‘(ditto yellow),

51 yards black ag cloth,

2 ditto red cloth,

2 Dhotiss cf ce' x1 32 e799

1 piece Chinese chintz, 12

yards (probably English),

9% yards Metah cloth for

dopattag rn ref: SPOS

4% ditto Mamudi, ditto,...

2 pieces ditto for Duhar,..

1§ ditto Garrah cloth of Bi-

C1 ga aR A ited WOU

63 ditto Metah cloth, in ho-

nour of “ Sdwan Tak Pg

(3rd day of Sdwan,)..

1 ditto Dhoti for Sanjap,

A pair snGges. yf 028, Aes

Colours for cold weather, ..

eo ee

6 0 0

4 8 0

2 0.0

2°, OVE

1 6 0

018570

1 8 0

0 3 0

13.12 0

8 0 0

2 0 0

6 0 0

0 8 O

210” -0

24 0 0

2 0 0

1 8 0

12 0 0

3.0 0

18 12 0

2 8 0

2 oF 8

St 2yn0

Total Rupees, 489 3

The ode alluded to will be found in the 6th Book. of the Gulistdn,

Story 6th.

It begins thus, UPYys J 5 j yi usd nas pig bo

and the translation which has at least the merit of fidelity is: as

follows :

“* Well spoke the Matron ! who beheld her son

‘* Prostrate the Pard—with elephantine chest—

“ Wouldst thou! but think upon thy childhood, when

“* Helpless, thou us’d to cling upon my breast—

** Thou wouldst not, now a warrior bold—

“‘ Oppress me—me thy Mother old !’’

298 Voysey’s Report on the Geology of Hyderabad. [Junz,

II.—Report on the Geology of Hyderabad. By H. H. Voysey, Esq. Sur-

geon and Geologist to the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India, 1819*.

The country in which Colonel Lampton carried on his Trigonome-

trical Survey, during the months of January, February, and March,

1819, lies between Hyderabad and the Godavery. The most northern

station being the hill of Shivalingapah, near the Godavery. The most

eastern, Chittial near Maidak ; and the most western, Oudgir.

The country between these points was traversed in many directions,

and the nature of the rocks, minerals and soils described; and al-

though in many instances it was not possible to ascertain the extent

of the ranges by tracing them through the jungle, yet the appearance

of an identical or nearly similar rock taking the same direction has been

thought a sufficient proof of the continuity of the formation.

* The papers of Doctor Voysry have long been anxiously inquired for by his

friends in India. After his death it was known that his numerous manuscripts and

journals had come into the possession of the Asiatic Society, and had been placed in

the hands of some of the Members of the Physical Committee, in order to bedigested

and arranged for publication. This arduous but pleasing task had in a great measure

been accomplished by the successive labours of Mr. Wriuson, and Captain Franx-

LIN but principally of the former. The relatives of Doctor Voysry in Eng-

land, anxious only for the fame of one whose memory was so dear to them,

had freely and feelingly consented to such use being made of his papers; when a

temporary check was experienced from an unexpected quarter. Mr. Have tu,

a professional artist, had it seems given Dr. Voysry a few hints in sketch-

ing; and had made some illustrative drawings (though but one such was found

among the papers) which he considered of sufficient value to be made the

subject of a formal claim. ‘* Dr. Voysry’s valuable collection,” says his

letter, “‘ his writings, and my drawings have been seized upon by some call-

ing themselves the Asiatic Society; they are about to publish a selection from

his writings, without consulting his friends, or making them any compensation !’”’

It might have been presumed, that a man who had lived in India would have known

that scientific works were not very likely to pay the expence of publication, much

less _to realize profit, however the more favored productions of artists might succeed !

From this and other causes however the digest of his journals has been hitherto pre-

vented from seeing the light, and they were less likely to do so in the present depress-

ed state of the Society’s pecuniary means. We are therefore happy in the per..

mission granted us to publish them in the pages of this journal, either separately as

has been done with BucHANAN’s Statistics,or incorporated chapter by chapter with the

monthly numbers of the work. As a commencement, we have selected the reports sub-

mitted to the Marquess or Hastines, by Dr. Vorsry himself, as Geologist to the

Trigonometrical Survey, in 1819 and 1820. These in fact form the best digest of

his proceedings for those two years, and they will serve to introduce the reader to a

preliminary knowledge of the Geology of the Hyderabad provinces, while their separa-

tion will not interfere with the text of the journal itself.—Ep.

1833.] Voysey’s Report on the Geology of Hyderabad. 299

Any person who has travelled in India will be aware of the difficul-

ties attending a deviation from the main road, especially in an unfriend-

ly country ; this circumstance, with the necessity of attending to those

professional duties which were incompatible with any protracted ab-

sence from the camp, will, it is hoped, be a sufficient apology for any

apparent deficiency in my attempt to take a general survey of the

mineralogical character of the country in which my partial observations

have been made.

It may also be proper to state in this place, that the scarcity of all

kinds of meteorological and other apparatus prevented me from

making any other than very general observations; and although provid-

ed with one of Gay Lussac’s Syphon Barometers, yet the scale had been

so imperfectly graduated in Calcutta, as to allow me to place but little

reliance on the observations and calculations of heights obtained from

it. This latter defect is of minor importance, since the heights of all the

trigonometrical stations will be determined by Colonel Lamsron him-

self in the progress of the survey*.

The geology of the country between the Kistnah and Godavery

admits of a very simple division, being distinguished from most other

countries of a similar extent, by the existence of only two formations,

differing very widely in their characters; viz. granite and WeRNER’s

fleetz trap, both of which give a striking and separate character to the

scenery, cultivation, and vegetable productions. It is proposed, there.

fore, in this sketch, to bring together in a general view the principal

characteristics of each division; to contrast them; and finally to enu-

merate the minerals collected, giving their description and analysis as

far as it could be performed.

After quitting the limestone on the banks of the Kistnah [to be

hereafter mentioned], granite alone is the basis of the country, even to

the Godavery.

Certain characteristics belong to it throughout, which sufficiently

mark its identity and contemporaneous formation. They are,

Ist. The great irregularity of extent and direction of tke ranges.

2nd. The narrow but lengthened veins or dykes of trap with which

it is intersected, all running nearly in the same direction, and the

masses of micaceous and sienitic granite with which it is intermixed.

3rd. The predominance of the red colour, arising from the red fel-

spar, which is frequently in large crystals, giving the granite a por-

phyritic appearance.

* Colonel LamBron computes the height of Hyderabad, above the level of the

sea, to be 1800 feet,

300 Voysey’s Report on the Geology of Hyderabad. [Junz,

4th. The concentric lamellar and distinct concrete structure; the

great facility of decomposition; the rounded appearance of the decom~

posed masses, logging stones, and tors.

5th. The numerous lakes or tanks spread all over the country, some

of which are of very large dimensions.

Ist. The granite israrely seen in ranges until a near approach to Hy-

derabad ; when it first appears after crossing the Kistnah, it is seen

principally in rounded blocks, scattered without order, and in flat masses

of large dimensions, very little elevated above the surface. These how-

ever increase in size and height as we proceed to the north westward,

where in the waving plain, in which the two remarkable hills of Nelgondah

are situated, numerous rounded isolated hills are seen spread over it in

every direction, unconnected even by their bases. The hill of Nelgon-

dah presents the first approach to the continued range; its summit is

about 1000 feet above the plain, declining gradually to the north-west

until it reaches that level. At Mulkapur more regular granitic ranges

in the same direction appear, and are continued to Hyderabad, not

without frequent interruptions, and the interposition of large isolated

mountains of solid granite. Here, however, it must be observed, the

granite assumes a new character, derived from the numerous logging

stones and tors of the most grotesque figures and extraordinary posi-

tion. The origin of these logging stones may be traced to the tors,

which are masses of tabular granite, generally not more than two or

three in number, the interstices of which, admitting therain, subject the

granite to a more rapid decomposition in those than in other parts of

the masses, and ultimately give them the rounded forms and tottering

bases* observed.

It may be asked, wherefore other rocks, such as greenstone and

basalt, do not assume similar appearances in decomposition ? It is pro-

bable that a sufficiently satisfactory reason may be assigned in the

different directions: of their interstices, which in the granite are hori-

zontal, whilst in the above-named rocks they are vertical.

The last place to north-west where these logging stones were ob.

served is Béchktnda, in latitude nearly parallel to Oudgir, and not far

distant from the place where the granite becomes every where covered

by the trap.

Three formations of quartz rock have been observed, viz. at Secan-

derabad, Jogipet, and Pitlam, the base of the whole being granite. That

* See description of the logging stones in Cornwall, in the Transactions of the

Geological Society.

1833.] Voysey’s Report on the Geology of Hyderabad. 301

of Jogipet is the most extensive, being three or four miles in length,

above fifty feet high in its highest part, and three or four hundred yards

in breadth. It is crystallized in rhombs. Some of the angles are

very perfect.—2nd. The number of trap veins which have been particu-

larly noticed amount to seven, four of which are in the neighbourhood of

Hyderabad, one at Koulas, and two in the neighbourhood of Maidak.

The vein which passes near Golcondah has been traced to the eastward

nearly six miles, andis said to be continued nineteen miles farther. They

all resemble each other in composition, in their direction (nearly east

and west), and in other particulars, of which.a more detailed description

will be offered in a paper devoted particularly to the description of the

country around Hyderabad.—3rd. From Mulkapir to the Godavery the

granite is most usually red and porphyritic. The red granite is much

more subject to decomposition than the white, from the abundance of

iron contained in the felspar. The granite of Nelgondah is the whit-

est, particularly that from the summit of the mountain. The mixture

of micaceous and sienitic granite, in veins and in rounded lumps, has

been observed at Tuperty, at Nelgondah, at Secanderabad, and in the

bed of the Manjera near Suldapuram.—4th. It will be easily seen from

the previous description of the ranges, that numerous small valleys and

plains must exist with such an arrangement of mountains. These

valleys covered with water during the rainy season are artificially

divided by large, and in some instances, by stupendous banks or mounds

of stones or earth, leaving outlets for the passage of the water collect-

ed in the upper part, to fertilize the lower grounds during the dry

season. The ground by these means is enabled to produce two crops

of rice in the year, with sometimes an intermediate one of the holcus

saccharatus (jowar); but this depends on a peculiarity of the soil, to

be adverted to in the description of the trap.country. On the borders

of the lakes or tanks thus formed are seen the date and palmyra trees

in great profusion, whilst the water itself is covered with aquatic birds

and waders. Within about 20 miles radius from the station of Suldapur,

on a misty morning, thirty-three of these lakes were counted, most of

them of considerable dimensions. On the granite hills, in the inter-

stices of the rocks and on the barren soil, the result. of their decompo-

sition, are only seen dwarfish plants of the custard-apple, cassia auri-

culata, butea frondosa, and a few others. Large trees are only seen

in the valleys, where the soil is intermixed with richer materials, and:

_ water is more abundant.

These are the principal characteristics of the granite country as seen

at Hyderabad, Maidak, Banchapilly, Koulas, &c.

302 Voysey’s Report on the Geology of Hyderabad. (Jung;

The next division of the country consisting of basaltic trap is inter-

esting from many causes: they are, viz.

Ist. Its appearance on the upper half or summit only of some of

the granite hills.

2nd. Its transition from a highly crystalline compound of felspar

and hornblende (the greenstone of Werner) to coarse and fine basalt,

to wacken, and to iron clay, the passage being sometimes so gradual

from one to the other, as to give the intermediate mineral an indeter-

minate character.

3rd. The direction and peculiar form of its ranges, the waving form

of the land in some instances, and, in others, its flatness and conical

peaks.

4th. The intermixture of carbonate of lime with the wacken, the

basalt, and even with some of the granite in the neighbourhood of the

trap.

5th. The black cotton soil, arising generally from the decomposi-

tion of the basaltic trap, forming the banks of the rivers, and covering

their neighbouring plains. It is also found at a considerable distance

from that rock, and on heights so elevated as to preclude this cause in

attempting to explain its origin.

Ist. At Tandmanur, Suldapuram, Madcondah, Koulas, Baktapir, and

Adampur, the granite forms the basis of the hill, and sometimes its

lower half, and is covered by the trap, which in some instances has

the appearance of having flowed partly down the hill when in a fluid

state. In the immediate neighbourhood are hills, whose summits al-

though much lower, shew no trace of the trap rock having once covered

them. In one instance, the hill of Koulas, a vein of trap crosses one

of these hills, but its appearance indicates rather an ejection from below

than a deposit from above: it affords at the same time a good example

of the identity of the greenstone, the basalt, and the wacken.

2nd. The places the most remarkable for the changes which the

basalt undergoes are Buktaptr, where it passes into wacken, Koulas,

as above-mentioned, Beder, where the iron clay passes into both. The

basalt is not always the lowest, as its greater specific gravity would lead

one to presuppose, but is frequently above wacken. It is, however,

always found beneath the iron clay. As a general description of the

basalt, it may be observed, that it decomposes into round masses, hav-

ing an exterior crust of a few lines in breadth, of a yellow or lighter co-

lour than the interior. In the ravines, and where exposed to any depth,

it resembles very much the drawings in vol. viii. page 171, Thompson’s

Annals, of the Rowley Rag Basalt. Basaltic columns were observable

1833.] Voysey’s Report on the Geology of Hyderabad. 303

in two places only, at Miinganal and at Oudgir ; at the latter place,

the largest exceeded a metre in diameter, was about three feet in

height, eight-sided, and the interstices between the columns were filled

with green earth and globular wacken.

3rd. The direction of these ranges is to the north-west, although the

interruptions are numerous, and it frequently happens that a range

appears to cross at right angles to the main one. Their form is gener-

ally much flattened, with two or three conical peaks; sometimes the

continuation of the flat range is interrupted by a valley, which presents

the appearances of the embrasure of a fortification, which is repeated

several times in an extent of ten or twelve miles. The summits of

Tandmanur, Medcondah, Burgapilli, Monegal, and Mungdnal are of

waving land, rounded summits, separated by ravines of different depths,

which in the rainy season afford a passage for the water into the

plains, depositing on the banks of the streams and rivers the black

cotton soil, which is the result of the decomposition of the trap rocks.

4th. At Bucktapir, at Shivalingapah, at the Godavery, at the Laendy

river, near Daiglir, and at Chilliriga, near the Mangera, carbonate of

lime is intermixed with the rock, whether sienitic, greenstone, granite,

basalt, or wacken.

At Daiglir large rounded masses of a small grained red granite are

enveloped in a cement composed of carbonate of lime, red felspar, and

quartz in grains: this extends to a few miles above and below the

ford. At Chilliriga the basalt and wacken, or substance intermediate,

is mixed witha greenish limestone which has large vacuities in it, from

its decomposition taking place more slowly than the trap with which

it is mixed. In the space of a few feet pure basalt is here seen pass-

ing into wacken, and the latter into the mixture of limestone, which

last ultimately passes into pure limestone.

5th. The black cotton soil is not only found on the banks of all the

rivers and streams generally, to the height of about thirty feet, and

where it has been deposited by floods, but also in places two or three

hundred feet above those rivers. On the road from Beder to Shela-

pilly, which lies over a stratum of iron clay, varying from 100 to 150

feet in thickness, four well defined zones of black cotton soil are cross-

ed, running north and south and lying between ridges ofironclay. We

encamped at Shelapilly on one of these zones, which had nearly a north

and south direction, and from a conical elevation, forty feet in height,

composed of the same soil, observed the iron clay on each side about

half a furlong distant. This soil is rich and peculiarly adapted to the

cultivation of dry grains, which denomination is given to various speeies

304 Voysey’s Report on the Geology of Hyderabad. _ [Junz,

ef panicum, the holcus saccharatus, maize, zea, &c. from its power of

retaining moisture, which enables it without artificial irrigation to

produce fine crops during the dry season. The plasticity, as found a

foot below the surface in the month of March, is such that it could be

kneaded into balls with the haud. In some places where the black

cotton soil isintermixed with that from the decomposition of the granite,

three crops are produced, two of rice and one of dry grain, the latter

on the ground from which the first crop of rice has been cut.

This soil is first met with at Patancherii, where it is intermixed with

the debris of the granite, and has been no doubt deposited there by

the floods of the Manjera, from which it is distant about ten miles. A

corresponding change also takes place in the appearance of the country,

which assumes a richer aspect: the natural productions of each soil

being there intermixed.

The hills from which this soil proceeds have formerly been culti-

vated even to their summits. In most places small piles of stones,

formerly cleared from the land, and occasionally the remains of a stone

boundary, were the only memorials of former cultivation. The poa

cynosuroides (Cusa grass) grows in the greatest profusion; it is ren-

dered so dry in the months of March and April, that a very slight

ignition will cause it to burn with inconceivable rapidity and fury.

Our camp was once in considerable danger from this circumstance.

The vegetable productions most frequently met with are, the

Butea frondosa, Ficus, three species,

Cassia Malabarica, Tectona grandis,

Semecarpus anacardium, Tamarindus Indica,

Averrhoa carambola, Mangifera Indica,

Dalbergia acuminata, Spondias Mangifera.

Mimosa, six species, and many others which my botanical knowledge

did not enable me to name without the aid of their flowers. All these

seem to acquire their greatest perfection in the places where the two

above-mentioned soils are intermixed.

It only remains to notice some anomalous appearances in the trap

at Medcondah, and in the wacken at Shivalingapah.

At the former of these places was observed in numerous detached

masses, flint with a very rough external surface, varying from a few

inches to a foot and a half in diameter, some of them deeply connected,

so that their size may be supposed much greater; also numerous pieces

of a siliceous stone containing shells*, the specific gravity of which varies

* Turbo cyclostoma, land-shells.

1833.) Reputed Descendants of Alexander. 305

from 2 to 2°5. The shells do not effervesce in acids, although some of

them still preserve their external polish. Internally some of these

stones, particularly the lighter, appear to pass into flint, whilst their

external surface effervesces in acids.

Not far distant, lumps of a greyish yellow limestone, crystalline, and

earthy, the latter containing shells nearly similar to those in the sili-

ceous stone.

At Shivalingapah the wacken contains shells which preserve more of

their carbonate of lime. Those appearances are the more singular,

since the land at Medcondah is a continuation of the basaltic trap at

an elevation of nearly 2000 feet above the level of the sea, distant

from the Manjera 14 miles, and 200 feet above the bed of that river.

" IIL.—On the reputed Descendants of Alexander the Great, in the Valley

of the Oxus. By Lieut. Alexander Burnes, Bombay Army.

[Read at the Meeting of the Asiatic Society, 29th May, 1833.]

In speaking of the existence of Grecian colonies in the remote

regions of Central Asia, said to be descended from ALEXANDER of Mace-

don, it is necessary to premise, that I am not indulging in speculation,

but asserting a lineage of various tribes of people, that is claimed by

themselves, and merits therefore our attention. Marco Poto is the

first author who mentions the existence of such a people, and informs

us that the Mrrr of Badakhshan laid claim to a Grecian origin. The

emperor Bazser corroborates the testimony, and the historian of his

grand-son Axsar, the renowned Asut Fazu, points to the country

of the Siahposh Kafirs, north of Peshdwar, as the seat of these soi-

disant Macedonians. Mr. Exreuinstone has, I think, successfully

refuted this supposition, for the Kafirs are a savage and mountainous

tribe, without a tradition on the subject.

The great elevation of their country appears to me satisfactorily to

account for all their physical peculiarities, nor can [ look upon these

people as any other than the aborigines of the plains, who fled to their

present elevated abode in the wars that followed the introduction of

Muhammedanism. Kajir means simply an infidel, and is applied by

Muhammedans to all who disbelieve in their prophet. Mr. E:pHinstone

confirms the statement of Marco Ponto by telling us, that the chief of

Darwaz, in the valley of the Oxus, claimed a descent from ALEXANDER,

which was admitted by all his neighbours. Such was the extent of

information with which I entered the valley of that river, sufficient it

Jee

Vet L,/ts

sKando

306 On some reputed Descendants [Junz,

will be said to excite the utmost curiosity, and it will be seen that I found

ample encouragement in the investigation of such traditions while in

the very seats of their existence.

If it was believed that the chiefs of Badakhshdn and Darwdz

alone laid claim to these hereditary honors, what was my surprise to

find that there were six other personages established in them, at least

to the satisfaction of the people. The chiefs that extend eastward of

Darwdz, and occupy the provinces of Kilab-shagndn and Wakhan, north

of the Oxus, assert the same descent. The Mersr or chief of Badakh«

shan receives in modern times the honors mentioned by the Venetian

traveller. He has the title of Shah and Malik, or king, and his chil-

dren, that of Shdhzdda or Prince; but this ancient house has been

subverted within these twelve years by the Muzr of Kiindaz, and Ba-

dakhshan is now held by a Turk family. To the eastward of Badakh-

shdn, and extending to Kashmir, lie the hill states of Chitral, Gilgit,

and’ Iskardo, where the claims to a Grecian descent are likewise con-

ceded to each of the princes. The first of these has the title of Shak

Kator. The present ruler is of small stature, and possesses as great a

celebrity in these countries for his long beard as the Shah of Persia.

The chief of Iskardo occupies a singular fortress on the Indus and N.

E. of Kashmir, which he has the hardihood to assert was constructed

in the days of Alexander himself! This country borders on little Thi-

bet or Baliz. Nor is this the ultimate limit of the tradition; for the

soldiers of the Tuingané tribe, who are sent from the western provin-

ees of China, and garrison Yarkand and the neighbouring cities, also

claim a Grecian origin. They however seek with greater modesty a

descent from the soldiers of ALEXANDER’s army, and not from the con-

queror himself.

Such is a correct list of the reputed descendants of ALEXANDER

THE Great, and it is insome degree confirmatory of their claim, that

the whole of these princes are Tajiks, or the aborigines of this country

before it was overrun by Tiirki or Tatdr tribes. But how shall we

reconcile these accounts with the histories that have travelled down

to our times, whence we learn that the son of Puruip did not even leave

an heir to inherit his gigantic conquests, much less a numerous list of

colonies that have survived a lapse of more than two thousand years in

a distant quarter of Asia? Whether their descent is viewed as true or

fabulous, the people themselves acknowledge the hereditary dignity of

the princes, and they in their turn claim every royal honor and refuse

their children in marriage to other tribes. These Tajiks, being now con-

verted to Islam, view ALEXANDER as a prophet, and to the distinction

1833.] Of Alexander the Great. 307

which they derive from his warlike achievements, they add the honor of

being related to one of the inspired messengers of the Deity. I have

had opportunities of conversing with some members of the Badakhshain

family, but there was nothing in form or feature which favored their

Grecian lineage, nor is there any thing in the languages of any of these

tribes (of all of which I have specimens), that indicate a connexion with

Greece. The people are fair complexioned, and not unlike the Persians

of modern times, while there is the most decided contrast between

them and the Tivirks and Uzbeks.

We learn from the historians of Atuxanpsr’s expedition that he

warred in the kingdom of Bactriana. The city of Balkh, that lies in

the vicinity of these territories, is readily fixed upon as that capital of

the Greek monarchs. Setting aside every local identity, the modern

inhabitants will inform you that the country between Balkh and Cabul

has the name of ‘‘ Bakhtar Zemin,” or the Bakhtar country, in which

we recognise Bactria. This fact renders it by no means impossible,

that a Grecian colony had some time or other existed in the country. |

It may therefore be supposed, that the dynasty which succeeded Auzx:

ANDER in his empire ascended the valley of the Oxus, the fertility of

which would attract them. They would then be conducted by Chitral

and IJskardo into Balté or little Thibet, and the neighbourhood of

Kashmir, and we may perhaps account for the early civilization of that

beautiful valley in such a migration of Grecian colonists. The intro-

duction of the religion of Muhammed into every country seems to have

been fatal to historical annals of a prior zra, and I doubt not, that any

traces which may have existed of the Macedonian inroad, or of the

Seleucid, their successors, disappeared in that great revolution. The

countries on the upper course of the Oxus lay beyond the line of Tatér

invasion, and I infer from the modern language of Badakhshan, which

is Persian, and its connexion with that country, that the tribes on the

Oxus followed the destinies of the Persian empire. This would favor

the supposition of their having been conquered by ALEXANDER. If we

cannot bring ourselves to concede to these moderns the illustrious

lineage of ALEXANDER THE GrzAT, we must still receive their traditions

as the most concurring proof of his having overrun these countries ;

and till some well-grounded argument can be brought forward to the

contrary, I cannot for my own part deny the title of the chiefs to the

honors which they claim. I received the information from natives of

these countries, and as they entertained no doubt of its truth and

authenticity, I have contented myself with recording that, upon which

others will be able to enlarge and speculate.

RR 2

308 On the “‘ Topes”’ and Grecian [Junz,

IV.—On the ‘‘ Topes” and Grecian Remains in the Panjab. By Lieut.

Alexander Burnes, Bombay Army.

‘ [Read at the Meeting of the 29th May.]

The ‘‘ tope” or mound of Manikyala in the Panjab, which is described

and drawn in Mr. Expurinstone’s History of Cabz/, has long arrested

the notice of the curious, both in India and Europe, some of whom

take it to be a Grecian remain. We are deeply indebted to M. Ven-

TURA, one of the Generals in Ransi't Sinen’s service, who lately laid

open this mound at great expense, and put us in possession of much

additional information regarding it. In my late journey through the

Panjab 1 went to Manikydla, and was fortunate enough to find several

coins at that site, and to visit other buildings of a similar description to

the ‘‘tope,”” which had not yet been seen or examined by Europeans.

I was directed to the site of these by my friends Mons. Atiarp and

Court, who are also in Ranur’t Sinen’s service ; through the kindness

of Mons. Auuarp, I had an opportunity when at Lahore of looking at

the reliques found by General Ventura at Manikydla.

There is a brief description of them published in the researches of

the Asiatic Society, but I may here observe that they consist of three

cylindrical boxes, of gold, of pewter, (or some mixed metal,) and of iron,

which were found cased one within another, and placed ina chamber cut

out ina large block of stone at the foundation of the pile, The gold box

is about three inches long and one inch and a half in diameter ; it is

filled with a black dirty substance like mud, half liquid and mixed up

with small pieces of glass, or amber, which would suggest an opinion,

of its once being cased in a glass that had been fractured and shiver-

ed. Among this substance two coins or medals and a piece of string

or twine were found. The smaller coin is of gold, and about the size

of a six-pence, having a human figure, and the four pronged instrument

which marks all the Minikyala coins. The other has two lines of rude

characters, probably Hindu, on one side, and no writing or symbol on

the reverse. Many other coins and reliques were found during the

opening of the ‘‘tope,”’ and the people informed me that some human

bones were also disinterred; but it is unnecessary to make any further

allusion to them on the present occasion.

On my arrival at Manikydla on the 6th of March, 1832, I had an

opportunity of appreciating the valuable services of M. Ventura, by a

personal inspection of the ‘“‘tope,’’ now laid open to view by his per

severing labours. He had first endeavoured to enter the building

from below, but failed on account of the great solidity of the structure;

1833.] Remains in the Panjab. 309

further observation had discovered to him that there was a shaft or

well (if I can use the expression) descending into the building from

the top of it, and here M. Ventura dug withsuccess. He first cleared

the well which extends about half way down, and is flagged at the

bottom with large blocks of stone; he completed the work by heaving

up these enormous blocks till he reached the foundation, where he was

rewarded by the cylinders which I have described.

I was much struck with the position of the “‘tope” of Manikyala.

It stands on a spacious plain, and may be distinguished at a distance of

sixteen miles. I did not expect in a place of such celebrity to find

my search for coins and antiques rewarded beyond the most sanguine

expectation, since none are mentioned to have been seen by the gen-

tlemen of the Cabié]. Mission, and I only heard of those that M.

Ventura had found in the tope. I procured however two antiques

and about 60 or 80 copper coins, the value of which is much heightened

by their corresponding with some of those that M. Venrura found in

the interior of the ‘‘ tope.” One of the antiques is a ruby or piece

of red crystal, cut into the shape of a head, with a frightful countenance

and very long ears. While the other is an oval cornelian, bearing the

figure of a woman holding a flower. She is gracefully dressed in a

mantle, and the execution is superior*.

There have been several surmises thrown out as to the site of

Manikyala, but I do not for a moment hesitate to fix it as Tazilla, since

Arrian expressly tells us, that that was the most populous “ city be-

tween the Indus and Hydaspes.’”” On the latter river too I have been go

fortunate as to stumble on the ruins of two cities opposite to each

other, in which I believe will be recognized the Nice and Bucephalia

of ALEXANDER.

From the tope of Manikyala my inquiries extended to the neighbour-

ing country, where several other buildings of a like nature are to be

found. One of them is nearer the town of Rdwil Pind2, but it is much

dilapidated, and my attention was directed to the village of Usmdn, at

the base of the Himalaya, and about 25 miles eastward of the Indus.

On the north of a range of hills, and about a mile beyond the village,

stands the ‘‘tope of Belar,” as it is called by the inhabitants. J] have

annexed a sketch of this building, from which it may be inferred as of

the same era as Manikyala. Neither of the buildings are perfect, and

the tope of Belar differs in its greater length of body, though it has

* T regret extremely to say, that I have lost these valuable reliques, though im-

pressions of them remain.

310 Note on Lieutenant Burnes’ {Junz,

only a height of 50 feet, or 20 less than Manikyadla. The general out-

line of the building too is somewhat varied, but the small pilasters

are to be recognized, though the mouldings are numerous. The tope of

Belar too has been opened from the top at some former period, and a

section of it would present a counterpart of the plan of Manikydla.

The few coins which I found here are similar to those of that tope, but

no where did I receive the least trace or tradition regarding these

buildings.

Like one in search of the philosopher’s stone, I found myself referred

from place to place, and at Usmdn heard of a ‘‘tope’”’ near Peshawar,

which I afterwards visited. It is about five miles from the city, but

in so decayed a condition that the remains would not suggest any idea

of the design without seeing those of the Panjdb, though they were one

hundred feet high. There is however a ‘‘tope” in a perfect state of

repair in the great Khyber pass to Cabul, and about 20 miles from

Peshawar, but I could not visit that building from the troubled state of

the country. The natives of Peshawar assured me also that there

were 8 or 10 such ‘‘ topes” in their neighborhood towards the Kafr

country in Swat and Buneir, but the extent of their information leads

no further than that they are “topes” or mounds of a prior age.

Seeing that the structures of Manikyala and Belar are both pierced

by a shaft or well, descending into the building, I incline to an opinion

that in these ‘‘ topes” we have the tombs of a race of princes who

once reigned in upper India; and that they are either the sepulchres of

the Bactrian dynasty or their Indo-Scythic successors, mentioned in the

Periplus of the second ArRian.

i a SS SS EE

V.—Note on Lieutenant Burnes’ Collection of Ancient Coins. By James

Prinsep, Sec. &c.

[Read 29th May, 1833.]

Considering the short space of time allowed to a traveller, in. his

rapid passage through a foreign country, for the pursuit of objects not

immediately connected with his errand ; and the disadvantages which

his own disguise, and the suspicions of the natives oppose to his search

after the very rare relics of antiquity, which may have escaped destruc-

tion for twenty centuries in their country :—considering too that the

inhabitants are unable to appreciate the value of such objects, and

mostly ignorant of the demand for them among the inquisitive natives

of the west ; Lieutenant Burnzs may be deemed very successful in the

1833.] Collection of Ancient Coins. 31h

store of coins he has brought back from the Panjab and from the valley

of the Oxus.

Of pure Bactrian coins, he will be able to add at least three to the

cabinets of Europe; upon one of which the name of Euruypemus is

quite distinct: while of the Indo-Scythic or subsequent dynasties his

store is so ample as to afford ten for the Bombay Literary Society, and

as many more for our own cabinet, besides those he takes to Europe;

and among the latter is one coin of the dynasty which supplanted the

Macedonian princes of Bactria, calculated to excite much curiosity

among antiquarians.

This abstruse subject is already deriving elucidation from the dis-

covery of coins in many places, which is a forcible proof of the ad-

vantage of giving early publicity to such discoveries, and to the

comments of antiquarians upon them: already has Dr. Swiney at Kar-

nal, following up his former researches, fallen upon two silver coins

of ApoLLopotus and Menanper, neither of them duplicates of the two

which rewarded Colonel Top’s labours. _I hope soon to have it in my

power to engrave these coins as a continuation of the plate I am now

about to describe, in illustration of some of Lieutenant Burnss’ col-

lection. Captain Wane has also presented me with a few coins, obtained

in his recent tour down the Satlej._ To General Ventura however we

still look for our richest harvest, because his coins have a definite con-

nection with an existing monument ; and when that meritorious officer

shall see how Lieutenant Burnzs has taught us to appreciate his labours

at Manikyala, we hope he will uo longer think us unworthy of being

made the medium of their introduction to the knowledge of the world.

Macedonian and Syrian Coins.

Having given in Plate V. a type of the coins of ALexanprr, I need

not stop to describe those brought from Persia by our traveller, a

tetradrachma and two small coins of that conqueror in excellent pre-

servation ; the larger coin has a curious cypher composed of the letters

P MH enclosed in a wreath; in numerals this would represent 148.

Captain W apr has presented me with ararer silver coin of ALEXANDER,

having a fine juvenile portrait of the conqueror before he assumed the

horn of Ammon; and, on the reverse, Apollo seated on the peculiar

oracular seat, holding an arrow pointed downwards, in the right hand

(denoting clemency) ; his left hand resting upon a bow.

The epigraphe is BASIAEQ= AAEZANAPOY @EOMATOPOS EYEPTETOY.

On the exergue, the lettérc; and on the left, a peculiar three-pronged

monogram, resembling the letter a.

312

This

Note on Lieutenant Burnes? (June,

coin is not mentioned by Pinkerton, and would doubtless be

designated by him rrrr or rarissimus. It is engraved as fig. 1 of

Plate VIII. (of coins) ; it was procured in Asia Minor by Dr. Martin,

the German physician, lately in Rangi’r Srnen’s service, and by him

given to Captain Wapz.

To return to Lieutenant Burnzs’ collection.

PRVE:

Fig. 2.

Figs. 3,

Fig. 4

Fig. 5,

Fig. 6.

fig. 1, represents one of three beautiful coins of ANTIocHUS

VI. or Tuezos, of Syria, during whose war with Protemy Pur-

LADELPHUS, Bactria revolted. These are supposed by PinKEr-

Ton to exhibit the most perfect examples, both of manly and

of monetal beauty, to be found among ancient medals. They

are however common enough. The Epigraphe is, BASIAEQS

ANTIOXOY EMI@ANOYS. Device, Jupiter seated, holding a small

victory.

Another Anriocuus, probably struck in Parthia, from the figure

of the javelin-thrower.

Bactrian Coins.

4,5, 6. These silver coins, tetradrachms, are known at once

to be of Bactrian origin, from the sitting figure of Hercules

holding his club, on the reverse, much in the same posture as

that of Jupiter on the Syro-Macedonian coins. The epigraphe

on fig. 3, a valuable coin and in fine preservation, 1s BASIAEQS

ETOYAHM.. or ‘‘ of king Evruypemus,” the third king of Bac-

tria. The only coin of this monarch hitherto known in Europe

is described in Mionnet’s Description de Medailles Antiques ;

PINKERTON says it is a gold coin, having ‘‘ two horsemen with

Bactrian tiaras, palms, and long spears” on the reverse ; it is

therefore quite different from the unique specimen before us.

has the features of a different prince; the reverse is however

similar to the last, and the three final letters of BaAsIAENS are

visible: as are ..HM.. which can only form part either of

Ev6v5 HMos or of dHMyTpi0s his son.

of which there is a duplicate, is of a similar nature ; the features

corresponding with No. 3. or Evutuypremus. There are two

others of still ruder fabrication, distinguished by a more pro-

jecting forehead : they are illegible on the reverse.

One of two silver tetradachms. These are more like Arsacidan

coins, the stool on which the figure on the reverse sits having

the form of those depicted in Vaillant?although the connection

with the foregoing coins is very strong, the head dress and

1833.] Collection of Ancient Coins. 313

formal curls, appertain to the Persian monarchs. The in-

scription is in the Pehlevi character : some of the letters resem-

ble badly executed Greek.

These coins are all from Khoja-o-ban, the ruins of an ancient city N. W.

of Bokhara, whence numerous gems and antiques were also procured.

Hig. 8, was obtained from the same place. A gold coin of one of the

Sassanian kings of Persia, supposed to be Sapor (Shapér). The

name and titles are very distinct in the PeA/evi character. It

is remarkable that the usual supporters of the fire altar, two

priests or kings, are omitted ; unless indeed the rude ornaments

on each side are intended to represent human figures holding

swords. A silver Sassanian coin delineated in Hypx’s Religio

Veterum Persarum has similar supporters. Lieut. Burnes has

also a silver Sassanian coin; it is curious from the contour of

the fire altar being fashioned into a human profile; it was

found at Khiva. I have not found room to insert it.

Fig. 9. One of twenty small Sassanian copper coins, which are

very abundant in the same neighbourhood. They have a good

head on the obverse, and a very rudely executed fire altar on

the reverse*.

Fig. 7. A square copper coin from Shorkot,h, a fortress twenty miles

from the junction of the Jelum and the Chundb (the Hydaspes

and Acesines) where ALEXANDER lost his fleet in a storm.

It is by some thought to be the fortress of the Malli, in the

assault of which he was wounded. All that can be read of

the inscription is BASIAEQS..., On the other side the inscrip-

tion is in Pehlevi. This coin may be ascribed with tolerable cer-

tainty to Menanper, both because it resembles in shape the

coin of that prince in Col.Ton’s plate, and because the three

first letters of the word which follows Basia~ros have much

the appearance of NIK, Or NIKATOPOS, the epithet applied to

MeEnaANDER according to ScHLEGEL. Journal Asiatique, Nov.

1828. The standing figure however, on the obverse, and the

curious emblem on the reverse, supposed by Col. Top to be a

portable altar, agree rather with his coin of Apollodotus.

Pl. VII. fig. 2. I must here introduce a coin procured from the same

place by General Ventura, for which I am indebted to Captain

* A gold solidus of the lower empire was also found at Khoja-o-bdn, of rude fa-

brication :—it is either of Marcianus, or more probably Mauricius—inscription

DN MAVRC..TIb PP AVG, On the reverse, an angel holding the cross and globe

with VICTORIA AVGGG, and below, CONOB.

314 4 Note on Lieutenant Burnes’ [Junz,

; _ Tee flerh

Wane; it is a copper or brass coin of Antiochus, BASIAEQS

ANTIOXOY, With a Grecian head on the obverse, and the per-

spective view of the after part of a boat on the reverse: the

tiller of the rudder is worked from-Dehindlas is even now the aS

case in the river craft of the Indus. , ~» 2éZ PIZ o W” gp bee ene

A ruby seal antique, with a well-executed head of a Grecian female, “~<a

was found at the same place.

Figs. 11, 12, 13, 15. The series of small copper coins found near A/a-

nikydla, and generally throughout upper India, which have a

head on the obverse and a Bactrian horseman on the reverse, may

be referred to the reign of Eucratipus I. since the gold coin

from the neighbourhood of the Caspian Sea, described by Barzr,

as having the same device on the reverse bears in legi-

ble characters the epigraphe ‘‘ of the great king Evcratipgs.”

Our coins of this type have never shewn us more than the words

«‘ King of kings,’ and in most of them (as fig. 13, BACIAET

BACIAEY) the Greek is so corrupted as to give the idea of a later

epoch. ‘|

The type of the horse seems to have prevailed long afterwards in

that part of the world, as fig. 14 evinces : it is a Hindé coin, of much

later though of unknown date. The nagri letters appear to be part of

a larger inscription: their purport is therefore uncertain.

Fig. 10. A copper coin procured by Lieut. Burnes, in the neighbour-

hood of Manikydla.

Obverse. A king or warrior holding a spear in the left hand; and with

the right sacrificing on a small altar (?). Epigraphe BACIAETc

BAC,..... KANHPKOY.

Reverse. A priest or sage standing, and holding a flower in his right

hand; a glory encircles his head; on the left, the letters Nanaia

—on the right, the usual Bactrian monogram with four prongs.

This coin is of very great value, from the circumstance of its being

the only one out of many discovered in the same neighbourhood, upon

which the characters are sufficiently legible to afford a clue to the

Prince’s name. In the onset however we are disappointed to find

that none of the recorded names of the Bactrian kings at all resemble

that before us*; yet there can be no doubt about any letter but that

* By way of convenience to those who have not the power of reference respect-

‘ing the history of Bactria, to which I may often have to allude in the discussion

of these coins, I subjoin a catalogue of its Kings, according to the authority of

ScHLeGEL.—Journal Asiatique, 1828, p. 326. :

1833.] - Collection of Ancient Coins. 315

preceding kor, which may be either ©, P, or €. By assuming

this latitude in the reading I discovered a name which would agree as

nearly as it could be expressed in Greek, with KANH@KOrY or KANHCKOY;

and should my conjecture prove correct, the discovery of this coin will be

hailed as of the greatest value by all who are engaged in the newly deve-

loped study of Bactrian antiquity. The coin was at first placed with the

Society by Lieut. Burnzs, but seeing its value, I thought it but just,

after taking impressions and drawings of it, to place it in the disco-

verer’s hands, for the personal satisfaction of numismatologists in

Kurope. I suppose it to be a coin of Kanisuxa, a Tartar or Scythic

conqueror of Bactria.

According to Mr. Csoma pr Ko6rés, the name of KanisKa occurs

in the Tibetan works as a celebrated king in the north of India, who

reigned at Kapila, which is supposed to have been in Rohilkhand, or

near Hardwdr. His reign dates about 400 years after Saxya, when

the followers of the Buddha religion had become divided into eighteen

sects (the Sakya tribes, or Sace) under four principal divisions, of

which the names both Sanscrit and Tibetan are on, record*.,

In Mr. Witson’s Chronological Table of the History of Kashmir (As.

Res. xv. p. 81,) we find ‘‘ Hushca, Jushca, and Canishca, three Tartar

princes, who succeeded Domopara, in the kingdom of Kashmir, either

reigning successively or synchronously. They introduced the Buddha

religion under a hierarch named N AGARJUNA, and were, according to.

the Raja Taringini, of Turushca or Tatar origin. The Sanscrit MS.

places their reign 150 years before Sacaysinha (or Saxya Sinen), but

the learned translator in a note proves that the text was at first misun-

B. C, 255. Turoportus I. =f.

243. Turoportus IL. t Fixed, historically by Strabo, &c.

220. Eurnypemus of Magnesia.

Alluded to by Plutarch Trogus

195. APOLLODOTUS SOTER. fan re liad oi ‘ cab

ene rrian, their coins prevalent in

Pa ee Baroach, A. D. 200.

Heranceds daeaece On the authority of Visconti and

Mionnet, from a single medal.

DEMETRIUS. Son of Euthydemus, doubtful if

he reigned in Bactria.

181. Evcraripgs I. ’ Artemidorus calls him the ‘‘ Great

King.”’

i ae ree ae { Murdered his father and was him-

self slain,

125. Destruction of the empire by the Tartars and the Scythians or Sacz.

* Csoma’s Life of Saxya, MS,

Sg 2

316 Note on Lieutenant Burnes’ (June,

‘derstood, and that the passage intended to express ‘‘ 150 years after

the emancipation of the Lord Saxya Sinwa.”’

The epoch of Saxya, (the fifth BunpHa, or GouTama,) isdetermined

by concurrent testimony of the Ceylonese, Siamese, Pegue, Burmese, and

Chinese zras, which are all founded on the birth or death of the Bud-

dha legislator, and, though all differing more or less, concur in placing

him between the limits of 544 and 638 years B. C.: the Raj Gurd

of Asam, a Pundit well versed in Buddha literature, fixes the Nirwan

or emancipation of Saxya-Muni in 520 B. C.* Taking then from

this epoch an interval of four hundred years to the reign of Kaniska,

the latter would fall near the end of the second century B. C. We

know from other sources, that the overthrow of the Bactrian dynasty

by the Scythian or Sakyan tribes happened in 134 B. C. (125 by

Scuuecet.) The present coin therefore confirms the fidelity of the Raja

Taringini as a historical work, and leaves no doubt of the epoch of Saxya.

Mr. Witson finds grounds for throwing back the termination of

the reign of ApHimanya ,Canisuca’s successor, from B. C. 118, as

given in the Raja Taringini, to B. C. 388, because ‘“‘ Kashmir be-

came a Buddha country under Tartar princes shortly after the death of

Saxya ;” but from Mr. Csoma’s subsequent examinationof the Tibetan

sacred books, in which the three periods of their compilation are ex-

pressly stated; ‘first, under Saxya himself (520—638 B. C.)

then under Asuoxa, king of Pataliputra, 110 years after the decease of

Saxya, and lastly by Kanisxa, upwards of 400 years after Saxya”—

little doubt can remain that the epoch as it stands in the Raja Tarin-

gini is correct.

There are other circumstances connected with the Bactrian coins, which

tend to confirm the supposition of a Buddhist succession to the Greek

princes. In the first place, the reverse ceases to bear the formerly na-

tional emblem of the Bactrian horseman with the Macedonian spear,

and in itsplace a sage appears holding a flower, and invariably having a

glory round his head, proving him to be a sacred personagef ; secondly,

although upon the first coins of the dynasty we find the inscription in

Greek characters—(a custom which prevailed under the Arsacide

also, and continued under the first Sassanian princes ;) still upon coins

of the same device, but probably of later fabric, we find the same kind

of character which appears upon the Delhi and Allahabad pillars :—the

same which is found at Ellora and in many ancient caves and temples

* Orient. Mag. iv. 108.

+ (See Col. Tov’s Coins 11,14; Mr. Wixson’s Plates, fig. 1, 2, 6, 7; and

this Journal, Plate ii. figs. 17, 18.)

1833.] Collection of Ancient Coins. 317

of central India, and is held in abhorrence by the Brahmans, as belong-

ing to the Buddhist religion*.

I need not repeat Mr. Wrtson’s opinion, drawn from other grounds,

that the tope of Manikydla, in the neighbourhood of which these coins

are found, is a Buddhist monument, but it receives much confirmation

from the discovery of this coin of the Sakyan hero Kanishka.

Having thus far endeavoured to reconcile the coin before us, and

others of the same class to the Sakyan dynasty, to which the term

Indo-Scythic very aptly applies, we may reasonably follow up the same

train by ascribing the next series, which exhibit, on the reverse, a

Brahmani bull, accompanied by a priest in the common Indian dhoti,

as the coins of the Brahmanical dynasty which in its turn overcame

the Buddhist line. Colonel Top includes these coins in the same class

as the last, and adduces his reasons for referring them to Mithridates,

or his successors, of the Arsacidan dynasty, whose dominions extended

from the Indus to the Ganges, and to whom Bactria was latterly tribu-

tary. Greek legends ‘‘ of the King of kings,’’ &c. are visible on some,

and what he supposes to be Peflevi characters on the reverse: but I

incline to think these characters of the Delhi type, and the Bactrian

Monogram should decide their locality. Mr. Winson and Scuuzcsn,

both call them Indo-Scythic, and the latter, with Col. Top, names the

figure ‘‘ Siva with his bull Nandit.”” Mr. Scutzcen thinks it curious

that such marks of the Hindu faith should appear on these Tartar coins,

but considering the Indian origin of the Sace, does not this rather

prove the same of their successors, instead of their Tartar descent? It

is more curious that the fire-altar should continue on all of the series,

but the fact of its being a fire-altar at all is still matter of great un-

certainty.

* See translation of portions of the Salsette and Ellora inscriptions by Major

Wixrorp, As. Res. v. 140, which shews them all to refer by name to Sakya. Mr.

A. Stirxine, As. Res. xv. 314, says of some similar inscriptions on the Udaya Giri

hill in Orissa, ‘‘ The Brahmans refer the inscription with horror and disgust to the

time when the Buddhist doctrines prevailed. I cannot however divest myself of the

notion that the character has some connection with the ancient Prakrit, and I think

an explanation is to be looked for only from some of the learned of the Jain sect.’

What has become of the key to this and other ancient Sanskrit alphabets, which

Wixrorp says he fortunately discovered in the possession of an ancient sage at

Benares ?

+ ‘* Ce qui me parait la circonstance la plus’ remarquable dans ces medailles, ce

sont ces preuves du culte brahmanique adopté par les rois Tartares., Ils regnaient

donc certainement sur des provinces ou ce culte était etabli.’”—Journal Asiatigue,

Nov. 1828.

318 Astronomical Observations at Barelly. (June,

Fig. 16. Copper coins of this device are met with throughout Upper

Hindustan :—they constitute the.third series of Colonel Top’s

plate, and some in his possession have decided Greek charac-

ters upon them.. On the obverse is the same warrior with

spear and altar. On the reverse is what he supposes to bea

priest about to sacrifice the bull; but in the coin before us

the dhoté is so precisely the costume of the Brahmans, that it

inclines rather to look upon the animal (especially as he has

the hump) as the sacred bull of this country, denoting the

prevalence or predominance of the Brahmanical faith in the

Indian dependencies of MenanvrrR or Evcraripzs’ dominion.

Fig. 18. This type of coin is if any thing more common than the last :

and the inscriptions are no longer Greek; but either of the

unknown character of the Delhi column or genuine Hindi.

The figure astride upon the elephant is always much out of

proportion, and the Raja with the altar more rudely executed.

| The elephant is, like the horse, preserved in subsequent coins”

- of the Hindis; thus

Fig..17_ represents one of these procured by Lieut. Burnzs in his

tour. The same device is still common in Southern India. The

form of the Nagri characters on this and fig. 14 agrees with

those on copper grants of land 7 or 800 years old.

I do not mention. Lieut. Burnes’ Muhammedan coins, as it is better

to keep them distinct from the present engraved series, to which I

may have soon to add a valuable supplement, containing a selection

from Dr. Swiney’s and General Ventura’s discoveries. My task in-

creases upon me daily, but I shall be amply rewarded .if my humble

notice of the discoveries of others shall, by connecting them. with an-

cient history, eventually turn these most interesting reliques to the

true end of numismatic study. —

VI.—Astronomical Observations at Barelly. By H. S. Boulderson, Bg:

The 4th No. of the Journal of Science for Oct. 1832 contains obser-

vations. of the transit of Mercury in May last made at Hull, Lat. 53°

45' 57” N. Long. 1’ 21” W.. As the longitude of the place of

observation at Hull is probably ‘very correct; this gives the means of

gaining to some degree of certainty the longitude of the few places in

India where the transit was observed. There is a considerable uncer-

tainty in the place of Mercury at the transit. At least the times of

conjunction in AR. gained from the elements given in the Naut. Alm.

Journal As Soc. Voll PLXL

i, |

ing 0 ‘

\ i y

MAN

inet)

———

'G }

eae

rr Te eee nk Ce :

A, fH foaled

§ >," 7. - » by *

1833.] Astronomical Observations at Barelly. 319

and those in the Berlin Ephemeris differ considerably. With a view

only to finding difference of longitude between places where the transit

was observed—this is of no great consequence. The difference of de-

clination of the Sun and Mercury at 0’ in AR appears to be about 9'2’’

.174, and this has been assumed, as also the following quantities :

Mercury’s Eq. Hor. Parallax, 15".362 Sun’s O° 87.5

Semidiameter,, 5.75 + 15 52.35

Mercury’s Hor. Mot. in AR.~118.7in deca. ~1' 8".4

Bn 6 ditto: . penx eo + 224.5 Sun's, + .0 }, 42.7

The Semr. of Mercury obtained from the elements in the N. A. is 5.8

In the Berlin Ephemeris it is given 5.37. The quantity 5.75 has

been taken as the result of the measurement of the planet’s diameter

at Geneva, contained in the 3rd No. of the above Journal.

May. h. ms.

The internalingress of § observed at Hull, meantime, 4th, 21 2 21

Add time from conjunction in AR....... 221 9.44

Micawtme.ot cin AR at Holl... «.. 2.0.5 sos au 4th, 23 23 30.44

The internal ingress observed at Barelly.. .. .. 5th, 2 20 58

Add time from conjunction in AR........ 2 21 34.22

Mean time of d in AR at Barelly.............. 5th, 4 42 32.22

The internal ingress observed at Chupra........ 5th, 2 4218

mocetiune; trom Gi ler... 2 ee eee een 2 21 39.286

Mean time of ¢ in AR at Chupra...... ...... 5the 15°13 57.286

The external ingress observed in Calcutta.. .... 5th, 2 53 24.2

eile) time: from, 6) WAS os oso pw coe 2 24 58.38

Miremitme of © at Caleutia.......-..-.0.0 200. 5 18 22.58

Deducting | m. 21 sec. the longitude of Hull from the respective .

differences, the following longitudes from Greenwich result :

h. m. s.

Barelly.. 5 17 40.78

Chupra... 5 39 5.85

Calcutta. 5 53 31.14 (Surveyor General’s Office).

The observations at the ingress at Geneva are stated to have been

rather uncertain. The internal ingress gives a wide discrepancy, the

external ingress gives for the mean time of d in AR May 4th, 23 »

49 ™ 22* -62—a difference of longitude from Hull 25 ™ 52%° 25m

525-18, or from Greenwich 24 ™ 31° ‘18. The longitude of the ob-

servatory at Geneva (Gautier’s) is given 24™ 35°

320 Astronomical Observations at Barelly. [Junz,

The longitude of Barelly from the mean of 8 occultations of stars

in Oct. and Noy. last is 5 17 ™ 40 * 56 E. of Greenwich.

By the mean of the 2 largest stars, Sagitarii and y Capricorn it is 5%

17™ 39 § 68.

The following emersions of Jupiter’s first Satellite were observed

at Barelly in 1832.

Difference from

Mean time. Greenwich. Mean.

hm. s. h

October19th, 7 52 7 5

26th, 9 47 48.9 5

Nov... 4th, 6 12 48 5 18 0O

‘ 17 35.7

Ti th, S “Svar 17 24.7 ]

Dec... 4th, 8 24 54 17 14

Difference

Srom Barelly.

Re Themean ofthe observationsin Calcuttah. m. s. h. m. s.

ay (excluding the last) on the 19th Oct.

D 1832, gives the emersion.. .. .. 8 28 3.5 0 35 56.5

# oi | The mean of the three first on the 26th

<j.09 ;

ae Oct. gives the mean time of emer-

2 ¢ | sion of Ist Satellite. .... .. ..10 28 27 0 35 38.1

» Z |The observation on the 4th Nov. 6 48 38 0 35 50

= The mean of the four observations on

g the 11th Nov. gives the emersion

g wf st Satellite... -.ccas i SRR 8 44 5.5 0O 35 49.8

The difference of longitude deduced from Mercury’s

RR it TS Sey eatin. eee secre eek tc 0 35 50.36

The mean times of the observations of occultations of stars made at

Barelly are,

hm. s.

October 2nd, No. 2276 Im. 10 21 23.9

7th, No. 2814 Im. oo ais We 5

28th, No. 2097 Im. 6 18 44.5

29th, Osag.Im. 5 29 47

Nov. Ist, y Capric. Im. 8 28 44.7

Nov. érd, No. 2773 Im. 8 387 16

» No. 2778 Im. 10 8 387.3

bi Emer. 10 40 12.4

1833.] Sulphate of Iron from the Hills of Behar. 321

VII.—Notice of a Native Sulphate of Alumina from the Aluminous Rocks

of Nipdl. By J. Stevenson, Esq. Superintendent H. C. Saltpetre Fac-

tories in Behar. :

This mineral was purchased by myself from a Nipal merchant. It is

called by the natives of Tirhat, Sulajét (rock sweat), and is used

by the native doctors of this country to cure green wounds, or bruises.

It is sold at the rate of two rupees weight for a rupee.

Description.

In small light lumps, colour brownish white—externally anhydrous

—internally semi-crystalline—fracture slightly fibrous, with a lustre

resembling asbestus—porous—containing small cavities, lined with

scarcely perceptible needle-like crystals—adheres a little to the tongue.

Taste acidulous saline—soluble in twice its weight of distilled water.

Specific gravity not ascertained, but probably not quite double the

weight of distilled water. Friable.

Examination by Tests.

Mameric PAPer, Sle ce ee wee No change.

SUITE oles Sid o5, wasmnsyeoin mets. Changed the blue to pink.

Muriate of Barytes,............. Copious precipitate of Sulphate of Barytes.

Nitrate of Silver, ...........-.. No change.

Oxalate of Ammonia, .......... Do. do.

Prussiate of Potass, .......0.+.2 Precipitate of Prussian-blue, but not copious.

Solution of Sub-carbonate of Potass, Copious Precipitate of Alumina.

A careful analysis of this mineral produced the following result :

Sulphate of Alumina, ..... pile fh Pi bace! he A eho ae 95.0

Werdsice br rows! Feet. ee Sees 3.0

Ensoluble matter (silexX) 5)... 0's ee es 1.0

Loss, Sse se ys aed. PLO SNS. 1.0

100.0

ES SS YS eS

VIII.—Notice of a Native Sulphate of Iron from the Hills of Behar,

and used by Native Dyers of Patna. By Ditto.

DEscRIPTION.

In lumps—colour, externally, light yellow—internally, light grey,—

with a tinge of blue fracture, earthy and rough granular—porous,

slightly glistening, anhydrous—easily frangible, soft—not ponderous

—adheres slightly to the tongue—taste a little acid, leaving a sensa-

tion of sweetness. Very friable—specific gravity not ascertained, but

probably about 1,800.

322 Analysis of the Ashes of Indian Plants. [J UNE,

Examination by Tests.

Titmins, Paper, vaste ae. ee { Changed the blue to yellowish red, afterwards

to brown.

Durmerieidos pis cc ues <utemiee ion) NOvenange.

Muriate of Barytes,.«:.012.s¢.. Copious precipitate of Sulphate of mie

Nitratetof- Silverjem. nie nerciieetete No change.

Oxalig: Acid atic). -laestenat cel . A slight cloudiness.

Prussiate of Potass,............ Copious precipitate of Prussian-blue.

Copious precipitate of Magnesia, tinged with

oxide of Iron.

A careful analysis of this mineral produced the following result :

Liquid Ammonia, .... ..

Su) phate ol JUrOn) oN see ce ied tea 39.0

Reroxidevot bron 7. vs ie. Seats cla ' 36.0

GEASS CNM en Reema eRe (se) ener 23.0

Lo SES ae ta a bee ti ae i PASE ce, MBS a ce 2,0.

100.0

Notre.—The above two mineral substances are the natural productions of Behar

and Nipal. They might be used largely in the arts, especially in the manufacture

of Prussian-blue, Calico printing, and Dyeing; I am not aware that they have

been noticed by European Chemists. If they have, the notice has escaped my read-

ing. I am informed that they may be had in large quantities, the Sulphate of Iron

in particular. The specimen which I operated upon was purchased from Patna

Bazar, where depots of this mineral are established.

————

IX.—Notice of Analysis of the Ashes of four Indian Plants. By Ditto.

The plants were subjected to calcination, similar to the method used

to make kelp in Scotland, and the quantity of alkali ascertained by

Brande’s process. 100 parts contained as follows :

Alkak Muriate of |Sulphate of| Insoluble

Names of

; Potass Potass matter Remarks, &c,

Plants. DETpeEre- per cent. | percent. | per cent.

Spent In the en

Indigo 7.90 3.0 15.0 75.0 bourhood of

plant, Singhea,

Poppy or

Opium 7.0 22.0 20.0 51.0 From Tirhiat.

plant, |

Tobacco :

ae aero OPS sda 0 | 76.0 Ditto,

Gada Pur- 2 Abundant i

nah plant*. § Go fae Nhe et } Tirhét. &

* The latter plant, called by the Natives of Tirhit Gada Purna, is much used

by the Dhobis or native washermen. They collect and subject it to the opera-

tion of burning, using the ashes instead of soap. Iam not acquainted with the

botanical name of this plant, having never seen it in flower. It is almost unne-

cessary to add, that the alkali from the above plants is sub-carbonate of potass.

Singhea, in Tirhit, 2nd May, 1838.

1833.] Asiatic Society. 323

X.—Proceedings of the Asiatic Society.

Wednesday Evening, 26th June, 1833.

The Hon’ble Sir Epwarp Ryan, President, in the Chair.

The proceedings of the last meeting were read.

Mr. C. E. Trevetyan and Mr. E. J. Ravensuaw, proposed at the last

meeting, were elected Members of the Society.

The Secretary submitted the following Report of the Committee appoint-

ed on the 27th March, for determining the best mode of continuing the

publication of the Asiatic Researches.

Report of a Special Committee appointed on the 27th March, 1833, to consider the

best mode of publishing the future volumes of the Asiatic Researches.

The statement which Baboo Ram Comut Sgn, the native Secretary, submitted

to the Society, at the Meeting of the 27th March, 1833, and which led to our ap-

pointment as a Special Committee, was calculated to discourage the printing of the

Society’s Researches altogether, by shewing that they had been unsuccessful in a

pecuniary point of view, and had absorbed in the course of many years a large por-

tion of the Society’s funds. To this argument we cannot on the fullest considera-

tion give our assent. The reputation of the Society, its,character, nay indeed its

very existence depends upon the publication of its Researches, and this is the chief

object of the contributions of its members. Neither can we coincide with the

Baboo in recommending, that the Transactions, if printed at all, should be printed

in England. The expence will now be nearly the same in both countries ; but the

convenience of reference to authors, and of supplying matter for the current volume ;

and of arranging the papers while in the press, are fully sufficient motives for giving

a preference to printing in India: and the pride of a national and independent ex-

istence should still further determine us to this course ; the moment we transfer

the printing of our Researches to England, we commit an act of felo de se, and

merge at once into the subordinate character of a branch of the London Asiatic

sostety as has been the fate of the Literary Societies of the two sister presi-

encies.

With regard to our present means of maintaining the publication of our Re-

searches, we may state, that the present income of the Society is Sa. Rs. 400 per

mensem: out of which at least 100 rupees may be set apart to cover printing ex-

pences, and this in the three years usually devoted to each volume will be ample

for plates as well as letter-press. But as every measure of economy is called for,

under existing circumstances, we strongly recommend that the octavo form be

substituted for the quarto volume.

It will be remembered, that an octavo edition of the first twelve volumes has al-

ready been published in England, and this has probably found a more extensive

circulation among the public than the badly printed volumes of the Calcutta edi-

tion. The new series therefore will fall in very well with the English edition, and

be the cause of an increased sale. It is possible that some English Bookseller may

undertake to reprint the intermediate volumes, 13 to 18, in octavo, to complete the

series.

We concur in opinion, that the Medical Society should be called upon to contri-

bute to our funds, for the use of that portion of our apartments permanently occu-

pied by their Library, &c. and we recommend that an application be addressed to

them to that effect.

It has been suggested by one of our Members that we should make the Museum

a source of incgme, by charging for the admission of strangers to inspect it: but

the majority of us deprecate the principle of such a charge, as tending to close the

doors of knowledge to many who may be least able, though most willing, to seek

it in our Library and Museum.

We are inclined however to approve of the suggestion of another Member, that

a composition for the quarterly subscriptions should be allowed. The amount of

composition at the Royal Society is fixed at 50 guineas, or ten years’ subscription.

324 Asiatic Society. (Jung,

With reference to the more limited scale of the Asiatic Society, and the higher

ratio of its subscriptions, we think that Rupees 500 or 32 goldmohurs, which

would be seven years’ subscription, including the admission fee, might be adopted

as the amount of composition for new Members ; with a proportionate scale of

rates for those who are already Members, should they desire to compound for their

future subscriptions.

June 19, 1833. (Signed) Joun TyTLer,

R. Benson,

J. R. Corvin.

Resolved, 1. That the Committee’s recommendation with regard to the

octavo Edition’ be adopted.

2. That the Secretary communicate with the Medical Society respecting

the proposed contribution to our funds.

3. That the Society approve generally of the suggestion for the optional

composition of the quarterly subscriptions, and that Dr. J. Tvriur, Baboo

Ram Comut Sen, and the Secretary be requested to draw up a table of the

scale of payments, founded on the value of life and period of residence in

India, as shewn by the Societies’ subscription list.

The substance of a report from the Committee, on the boring experiment,

was also communicated ; but, as it had not received the signatures of all the

Members, the discussion of the subject was adjourned till the next meet-

ing.

Library.

The following books were presented :

Transactions of the Society of Arts, &c. vol. xliv. pt. 1. By the Society.

Archzologia, vol. xxiv. By the Antiquarian Society of London.

Read a letter from the Rev. W. Yares, to the President, presenting his

metrical translation, in manuscript, of the Nalodaya, or History of King

Naa, a Sanskrit Poem; with a copious analysis, and remarks on the

various kinds of Sanskrit alliteration.

Resolved, that the work be made over to the Calcutta Committee of the

Oriental Translating Fund.

Museum.

Read correspondence with W.H. Macnacuren, Esq. Chief Secretary to

Government, respecting the transfer of the large statue of Gautama, de-

posited with the Society in 1825, to the Burmese Envoys ; the Government

agree to defray the expence incurred by the Society in setting the statue

upon its pedestal.

A spotted Deer, and an Elk, with a pair of his horns, were presented by

Joun Bety, Esq.

A further specimen of fossil bone, and a mass of the fossil shell conglo-

merate of Jabalptir, were presented by Dr. SpiusBury.

Antiquities.

Read a further note on one of Lieut. Burnes’ coins, by the Secretary.

Also a notice on the origin of the Sakya sects, by M. A. Csoma pe Konros.

325

Miscellaneous,

1833.]

*T]omMs

ou ynq ‘Arenurp ul se omeg

Arenuesp UL se aueg

“Avenue ul se auieg

"TN Woly poydedxa aq

Avui jams Suc, wv “vag pey

9} 0} ‘erpuy WoAy Sursso.19 uy

‘ZayeM YjOOWS pue sdI}VoM

euy ‘Zang pue ‘yeppue ‘keg

weg “wpy Uy 3y[NoWyIp

e10Y4S 9} Y}IA suoljeorunut

-WO09 SIOpUad TOYA “vas YSuy

Alva Basnes spurs Ap1ayjnos

Ysotf oY} speol eyooyy uz

_—

“SYIPULOY

“Arenure

se auleg

*Arenues

se amvg

“Avenue f

se auieg

ate

-aid = spur

“MN vey

‘premyynos

ayy of Suyy

-jas Ayjearauexy

*eaS poy

ay} Ul syuermng

"ely

-0909 Jvau "FN

9} 0} ouTpoUT 0}

sulseq yualng

“Are

-nuve Ur se auieg

“kre

-nuep Ul se euIeg

‘jepuewyeq

“BET JO SUE O11}

sueou a0 p.eAr

-JSOM 9} 0} 9.10uL

suraun.a' AA" syas

qua.And ay} *e.ij309

-0g Ssunpororddy

"Bas poy

ay} pue Arequog

uaeMjaq,

“YO

UL se ouleg

‘Zang JO vas

ay} ur yuonb

- 81f SSo] SULIq

SpuIm yJnos

jo uoyds0xa

ayy yytas “oq |

“Avenues

se .omleg

‘shep aig}

JO 0M} SuSE]

“yynos aq}

WOdy soz90.1q

[euoIsro90

pozdna

-19jUL "AA

"'N “N pue

"AA ON WO.g

spuIm suo.g

‘zang pue

Ilasop uaad\y

syUaTIN | -9q ‘O27 ‘spulAA

“IIaSOD pue yeppne

usamyoq = “quonbaay

a10UL 9UI009q SPUTA\

jSOM-Y}.100 ary as

‘IOT, jeqes) puod

-oq SsuIpuea}x9 wop

[9S spura Aj1ayynog

‘purm Ay.toqjnos

on Jo apy * Arenaq

-9J OI sv cUOTS se

‘A[19}SOA-Y}IOU PULAA

*SpuIM ATTay{NOS YYSTT

puejsom-YZI0U SU0INg

“Jay}BIM Jus

-eajd aur ‘sfep ¢ 10

@ 10} ‘spurs A].ca4}nos

d}L1IPOUT pur ‘S.19}S9M

-yyiou ysoiy yuonbary

“M12SOF) 0} B00eY} WorT

: pleAyyNOSs oy} WOIT

810.138 9.18 SPUIMIY}' NT

o6 1 3'T 07 LIPO] Wo1Z

*I1asO9Q pue eyo ueaMy

-aq JoyyVaAA pue spuUIA,

‘spura Aj.1oyj3nos Won} ‘S}te.4s 34}

Sv rej Se[IvAoid sputm A].19}sea pue

‘AN et0ys uviqery oy} Ug ‘ya10d

Atgaa WO AT[eUOIsSeo00 Sumo]

pue ‘ajqetreA Ajauie1jx9 spur

‘papjesun Ajyeuorseo00 ay}eaAL

“eyooy] 0} vou} WMOIZ ¢ SazoaIq

BOS ® PUL] JO speAsozUr PeUOIsvI90

pue saa 0} “AA "N WO’, Spor

Q}VIOPOUL YIM ‘TayVVIM a]qelieA qudy

*SONUI}MOS [I[T}S [[aMs

‘ Areniga,y Ulse Su01}s Os JOU puULAL

“eyoo yA, 0} Aequiog mor “yueTeA

-aid a10Ul" AA ‘Ni AU} WIZ Seza01q

ayerspour ‘Areniqayg ul uey}

Jepnsat ssa] sezaeiq vos pue puer'T

*ToyjeaM yueseayd our “spurs Aj10

-Qnos tog} “WN PUe td Nd 94s

WOLf S9ZI9Iq SU0I}S UY S}.4G 943

SU IVE SY “ySeODg ARqe]RIA 2Y} 07

JULOY SULMOTY ‘S19}S9A\ Y}.LOU 97R4

-apoul Ajjeuotsesso yug ‘Arenuer ut

sv A][e1oues ‘sazaeiq ves pue puery

“qoreyy

“£192,.5

‘paoua

-ladxa st pura Aprayjnos & aray

‘Ppaewmjaqeg Jo speyg 94} 07

9OU9Y} WOT] "T “N PY} WLO.Ly S9Z90.1q

ajzeigpou + paduatiadxea oq Avur —

"M 'N'N ©} Spare “Hf “N uoqas, «

‘alos JO Saytw Y9 10 OG surpua,

“Xa ‘sazooiq eas pue pur] juesea[g

“Anup

*eIPOJ 0} aouaY?

way ‘Aequiog JO of “OyIWaAA puesputrmM| “WIUOW

‘hnquog ‘2& ‘siopurg ‘g ‘¢ wwzdng hg -uvagq ayy ynoybnosy) ‘zang pun hnquog uaanjag ‘92 ‘squaning ‘uayzoag ‘spur4sy ay fo sisdoulig

*Snoaunjj29SUPT— TX

(Jung,

Miscellaneous.

326

-qyiou ‘zang pue slasod ye

pure ‘Ayne nt se autes 9q} sq}

-BaAA pure SpUuLA ay} “eyo VW] ‘A[nE se ouIeg

*‘spula

“M 'N WAM

*“paearyyuos

ayy 03 sury

*‘paous | -jasA]Te10ues

-I1edxa aq p[NOM vas Yys1y e | pue ‘s}svog

‘eag poy ey} Wor Sutsso1p} ay} Jo suiny

“p9]}}95 SI Aayjywom | ayyhq poutoa

ey} uayA ‘“[IeAeid sezacaq | -o8 erjaed

vag pue purl ‘eyo, xW] pue afqenie,

“wdy

“000g Avau AT[ersedsa ‘eipuy

WO} SUISSOIO UT ‘paouattodxa

eq plnom eas ysi AOA W

_“SUIMO]G JOU 91e $193

“SOM-Y}10U 94} Mey Ad “sazee1q

eas pue pur “‘yeppue iV

*speoyeyroy, Ul Jaqjyeom Ay

-[s pue spur Aj10q}A10U 4Ipsiry| Ut

[244s ou TO 94731] “eIpuT

Woy suissor1g ‘aseroyoue

aU} JO 9424s posodxe ay} Woy

“[[244s JueJsUOD B SuIsUeD “AL

"N 0q} wor AjSu013s sau}

ye SMO[q PUIA ay} sATas09g

uy ‘sezeeiq vas pue puezjo

S[PAIOJUI YIM “Jes pasny

-u0d & SuISned spuLA "S10 “NT *Arenue pe

Jaye Suoays ‘speor eyoT uy] ul se aug

“Arenuee

se aug

"eas pe

*SyIPULOY ay} UL s}uelINg

UI SY oMeS 944

yootmMo ayy “yueqg

Aequog 94} uQ] ‘A[n¢ se oureg] afqeitea ‘eyooyy reany

‘Aep aad sara gg |

10 9G una *‘ AJUap

-posy1ys:oqeiiwa

pure Su0j4s are ey

-000G pue yseog] = ‘aouejorA

uviqeiy oy} | wots YIM

waaMjoq “yas Ay | Surmoy;q pue

~IoyzNoOs ev “yueq uapeAoid

Aequog

*‘pooua-

-tiadxa aq [JIA

quedino Ay.tayji0n

e ‘ULJOS Sey UOOS

“uo 94} UsTAL

‘queq <Aequog

9Y} UO pue “y ayy

0} SU0.A4S Sjas yUda “ACTA

-AN9 “B.1}000G WeaNy| UE se ouleg

“prea

-jsea pue piem

“YOU 94} 0} S}os

quetmMd =—4sevog | *A\'N‘N pue

uviqery oy} pue | "AA “NY Woay

“e1j000G uveA\joq| Su0.qs PULAA |

—_———.

Adee’ Die UE

wo. sjjenbs

“U0

-einp suo] ou

[euoise9900 |

"eas poy ‘Zang pue

ey} pue Aequiog | tas0Q ©6ueam)

ueemjeq = syuiadInD} -aq ‘2p ‘spurl,

-9uas spurs Ay.10Y3.100

ATISOD SpP.AVAKO} SSPULAM

‘uolye.Mp j10ys

Jo pue “sarmojq wop

-JPS spuim Ajrayjynog

-B9900

“suo. Ayeuors

‘sulpieaoid

oq} UOC} spun “M “N| Spurs AJ19}89M-4}.10

*jreAoid

S19}S9M: YOU Atasog,

pue qeppne UsaMjIq

‘UleL

YUL S19} S9AA-49.100

Ajjeuotses00 £ y}UOU

ayy jo yred Ayiea

ayy ut

pue pur] ‘eyooypy teany

sazeoiq vas

‘qua[eAaid 4sour spur

Aj.19}89M-Y}10U .11as0%)

pure yyppng usemjog

pue

“eI[OOTAL

yeppne use}

-aq ‘Ajjuonbo.y aout

SUIIIN990

-Y}10U “o]qQuITeA sprit AA

*IlasOD pue eypoy usa

-3q Jay}eaA pue spulAy

$19}S9M

ay} “eppoy, pur Aequiog usaMjoq

‘Avquiog eau juanbasy ssoy sypenbs

‘Apnoja pure ezaeiq ayesepoyy 4snsoy

“YJIM Jou ore site A].19}S9.M-Y}.100 |

WS] UsyA ‘fapuemMpoqeg se «ey.

se ‘[reaeid yjsue.js a}etoapou jo

Spurm Ajio}saa\ 9ouaq} WorF f ny

“eprenxy) JO ULIPLIaUl ay} 0} SuTpus}

“39 AAS Pee MS AMA Op wo

safes suoys ‘puocdaq ‘ Ajjenbs pue

‘sputm AjiajsoM Suoays ‘Aequiog YO

“YPIM Jour ate sre A].19}Saad-" Ny IYSIT

a.1aYAd “S}1B.1}G 9} 0} “[Leaaid spur

A].19}s9M oye1apoul souayy Woy { Ing

~epieny) JO UvIpPLlap] 24} 0} Sutpuay

“X20 © M 'S pure’ M 'S “AA 24} Ulosy

Soles Yysalf “epooA, 0} aoUeY} ULOIZ

* YJOL pue yg 9y} UseA\}aq SuLouoUL

-wi09 Aj[viaues UoosUOUL ay} ‘12q}

-vom Apnoyo pue suret Lavy yytMA

“AAS pue “AA ‘'N 24} Woy = -oune

‘kine

‘[teAaid sputa a[qeiea “erjo00g

JO AWIUIOLA ot} UY “Ap1ey}NOS 91001

‘a10ys UeIqery ay} Jesu £ sarreAasd

Spuim Aj}193S9A\ “eyo, 0} aoueY}

Worf f preALy}NOS ay} Wo.y stjenbs

[euorseo00 pue “1ex}e] 94} spre

-0}" AA "N 0} }80M Worf saze—.1q

Ya = tayyeams = payjasun = Apnojo

—-_

‘KET

*eYOJN 0} Bua}

urory ‘Avquiog YO o[ ‘layjeaAA pue spur} “yuo,

“hoquog °a§ ‘sia purg ‘gp wuzdng fig -uvag ay ynoybnowyy ‘zang pun hinquog uaamjag ‘a8 ‘szuading ‘seyjoays ‘spuryy ay) fo sisdoulig

327

Miscellaneous.

1833.]

*parajunooUt 3q [ITM eos

api ‘erpay wos suisso19

‘Zang pue aso 7e 1901}

“89M plod “ueses,q ‘sproy

eyoowy ur jpjams Aaeoy &

WBUA ‘spur Ayisyjnos ysoiq

“qj 800.38

ul Sursevatoua

BOS -epew) our

IvoU yuan Apa}

-SOAA VY} S JAQUIAA

‘Ajng se aueg| -onNy ul se ouieg

*paouatIadxa aq [IAM

¥9S OU “¥IPUy WO. SUISsO1O UT

‘Zang pue “i1asog ‘yeppue

ye juan bay a10w pure ‘eyooy]

ye UI jos Mou spur Lj1e4yINoG

SOM pure *AA

‘S s}os Mou jaar

-Id aq} “Vag pay

‘A[nG se ouleg

‘royjyeam Anjos

pue spur 4ysI, ‘eyo; 1V

*patajunooua aq {IA

SS OOO O88

- 89S OU ‘eIpPUy UIOIy SuIssorg| A[nG se aueg a] quire A

‘uOOsuOU ay} Jo 4xed

19}}e] 04} Ye vas OU JO 9]}}I]

£]Jams Aptajsam ev G.ted Apa

ay} Ut “etpuy wos suisso1g

“Ta}eM Yoous £ 19yy

vam Aaypns : jreAosd spur ;

Ajrayyuos 4ys1] “eyooy yy] ‘Apne se aueg *aTqueiie A

"ydinsy at} Jo yynow ayy |

ye Ayjeroadsa ‘payoadxe aq ‘AN pue "Ny

Aew vas ysiy etipuy wos Sar 0} sjas 4uadInod

“SSO.LQ “S10]S9M-"N] [VUOISO ay} By000g pue

-00°1ayyeaM JUuRsea|d‘yeppne yseoyn = URIqRay

ye :duyreaoad [Ws siojsom ey} UsaAjag “Ajne

ay}

*pepjesun

pue e[qeie,

*19(0}9O

ey} Suryoro1ddy| ur se ouweg

“P917798

“an 19YVI AA

“PpABMYZLOU

woly

aye1IpOT

“Ajo P Ul neyy

“aiqeiqiea

ILOULIIYFCI AA

*sQT oAoge ysory

SUIMO;G SoUII} auLOS

‘skep ¢ 03% Wor SUSE]

‘Zang Jo eas oq} jo

syied ULey}10U oY} UL

quonbosy o10U1 SpurAr

A[xoq}n0s “No ST

‘Jey 0} RYO wor,

"800.148 SOUT}

-9T10S “IlasOg 4e JET

-eAaid §19}S9M-T}10NJ

“IIaSOQ, 3B

S008 SOUITZIWOS S19}

-SAM-Y}IOU YIM : ATas

“OF Ye SPULM “S FqST]

pue “eyooy, (vou [tea

-aid spur Aytayjnog

‘sep [etoAas

suse] pue ‘su0.1s

sou} ye “freaoad [ys

S1o}saM-yytou ‘aovjd

Jo}Ve] y} Ye Sf MLaseD

eau soul} je pue

‘eyooy, Jed Ul jos

aon spuram AyLaqjznog

‘sep Aueut Surjsey

4SaM-YjZ1IOU Bq} UWLO.AT

$azZaoiq [euoIses00

Wim ‘spuim sajiqeie,

“YIM your Aypea

“Arenuesp Ul se

aures ay} ‘eYdOTK 0} VOUT} UOIT

{ul jes Sureq Mou UOOSsMOU “| “NT

ay} ‘peoualiedxe oq Aeu spulm

“AA ‘NN 93“. 'N. Ways “soytor 0G

yuoge ple}xXo9 SaZao1q vas puke puLuy] “°° **o0q

sTayqyeom AAvaY poyjzesun YyIM

‘pura Ay1a}sea-yynos 10 Ay1oyjnos

B s}leys oy} jo souRyaa ayy VW

‘spurm “WN pue “A “NA eQOOW

0} 20U9q} DIOAy “eIpUT Jo ysvOD ayy

Jo yuoTeaord spurts A].19}89M-4]}.10 Ny

‘10y}VaM pa}

-JOSUN pUL SPUIM YjNOS ‘SzreIyS OT}

jo soue.jus 94} TW “W'S pue ‘g's

“GT 07 Sosueyo 41 UayAA “ysvoD UeIG

“BIW oY} se avy se Suipua}xe “WY “N

WOIf SpULAA a}eJapouL “eYOOIAT 0}

doUsT} §.1N990 SPULA "WN “GY WoyAr

‘eipuy JO yseor 94} WOIF soprUr |

0G 10 0p JHoqe pusajxe spulm ‘| “N} 49909}90

‘MN

pue “AA ‘SAA 94} WoL syjenbs [e

-WOIsvdI0 YIM ‘A].1o}S89A\ y.ted ysour

ayy toy “eyooy, 0} Avquiog wor

“Avquiog Ieau

“AN Wolf site JYSI] soujouos

‘paeaysam ol} WIZ O[Qeiter spulAA

** AON

ydag

‘9819p

-OUl 910M SuIaq PULA 9y} JO aor}

-daoxa of} yyim ‘Ajnp¢ ul se cules .

SS EL RASA EEF BEEBE BSI EE 7 RELIABLE BEETLE ET TE CIE EIDE OLE TLE ELLIE ALO TOE SN TE Sat LTE TIE ee

‘rea dy} JO UOISHPUOD ay) We

paystainy aq [ITM pasn syueUMNA}suT [eIaAas ay} LOF sUOTaIIOD Jadoad oY. “[eApay}O OY} IeoU asnoy & Jo vpueIaA YINOs ay} Ut ATIep P9AJOSqO aIv “IN “A OT Pue “HE “Vy ¢ 103

sJUsUIN su] ay “Uoyefodsazar Aq ur pally axe sortyue Aepung oy) pue ‘ArozeLOGey ey} JO Ae da1z 9Y} UT pepuadsns are “Ww ‘df PUL “WV OT IOF s}uoUMIZsuy oyT,

(June, 1833.

“ured NOM [OOI { Apeajsun 70‘ | 3°88 | 9°26, 6% | 18 179 [Om 1 1°e8 | B°c6 |8'c6 'S°06 lEFB J 099° {cars |69c° |II¢6s sueoy,

‘azey op *ySvOT9AO Gi aes Ss 6 co TS | oF | Sb | of Jats | 268 | ‘86 |2°88 | OBE Ese | OSes | 96e° I8Ig° 0g

TI “UL op qyexjs umd] “SN OS ‘Ss &G co isco | 2 | 8h | Le Ta'te | 968 19°c6 12°28 | at8 4 OL¢° | Tae’ | 19% | Sae* 62

“11119 op *1RO]9 *S "Ss ‘S 68 6 [se | &8 1 S'S | oF Lege L1G \L4°66 | L518 | OF8 EGSS | TOS’ | 829° |9Ig° 82

op op qnums 0 0 se) 6G cé fae | 4 10% !aze Joss | o'29 19'88 lo‘98 | cos} Ble. | Tac‘ | soos |s6rs | Zz

*1eayo op Tquar ZO Saas ‘O 16 96 FIr | 9h | PF | $s Totes | 3681 {06 12698 | 08h esas | TZP‘ | 9g6* | 86r‘ 9%

‘ayjues «= Uet “AreZ “UN “a0 70 6*MA'N 'O GG G6 16% | OF | 8S | He F218 | O'28 | ‘06 |gZ8 | 9.8 F Ooss | cer’ | Sos’ |Lors c

*19s'uMo‘bs op *7ea]o 70 286'3's) 0 06 06 Fee | OTL | BL | az Petz | o't6 |S°246 10506 | O18 | Fos | EFPS | OGF* |6cPS id

op *1Ba]o "azBY “a ‘HN “a rn) a fLio | 69 | LS | az Lote | ‘68 12°96 1606 | FOB | LZr° | SLP* | OFFS leZpS &%

op ., ‘4sevo1dA0 UleL a's “s “Ss 08 16 48% IZ ! fe | sorf ocee | 9.98 |2'96 12506 | aca f oars | LPS | OB. I gar‘ GS

3 op ured *syUEq Ss ‘O s lg “| 06 [6 | 99 | 06 | LQ focze | Fa6 |$'86 |9%06 | L°98} cops | OLe° | GOPS | SOF‘ 1%

ce op op op ‘SF 8S ‘s 68 68 fZ.¢ | 8 | 68 | OG Hodge | TFG ,S°00T/c'%6 | S98 | Taps | FOE" | OGrS |ZZe° | oz

& op *T~nuns op Ss Ss ze) ran 18 6% | SOL | b6 | 66 | ‘28 | Ofc6 |O°00T| 1°16 | Zee] cers | ese’ | OLS 16rHS 61

2 *1ea]9 ‘WsvoIaAO *snyea}s “cos fas ‘s 88 76 186 | SB | G9 | 2% Fotos | 9'e6 [E46 |F°06 | ZS I Zap‘ | OGrS | FESS | Zoos 8I

S Surmej}veiy} ‘Mund = *1]nurNd ‘s ‘s *s 98 e6 |oo | 16 | 79 | Oe Tete | OF6 |0°F6 16°06 | “cB age. | OSes | $99° |ST9% Lt

S “Avay9 op *IquIIU "Ss °S ‘0 oO 18 zest | 6 | BL | ae Teog | 0'F6 |S‘F6 19°16 | ZE8 Fogo’ | IZo° | 989% | E196 91

Re “yyStIs ‘Ulex “iea[o Ss ‘Gg Ss 68 66 149 | GL | 09 | ce 7 ‘eg | £86 | “96 105s6 | L698 F ezgs | Cee. ; 999° !Gee° cl

re op op “Azey ‘Ss 5 ‘S 88 c6 JOS | SB | BfS | Ze F279 | 86 {2°96 | 2°06 | G98 F Ege | FBP | Bse° | 90¢° +1

Ss oP op Tquitu “HS, oS 'S 06 96 [se | OL | Bo | He F 2g | BCG | ‘96 |H06 | 1°98} Bre‘ | TOP. | 6S" j€90° | eT

S _. Teale op *rRayo “a's °s S 68 £6 JL | €9L | L°9 | ofG Fotos | e6 L‘96 1°68 | 0°98 f Lec‘ | 8zg* | OC9* | 88¢‘ rat

cS 2's syueq op *1nuM9 "Ss "g Ss 26 #6 FPO | 89 | S°9 | ce FZ | FG 19°86 |e°88 | E189 g99° | 9E9‘ | 9SZ5 |aBo‘ II

es) ‘SIM ‘US‘UIEL op *y8148 “110 “S ‘s ‘O 68 a {or | Sl | 99 | Be Tezs | £698 | ‘86 |F°06 | I6L A ees‘ | OSL‘ | eZ | LZaz° OL

= “IM-U'SUTeI' prey Op ‘azey ‘MU Ss S 18 06 [ar “Ol | GZ | am TTGs | 8°G6 | ‘96 12°86 | 0°98 F ces‘ | Zo9* | L89° 19095 6

= op *Ip9]9 “11119 "2 ‘Ss or) ‘s 79 68 Joh | OTL} BL j.g2 Fates | P96 | ‘86 |2‘c6 | O°F8 | gaps | 82b‘ | FOGS | oLr‘ L

S __ OP ‘Jers ‘wd *1quITU 70 80 * a's oF) £8 ce PLS | SIT | eth | of¢ Frag | S96 |S°2Z6 |e16 | B28 E eect | SLPS | 19% \aIe. 9

Ieayo op ‘azuy ‘s ‘s ‘s 98 1% Je | 246 | oc | oe Feve | 096 | 86 |¢°26 | L<o8 | rect | 809° | 96c° |G0c. F ¢

op “umd *VR148 “110 +S ales *S 68 G6 ish | 68 | ge | HH Peze | L°c6 | O0T {ctG | 88 hopes | OLS | Tees +ZhFS ¥

*pnos op *UIMD-119 ‘S ‘s aS 88 tG6 BE | SB | oO | Bf FTE | 9c6 | ‘66 12516 | 848 Ger | POPS | Zp | Fee% €

“119 “und “Aes “17nd ‘Ss "Sig Sc8)c8 06 ew FOr {EL | 89 | 26% faze | EH6 |‘OOT jeteG | $28 | Len* | FOP | Gert | Fer‘ (a

“Teo *Apnoyo “ured ‘Ss cr) ‘A 88 G6 |6E | 68 19% | B% Fevs | 2°76 19°66 14°16 | ‘ZB 4 BOK | POPS | ONG | LePS I

ies] _ % 5 % rt) +

5 2 Safe OB ee ee ee ve Sel acl sul@e = lecle eerste se

S g Peale OE eer Meee tS tree ene S| eee ae, Stee eel eee ele eee

5 ; 5 5 : et eeu Ow Pofopr los .[fbeahatt Tepe OBE eS Sot be peek ispeel st yap p | BS

os iS B & Bol Bp BR | wl eee erp pe Sk ol ae ee ld [opeetoe |) af Pe

S. 4 ay . . . . . . e e o

“0389 AA “DULL ssid “Ta aul *T9]9UIOUIIAY,.L, bc “UTR eZ 0}

: 0184] ae} GINq-}s10ur Jo uoIsserdeq Diet Ul sejauiOue nit,

paonpel 1oJoWLOINg

328

"SEeT Saune fo yjuow ayy sof “nrmaIMy ‘aoln hnssy ay2 yv aday ‘4agsibaxy 7091h070.10010 FAT

JOURNAL

THE ASIATIC SOCIETY.

No. 19.—July, 1833.

IL—THE BIRTH OF UMA—A LEGEND OF HIMALAYA,

By C&Auipdsa,

(being the first Canto of his great poem the CUMARA-SAMBHAVA).

The Sanscrit text translated into corresponding English measure, with notes and illustrations.

ARGUMENT.

Nature and site of HimAuaya, (1.) His pre-eminence among mountains,

how shown, (2.) Not disparaged by frost, (3.) Description of his sublime

appearance and various wonders, (4—16.) His designation as King

of Mountains by Brauma, (17.) His marriage with the nymph Muna,

(18.) Birth and description of their first-born son, the. mountain Mat-

waca, (19, 20.) New birth, from the same pair, of Sati, once daughter

of Daxa and wife of Siva, (21, 22, 23.) Appearance and growth of the

beautiful daughter thus born anew, (24, 25.) Her designation as Pxrvati

and as UMA, (26.) Prized above all things by her father Himauaya,

(27, 28.) Her childhood and education, (29, 30.) Her more mature youth,

(31, 32.) Description of her person, (33—50.) Her destiny as future

wife, the second time, of Stva, made known to her father, (51, 52, 53.)

Stva, after long mourning for Sari, comes to Himalaya to perform aus-

terities, (54, 55.) His troop of attendant Gods described, (56,) and his Bull,

(57.) Stva then commencing his austerities, (58,) is worshipped by Himk-

LayA, (59,) and at his command by his daughter Parvati; whose influence

on Siva, together with Stva’s influence on her, are described, (60, 61.)

330 The Birth of Uméd— [Juuy,

The lines marked * thus in the first five stanzas are those which exactly repre-

sent in structure the pddas or quarters of stanzas in the original—consisting of an

Iambus or Spondee, a Bacchius, an Anapzst and Bacchius ; thus,

ENG ee

This hendecasyllable measure, called by the Hindus 443 or Indra’s thunderbolt,

(probably, because in one of the Brahmanas of the Sama Véda, Indra is said to have

aimed his thunder at the demon Vritra by means of Sanscrit metres!) extends

through the whole of this canto, with the exception of the last stanza, the 61st :

and is next to the Anustup or ordinary loose Iambic, the most frequently

used, beside being one of the most harmonious, measures of Sanscrit poetry. In its

application to the less measured structure of English syllables, its rhythmical effect

is perhaps better represented by the following musical notation, than by any terms

of prosody: (the semiquavers denoting the rapid or short syllables, and the quaver

and all beyond, without distinction, denoting the long :)

aI lJ FI ld oil fF

” Asty = ut-ta-ras - yam di-si dé-va-tat —- ma.

a notation which may also serve to shew the reason why the riyorously exact

imitation of this, as of other measures belonging to classical ancient languages, is

not accordant with the genius of our English metrical composition. The Teutonic

ear, content with the regularly recurring accent in every third syllable, and insen-

sibly attaching the idea of equality of time to this recurrence, as in the musical bars

above written, does not acknowledge any law that should thus perpetually and

invariably distinguish the middle bar, by a dactylic subdivision, from the amphi-

macer of the bars preceding and following it : but allows, and even requires, for va-

riety’s sake, the mutual interchange of these different modes of subdivision, in the

several repeated periods of the same rhythm. Such is the case with more or less va-

riation in all the lines not marked with a star in the first four stanzas : and the

plentiful intermixture of such lines is therefore morea matter of taste, to avoid what

would be in English an intolerable uniformity, than a sacrifice to the mere ease of

versification.

It is far different with the ancient languages of Greece and Rome; which in the

regulation of metre by quantity exclusively of accent exactly resemble the Sanscrit.

In all these, the conception of time being adjusted rigorously to that standard of

quantity, which counts two short syllables (or Mdatrds in Sanscrit) equivalent to one

long, the substitution in any lyric measure of dactyl for amphimacer, or anapeest for

bacchius, is known to be impossible. Adopting therefore their standard, the most

perfect conception may be attained by a classical scholar of our present Indian

measure, by joining an Alcaic commencement to a Sapphic termination. Thus

if in the first of the Alcaic odes of Horace, we transpose or slightly interpolate the

ends of its two first lines, the middle of its third, and the beginning of its fourth,

thus—we make the complete Indra-vajra stanza.

Vides ut alta nive candidum stet

Soracte, nec sustineant onus jam

Silve labore exanimes, geluque

En, flumina wé constiterint acuto.

Or if we take the 22nd ode, which is in the Sapphic measure, a yet slighter alte-

ration will suffice to give each line the Alcaic commencement necessary to make the

same Indian metre ; thus,

1833.] A Legend of Himdlaya—by Cdliddsa. 331

* In regions far North, clad in deiform might,

The Mountain King rises, HrmAtaya hight :

* Whose giant form, stretching along in one sweep

* From th’ Eastern main forth to the Westernmost deep,

Might seem, as it join’d them, the measuring rod

* Laid o’er the broad earth by its architect God.

Vite integer qui, scelerisque purus,

Non idle Mauri jaculis neque arcu,

Nec felle tinctis gravida sagittis,

Mi Fusce, securus eget pharetra.

Though this particular species of double dochmiac measure does not itself occur

in Horace or in Pindar, it may be found sometimes inthe choral strains of the Greek

tragic poets—but in insulated lines only. Thus in the Perse of Aschylus, the 5th

strophe and antistrophe of the last choral song of lamentation contain the following

regular Indra-vajra lines.

Stroph. TiS otk; dAwrAe peyddAws Ta Mepoay [v. 999.]

Antistr. Tpawévta vavpparrtov éepéis duro [v. 1009.)

(each being followed by two lines in the kindred Indian measure called aww fax)

The following commencement of a similar strain in the Antigone of Sophocles,

(uttered by the unfortunate heroine herself,) is in the same measure :

Stroph. Opiate ww yas marpias modira [v. 817.]

Antistr. “Hxovoa 5) Avypotdtay dAécba [v. 834.]

(in which we may also observe, no less than in the Alcaic, another peculiarity of our

Indian measure, the commonness of the first syllable).

So is the commencement of a similar strain in vv. 431 and 439 of the Medea of

Euripides, (p. 39, ed. Porson)—and the concluding line of another in vv. 763,771 of

the Supplices of Aischylus, (p. 35,36, ed. Scholfield)—and others which it were

needless to transcribe.

Sz. 1. the measuring rod

Laid o’er the broad earth by its architect God.

The words ‘‘ by its architect God’’ are an addition to the expressions of the ori-

ginal, but not to the sense, even according to Hindu ideas: the earth’s “‘ measuring

rod’ presupposing a builder, viz. the creator Brahma. When we consider the

Himélaya, in the words of the Baron de St. Croix, as a part of one “‘ great chain of

mountains which rising on the sides of Lycia, Pamphylia, and Cilicia, stretch across

Asia from West to East, and after receiving the different names of Taurus, Paropa-

misus, Imaus, and Emodus, terminate at the sea that washes China,”’ and thus join,

as our poet declares, both oceans,—the comparison of the vast progressive range to

such a rod, will scarcely be thought an unhappy one. But bating this, which is pecu-

liar to our Indian author,—the image of an artificer, and even of an instrument of

measurement, is not thought unworthy to represent the Supreme Being, and his

absolute control of the most stupendous objects of the visible creation, in the pure

theology of our inspired Scriptures. See Isaiah xi, 12, 15, &c. but I would parti-

cularly refer to two remarkable instances in the book of Job (xxviii, 25, and xxxviii.

3, 4) : inthe former of which the Hebreo-Arabic word 710 (%av0) applied to the

uo o2

332 The Birth of Uma— [Juuy,

Him once the gay hills, so they tell, all agreed

* To make the prime Calf of their glorious high breed ;

And Merv himself, skill’d in milking of yore,

Stood milker for all of the genial Earth’s store :

en SE a

measurement of the great waters, exactly answers in meaning to our Sanscrit ala

—as its derivative 100 (do) in the latter, which I now quote, might both from

its form and its parallelism with the cord in the 4th line, be almost conceived to be

synonymous with our Hl: (the word not occurring elsewhere in Scripture.)

YIR— 102 MT TWD Where wast thou, when I laid the foundations of the earth ?

mya ny? ox tat Tell, if thou art acquainted with knowledge.

yin >> nm DW—'D Who disposed the dimensions (or dimensors?) of it if thou

knowest ?

yp my mm2— 7 Ww Or who stretched over it the measuring line ?

St. 2. Him once the gay hills, &c.—The truly Indian legend of this verse is con-

tained with somewhat more particularity in the 6th chapter of the Hari-Vansa, the

last book of wees sacred epic, the Mahabharata.

wee aye Uist yaera agai |

greta afawdtcarta fafasifa Wil 2H

aaa fenararetaeg a FT UUs: |

wag weaadtaa Kear feafear: il ve |i

And also in the 18th chapter of the 4th book or Skandha of a more recent my-

thological authority, the Bhagavat Purana.

4zqaqy ata: VaWWAy Wa! |

facat feaaqar Aaa, SINAT RY II

But the legend which has given to both these chapters of the Hari-Vansa and the

Bhagavat respectively the title of Prithvi-déha, or “ the milking of the earth,” is

not confined to the subject ofthese lines, i.e. to the Mountains and their chosen Calf

Himalaya. The injunction of Priruv to his obedient wife (or as some authorities

have it, his daughter) Priravi, i.e. the Earth, extends to the suckling of all orders

of the creation, from the ultra deified saints or Rishis down to the trees of the

forest : each of which, according to the high authority first quoted, were desirous

of the favour, and had its own Calf, its milker, and its appropriate milk or nutri-

ment, drawn by him from the udder of Mother Earth in an appropriate pail.

The fable is sufficiently curious and illustrative of Indian mythology in general, to

be stated at greater length.

The Rishis chose for their prime calf, Soma, regent of the moon: and the

sage Vrihaspati, son of Angiras, acting as milker for the rest, drew the pure

milk of austere and spiritual science from the earth’s breast into a pail composed

of the metrical Vedas.—The celestial Gods chose Indra for their calf: and their

milker Surya, or the Sun, milked the earth of strength ina pail of gold.—The

Pitris or Dii Manes having chosen Yama (the Indian Pluto), for their calf,

their milker, Fatal Time, drew from the earth’s bowels the sacred food offered

to deceased ancestors, into a pail of silver.—The Nagas or serpentine deities of the

1833.] A Legend of Himalaya—by Calidasa. 332

Who, heeding their wish, at great Prirnu’s behest

* Gave freely, cow-like, of her swelling dark breast :

* And sparkling bright gems, with all healing herbs’ power,

Gush’d out for this dear mountain-babe to devour.

realms below, having chosen Taxaka as their calf, and Dhritar4stra as their milker,

milked the earth of its poisons in a gourd pail.—The Asuras or malignant deities,

choosing Viréchana, son of Prahlada, as their calf, and Madhu for their milker,

milked the earth of illusion in a pail of iron.—The Yaxa demons, choosing

Cuvéra (the Indian Plutus or Mammon) for their calf, (the milker not named,)

milked the earth of dissimulation in an earthen pail.—The several descrip-

tions of fiends and vampires, the Raxasas, Pisachas, Bhitas, &c. all choosing

Sumali for their calf, and Rajatanabha, (the silver-naveled goblin,) for their

milker, drew blood from the teats of the earth, into a dead man’s scull used

for a pail—The Gandharvas and Apsaras, the songsters and dancers of Para-

dise, choosing Chitraratha for their calf, and Vasaruchi for their milker,

drew perfumes from the earth’s bosom into a lotus pail_—The mountains

having chosen, as we have seen, HimA4laya as their calf, and Méru for their

milker, milked the earth of jewels and rich herbs in a pail of stone.—Lastly, the

trees, having chosen the Plaxa or holy fig-tree for their calf, and the Sal tree

for their milker, drew duds from the earth’s bosom ina leafy pail—So far the

Mahabharata: with which the Bhagavat disagrees in several minor particulars:

both of these grave authorities, however, agreeing with each other, as I am happy

to observe, in fully confirming the statement of our poet in this verse respecting

his mountain King.

The Scholiast Nilakantha on the Mahabharata makes the principal herb

of which the Earth was milked for Himalaya, to be the MTfaHatl or

luminous plant, whether fabulously so called or otherwise, . of which we shall have

occasion to speak more particularly on the 10th stanza. But the commentators on

Célid4sa, both Mallinatha and Bharata-mallica ; assign that place to the fabled

Sanjlvant whose juice can revive the dead: the latter adding also the herb Vz-

salya-karint, to which the same revivifying property is ascribed in the Lanka-kandu

or 6th book of the Ramayana of Valmiki. The idea of medicinal herbs is there-

fore made the most prominent in my translation: though it should be added that

both the above-mentioned Scholiasts apply the epithet ureter here, viz.

“* sparkling’ or ‘‘ luminous,” to the ‘‘ herbs,’’ as well as to the “‘ gems.”’

The all-sustaining virtues of Mother Earth could not possibly be conveyed to a

Hindu under a more dignified image than that of a cow and her dependent calves.

We see the same image curiously applied to the highest mysteries of the Vedantic

philosophy, in the following distich of the Panchadast or Quindecad of Vidyaranya

Svami,

~~ cA —<

ATS HAAATAT SSF AIT aT |

aa fara aa ad aaaaa fe I

i. e. “‘ Of the cow of desire, called Ms’y4 (the Great Illusive Mother of Nature, of

whom Sati and Parvati are but incarnations), there are two calves,—the separate

Sout, and Gop. Both drink abundantly as they list : (the former drinks) duality

(or diversity), which is its essence ; (the latter,) simple unity.’

Compare the cow Nandini in the Raghu Vansa of our author, II, 63—66, &c, &c.

334 The Birth of Uma— [Juny,

While gems thus unnumber’d of bountiful Earth

Encompass this favourite child from his birth,

* Ev’n hoary dull frost, on his lofty brow seen,

Takes nought from his bliss or his glory, I ween:

* One fault may well merge in a flood of such praise,

* Unmark’d, as one spot in the gentle Moon’s rays.

For borne on his craigs, lo what rivals the grace

* Of fairy light steps that ethereal nymphs trace,

* The glitt’ring bright rock, all in broken streaks seen

As belts of the shifting cloud gather between ;

* And evermore wearing, from morn to still night,

The rich blended hues of the ev’ning twilight.

eS ES ES SS SS ES

St. 3. Ev’n hoary dull frost, &c.—This idea of frost, as a mere blemish in the

otherwise surpassing glory of the mountain, is characteristic of Hindu sentiment.

Thus in a curious dialogue called Vishva-gunddarsana, written by an ingenious

poet of the Deccan, named Venkatich4ari, describing the travels of two Gandharvas

or celestial songsters over the world, one of whom praises, the other censures, every

thing,—the praise of Badarika, the holy retreat of the sage Vyasa on Himalaya, by

the one, is reckoned to be sufficiently censured by the other urging the frost,

which he declares sufficient to prevent, if not destroy the merit of every pious

exercise performed there.

aes waif fared fea AGAMA AA STATA:

SMATST TAAL TTT: | aaaqareara aa ferae t

Ibid. As one spot in the gentle moon’s rays.—eeay facut Aare: The propriety

of this expression is disputed by some Pandits, on the ground of the spot belonging

not to the rays but to the dody of the moon. Of this the reader may judge accord-

ing to his taste.

St. 4. The glitt’ring bright rock.—The word UTA or mineral, which I

have translated rock, is explained by Bharata-mallica to mean here simply mica

— 1 1 Ss ~

or red chalk—by Mallinatha, a little more generally (area: farscaitareat

ae aaa wa ar ), but still restricting the mineral or rocky strata here

described to those of a red colour. Whence arises this determination of the Pan-

dit commentators to give this special import to a word of general signification, —

when the most various colouring which the word admits would both accord better

with the actual appearance of the monntain, and add more grace to the author’s

description,—it is not easy to point out. I shouldbe disposed to ascribe it to the

comparison of evening twilight in this stanza, and the scholiasts’ passion for

systematizing the loci communes of poetry, evinced in making the evening hue

exclusively red :—did I not observe the same limited interpretation elsewhere,

as in y. 104 of the Mégha Duta of our poet—where their interpretation of

1833.} A Legend of Himalaya—by Caliddsa. 335

* His tow’ring peaks, glowing with nearer sun’s heat,

Are climb’d by the holiest devotees’ feet ;

Who worshipping first the huge shades, downward thrown

From clouds thickly circling the high mountain-zone,

Thence higher advancing, are chill’d in its rain

Of drenching white mist, ere the summit they gain.

His snows soon effacing the marks, gory red,

Where lions, fierce slayers of elephants, tread ;—

SS A a

BVaCIaAT: or colowrs of the mountain rock, to be merely red, (notwithstanding the

plural) is suspected by Mr. Wilson to be owing to the possible predominance of

ammonite or copper ore in some of the strata of the Himdlaya. I cannot however

persuade myself that either in the present passage, or in that of the Cloud Messen-

ger, Caliddsa should have entertained the limited sense ascribed to him by his com-

mentators,—since he has himself in another part of that poem (St. 60, 61, vv. 403

—410 of Wilson’s translation) described expressly in powerful images, though still

below the truth of nature, the mingled white, blue, grey, and black, of the rocky

strata of the same stupendous mountain to which his Yaxa hero was there exiled.

The reader may, if he will, compare our ancient poet’s description in these several

places with what Mr. Fraser records in his Journal of a Tour to the Himalaya

mountains (pp. 255, 317, 344, &c. &c. of the 4to. edition of 1820), respecting the

intermixture of every diversity of hue, reflected from the variously stratified peaks.

On every account, therefore, I prefer the most general meaning of the dhdtumatta

here.

Ibid. And evermore wearing, &c.—The meaning of these two last lines is con-

veyed by Cdlidésa in as many words, Akéla-sandhydm iva, literally ‘like an even-

ing-twilight out of its time :’” but the immediately understood import of the short

Sanscrit compound could scarcely be evolved intelligibly in a less compass of

English words, than in the metrical paraphrase I have given.

St.5, 6. My Malayalim MS. transposes these two stanzas : but the order of all the

Devanagari and Bengali MSS. and commentators, seems here decidedly preferable.

St.5. The holiest devotees.—To the reports brought back by these holy pilgrims,

(fa Sq: or perfect men, as they are here called, when they attain their object,) a large

portion of the strange matters popularly credited and described by our bard as be-

longing to this mountain, may be certainly ascribed : amongst them, the elevation

above the region of frost and snow, of summits glowing with the more ardent heat

of the approximated sun. See the note on St. 16.

St. 6. The mountaineers, &c.—Properly the Kira’tas: for the name, though

often used to denote merely a mountain woodsman and hunter, was originally the

name of a tribe or nationon the N. W. of the Indian mountains, viz. the Kirrhade

(Krd60da) of Ptolemy, or as it has been sometimes read Kirrhodeeis. In the In-

stitutes of Manu (x. 43, 44,) these are enumerated along with some tribes of an

undoubtedly Hindu origin, and others as undoubtedly foreign, (the Cambojas, the

336 The Birth of Umé— [Juxy,

The mountaineers, skill’d in the dangerous chase,

Can still, though unseen, the destroyer’s path trace ;

The frontal pearls, dropt from his claws on the way,

Point out where the monster has borne his huge prey.

Yavanas or Greeks, the Sace or great Indo-Scythian nation, the Persians, Par-

thians, Chinese, the Darade, and inhabitants of Khasa-giri, or Cashgir, the

Indian Caucasus,) who are said to have fallen to the lowest class from their origi-

nal distinction of Xatriyas or Rajpitas, by neglecting the proper religious rites of

their caste, and ageing, no Brahmans.

HART fararetariga: QTasray:

uae Ta Bla MAUTNAT | ee |

GIWSATSFz(ASl: AAS BTA: WaT:

GIXSl GH aTSran: facrat Star: GAT: | ee |

The historical drama Mudra-Rdxasa enumerates the Kirdtas together with

the Sace, the Macedonian Greeks, the Cambojas, the Persians, and Bactrians,

as having inundated from the N. W. frontier, under the conduct of Chdnakya,

Chandra-gupta’s able and wily minister, the ancient capital of the Nanda kings ;

aa gaa farcrara TTT Taree Hehe fereroaTafa WATT SR

qaaataatatufatte waaay feaeiead ae: wares RIATT |

Act II. p. 41, ed. Wils. The note of the learned translator (p. 64, of “the 3rd

volume of his Hindu Theatre) here well deserves to be consulted. I would

only add, with reference to two statements in it, that as the name yy Vavan or

ws (Iaoves), which is known to have been the common appellation of the Greeks

throughout western Asia, leaves no doubt of the Yavanas here being the followers

of Alexander the Great,—so there is as little reason for ascribing a vague or uncer-

tain site to the Kiratas or Cirrhade. The most accurate of ancient geographers,

by whom alone the name in this correct form was given to the western world, has

in the 12th chapter of his 6th book, fixed with singular precision the position of

these mountaineers with respect to the other Sogdian tribes, viz. on the eastern

side of the Oxus, not far from its source in the Paropamisian mountains, near

where their range meets that of the Indian Caucasus ; and not far from where

Alexander fixed the site of the last of the cities called by his name, before

he invaded India. Thus the Kiratas are north of the Bactrian tribes, and due west

of the Sacz, in the parallel of about 37° N. agreeably to what might be inferred from

the Indian history preserved in the Mudra-Rdxasa. [The existence of a country

called Cirrhadia, east of the Delta of the Ganges, the modern kingdom of Arracan,

might lead to some confusion: but in the position of the ¢rive of Cirrhade by

Ptolemy, there is no ambiguity : and his error in making the latitude of this and

the circumjacent places too far north by about 4° is no impeachment of the accuracy

of his redative description, obtained from the routes of the mercantile travellers of his

day.] I will only add, that these same Kiratas seem laid down under the name of

CiraBz Inp1 along the Imaus range towards the north, in that curious monu-

ment of antiquity, the Peutingerian Map (Sect. vii., a Paralocis (quae ?)

Scythis usque ad finem Asie.]

1833.) A Legend of Himalaya—by Calidasa. 337

On him grow the birches, all rough with flak’d bark,

Which wanton wild elephants eagerly mark,

Their huge sweating fronts rubbing o’er it amain,

Till all its peel’d folds bear the ruddy deep stain :

That bark which hereafter, in paper’s smooth leaves,

From min’ral red ink the trac’d letter receives ;

Impassion’d warm lines, haply, destin’d to bear,

By Love’s god indited, to deified fair,

St.6, 7. The frontal pearls, &c. &c.—The European reader has no need

to be assured that the Hare or pearl, supposed here, and in numberless other

Hind writings to lie under the kumbha or frontal bone of the elephant, is a

mere fabulous non-entity. The confidence with which book-learned Pandits

will, however, assert its reality, is as surprising as it is characteristic: though

some few, who have learned a little regard for experiment as a guide to truth, are

cautious enough to confine its existence to the three former ages : thus making the

frontal pearl (like the horse and ox sacrifice, perfect abandonment of the world,

the presentation of flesh to deceased ancestors, and the levirate law), a thing too

precious for the present degenerate Kali-Yuga or iron age of the world.

The same fabulous character is by no means so apparent in the fragrant unctu-

ous red ichor mentioned in St. 7, as secreted in the elephant’s forehead, and ex-

uding during the rutting season. This persuasion, which not only pervades the li-.

terature of the Hindds, but has been communicated by them to inquirers of other

nations, is however generally condemned by naturalists as a vulgar error; the

most diligent observers having failed to discover anything beyond common perspi-

ration. (See Encycl. Metrop. Art. ELEPHANT: where is also stated a singular

current belief, connected with this, of some natives of Western India.) Of the

antiquity of this belief we have a singular vestige in Strabo’s description of India,

(lib. xv. vol. 6, p. 91, ed. Siebenkees) where he states that the male elephant at that

season grows furious, and ‘emits a sort of fat through a pore or vent which he has

near the temples :”’ the opening of the same pore indicating the corresponding sea-

son of the female. [kalpos Péor: 7G wey Up pet, émevddv otkor KaTexyTat Kal aypialyy.

téte 5h Kad Alrous Ti Bid THs dvarvoys avinow hy exer Tapau Tors KpdTapous. Tals

de Ondcias Stay 6 ats mépos otros avewyws Tuyxavn.] This information was pro-

bably delivered by the Brabmans of Chandragupta’s court at Pataliputra to Seleu-

cus’s ambassador Megasthenes, who is Strabo’s great authority on Indian affairs :

for Aristotle, who wrote shortly before that communication with India, and has em-

bodied all the information of his time, (refuting whatever he thought fabulous, )in his

numerous books on Animals, has recorded no such particular as this of the elephant.

Ibid. The Wi Bhirja or Mountain Birch, (Betala Bhojapatra of Wallich,) is

surrounded, like the birch tree of Europe, with a bark consisting of several layers,

capable of being peeled off in ample flakes, and liable to become rough from the con-

stant unequal peeling of its folds, though the texture of each layer or cuticle in itself

is remarkably smooth : hence it is described in St. 57 of this canto as WUATAL or

pleasant to the touch, and thus a fit clothing for Siva’s attendant gods. Though

om te ,

338 The Birth of Uma— [Juny,

He, filling the hollows of all his brave trees

Of rattling bamboo with a whistling wild breeze,

That sounds from the covert of every deep den,

And echoes through all, over forest and glen,—

Might seem to be piping and leading along

Heaven’s quire of musicians, commencing their song.

His beauteous tall pines, when the elephants heal

a A ES

of corresponding with them, the bark is still extensively employed, as it was in

Caliddsa’s time, for the fabrication of a very common kind of paper among the

Hindus, as well as for the less poetical purpose of supplying what our countrymen

in India call the snakes of their hookas. A fuller description of this tree may

be seen in Dr. Wallich’s very valuable work, Plante Asiatic Rariores: to whom

I am also indebted for a sigut of a frustum of its trunk brought by him from Nipal,

and illustrating the above statement.

The use of this birch paper in bearing erotic messages to the fair Vidyadhards

of Indra’s heaven, which Calidasa thus oddly contrasts with the rough embrace of

the wanton elephants, (the two states of the bark being singularly mixed together in

the Sanscrit sentence) is curiously illustrated by the converse application, exhi-

bited by our poet himself in his beautiful drama of Vitrama and Urvast, or the

“ Hero and the Nymph :”’ where the celestial nymph Urvasi uses a leaf of the birch

tree to convey her passion to a mortal prince. The leaf plucked in the forest, and

hastily inscribed with a few elegant Pracrit lines, is dropped by the divine fair one

in sight of the king’s confident, who bears it to his master. (Act. II, p. 33 of the

Sanscrit edition, p. 86 of Wilson’s translation.)

St. 8. He filling the hollows, &c.—The office ascribed to the sylvan and moun-

tain deity Pan in the Homeric hymn to that god, and in Ovid’s Metamorphoses,

i. v. 707, of giving the first notions of music to mankind by blowing through reeds

with the winds of heaven, and even instructing the immortals in the same art, (and

as ‘the Orphic hymn pursues the idea, thussetting an example of the harmony of the

heavens,—

"EAOE pdkap, okipTntd, Tepidpome, cvvOpovos Spats,

Aiyowedés, Barxeurd, dbirdvOeos, avTpodiarre,

‘Apuoviny xéopmoro KpeKwy prdomalymove moATh.

i.e. as some say, by the gamut of his syrinx answering to the seven planets,) is here

ascribed to the gigantic Him4laya, with all the advantage that the far larger and

more noisy reeds of the Indian forest give to the representation. Our poet has spoken

elsewhere of the natural music of the bamboos, but in a more tranquil strain, and

with no mention of the mountain leader of the band, or of his echoing caverns, in

St. 58 of the Cloud Messenger, and in the Raghu-vansa, 2nd Canto, St. 12...

St. 9. His beauteous tall pines, &c.—The WUE Sarala or Pinus longifolia, some-"

times called the Cheer, which is the species of pine here mentioned, is of the most

1833.] A Legend of Himdlaya—by Caliddasa. 339

Athwart their big foreheads,—a liquor distil

Of milky white hue o’er each fir-covered hill :

Whose well diffus’d fragrance makes every dark height

And table-land, pregnant with od’rous delight.

10.

. All night on his herbs as innocuous fires blaze,

The caves’ inmost chambers are pierc’d by their rays :

Not trimm’d with oil they,—yet to spirits that rove

In forests, enamour’d, the true lamps of love.

frequent occurrence in Sanscrit poetry. It grows in abundance, as I am assured by

my learned friend Dr. Wallich, in Nipal, and all the mountainous regions on the

northern frontier, and contains much resinous matter, of a very fine and aromatic

kind ; which might not unreasonably be supposed to flow abundantly from any

wound or incision made in the tree: but as to the scratching elephants habi-

tually performing that agreeable office, and earths and rocks reflecting the fra-

grance thus imparted to them ; this he thinks may well be set down to the imagi-

nation of the poet, or of those whom he is here content to follow. (Of the friction

of the elephants, compare the notes on St. 6 and St. 15.)

St.10. All night on his herbs, &c.—What is here meant by C4liddsa is not,

(as might be at first sight supposed) a spontaneous ignition of herbs. by friction

often issuing in the conflagration of forests,—a common subject of description in

Indian poetry, though little accordant with the circumstances annexed to the fires

in this stanza. It refers to /ambent fires, like those described in Lucan’s mys-

terious Druidical forest near Marseilles, (Pharsalia iii. 420).

—non ardentis fulgere incendia silve—

or those of Argolis in Seneca’s Thyestes, Act, IV. (where though the terms are just

opposite, the meaning is precisely the same)

Tota solet

Micare flamma silva, et excelse trabes

Ardent sine igni—

or like those by which, in the special prodigy manifested in the commission

of the Hebrew legislator at Horeb, (Exod. ii.) the plant “ flames, but is not

consumed.”’ The authority given by the two commentators whom I have consulted

on this poem, for enumerating this among phenomena of constant occurrence, is

simply the Agama or Tantra, the Indian Cabbala, venerated scarcely less than

the Nigama or Vedas themselves, by the votaries of Siva and of his

female energies or Sactis. The passage thus cited from the Agama (without

further particularity of reference) is given by Mallin4tha as follows: Ti @laTq

ate ast faura cface arfa i.e. The sun when he has deposited his rays for

the night with the deciduous herbs, goes tohis setting.’”? And thence a friendly

acquaintance, endeared by occasional absences, is established between the herbs

and the rays to which they are nightly attached, of which poetical fable our

author makes a very elegant use in the 30th stanza of this book.

340 The Birth of Uma— (Joxy, .

11.

His steep defiles climbing, with petrified snows

Heap’d up, shooting aches through the strain’d heels and toes,—

The dames of Heaven’s horse-headed quire, in array,

To high upper regions pursue their slow way:

nee eee eee eee ee een

Were it an ancient author of the western world who thus enumerated the cave-

illuminating herbs among the wonders of Himalaya,—we should have little hesita-

tion in referring his story to the phenomenon of the fire-fly, presenting to the eye of

an unobservant stranger the appearance of sparks inherent in the trees or shrubs

on which those insects play. But this origin can scarcely be ascribed with any

probability to the existence of such a belief among the Hindus, to whom every thing

regarding the @qra or fire-fly is most familiar : and its mention in this manner

can only be accounted for by the disposition which characterizes them beyond all

other people, not only to admit the customary occurrence of prodigies, (as more

enlightened nations have been prone to do,) but to cease to consider them as such,

and to class them among the most familiar objects of their daily experience.

I should add, however, that this particular belief, founded wholly on the Tan-

tras, is one not commonly adduced in Hindu poetry : except in these instances of

Calid4sa’s present work, and one in the Sisupdla-badha of the poet Magha,

I am not aware of its occurrence, nor do I think it has attracted the notice of any

European scholar. The jydtismati or luminous plant, which as was observed in

St. 2, is mentioned by some as pre-eminent among the herbs divinely given to Hi-

mAlaya, is one of the most common of Indian plants, the heart-pea (so called from

the shape of its fruit), or halicacabum cardiospermum: and notwithstanding its

name in Sanscrit, together with 18 others of which several are equally splendid in

import, found in the Amara Césha and other vocabularies, it has no properly

luminous or blazing quality ascribed to it by any of those respectable authorities.

And if we inquire concerning the most ‘‘sparkling”’ of Himalaya’s medicinal herbs

according to the scholiast on St. 2, I mean the magic Visalya-arant, which was

sought to restore life to the slain brother of Rama himself, we find in the Lanca-

kanda, § 80, the monkey warrior Suséna, in his minute directions given to his

chief Hanuman, (that he might recover it from the millions of Gandharvas, Raxasas,

and others who jealously watched it,)—describing indeed its yellow leaves, green

fruit, its red and golden flowers, &c.,—but not aword of any WTA or tluminat-

ang property.

Ibid. To spirits that rove, &c.—The English word spirit will rather be un-

derstood of a superhuman being, than of the spirit of a man: and indeed I am

rather anxious for an interpretation which European taste requires, in order to give

dignity to a circumstance like this, when introduced in connexion with the mysteri-

ous and supernatural fires that light up the caverns of HimAlaya. The truth,

however, must be told in the note, whether such management in the text be excus-

able or not: viz. that the aaa: or “ forest-rovers’’ here mentioned were

doubtless, in the mind of CAlid4sa as well as of his Indian commentators, mere men ;

1, €. facraey: the Cirrhadz and other troglodytes of these mountains.

St. 11. Heaven’s horse-headed quire.—Amongst the bizarreries of Hindu mytholo-

gy, is that of giving the heads of horses to the heavenly musicians, who are thence

1833.) A Legend of Himdlaya—by Cualiddsa. 341

With loins sorely wearied, and labouring breasts,

The zealous firm band yet desists not, nor rests.

12.

He, King of Hills, keeps from the Sun’s killing gaze,

Close hid in his caverns’ impervious deep maze,

The Genius of Darkness :— who owl-like, below, ”

There broods unperturbed and safe from his foe.

When th’ humble man truly such refuge can find,

The high-headed patrons must be passing kind.

called, from the surprise naturally excited by their appearance (in the same

manner as the Manna that fell in the wilderness received its interrogatory name)

faractt: or farragr: as if we should say in English What-men! The place of

these Kinnaras in the creation is laid down by Manu l.v.39. See also Moor,

Ward, &c. i

St. 12. Whether CAlidisa in the last two lines of this curious stanza intende

a compliment to patrons, and particularly to the great monarch VIcRAMADITYA,

whose splendid protection of genius and merit, (perhaps indigent or oppressed

by envy) he himself so largely shared, atan era preceding by a very few years that

of the Roman Aucustvus,—or whether it is to be taken as an oblique satire on

the wafers: or ‘“‘ high-headed” patrons of humble men generally, it is not possi-

ble in the dearth of all properly historical and biographical materials, to deter-

mine with any probability. But however this may be, the word qam@ mamat-

vam is here undoubtedly to be taken in a simply good sense for partial or friendly

regard. Though properly meaning regard to a thing as my own, agreeably to its de-

rivation from the genitive mama (quasi Latiné MEITATEM diceres, Grace EMOTHTA)

—and therefore according to Hind theological principles requiring, equally with the

ASAI: ahankdra derived from the nominative of the same pronoun (viz. roETQ,

or “le MOI’ of Marmontel, &c.) tobe extirpated from the breast of the perfectly

wise man, who is to see all things in God, and to beas free from partial attachment

of any kindas from gross selfishness,—yet in all but Vedantic writings, the former

word is as generally used in an amiable sense, as the latter is in the reverse. Even

the Dévi-madhdtmyam of the Marcandéya Purana, intended mainly to shew how

the Vaisya Sam4dhi at length attained eternal beatitude. by expelling both these

feelings from his bosom,—represents the mamatvam or mamatd, of which he

required to be cured, as one of the kindliest of human sentiments,—viz. a fond

attachment to, and regret for the loss of, a wife and children, who had ungrate-

fully used and deserted him. But perhaps a more distinct idea of the application

of this word and of its origin may be obtained from the following very homely dis

tich, which I find in the metaphysical play Prabédha-Chandrédaya, or Rise of the

Moon of Intellect—(a drama intended to teach the rigid stoical doctrine above

alluded to,) Act 5, Scene 2.

MACS aA WSS AAA WEARS

FAITE AAMT Ky aafay sy aaa

i. e. “* Such kind and partial regret (mamatd) as is felt for a domestic fowl devoured.

by the cat, we feel not for a mere sparrow so killed, still less for a mouse.”

342 The Birth of Uma— (Juny,

13.

For him the large Yaks in his cold plains that bide

Whisk here and there, playful, their tails’ bushy pride.

And evermore flapping those fans of long hair

Which borrow’d moon-beams have made splendid and fair,—

Proclaim at each stroke, (what our flapping men sing)

His title of honour ‘‘ The dread Mountain-King !”’

14.

On him, when their conscious self-stripping ev’n shames

The frolicsome spirits of Heaven’s piping dames,

To please them, the clouds have a thick curtain made,

Which o’er the cave’s mouth drops its shelt’ring broad shade.

St. 13. Of the Yk or Bos grunniens, a description may be found in Hamilton’s

Hindustan, vol. ii. p. 569, in the midst of the description of Thibet,—or in any

book of Natural History written subsequently to Turner’s Embassy to that country.

The conceit contained in these lines of C4lidasa, is one which I fear will scarcely ap-

prove itself to the taste of European readers : and can only be understood by explain-

ing 1. that of the hairy tail of this animal, called 3A Chamar, the Hindds make

the flappers commonly used for brushing away fliesand musquitoes, which are thence

called in Sanscrit qrav or @yazyt but in the common Hindvi language ict

ie. US = Sg or chowrie : and 2. that the waving of such a chowrie set in a golden

cry ce

handle over the head of a Prince or over the image of a God, is accompanied

with the proclamation of his name and titles, and reckoned among the constant

emblems or insignia of royalty. [A most striking example of the importance

attached to this may be seen in Col. Tod’s Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan,

p. 265, where an apparition of the sanguinary goddess of Chittore, (a form of our

Parvati) demands twelve regal victims as the price of her continued protection of

the city from the Tatar invaders of the close of the 13th century. ‘‘ On each day

enthrone a prince: let the kirnia, the chehtra, and the ehdmra proclaim his sove-

reignty, and for three days let his decrees be supreme : on the fourth let him meet

his foe and his fate. Thenonly mayI remain.’ The terrible history that followed

the promulgation of this supernatural announcement must be fresh in the mind of

every reader of that deeply interesting work.] Hence the fancy of the poet: that

the grunting ox, frisking in his natural state on the high table-land of Thibet and

Nip4l, anticipates his fine tail’s future destiny, and flaps it to proclaim the ho-

nours of his wild liege lord ‘“‘ Himalaya, King of mountains.’’

St. 14. The poet here returns to the female Kinnaras or heavenly musicians,

whom he left in St. 11, pursuing their laborious way to the upper regions, and

glad to disengage themselves of any clothing that would impede their progress.

He brings them tothe mountain-caverns, ever the favourite residence of heathen dei-

ties, of female deities especially ;—in the words of old Hesiod, (Theogon. y. 129.)

Ocav xapievtas évatAous

Nupoéwy at vaiovow av’ ovpea BnoonevTa.

The covering dropped from the clouds to hide them from view, is vindicated

from every unnatural exaggeration by the following passage in p. 348 of Fraser’s

1833.] A Legend of Himalaya—by Calidasa. 343

15.

His wind,—whether bearing along the chill spray

Far scatter’d from where, on its snowy white way,

Down dizzy heights plunging, great Ganges’ young river

Full darts its precipitous torrent for ever,—

Or shaking the fragrance of tall cedar trees,—

Or spreading the peacocks’ tails out to the breeze,—

Is hail’d in its cold, sweet, or languid career,

By tir’d mountain-hunters that chase the swift deer.

Tour to Himalaya. “‘ We had projected the ascent of a snowy peak directly behind

Seran ; but on the day intended, the clouds fell down to the foot of the hills, enve-

loping all in the most complete and impenetrable darkness. It was not like a

common mist: it was really a sinking of the clouds from the rarefaction of the

atmosphere (ill they quite shrouded us.”

St. 15. Shaking the fragrance of tall cEDAR trees.—Sol render the word Sage

déva-d4ru, which is the Pinus Deodaru of Dr. Roxburgh, and which, as Dr.’

Wallich informs me, is very nearly allied to the cedar of Lebanon so celebrated in

Western Asia. It abounds in the high regions of Nipal and westward, but never.

at a less elevation than 10,000 feet above the sea: its wood is hard and durable,

retaining a lasting fragrance: the turpentine extracted from it, far exceeding

other kinds in scent. A full account of the tree, (though not a good drawing)

is given by Mr. Lambert in his splendid work on Pines.

Célid4sa in his other great mythological poem the Raghu-vansa, Canto ii. St. 36

and seq., tells a wonderful history of one of these Dévadaru cedars that was adopt-

ed by our goddess Parvati, and nourished as her own daughter: and who, when

lacerated by the forehead-rubbing elephants (in the manner described here, St.

7and 8,) had a guard placed over her by Siva at the instance of his beloved Parva-

ti, im the person of his servant Kumbhdédhara, turned for that special purpose into

a fierce lion. [The whole however turns out at the end, to be but a magic

scene got up by Nandini the sage cow of Vasistha, in order to try King Dilipa’s

fidelity and devotion to her. See note on St. 23.]

Ibid. Is haii’d, &c.—In repeating here the triple character of the light breezes

of Himalaya, I follow the ideas of the Indian commentators. The “ tir’d moun-

tain-hunters’’ are the same Kirdtas whom we had before in St. 6. The

salutation of the refreshing breeze after a weary chase, as implied in the word

Blaaa, may remind us of the invocation under the same circumstances of the

hunter Cephalus, (so fatal to his jealous. wife Procris. Metamorph. vii. 837).

Egredior, silvasque peto : victorque per herbas

AURA, VENI, dixi, nostrogue medere labori.

And I should remark, that it is the samekind of worshipful welcome and nothing:

further, that is intended by the kindred word fa%q in St. 5—i.e. the holy de-

votees first ‘‘ hailing’ (not religiously adoring) and willingly seeking for shelter the

huge shades of the mountain clouds ; which, higher up, turn to chilling rain and

mnist.

344 The Birth of Umé— [Juny,

16.

On his crowning lake, as the lotus-flowers grow,

The seven blessed Risuis pluck some ere they blow,

T’adorn the fifth heav’n : while the Sov’reign of day,

As circling beneath, he with upward strong ray

Peers o’er the calm waters, the rest ripes apace,

And opes to full bloom their enchanting soft grace.

St. 16. On his crowning lake.—The word tq or Jake occurring only as a member

of the compound epithet of the lotus flowers, might be translated with equal gram-

matical correctness, Jakes in the plural. If a single lake only be intended, which

the epithet sq or crowning and other circumstances, seem to make by far the most

probable interpretation, it can scarcely be any other than that called in modern

Hindvi language Mansarour, from the Sanscrit qppaHatyaT i.e. the great lake

MAnasa, situated in the centre of Him4laya, 31° N. 81° E.in an oblong basin of 15

miles by 11, inclosed by the principal range to the south, part of the Kailasa range

peculiarly sacred to Siva on the east, and other high mountains and table-land on

the north and west: a lake frequented as a place of pre-eminent sanctity by Hin-~

du pilgrims,—but before Mr. Moorcroft’s visit scarcely known to Europeans. If

however, with Mallinatha,we suppose several high-mountain lakes to be here meant,

we may join with the Manasa the lake of Ravana westward of it, whence issues the

great Satadru or Sutlej river, and others: particularly such as Hindu imagination or

the report of probably mendacious pilgrims has fixed on the inaccessible summit of

the high peak Bunder-pooch, (TAT TR Vanarapuch’ ha, the tail of the Monkey

Hanuman.) See Asiatic Researches, vol. xiii. pp. 189, 190. What the poet however

says here, or seems to say, concerning the lake Manasa,—he has elsewhere said of

the Ganges, which had been commonly, but erroneously supposed to spring from it.

For thus says Rama to Sita in the Raghu-vansa, Canto xiii. St. 51, when describing

the mystic forest of the sage Atri.

garfaaary aaraaiat | yaaa fearagar

iy ~ ~ 5

Vafaeargaearal faarad ayaqaataatat T

“Thither, for the due ablution of sages whose wealth is austerity, has Anusfy4

(the wife of Atri) turned the course of Ganges flowing through the three worlds,

the diadem of the three-eyed Siva, her whose golden lotus-flowers are plucked by the

hands of the seven Rishis.’’

But the intention of Calid4sa in this stanza, as his commentators truly say, is to

close his description of Him4laya by a splendid instance of afawafa or Ayper-

bole, such a one as, in the words of the rhetorical poet Dandi whom they quote,

is wrastafaataen i 1. e. transcending the limits of the worlds.

—vivida vis animi pervicit et extra

Pervasit longe flammantia menia mundi.

For not only does he state the highest summits, to rise above the planetary sphere,

(to use the terms of the Hindu and the Ptolemaic astronomy,) so that the Sun can

1833.] A Legend of Himélaya—by Céliddsa. 345

AW:

Tn him, then, the Father of Heav’n and of Earth

Beholding a nature which freely gave birth

EE SE

only look upwards at their crowning lake,—but above the yet higher sphere

of the fixed stars,—even to the highest visible celestial sphere occupied by the seven

Rishis, (Marichi, Atri, Angiras, Pulastya, Pulaha, Kratu and Vasistha,)—whose

stations in the pre-eminently favoured seven stars of the Great Bear, are thence ima-

gined by the Hindas, in despite of long astronomical observation, to retain ever the

same position with respect to the poles of the earth, unaffected by the precession

of the equinoxes, that changes the declination as well as the longitude and right

ascension of all inferior stars. Thus the Jéka or world to which these yet unblown

flowers are transferred by the hands of the blessed Rishis is removed by two or

three steps above that of Indra, Surya, and the other celestial gods, and is only

below the seventh Jéka, the abode of Brahma : which makes it the fifth when the

earth is not included. See Wilson’s Dictionary, Art. @Ta.

We need not wonder therefore that in the general destruction of the three

lower worlds, the earth, the region of Munis, and the solar heaven, by a flood at

the close of the Manvantara,—in which the pious King Vaivasvata alone was

preserved in an ark, accompanied by the sever. Rishis,—the highest peak of

Him4laya should yet appear above these waters: and that the Rishis should be

commanded by the Divine Preserver (in the shape of a fish), to fasten the ship’s

cable to this peak, (the Hinda Ararat,) ‘thence called,’’ says Vyasa, “‘ Naubaudha-

nam ‘or the ship-binding even to this day.’ For so we read inthe Aranya-parva or

3rd Book of the Mahabharata, in the episode Matsydpakhydnam.

AMANA AMAA SIA Wai! |

=afat feaaa: Ws aa wate alfat 11 voll

bl al a4 wets faNTa GH |

area qe Jal we featareat | ve

az alaare ara We feaae: ue |

wraaaify araa afefe wcaga || ve |

Though M. Bopp, in his ingenious preface to the German translation of this

episode (published in 12mo. under the title of Die Stindflut, at Berlin, in 1829,)

labours to distinguish this simpler account of the flood from that translated by Sir

W. Jones, in As. Res. vol. i, No. ix. from the more recent Bhagavat-Purana, the

word wjahTay in the 28th verse of the former (which cannot be properly trans-

lated geschopfe or leute, “‘ creatures or men’’—instead of welten or “ worlds’),

proves this deluge at least to be no less universal than that ascribed by the Bhagavat

to the close of the Manvantara: nor does this mention of the peak of Himalaya

above the waters (which is not in the Bhagavat) at all oblige us to suppose a

more limited flood to be intended by the older writer.

Ibid. And opes, &c.—The causal verb yapyafa in this stanza is explained

by the Scholiasts faaqafa i. e. “ opens to full bloom.” This meaning does

not occur in vocabularies : and I therefore mention it here. (Compare St. 32),

846 The Birth of Umé— [Juny,

To each sev’ral limb of the sacred oblation,

And adequate strength to the world’s sustentation,—

Decreed of himself, when to all his great mind

Their portion of dues sacrificial assign’d,

That lordly HimAnaya ever by right

Should claim sov’reign power o’er each mountainous height.

18.

He therefore, high Mu’ru’s sole worthy compeer,

To keep his proud lineage untainted and clear,—

Did thence to himself, with divine nuptial rite

The noble nymph Mer’nA most wisely unite ;

Whom, sprung from the Pirris’ pure spirit alone,

Ev’n Munts might honour and take for their own.

St. 17. <A nature that freely gave birth

To each sev’ral limb of the sacred oblation.—These words are but the necessary

expansion of a single Sanscrit compound, aavaitaa which begins the stanza.

The limbs (ayifa) alluded to, are the flowers and fruits—the sacred grasses,

kusa, déirva, &c. together with the wood and all other materials required for sacri-

fice, which are so abundantly produced by the mountain.

St. 18. He therefore, high Méru’s sole worthy compeer.—The adjustment of

supremacy between Himalaya the highest of mountains in the world, and the peculiar

glory of India on the one hand—and Mount Méru on the other ; which apart from

fable, should seem to have been the central spot of the Brahmanism that from the

north invaded and subjugated the peninsula, (and which if the testimony of Strabo,

Arrian, Diodorus Siculus, Pliny, Eustathius, and others may be admitted respecting

the Indian tradition of ancient times,—must be placed near Nyssa in the mountains of

Hyreania or Margiana, not far from the S. E. extremity of the Caspian in northern

Khorasan), seems to be rather a difficult point with Hind& mythological writers.

The celebrated mystical episode of the Mahabharata, the Bhagavad-Gita, gives the

same supremacy among mountains to each separately : for where Crishna in the

13th chapter represents himself as identified with the chief of all orders of crea-

tion, as the Bhrigu of Rishis, the Sun of A’dityas, the Sdma-Véda of sacred books,

&c. &c. we find him v. 23, saying, Fa: fwafcuraed “1am the Méru of cragg

mountains,” and in v. 25 egqrazrur fara: “the Himdlaya of hills,”’—giv-

ing, apparently for the purpose of thus honouring Himalaya, a second mention

of mountains which is not allowed to any other order of beings. And we have seen

in our St. 2, how elsewhere in the Mahabharata and the Puranas, a compromise

is made between the most sacred central mountain and his snowy compeer, by

making the former the milker dy whom,—the latter the calf jor whom,—the

choicest treasures of the parent Earth are extracted.

With respect to our present history, we find in the 36th, 37th, and 38th sargas of

the Ist Book of the great Ramayana, called respectively agit: Waals a

and Facrata: i.e. the birth of Gang4, the great deeds of Um4, and the birth

1833.] A Legend of Himdlaya—by Cdlidasa. 347

19:

To this divine pair, as in fond embrace due

To conjugal union, the joyous time flew ;—

The mountain-king’s bride, yet in lovely youth’s bloom,

A new precious burthen conceiv’d in her womb.

20.

And soon she brought forth the hill-queen’s darling pride,

Marnd4ca, who since to old Ocean allied

of Cumara [I. p. 343—359 of Carey and Marshman, or I. 143—147 of Schlegel],

—that this point is in a manner settled by making Méru the father-in-law

of Himalaya, i.e. the father of that very noble nymph Mén4, and through her the

progenitor of Ganga and Uma, the illustrious daughters of Him4laya, as well as of

the god of war Cum4ra or Carticéya, the offspring by one of them of Siva. It

may seem strange that Calidasa, when about to pursue at length, and in a style of

more ambitious ornament, a story that Valmiki has summed up thus briefly,

should have departed so widely as it appears in his facts from an authority held so

sacred. Not only does he here deny by implication Ména’s origin from Méru,

(who is here so distinctly mentioned with reference to Himalaya), by describing

her as sprung from the manas or mental substance of the Dii Manes or paternal

gods, (whose properties and order in the creation may be seen at length in Mana,

Ch. iii. v. 192—201) : but he also in the succeeding stanzas, suppresses every

mention of Ganga or Ganges as the elder sister of his heroine Uma : mentioning

only in that rank of seniority, the comparatively unimportant Main4ca.

Calidasa however has ample authority in the Puranas for his statement. Thus

the Scholiast Mallinatha, (who explains qrqqy aaqy here by agers i.e.

“born from the mere volition’? of the Dii Manes or Pitris)—cites in confirmation

of St. 18, 19, 20,—the following distich from the Brahmanda-Purana—where we

have the same mutual relation of the Pitris, Mén4, Himalaya, and Mainaca laid

down, (without mention of Uma),

aa g WAT aa Far aH wefaz: |

ual fearal Ga: Val Baw SVT |!

and also the following from the Vishna-Purdna, making Mén4 daughter of the Pi-

tris—and assigning to her a highly spiritual and contemplative character (agreeable

to what we read here in St. 22) as well as to her sister H4rini.

Te: TON Bal BH Fa gs lcs |

a Va saris afar area fest 1

St.19. This verse is omitted in my Malayalim manuscript, but its existence in

every other that I have consulted, as well as the internal evidence of its style and

language, bespeak its genuineness,

St. 20. Mainéca surnamed Sunabha, once a mountainous island, is now, since this

act of ‘ Vritra’s foe’’ or Indra [see Mahabharata IV, § 4 entitled Vritra-badha] a

sunken rock in the gulf (or rather strait) of Men4r, that separates Lanc4 or

Ceylon from the Indian continent. He is introduced by VAlmiki as himself telling

the story of this catastrophe : which as it belongs to a part of the R4m4yana

(the 5th book or Suwndara-kdnda, 8th section or sarga) which has not yet

348 The Birth of Uméd— [Juny,

In bands of strict friendship, alone scap’d the blow

Aim’d full at each mountain by Vrirra’s stern foe.

Their wings were all clipt by the Thund’rer’s fierce ire,

But his, the fell bolt left unscath’d and entire.

been published at Serampore or Bonn, may be given entire, with a translation in

correspondiug Anustup measure.

The Monkey chief Hanuman, son of Pavana or Maruta (the Indian Zolus), while

springing over the strait to Lanca, is accosted from below by Mainaca, begging

him to alight, and partake of rest and refreshment from his hospitality. After some

dialogue upon this,—Hanuman at length expresses astonishment at Mainaca’s

condition in these words, and receives the following reply :

AAZAIAVY AAAI |

ee Se ~ e

fa aueasre Mara fraer afe aree

CARA! Wet a Ga: VATA: |

TYAN VAM WaT Wa aH TS |

Ware: YU yg: etwas: |

auf a far: sar aestfaaces: |

ACSI aaa CTI_T HSI: |

wats ewe SVE VATA II

S 5

ad: AS ULI Gaal Aa |

Waifeae sAu aa wa WAT! Il

OAT: Hal THAT Saris |

Tass Vea faa Wate Bea Il

wfaa wawara 4 fait ararcay |

Tale: wae aa foarfacfaa: 1

Hanuma'n,—In Ocean’s boundless waste, o’erspread

With huge sea-monsters crowding nigh,

Why hid’st thou thus thy wave-merg’d head ?

Tell me, sage Mountain, tell me why.

Marna’ca.—Erst, mighty chief, on wings forth flew,

Free through all space, the Mountain bands,

Swift as the bird that bears Vishnu,

Or heaven’s loud blast that scours the lands.

But as they soar’d aloft, strange fears

Did Rishis, gods and men surprise,

Dreading their fall ; and heaven’s King rears

His bolt,—fierce lord of thousand eyes.

Then fell from thousand hills’ sides low

The wings by vivid lightnings cleft.

But me, while yet the bolt-arm’d foe

Drew nigh,—unnerv’d, of hope bereft,—

1833.] A Legend of Himdlaya—by Calidasa. 349

Next Srva’s late consort, pure Sati once nam’d,

Who, towards her lov’d Lord with devotion inflam’d,

ee ee

Thy pitying sire beheld ; then straight

In his strong windy grasp he bore

Down to this briny depth, where fate

Threatens these shelter’d wings no more.

Here what is represented by Calidasa as the friendly act of Ocean, hiding the

mountain under its waters,—is made by Valmiki the act of the God of Wind,

hurrying the winged rock to the protecting depth,—and is therefore the subject

of grateful acknowledgment to the Wind’s son.

This catastrophe, (which may be perhaps paralleled in Northern mythology by

THoR aiming his vengeful hammer at the Giants of the Mountains in mid-air,

as told in the Eddaof Snorro, Fab. 11,) is not unfrequently alluded to in the legends

of the Hindés. Thus in the Kasi-kanda of the Skanda-Purana there is a

soliloquy of the great mountain Vindhya, fullof schemes of envy and ill-will against

Méru, but suddenly recollecting and deploring his impotence to execute them

when deprived of wings ; and bitterly regretting the wanton petulance of some

one of his race of old that had provoked the Thunderer to this act of severe

vengeance.

WH ATAA THRaRay alae |

aadia: war aa faarae fed 1

St. 21. The voluntary burning of Sati, (whose name is here twice repeated

Bat Wat, onceas an epithet “‘pwre’’ or “virtuous,”’ and again as the proper name, )

is among the best known and most constantly repeated tales of Hind& mythology ;

and it is in memory of this that every self-devoted and self-immolating wife obtains

the same sacred name of Sazé, i. e. in another spelling of that very common but

often mis-applied term, is a Suttee. The case of the prototype differs materially,

_ as we may here observe, from the posthumous devotion of her inuumerable imi-

tators : the affront which she thus heroically resented was offered to her undying

lord, Siva, by Daxa, son of Brahma, in omitting his distinguished son-in-law from

an invitation to a grand Sacrificial feast, at which all the other deities were to be

present. The daughter went, though unasked : but finding only a confirmed con-

tinuance of the slight offered to her beloved husband, she threw herself into the

flame and thus spoiled the sacrifice : upon which Siva, who had been comparatively

indifferent to the preceding affront, avenged her death in the terrible form of

Vira-Bhadra,—beheading his father-in-law (who was afterwards resuscitated with

the head of a goat substituted for his own), and dispersing his guests: and the

several places to which the limbs of Sati were dispersed, in his dance of mingled

triumph and lamentation, obtained an equal sanctity, and were honoured with

the same phallic symbol, as were those which received the several mangled remains

of the Egyptian Osiris by the piety of his wife Isis. (Of these places called

Gzwraifa, which are 51 in number, and held in peculiar veneration by the vo-

taries of the Saktis, one distinguished one is at C4li-gh4t in the neighbourhood of

this capital, which received the goddess’s fingers).

350 The Birth of Uma— [Juzy,

Had giv’n her whole body a prey to the fire,

In wrath at affronts from old Daxa her sire,—

A new mother found for her birth to fresh life

In this beauteous Me’NA, the mountain-king’s wife.

The freedom with which the self-disembodied Sati chooses parents for a new

birth to fresh life, (inferior indeed in station to the former one, inasmuch as Pitris,

gods, and Munis, yield in dignity to the ten Brahmddicas, of whom Daxa was one,

i. e. the next after Brahma, and his sacred Triad, )—is all in accordance with the doc-

trine of the Indian metempsychosis, which compares this change to the shifting of

garments. So the Bhagavad-Gita, II. 22.

arsifa steifa war fara aur wate faery sity

aaifa weufa atr sqcfT | sata data aatfa Set i

To which may be compared a statement of similar liberty in Plato’s Phzdrus

(vol. x. p. 326. ed. Bipont.)

Though Sati daughter of Daxa, is the first birth of the goddess Siva, (or wife of

Siva) a name which therefore equally designates Sati and Parvati or Uma,—we are

not to consider this as the first emanation of the all-powerful energy so personified.

As Maha-Maya, or Prakriti, or Ambica, the Great Mother, the principle of all

nature, and variable or transitory existence,—she is Dévi or the Goddess by way of

eminence, and holds a place in Hindt theology coeval with, and in some sort superior

to, the Triad itself, Brahma, Vishnu, Siva,—the triple form which the before quies-

cent and inactive deity (the neuter brahma or numen) assumed respectively for the

Production, Support, and Destruction of the world. This characteristic feature of

Gentile theology is detailed by Marcandéya, in that singular episode called the Dévi

Mahatmyam, or exploits of this wondrous goddess—where, in the first chapter, she

is described by the Rishi Médhas as lulling Vishnu the preserver into a deep sleep,

by which the world’s creator, Brahm4, is threatened with destruction: who accord~

ingly invokes the goddess as fas3yayzt, or lady of the universe, and superior to

himself, Vishnu and Siva,—beseeching her, that she would leave his preserver to

awake and destroy the invading demons. In the next chapter we have the same

goddess springing into more visible existence from the united splendours and

energies of all the celestial deities, when expelled from heaven by the demon

Mahisha,—on which occasion Himalaya among the rest presented her with jewels

and with her attendant lion: thus armed as the terrible Durg4, she destroys Ma-

hisha, and receives the homage of all the immortals. Her incarnation in the

beautiful form of Gauri, Siva, or Parvati the nymph of Him4laya (from which she

emerges in another form, to encounter the demons Sumbha and Nisumbha), is said

in the 4th and Sth chapters, to be subsequent to this, as well as several other

more terrible incarnations, which she specifies herself, (after her exploits as Cali

and concentrator of the energies of all the gods,) in the 11th chapter. But it

is remarkable that in neither place where the birth of Parvati is mentioned in

that book, (IV. 33—35, and V. 40—43) is any allusion made to her preceding

birth from Daxa as Sati : and the same omission is equally observable in the

chapters respecting Uma in the lst Book of the Ramayana.

1833.] A Legend of Himalaya—by Caliddsa. 351

22.

Of her, then immers’d in devotion’s thoughts deep,

Begot by the monarch of ev’ry high steep,—

Did Stva’s lost love once again upon earth

Derive from new parents a fortunate birth.

Ev’n thus, in the womb of Morality pure,

’*Midst earth’s turbid toil still unshaken and sure,

By strong Perseverance’s virtue, I wot,

The infant Prosperity’s ever begot.

23.

For blest was that birth-day,—its sky beaming fair ;

No cloud of earth’s dust ever soil’d its pure air :

Loud conchs’ swelling blast, follow’d close by sweet flowers

Rain’d down from glad skies, usher’d in its gay hours :

And moving or fix’d, ev’ry bodily thing

Partook the loud joy of the great mountain-king.

ee ET A

St. 22. Thecomparison of sensible to intellectual objects, though very rarely (and

as some opponents of the Ossianic poems contend, never) occurring in the poetry

of the rude and heroic ages of the world, is not uncommon in that of a more cul-

tivated and reflecting state of society ; and in a people so metaphysical in the cast of

their minds as the Hinda@s might be expected more frequently than in others,

A very curious instance of this inverted species of simile occurs in our author’s

Raghu-vansa, Canto xiii. St. 60—where the subject matter of comparison is the

plucking of the lotus flowers from the parent lake of the Sarya river by the hands

of the female Yaxa deities (resembling what was described in St. 16 of this book)

—and where this sensible object is illustrated by one which can only be under-

stood by those who have entered into the intricacies of the Sankhya metaphysical

philosophy. The latter half of this stanza is another remarkable instance of the

same kind of comparison, as it is also of Indian allegory. Nuri (fem.) or morality,

might more exactly, as to etymology, and almost equally well as to meaning, be

rendered conduct. Ursdéua (masc.), which in the original as well as in the trans-

lation, is linked with the word guna, quality or virtue,—means strenuous and per-

severing exertion. SAMPaAT (fem.) is wealth, affluence or prosperity.

St. 23. The falling of a shower of flowers from heaven is a token of the pleasure

and approbation of the celestial gods. Thus, in the Raghu-vansa of our author,

II. 60, when the pious king Dilipa offered to devote his own life instead of that of

the cow Nandini to Siva’s lion before mentioned that guarded the sacred cedar of

P4rvati,—and his offer was accepted by the hungry wild beast,—his deliverance

from expected death, and the breaking of the spell by the immortals that applauded

his fidelity, was preceded by that sign.

afaeau wreafey: TaTaTa GATSHAAMNTL Fares:

sama: fief | quia frgraceaea |!

352 The Birth of Uma— [Juy,

24.

And gloriously well, with a daughter so bright

As seem’d a new orb of pure orient light,

Did she, the fair mother, herself doubly shine :

So glows with fresh splendours Vipu’ra’s fam’d mine ;

When, cleft by electric new clouds’ starting sound,

Its thunder-struck jewels dart out from their ground.

“At this instant, over the protector of his subjects’? (aouéva Aady in Sanscrit)

‘as with face averted, he expected the dreadful spring of the lion—a shower of

flowers fell, sent forth from the hands of the celestial Vidyddharas.”’ [This appro-

bation ended in the sacred cow permitting herself to be milked by the king in a

leafy pail of that which he most desired,—the gift of offspring to perpetuate the race

of Raghd, from which the great Rama was to spring. Compare St. 2, supra.]

Ibid. The mountain-king isnot mentioned in the original of this stanza. But the

Sthavaras or fied beings peculiarly denoting mountains, their sympathy with their

king’s joy seemed a proper addition to the mention of their own.

St. 24. Did she, the fair mother. Some copies, and those not uncommon in

Bengal and Hindustan, instead of afaqy or mother, have yfray the earth : thus

instead of the lovely Ména, making the universal mother Earth to shine by so

beautiful an occupant. A meaning which beside being insipid in itself, utterly

destroys the spirit of the comparison that follows. The commentaries of Malli-

natha and Bharata-Mallica prove that they both read Savitri.

Ibid. Vivu'RA, the Sanscrit for “‘ remote,’’ is also the proper name of a mountain

said to produce the Japis Jazuli, which is thence called fgeqsy and q a.

The curious native treatise on various subjects of natural history, called Calpa-

yukti,—opens its account of the partxa or test of this precious stone, by the

following extraordinary lines, which fully illustrate the meaning of Calidasa here,

PUMA G WARN | AEAyTATAATA

faseqeifetasry aara | HeTficTfes ests |

ufast faacy fatuaye na: |

ATMIGAMAT FT AWTHYAC § UTA II

AQ ACIHAAAT F ioe

waaatCaT aa araaafayerm: |

Tea STATA A AIAST

wreqaaraccarfaa STEM:

agacanvar fafauaarera

awd afasfraestaur syq: |!

** From a cry of the giant son of Diti, resembling the roaring of the troubled

ocean -at the close of the Calpa, sprung the variegated vaidiryam (lapis lazuli);

source of colours of a bright and ravishing splendour, Not. far from the

declivity of Mount Vidéra, was the mine of that precious stone, but limited

to particular seasons for its production, and then closed. First from the

origination of that demon cry, did this mine suddenly spring in the world,

1833.] A Legend of Himdlaya—by Calidasa. 353

25.

As first, a thin streak of soft silvery light,

The gleaming new moon in the West meets our sight,

eminent in its properties, the ornament of the three worlds : but ever since, on

the muttering of the clouds of the rainy months (July and August), imitating the

sound of that prince of demons, are those beautiful vaidérya gems emitted, of

varied lustre, and rapid effulgence as of a multitude of fiery sparks.”

Mallinatha cites the second sloka of the above description, as from an anony-

mous budha or sage, to point out the mount Vidira here meant by Calidasa : but

‘the other Scholiast, Bharata-Mallica, erroneously explains Viddra here as praba-

Jétpattisthanam, i. e. a place where coral is produced,—a sense unknown to San-

Scrit vocabularies. Except for the substitution of coral for lapis lazuli, he coincides

with the above quotation—citing for the extraordinary phenomenon here mention-

ed the same Cabalistic authority from which we have the blazing herbs of St. 10 and

30; WESUAITATA TaTACaNaaT : SfaarafsraAaaw: “ From the

muttering of the clouds in the rainy months (July and August), darts of coral

gems make their appearance on the earth. So says the A’gama (or Tantra).”

The situation of Vipu’Ra, if we may trust the Scholiast on the following parallel

passage from the 12th canto of the Naishadha of Sri Harsha, is identified with that

of mount Réhana or Adam’s Peak in Ceylon. Among the many unsuccessful sui-

tors of the beautiful Damayanti in that canto, is a Malabar prince of great riches and

liberality, whom the goddess Sarasvati thus recommends to the fair virgin’s accept-

ance :—

saa Tahar eaitaar war faguigcgcal ai mat

WAG AAU ARCA AT: | aa ama aa Aha |

“Mount Vidéra, abundant in gems that spring forth at the sound of thunder-

clouds, yet becoming unacceptable to the beggars (that before flocked to it) through

this more munificent king,—shall, however remote as its name indicates, become

so near (if you accept this Southern monarch) that it suall be to you as a pleasure

mount.’’ As the Scholia referred to illustrate the words of Caliddsa before us, as

well as those of Sri Harsha, they may be added for the satisfaction of the Sanscrit

student.

Va acai starfear farsa ZUSETTT C TEU TAGY TA IRILY VITA

arate wait an ear aa yartu aaafanad werdad aa

afaata faydisfarersd cuafey araag fray guna waaifas-

ayarrarastercr aifqa: ware SAAT aT HAT Pal AAAI Bla: WE

PA saHTaca: Na: uf<uar waa 1 FaeiaT fe AA HAMA TAT BUA

ale aaa aaa afarg qBye Wa WaIMINAIVMaRe: BAT

agyad @ Waaet ‘wale Bua TaayaIna Aistrdaens wraefa

wfa aaiansafata ara: |

St. 25. As daily new digits, &e.—The at or Indian digit, is not as with

European astronomers, 7; of the diameter of the Moon’s disc, but 7; only.

354 The Birth of Uma— [Juny,

So she, the sweet infant, appear’d: but full soon,—

As daily new digits annex’d to the moon

Give birth to new phases,—so she, day by day,

Grew still to fresh forms of more lovely array.

26.

Her, dear to her kindred, the relatives all,

As mountain king’s daughter, did P&rvatr’ call :

But after, when bent upon mortification

Most strict and religious, the fond deprecation

Burst forth from her mother, ‘‘ Oh no !’”—thence it came

That Um'a, ‘* Ob no!” was the lovely girl’s name,

a a en Np pe

There is therefore the accession of one of these for every Tithi or lunar day of

the suxla-paxa, or waxing moon.

St. 26. Pa’rvati'.—This feminine noun yyaqat is the regular patronymic deri-

vative from Waa parvatas or “mountain.” The ascription of these two names,

Parvati’ and Uma’, to the goddess im her second birth, is related at length in the

Siva Purana, 2nd part (or wttara-khanda), 13th chapter.

Ibid. When bent upon mortification, &c.—The same is told of Uma (as dis-

tinguished from her elder sister Ganga), by Valmiki, Ramayana, I. cap. 37, St..19.

—(Vol. i. p. 148, ed. Schlegel.)

Ibid. That U-ma’ “‘ Oh no!” &c.—The latter Sanscrit particle gy md is (like its

cognate me, © or 6 in Persic, uy in Greek) the dehortative ‘‘ no,” commonly prefix-

ed to the imperative or optative mood ; as @ ma (the same with the Persic, Latin,

and Teutonic particle) is the simple negative “no” or “not,” prefixed to the

indicative. The former particle yw U, which is chiefly for want of an equivalent

short word in English, rendered ‘‘ Oh’’—is one that is scarcely or ever seen in

the ordinary classical language, though of very frequent occurrence in the older

dialect of the Védas. There it may be found often annexed as if it were a termi-

nation to the several cases of the demonstrative pronoun @7@, or to prepositions

in composition, when in that ancient Sanscrit (as in Greek and in German, though

the ¢mesis is not admissible in common Sanscrit), they are separated from their

verbs* ; and not unfrequently annexed separately to verbs or to nouns, preceding

or following :—in all these cases apparently bearing a meaning intensive of

the word to which it is annexed,—viz. (that which so often belongs to the

common wq) “ precisely” or “ merely.” Thus we find it in the following verses

from the I’sd-vdsya Upanisad, which is the closing 40th chapter of the great San-

hita of the Yasur Ve’pa, the Vaja-Sanéya-Sanhité of Dadichi Muni, which £

quote also as apposite to the subject of this stanza, to shew how the balance is care-

fully struck between the active and contemplative duties, in this most venerable and

ancient authority of Hinda religion (vv. 12, 13, 14, but in some copies 9, 10, 11).

* Itis not therefore with perfect accuracy, that the learned F. Rosen, in his Specimen of the Rig-

Veda, published at London in 1830, p. 6, describes udu for ut, and abhiidu for abhit, as mere variations

or licenses of the most ancient language. They are rather the annexations to the universal form

of this expressive particle U.

1833.] A Legend of Himalaya—by Caliddsa. 355

27.

Though blest with a son, not on him did the sight

Of th’ earth-bearing hill-monarch dwell with delight :

For thus in the genial spring season, when flowers

All various invite from its numberless bowers,

The swarm of fond bees will there only, where grows

The sweet mango-blossom, with pleasure repose.

ax aa sfania 3 afraanedt

wal Ha Ta ae aera YS fagqrar Tat: | WRU

aazasfaaem sae aefagre:

cfa wae Meat a Tafa ayfat i ve

fagi wifsai a aageiage ae

ufaga wa ater frqqeaaya tye i

Blind darkness do they incur, who cherish ignorance (i. e. action without contem=

plation).

But greater darkness, as it were, than this do they incur, who delight in knowledge

merely |Z].

For one thing, they say, is gained by (contemplative) knowledge, another by igno-

rance (or action).

Thus have we heard from wise men, who have so instructed us:

‘He who knows how to pursue both, Anowledge and ignorance (thus defined) together,

Having by ignorance passed over death, by knowledge obtains immortality.

St. 27. The attachment of bees to the blossom of the mango, in Sanscrit =a

‘or Seta (Chita or Amrita) is one of the common-places of Hind& poetry. Ste

the songs of Jayadéva, as translated by Sir W. Jones, Works, vol. iv. p. 242, (8vo.

edition). But a more elegant example of this cannot be found than what is fur-

nished by C4lidésa himself in the 5th Act of his justly celebrated drama, the

Sakuntala, where the following song from behind the scenes reminds King Dush-

manta of his inconstancy to his first attachment.

Pracrit text. Or in Sanscrit.

afeuy asareargst = Abhinava-madhu-lébha-bhdwukas

ae uicyias aaa Tava parichumbita-chita-manjarim

aaecafeaapaaey Kamala-rasatimatra-nirvrité,

asut fanfcafa W ae Madhukara! vismarishyasi nanu katham ?

In-novi-mellis-cupidinem-conversus,

Tui osculum-olim-expertum-Mangifere-surculum

Loti-sapore-nimium-occupatus

O mellifer! oblivisceris sane quomodo ?

i. e. word for word.

356 Birth of Uma— [Juy,

28.

As lamps by their radiant crest of sharp flame,—

As heaven’s path by Ganges, of far-flowing fame,—

As scholars by th’ eloquent charm of pure speech,—

Their last and best forms of accomplishment reach ;

So he by this daughter, the crown of his race,

Was cleans’d from all stain and adorn’d with all grace.

a ee ee id

“‘ How shouldst thou, O bee, turning to the desire of new honey, and occupied

too entirely with the lotus’s sweetness, forget the mango blossom which thou hast

so often kissed ?”” A comparison with this text will shew that M. de Chézy’s ver-

sion of this, ‘“‘ Se pourrait-il, abeille volage, &c.”’ in p. 102 of his very splendid

and valuable edition of the “‘ Sacountala’””—though somewhat paraphrastic, has

greatly the advantage in point of correctness over that of Sir W. Jones—“ Sweet

bee, &c.’’ (Works, ix. p. 464,) which is marred by the misplacing of a very signi-

ficant clause. But M. de Chézy is utterly mistaken as to the metrical harmony of

this exquisite stanza, which he supposes (in p. 227 of the notes) to be in the A’ry4

measure of the kind called Géti, (but Udgdthd in the Pingala,)—in order to which

he is obliged to suppose a new license, inadmissible in that metre,—and has also,

in this imagination, allowed a very faulty reading fagafcafa for faafcata

in the fourth line. The uniform succession of long and short syllables in these

lines is sufficient to shew that they are not A’rya lines of any kind. They

are of a very common metre of alternate 10 and 11 syllables, called Apara-

1 and 3. Proceleusm. Anapest. Dijamb.

2 and 4. Proceleusm. Choriamb. Dijamb.

St. 28. Of far flowing fame.—lIn the original fara i.e. ** the triple-pathed,”’

or “‘ whose course is through the three worlds.’’ See Amara Cosha, II. § 3. sl. 31,

(p. 69. ed. Colebrooke). The question is put and answered in the Ramayana, I.

37. St. 3.

waktram ; the distribution of which is,

at WaT <gar aa WaIS ATTA

fay STAG Waw Hala: A PATA I

‘* Why does Ganges, Canes ofthe worlds, flow in three courses—and by what

works, O thou who knowest righteousness, is she attended, (i. e. for what is the

accompaniment of her purifying water required,) throughout the three worlds 2”

No other topic of this remarkable triple comparison requires illustration, except

that by qeqrcaeqifacy in the third, is meant the utmost perfection and correct-

ness of Sanscrit speech.

[To be concluded in the September number. ]

1833.]

A Legend of Himdlayaby Caliddsa. 357

SalUfa:

weary; fete <aaray

fearsar ara aarfycrs: |

Waa araraw* faargy

fea: saan <4 araes: (Ul

a wane: vicaey aa

Att fga Srvafe Sreeaq |

wet calfa ATT

syufezi Sesstett ie

WAMCAIVATS TY

fea a Senafsarft ara |

var fe erat awafyare

frasraier: facufaarg: | 8 |

Paci fasaawaray |

wnrefast fracfauta |

AACA ACIMG

Baratagiiad Aqati il 8 ll

PMaae PICA Tarai

array: t aranat free |

Vatea effets

wyifa vara feat: ty il

ue Gutefaraca

aferaegita wafgarat

Faeha at TAGHTAT

Bara: aaeftuy fara tl ei

WAAC BGs 74

Yas: HAChaSATaT: |

asta fa grace acing

SAFISRAA Ta I19 II

O: [Casa ACHAT

ZOTaaa BACT |

sareafasata fa acrut

arasarfyefasraat | = 1

aireae § afcfifeag

faafearai BCARATT |

wa wadicaal Aa:

arate aaa: Scatacifa Ul € |

TAI Afaqaraearat

SChVSaa ATH: |

waa qareeaT TaN

AST: QSCAISTAT: Ul Ye Il

SPORE MCh Inin g

ara farstrafeasta al

a SS LCUCR ICES ET

frat wai aa sTS: 119 II

fenaugafa a reg

wa feanttafrareaart |

qasia qa WCU ITF

AAATSAMCSTAATT I] VR II

argafrdafrafawae

TaUTT RTA TAT:

Fae fafcqreraTR

gar AST AGA | Sal

qa waravtaatstarai

FeQyl HT FATAy |

acheearte frafeafreaqra

facenfoun sra|er wataa i ¢3 i

* Some Malayalim MSS. have arfcfarat.

+ One Malabar MS. places this sloka after the next following.

+ Some Bengal MSS. have @rarfaq.

§ Some MSS, have @qyeqayts: in the plural.

358 Birth of Uma—

wrMcHifasacetacryi

adel qe:afaa|’raqere: |

agrarfaren: facrac

saga frafrrafers: 1 Gy II

wafarenratqaranary

war farereufcawara: |

qafa FATT UTS The

TAATISFaATS: | UE I

qaraifaaqraay ae

Bit Bicatycaiwa FI

yaufa: afwarqyara

Raya waaafa sa ll |!

a aad Heaa: freui

ay aay faa fafaz: |

eat gataraty araatara

wraraeut fafrarqaa i Ue il

*qraemaury aa: Jew

SSVI YCAITS |

CCRCEICCUCE LO

THISMT GACT | LE

BAA TM AAT ATTA

warnaataryareaey |

Haste wapaeie saws

Bears QlawaParai tl Re Il

wayward s fg: yA

<aQ Heyl Wayeayal |

Val Vat aafse|cssr

at TAA KITT TTS RV Il

[Juuy,

a wacrMTafada Tat

aarfaaarqeurfe war |

aaa Tarmeufcaarei

Hatrsreareawsy FATT | RR Il

Taqea vinfatamard

WeaAtaACzTVELe |

woe WracwayFa4rai

gary asrafet FHT I! R23 Il

aa efear gact afaat t

HUAMASAG FATS |

frgrufaaaaanre f

SfAaal CaMAHIT Il RB It

fea fea a uftaaarar

PASTY BAAN VAT §

gare wawaara fears

ASATARIMS RATATAT 1 4 Ml

ai weamantastaa Arar

azafrat FASTA AST |

Bata arat ava ll fatorar

THTSATAl FIAT SATA Il RE I

aga: Jaaarsty efeq

afaaia a sata afar!

TAA wWarfe il

fzcaateat | afaaeaget ll Ro I

quae fray Stag

famaaa fafzae ara: |

decreas fat wats

aa yaa fayfrerg il R= 1

* This sloka is omitted in a Malayalim MS. |

+ Several MSS. have here yfxayt for afaat.

} Some MSS. have qrare for qeara.

§ Some MSS. have tay.

j| Some MSS. have aaa.

4+ Some MSS. adding Visarga in these two places, make the whole plural

fecuaren: aan seg:

1833.] The Pan-chaké or Native Water-miil; 359>

I].—Description of the Pan-chakit or Native Water-mill.

On the mountain streams and rivers in the Northern Dodd, the

Natives use a water-mill for grinding corn, which for its simplicity is

well deserving attention, as it might be applied in all countries, where

a fall of water can be commanded, and where a want of efficient

workmen renders the complicated and expensive species of mill ma-

chinery, generally used, a matter of difficulty to manage or keep in

repair. In the hands of the Natives and with the rude means that they

have by them, it may be perhaps considered the only sort of mill that

could be turned to any account, both from the absence of any compli-

cation in its parts, and from the simplicity of its construction, render-

ing it in any man’s power for a trifling outlay, either to fix his mill

at any point that may suit him, or to remove it at pleasure ; the only

weighty parts about it being the mill-stones, which however by run-

ning a stick through them, and yoking a bullock or pair of bullocks

to them, may in the neighbourhood of roads or common tracks be also

removed with as little difficulty or expense as the rest of the machinery.

A horizontal water-wheel with fluats placed obliquely so as to receive

a stream of water from a shoot or funnel, the said float-boards being

fixed in a vertical axle passing through the lower mill-stone, and held

to the upper one by a short iron bar at right angles, causing it to

revolve with the water-wheel ;—the axle itself having a pivot working

on a piece of the hardest stone that can be procured from the shingle

near at hand :—this with a thatched roof over it, and the expense and

trouble of digging a cut so as to take advantage of a fall of water,—are

the only articles required in this very simple mill. The plan is so ob-

viously good, not only for the means gained, but also from the simpli-

city rendering the whole almost independent of repair, and so intelli-

gible in its parts as to come within the comprehension of the simplest

understanding, that it has been adopted generally in all the canals in

the Delhi district, as well as in those of the Dodd ; and with such suc-

cess, that the introduction of such mills, wherever sufficient fall

is provided, is as much an object, on account of the profit arising to

the canal returns, as from the accommodation and convenience offered

to the community, in providing the means for grinding corn.

On reference to the accompanying plate, it will be seen that there

is only one motion, and that supposing the materials are good, the

permanency of the machinery depends entirely on the lower pivot. It

will also be evident that there is not a part of the whole machinery that

could not be repaired and put in perfect order by the commonestvillage

360 The Pan-chakt or Native Water-mill. [Juny,

workman, a matter of importance in the absence of mechanical skill and

practised workmen. ‘Whereas in the plainest undershot wheel applied

to a mill for grinding corn, there are no less than three wheels of

different descriptions; the change of vertical to horizontal motion ;—and

three pivots to keep in order, with a friction, even under the most skil-

ful management, tending constantly to disarrange the parts, and render

the accompaniments of a forge and blacksmith’s shop absolutely neces-

sary to keep the mill in order.

On the canals it has been found worth while to construct permanent

buildings for these corn mills*, and although keeping most strictly to

the original simplicity of the machinery, they are set up with greater

care, and means are given for regulating the motion, &c. which renders

the whole as perfect as it can well be.

It would appear that a fall of water (that is to say, the difference of

level between the surface of the head supply and the float-boards of

the water wheel), equal to three feet, is the minimum in which this

species of machinery can be used with any good effect; and it has been

found that with a fall of three feet, the dimensions of the shoot or

funnel require an addition in width, to obtain that by weight of water,

which the smallness of the fall will not give by velocity alone, and in

the dimensions of shoot given to those of a higher class.

The following are the particulars of mills on the Dodd canal, divided

into three classes from the depth of the fall ; the width of shoot on the

sill or waste-board, being 12 inches, and the discharge per second

averaging 6.5 cubic feet: the diameter of mill-stones 27 inches, and

thickness 12 inches ;—the corn being ground into atta or coarse flour,

Class. Fall of water. Atta ground per hour.

ft. in. md. seer.

No. 1 7 6 Ly ofe26

2 5 6 1 5

3 3 6 0 17

The common mills used in the Jumna and mountain-streams, are said

to grind from 5 to 7 maunds of atta per day, or in 24 hours; the ma-

chinery being of the rudest description, the supply of water very small,

and a great part of that escaping through the shoot before it touches

the water wheel.

The return to Government on the mills is obtained generally by

farming them out to contractors for fixed periods, who pay so much

per day as long as a supply of water equal to that entered in the con-

tract is provided, regulated by the depth of water on the sill or

* Vide Major Colvin’s Report, p. 121.

1833.] The Pan-chaki or Native Water-mill. 361

waste-board; this return of course varies not only from the pow-

ers of the mill, but also from their position relatively to populous

towns and cantonments. In the neighbourhood of Delhi the return is

great, and demand for atta equally so; whereas at other points distant

from towns, mills of equal power would not produce half the return.

The Dodb canal, although possessing every advantage in fall and

power of machinery, labors under a disadvantage in this respect, the

town of Saharanpur being the only one throughout its whole extent

where there is any great demand for machinery of this description.

Shamli, although a large town, does not contain a great number of that

class of people who purehase atta, each family grinding their own

corn for home consumption ; and although there are ample means for

establishing mills at the south end of the canal opposite Delhi, (the

canal falling into the Jumna with a descent of about 50 feet in a line of

12 miles !) it has been considered unadvisable to put them in extended

practice, on the supposition that the mills already built on the

Delhi canal in the city would suffer from. the competition ;—in short,

that the mills 7x Delhi are sufficient to grind the corn required by its

population.

The people from whom the millers look for profit are chiefly those

of the sipahz class, travellers, those without families, idlers, &c. those

who are regularly settled with their families, trusting as I before said

to the hand-mill in their own house, and not purchasing from the

mills excepting on marriages and other grand occasions, when the con-

sumption of atta is more than their own mill could provide for. In

military cantonments the whole of the atta and flour used is obtained

from the mills; the vicinity therefore of a station of this description

becomes a lucrative affair to the miller, in exemplification of which I

may mention, that during the existence of the Provincial Battalion at

Sahdranpur, the canal mills at that place were kept constantly in

their service, with little or no aid from the inhabitants of the town.

The profit derived by the renter of a mill depends in a great mea«

sure on his management, and on the rate per maund which he charges

for grinding ; but with an experienced and steady man, the following

may be considered as a very close approximation to their daily profit.

The rate per maund for grinding atta by the Peesunyaris or corn-grind-

ers in the city, is generally three annas, for which sum they deliver the

articles at the purchaser’s house; at the water-mills two annas per

maund is the usual charge, not however including the carriage of the

grain to the mill, &c. the charge of two annas being simply for

grinding.

$62 The Pan-chaki or Native Water-mill: ‘[sury,

. The-expenses to the miller for keeping 2 mills at work are thus,

Per month, 1 head miller’s wages, ...... Rs. 5 0 0

1 assistant ditto ditto, ........ 4 0 0

dawmeiehamam, cre Os act. ed 4). Orn

Oil at + seer per day, about .. .. 1 0 0

2 seers of atta given per day to 2

millers, in addition to their regu-

laxspay aboutiowwaes hwnd) seg 27 0

Total expense per month, Rs. 16 7 O

or per day, taking a month of 30 days,.... 0 § 9%

The receipts per day are as follows:

Supposing 55 mds. of grain ground at 2 ans. per md. 6 14 0

Derpvuct.

Expenses as above,.... 0

Government rent, 5

8 92

0 0

5isiS Dre

—————

Balance of profit to miller per day, _—‘Rs. Lae

The above daily expenses would not be increased by an additional

mill ;—the profits to the contractor in that case could therefore be much

increased ; whereas a solitary mill would very nearly require the same

establishment, and would therefore be less profitable; mills of a higher

power also might be easily worked with the above scale of establish-

ment.

At mills distant from towns, the payment for grinding corn is made

in kind, varying from 2 to 4 seers per maund, which, at the usual rate

of from 40 to 50 seers per rupee, is but a moderate return in compa-

rison with that at the town mills. These village mills grind gram,

barley, and Indian corn, as well as wheat.

The stones used on the canals are chiefly those from the quarries

near Agra, Ripbas, and Fatihpur Sikri, a coarse-grained sandstone

which requires the chisel every second day,—there are three sizes used ;

First size, diameter 36 inches, depth 12

Second ditto, — 30 inches, — do.

Third ditto, ~—— 27 inches, do.

The two latter are in most general use. Stones ofthe usual quality last

for about 2 or 3 years, that is to say, at the end of that period a new

upper stone is provided, and the old one. placed below. . In the native

mills on the Jumaa, stones about 22 inches diameter, and from 10 to

.1833.] ‘The Pan-chaki or Native Water-mill. 363

12 inches thick, are quarried in the vicinity of Rdjpur north of

Dehrah; they appear to me of an inferior description, though of various

qualities ;—the native millers, however, prefer some of them to the Agra

stone, and it is not impossible that some of the best variety from Raj-

pur may be superior to the worst from Agra, but generally speaking

the preference is decidedly in favor of the latter.

The best method of delivering the water from theshoot on to the float-

boards, appears to be that represented in the accompanying sketch, and

which has been generally practised on thecanals in pursuance of the usual

course adopted by the natives. A trial made at Hansi, in whicha hori-

zontal (or nearly horizontal) shoot applied to the lower part of a cistern

delivered the stream on float-boards whose planes were parallel to the axis

of the arbor or upright, did not answer so well as was expected, owing

in a greatmeasure, it was supposed, to the introduction of anew system,

which unless palpably advantageous, is certain to meet with objections

from the people to whom the mills are entrusted ; but although the

limits of this paper will not allow me to enter into a discussion on the

point in question, I am much inclined to consider that the latter me-

thod is not only objectionable, but that the power obtained in applying

it to this simple water-wheel is much less than the other; a matter

to be settled by practical experiments, and not by theoretical specula-

tions. . Bexrpor, in speaking of a mill of this description, says, ‘‘ En

Provence et dans une bonne partie du Dauphiné, les moulins y sont

dune grande simplicité, n’ayant qu’une roue horizontale, de 6 ou 7

pieds de diametre, dont les aubes sont faites en cuillerés* pour recevoir

le choc de l’eau, qui coule ordinairement dans un auge; L’arbre, qui

repond a la meule supérieure, est la seule piece qui sert 4 lui commu-

niquer le mouvement, et je ne crois pas qu’il soit possible de faire un

moulin 4 moindre frais; il est vrai qu’il faut pouvoir menager une

chute comme celle que l’on voit ici, et qui sont tres frequentes dans ce

pays 1a.

_* La roue tourne sur un pivot dans une crapaudine pratiquée au mi-

lieu de l’entretoise du. chassis, servant 4 approcher les deux meules,

par le moyer de la vis se qui est a l’extremité de la piece, et de l’ ecrou,

que l’on fait tourner pour hausser ou baissir le chassis.

“Les roues que l’on voit exécutées danse la gont de cell ci ont leur

cuilléres simplement assemblées a l’arbre par un tenon et une cheville,

* These cuilléres, or spoon-shaped ends, are mere indentations in the native

mills, and the trough alluded to by Brxipor for the delivery of the water at an

angle of about 25° is in the native mills a square tube or shoot placed at an angle

of 45°. The crapaudine and the arrangement for raising or depressing the upper.

stone by the transom in which it is fixed, is also practised in the native mill,

242

364 The Pan-chakt or Native Water-mill. [Juty,

fortifiées par le dessous par des membrures qui les entretiennent toutes

ensembles.” He goes on to explain a method of opening and shutting

the water-course or shoot, which is of no consequence here. It will be

seen however, that this mill is exactly on the same plan as that used in

this part of India, and it isa pity that the account did not proceed

and explain the powers of the mill, that we might draw a comparison.

It would also be interesting to know whether the increased size (the

Provence mill being about double the size in diameter of water-wheel,

&c.) would not detract from the simplicity of the little native mill;

for the great advantage of the latter appears to be the absence of com-

plicated wood and iron-work, especially joints and iron bindings, &c.

all of which increase with length of lever, or length of radii of the

water-wheel: indeed the above account shews a complication of mem-

brures, &c. which in the native mill are not thought of.

Northern Doab, April 30, 1833.

Reference to Plate XII.

Fig. 1. Elevation of the water-wheel, with the stones in section to represent

the iron spindle.

At a, a hole of about 4 inches diameter and 4 inches deep is made in the transom,

into which a quartz boulder is firmly fixed; the said stone or boulder having an

indentation made in it to receive the pivot.

This pivot, as represented in fig. 4, consists of another stone of the same quality

of about 4 or 5 inches long and 1 inch square, which is firmly fixed into the tail

of the arbor, (see y.) The above stones are picked up in the beds of the mountain

rivers, and are used as they are found without any stone cutting.

Fig. 2. Plan of water-wheel, 30 float boards of sissG wood.

Fig. 3. Upper joint of arbor.

Fig. 4. Lower joint of ditto, shewing the iron straps fixed between each float

board, to keep them firmly in position, the strap represented in fig. 5,

Fig. 5. Strap as above.

Figs. 6 and 7. Float board and end of ditto; the float board 12 inches long, with

a spoon sunk 4 inches.

Fig. 8. Iron ring that slips over the top of arbor, and holds the two joints toge-

ther.

Figs. 9 and 10. The spindle and plate upon which the upper mill-stone turns.

Fig. 11. Sketch of mill stones with basket stand, &c.

a. Hopper or basket.

6. Shoe.

ec. Feeder, or small piece of wood hanging to one lip of the shoe, and resting on

the mill-stone, each revolution of which gives the shoe a jog, causing the corn to

run constantly from the hopper through the shoe.

d. String attached to the opposite lip of the shoe, to which the feeder is, and

by tightening or loosening which, the discharge of corn is regulated.

e. Stand.

Fi. 12. Shoe ona large scale: this is generally cut out of a block of dak

(Butea frondosa), or any wood easily worked.

1833.] Salt Works at Panchpadder. 365

Il1.—Description of the Salt Works at Panchpadder, in Marwar, By

Lieutenant A. Burnes, Bombay Army.

At Panchpadder, in Mdrwdr, about six miles north of the river

Suni, there are extensive salt works under the Jodhpur Government,

yielding to it annually considerable revenue, in a cent. per cent. tax.

The tract which furnishes the salt is a spacious saline plain, about 12

miles long and six broad, commencing three or four miles west-

ward of the town of Panchpadder, and hemmed in all other sides by the

sand hills of the desert.

In this space there are about seven hundred salterns, each of which

is 200 feet long, by 60 broad, with a depth of 12 feet. Within this

space the water, which is saline, rises from the soil to a height of four

or five feet; and a jungle shrub, called Mardré, is carefully disposed

in layers under and over it. To these the saline particles adhere and crys-

tallize, and in the course of two years the whole depth of liquid becomes

a mass ofsalt, the process of crystallization commencing from the bottom.

The shrub which is so essential to this process is ofa grey or ashen.

colour, and grows in abundance on the sand hills of the Thar or desert.

It must possess certain properties to adapt it for the purpose. In ap-

pearance it is like the Babiil with thorns, but no other shrub is so

suited to the manufacture of salt as Mariri. Lawn, or laan, a

low stunted bush, like evergreen, which is always to be found in salt

and level plains, is sometimes used in its stead, but the salt is then of

an inferior description. The natives say, that Mariirt is a salt plant :

it does not appear so to the taste. The fact of Jawn serving

however indifferently as a substitute for it, shews that it must be of a

saline quality ; for that shrub when burnt yields abundance of alkali, and

hever grows, but in soils impregnated with salt. The salt manufac-

tured at Pokran, Phaléd, and Sambar, places in Marwar, is by a differ-

ent process from what is here described, and I conclude that the

use of the Muraré bush is peculiar to Panchpadder. The salt manufac-

tured here is said to be ofa superior quality, and is exported to Malwa,

Meywar, &c.

The whole operation of the manufacture is tedious and expensive ;

the price of the labour is high, from the unhealthy and disagreeable

nature of the work. A saltern costs in digging from one to two thou-

sand rupees, and only affords a return every third year, and each suc-

cessive supply from it is of an inferior description. Of the seven hun-

dred salterns, sixty or seventy might produce annually much more,

but this supply satisfies thedemand. Each yields on an average

about 3000 bullocks, or 8000 man of 40 sir, of the material. The sal-

terns become unfit for use after thirty or forty repetitions of the process ;

366 . Salt Works at Panchpadder. {Juty,

they are sometimes recovered by being allowed to lie waste for a few

years, and then spreading salt over the bottom of the pits ; but the crys-

tals in such cases are always small, and the salt is esteemed good or bad

according totheir size. When a saltern is to be again used, after the

salthas been drawn from it, it is thoroughly cleared out. When the water

which springs up anew from the soil begins to gurgle and shew on

its surface an appearance as if rain were falling, it is time to throw in

the Martrt, which is carefully distributed in all places. Twenty cart

loads are sufficient for a saltern.

The cold season is most favourable for the process, but crystalliza-

tion goes on in the hot weather also, nor does the rain in any way

injure it, indeed, it is said to favour it, though no rain water is ad-

mitted, but what falls from the clouds on the surface. The in-

feriority of a saltern is discovered by the quantity of water left on the

surface after the period for taking out the salt has elapsed: when such

is the case, it is drawn off, and the salt removed. ‘at

' In forming the salterns it is a custom to sink them some depth into

the consistent soil, for the first six feet is little else than sand, but

the white effloresence over it, and all the earth which is removed, shews

that it is equally mixed with saline particles.

These salt works are entirely worked by a tribe of people resident at

Panchpadder, of the Kherewdl caste ; and the Jodhpur Government does

not interfere, but totake its tax. At present, 1830, the Kherewdl are

engaged in sinking about 380 new salterns; the salt of Panchpadder

having of late years deteriorated from want of better management.

The scarcity of fresh water in the vicinity of these works prevents a

greater quantity of salt being exported, for cattle cannot approach them

after the tank or rain water fails, about March; and the inhabitants of

the surrounding villages are driven to rely on the Séné, from which this

necessary of life is brought in carts.

There is a temple of a goddess near these salt works, and to the

influence of this lady, the people entirely attribute the formation of the

salt and the original discovery of it. This has given Samra Devi’,

(for that is her name,) much celebrity, as may be imagined, where, be-

sides the Kherewals, upwards of a thousand labourers are kept in con-

stant employ.

~ The Chdrans, a religious sect who enjoy many immunities, are the

principal purchasers of the salt of Panchpadder. The article is sold by

bullock loads, and not by weight; and it is amusing enough to see

the poor animals walking under a double load, that their masters may

double the Government, and escape a portion of the taxation ; for on

passing the Government toll at the town, they divide the salt into

smaller loads. :

1833.] - Asiatic Society. 367

IV.—Proceedings of the Asiatic Society.

Wednesday Evening, the 31st July, 1833.

The Hon’ble Sir Epwarp Ryan, President, in the Chair.

The Proceedings of the last Meeting were read.

Captain C. M. Wapz, Political Agent at Ludiana, proposed at the last

Meeting, was elected a Member of the Society.

Dr. J. T. Pearson was elected Curator of the Society’s Museum of

Natural History.

The Secretary submitted the Report of the Committee appointed on the

27th March, regarding the continuance of the Boring Experiment [see below }

which was read, and it was resolved, that the Society adopt the Report of the

Committee, and direct it be forwarded to Government, in reply to the com-

munication from Major Benson, Mil. Sec., &c.

The Secretary reported the completion of the second part of the 18th

volume of the Asiatic Researches, or Transactions of the Physical Class,

and submitted a bill from the Military Orphan Press, for Rupees 1962, being

the expence incurred in its publication.

Resolved, that the bill be discharged from the fund invested in Government

Securities, and that the usual distribution of copies be made.

Mr. A. Csoma pe Koros’ Manuscript Abstract of the Contents of the

Kaueyur, and his comparative Index of Tibetan and Sanskrit Proper Names

and Titles, as arranged by the pandits and Tibetan /otsdvas (translators), when

compiling the sacred books of the Suaxya faith, in the Tibetan language,

having been brought again to the notice of the Society, it was resolved to re-

fer them tothe Committee of papers, to determine on the expediency of

making them over to the Local Committee of Oriental Translation Fund,

with a recommendation for their early transmission to England for publica.

tion through that channel.

Library.

The following books were presented :

Journal Asiatique, Nos. 57, 59, 60, 61—By-the As. Soc. of Paris.

The third series of J. Prinsep’s Lithographic Illustrations of Benares—By the

Author.

A Meteorological Register for the first six months of 1833, kept at Kyook

Phyoo—By Colonel W. H. Wood.

_ Calcutta Meteorological Register for June—By the Surveyor General.

The following, received from the Booksellers:

Lardner’s Cabinet Cyclopedia, Spain and Portugal, vol. 5.

Lardner’s Treatise on Heat.

Be. Museum, —

A note was read from M. Z. Bramley, Esq. presenting for the Society’s

Museum the following articles procured by him in Nipal.

A Chinese map of the Celestial Empire.

A map of his imperial Majesty’s Durbar.

“ Nipalese musical instruments, curiously fashioned like snakes and dragons,

3 Horns called in Hindi ** Bhorang.”

368 » Asiatic Society. [Juny,

1 Bass Horn of copper, called Singha; (Beng. Bhanh.)

3 Hautboys or Sandis.

Some Saligram Stones.

Some brass and copper images. Durea (Singh-bahni) ; Loxa-na’tHa, with

four hands : and Goutama, or Sakya-singh.

Two cast leaden Shrines of Budhist images.

Two bells used in worship, Ghanii.

Model of a Budhist Temple, the Chaitya, or Deva-pdtana.

Doctor Bramley’s series of Nipalese Coins was also exhibited, and a paper

in illustration of them by the same gentleman was read.

A letter was read from Raja Kali Kishen Behadur, presenting a model of

a simple instrument on the principle of the steel yard used by the natives

for weighing, called a “ toolah,” with a description of its use.

A box was exhibited by the Secretary, containing twelve Roman copper

Coins, in fine preservation, procured from a friend by the late Mr. Jamus

Macxtntosu at Buxar, and stated to have been found buried in Upper India.

The collection comprises coins of Domitianus, Gordianus, Gallienus, Saloni-

na his wife, Posthumus, Victorinus, Claudius Gothicus, Tacitus, Probus,

Maximianus, Constantinus, and Theodosius: the latest belonging to the

fourth century of the Christian era.

Sealing-wax and paper impressions were also exhibited of some of the

most rare of Dr. Swinery’s collection of coins.

Physical.

Specimens of Coal, lately discovered in the Arracan district at Oogadong

Synegkhyong, were presented in the name of Lieutenant W. Forry, Sub-

Assistant Commissary General at Kyook Phyoo.

The specimens were necessarily small, having heen transmitted by dak. The

coal of Oogadong appears of a fine quality, burning with much flame, and forming

a tolerable coke; it contains veins and nodules of iron pyrites, of which specimens

were sent, as also of the shale in the vicinity of the coal beds.

The specific gravity of this coal was 1.259. An analysis of 20 grains gave—

Walatile matter, . 5.25 i cick 2 cosets soe ie Stee siometotors 38.0

Gambon, spss sc peeye ie cea tosesals, ate sb ee bcerctah ete hep Dae

Wihitelashsyf)se sei Hagia dc Bcinelabs chcvekorepers stelcialets 7.5

100.0

The Synegkhyong coal has a fine glossy lustre, resembling jet ; it is hard and

brittle : contains veins of a white earth (decomposed pyrites ?)—spec. grav. 1.368-

8 grains gave on analysis,

Wiolatileamattersytc terete oust = ciclo clover s/eieiniciersielels 29.0

Carbonvuneterieiecieciietaietes esses Soneae Teese pO

Wihiterasiayecr <tsieleleie come’ socors Bie ae sia cinie | Vimeeeee

100.0

Lieutenant Foxy states that these specimens are merely from the surface,

and that he did not possess the means of ascertaining the depth of the strata,

put the appearances of the crop were highly favorable. “The stratum in

which the coal of Oogadong was discovered was composed of—

1833.] Asiatic. Society. 369

1 Bituminous shale.

2 Coal, with clay and pyrites.

3 Claystone. :

Were this claystone bored through, another and richer vein would proba..

bly be found. The mineral appeared abundant in such places as were exca-~

vated; the coal vein varying’ in thickness from six inches to a foot: the dip

very great, or at an angle of 70°.”

Lieut. F. imagines that tin and copper may be contained in the ores ; but

no signs of either metal were found in the specimens transmitted. Another

deposit of coal is mentioned at Kalabadong ; thus making four localities

(with that from Kingtellie, vide page 264), already discovered in that dis.

trict.

The Secretary notified the safe arrival of the specimens of Raniganj vege-

table impressions from Dr. H. Fauconer, Superintendent H. C. Bot. Gard.

Seharanpur.

Accurate drawings have been made of these interesting reliques, in illustration of

‘a catalogue of them in preparation by Doctor Fatconer.

The Society adjourned its next Meeting to the last Wednesday in the

month of October. _

V.—Report of the Committee appointed on the 27th March, 1833, to con-

sider on the expediency of recommending to the Government the conti-

nuance of the Boring Experiment.

The questions submitted to our consideration are presented under the

four following heads :

- 1st. The probability of ultimately finding a spring of fresh water.

2nd. The expediency of making any further attempt.

3rd. The mode of avoiding such accidents as have hitherto impeded the

descent of the boring instrument ; and

Ath. The estimated expence.

We will endeavour to pursue the subject in the same order in our present

report, referring for further detail to the annexed minutes of those of our

members whose practical acquaintance with engineering operations has en-

abled them in a great measure to guide our judgment.

1. The principal experiments on record, connected with the operation of

boring for water in Calcutta, are those conducted under Colonel Garstin,

Chief Engineer, from 1805 to 1820, and those recently made under the

superintendence of Dr. Srrone, Mr. J. Kyp, and Mr. D. Ross, in 1829 to

1833. The following is a list of their localities and of the depths respec.

tively attained* :

*Vide GLEaANinGs, i. 114, or 167 ; iii. 124, 422, &c. also As. Res. 1814,

370 Report on the Boring [Juny,

No. Date. Superintendant. Place. Depth. Cause of failure.

1 1804, Dec. Col. Garstin, Well near Powder Mag. 75 ft.

2 1805, Aug. ditto, S. W. of Artillery Barrack, 119 auger broke.

3 Sept. ditto, S. E. of Regimental Parade, 55 ditto.

4 Oct. ditto, S. E. of European Barrack, 59 ditto.

5 Noy. ditto, S. W. of Artillery Parade, 80 ditto.

6 Dec. ditto, ditto 127 ditto.

7- 1806, Feb. ditto, ditto 94 ditto.

8 Mar. ditto, ditto 124 earth fell in.

9 Apl. ditto, same operation resumed, 127 auger broke.

10 1814, May, ditto, S. E. of Artillery Parade, 140 suspended by rains

11 Noy. ditto, the same renewed, 136 auger broke.

12 1819, May, ditto, on Artillery Parade, 130 ditto.

13 1820, Apl. ditto, ditto 1225 ditto.

14 May, ditto, Near triangular barrack, 128 earth fell in.

15 1815, Mr. Jones found a spring in red sand at 70) vteet:

16 1826-8, Dr. Strong, bored in the Circular Canal to 70 water rose.

17 he also made several borings in the S. W. lake to 40 thro’ similar strata.

18 Dr. Strong near the Circular Road, 70 hard kankar.

19 ditto at Rasapugla, 70 sand fell in.

20 1830, Strong, Ross, and Kyd, near the Fort church, 176 ‘shaft injured.

21 1832, ditto, near St. George’s Gate, 164 sand fell in.

22 1833, ditto, ditto, 170 auger broke.

23 1832, Dr. Strong, under the Lock Gates, Chitpore, 70 water sprang up.

The geological question of the probability of finding a spring is by no means

solved-by the results of these numerous experiments. The knowledge which

they afford us of the nature of the Calcutta alluvium may be summed up in

very few words :—(See Plate XIII.)

After penetrating through the artificial soil of the surface, a light blue or

grey-coloured sandy clay occurs, becoming gradually darker, as we descend,

‘from impregnation with decayed vegetable matter, until it passes into a stra.

tumof black peat, about two feet in thickness, at a depth in Fort William, of 50

feet below the surface. In excavating the Circular Canal, the same stratum

of peat occurred at from 25 to 30 feet ; and in the Entallee Canal, it lay just

below the bed, or nine feet below the average level of the salt-water lake.

This peat stratum has all the appearance of having been formed by the

debris of Sundarban vegetation, once on the surface of the Delta, but gra-

dually lowered by the compression of the sandy stratabelow. Assuming

that the salt-water lake is five feet above the average height of the ocean,

the peat stratum is about as much more below the present level of the sea.

In the grey or black clay above, and immediately below, the peat, logs and

branches of a red* and of a yellow woodt are found imbedded, in a more

or less decayed state. In only one instance have bones have been met with,

(at 28 feet), and they appear from the report of the workmen to belong to

* The common Sindri of the Sundarbans.

t The root of some climbing tree, resembling the Briedelia. N. WALLICH.

1833.] Experiment in Fort William. 371

deer, though they were unfortunately lost before examination. A stratum of

sand occurs generally above the peat clay at from 15 to 30 feet deep, from

which the wells in the town are chiefly supplied with brackish water.

Under the blue clays at from 50 to 70 feet deep, the nodular limestone con-

cretions, known by the name of kankar, occur, sometimes in small grains (call-

ed bajri in Upper India) with the appearance of small land shells ; sometimes

in thin strata of great hardness, and sometimes in the usual nodular shape.

At 70 feet occurs a second seam of loose reddish sand, which yields water

plentifully. It was reached also in the perforation under the Lock Gates at

Chitpore, and there (as Mr. Jonss had previously asserted from his own ex-

periment across the river), the supply was proved to be derived direct from

the river.

From 75 to 125 feet, beds of yellow clay predominate, frequently stiff

and pure, like potter’s clay, but generally mixed with sand and mica. Hori-

zontal seams of kankar also run through it, resembling exactly those of

Midnapur or of the Gangetic bason.

Below 128 feet. a more sandy yellow clay prevails, which gradually changes

to a grey loose sand, extending to the lowest depth yet penetrated ; and be.

coming coarser in quality until at 170—176 feet, it may rather be termed

a quartzy gravel, containing angular fragments of quartz and felspar larger

than peas, such as are met with near the foot of a granitic range of hills.

This stratum has hitherto arrested the progress of the auger; the greatest

depth attained by Dr. Strong near St. Peter’s Church being 176 feet.

The evidence of this gravel might tend to prove that the auger had here

penetrated through the bedofalluvium of the Gangetic delta ; while the sandy

texture of the undermost layers might be compared to the probable condi-

tion of the deposits under the now advanced head of the bay, not yet reach-

éd by the more easily suspended particles of clay, nor consolidated by vege-

table matter, like the tenacious black mud of the Sundarban creeks.

Nevertheless, we must be cautious in forming any such conclusions upon

slight premises, remembering that Colonel Garstin more than once, conclud-

ed from similar appearances that he had reached the rock at 130 feet. Be.

neath the quartzy sand may possibly occur another deep stratum of tenacious

clay, and upon piercing every such stratum, and touching a seam of sand

under it, the chance offers of succeeding in the object of our search.

It is true that the horizontality of the delta alluvium, and its close

neighbourhood to the ocean, afford arguments against the probability of

finding an artesian spring upon the hypothesis of Hericart de Thury*, that

is, of basons and curved or sloping strata,—which is generally adopted as

affording the best explanation of the phenomena of such springs: but in

face of the successful borings in Holland, and in many other flat and alluvial

countries, nay even in insular situations, it would be hazardous even ina

* See GLEANINGS, iii. 10.

2 ped

”

372 Report on the Boring [Juny,

geologist to predict want of success in Bengal, unless he was well assured

that the rocks under the alluvium were of the granitic or unstratified

class.

The depth yet attained is very trifling, and we all concur in thinking that

the experiment should not be relinquished, until the ground has been pierced

at least to the depth of 500 feet. Borings in Europe seem seldom to have

been undertaken upon purely scientific principles or expectations ; sometimes

they have started in direct opposition to them, and yet obstinate perseverance

has frequently been crowned with success: so may it be in India. While

drawing up our report, we hear of the eminent good fortune which has

attended Lieut. Funtsame’s attempts in Guzerdt, at Ahmedabad*, where wa-

ter rushed up with great force through the tubes to the astonishment of the

inexperienced in such matters. The soil of the plains in Guzerdt is so

sandy and unretentive of moisture, that most of the wells have a depth

exceeding 100 feet. But we have not sufficient knowledge of the country

to draw any deductions applicable to our own position in Bengal.

2. In reply then to the second query, we are of opinion that it is by all

means expedient to continue the boring, and were the Society in a condition

to afford the funds necessary, we should be sorry to see the honor of its

superintendence transferred to other hands.

3. The accidents which have hitherto impeded the progress of the auger

below 175 feet, are entirely attributable to the falling in of the lower sandy

stratum, an increasing difficulty against which no sufficient remedy has been

provided. All perseverance in boring, as long as this impediment exists, or

is not counteracted, has been, and will be, an absolute throwing away of

money and time.

The remedy always adopted in such cases of bad soil at home consists in

lining the perforated hole with copper or cast iron tubes well united with

spigot and faucet joints.

It is therefore indispensable that these articles be provided before the

boring can proceed or be renewed. The tubes may either be supplied from

England, or now that the casting of iron is practised in India, they may be

made here: the expence however in the latter case is estimated by one of

our members at full double the English cost, and there is a chance of failure

in the texture of the metal from the want of raw material to fuse with the

fragments of old cast iron of which the fount usually consists in India. It

seems therefore preferable to commission the tubes at once from Englandt,

giving the manufacturers every information regarding the nature of the

soil and the depth, that they may adapt the most convenient lengths to

‘the tubes of the different grades and sizes. At the same time, any new tools

or apparatus for facilitating the operation may be commissioned out.

* The boring was commenced at the bottom ofan abandoned well.

+ We understand that a large supply of cast-iron tubes and boring rods was brought

out for Madras by the H. C.S. Buckinghamshire this season.—Ep.

1833.] Experiment in Fort William. 373

There is no reason, however, why trials should not be made meanwhile at

the Government foundery, to model and cast some of the tubes, as, if success-

ful, there would be ample employment for them in various parts of India.

Much of the delay experienced in the latter borings has been attributed to

the shortness of the jointed rods, and the necessity of unscrewing them so

often. It has occupied, onan average, five hours to lift 170 feet of rod, and

the daily progress at that depth has consequently been seldom more than a

foot: although a gradual improvement has taken place with the growing

experience of the workmen. Thus to bore the first shaft of 175 feet, con.

sumed two years: the second of 164 feet was completed in one year, and

the third, of 170 feet, in less than six months. Colonel Garsrin’s operations

seem to have been much more rapid, but the time, it must be remembered,

augments in a geometrical ratio with the depth. That officer had, further, a

more efficient establishment at his command.

A new set of stronger and longer boring rods might facilitate operations,

but these and all such other details may safely be left to the discretion of an

experienced Superintendent, such as Serjeant Reid, whose ingenuity will

supply expedients as accidents may occur to necessitate them.

Should the Government undertake the experiment, it may perhaps be

deemed of sufficient importance by the Honorable the Court of Directors, to

send out engineers especially versant in the art of boring the earth. At any

rate we venture to suggest the advantage of having all men, intended for

their Sapper and Miner service, instructed in the practical part of the opera-

tion as a part of their professional education at Chatham.

With all these precautions, we do not anticipate the recurrence of any

further insurmountable impediments to the auger, until it may reach the

actual rock.

4. With regard to the expence of a new experiment, we have been in-

formed that six hundred feet of tube may be provided for less than £150.

‘The Society has expended on three protracted operations, including the cost

of wrought iron tubes, &c. about Rupees 3,000. We cannot therefore esti-

mate that one steady experiment, tubes included, will cost so much as these

three unsuccessful attempts. And in the hands of a Government, which has

the power of deputing its own officers and men to conduct the work on duty,

nothing beyond the small contingencies for repairs of rods, wear and tear of

ropes, &c. can properly be set down to the charge of the experiment.

Should nothing further be elicited after penetrating 500 feet, or even “to

the rock,” than the knowledge, that a spring of fresh water is not thus pro-

curable, it will in our opinion be knowledge cheaply bought ; and although

geological research is not to be put ona par with the direct and political

object of providing wholesome water to the garrison of Fort William, still

an acquaintance with the depth, variety, and nature of the alluvial deposits,

which separate us from the rocky crust of the globe, and of the coincidence

of the subjacent strata with some of the rocks which have been developed to

our view above ground, by geological or physical causes, cannot but prove

374 Miscellaneous. [Jury,

interesting to the Government, to the scientific world, and to mankind in

general.

(Signed, ) W. H. Mun, D. D. V. P.

W.N. Forses, Capt. Engineers.

J. M. Sepprnes.

J. LANGSTAFF.

Asiatic Society's Apartments, J. N. Casanova, M. D.

20th July, 1833. N. Watuicu, M. D.

——

V1I.—Miscellaneous.

Remarks on Hutton’s Mathematics.

To the Editor of the Asiatic Journal.

Sir,

I observe occasional strictures on mathematical and physical works in the mis-

cellaneous department of the Journal : J am therefore induced to send you the fol-

lowing observations on some passages in Dr. Hurron’s Course, which if not incon-

sistent with your plan you may perhaps find a place for.

The first subject of remark is the Doctor’s method of treating the hyperbola in

his conic sections*. Here he appears to have made it too much his object to point

out the strong analogy which subsists between it and the ellipse, which is indeed

both striking and interesting ; but in keeping to this one point he has sometimes

gone too much on the general idea, and has not attended sufficiently to the specific

properties of the curve in question, giving his demonstrations in the same words for

both these sections of the cone, in one or two instances, where the correspondence

was scarcely close enough to admit of this method of procedure.

To come to particulars. In Prop. I. the squares of the ordinates are proved to be to

each other as the rectangles of the abscisses, but only be it observed in regard to the

primary curve. In Prop. II. Dr. H. comes to shew that the square of the transverse

is to the square of the conjugate as the rectangle of the abscisses to the square of

their ordinate ; but his first step consists in assuming the semi-conjugate to be an

ordinate to the curve. Now this I contend is premature, for of the conjugate hyper-

bola nothing has yet been said, but that it exists, and this in the definitions only.

The difficulty might perhaps have been evaded by adding after Prop. I. something

similar to the following : Scnottum.‘‘ The above proposition, as the reader will

observe, is identical with Prop. I. of the ellipse, but the analogy between the

curves is yet closer than these corresponding properties of the abscisses and ordi-

nates would at first sight suggest ; for if, as in the ellipse, the square of the axis

A Bis made to the square of another line passing through the bisecting point at

right angles to A B, and bisected by A B, as the rectangle under the abscisses of

an ordinate to the square of that ordinate, it will be a conjugate axis to A B corre-

sponding to the conjugate axis of the ellipse, through which conjugate curves

passing complete a conformity between these two sections of the cone, which is

very close and remarkable.”

From Prop. II. all goes on with apparent smoothness till Theor. X, where in

proving that the parallelograms inscribed between four conjugate hyperbolas

* See on this head @F,’s paper in GLEANINGS, iii. p. 161, 213.—Eb.

1833.] Miscellaneous. 375

are equal to each other, and to the rectangle of the two axes, it is assum-

ed that in Prop. VII. it had been shewn, that ifa tangent and ordinate be

drawn from any point in the curve meeting the transverse axis, the semi-transverse

will be a mean proportional between the distances of the said intersection from the

centre, whether the curve be the one cutting the said transverse or its conjugate,

whereas it has only been shewn inthe former case. There is to be sure no great

difficulty attending the demonstration of the latter case, when the former is given ;

but still it is an obstacle every reader will not take the trouble to master, nor

perhaps every teacher be at the pains to make his pupil overcome.

I will only add one other remark at present, and that on a subject closely con-

nected with what precedes. In the demonstration of the problem of the trisection

of an arc, vol. III. p. 217 a step has been omitted. It follows from Cor. Theor. 2

that in the equilateral hyperbola the rectangle of the abscisses is equal to the

square of the ordinate, and aftera short deduction by Theor. 18 “‘ to K-KI==AK 2,"

the last reference has not been given.

Tirhoot, 19th June. } L. D.

2.—The Royal Society.

The annual address of the Duke of Sussex to the Royal Society* evinces a real

desire on the part of the Royal President to identify himself in its interests, and

to awaken a new and reforming spirit in this veteran establishment, which has of

late years exhibited rather more indulgence in the election of its members, and

the selection of its papers for publication, than was consistent with the dignity of

la haute science. ‘The council it seems have taken the hint of Mr. BABBAGE to

submit every paper toa Committee previous even to its being read. We have

before remarked}, that the custom of the Academies of Science and Medicine at

Paris, of requiring such written reports, has produced a collection of essays on

all subjects in general more valuable than the original communications upon

which they are founded, because the persons who are selected as Committee men

are “veterans in their respective sciences, who have earned by their labours an

European reputation.”” The class of savans however to which these duties are

entrusted in Paris is nearly wanting in England, where the Members are not

supported by Government pensions, and there are few private professorships in

which the otiwm of dignified retirement can be devoted to such objects; while

for the rich amateur or the laborious practitioner the task would be alike unwel-

come and unsuitable. The President however is satisfied that qualified men will

be found ready to sacrifice both time and labour, out of their sympathy for the

scientific honour of their country. We hope to find these expectations realized in

respect to the Royal Society ; and we would suggest that the plan of reports on

papers should be introduced in our own society : the reports will be more useful

here to shew upon what studies our members are engaged, because so long an

interval generally ensues before their original papers are doomed to see the light.

The obituary catalogue of the past year is heavily charged. Sir Everarp Hor,

the author of 107 papers on comparative anatomy in the Transactions ; Sir JamEs

Ha.t,the experimental supporter of submarine volcanic agency; GROOMBRIDGE, the

* Printed in the Phil. Mag. Feb. 1833.

+ Vol. i.p. 367.

376 Miscellaneous. [Juuy,

‘ astronomer; Lesuin, the chemist (not a F. R. S.)* ; of foreign members, the great

Cuvier ; Cuaprar; the Baron de Zacu, and B, Orrani, astronomers ; Ant.

Scarpa, the anatomist, have all bequeathed their illustrious names to science.

Sir James MAcxinrtosH and Colonel Mark WILKS, we may in some measure lay

claim to; the former was for eight years Recorder of Bombay, the latter is known

for his Researches on the History of Mysore: let our readers reflect upon the

advantages which the PRESIDENT supposes them to possess from their Indian

training.

< Colonel WILKs must be considered as one of those distinguished men who have

been formed by the system of our Indian Empire. The possession of great com-

mands, upon which the happiness and misery of considerable nations are depend-

ent, and the intense feeling of responsibility, which is connected with the admi-

nistration of trusts so important, is well calculated, under all circumstances, to

call forth into action the highest powers of the human mind ; and particularly

so, when they have been previously exercised and fortified, as in our Indian service,

by the severe study of oriental languages, and by the successive occupation of dif-

ferent offices, with a great diversity of duties : it is to such causes that we are to

attribute the frequent union which we observe in this service of the greatest civil

and military talents with the most profound acquisitions in oriental learning ; it

is to this system that we are indebted for the production of a DuNcAN and a Mun-

Ro, an ELpHINSTONE anda RAFFLES, a COLEBROOKE and a Matcoim, anda

crowd of great men who have done so much honour to our Indian Government.’’

At the conclusion of his address, the President alludes to the precarious position

of Captain Ross and his companions. It is more than three years since he started

on his forlorn expediton, to retrieve the glory which he considered had been

shorn from him by the greater success of others in tue exploration of the Polar Sea ;

and no tidings have been yet received of:him. A vessel is now preparing, under

the auspices of the Geographical Society, to pursue the supposed track of the

party, and if possible relieve the anxiety of their friends and relations with

some certain intelligence of their fate.

3.—Discovery of a Bed of Fossil (Marine ?) Shells on the Table Land of Central

India.

A circumstance which must prove highly interesting to all lovers of geology, has

lately been brought to light by the discovery of a bed of fossil shells (marine ?)

in a good state of preservation. Accident, as usual, in discoveries of this kind, led

to their detection. A well had been sunk some 14 years ago bya native, half

a mile distant from Saugor, beside the road leading to Jubbulpore, and with the

stones turned out of it, he erected a small hut for his workmen, little dreaming at

the time he was piling up such geological treasures. A man the other day, seeing

something unusual in a lump of the limestone of which the hut was built, dragged

it out, and took it to his master, Mr. Fraser, who immediately recognized it as being

a shell. So interesting a fact could not be lost sight of, and means were immedi-

ately taken to follow up the discovery. On searching the walls of the dwelling,

several other stones equally rich in shells were detected, and the owner of the

* Professor Barry, Lecturer at Guy’s, fell a victim to the imprudent pursuit of his

chemical inquiries, ae the explosion of some gases in a highly eyliletsn. Ae upon

which he was experimenting.

1833.] - Miscellaneous. 377

ground being questioned; stated, they came out of the well about half way down ;

but ocular proof was not to be obtained, from the sides of the well being stoned

up with large blocks of sandstone. ‘To allow a point of so much interest to remain

in doubt would have been highly culpable, and Dr. Spry immediately set about

sinking a Shaft parallel to the well, that the locale might be effectually set at rest.

After sinking through basalt, both soft and hard, he came, I understand, upon

a bed of soft fatty red soil, containing nodules of lime, and presently reached the

anxiously sought limestone bed, from which he had the satisfaction of disentomb-

ing some rich specimens of shells. The bed is formed exactly 17 feet below the

present surface. The shells are univalved of different sizes—some nearly as long

as the hand, and all of them are what is termed reversed shells*. I understand,

however, he is proposing to send an account of them to the Asiatic Society, and

I shall not therefore venture to do more than announce the discovery to you.—

Mofussul Ukhbar. j

4.—INDIAN Zoo.oey.

Extracts from the Proceedings of the Zoological Society, April 10, 1832.

Mr. Gray enumerated the following species of the genus Paradoxurus, all of them

as far as their habitat has been ascertained, natives of India and the Indian Islands.

1. Paradoxurus Typus. F. Cuv., Mamm. Lith.

Genette de France. Buff., Hist. Nat. Suppl. iii. t. 47.

Viverra nigra. Desm., Mamm. p. 208.

This species appears to be the Musk and Musky Weasel of Pennant’s Quadrupeds,

Doth taken from Sir Er1sAn Impey’s drawings, but not the Piloselle Weasel of the

same author, which has hairy soles. There is a variety now living in the Gardens

of the Society, which may be called fuliginosus, it being nearly black in conse-

quence of the length and number of the black hairs, which only show the fulvous

under-fur between their roots. It has a very distinct pale spot above, and another be-

neath, the eye.

The three following species are only known by the drawings of Dr. HamItton and

Gen. Harpwicke, the former of which were liberally lent to Mr. Gray by Dr.

Witxins and Dr. HorsF1e1xp, in order to enable him to determine by actual com-

parison the species described from them by M. de Buainvitie. The first two

appear to agree with Par. Typus in having nearly naked ears, and may possibly

be the only varieties of that species; the third approaches more nearly to Par.

Muangas.

2. Parapoxurus Pennantil. Par. pallidé cinerascenti-brunneus, fasciis ob-

scuris saturatioribus lateralibus ; auriculis nudiusculis; orbitis albidis ;

artubus caudeque dimidio apicali nigrescentibus.

This animal is stated by Gen. Hardwicke, from whose drawings the character is

taken, to be found in the upper provinces of Bengal, and to be very destructive to

poultry and game. Its head and body measure 21, its tail 23,—making a total

length of 44 inches. The ears and sides of the nose are pale flesh-coloured,

* The same curious fact is observable in the silicified fossil shells lately presented by

Dr. Spilsbury to the Asiatic Society.—Eb.

378 . Miscellaneous. [Juny,

Ichneumon Bondar. Ham., MSS.

3. Paradoxurus Bondar.

Viverra Bondar. Blainv., in Desm. Mamm. p. 210.

This species inhabits Bengal, where it is called the Musk-Cat. Its head and

body measure 25, its tail 24,—making a total length of 49 inches. Dr. Hamitron’s

reduced figure, from which this animal was described by M. de BLaiNVILLE, agrees

with Gen. HARpwicKr’s drawing in almost every particular, except that in the

former the nose is rather sharper, and the tail not quite so bushy as in the latter.

4. Paradoxurus prehensilis.

Ichneumon prehensilis. Ham., MSS.

Viverra prehensilis. Blanv. in Desm. Mamm. p. 208.

This species is only known from Dr. Hamitton’s drawing ; it appears distinct

from any of the others, more especially in the bands of the sides of the back being

formed of oblong nearly confluent spots, and in the length of the tail, which has a

long white tip. The central dorsal streak is not very distinctly marked, and the

dark line in the drawing may perhaps be intended for the shadow.

5. Paradoxurus Musanga.

Viverra Musanga. Horsf., Zool. Res. t. 5.

Viverra fasciata. Desm., Mamm, p. 209 ?

The very young animal is pale ash-coloured, with three distinct black dorsal

bands, and the sides spotted. Its fur is very close and soft, mixed with scattered

very rigid rather longer black hairs.

6. PaRapoxuRus busius. Par. pallidé flavescenti-cinereus, pilis dorsi longior-

ibus apice brunneis, subtus flavescenti-albidus ; dorso fasciis centralibus tribus,

lateribusque maculis brunneis inconspicuis ; capite, auriculis pilosis, pedibusque

eastaneis ; caudd preter imam basin negro-brunned : macule utringue adnasum,

alterius supra genas, fascieque interauricularis transverse pilis albo-apiculatis:

This species is described from a young specimen sent to the British Museum by

Dr. Horsfield : it may be only a variety of Par. Musanga, but cannot be the general

state of the young of that species, which is described above. It is probably the

Javanese variety of the Musang described and figured by Dr. Horsfield.

7. Paradoxurus hermaphroditus.

Viverra hermaphrodita. Pallas, in Schreb. Sdugth. p. 426.

The description of the glandular fold between the anus and penis proves this

species, which is only known by Pallas’s description, to be a Paradoxurus. It

appears to resemble the preceding, but differs in having the entire throat black,

and in its black dorsal bands.

8. Parapoxurus Patzasit. Par. nigrescenti-griseus, nigro alboque intermix-

tus, infrd pallidior ; dorso fascid latiusculd maculisque parvis utringue biseri-

alibus nigris ; artubus, lateribus inferné, cauddque nigrescentibus ; Sacie nigra

maculd utringue ad nasum, alterd sub oculos, fascidque transversd per frontem

pone genasad gulam usque ductd, albis ; auriculis nudiusculis ; guld anticé,

nigrescenti-cinered, postice cinereo-albidd ; caudd corpore longiore.

Par. albifrons. List in Report of Council Zool. Soc. 1831, haud F. w., Mém

Mus. ix. ‘ ,

This species is described from a living specimen in the Gardens of the Society

brought from India, and presented by Mr. Buchanan,

1833.] Miscellaneous. , 379

9. Parapoxurus Crossit. Par. supra nigrescens, pilis plumbeis nigro-apicu-

latis, infra flavescens, pilis albo-apiculatis ; auriculis apice nudiusculis ; facie

auriculis externé ad basin, pedibus, caudeque dodrante apicali nigro-brunneis ;

maculd rotundé palidd ad nasum utrinque, alterdque minore sub oculos ; front®

Slavescente.

The length of the head and body is 21 inches, of the nose to the front of th

ear 35, of the tail 16, of the fore-foot to the elbow-joint 4%, and the distance from

the back of the fore-foot to the front of the hind-, 8 inches. The species is de-

scribed from a specimen lately living in the Surrey Zoological Gardens, and since

presented by Mr. Cross to the British Museum, where both the skin and skeleton

are preserved.

10. Paradoxurus leucopus. Ogilby, in Zool. Journ. iv. p. 304.

11. Paravoxurus Hamitrtonit. Par. auriculis pilosis ; dorso griseucinerascente-

pilis nigro-apiculatis intermixtis, seriebus sex vel septem macularum rotunda-

rum nigrarum ; facie dorso concolore, strigdangustd nigra inter, alterdque utrin-

que supri, oculos ; fascid nuchali medid nigra, laterali utringue breviore pallid-

brunned ; pedibus dorso concoloribus ; caudd corpore sesquilongiore, rufescenti,

brunned, annulis angustis subequalibus nigris versus apicem remotioribus.

This species is described from a living specimen in the Surrey Zoological Gar-

dens, which has been in Mr. Cross’s possession about two years.

12. Paradoxurus larvatus.

Gulo larvatus. Ham. Smith, in Griff. An. Kingd., ii. p. 281.

Viverra larvata. Gray, Spic. Zool. p. 9.

Paguma larvata. Gray, Proc. Comm. Zool. Soc. i. p. 96.

13. PARADOXURUS TRIVIRGATUS. Par. nigrescenti-griseus, infra griseus ; ca-

pite saturatiore ; dorso fasciis tribus longitudinalibus mediis nigrescentibus ,

pedibus cauddque corpore longiore nigris ; fascie immaculata.

Viverra trivirgata, Reinw., Mus. Leyd.

This species is described from a specimen, in the Leyden Museum, sent from the

Moluccas. The teeth agree with those of the genus in every particular, except

that the cheek-teeth are rather shorter.

14. Paradoxurus ? binotatus.

Viverra binotata. Reinw., Gray, Spic. Zool. p. 9.

Mr. Gray referred this animal to the genus Paradoxurus with some doubt, he not

having seen the teeth. Its walk, however, is truly plantigrade. The habitat of

Ashantee, given to it in the Leyden Museum, may be questioned : it was obtained

from an old Dutch collection, in which it is possible that the localities were not

strictly preserved.

To this enumeration Mr. Gray added the indication of an animal known only by

a rough sketch brought by Mr. Fmlayson from Siam, and deposited in the Library

of the East India Company. This he proposed to call Paradoxurus Finlaysonii,

and described as being pale-brown ; with a band across the middle of the muzzle,

and another across the orbits (including the eyes, and expanding on the back of

the cheek), the ears, and three continuous narrow lines along the middle of the

back, blackish brown ; the feet blackish ; and the tail cylindrical. He also consi-

dered it probable that the Civette de Malacca of Sonnerat, Voy. t. 91, the Viverra

Mailaccensis of Gmelin belonged to this genus, with which it agreed in several

particulars of its mode of colouring, although it differed in having a black

380 Analysis of Books. [Juny,

streak along the middle line of its belly, a character confined to few among the

Mammalia.

With respect to the Paradoxurus aureus of M. F. Cuvier, he stated that he was

inclined to believe that it really belonged to the genus on account of its naked

soles, but was certainly not, as had been imagined, the young of Par. Typus.

Mr. Gray added, that figures of the Parr. Pennantii, Bondar, prehensilis, Pal-

lasi, and Hamiltonii, are engraved for the forthcoming No. of the ‘ Illustrations of

Indian Zoology.’

— ee

— a ee

VIL.—Anatysis or Books.

Result of Astronomical Observations made at the Hon’ ble the East India Company’s

Observatory at Madras. By Thomas Granville Taylor, Esq. Astronomer to the

Hon’ ble Company. Vol. I. for 1831.

The Madras Observatory has long since established its character, as well for

laborious diligence in the proper duties of its professional calling, as for other

collateral researches which naturally fall into the hands of a scientific astronomer.

Under Mr. GoLtpINGHAM’s superintendence four ponderous foolscap tomes of

astronomical observations were given to the public, and one volume of ‘‘ Papers’’

containing miscellaneous matter of great interest.

From the imperfcction of the instruments then attached to the establishment,

(a 20-inch transit instrument, a 12-inch altitude instrument, and a zenith sector,)

the astronomical results were not of a class to satisfy expectations in the present

advanced state of that science. In other investigations Mr. Goldingham’s name

will be long quoted as of paramount authority. His pendulum experiments at

Madras, and on the equator, are of the highest value: his determination of the

velocity of sound under different pressures, temperatures, and directions of the

wind, from a very long series of experiments, is most conclusive and satisfactory :

and his meteorological series for 21 years, although unfortunate in the hours

selected for the Barometer, contains abundant means of fixing the curves of tem-

perature and pressure for the latitude of Madras.

But the present volume (printed also in a better form and type), is the com-

mencement of a new and purely astronomical series. We may date the regene-

ration of the Madras establishment from the year 1830, when a 5-feet transit

instrument, a 4-feet mural circle, and a 5-feet telescope equatorially mounted,

which had sometime previously arrived from England, all made expressly for

the observatory, were set up for use upon a solid and insulated basement of

masonry, 45 feet long and 12 feet broad, tapering to 6 at top, and 7 feet high.

With every particular of the adjustment of the new instruments, Mr. Taytor

makes us fully acquainted : the setting up and the error of the meridian mark : the

errors of level, of collimation, of azimuth, and of the clock, for every day of the

year; and the formula applied in each case for the necessary corrections, Mr.

TayLor is so far of the French school that he prefers computing the corrections due

to each observation rather than attempting to avoid them by continual adjustment

of the screws of his instruments, and in this practical maxim we concur with him

from experience ; the more immovable the standing parts of an instrument remain,

the more consistent and even will the observations be found:

1833.]} - Analysis of Books. 381

The results of our astronomer’s labour are not only most creditable to himself,

but they prove how much may be effected by steady, well-instructed native assistants;

for during the six months of Mr. TayLor’s deputation to Calcutta, to assist in

measuring the Barrackpur Base, for the great Trigonometrical Survey, the four

pundits attached to the observatory had entire possession of the transit, the mural,

and the Satellite telescope, and very few cases occur in which there is room to note

“‘ unaccountable,”’ against an entry in the register: at first only some malicious

intruder was constantly giving annoyance by breaking the cross wires of the transit,

as if to try the patience of the new master.

In all computations of results, the observatory itself is made to furnish the data ;

this also is a proper rule, for the climate, temperature, or clearness of the air have

influences on refraction, and irradiation, which should not be trusted to estimated

values, Thus, our author finds the mean diameter of the sun 16’ Or" 15: differing

(how much ?) from European determinations. The effects of irradiation are

closely connected with the sensibility of the eye. Differences of six or eight seconds

will occur with different observers, and, Mr. Taytor says, it is no difficult matter

in Dr. MasKketyne’s catalogues to discover when a new assistant came,

from

this circumstance.

Following the tables of the sun’s diameter, we have a very full table of R. A. and

N. P. D. of the sun, with the errors of the Tables computed for each observation,

and from these the deduced obliquity of the ecliptic for 1st January 1831 is found

From observations near the summer solstice = 23° 27’ 49”: 41,

From do. ..-.. .. .. winter solstice = 23° 27’ 39” 98.

or after correcting Goldingham’s latitude of the observatory, by — 0’ 71,

The mean obliquity = 23° 27' 39-7: in the Naut. Alm. it is 23° 27/ ADU 1.

But we have not space to enter into detail, and must confine ourselves to the

heads of Mr. Taytor’s results.

A table of the deduced error of the equinoctial points follows : and then we

have the A. R. and N. P. D. of the several planets, including the Georgium Sidus,

Towards the determination of the longitude, we have 84 comparisons of observed

R.A. and N. P. D. of the moon, with her interpolated place from the Nautical

Almanac ; one lunar eclipse ; and 21 eclipses of Jupiter’s Satellites.

Mr. Taytor here also notices the different effects of irradiation upon different

observers, which cause the semi-diameter of the moon to appear variable in its

value, and necessitate an equal series of observations on both limbs to find the true

passages of the moon’s centre*.

No attempt is made to deduce the longitude from the lunar transits, because

sufficient dependence cannot be placed on the lunar tables. The observations are

however all compared with the interpolated place of the moon, from the Nautical

Almanac, and the errors of the tables set forth: they vary from + 15 to — 17

seconds in time.

The mean of the 1st and 2nd Satellite observations gives the longitude from Green-

wich, 5 hours, 21 minutes, 5.4 seconds, differing about a mile from Mr. GoLpiNG-

HAm’s determination. Out of 51 observations of stars culminating with the moon,

* In a series of lunar transits observed at Benares, with an 18-inch instrument,

there was always a difference between the observed and calculated times of the

moon's diameter passing the meridian, of nearly a second in time.—Orient. Mag. vii.

p. 32, App.

382 . Analysis of Books. (Jury,

(not calumniating her, as the Printer’s devil has made it,) at Madras, five are

provided with corresponding sights at the Greenwich observatory, and six with

the same at the Cambridge observatory. From these the Madras longitude comes

out 5 hours, 21 minutes, 3°7 seconds.

For the latitude we have 160 observations N. P. D. of selected stars with the

mural circle by direct vision, and 171 by reflection from a trough of mercury ; the

extreme difference amounts to 6”, and the latitude deduced from the whole is

13° 4’ 9-21 N.

The comet of January, 1831, was followed as accurately as the extreme faintness

of the object would admit, from the 7th January to the 20th February : its position

was as follows :

h™ °s.

Jan. 8. Comet’s A. R. 17 29 27 N. P. D. 102° 34’ 10”

Feb. 20. do. 12 38 49.9 79 23 52.6

The last fifty pages (one third of the volume) are occupied by a valuable and

important table of the places of the fixed stars, with reduction of the Madras cata-

logue to the Ist January, 1831, and the differences of each star in A.R.and N.P. D.

from the Greenwich and the Astronomical Society’s Catalogues.

“© Of 423 comparisons of right ascension, between the Madras and Greenwich ca-

talogues, there are 376 cases in which the difference does not amount to two-tenths

of a second in time; of the remaining 46, there are 34 within three-tenths of a se-

cond ; these have been carefully re-examined and found to be affected with a much

less probable error than this amount ; of the 12 cases which exceed seconds 0.3, three

are confirmed by the Astron. Society’s catalogue, and four only require further ex-

amination.’”’ This evidence speaks highly of the value of the Madras results, and

they are not diminished by the larger proportion of discrepancies with the extended

catalogue of the Astronomical Society, in which many stars have been brought

forward from the less perfect tables of 1755 and 1800. “ Out of 863 comparisons

which this catalogue affords, there are 615 which do not exceed half a second ;

of the remainder many are confirmed by the Greenwich catalogue, or by subse-

quent observations at Madras in 1832.” :

In north polar distance the same accuracy prevails: out of 489 comparisons

with Greenwich, 197 differ less than 1/5; 122 less than 2/5 3 and 115 less than

‘40; and out of 1114 comparisons with the Astronomical Society’s catalogue,

693 come within 4” ; 315 between 4” and 8” ; and 105 exceed 8”.

In a few years, therefore, we may confidently expect the “ Madras Catalogue of

fixed Stars” to be appealed to as authority equivalent to that of either Green-

wich or Berlin. In the name of every lover of the sublime science in this coun-

try, we would strongly recommend Mr. Taylor to publish annually, in advance

(and we offer him our columns for the purpose), a short and authentic ephemeris

of the principal celestial occurrences, to be attended to by astronomers in India,

such as_occultations of stars by the moon ; Jupiter’s Satellites 3 Oppositions of

the planets ; transits and eclipses, &c. These should all be calculated for the

meridian of Madras, to which as the nearest point of corresponding and nearly

simultaneous observation, our observation should be referred. Meantime every

Indian astronomer should provide himself with the volume before us, as containing

besides the catalogues of stars, a variety of useful and practical formule for

the correction and reduction of observations.

*o1p 09F'r’ * Tes "AON I pue 90 ys1¢° eeeeeeseecs ‘op ‘od

*07,Ip GES'S° °c ese 8° ear ‘po ea he, Sao |e! ht

0331p 00ZO0°° "°° °° °° TESL ‘~po TE @oteete © Bees og

‘sayour Ogpo’ 8° “BEST WO YZ “Aojoworeq oy} JO [[PT

383

“M‘N'AAL 29089 | 29°69 | SIZ°ZG | 829°6% 965°6% | 1% 692 |***‘sodesay

x : ‘W ‘d Q 1a}jJe SayNUIM YT =] j : | . : | : ; {|

& -ye “HIG MOOT, 94} YIM snd A JOUR Jo uoLe}[N99Q 0}41p 9FIG| “AA 'N , 627 sept ; —0 £62, SPL 02 ¢ 9 aed a

S ‘syvads amos Ajjeuorseoo0 ‘sAep Arjyfus YyIM Jayywom aul] “AA 'N | 9P8‘L 09r tr cIL‘ 162 218 | 68Z BL \° *Saquiaaony

= ‘JO SaTIU YG JNOGe pleMjsea ay} 07 passed 41 Jo y1ed : : ; | :

& qsatavay ‘sures AAvaq YPM “YZZ ay} UO SuNOY g 4OJ a]eS ataAIZg] “AA 'N | FGPO'T PS3°G VOUS 199 0F9 | 0°S8 6LZ °° °*%12q0799

“SULUQY SIT pues capungy ‘ ; P :

S pes ‘ssopurewas 9} Jo ysour uo stamoys AAvay ‘shep arey ZG] “M CLL L 6SR0L | 82's CEG 80S 0°88 €R | * *“taqurazdag

~ “SULU}YST] pre rapuny}y AAvoy—yyuour ;

SY siy7 Susp ures ynogy shep £ Ajuo ‘sjpenbs yr urea AavoH] “AA | F88QIT | 98GIL | LZ99T | 20S" Leg 0°28 68 °°" suduy

= *pooyAnogysiau oy} ur jeyted yng ‘yzUOUT 7 ; : ;

Ss ayy Sauanp Surmyysy pue aspungy yyim sxamoys Arvoq AtoA) “Gy FOG | L8GOL | SCI | 028 82 988 a ne 1

= ‘ayep yey} >

i —aojaq joy pue spurm ofquiaea ‘Apnojo yypz eq) Go “ar yossurey! “AA | F266 | 686°GI | SEES | Oe gs | 06 | 228 [°° ****oung

S «-*Burajzysy poe sopunyy ‘ayes Saoas yyim ars Aavay YLT A}

<2: UO ‘Spur pue yeoy 8u0148 SpaeAMsoize 481% []Y SpurM Ap194semT , ; , :

> puke yynog Suosys ‘Apnojo “Wd g ye uns 10A0 Armo1oqAI Jo sue] “AA Gee%e ore’ 100F 8P gg €'16 i 7 a ii) |G

= “WINE pue YIPZ 24} UO suI103s AAvaY pure ‘sautt} ye Loy

S HE P ‘PG q ual é € ¢ ¢€ ¢, ¢, e@eeees &

S —- Suoayzs yptm Apnojs ‘oovjans uo spurs Aysayynos Suoys Aso] “AA h9% L6e'R CULT 09 £9 G88 8B judyz

& ‘yowa YORI [ Ystam 0} pres sau0js 5 QZ pue ‘CZ “FZ : ; ; ; , : Tae

S uo punos je wiojs prey AAvoy ‘spuim pue Joyyeam ofqeueA!l AA'N’ MA] Z8Z‘T rani t 1Pe‘e 99° 69" 0°08 UL |*" a qoueyay

5 ‘UOT 94) UO Surares Aavoy ‘Apnopo ASOP! "AAS" AA| G2ZP‘T 000°E GL 99 eZ CPZ | 629 |°*‘Arenaqag

"SIT a[QRIIVA SIUII}IULOS ‘1BaTD 48a. ‘Apuojd SAep OAS} FSALT] “AA ‘'N Gc‘ 0 Gol‘ 626G 08°6% 0°02 | 839 "+ Avenues

| aes

|-1u ‘AG ye] ‘uooT 4

‘spurAA | ‘sivod ‘TEST | GES Fe ayy [eq ON “AGL | AOU i

*‘syeway Sur |g oy jo] ur wey) UL uey |yo ueam [jo ueeu|ysoysif] | JSeMory sy}UOTA

-[BAGIg| asei2aAy | jeuinig) [Teamig

1833.]

‘bsg ‘ayonyooyy uyor fq ‘Zggl wah ay2 40f ‘nsoooung 4o jday ajquy, jo9vbojo.10ajayy— TILA ;

(Jury, 1833.]

Meteorological Register.

384

ay) 3 paystuiny aq [IM pasn syusuINIysUy [eI9AES ay} IOJ suOTIOaII09 1adord oy

*V GIO} syUAUINAYsSU, 2YL

“Autrey aye19poul

‘Aep ]@ “urea prey "azey

op “Apnop = ‘snye1}s

‘und "9 = Suru}earyy op

*snyedys "und *avaya

*pnos *IBa]D ured

“read *sIOMOYS *IQuILU

*snjeijs op *1va[o

*qeayo op “und

*uInd op *1Ra]o

op *1eva[d *Iquilu

“read op *UIeL

‘ulvl prey op *7B1}8 *I19

*reayo op *UIND *419

“ulel *11ey *JSBIIGAO

*1ea[d op *uled

*UIRI op “und

*JSB010A0 “wns “ULL

*IqQuatU op UIRL

‘rapuNnyy *4SBOL9AO op

“uInd ‘rapuny} = *Iquitru

op *s1aMOUS op

op op op

op op oe) a)

op *11ey *yeI4s “119

op *AIgMOYS “*SN}eI4s

op "ILD ‘UND “4219S “IID

“Iva “ued *U1103S

op “Ie op

op “und *IquITU

ued op *pnos

*11I10 *9 *1va]o *azeyy

$I Z =

A ° °

3 sg 5

Ee E.

=] : 3

*IOY JCI AA

mime te

aiqeuea pure uryeo

‘a °S ‘aN 0

"a *N 2°5

5 “mS 0

“s ‘a's Oo

Ss "9 °°5 *s

Sat a *Q°¢5

“aS 'a'6 4

“a “a “ON

°5 ‘Ss 9 “LL

“S 5 “S

S 5 0

‘Ss om tg “0

0 *g 5

‘s *g 0

"9 °5 *g “oO

5 ‘0 0

*g ur 5

‘°3 a's ‘0

"9 *9 ‘0

'2°s 5 0

9°45 32'S *s

“5 ‘Sg gs

“S mS 0

oy toe'g)) eg) ég

0 “oO ‘0

0 "Ss *N

0 “s "s

“mS 5 “s

‘s “g ‘0

"9°5 “g ‘0

—T

a 4 S| 5

+ S ° °

@ 3° = >

5 5 5 Ka

= ° =F

5 =} ee

ge 09

“purMm “uley

PSI} O'F6

9F {OF

P°S6 93's

COP HS HH Od Od

OSS AAS

a =

2D 2D 1D HO

SONS ONTON

=> =

TH >

a Aa

DOP OAR Pad ages Sid od od od ed ed Talal od hod Hod HH

Als

WS OFF APIS OSS Hod OD 05 O39 Hed ad oF od od

Cae

Cad

”

HOMAHNSAVCASHBDHOEWOONCSCSPMMVoSOMAHNOAN

hr AIS 09 SO SD

OD AD HOI ADS S HD S219 PES 99 OD HID HS O19 9D

SANSA TAA Aid ig Koo As ASN a aes ed

‘WV OLIV |

eS — ——_

Wid ony |

‘Wed p 1V

*ojoul

£3

MIDANNEANMOARNCHR A OMMRAN HORA

aN ARH NM NN RN

“10 VF av |

*IaJaWIOULIOY,L,

-OlSAP] Ue HI QINQ-ys10W Jo uorsserdeq

oes | 6°28

0°08 | 0°98

Ges | v'L8

ars | v°Z8

L‘cg \ 8°88

18 |! 0°06

e%s | 9°88

168 | 8°28

08 | $°68

chs | 9°88

L°8 | S°L8

0% | 8°98

0°08 | 9°F8

aes | L‘e8

818 | 8°F8

18 | 8°28

GB | 9°98

ars | HB

8°68 | 3°28

ees | L‘Z8

o%8 | 8°28

0'¢g | $06

198 | $°86

g‘cg | S16

SB | S06

0‘e8 | 3°28

00s | 1°98

os | S*Z8

BLL | O88

8°18 | 8s

L°6L | G06

e°c8 | 0°06

> >

co ct

Ss >

bs 2

Z z

“ALY 9} Ul JojoWOUNIEY,T,

*TeApoyjeg oY} vou asnoy & Jo vpueIeA YINOs 9} UT Ajep padrasqo are ‘Wa E pue “IK

‘uedo Aj[eleueds O18 SMOPULm 9} YOIYM JO ‘AIOJVIONL] VY} JO Ale do1J SY} UI popuadsns ore *W ‘dF PUL MW *V CT AOJZ syUSUINIZsSUT OY T

816 [6°98 |e*Ts | Bas*

“xe

*Idt.L *99Y

‘WV Ge

UUTLUL LOL A]

pay’ ieec’ | Per ueoyW

GIPS | gers

gls* | psh*

pee’ | oor.

per’ | sag

opr. | seg’

cor’ | 9Fg’

glr< | 1Z¢°

gcr* | poss

Lav* | Boot

aes

c| on €

bOPE Ue

GLY | Brst

alr® | $9¢

oogs | P2gs

OLb 6rg'

Lop‘ | gee"

187s | €6F

Lip | 06%‘

cers | gags

Sig 807

cers | Bogs

Ger* | post 6

Logs | Fees 8

865° 609° | L

Gers | Fee" 9

Eons | gag" ¢

Ler | gegs P.

POPs | gags ge

8zr* | O0S* SG

Osrs | 78° I

> > io)

= |e BS

? > BS

z 1s PS

poonpar sajouloieg

*1eak ay} JO UoIsnyoU0D

"YIC A oGE OF

JOURNAL

OFr

THE ASITIATIC SOCIETY.

No. 20.—August, 1833.

1.— Origin of the Shakya race, translated from the y (La), or the 26th,

volume of the mDo class in the Ka-gyur, commencing on the 161st

leaf. By M. Alex. Csoma de Koris.

On a certain occasion, when SuHaxya (in the text Nanda’

Adar" gar Quy Sangs-rgyas bchom-|dan hdas ; Sanscrit, Buddha. Bha-

gavan) was in the Nyagrodha grove (S. A’rama), near Ser-skya Gzhé

(S. Capilavastu), many of the Shdkyas that inhabited Capilavdstu

being gathered together in their council-house, questioned one another,

saying ; Shés-dan-tak ! (sayraqanm, ‘intelligent ones :” an address.)

** Whence sprang the Shakyarace? What is their origin? What

is the cause or reason thereof? And what is the ancient national

descent of the Shakyas ? If any one should come to us, and ask us

about those’points, we could not tellhim whence the Shdkyas originated.

Come, let us go to Bhagavdn and ask him on the subject, that we may

abide by his saying.”

Thereupon a very great number of the Shakyas inhabiting Capila-

vdstu, went to the place where Buagava’n (bcehom-ldan hdas) was, and

after having made their salutation by prostrating themselves at his feet,

sat aside.

Having addressed him by this term qSarxy, bésun-pa (Venerable

Sir!) they repeat again, how they had been assembled, on what subject

they had talked, and how they had resolved to come before him; and

then they begged of him, that he would acquaint them with those things

that they might afterwards tell them to others.

BuacavaAn thinking that, should he himself tell the history of

the ancient national descent of the Shakyas, then the Tirthikas and

386 Origin of the Shakya race. [Aue.

Parivrajakas (or they that are not of his followers) would say,

that Gautama tells whatever he pleases, to praise himself and his

tribe. Not to give them an opportunity for using such expressions,

he reflected within himself who were there among his disciples, who

could tell, in an instructive manner, the ancient descent ofthe Shakyas.

Perceiving Moneatyana to be present, and judging that he

was a fit person for that purpose, he called on him, saying, ‘‘ Monga-

lyana, 1 am somewhat indisposed (I feel some pain in my back),

and want repose; be you empowered by me to tell to the priests

(Gelongs) in an instructive manner the ancient national descent of the

Shakyas.” He, nothing loth, assented. Suaxya, seeing that he

obeyed his bidding, and having folded up his cloak, and put it for

a bolster or cushion, leaning on his right side, and laying his feet

upon each other, with a clear knowledge, recollection, = self-con-

sciousness, composed himself to sleep.

Méneatyana, (with the prefixed title x 5G7914"L, S.dyusman, long-

lived; Ayusmdn Méngalyana,) in order to collect his ideas on the

subject, entered into a deep meditation, wherein he saw the whole

story. Recovering from his ecstasy, he sat down on a Carpet,

spread on the ground, in the middle of the priests. Then he addressed

the Shakyas of Capilavastu, in the following manner :

«* Gautamas! (or descendants of Gautama, By af"). Whenthis

world was destroyed, the animal beings ( AHA’ Ba Sems-chan, Sanscrit

Satwa), mostly were born again amongst the gods, in that division of

the heaven, which is called that of ‘‘ clear light” (S. Abhdswara, Tib.

2552). And they resided there for a long period of time, having

an intellectual body, perfect in all its members and limbs, of a good

colour, shining by itself; they walked in the air or heaven, and their

food consisted of pleasures only.

At that time this great earth was turned into mere water ; it consist-

ed of one lake or ocean. At length, on the surface of that ocean

there was formed by the air a thin substance, like skim on the sur-

face of boiled milk, that grew hard and covered the whole sur-

face. That earthly essence was of a fine colour, odour, and taste.

The colour like that of fresh butter; the taste like that of refined

honey. Descendants of Gautama! Such was the beginning of this

world.

Then, some animal beings in Abhdswara, having finished their lives,

were born again to taste of the condition of man, and came to this

earth. They were with a perfect body produced from the mind (or

1833.] Origin of the Shakya race. 387

they had an intellectual body), having all their members and limbs en-

tire; they had a fine colour, and they were shining by themselves ; they

walked in the air or heaven, and fed on pleasures only ; they lived for

a long period.

There was at that time in the world no sun, no moon, no stars, no

distinction of time, no moment, no minute, no night and day, no

month and year. No distinction into male and female sex. They

were called all by this one name, Animal (NAN BS Sems-chan.)

Afterwards an animal being, of a covetous nature, tasted with his

finger’s top of the earthly essence (Sahi-b,chud NQ'Q 35) , and the

more he tasted the more he liked it, and the more he liked the more

he ate thereof, till by little and little he ate amouthful. Other animal

beings having observed him, they likewise did the same.

When those animal beings had eaten, successively, each a mouthful,

then entered into their bodies solidity and heaviness. The brightness

of their colour vanished, and then arose darknessin the world. Gay-

tamas ! After there had morally arisen darkness in the world, the sun

and moon appeared, and so the stars also, and the distinction of time

into moment, minute, night and day, month and year, began. They

passed thus a long time, living on that essential food. They that

had eaten but little of that food were possessed of a fine complexion

or colour, they that had eaten much became of a badcolour. And so

from the measure of food, there arose among them two species of colour.

«*Ha! Animal being! I have agood colour, thou hast a bad colour ;”—

thus spoke contemptuously one animal being to another. On account

of the sin of such proud talk with respect to colour, that earthly es-

sence disappeared.

Gautamas! The earthly essence having disappeared, the animal

beings, gathered together, uttered many lamentations, and recollecting

what a fine flavour it had, regretted much the loss of that substance.

Gautamas ! After the earthly essence of the animal beings had va-

nished, there arose from the earth a fatty substance of a fine colour

and taste. They lived for a long time by eating of that substance.

They that ate but little of that food were possessed of a good

complexion or colour; they that ate much became of a bad co-

lour. And thus from the measure observed in eating, there arose

among them two species of colour. ‘‘ Ha! Animal being! I have a

good colour, thou hast a bad colour ;” thus contemptuously addressed

one animal being to another animal being. On account of the sin of

pride, again, the fat of the earth disappeared.

2n2

388 Origin of the Shakya race. [Aue.

Gautumas ! The fatty substance of the earth having disappeared,

the animal beings gathering together, uttered lamentations; and recol-

lecting what a fine flavour it had, they regretted much its loss: but

they could not tell in words their sentiments.

Gautamas ! After the greasy substance of the earth had vanished,

there arose a sugar-cane plantation, of a fine colour, odour, and taste.

The animal beings. passed afterwards a long time by living on_ that

food, until the same cause led to its disappearance.

Gautamas! After the sugar-cane plantation had vanished, there

came forth clean and pure salu (rice), without being ploughed or sown,

having no straw, no husk, no chaff; if cnt in the evening it ripened

again till the next morning (or there was every evening and morning

ready a fresh crop). The animal beings passed a long time living

on salu.

From the use of that fruit there arose the distinction of sexes.

Some of the animal beings became males, and some females. The

different sexes regarded each other with fixed eyes. The more they

regarded each other, the more they became affectionate and desired

each other. Being observed by others, they were reproached by

them for their actions, and hated. They threw on them stones,

clods, &c. (in the same manner as now they use at the cele-

bration of nuptials, to cast or sprinkle on the bride scented

powder, perfume, chaplets, clothes, and parched rice, saying, May you

be happy !) and reproved them much. The others, in their turn, replied,

**Why do you thus abuse us now, is there no other proper time for

telling us these things ?”’ |

Gautamas ! Thus what anciently was regarded as an immoral action,

is now taken for a virtue. They restrained themselves for a time (for

2, 3, or 7 days) from satisfying their lust. But afterwards not being’

able to contain themselves, they commenced to make some covert, or

hiding place, whither they might retire from the sight of others to

satisfy their lust; saying repeatedly, We will practise here what is

not to be done elsewhere, and uttering, Khyim, khyim ; covert, covert,

or house, house.

Gautamas! This is the first beginning of building houses.

They used to gather in the evening the sa/u that was required for

the evening repast, and in the morning that which they wanted in the

morning. Afterwards it happened once that a certain animal being

having gathered sdiu in the evening for the next morning also, when

he was called on by another animal being to go and gather sdlu, he said

to him, O animal being, take heed to thine own sdlu, I have brought

1833.] Origin of the Shakya race. 389

yester-evening the sdlu, which I ‘require this morning. Then the

other animal being reflected with himself thus; Ah well then!

I shall hereafter take sdlu for 2,3, nay for 7 days, at once.” He

did afterwards accordingly as he had said. Then an animal being

said to him, ‘‘ Come, let us go to bring sdlu.”’ He then said to him, O

animal being,take care for thine own salu; ‘‘ IT for myself have brought at

once, for seven days.” Then that animal being reflected with himself

thus, ‘‘ O well, very well, 1 shall take at once for fifteen days—for

one month.” And he did accordingly. When the sd/w had been

taken thus by anticipation by these animal beings, there grew after-

wards salu that was covered with straw, husk, and chaff, and

when cut down, grew not again.

Then those animal beings assembled together, and reflected on their

former state thus:

Shes-dan-tak ! (Sayr4"5m), &c.) See leaves 168, 169. [Here fol-

lows a repetition of the above described stories respecting the several

changes that took place im the state of the animal beings. How perfect

they were formerly, and how degenerate they are now.]

Afterwards, being gathered together, some of them said, ‘‘ We must

mete out the land and assign the boundary of each property ; say-

ing, This is thine, and this is mine.’”’ Accordingly, they measured and

divided the land, and erected land-marks.

Gautamas ! This is the first time in the world that men commenced

to erect land-marks. This also was a natural consequence.

It happened afterwards, that an animal being, who had his own sdlu,

took away that of another not being given to him (or stole it).

Other animal beings having seen him, that, though he had his own

sdlu, he had taken away that of another, not being given him,

they said thus to him, ‘‘ Oh animal being! thou having thine own

salu, why takest thou that of another, without being given thee ?’”’ They

seized him and dragged him on this and on that side, and took him into

the congregation, and then reproved him thus, ‘‘Sirs! this animal be-

ing, having his own sdlu, has taken away three times that of another

without its being given unto him.”

Then those animal beings said to this, thus, ‘‘ Oh! animal being,

thou having thy own sdlu, why takest thou that of another which he had

not given thee? Oh! animal being; go now away, henceforth do not

act in this manner?” Then that animal being thus said to the others,

‘Intelligent beings ! This animal being having dragged me on this side

and on that side, on account of the salu, taking me into the congre-

gation, has also abused me (with hislanguage).” Then those animal

390 Origin of the Shdkya race. [Aue.

beings thus said to that animal, “Ha! animal being! after having

dragged this animal hither and thither on account of the sdlu, and

having brought him into the congregation too, why hast thou abused

him? Oh! animal being, go thou now thy way, hereafter do not thus.”

Then those animal beings reflected with themselves thus, Intelligent

beings! On account of sd/u, one is dragged hither and thither, and

is rebuked also in the congregation. But we should meet, and from

among us we should elect one (who is of a better complexion, hand-

somer countenance, more beautiful, more fortunate, and more renown-

ed) for the master and proprietor of all our fields or lands.

He shall punish from among us those that are to be punished. He

shall reward those that merit to be rewarded. And from the produce

of our lands we shall give him a certain part, according to a rule.

They accordingly met, and elected one for their master and proprie-

tor of their lands, and for the arbitrator of their controversies, saying to

him ; ‘‘ Come, animal being, punish from among us those that are to be

punished, and reward those with a gift that merit to beremunerated ; from

all the products of our lands we will pay you a certain rate, ac-

cordingly to arule.” Afterwards on both sides, they did accordingly.

Since he was carried (or honoured) by a great multitude of ani-

mal beings, he was called qarqaraayia AMang-pos bkur-va ; Sans-

crit, Maha Sammata, ‘‘ Honoured by many.”

Gautamas ! At the time of Maha Sammata, man was called by this

name, ‘‘ Animal being.”

[The following five leaves (from 171—175) are occupied with an

enumeration of the descendants of Maud Sammarta down to Karna

(&°q"Sa) at Potala ( 3QF4 Gru-hdsin* the harbour.) He had two

sons, Gorama and Buarapuwasa (T. rNa-va-chan.) The former took

the religious character, but Gotama being afterwards accused of the mur-

der of a harlot, was unjustly impaled at Potala, and the latter succeeded

to his father. He dying without issue, the two sons of Gorama inherit,

who were born in a preter-natural manner ; from the circumstances of

their birth, they and their descendants are called by several names ;

as, YA Yay HN Yan-lag-s,kyes ; (S. Angirasa,) QrafQ 19a ; Nyi-mahi-

gnyen, (S. Surya Vansa,) Gautama, fat bY; ArLayaayy Bu-ram

shing-pa, (S. Iskhwaku.) One of the two brothers dies without issue,

the other reigns under the name of IksHwakv.

To him succeeds his son, whose descendants (one hundred) after-

wards successively reign at Potala (3'Q4), Gru-hdsin. The last of

* The ancient Potala, or the modern Tatéa, at the mouth of the Indus,

1833.] Origin of the Shakya race. 391

whom was qvLaf’ AG'Y QU’ Bqrq: Ikshwaku Virudhaka, ae

Vidéhaka.) He has four sons, y1raynqrmna, qm’, Wa" ny B

Q34, and que SQ" Ss. After the death of his first wife, he marries

again. He obtains the daughter of a king, under the condition that he

shall give the throne to the son that shall be born of that princess. By

the contrivance of the chief officers, tomake room for the young prince

to succession, the king orders the expulsion of his four sons.

They taking their own sisters with them, and accompanied by a

great multitude, leave Potala (q° 285) , g° towards the Himalaya, and

reaching the bank of the Bhagirathi river (yQ"933" Qu" %) settle there,

not far from the hermitage of Capiza the Rishi (SQ YQ NI YOO.

5|4), and live in huts made of the branches of trees. Theylive there

on hunting; and sometimes they visit the hermitage of Capita the

Rishi. He observing them to look very ill, asks them why they

were so pale. They tell him how much they suffer on account of their

restraint or continence. He advises them to leave their own uterine

sisters, and to take themselves (to wife) such as are not born of

the same mother with them. O great Rishi! said the princes, is it

convenient for us todo this? Yes, Sirs, answered the Rishi, banished

princes may act in this way. Therefore, taking for a rule the advice

of the Rishi, they do accordingly, and cohabit with their non-uterine

sisters, and have many children by them. The noise of them

being inconvenient to the Rishi in his meditation,he wishes to change

his habitation. But they beg him to remain in his own place, and to

design for them any other ground. He therefore marks them out the

place where they should build a town: since the ground was given to

them by Capra, they called the new city Capilavastu. They multiply

there exceedingly. The gods seeing their great number, show them

another place for their settlement. They build there a town, and call

it by the name of Way AYA Lhas-bstan, (shown by a god.)

Remembering the cause of their banishment, they make it a law,

that no one of them hereafter shall marry a second wife of the same

tribe, but that he shall be contented with one wife.

At Potala ( 3" QF4) the king IksHwaxu ViruDHAKA, recollecting

that he had four sons, asks his officers, what has become of them. They

tell him, how for some offence His Majesty had expelled them, and

how they had settled in the neighbourhood of the Himdlaya, and that

they have taken their own sisters for their wives, and have been much

multiplied. The king, being much surprised on hearing this, exclaims

several times: Shakya! Shdkya! Is it possible! Is it possible! (or

392 Second Report on the Geology of Hyderabad. [Avea.

O daring ! O daring !) 2" phod-pa, and this is the origin of the

Shakya name.

After the death of Iksuwaku VIRUDHAKA, A’ Lay HGY"Q amy Bary

at Potala, succeeds his younger son HAYr"5451Q , rgyal-srid dgah,

(he that desires to reign.) On his dying without children, the banished

princes successively inherit. The three first have no issue; the son of

AGE} STI"S4, the fourth prince, is, Gnag-hjog, aN QEa). His son is

ay Saf. His descendants to the number of 55,000 have reigned at Capi-

Javdstu. [An enumeration of the princes who reigned at Potala after

Ixsuwakv’ follows, which is indentical with the list in Sanskrit authori-

ties ; the names being translated into Tibetan according to their literal

meaning ; as for Maha Sammata, Mang posbkur-va, greatly honored, &c. ]

Here ends the narration of MoneatyaNA. SHA’KYA approves and re-

commends it to the priests.

ct pS SS

I1.—Second report on the Geology of Hyderabad. By H. W. Voysey,

Esq. Surgeon and Geologist to the Trigonometrical Survey of India,

dated Secanderabad, the 28th June, 1820.

I had the honor of submitting a geological description of part of the

dominions of His Highness the Nizam to the Marauzss of Hasrines in

June last, since which I have visited a considerable additional portion

of the same country, including part of the Honorable Company’s terri-

tory. I now beg leave to offer a more complete geological sketch of

the country through which I have passed, embracing in a great measure

the substance of the former report, but more systematically arranged.

The space included between the extreme points of my different jour-

neys is about 3° of latitude and 5° of longitude, viz. from 16° to 19°

N. lat. and from 77° to 82° E. long.: within it are four rivers, the

Goddveri, Kistna, Maujira and Moussa, two of which may be ranked

among the principal rivers of India, viz. the Godavert and the Kistnah.

The two first-named rivers take their rise in the Western Ghauts, and

some of their tributary streams at their origin are only separated a few

miles from each other. Their general course, is nearly south-east. The

Manjira differs the most from that course, being forced to double on

itself when it approaches the high land, commencing about thirty miles

north-west of Hyderabad. The course of the rivers accords with that

of the ranges of mountains, and the valleys through which they run.

Mountains.

The granitic part of this country may be called both mountainous and

lilly; and in the plains and valleys are found elevations which are mini-

1883.] Second Report on the Geology of Hyderabad. 393

atures of the loftier ranges. These ranges are few in number; and re-

markably interrupted and irregular, their extension inconsiderable, and

their height above the level of the sea about 2,500 ft., most of them

fallmg far short of that height. Single isolated hills and groups, with

round and conical summits, are by far their most common features.

Although the complete isolation of these hills and groups first

strikes the observer as being the prevailing character, on a closer ex-

amination it will be found that the apparently isolated hills are connect-

ed at their base by scarcely distinguishable elevations, pursuing the

N. W. and S. E. direction, common to them and the larger ones.

They are extremely bare and rugged in their outline, and consist of

piles of rock, one block being heaped above the other in irregular suc-

_ cession on an enormous mass of concentric granite. In the process of

decomposition these form tors and logging stones of a singular ap-

pearance.

The hill on which the Fort of Bhowanigarh is built and that of Maul

Ali, 2017 ft. above the level of the sea, may be taken as specimens of

the isolated hills and groups; and the ranges of Mulkapur and Gol-

conda as specimens of the continued. The only parts of the country

which are entitled to the name of plains are those in the neighbourhood

of the rivers, being formed by their inundations and therefore of small

extent.

The above description applies to the greater part of the granite

country : those ranges of granite however which run N. E. and S. W.

from Gunttir to Gondwana, forming the pass of the Kistna at Bej-

wara and that of the Goddveri at Papkunda, are of a different character ;

the ranges being less interrupted, more elevated above the plains,

although not higher above the level of the sea, and altogether of a dif-

ferent structure. Their sides are very precipitous, and oblige the tra-

veller to use his hands and knees for a considerable portion of the

ascent.

Their outline is not at all rugged, and the logging stones and tors

of the former granite are nowhere visible.

The Cavalry cantonment of Ba’tara’M, six miles N. of Secanderdbad,

is one of the highest inhabited villages of the granite country, and from

thence to the northward, the country gradually decreases in height as

far as Menachpet : the same takes place more suddenly at Malkapur

to the eastward, and at Patancheré to the N. W. The city of

Hyderabad, close to the walls of which the river Moussa runs, is by

barometrical measurement 1672 feet above the level of the sea, and the

cantonment of Secanderabad 1837, which agrees with Colonel Lams-

394° Second Report on the Geology of Hyderabad, [Ave.

Ton’s trigonometrical measurement within 19 feet. Colonel Lams-

ToNn’s observatory being 10 feet high, and the house where the obser-

vation was taken between 5 and 10 feet lower than the base of the -

observatory, the agreement will be much closer.

The outline of the basaltic trap hills is smooth and rather flattened

with a few conical elevations in the range; or they consist of an accu-

mulation of round hills with deep ravines intersecting and separating '

them. They are covered with long grass to their summits. Their |

course is the same with the granite they cover, but it frequently hap-

pens that no regular direction can be perceived.

The sandstone country and rocks are flat, the sides of the hills

steep, with extensive gaps in the course of their range, at times nearly

reaching to their bases; their direction is N. W. and S. E. or nearly

so, and it is probable that they extend over a considerable portion of

the S. E. part of Gondwana.

Rivers.

The rivers of India, and particularly the Godaveri and Kistna, are

subject to great variations in the quantity of their waters dependent on

the periodical rains. The small rivers are nearly dry in the month of.

May, and the channels of the larger contract to a fifth from their size in

the middle of the rains.

I before mentioned that the tributary streams take their rise near to

each other, and pass through a country of nearly similar formation, viz.

basaltic trap, and discharge their waters into the sea within 60:miles of.

éach other by several mouths, which like those of the Nile or the Ganges

run through adelta formed by their own alluvium. Their waters are much

discoloured in the rains, and deposit on their banks and throughout the

whole extent of the inundation, which takes place more or less every

year, a thick layer of black alluvial soil, called by Europeans “< black

cotton soil.” These banks vary from 50 to 30 feet in height, the

latter being the usual height of those of the Kistna. About 50 miles

from their embouchure they both pass through the chain of granitic

mountains which extend from Gantur to Gondwana before men-

tioned.

' The pass of the Kistna at Bejwdra is much broader than that of the

Goddveri at Pdpkonda. This may be the cause of the more extensive

inundations of the latter, since its channel is contracted from a breadth

of two and one’ mile to two furlongs by the lofty and precipitous sides

of these mountains. This defile constitutes the S. E. boundary of His

Highness’s dominions. Its extent from the last Nizam’s village to the

hearest Company’s village is about ten miles, which space is uninhabited,

.1833.] ‘Second Report on the Geology of Hyderabad. 895

‘the banks or sides of the mountain being so steep as even to preclude

communication in any other mode than by water. ;

The extent of the modern inundation varies from six to three

miles on each side of the river, but judging from the distance at which

the black alluvium is found from the banks of the river, these periodical

floods have been more extensive*.

The last took place in the year 1816, and washed away houses and

cattle in great numbers; and there are traditions of two others in the

course of the last, century, each greater than the last. Iam _ not able

to speak with so much certainty of the inundations of the Kiséna ;

I have however seen the black alluvium covering the plain in

which the diamond mines of Purted/ are situated, extending six miles

from its banks; also at Shermahomedpet, five miles N. W. of its

bank.

These inundations are considered as important benefits by the inha-

bitants, and the produce of the land is proportionally increased after

their occurrence.

Tanks.

The lakes I have seen are all artificial, and are found only in the

granitic and sandstone country ; they are usually formed by uniting two

projecting points of low hills, which nearly separate the upper half of a

valley from the lower, by enormous causeways of granite, or mounds

of earth, which collect the different streams rushing from the‘hills

_during the rainy season, forming a sheet of water from three to ten miles

in circumference.

This mode of retaining water artificially is probably coeval with the

first increase of population in this country, as the small supply of water

derived from wells would not be equal to the cultivation of rice, which

-is the only grain extensively produced in the granitic soil.

After the rains the loss they sustain from irrigation, evaporation, &¢.

is supplied by infiltration, nevertheless many become dry before the

‘monsoon recommences. Those tanks which are neglected and no

longer supply rice-fields are speedily covered with the large leaves and

flowers of the nelumbo indica, othelia alismoides, and other aquatic plants’:

their waters acquire a noisome smell and unwholesome taste. The num-

ber of tanks and their state of repair afford a fair criterion of the aa

perity of the country. —

* From subsequent observations, I am inclined to believe that this alluvium or

diluvium was the result of a deluge of water which found its course to the sea by

the present opening of the rivers—and that they have done no more than form

their beds in it.

25 2

396 Second Report on the Geology of Hyderabad. fAve.

They are less frequent in the sandstone country, and the unirrigated

cultivation is accordingly more abundant.

In the basaltic trap they are rarely seen, and the irrigation of rice

-when cultivated is performed solely by wells.

Hot Springs.

There are two hot-springs. One called Gonddla is situated in the

sandy bed of the Godaveri, about two furlongs from its left bank, a few

miles below the pagoda of Baddrachelam. It is covered in the rainy

“season by the river, but is left dry during the greater part of the year.

The bed of the river about one mile and a half wide contains granitic

sand, above which appear rocks of granite and trap mixed in various

ways.

The spring is situated close to these rocks. When I visited it in

February, it was covered with sand, and we were obliged to dig in three

places before we discovered the hottest part. Around this spot to the

distance of 15 yards the temperature of a stick thrust into the ground

was sensibly raised, and on digging to the depth of three or four feet,

water was found hot, but of an inferior temperature to that of the

central spot. Its temperature at sun rise was 139°, that of the others

120° and 130,° whilst that of the air and river was 70°. The falling

in of the land, the pit being about four feet deep, so evidently reduced

the temperature, that it is very probable we should have found it much

higher on digging deeper, which we were prevented from doing by the

inconvenience the labourers suffered from the hot-water. The presence

of sulphuretted hydrogen was sensible to the smell; but the impreg-

nation was not strong enough to blacken a silver pencil case : the tis-

‘sue of a slipper was slightly discoloured on being dipped into the

water.

On evaporating 2880 grains, six grains of saline matter were left

behind, consisting of sulphate of soda, common salt, and muriate of

lime.

It is much resorted to from its supposed efficacy in curing cutane-

ous disorders. It is worthy of remark, that the rocks in the neigh-

‘bourhood contain no iron pyrites. Its heat therefore cannot be ascribed

to the spontaneous combustion of that mineral.

On the opposite bank of the river is a bluff rock of sandstone, through

the crevices of which water infiltrates and is collected in small reser-

voirs, caused by the continued dropping on the soft stone. Its tem-

perature at nine o’clock was 68°. I do not consider this to be the mean

temperature of the place, since its latitude, 18° N. and height above

the level of the sea not exceeding 130 feet, would make its mean tem-

1833.] “Second Report on the Geology of Hyderabad. 897

perature much higher. It is called by the natives, <<‘ the cold spring,”

in contradistinction to its neighbour Gondala.

About 30 miles to the N. W. of this place is the hot-spring of

Bangah, situated in a valley surrounded by sandstone rocks. It is a

pool of water, about 40 feet long by 20 broad and five feet deep. From

the deepest part a number of bubbles of air or steam are continually

ascending ; there its temperature is 110°, but at the sides 100°. It holds

in solution a small quantity of carbonate of lime. It is surrounded by

loose blocks of a porous black limestone: the water is tasteless, and

remarkably pure in other respects.

I have frequently received information of the existence of springs of

water both in the granite, the trap, and the sandstone countries, but

have always been disappointed in my search after them; as I have

invariably found that the rills which flow down to the rivers are sup-

plied by infiltration of water through the rocks, from the higher ground,

and their temperature always that of the surrounding atmosphere.

This perfectly accords with the structure of the country, and the absence

of rain during eight months of the year. The hills being none of them

high enough to intercept the clouds, and deprive them of their water.

The temperature of a well at Beder, 200 feet deep, was 77° in the

month of March, and that of a well, 40 feet deep, at Secanderabad, 78°

in November and in June: this is probably very near the mean tem-

perature of both places.

Soils.

The fertility of the soils which compose the cultivated districts of

the granitic part of this province would depend greatly on the facility

with which the rock of which they are formed, decomposes, were not

water the most important requisite in the cultivation of rice. The soil

is of course siliceous, but varies as much as the granite rock itself,

which will be described in another part of this sketch. Generally, it

has few spontaneous productions. The rich valley of Malkapur forms

an exception, and it may be said that usually the spontaneous fertility

is in the inverse ratio of height above the level of the sea.

The following is an analysis of a garden soil at the cantonment of

Secanderabad, which has not received much manure.

Specific gravity of soil 1°70. Four hundred and eighty grains con-

tained; viz.

Of water of absorption,............- ied Naistesetwidl aierebletctesaishats:aheeste 10 grs.

Stones, consisting of quartz and felspar,....... ceseeseeecseces 255

eetanle Gre yes % otic dc date Oinele sive oopwtye 50-4 Bite (PY Ata 2

- Siliceous sand,......++++. SR LONG Fe. VARIO AICHE ITS ACR I IA nt aa

898 ‘Second Report on the Geology of Hyderabad. ) [Ave.

“ Of minutely divided matter separated by infiltration; viz.

Carbonate, of lime, <):-\. 2) jab erste a eremiy sles bis. ores elegste wate ps at Piven $ 7

Vegetable matter, destructible by heat, .......... slejasteioleresei ahs sail

Oxidexof rons: ister nate keris leiic\oas oe ese\cue ckesiplieiavaloluncietelletelats 2.5

Soluble matter, common salt, AES SHRM suslate aleiaietcacelenetene paiodon 4

Bileeay sores sie celle eee we sete oes las ewe SS es Setsibiuesesam OD

Aluininia, Vad. itiieaele sles Seles chloe webiste kikis old pi cidvalclataiela’ ¢ dhemtoletercge 8

Loss 10.5

Total. 480.0

The soil of the basaltic trap country is generally very retentive of

moisture, and accordingly those plants which do not require an artifi-

cial supply of water are its principal productions: such are cotton,

jovan (ligusticum ojwan), horse gram, Zea mays, carthamus tinctorius,

ricinus communis, &c. &c.

_ The iron clay in the environs of Beder is very sterile, and is so

porous that all water percolates through it to the substratum, which is

basalt ; from this cause it is that the wells at that place are deep.

- The sandstone soil contains a considerable quantity of clay, and is

retentive of moisture; irrigation is however employed for rice, and

generally it may be said to MEANS of the nature of both the trap and

granite soils.

Above all others that I have hitherto seen, that arising from the de-

composition of the clay slate marked B. in the map, is the richest and

most spontaneously productive.

On the tops of its mountains T saw the loftiest teak trees, and in its

plains the most exuberant vegetation.

The black alluvium found on the banks of all the rivers except the

Moussa, which takes its rise in granitic country, is of the same nature

with that which covers the trap mountains from the decomposition of

which it arises.

Rocks.

The description of the soils naturally leads me to that of the rocks,

of the debris of which they are composed.

The granite is found of all shades of grey, from black to white ; the

most predominant is reddish grey; these colours depend upon the fel-

spar and the mica, and on the hornblende, which often occupies the

place of and accompanies the mica, and is with difficulty distinguished

from it. Compact felspar of a greenish tinge is a very common ingre-

dient, and in ‘several places I‘have found’ carbonate of lime a consti-

tuent ; the quantity, however, is generally small, and only to be detected

by its effervescence in acids. A tuffaceous limestone is found through-

1833.] Second Report on the Geology of Hyderabad. 399

out the granite in nests and beds; my knowledge of it is yet too Hemted:

to decide on its nature.

The granite very frequently contains angular and rounded masses of?

a micaceous granite, which appear to have been enclosed in it when in

a fluid state; at times the edges of these masses are commixed with

those of the containing rock, and at others the adhesion is so loose as

to allow the mass to fall out, as the more easily decomposable matrix

wears away. Ihave seen these masses, through the whole extent of

the granite country ; and it first suggested to me the probability of the

contemporaneous formation of the whole.

I may here observe, that the specific gravity of these masses is greater

than that of their matrix, as is also their infusibility, from the elt

quantity of mica they contain.

The granite of the Godaveri at Papkunda is never in concentric

layers. It contains half-formed garnets and micaceous iron ore.

The felspar of some specimens has a very pearly lustre: this mineral

is sometimes wanting, and the rock then consists of quartz and garnets,

with a few specks of micaceous iron ore.

At Bejwdra the granite is slaty (gneiss), with an eastern dip at an

angle of 70 or 80 degrees; the felspar is more abundant. In some

irregular veins of earthy carbonate of lime, I found earthy grey man-

ganese ore.

' At Ghartbpet, a few miles from Paltnshah, the rock which I bee

lieve to be a continuation of the Kainikgiri range and connected with

the granite of the province, is acompound of mica, kyanite, garnets,

quartz, and felspar. If the rock were at all slaty, its name would be

mica slate; it is however not at all schistose, but a solid mass of

rock three hundred feet in height, and four or five hundred in length.

Trap veins.

The trap veins. which run through this rock constitute the most

remarkable fact inits history. They consist of hornblende rock, green-

stone, greenstone porphyry and basalt, containing minute crystals of fel-

spar. They are found in every part of the granite, and have generally

the same direction, nearly E. and W., with a zigzag course of various

length and breadth.

. Some of them have been traced fifteen or twenty miles, their breadth

varying from a few feet to 100, 200 and 300; at times their edges are

commixed with those of the granite: the central masses affect a rhomboi-

dal form, which in the course of their decomposition become rounded,

In a few instances I have seen these trap rocks in beds which do not

appear to have any particular directions.

400 Second Report on the Geology of Hyderabad. [Aue.

This was the case in the bed of the Goddveri near the hot-spring,

also on the banks of the river, and 15 miles inland, near Palin-

shah, and at the foot of the micaceous rock of Ghartbpet.

Sandstone.

The sandstone varies considerably in composition and colour. Its

variations however occur principally in the neighbourhood of its junc-

tions with the other rocks. Its most common cement is lithomarge,

which is also found in it in nests and beds of various sizes, and of

eolour both white and reddish white.

It is thus found at Jallikara Giidani, 20 miles N. E. of Ellore, at

Chintapet, at Palinshah, at Mangapet and Tyellaptram.

At its junction with the granite to the S. E. of Hyderabad, twelve

miles from Thatkir, it would be scarcely recognized as sandstone.

It there consists of a conglomerate, containing pebbles of quartz,

felspar, a few scales of mica, and rounded pieces of a rock resembling

the granite of Pdpkunda, ina cement of indurated clay strongly im-

pregnated with iron. It soon however changes to a rock, containing

grains of sand cemented by lithomarge as before described.

The rounded pebbles of quartz, in some instances, form nearly the

whole of the mass. It sometimes contains septaria of a black ferru-

ginous sandstone of a curvilinear form, which project as the rock de-

composes.

A few miles to the N. W. of Buddrachellam commences a range of

flat sandstone hills called by the natives Vindhaya ; they extend upwards

of sixty miles on the right bank of the river.

Both white and grey sandstone were brought to me gathered at their

bases.

At the junction of the sandstone with the granite at Ramgiri it

contains crystals of red felspar and a few scales of mica. In no instance

have I seen this sandstone stratified. The height of the highest flat

range is about 3000 feet.

Basailtic Trap.

The basalt which covers the granite to the N. W. of Hyderabad at

first appears only on the summits of some of the hills; the latter rock

still occupying the valleys and forming the sides of the mountains. It

afterwards gradually increases in extent until it covers it in all its parts,

the granite re-appearing only in the beds of some of the rivers, and

forming the base of some isolated peaks. It is sometimes found

columnar, the columns being of all sizes, from a foot to a yard and a

half in diameter, as at Oudghir, Monegal, &c. It varies from a very

compact semi-crystalline rock, resembling hornblende rock, to a porous:

1833.] ‘Second Report on the Geology of Hyderabad. 401

basalt which passes into wacken, containing stilbite, mesotype, icthyoph-

thalmite, heliotrope, calcedony, green earth, quartz with cr ystals of

calcareous spar imbedded, the form of which the quartz has taken,

demonstrating that this mineral has been the last deposited. The

wacken passes into iron clay, and in some places the basalt may be seen

with the wacken and iron clay in the space of afew yards. The latter

forms elevated table land at Béder, which is 2,359 feet above the level

of the sea; it closely resembles that of the red hillsat Madras, Nellore,

Singhirikunda (in the two latter on granite), all on the sea coast, but in

this instance rests on basalt. I observed in it plumb blue lithomarge,

and pisiform iron ore.

On the basaltic hill of Medkunda I observed large masses of flint

lying on the surface and deeply connected ; also pieces of a siliceous

stone, containing shells which had lost their carbonic acid: the external

surface of these masses effervesced in acids. These shells belong to

the genera turbo and cyclostoma, and living specimens are found in

the beds of most of the rivers as well as on the rocks in their neigh-

bourhood. The specific gravity of these stones varies from 1:90 to

2-00, that of the flint is 2°60. A few miles from this place I observed

the same shells enclosed in small pieces of earthy limestone; they were

lying on the basalt, which is here 2000 feet above the level of the sea

and about 200 above the river Manjira: the base of the hill being

granite, and the basalt not occupying more than 100 feet.

Quartz rock occurs in the granite in beds, as at Pitlam, Gazypet,

and in the environs of Hyderabad : the rock in the neighbourhood of

the latter is elevated 40 or 50 feet above the level of the plain through

which it runs; its course is north and south, and its extent about twelve

miles. It contains considerable quantities of amethystine quartz, which

is not pure enough for the purposes of the lapidary.

- The loose masses of quartz, as well as those which appear above the

surface, have a rhomboidal form. This rock runs directly opposed to

the greenstone veins, and intersects three of them. I have reason to

believe that the trap passes through the quartz, although I have not

yet distinctly observed it, except in one instance near Hyderabad.

Clay Slate. ~

The clay slate which is found to the eastward of Hyderabad, between

Byardm and Paltinshah, is about 20 miles in breadth and perhaps 30

miles in length, with a north and south direction. One of its highest

points, Panch-bondal, is 2600 feet above the level of the sea. The

valleys contain sandstone, clay slate, and quartz rock ; this eee 18 also

found on the summits in yeins and beds,

402 Second Report on the Geology of Hyderabad. [Ave.

Some of the mountains exhibit marks of great disturbance: the dip

of their strata is to the south-east, and on their summits the quartz

rock and clay slate appear to be indiscriminately mixed. The chasms

formed by these disturbances give passage to foaming cascades, the

only sound which breaks the awful silence of their solitude.

The rock is generally indurated clay slate passing into flinty slate,

containing drawing slate but no roofing slate.

On the banks of the Kistna between Amrawaté and Warripilé

beyond which I have not traced it, and from Warripilé to within three

coss of Nacricul, is found a limestone in horizontal strata.

When first seen it lies on the surface of the earth in large flat masses

partly covered with alluvial soil; its colour varying from a dirty white

to a pinkish white, from which it passes into a compact black rock which

is capable of receiving a good polish. It subsequently assumes a whitish

green and pinkish grey, and on the banks of the river it is found of all

these colours except the black. Veins of green hornstone are found

passing through it, and at times small masses of red iron ore. It con-

tains no petrifactions.

It is well adapted for building, for sculpture, for mortar, and I be-

lieve for water cement. Large pagodas and forts built of it bear fewer

marks of age than most of the granitic structures.

The town of Ddchapili is entirely built of it, as well as a large

pagoda and fort at Warripilt. The famous basso relievos of Amra-

watt, for the first account of which we are indebted to Colonel. Mac-

KENZIE, are formed from this rock.

A pure lime is obtained from numerous veins of calcareous spar on

the river bank, and I conceive the black limestone contains the requisite

proportion of alumina and iron for making a good water-cement.

No inland carriage is required, since it is quarried on the banks of

the river, and may be carried down at all seasons of the year to Ma-

sulipatam. :

An analysis of one hundred grains of grey slaty limestone gave

Carbonate of Lime,.............. 84

AASUNING Fase Te ote aie Gene ROR aE c 8

ATOM Re cers cute oc citer wie 4

Loss, Sheveuateasteta edie tae iota ete 4

Grains, 100

Iron Ores.

I have hitherto seen no ores of iron in the granite. The sandstone

and iron clay are the most productive. They consist principally of

earthy brown and red iron ores, poor in iron, but easily smelted. The

1833.) Second Report on the Geology of Hyderabad. 403

modes of smelting are well known to be very rude, and have been fre-

quently described*. On calculation I found that the price of their iron

in its best state was double that of the best Englishiron at home. The

ore from which the steel is produced, which goes by the name of the

“« Hyderabad steel,” is the same with that described by Dr. Hyne in

his travels in India, p. 191. I have not yet seen the process of making

it, but from a specimen which I found much inferior to the English

steel in hardness, I should suppose it not to be the same as the Indian

wootz so much valued at homet.

Diamond Mines.

On the banks of the Kistna and within reach of its inundations are

the celebrated diamond mines of Golconda. It is probable they have

been so named from their being the property of the sovereign of Gol-

conda, which kingdom received its name from the celebrated hill fort

and city called old Golconda, near the modern city of Hyderabad.

They are situated in a plain on the left bank of the Kistna, formed

by its alluvium, and bounded on the east by a chain of mountains run-

ning nearly north and south, on the west by the river, on the north by

the granite of Sher-Mahomed-pet, and on the south by that of Bezwara.

In this plain a few peaks of granite of 15 or 20 feet in height are seen

rising above the surface of the black alluvium, but none are found nearer

the mines than one mile anda half. The mine situated nearest the

hills is two miles distant from them. These hills consist of a mixture of

quartz, felspar, hornblende, and mica, the latter in very small quantity ;

the hills near them at Condapili are of sienite approaching to green-

stone, the hornblende being in the greatest proportion.

_ From the circumstance of these sienitic hills being surrounded by

granite on all sides, I venture to suppose that they are merely a repeti-

tion of the phenomenon of the trap veins on a much larger scale, in

this case forming mountains differing in their constituent parts, but not

more than I have observed in other instances. The taluses of these

mountains extend to a very short distance from their bases, and as I

was not able to find in the rubbish of the diamond mines any substrata

resembling them, WrERNeER’s supposition that these rocks, which he calls

trap from the examination of specimens, were the matrix of the dia-

mond, will prove unfounded. This receives a further confirmation from

the fact, that one of the mines near Pulichinta is situated on or near

limestone, and the mine of Malavili 20 miles south-east of Parteal lies

on granite and is surrounded by that rock.

* See Journ. As, Soc. ‘vol. i. p. 150. t+ See ditto, p. 245.

2F 2

404 Second Report on the Geology of Hyderabad. [Ave.

Of the six villages situated in this plain, Parteal is the only one in

which diamonds are sought for. There even no fresh excavations have

been made for many years, and the workmen have been since employed

in. examining the old rubbish of the former excavations. They believe,

in common with the searchers for diamonds in Hindustan, that the

‘ gem is always forming in the mine, although very slowly.

The village of Parteal presented a striking contrast to the Company’s

village we had just quitted: it was in ruins, and the inhabitants ill

clothed and half starved in their appearance. I afterwards visited the

mines of Antior one mile from the Kistna, Barthemit Pandoa, and

Malavili, but in none did I find labourers.

There is still a considerable quantity of ground unopened in all these

mines: indeed the sides of the excavations, which have produced the

finest diamonds in the world, still remain untouched. The want of

capital, and the objections of the zemindars to a farther encroach-

ment on the cultivated lands, may be the causes operating chiefly to

prevent farther researches, together with the fact of the cheapness and

plenty of the Brazil market.

The only stone common to all the mines I have visited, and which

I understood to be indicative of the presence of the diamond, is the

calcareous conglomerate*.

Garnets.

The garnet mine of Gharibpet is situated south of Paltnshah

about eight miles. As I advanced up the ravine, in which I noticed

veins of granite and trap and sand composed of mica, garnets, kyanite,

quartz, and felspar, large scattered masses of rock were strewed on

each side, which had fallen from the summit. On the top of. the

immense mass of rock were several detached pieces, no doubt destined

to fall as soon as decomposition shall have smoothed the way.

Accustomed to see garnets in mica slate in Scotland and. elsewhere,

I was disposed to call this rock by the same name, but.I did not per-

ceive in any one instance any thing like stratification.

I found it throughout composed of mica, garnets, ‘kyanite, quartz,

and felspar ; in some specimens the kyanite was next in abundance to

the mica. Veins of quartz containing kyanite were very frequent. The

garnets, which were seen in great profusion on the surface of the rock,

were generally of avery coarse:kind, as well as those which I found

strewed on the surface of the ground.

At the depth of eight or ten feet in the alluvium at the foot of the

rock were found the precious garnets. The theory of crystallization

* See a paper by Dr, Vorszy in the Asiatic Researches, vol. xv. p. 120.

1833.] Bactrian and Indo-Scythic Coins. AO>

proposed by Mr. Mzruvuzn*, and founded on experiment, will serve to

explain why the precious garnets are only found in the soil beneath

the rock. ¢

I conceive that in this instance, as well as many others I have wit-

nessed, of crystallization, the small particles of garnet are brought

together by molecular attraction; and by the temperature, which is

nearly constant, the moisture and superincumbent pressure, oranda of .

the precious stone are formed.

In this mode I have seen felspar and zeolite recrystallized, at. the

fiat of the rocks, as well as in the alluvium they afford by decom-

position.

. The garnets when collected are gently pounded, and the bad ones

broken ; those which survive the blows are reckoned of good quality.

The cheapness of these precious stones becoming greater every day,

from the quantity found in all parts of the world, and the facility and

exactness with which they are imitated rendering them of smaller value ;

the discovery of a fresh mine is scarcely worthy of notice.

I cannot close my present sketch without expressing how much I

have been assisted by the kindness of Mr. Russeuu, resident at Hydera--

bad, and of Mr, Rauru, a gentleman in His Highness’ service, who was

my fellow-traveller for three months in a difficult part of the country,

which I might never have seen but through his aid.

Til.—Bactrian and Indo-Scythic Coins—continued. By Jas. Prinsep,

F. R. S., See. As. Soc.

The present plate introduces us to some of the coins of Doctor Swinry’s

collection already alluded to in my last communication. It is as well

to premise that all order of arrangement is out of the question where

new objects are every day dropping in, and where the epoch of so many

of our coins is not yet satisfactorily ascertained. Thus it happens that

although headed ‘‘ Bactrian,” the last plate, as well as the present, con-

tains coins of other dynasties.

Dr. Swiney pursued a course very similar to that of Colonel Tod in

forming his collection.—‘‘ The plan I have found most successful under

favorable circumstances of locality, or where no one has already explored

the same ground, (and I have followed it many years before I heard of

Colonel Ton’s eminent success in the same pursuit,) is this : upon the line

of march [ employ an intelligent servant, generally a Musulman tailor,

to buy up old pyse, which the danyas in some towns are in the habit of

putting aside as useless, perhaps from father to son, and which rarely

* See Journal of Science and Arts, vol. i.

406 Bactrian and Indo-Scythic Coins. [Ave.

see the light except on occasions of this sort. Out of some dozens

procured in this manner for as many current pyse, a few may be suffi-

ciently curious to reward the trouble of search. Such beautiful coins

as Lieut. Burnes brought back with him from the Panjab and Oxus

are no longer to be procured in India; indeed ancient silver coins are

of very great rarity compared either with those of gold or copper, and

the only two Bactrian coins I have been so fortunate as to discover,

were obtained out of the limits of our provinces.”

I have not attempted to engrave any of the numerous sketches of his

antiques which Dr. Swiney has been so obliging as to forward, but

have confined myself to those of which he has sent sealing-wax im-

pressions, or paper casts made in the school-boy fashion (but not to be

despised on that account), by wrapping the coin in several folds of pa-

per, and rubbing the exterior with a key or hard blunt point.

Bactrian coins, Plate VIII.

Figs. 1, 2, and 3, are described at pages 311 and 313.

Fig. 4.—A small silver coin of Apollodotus, weighing 36 grs,

Obverse, Head with diadem and fillets, and a neckcloth, inscription

circular, close but quite distinct ; AIMOAAOAOTOY BAZSIAEQS

SOQTHPOS KAI SIAOMATOPOS. The introduction of the con-

junction KAI I do not remember to have seen on any other

Greek coin.

Reverse. A standing figure of Jupiter, rudely executed, holding a

thunderbolt in his right hand, raised, and a kind of shield

in the left: from the arms depend two ends of a sleeve or

scarf; on the right is asingular monogram, (No. 4. of the

series at the foot of the plate,) differmg widely from that

of Colonel Ton’s coin of the same king, (No. 6. of the same

series.) The legend is distinct but illegible, and agrees in cha-

racter with that upon many of the bull and elephant coins—

(see WiLson’s plates, figs. 3, 4,31; Ton, figs. 11, 12, &c.)

The native who brought this coin to Dr. Swiney stated that it was

procured by him at a town called Kaital, in the Sikh territory, not far

from /varndal.

Fig. 5.—A coin of Menander, agreeing in its general features with

the last; weight 34 grs.

Obverse. A well executed and intelligent face, with the diadem ;

latter part of the inscription not very distinct MENANAPOY

BASIAEQS SOTH(POS ?)

Reverse. The figure supposed to be Jupiter in the last coin appears in

this rather to be Minerva wielding the bolts of Jove, or it

1833.] Bactrian and Indo-Scythic Coins. 407

may be a native warrior throwing abundle of javelins or

darts. The monogram (No. 5) resembles the last without

the hook, (unless the hook below, as I at first supposed,

forms a part of it) ; one half of the inscription consists of the

same letters as appear on the coin of AppoLLoportus : it must

therefore be the native title equivalent to BactAcws cwrnpos,

This coin was purchased of a shroff in the bazar at Subdthi.

Tn favor of these two coins I may venture to repeat the remarks of

Professor ScuteceL, on the equally valuable pair discovered by Col.

Top.—‘‘ These two medals are beyond all price, as much for their ad-

mirable preservation as for their extreme rarity and their importance

to history.”’” And Il shall make no apology for also translating the

Professor’s learned commentary on that part of the Bactrian history

connected with them, at length, as much more satisfactory than a par-

tial gleaning or plagiarism of his remarks, which so well exemplify the

-use of numismatology in correcting the vagaries of historians.

“‘In the profound obscurity which envelopes the history of Bactria, we must cull

with care all that can throw the least jight upon it.

“‘ We find only two passages in ancient authors which mention hing APoLLoportus.

ARRIAN, the reputed writer of the Periplus, says, “Ag” 0b wéxpe viv ev Bapuydtos

mohor al mpoxwpodor dpaxual, ypauwarw “EAAnviKots eykexapayuéval, érlonua tev

per Arekavdpoy BeBaoirevedtwy ’AmoAAodoTov Kal Mevdvdpov. “For this reason

even now ancient drachme are current at Barygaza [Brigu-gdcha or Baroach},

bearing, in Greek characters, the stamp of the kings who reigned after ALEXANDER,

Apo.tiopotus and MENANDER.”

The two coins now brought to light, agree better with this passage

from ArriAn than those of Col. Top, on account of their exact simi-

larity, which would allow them naturally to be coupled together in

speaking of them.

“The other passage concerning APoLLOpOTUS is from the summary of the history

of Trogus Pompeius, which is placed at the head of the abridgment of Justin.

Prolog. 1xxi.

“ Deinde, quo rege pugnante, Scythice gentes, Sarance et Asiani Bactra occupa-

vére et Sogdianos. Indice quoque res addite, geste per Apoliodotum et Menandrum

reges eorum.””

‘The printed editions have Apollodorum, which was corrected by the learned

andjudicious BAYER, on the authority of the Periplus. ‘This reading is now fully

confirmed by a medal (two), an authentic and public monument. VAILLANT and

LoNnGUERUE suspected a corruption of the text, and sought to correct it in another

way. ‘They thought that the name of ApoLLoporus, the historian of the Parthian

and Bactrian kings, had been confounded with that of a king, and LoNGUERUE pro-

posed to read ex Apollodoro, geste per Menandrum et Eucratidam, reges eorum.

This is not correcting but disfiguring arbitrarily an ancient text; and yet the latest

editor of JuSTIN in France, M. Lumarre, recommends this unwarrantable conjec-

ture!

408 Bactrian and Indo-Scythic Coins. [Ave.

“Bayer, however, while he reinstates APoLLopoTuS, disputes his title to the

kingdom of Bactria, which Col. Top again vindicates with reason. Bayer would

make him one of those Greek kings who, at that epoch, reigned separately over a

part of India, such as Demerrivs, son of Eutaypremus. This is in the first

place contrary to the text of Trocus Pompetus : for the word eorum applies to

Bactra et Sogdianos. The coin confirms this refutation, for by what motive

should a Greek king, not having possession of Bactria, put a legend in Bactrian

characters on the reverse of his coin? I call them so, without prejudice to the

question of the language to which they may belong. Certainly they are not San-

skrit: they have a strong resemblance to those on the early Sassanian medals. The

credit of decyphering them is reserved for scholars acquainted with Zend and

Pehlevi.

“To escape from this objection, we must suppose that APOLLopDoTUS reigned in

the eastern provinces of the ancient Persian empire, south of Bactria. The medal of

Demetrius, son of Evtaypemus, discovered by the Baron MryeEnporr, bears a

Greek legend BactAéws Anuhtpiov; the empire of India is designated by the skin

of an elephant’s head with which the portrait of the prince is adorned.

“¢ APOLLODOTUS therefore must be admitted among the kings of Bactria. The cele-

brated Visconrt has endeavoured to assign his probable place in BayEr’s Chronolo-

gical Canon of Six Kings, the dates of which are however mostly conjectural: he

places him after EurnypEmvus’”’ (see p.315), “‘ and both the authorities quoted above

agree in placing him before Menanper. Now MENANDER certainly reigned be-~

tween EurHyprEmus and Evcratipas; but Visconti will not allow the latter to

follow MENANDER directly : he makes a place between their reigns for HELIOCLEs,

whose name is only known from one medal bearing the inscription BaoiAéws

“HAtoxAéous dSikaiov, and pronounced by Mronnet to be of Bactrian fabric, merely

from analogy to other coins of the same locality—an argument by no means conclu-

sive. When a coin of Hexioctes shall be discovered in India or Tartary, we may

grant his title to the Bactrian throne.”

‘¢Tt is difficult to assign the exact limits of the Indian dominions of the Bactrian

monarchs, or of their contemporaries, who reigned in India itself. The ancients

use the word India vaguely, and sometimes make it comprise the Persian provinces

north-west of the Indus. The conquests of the Bactrians may have been made in

two directions :—one, towards the east by the Panjab, and onwards ; the other, by

following the course of the Indus. The expedition of S—ELEucus NicaTor was

directed towards the Ganges; by his treaty with Cuanpracupta, king of the

Prasii (people of the East), he gave up some provinces, and received a number

of elephants in exchange. Itis probable that the first kings of Bactria, on declaring

themselves independent, took possession of what remained of ALEXANDER’S con-

quests in the Panjab.’ [Dr. SwiNEyY’s coins confirm their domination there, as far

as the presence of medals can do so.) ‘At any rate, the third king, Eurtaypemus,

in his treaty with ANTiocHus the Great, by which treaty his independence was

acknowledged, gave up allhis elephants. This proves two points: first, that

Evruypemus had provinces, or at least subjects in India proper ; second, that his

rule was not extensive, for the elephants were few in number ; added to those given

by SopHAGASENUS to ANTIOCHUS, they made but 150, whereas SELEUCUS re-

ceived 400 from CHANDRAGUPTA.

*‘ ANT1IOCHUS’ expedition was brilliant, but it procured him little solid advantage

beyond the acquisition of these war elephants. After his compaign against EuTHYDE-

1833.] Bactrian and Indo-Scythic Coins. 409

mus and SopHaGaseEnvs herepassed the Indus, and returned by way of Arachosia

and Carmania to the western seat of his empire.’’ [Was it after this expedition

that he struck the coin represented in fig. 2, depicting the stern of a boat of the

river Indus ?]

“ EuTHYDEMUuS may have profited by the distance of ANrrocuus, and the decline

of his strength, to deprive him of the provinces situated along the Lower Indus. It is

certain that Demerrivs reigned there, I think, first as governor in the name of his

father ;—afterwardsas an independent king. Demerrivs did not succeed Euruy-

pDEMUs in Bactria: his absence perhaps allowed his competitor to supplant him. If

Demetrius had not been in possession at the death of his father, with what force

could he have conquered these vast provinces, when the army of Bactria was at the

command of arival? Itis he, no doubt, who founded the city of Demetrias in

Arachosia, the name of which is preserved in the geographical work of Istporus.

Thence his dominions extended to the Delta of the Indus.

“ Trocus-Pomreivs ascribes exploits in India to APoLLopoTuS and MENAN-

DER ; StRaABo also to the latter. Their conquests then must have been towards the

Panjdb, since they would have come into contact with DemMerrivs on the south ;

and there is no mention of war between the Bactrians and this king of India until

the end of the reign of Evcratipas. Srraso says expressly that MENANDER

passed the Hyphases and penetrated to the Jamna. [Eiye kal tov “Yravw d1éBn mpos

€w, Kat méxpt TOU Ioauou mponArde. lege *Yacw et Iwpavov.|

“‘ This authorises our extending his kingdom to Mathura or even Baitasor, (where

Col. Top’s coin was found.) The probability is, that it included the kingdom of

Lahore ; for since Srrazo says that MENANDER was the first to penetrate so far, his

predecessor’s rule of course must have been more limited.”

Puutarcu bears testimony to the excellent character of MmEnaNDER

as a sovereign ;—‘‘a certain king, Menanper, who had reigned with

justice over the Bactrians, having died in camp, the cities in common

had the care of his funeral rites, but afterwards contended for his

ashes ; they at last divided his remains equally amongst them, and

agreed that monuments to him should be raised amongst them all*.”

May not this singular passage have had its origin in a confused account

of the monuments raised by the Buddhists to preserve the relics of their

lawgiver, of which one at Manikyala seems to have been founded im-

mediately after the Bactrian monarchy was upset, and while the com-

munication of those countries with the west was still perhaps maintain-

edt? But to return to M. ScuizceL’s epitome :—

“We know nothing of Hetriocues, if indeed he ever reigned in Bactria, But as

EvcraTipas was the first to assume the distinction of great king, it is natural to

suppose that he aggrandized the empire. He may have conquered Ariana, which

Sraso says belonged to Bactria.

“For the war between Eucratipas and Demetrius, king of India, we are

reduced to the unsatisfactory notice of Justinus, according to whom DEMETRIUS

was the aggressor, Evcratipas, at first besieged, and in great danger, saved

himself by his valour, and finished by despoiling his adversary. In his retreat,

* Major Tod on Bactrian Medals, Roy. As. Res. I. 330. + See page 315.

410 Bactrian and Indo-Scythic Coins. (Aue.

after terminating this war, he was assassinated by his son. Bayer thinks that

this DemErRrivs is the same who in his youth negociated the peace for his father

EvTHYDEMUS with AntTiocHus. However, the great age to which he must have

attained is a staggering objection. One may reconcile probabilities by supposing

that a son of the same name had succeeded to DEMETRIUs’s throne,

“* The existence of the parricide of Eucratipas is well established ; but his name

is unknown, and it is uncertain whether he enjoyed the fruits of his crime. King

Evcrartipas II. therefore,in BayER’s catalogue, rests only on a double conjecture.

“Thus end the Bactrian kings hitherto known. The latter history of the dynasty

is enveloped in darkness yet thicker than the rest. Justin attributes its destruction

to the Parthians; the author of the summary of Trogus-Pompertius to the Scythi-

ans ; both quoting the same authority. It appears then that both these nations

took part in it, but that the Scythians remained in possession.

“In a fragment of Dioporus, or rather in an extract by Puortus,it is said, that

one of the Arsacide (no doubt the Sixth, Mirnrrparess I.) penetrated as far as In-

dia and seized the kingdom of Porus, i. e. of the country between the Hydaspes and

the Acesines. BAyeER says with reason that the Greeks, wherever they allude to

India, imagine a Porus ;—but in this case the historian seems justified, for we see

that the Bactrians possessed not only that province but even beyond it. By Bay-

BR’s calculation, Mirariates L., king of Parthia,must have survived EucratTipAs

by seven years,but these dates are purely conjectural. At any rate, it is after Evcra-

TIpAS’ death that these conquests must have been made : the war between him and

Demetrivs would not have taken place had the Parthians occupied the intervening

provinces. EvucRATIDAS was assassinated when in the height of his power :—it is

then after his death that the decline of the empire commenced. M. Decuicnes,

from the Chinese historians, fixes the epoch of its destruction in the year 125, B. C.

The king or kings who may have reigned in the interim are yet unknown—perhaps

they may be brought to light by Col. Top’s discoveries.”’

The above condensed and critical sketch of the latter Bactrian kings

contains all that is known of them, and leaves us to fill up blanks only

as fresh matter may be elicited through the labours of the antiquarian

in this fruitful field. M.Scutecen felt pride in adding two cogno-

mens to his two kings: Dr. Swiney’s coins have already increased

their majesties’ titles; giving to Menanper the common appellation

«* saviour ;’’ and to his predecessor, in addition to the same title, the

respectable appellation of Pxizopartor, ‘‘ loving son.” This latter title

is of more consequence than might at first be suspected, for unless his

father were of kingly dignity, he would not have been mentioned : and

it is more than probable that his son succeeded him peaceably. But we

have no knowledge who the father was, since Demerrius is the only

recorded son of Euraypemus. We may suppose him to be sure a bro-

ther—perhaps a younger one,—a favorite—‘* a gift of the gods,” as

his name implies; and this might account for the deputation of the

rightful heir to a distant province : but it is wrong to hazard conjec-

tures upon points of such remote diplomacy !

1833.] Bactrian and Indo-Scythic Coins, 411

Figs. 6 and 7.—Two square copper coins resembling in form fig. 7

of plate VII. weight 102 and 121 grs.

Obverse. A figure, apparently female, holding a cornucopia on the

left arm: the other indistinct ; legend in parallel lines, and

evidently Greek, but only partially legible: the word Ba

SIAEQS commences both of them.

Reverse. The Indian Bull with its hump, encircled with the unknown

character. Below, in both coins, the letter sigma, =, or a

symbol of that form.

One of these coins was found at Machwarra, a small town near the

Satlej river, between Ludidna and Ripar ; the other in the bazar at

Bussy, on the road from thence to Simla. Dr. Swinny considers them

to be not only similar, but of the same die. It is not possible to do

more than ascribe them to the Bactrian dynasty generally.

Fig. 8.—This small copper coin, from the neighbourhood of Seha-

ranpur, is classed among the Bactrian coins by Dr. Swiney,

from the similarity of its monogram to that of fig. 4. The

legend also appears Greek: the obverse has a warrior with

a bow? and the reverse a lion, panther, or singh, which con-

nects it with one class of the Hindu coins.

Figs. 9, 10.—I have introduced these two of Doctor Swiney’s Bac-

trian-horsemen, or EucratipEs,’ coin*, because the head is in

better preservation than usual, and a letter or two more of

the legend can be added to the scanty list hitherto elicited ;

thus on fig. 9, we have 2OTHP META ,, and on the other

META BACIAEYC, ‘‘the great king,” quasi Maha Raja. As far

as the specimens hitherto discovered can prove it, the no-

minative seems to be used in all the coins of this type, in-

stead of the genitive, as usual on Greek medals: the termina-

tions are also corrupted; all which circumstances tend to

pronounce these coins to belong to the last princes of the

race, as conjectured in ascribing them to EucratipEs.

Fig. 14, isa small coin supposed to have Greek characters, but un-

decypherable.

Figs. 16, 17, 18, are drawings of three small copper coins procur-

ed by Lieut. Burnes at Manikydla, which differ in some

particulars from those already made public, and are on that

account, rather than as leading to any fresh observation, now

inserted. Fig. 16, belongs, from the side figure of the fe-

male, stooping, and the monogram or symbol, to the Ka-

* See Plate VII. and page 314,

2G 2

412 Bactrian and Indo-Scythic Coins. [Ave.

niska group. Fig. 18, a man sitting dressed in the Brah-

manical dhoté, accords so far with No. 1 of Mr. Wison’s

plate, a gold coin dug out of the tope at Manikyala by Ge-

neral Ventura. Fig. 17, is of a novel type, but the coin

was in too imperfect a state to permit an accurate de-

velopment of the figures.

| Hindu Coins.

From the coins of Bactria a transitionis easily traced through the dark

period of the Indo-Scythian or Buddhist dynasty, to which numerous

coins have been allotted upon such degree of internal evidence as their

appearance affords, to the coins of the Hindu Princes of. Central India,

Andhra, Rajputana, Kanow, Indraprestha, and perhaps Magadha or.

Behar. I have on a former occasion ventured to doubt* whether any

native coin, properly so called, had circulation in India anterior to the

incursion of Alexander. In none of the.ancient bookst of the Hindus

is mention made of coined money. The word suvernat or gold, which

occurs frequently in the Puranas, is supposed to mean a lump of gold

of a fixed weight, such as is still current in Ava or China, Mr. H.

T. CoLEBROOKE states§ on the authority of Menu and other authors,

that the suverna (carsha, arsha, or tolaca) was equal to 16 mashas.

If the masha was as now about 17.4 grains only, this would certainly.

make the suverna|| small enough to admit of a doubt whether it did not

bear some stamp: on the other hand, small lumps of gold called

phatang, of a smaller weight and value, and without stamp, are still

brought from the hills, and passed as cash in the purchase of goods

in the plains. Again, the great analogy which is observed between the

earliest Indian coins introduced to our notice by modern research, and

those of the Macedonian colonists, is a very strong argument in

favor of the supposition that the art of die-cutting was introduced

at that period ; and the employment of Greek workmen may rea-

sonably account for the continuance of Greek legends where other-

wise they would have been little expected. A further direct and incon-

testable proof of their connection is derived from the similarity of the

* Journ. As. Soc. I. 394.

+ The Raja Taringini, a comparatively modern work, mentions the dinar, a

Persian gold coin.

+ As. Res. V. 93.

§ See Mr. RAVENSHAW’S note, page 266,

|| Major WiLrorp, and many as inveterate etymologists, might have derived our

English sovereign from this word, had it chanced to have been current at an earlier

period than is assigned by our mint annals for its introduction, namely, E>Dwarp

IV.’s reign, A. D. 1489.

1833.) Bactrian and Indo-Scythic Coins. 413

monograms or symbols visible upon most of them. TI have inserted at

the foot of the present plate such of these as occur in the coins be-

fore us. Most of them may be found on the Greek civic coins of the

Hunterian cabinet at Glasgow; those upon the genuine Greek coins

are evidently cyphers or compounds of Greek letters ; either numerals

marking the date, or initials of persons connected with the mint.

Monogram 1 appears upona coin of Demerrius of Syria (plate v.y,

and may be compounded of a 1, symbolical of Antioch, the place of

coinage: it is No. 67 of Comsx’s Hunterian Catalogue. J/on. 2, on

AexanpEr’s coin, (53 of Comssz,) may be A, and may stand for one of

the numerous cities of this monarch’s name. The third, (plate vii, fig. 1,)

is evidently formed of the Greek letters P E, being perhaps the date (105

of the Syrian era, or 206 B. C.)*, subjoined by A, betokening the loca-

lity. The next four (4, 5, 6, 7) occur in the coins of Apotiopotus

and Menanpver (86, 216, and 326 of Comsz). Colonel Top supposes

the latter two and fig. 9 to be formed of numeral letters, but the

combination of units is pronounced to be inadmissible. 8 and 9 ap-

pear on the coin of the last Bactrian monarch, ‘ the great king.”

They are not found in Comse: but the latter may be a combination

of the letters O, T, Hand. 10, 11, and 12, having four prongs

and the ring below cut open, belong to the supposed Kaniska coin,

and all the coins of the raja and bull, and raja and elephant type.

These can no longer be interpreted as letters, though evidently imi-

tated from the foregoing. Mon. 13 occurs in one of Colonel Top’s

coins of the same class, with the running figure (13 of 3rd series),

but it may probably be an imperfect impression of the foregoing

symbol. From monogram 12 to the lozenge form of 14 is but a slight

transition, and thus we pass to a wholly different class of coins, as-

cribed by Col. Top to the Pandu dynasty, because the inscriptions

are in the same character which is found wherever the Pandy autho-

rity existed ;—in the caves, and on the rocks of Junagur, Girnar, on

the pillar of victory in Meywar, and on the columns of Indra-prestha

(Delhi) and Praydg (Allahabad).

These coins are decidedly the most ancient of Hindu type which are

known, and yet being of pure gold they are generally in a perfect state

of preservation, and the characters, though unknown, are very clearly

defined; many of them resemble the Tibetan form of Sanskrit. Most of

them may be recognized in the inscriptions (or descriptive titles)

over the sculptures at Mahabdlipuram, described by Mr. Gotpincuam

* If so, this coin should belong to ANTIOcHUs the Great, and not A. THEOs ag

supposed in page 312, from his cognomen Epiphanes.

414 Bactrian and Indo-Scythic Coins. Ave.

in the As. Res. V. page 79: and as these sculptures are said by tradi-

tion to represent the personages and acts of the Mahabharat, the value

of some of the letters may perhaps be hereafter recovered. In point

of age the coins can only belong to the Maurya, the Sunga, the Kanwa

or the Andhra dynasties of Mr. Wi1son’s catalogue (315 B. C. to 428

A. D.)

Fig. 15 is copied from a gold coin, presented to me by Captain

Wane, who discovered it near Ferozpir : it agrees precise-

ly with figs. 5 and7, of Mr. Wiuson’s plate; the former of

which, stated to be taken from a drawing of a coin in Col.

MacKenzin’s collection, seems to have been reversed by the

artist, to assist the engraver, and inadvertently retaimed in

that position. Every letter of the legend is identical in the

three coins. Wewhh [20 a4 -

Fig. 13 is from the sealing-wax impression of a coin, belonging

to Dr. Swiney : it corresponds precisely with No. 6 of Mr.

Witson’s plate, having the dirsul or trident of Srva in lieu

of the bird of VisHnu.

These two coins are of the description just alluded to. They have

been found at Agra, Mathura, Ujayin, Ajmir, and even in Bengal. Mr.

Witson possesses one found in a tank in the Huglz district. The mix-

ture of emblems on these coins might almost persuade one that they

were forgeries, but that no two have hitherto been seen identically

the same, and it would be manifestly impossible to forge a new die for

each, especially when their price is little beyond the value of the me-

tal. The female on the reverse sometimes sits on a well formed chair

or settee, sometimes in the Indian fashion on a lotus flower, at others

like Durga on a lion* ; she holds a cornucopia in the left hand, in the

right a scarf or ribband: a glory encircles her head; her left knee

is bare.

The obverse represents a king clad in a coat of mail, and with scale

armour on the legs; where the coin is worn, (as in fig. 15,) the dress

exactly resembles the modern coat and trowsers. The head dress in

fig. 13 has a resemblance to the Sassanian or Persian cap. The left

hand is invariably raised, as if holding a spear: the right is extended

as if placing an offering on a small fire altar. This hand is more clearly

defined in fig. 15, than in any coin of the class I have seen; and it may

be questioned, whether the action isnot rather that of plucking a flower,

for an artist would hardly represent the hand in so hot a position,

were the object beneath a fire altar !

* Vide Col, Top’s plate.

1833.) Bactrian and Indo-Scythic Coins. 415

As another anomaly in these coins, it may be remarked that fhe let-

ters on the left of the prince, in fig. 15, are identical with the Tibetan

triliteral compound ¥ Spy, pronounced as ch or sh, with the inherent

short vowel a, spya or sha ; this combination forms no word in the Ti-

betan language, but with the vowel sign 7 (she) it would signify “ ge-

neric” or ‘‘ general,” as ie spyi-dpon (pronounced shi-pon) vice-

roy, or governor general.

Now the Tibetan alphabet, according to Mr. Csoma Kéréshy, was

only formed as a modification from the Sanskrit model in the seventh

century of our era, up to which period it were difficult to conceive that

the characteristic monogram of Bactria should have been preserved.

The two first letters of the side inscription also resemble the Tibetan

xy pa, or if the antecedent dot be an r, pra.

On the right hand, in fig, 15, is a standard resembling in some sort

a Roman eagle; it is probably the Garura, or bird of Visunu, and if

so, 1s a proof of the connection of this coin with the ascendancy of the

Vaishnava sects.

Of this peculiar class of coin, the plates in the Asiatic Researches afford

numerous varieties. Inow pass to another type, more recent perhaps

by several centuries, but more rare than the preceding. The legends

are here decidedly in the Devandgari character ; yet the devices still

bear a near analogy to their Grecian prototypes: the horseman, the

bull, the lion, the seated figure, are revived with variations of dress and

attitude, but it seems to have been contrary to the feelings or taste

of the country to represent the human face, or perhaps the artists found

themselves unequal to the task. Mythological subjects were better

suited to the Hindus. The bull of Siva, the Singh of Durea, the

Garura of Visunu ; Gunesu, Hanuman, and similar devices, predo-

minated until the latest period in the coins of Southern India and

Ceylon* ; or until the progress of Mahomedan conquest interdicted the

privilege of coinage to the tributary Hindu princes.

From the desultory mode in which materials are collected for my plates,

and from a wish to avoid delineating any that have already appeared in

print, it is impossible for me to give a connected train of Hindu coins,

and the student must refer to the plates in the As. Res. vol. xvii, for

more ample information. The medley of types once collected and pre-

served however may eventually afford the means of a proper classifica-

tion, although it cannot be attempted in the present state of our scanty

knowledge.

* See plates III. IV. As. Res, XVII. and Mr. Wizson’s remarks on the Ramatan-

kas, Garada-Mudras, &c.

416 Bactrian and Indo-Scythic’ Coins. (Aue.

Fig. Ii isan unique coin in Doctor Swinery’s possession. . I have a

' sealing-wax impression, from the sharpness of which I con-

; clude the original to be of gold. »

Obverse.,. A horseman mounted and holding a:spear with the» right

hand: the horse is, ornamented with trappings in the native

style. A curious scroll or symbol appears in front.

Reverse. St1va’s bull kneeling in the attitude of the images of Nan-

prin the temples. . He is also clothed in ornamental trap-

pings. Above are characters-which seem to form the words

RM aawzea Sri Samagri deva in ancient Nagari; the @

written 4 is met with in one of the inscriptions decyphered

by Wirorp, As. Res. IX. 104. No.such name as-Sama-

gri deva occurs in the catalogues of Hindu dynasties of Central

India or, Magadha, but the import. of the words may_perhaps

. be understood as an honorific’ appellation, ##¥_ signifies

«« whole, entire:’? Were it possible that the fourth letter were

an old form of 1 we might ascribe the coin to Samanta deva,

the first of the Ajmir princes, who reigned, according to

Witson, in A. D. 500. But such a conjecture is not warran-

| table. Witrorp says, the titles Sri and Deva were: assumed;

/ >... >. by the descendants of Canna, as ‘Sri Canna Duva*,” &c..

P We may therefore ascribe this coin to the Andhra-jatiya. or

Andhra-bhritya dynasty, some time anterior to the Muham-

medan invasion.

Fig. 12.—Two copper coins of this die were prongiit & Doctor

J. M. Bramury, from Nipal, ina collection of the coins

of that country; and Ihave inserted a drawing: of them here,

both as a fair pledge that other ancient Hindu coins are

forthcoming in that hitherto unexplored region, and as

furnishing some very legible characters in a class of coin of

frequent occurrence, both in gold and copper. - The lion or

Singha on the reverse agrees with fig. 8: and with fig. 12

of plate vii. The sitting female figure on the obverse may

be identified with figs. 1, 11, 12, 18, 14, 16, 17, and 40 of

Witson, and with the fourth series of .Top ; the characters

are however of a different class, the & for instance, like that

of fig. 14, in the last plate, more resembles’ the, Bengalee

- form @, and is found on ancient grants and inscriptions, be-

tween the 5th and the 12th centuries. The nail-headed

character is noticed by Col. Top, as predominating in all the

inscriptions ofthe Mauri Princes of Chitore from (S. 465 to

S. 1191) A. D. 409 to 1135.

* As. Res. IX. page 104.

2 hx ees Jour As Soc. Pl. XIV

BACTRIAN COINS.

MWe. thay’

7 mn |

\ \\ NY

, | MY ;

Wi HN EGA

MONOGRAMS.

6 7

cme es ee

1833.] Note on Zoology. 417

IV.—Note on the Zoology of the 2nd Part of the Transactions of the

Physical Class of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.

Tn India, as in almost every other country of the civilized world,

natural history, and more especially that part termed Zoology, has

been of late years making rapid progress. And surely there is no coun-

try better situated than Bengal for becoming celebrated for the number

and extent of its collections, and the rareness of the specimens which

may compose them. For, fertile as may be the regions of South

America in the productions of animated nature, that field has been

repeatedly traversed by the most celebrated men of science in modern

times ; and, many well qualified and observant men, have, at different

periods, favoured the world with their researches, made during a long

residence on that continent. But India has not till now been viewed,

by Englishmen, as the rich mine of the treasures of science it really

is; and though foreign nations have sent out able naturalists to travel

through the country, and to stretch forth their hands to all they could

seize in their line of march; get, the very nature of a travelling

zoologist’s occupation is such, as to prevent him from snatching at more

than a few of the gems on the surface of things. He may collect and

preserve; he may take home and classify : but much is set down in

haste, much is forgotten; and he cannot become the observer of

nature and all her secrets: while the manners, the habits, and the

various interesting points of character, only to be developed by a long

and intimate acquaintance with the animals he meets, must be to him

unknown. These can only be known through the labours of men, not

better qualified, but more favourably situated for the matured studies

of zoology than himself.

Sensible of this hiatus in the labours of travelling naturalists, lovers

of natural history have established menageries and aviaries at home -

to make up, so far as close intercommunion with animals in confine-

ment can make up, for the deficiency of knowlege, felt after all had

been gleaned from books and collections. But natural history must be

pursued through tracks different from those of the casual observer of

wild animals in foreign countries; or, of the closet naturalist, who

views them in a state of degradation, with broken spirits and ruined

health, the sure concomitants of slavery in the brute as in man. A

true naturalist must go forth into the wilderness. He must follow the

objects of his much-loved science into the depths of the forest, to their

native haunts, with the intent to observe rather than to destroy: and

there, undistracted by other thoughts, and elevated by the magnifi-

cent scenery around him, he beholds their caresses, or their cruelties ;

418 Note on the Zoology Ave,

their force or their stratagem ; and feels that nature is now unfettered ;

that they, like himself, are free.

How different is the state of mind of the man so situated, from that

of him who only looks through the bars of a dungeon upon the miser-

able animals confined within. One views nature with the eye of a

classifier alone, anxious to find out some petty point of distinction,

some little difference upon which to found a genus; the other with the

enthusiasm of a lover. One strives to bend her to his system: the

other would embrace her own; nature to him is all in all, and system

but valued as an interpreter of nature.

Systems, menageries, collections, however, have their value, and

that value is great. To the naturalist of nature they serve, in after-

days, to recal vividly to his mind recollections of the past. To others

they offer a portion of science, that otherwise they could not attain.

Mr. Hopeson, author of six of the sixteen papers in this second

part of the 1st volume of the Transactions of the Physical Class of the

Asiatic Society, unites the advantages of the travelling and sedentary

naturalist. Fixed upon the most stupenduous mountains of the

world, and in a situation of political power that rarely falls to the lot

of the friends of science, he has opportunities of doing great things

for that branch to which he has devoted himself. Much may fairly

be expected from him ; and to do him justice he certainly is not inclin-

ed to be idle.

The first of Mr. Hopeson’s papers belong to Ornithology ; the

portionof zoological science, perhaps of all most generally attractive.

The system he follows is that laid down in the 1st volume of the Zoologi-

cal Journal, (a work no naturalist should be without) by Mr. Vicors,

Secretary to the Zoological Society ; and which, though perhaps the

best devised by English naturalists, is replete with the faults of

the MacLszay school. The generic divisions are sometimes founded

upon doubtful or minute characters, and there is occasionally a good

deal of squeezing to make them fit. Whilst, above all, there is obser-

vable in this school an affectation of perfection; a presumption of know-

ledge; which with the limited acquaintance with nature man must

ever be confined to, appears totally unjustifiable to every one, not

seduced by the language in which its views are detailed ; or willing to

surrender his judgment to such great names as those of MacLray,

Vicors, and Horsrreip. It is however the less necessary to dwell upon

this, as the circumstance has not escaped the notice and the censure of

some late continental writers: by whom the system has not been esti-

mated so highly as was contemplated by its patrons and founders.

1833] of the second part Phys. Trans, As. Soc. * 419

The first bird Mr. Hopason describes under the name of Aquila

Nipalensis ; and he has noticed the deviation from the type of the

genus Aguila, in the lunated form of the nostrils. There is also an-

other point of deviation in the length of the wings, which he describes

as wanting three inches, or nearly one fourth of the length of the tail.

In the true eagles the wings are equal in length to the tail, “leurs

ailes sont aussi longues que la queue,” says Cuvier; and it is therefore

not improbable that this may be one of those species which form the

inosculating links between differing genera. Whether or not the species

be a new one, can only be decided on the authority of Mr. Hopeson ;

for he has omitted to state the changes which take place in its plumage,

during its passage from the ‘young to the adult state; or the probable

age of his specimen. And without these points being ascertained, the

most experienced ornithologist may be mistaken in birds of this tribe.

The Circetus Nipalensis is rightly referred to that genus. It is not

probable that Saw has erred in placing the Falco Bacha in the genus

Cymindis ; distinguished as that genus is from all others of the eagle

kind, by the remarkable characters of its bill. However the Falco

Bacha is said to have been found in India and Java, and Mr.

Hopeson’s description of his bird agrees with it in several respects :

nor is it unlikely that an African species should also extend to India.

But then the difficulty still remains as to its being placed by SHaw

in the genus Cymindis ; with the generic characters of which, Mr.

Honeson justly says, it does not at all agree.

Our author, like all others who have gone before him, seems to be a

good deal puzzled with the family of Laniade or Laniide, as it is termed

in his paper. The genus Dicrurus was instituted by M. VigerLLot on

account of the forked tail of the species known to him. But the dan-

ger of giving a generic name on so trivial a distinction, soon became

manifested, by the discovery of other species whose tail is not forked,

This, among other things, has contributed its portion to throw the

family into confusion. And Mr. Hopason, or any other naturalist,

would do a signal service to the cause of natural history by making a

complete monograph of the whole Laniade: and (the measure isa

strong but necessary one) fixing the old names or new-naming every

species.

The other bird mentioned, ‘‘ which bears a strong general but not

particular resemblance” to the former, appears to be the same species

as one sent to the Asiatic Society from Midnaptir by Assistant Sur-

geon J. T. Pearson, in February 1830, and which he also referred to

the genus Dicrurus. ‘‘ I am of opinion,” says Mr. Pearson in a note

2H 2

420 Note on the Zoolagy , [Ave.

accompanying some specimens presented to the Society, ‘‘ that it may

be referred to the genus Dicrurus,; near to the Muscicapide ; and this

not only from the form of the head and bill; but on a careful exami-

nation of the feathers at the back of the neck, a few long ones may be

found, more like hairs than feathers, with a small plume at the tip.”

Mr. Hopeson has forgotten to mention these setaceous feathers ; but

they may readily be found in the situation indicated by Mr. Pearson.

After all, however, the bird in question, the slate-coloured shrike,

seems to be an intermediate species, between Dicrurus and Tricophorus ;

the strong dentated bill, and short medial setaceous feathers connect-

ing it with the former, and the wedge-shaped, or rounded tail, with the

latter genus. It may be observed that Mr. Pearson is inclined to

think the species a migratory one at Midnapiar.

In his paper on this subject of migration* Mr. Hopeson remarks :

** T am led to conclude from what I have observed here, that the mass of the

Grallatores and swimmers are found in the plains of India, only during the cold

months, for they all arrive in the valley of Nipal from the north, towards and at

the close of the rains; and all as regularly reappear from the south, upon, or

soon after the accession of the hot weather.’

Further on, he says,

“It will be noticed that the Grallatores which visit us or pass over us, are much

more numerous than the Natatores; and, unless I am mistaken, observation in

the plains of India would satisfactorily prove that this is a just and decisive indi-

cation of the superior prevalence of wading over swimming birds in that extensive

region. India, I fancy, is tao hot for the taste of the Natatores, a great majority

of which seem to affect Arctic regions, or at least, high latitudes : I throw out the

remark for canvas and inquiry.”

This observation is agreeable to what we learn of the manners of

these birds in high northern latitudes: and the hint should be taken

by some cis-Himalayan naturalist, who will find the inquiry suggested,

an interesting and not very laborious one. The wild swan was once

seen in Nipal.

The next Zoological paper, the 8th of the part, is on the wild goat

and wild sheep of Nipal. And here again Mr. Hopeson is puzzled

by what has puzzled all naturalists, who have studied these groups of

the Ruminantia, from Aristorie to Hamitton Smrru ;—the line of se-

paration between the goats and the sheep. Now to acommon man no

doubt the matter appears easy enough ; he knows a goat from a sheep

and vice versd any day;—but the line of separation, in spite of all

this, is so narrow that the ancients considered the latter a hybrid

* On the migration of the Natatores and Grallatores, as observed at Kathmandu,

page 122,

1833.) of the second part Phys. Trans. 421

‘production of the former; and evenat this day stories of a, mixed

prolific breed being common in Russia and America are rather dis-

believed to be true than proved to be false, though reason and

analogy alike condemn a theory so little supported by what we see,

and so contrary to the common received opinions of modern science.

Indeed, were it proved that such a breed is in existence, the fact would

go much farther than to overthrow a mere generic distinction. It

would shew that the established notion of specific differences depend-

ing upon the test of an unprolific offspring, is incorrect ; and, that,

instead of there being two genera of goats and sheep, there is in fact

but one species of the whole. Mr. Hopeson of course leaves the matter

where he found it.

Some uncertainty prevails as to the goat Mr. Hopason describes

being identical or not with one noticed by M. Duvaucet. The notice

appears to have been sent to Paris, and it is appended by the

Secretary to the Society to the present article, taken however from

the original manuscript. M. Duvavceu’s specimen, also, was a young

one, and as he has not given it a name, nor yet appended the native

one, it is impossible to ascertain whether or not his and Mr. Hope-

son’s Capra Jhiral are the same. At all events Mr. Hopeson does

not seem to have known of M. Duvauces.’s paper, and the credit of

first bringing this animal to notice properly belongs to him*.

Of the sheep, the Ovis Nayaur, Mr. Hopason has seenonly the female

in the adult state, and the young of the male, and he is consequently

uncertain whether it is a new species. But in a note appended to the

9th article the author says :—

“From much conversation that I had with the Bhotea who brought me the skin

of the young male Nayaur, I now incline to believe that I was mistaken in suppos-

ing there are two species of wild sheep in these regions. The Bharal of one dialect

is probably the Nayaur of another, and the Him4layan wild sheep most likely only

a variety of that widely-diffused species Ovis Argali ; though I must confess I can-

not reconcile Linnxus or SHaw’s descriptions of the horns of the Nayaur.”’

The Ratwa deer of Mr. Hopeson, perhaps the Cervus Muntjak of

Pennant, forms the subject of the 9th article. There is little doubt of

this animal being really the Cervus Muntjak, the Kijang, or at least a

variety of that species. Though Mr. Hopeson attaching more impor-

tance to colour than it deserves, thinks, that as

* Mr. Hopeson, in a private note, explains that, ‘‘ M. Duvaucev’s description

refers to the Ghoral, which all our English zoologists class with the antelopes, be-

eause it has suborbital sinuses and cylindrical horns, The latter obvious character

should have prevented its being confounded with the Jhdra/, which has angular

horns.’’—Ep,

422 Note on the Zoology [Ave.

“In one of Burron’s Supplements it seems the Cervus Muntjak is described as of

a greyish brown colour : if this be just, Cervus Muntjak will constitute probably a

distinct species from Rdtwa ; and I cannot help thinking that, in such case, the two

ought to be sectionally at least separated from Cervus.”

The meaning of its being sectionally separated is not very obvious.

If he means, as is probable, that the Muntjak and its kind are generical-

ly different from the genus Cervus, he is quite correct, and he will find

on reference to Cuvier that this separation has been already made.

The new genus contains five species, natives of Java, the Phillipines,

Malacca, Nepal, and several other countries.

But, to return to the. author, it is certain that differences of shades

of colour can hardly be a sufficient warrant for instituting a new species,

though perhaps it may, by taking some latitude, a variety; colour in

the whole ruminantie being liable to variation by many contingent cir-

cumstances, such as climate, season, age, sex, &c. If, therefore,

there is nothing to warrant the measure of separating Mr. Hopeson’s

Muntjak, from that of Pennant, but the circumstance of the one being

fulvous and the other greyish brown, the specific separation cannot be

allowed.

But the Cervus Muntjak, sent from Sumatra, is in every instance

of a fulvous, or reddish brown, the colour it would appear, of Mr. Hone-

son’s specimens. The individual described in Burron’s supplement

was probably aged, if so the difference may readily be accounted for by

the knowledge of the fact, that as old age comes on, the fulvous is

gradually obliterated by the grey. The thickening of the pedestals of

the horns at the top in the ‘‘ form a rose,” and the meaning of which

Mr. Hopeson ‘‘ cannot divine,” is also merely a sign of age.

Thus there is little doubt of the identity of the Muntjak of Pennant,

Burron, SHAaw, and Hopeson : and there is reason to believe, this

species extends in a continued range, from the eastern Islands to Ni-

pal, through the whole Indian continent. Two horns attached to the

frontal bone are now in Calcutta, which correspond in every respect

with the description of Mr. Hopeson and Sir T. S. Rarruus, and

which were found at Jellasur, in the district of Midnapir, province

of Orissa ; and several fawns were brought into Midnapér in the year

1831. They all died young, before the horns were developed ; yet

their general appearance and the form of the cranium left no doubt of

their belonging to this genus.

Mr. Hopeson, however, if he has failed to establish a new species.

of Stylocerus (as the genus or subgénus is now called), has cleared up

one point, that relating to the two antlers or projections on the horns,

1833.] of the second part Phys. Trans. 423

being an accident, or lusus nature, of rare instead of, as was at one

time supposed, constant occurrence. A doubt has been thrown upon

Pennant from this circumstance, which he does not deserve, and

which our author will be glad to have satisfactorily overthrown.

Article XI. is an admirable description of the most splendid speci-

men of all the known species of horn bill, the Buceros Homrai of

Hopeson. To this description nothing can be added, comprising as it

does every minute point, in age, sex, and variety. Four, perhaps five,

species of Buceros may now be considered as belonging to continental

India, and Mr. Hopnason seems to have established the fact of their

all being strictly frugivorous ; and not partially carnivorous, as was

erroneously supposed, from analogy with the Toucan. Indeed there is

good reason to believe that this latter bird has been libelled ; the can-

nibal propensities it has occasionally exhibited having been developed

only in a state of confinement.

An anatomical notice is affixed to the description by Mr. Bramtey,

a gentleman whose numerous professional avocations are to be regret-

ted as preventing him from devoting zoological talent of no ordinary

standard entirely to scientific pursuits. The peculiarity in structure of

the cranium mentioned by Mr. Bramtuey is the want of motion be-

tween it and the bill. He might also have noticed another; in

the internal cavity of the bill being almost filled with osseous reticula-

tions, instead of, for the greater part, occupied with membranous

cells, as is the case in most other species of this genus. Mr. Bram-

Ley also notices the lax union of the dorsal vertebre, and in doing so,

touches upon the doctrine of compensation.

Of this doctrine it may be well to say a few words, especially as it

seems to be daily gaining ground among certain speculative, but scien-

tific men, of whom M. M. Cuasrier and Aupouin among the French,

and MacLeay and Vicors among the English, are at present the ac-

knowledged heads. Their great object is generalization, and the

natural fondness of mankind for conjecture, their means. Their doc-

trine may be stated in a few words.

All animals have a determinate number of parts, differing only in the

degree of development; the development of one organ exerting an in-

verse influence upon another.

So much for the ingenious and convenient doctrine of compensation.

But to return to Mr. Bramuey, who in speaking of the bill of the

Buceros Homrai remarks :—

“<The casket (which is of large dimensions) has also its horny covering, though

somewhat different in structure, that of the former being laminated and bearing a

424 Note on the Zoology | [Aue.

close resemblance to proper horn, while that of the latteris much thinner, of a

fibrous consistence, and nail-like in structure. The edges of the bills, of both

mandibles, for about two-thirds of their length from the point, are horny, but the

surface is so irregular and jagged that their appearance leaves no doubt that much

of the natural structure has been broken off, by the use which the bird makes of its

bill. In consequence of this when the jaws are close, there isa considerable va-

cancy between the cutting edges throughout the whole central portion of the bill.

In some specimens in Mr. Hopeson’s collection the fractures have taken place at

such regular intervals, as to give to those parts the appearance of natural indenta-

tions.

“To entertain this supposition, however, would be erroneons, as there is evident

reason to believe that in a bill which is perfect, the horn by which it is covered

does not extend to its edges, but terminates just before it arrives at these, in a sub-

stance not very unlike solid bone.

‘‘ Thechief difference from the latter is, that it is exceedingly brittle in its nature,

though it is by no means deficient in compactness.

©“ That this substance borders the edges of both mandibles in their natural state, is

confirmed by numerous portions which are here and there left in all the specimens

Ihave examined. There is, also, a distinct line along the bills denoting the ter-

mination of the horn, into thishard structure, which in some individuals is of a red

colour and in others a black.”’

Now this horny covering of the bill does not appear different from

that of the casque, (or casket, as Dr. Bramuzy terms it,) in any essential

particular, the structure in both being of a laminated rather than of a

fibrous nature, and the hard callous edging of the bill is common to all

the genus. In the Homrai it ismore manifest perhaps than in some

other species, but it is still more developed in the Rhinoceros Hornbill.

It resembles the enamel-like shelly substance, observable at the hinge

in many genera of bivalve Mollusca, rather than bone, and appears to be

a continuation and hardened folding of the internal lining of the bill,

with which it comes off, or separates, on long maceration in water. On

a careful examination of a bill in this state, it will be found to be not

confined to the edges of the bill, but also to be met with, in a greater

or less degree, at the gape, and along the central ridges inside the mouth,

both above and below.

The last zoological article in the volume is also by’ Mr. Hopeson,

and entitled ‘‘ A description of the wild dog of the Himalaya.” The

specific character and name are as follows :—

“Canis Primavus (mihi) the Buansu of the Nipdélese. Habitat, the whole

of the sub-Himalayan ranges from the Sutlej on the west to the Brahmaputra on

the east.

“ Speciric CHARACTER. Wild dog, with six molars only in the lower jaw, double

coat, having soled feet, large erect ears, and very bushy straight tail, of medial

length, deep rusty colour above, yellowish below.’

1833.] of the second part Phys. Trans. 425

Mr. Hopason’s object in this paper is to bring to scientific notice a

new variety of dog, and to prove that variety to be, as he terms it, the

Canis primevus. Some of his characters, it will be seen in the above

quotation, are generic instead of specific. And the circumstances of

there being six molars in the lower jaw, and of the peculiarities of the

urine and eyes, and in short the whole differences from the common

dog pointed out by Mr. Hopeson, surely so far from proving that the

Buansu is the Canis primevus, the type of the canine race, go very

rauch in favour of the theory which may be formed by ‘‘ the querulous

objector,’” who rejecting Mr. Hopason’s speculations may bei nclined

** to substitute his own; creating, if he pleases, a new subdivision of

the Digitigrades, characterised by one tubercular tooth behind the great

carnivorous tooth of the lower jaw.”

But to enter fully into this subject would be to exceed the limits

that can be allowed to this paper; and the more unnecessary, that after

all it would still remain as uncertain as at present. But whatever may

be the result of Mr. Hopeson’s speculations, he has certainly given in

the Buansu a new animal to zoology.

Something should be said upon the subject of the plates and the

nomenclature. Of the former it may be remarked, that they are consi-

derably better than the zoological ones of the last part (indeed they

could not be worse, it may fairly be presumed), though they are much

inferior to others in the present part. They are evidently fac-similes of

the drawings made on the spot chiefly by native artists, and it would be

hazardous to deviate from these even for the sake of pictorial improve-

ment. It is matter of congratulation that Mr. Hoveson has not fol-

lowed the system of nomenclature, to which itis to be feared too many

men of real genius have lent their names, that of calling a production

of nature after the surname of an individual. It is a practice which

must tend to the confusion of science ; and which becomes ridicul-

ous by the ill assorted union of a barbarous cognomen with a classical

termination. One great reform of Linnzus was the substitution of a

trivial name for a description, or ¢itulus ; but it was intended that that

name should be descriptive in itself; so that the mind might be guided

by the ear. True it is that in some instances even Linnzus forgot his

own rules ; but the errors of great men should be a beacon to their

less talented fellows, rather than an example or an excuse. A com-

pliment of this kind may display an amiable, a grateful, or an admiring

disposition, when paid to our friends, or to public benefactors ; but,

this is not a subject in which they should be exhibited, for science is

surely diverted from its proper channels when made to administer

merely to private friendship, or to public applause.

426 Note on the Zoology, &c. [Ave.

Mr. Honeson’s plan, however, is not without objections, though

infinitely superior to that deprecated above. Native names are often

applied to a large class of sometimes very different animals, and vary

in every district : and a name derived from the habitat is objectionable

where that habitat extends through a wide range. The Parra Chinen-

sis, or Sinensis, for it has been called by both names indiscriminately,

has been found at Tamlék; and the Buceros Gingianus is a native of

Midnapur.

By the above notice it will be seen that the zoological papers in

this part are most creditable to Mr. Hopeson in every point of view;

exhibiting as they do, his knowledge, research, and industry, in the

most favourable light : and it is to be hoped that his example will be

followed by the many men of talent which India can boast of, and who

have time at their disposal. Among those who have already distin-

guished themselves in this way, may be mentioned Messrs. Honeson,

Benson, Grant, Hutton*, and several anonymous contributors of

articles in the ‘‘ GunaNnines IN ScreNcz,” and “ JourRNAL OF THE

Asiatic Socisty.’’ We may fairly anticipate that their exertions will be

redoubled by the example set before them by Mr. Hopeson; nay, we

may surely in these times, and under a government, the head of which

is so justly celebrated for the anxiety he has ever evinced to promote

the cause of science, indulge a hope that officers, duly qualified

for the purpose of investigating the productions of nature, willbe sent

upon missions, likely to afford facilities for the purpose, into remote or

little frequented countries. Our expeditions, hitherto, have not been

remarkable for the scientific talent they have displayed, though the

countries of Java, Birma, Tibet, Siam, and Chira Punji, afford the

most valuable fossil remains of a former, and the most curious specimens

of the living world. An amusing instance of the English-Indian method

of pursuing scientific inquiries, is to be met with in the expedition

sent by Major Burnzy to collect fossils on the site of Dr. Crawrurp’s

collections ; in which the exertions of that gentleman, remarkable as

he is for his zeal in the cause, were frustrated by the fact of his

having nobody but an Apothecary at his disposal, who was so little con-

versant with the subject, that though “the ground was every where

strewed with fragments of petrified bones and trees, he unfortunately

fell in with nothing worthy of notice.” ‘* He seems,” says the Edi-

tor, ‘‘ to have looked for skeletons in a more perfect state, and to have

imagined that such had been collected by Dr. Crawrurp, which is far

* To this gentleman the author of the present notice owes his thanks for some

specimens of a species of Valvata and eggs of Ampullaria; and his apologies for

not haying noticed them before.

1833. ] Extraordinary Fall of the Barometer. 427

from being the case.” It is really deplorable the manner in which

natural history has been neglected in India: and justly has it been

remarked that we know more of the animals of Africa than of Bengal,

a country that has been so long in our possession ! France created

her magnificent work on Egypt and its productions during a warlike

occupancy of afew months: England after a peaceable possession of

India of many times the number of years, has not, under the patronage

of her Government, done enough to fill a single volume. J. T. P.

V.—wNote on the extraordinary Fall of the Barometer during the Gale of

the 21st May last.—By Jas. Prinsep, Sec. &c. .

In the meteorological register for May I noticed the great fall in the

Barometer which took place previous to and during the severe gale that

did so much damage at the mouth of the river Hooghly : I have

since been favored with an extract from the register of the barometer

kept on board the H. C. Ship Duke of York, one of the numerous

vessels wrecked or stranded along the Hijelee coast. This ship lay

apparently in the line of greatest force of the gale, and the de-

pression experienced in the barometer, confirmed as it is by the indi-

cations of a sympiesometer also on board, give us a terrible proof of

the intensity of the storm: the fall in Calcutta was three-quarters of

an inch ; at Saugor it appears by the following note, for the authenti-

city of which I can vouch, to have been upwards of two inches !

«* My dear Sir,

** It is but now that Iam able to forward you the particulars of the fall of the

mercury during the late gale. They are as follow :—

inch. Ther.

Tuesday, 21st May, 1833, 8 a.m. The Barometer stood at,....... 29.09 80

on NSN 2 WE RA Sab oo AO OOMD BID AE 28.67 805

ROM ew, ae eeteree.s seheotsiats sere Meeheics eLOLOO 80

11,4, ~no mercury in sight in the tube*, 26.30 80

11.30,, mercury re-appeared,............ 26.50 80

Nog! 2 5 Fe ee tees AR a RT 795

APM oisiadiets, x sive days pais tsleusiel scale iol abelian cia) x - 27.00 79

Sabissiiatalcisa elo Glersiel sieiathe exeicieieNeiererd sisiste tir 28.00 80

Midnightsyiccs.. \ss0 sbi ws s A SRSA 3 | era 28.60 805

WSMCRAAY 220s .cy AAW Ma, orem oo cece yo secrete access os cens 2ara0 81

Ole sp Miss cto ce siete. ele Satan aha shel steric tre 28.30 82

PAGE Seatac othiewtteels cieloue tis emcee ot 28.60 84

“The times of the changes are copied from those set down almost immediately

after the gale, of course from recollection. Some of the lower altitudes of the

mercury, also, may be more or less incorrect, having been below the range of

the index.

“‘ The oil in the sympiesometer retired completely into the bulb when the mer-

cury in the barometer disappeared, and rose again a little before it, The mer-

* We presume this must have been below 26.50 inches.—Ep.

428 Climate of Singapir. (Ave.

cury in the barometer did not, after Tuesday night, or rather Wednesday morn-

ing, act as it should have done, which was found to be owing to some water.

having got down upon the leather bag and lcosened it from the wood, and so.

having permitted the escape of the mercury.” W. T. D.

The severity of this hurricane fell on Kedgeree and Saugor. It was

not felt at Balasore. Should simultaneous observations have been made

at Midnapir, or elsewhere within its influence, they will prove useful in

tracing its course.

I take this opportunity of recording the observations made du-

ring the storm of the 7th Octsber, 1832, which were delayed at

the time in expectation of receiving further information such as

should enable me to map the progress of the storm, but in vain, as I

was only favored with coincident observations at Ghazipir, which place

may be esteemed quite out of the influence of the phenomenon, although

a slight fall of 0.110 inch is perceptible in the register. The first

column in the table below is derived from the log of the ship London,

Captain Wimz1z, which, it may be remembered, of all the ships then

running up the Bay, experienced the effects of the gale in the severest

manner, being dismasted and nearly destroyed. This gale however

fell far short of the recent hurricane.

Range of the Barometer during the Gale of the 7th October, 1832.

On board the Lon-

At Calcutta

0 96, > :

Date. Hour. soa cone ee et eee me At Ghazipar.,

to 90° E. AS n

inches. inches. inches.

6th 8 A. Me 29.70 cloudy weather, 29.76 rainy, N.E. 29.82

Midnight, 29.50 squalls and rain, 29.69 gale E.

ith 8 A. M. 29,40 ditto, N. E. 29.55 ditto, rain, E. 29.75

10 A. Me — strong gales, E.N.E, 29.52 increasing, E.

Noon, 28.90 increasing, 29.41 shifted to S.W.

4 P.M. 28.80 fresh gales E. by N. 29.20 maximum force, 29.65.

6 P. Me 28.50 a hurricane, 29.32 moderating, S. W.

8 P. Me 27.80 tremendous hurricane, —— ditto, S. W.

OP. Me 28.10 wind shifted to S.

W. and blew with

10 Pp. M. 28.20 increased violence, 29.54 ditto, S. W. 29.71

12 Pp. Me 29.00 more moderate,

8th 6 A.M. 29.30 moderating, S.W. 29.66 strong wind, S.W.

Noon, 29.50 strong gales, high sea, 29.73 abated, N. W.

9th 6A. M. 29.80 strong breezes, S.W. 29.75 cloudy, S. E. 29.71

At Bankura (by the Met. Register published in the last No.) the fall of the barometer was,

0.480 inches.

VI.—Climate of Singaptr.

The following abstract tables of the Thermometrical and Barome-

trical range for six years at Siagaptir were drawn up by Captain C. E.

Davis from his own daily observations, and were presented to the Asia-

tic Society in the year 1827. The barometer is not corrected to the

freezing point, neither are the hours selected capable of shewing the

diurnal oscillations of the pressure ; but in all other respects the tables

are very regular, and form a valuable addition to our meteorological]

information,

429.

944 | LL [sez ‘$8 | "28 | “62 ar Ges [P92 "94 | £8°66 | 88°6% | 98°62 | 26'6% pe 0€ | 866% | 166%] 966% 26°66 |" ‘aSesaae penuty

94 | ‘94 | “PZ | “98 | ‘98 | “gz Igos | 2s jo'ez £906 | 88°66 | £8°6% = 66'6% | 866% | 986% | P66 | BOGS | ° °° °° *‘taqtus00q

“24 84 | FL) “98 | “98 1 62 | -%s | Ges !9'9z | F362! 066% | 98°66 | 86'6e | O0'0E | 96°66 | 966% | 966% | 166% |°**** *“tequaaony

64 | *24 | “GZ | ‘98 | 88 | “2g |zze | 998 |z'22 | 986% | 88'°6% | 88°6s | 966% | G0'0E | 0O';0E | 166% | LEGS | IGG |°°°** °° “4aqoW29

GZ | 82 | ‘GZ | 48) "88 | “ag IGes | Ses lors | Ps'6e | 29°6%| 786% | zZe'6e | EO'0e | s66e | Gs'6%1 Go'6% | Eo'Gs |°°* ++ “Aaquiaydag

“82 | (82 | ‘eZ | “98 | ‘88 | -2g joes | SS |@9z | F362 | F8'6S | F8'6S | Z6°6G | 10'0E | 86°6e | OGG | TE6G | 1666 |" "8" ysnsny.

SE ae | G2 |. 88! |) 88 “a8 lees GES |9'8L | 86S | 98°6Z | 98°66 | F6'GS | 66'6S | 966% | GX6S | 16°6G | G6GG |" * “AIOE

8 | ‘64 ‘pL | 98 | °88 | “zg joes | STB \HZZ | Z8°6e 1068 | 48°62 | 66°66 | £0'0E | 00'0E | F6°6% | 86°66 | 88'6G |" ******** + Coung

64 | 44 | ‘GL | 98 | “63 | “es jaes | 998 |s'2z | 086% | 98°62 | 08°62 | 766 | 96°66 | F3'Gs | 886 | Z6'Ge | 85°62 prac np: S* lang

08 | (42 | “b4| “G8 1 °28 | “gz le0g | Tes | “zz | E866 | 06'64| 28°62 | 66s | 0008 | 96'6e | z6'6e | 966% | 866% TUE Pt. Se

‘32 | 62 | 2 | PB | “28 | ‘BZ Jes | 6's | ‘ez | F866 | 66S | €8'6S | 966c | LONE | 666% | 166%} 2660 | 66% es aca MC

’ 44 | 18 | "eZ | 8 | “98 | 92 i808 | G88 jerZ | Z9'6e | 166% | 16°62 | Go'0E | 90'0E | FOOe | F6'6s| GGG | S6'6G Itt Avenida

SS GGL | VEL |G04 | 8 | oh8 | “cz ezz | “us |oez | e8'6a | 98°62 | |E8'6z | OoroE | GO'0E | Zo'0e | TE6e| 966% | goes |** ‘Test ‘Suenueg

So | |---|] | |] ———|—_—_ -——|--——— ——-

S ered | eae | ee Uv8 | 7°98 |U28 [608 | ses |Z'G4 | G8'6e er 86°66 | 86°6% | 66% | 88°62 | G6'6S | 06'6@ | * ‘OBP4eaL Jenuay

wR FL | [GL | GL) eB | “a8 | “ZZ lesz | Z08 |6'rZ ese | 68 6% | £8'6S | 86°6% | 66°62 | FG'GS | 06'GZ | F6'6G | 88°66 |°***** “Aequie00q

‘S 84) 92) BZ} 98] “98 | -2z |ros | sze | 92 | sz6z} geez | 1862 | Fe6e | S6'6e | Fe6e | 986% | I66e | 2860 |" TaquaAoN

2 c4| (82) "PL | 88] “28 | G2 [G18 | “8 |8'SZ | S86 | 28°66 | 28°62 | F6'6% | 10°0€ | Z6'6e | 6862 | FE'6e | Z6'6s |77°"** “41290999

8 94 | ‘24 | “PZ | 98] ‘28 | “08 IF Is | Ges |T'9Z | 886 | 0662 | 88°6% | SE6e | LOOSE | 866% | 166% | G66s | £6°6% |°"°"** Jaquiaydag

aS 4 | ‘PL | SZ | "G8 | ‘88 | “8 [S18 | GZ 19:92 | E8'6G | 98°62 | S86 | 866% | 666% | 966% | 066% | €6'6% | 06°62 writen: senany

Ss 24 | (94 | “&2 | 68 | "98 | “82 [es | Les |oros | c8'6z | 98°66 | €8°6% | G6'6% | 86°62 | 26°62 | 68'6R | 16°66 | 06°60 |"* eet AE

aa | (ye | 82 | "98 | 128 | 82 | 8 | “93 |z'92 | €8°66 | 98°66 | €8'62 | PEGG | 86°6% | 26°6% | 98°62 | 26'60 | 06.6% |"""*** 7177 TCoune

82 | 108 | "SZ | 28 | 88 | “2B | “PB | FSB [9°94 | S266 | 82°63 | 82'6z | 662 | 84°66 | 86°60 | F8'62 | 686% | 8866 |" “** 227 Aa

32 | "08 | "PZ | “8 | "98 | “Zz joes | 98 |9°GZ | 198°6G | T8'6S | G86S | €6'6s | 10°0E | 96°66 | 28°62 | 86°62 | 6866 |" “Ed

4) ($2 | GL | 8 | 98 | 94 [9°08 | GZB |B'PL | 08'6G | TS6S | GIGS | GEES | 'G6Z | 6662 | 28°66 | G8'6z | 06°66 |" "**'** “oe

‘VL | "92 | “GL | “F8 | ‘98 | 92 \8'8Z | LLB |PHZ | 08°66 | 86% | 286% | G6'6% | G6'6S | G6Ge | 29°66 | 066% | £8°6% Ws os

G4 | 84 | GL | “EB | G8 | 94 JeZZ | VIB [UPL | 986% | 06°62 | 98°6% | 06°62 | T6'GS | 06°66 | 886% | Z6'Ge | 88'6G Arenae se

‘vw “d “U00 NT "Ww “NY: ‘WwW *d “u00N “Ww ‘Vv BD 1\e *d ‘u00N > \ iad “lw ot 5 Ns "Vv “hw *d 2 bo Vi ‘Vv bp fi ‘d - ‘Ww "Vv

9 o: fge | 9 | 9 Go} Sige [PSM lg) egee| ESE |. gil! gia Seen ag

= ‘asuey ysvary ‘asuey ysozeoiy “yao! ‘oduey yseory *‘adULY 4YS9}VII4) “‘WUOTA ‘O@8L

a oY} JO osvs9AW AY} JO asvisaw

3 an.

“ 19, aMoULIoY J, JgyaMoleg we BT

Climate of Singaptr.

430

922 | “gz Lee |v = be) 64 | G Les 68s | €3°6Z | 286% | 286

‘SZ ‘Is | “82 | 98 "OZ |S18 | OSB GGL | S866 , 0662 | 68°66

“OL ‘LL | PL | 88 Ee gz 19°08 ) SS 1Z2’GZ | G8'6% | 88'6% | S8°6G

‘64 "eZ | ~ZL | 98 ‘98 | “G8 |8@s | OES |G 9Z | B8'6S | G8'6G | G8°6G

‘OL ‘94 | ‘GZ | “98 ‘88 | “18 ses 678 |&:ZZ | P8'GS | 68°6G | 28°6%

“LL "SZ | “GZ | °S8 281) ‘18 |z@s | Ges ;L22Z | €86% |; S86%] G8'6z

‘18 ‘6Z | ‘PZ | “98 ‘88 | ‘18 |6'§8 | 8T8 292 08°66 | €8'6G ! €8'6G

‘18 *8Z ; “GZ | °98 "£8 | “G8 |L‘E8 ‘TS |\V' 242 | 186% | €8'6G | [8°66

SZ [8 | “GZ | °98 28 | ‘6Z \G%@S | 8&8 |E'2Z | 186% |} 9866) F866

‘BZ | ‘62 | “GZ | “48 ‘£8 | ‘82 |$@8 | 878 ioe V8 '6G | L8'6G | 98'6G

‘82 ‘6Z | bZ | ‘PS ‘28 | ‘82 IV18 | OFS I€EZ | €86G | 8862! 28646

‘OL VL | “GL \ “D8 ‘98 | ‘9Z |L08 | SS |@PZ | €86G | 986% | 886%

tL ‘9Z | “GL | ‘E8 “Gg | “92 \@'62 ‘18 |@PZ | S86G | 786%] 68°66

eee LL & ZL '8'&2zZ \6'S8 | 928 |1T64 |G'%S | OF8 |V9Z | Z86G | 9866! S866

4 ‘eZ | ‘SZ | “PS "cg | ‘SZ i¢64 | 908 |1 SZ | 0866 | 986% | €8°6G

‘LL ‘824 | tZ | “8 ‘gg | “824 1G%S | GE8 |@9Z | P8'6% | 886%, 286%

‘62 08 | “2 | °98 68 | 08 1678 | GPS | “244 | E866 | G8'6% | F8'6%

‘64 "GZ | “GZ | “98 "98 | 08 | ‘P8 | PHS |692 | [86% | 286% | P8'6z

‘62 LL) GL} 98 | “48 | IS |\PG8 | Ge 19°9Z 866 | 8866! G8 66

‘OL 9Z | “GZ | “£48 68 | “€8 I@IS | 998 |8'2Z | 186% | 886% | 986%

GtZ ‘LL | ‘bZ | 248 98 | “€8 |eE8 | OFS |V'8Z |] 8266 | 226% | 08°6@

G64 "08 | ‘94 ) “28 | G88 | 8 19'E8 | Sas IGGL | 8266 | ZL6E | 0866

08 “18 | ‘EZ 19°98 “£8 | “82 \9%8 "GS |0'94 | F8°GS | 1666! 886%

‘BZ ‘LL, ‘VL | S8 68 | °242 | @8 | TRS , 94 | £86Z ; 1666 | 066

eo4 82 | ‘SZ | ‘98 | G98 | “22 | “@8 | HS | 292 | @8'6@ | 88'6G | G8'6G

‘TL ‘Gg | ‘€2 1 98 | G98 | “242 | “I8 | G8 |GSZ2 | G8'GZ% | 886% , 886%

9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9

‘aduey ysvo'7y ‘asuery 4S9}eaIN) “yuo *osuey yseory

at} JO asei0AW

*19}9VIOULIIY J,

16°66 = 66°66 | 26°6e

866% | €O°CE | 66 66

86°66 | 86°66 | 96°66

€6°66 | 666% | 66°66

666% ; 26°66 | 9666 ,

[6°66 | 96°66 | 1666

1666 | S666 | G66%

166% | 46:6 | 76-6

166 | G6°6% | 16°6@

06°6G | 96°6% | S6°6G

G6'6G | 00'0E | 66°62

66°66 | 20'0E | GO'0E

66°66 | 90°0E | 90°0E

96°66 | 00'0E | 86°6z

G6'66 | 66 6G | 86 66

1666 | £666 | 76'6e

£6 66 | 86°6@ | S6°6z

[666 | 66°6% | 86°66

1666 | 66°66 | 66°62

96'6G | 666% | 266%

[6 °6G | 66°6G | 26°66

V6'6G | £00 | 66°66

96°6@ | FO'OE | 00°0E

66'6¢ | G0 0S | G00E

866 | PO'0E | 86°66

66°66 | 00'0E | 66°62

‘W ‘d | ‘GOON | ‘W ‘V

9 9

‘gsuey 4soyeatyy)

PeVEDUCRL ze

88°66 | £6°6G

G6'6S | 96'°6%

06°6% | £6 6

06°66 | €6°62

88°6% | 16°62

88'6G | 16°6z

18'6% | 06°62

28°66 | 06°62

98'6G | 06°62

48°66 | 16.66

68°66 | 96°62

£6°6% | 26°66

6666 | £6'6@

6866 | £66

98'6% | 16°62

68'6Z | £666

16'6G | £666

L8G | G6 6%

88°66 | £66

88°66 | 6°62

68 66 | C666

48°66 | 16°6@

06°62 | 96°6%

G6 GE | 26°6%

16'6G | 6°66

G6'6G | 26°66

‘W 'd | ‘WOON

“MOLL

16°66

[6°66

6666

1662

06 '6@

68 66

88°66

L866

16'6¢

8866

[6°66

16'6¢

68°66

16°66

06 6@

06°66

166%

16°66

06 6G

68°6Z

£6 6G

96°66

66 6G

16'6G

ay) Jo aseitsay

a a

- —_—_—_—_———

* ‘gsur9ae [eRUOY

ve. ees “gaquisveq

* + “19QUI9AO NT

eoe *“194020Q

**“raquia}dag

eeere *osnsnyw

eesesee “‘Ajne

tees ee eon

See

oe sieeve sie ride

ceeeees SUOIBTAT

seeeeKrenigaq

** “ergy ‘Arenue ge

eee

eoee

‘aseioAe [enUUYy

see “Taqtadeq

* °° “TaqUIDAONT

sees “19q0}9G

**“raquiazdag

@esee *4snsny

if SOOT

Sedele'suele: © SOUngY

eeceeeeee ‘ke

eoee.eeee “Yo.leyay

seose ++ “Areniqaq

Toss e or: ‘Krmnaeye

see

‘CO8L

431

ingapur.

Climate of S

1833.]

922 , OLL [9'EZ 1 9'S8 ‘48 | 3'08 GG8 | 9E8 | 8°92 | £8'66 a ¥8'62| [6°66| 66°66 £6'°62|68'62| 26'62 i es [enuuy

= “GZ | “GZ | “98 ¢8 ‘BZ | 8'08 | Z18 | Z°SZ | 28°62) ¢8°6Z) G8°6Z; 86°63] 00°0E| 16°6Z|88'6z| 06°6z| 88°6al °° ** ‘1aquiavag

62 08%)! 12-1 0198 ‘98 ‘62 | 668 | €F8 | 9°92 | 08°63] €8°6Z| 08°62| £6°6Z} 66°62] 16°61 28°62! 68°62 £6.60) 7 “19qUIaAON,

62 "92 | °SZ | °98 *88 62 | G'€8 | 9°€8 | 8°92 | 08°6Z, 886%] €8°6Z| S6°62! 46°62) 96°62|06'6z| €6'62] 16°62] °° °° ** 618qQ0109

Le ‘9L | ‘FL | “G8 "8 ‘8 | 9°08 | €'€8 | 9LZ | €8°6S! £8°6Z| G8°6Z| 86°62) €0'0E] 66°62|16'6Z| 86'6Z| Z6'6| °° ** ‘taquiaydag

fue SL} “Ge; 7G8 | “£8 ‘18 | VI8 | G8 | S92 | £862) 88°62) S8°6%| 6°62] 66'62| S6°62|16'6Z! €6'6Z] I6'6a\ °° °°” “asnSny

LL | SZ 4 GEL | “G8 88 68 | 9°68 | 6°68 | 9°92 | €8°63| €8'62| Z8°6Z; Z6°6S| 96°62] $6°62|Z8'6c| G8°6z| BB'6al******* “AINE

LL “ZL | “SZ | Zs 88 ‘v8 | T'P8 | €F8 | 6'6L | 28°62] 98°6G| 08°62] 26°62! £6'°6Z, 86'62|88'6Z| 16°6% cd ae ‘oune

‘08 "BZ | “SZ | °98 ‘£8 ‘18 | 2ZE8 | £2781 9°22 68°62, F866} £863] 16°66 566 ¥6'6G| 28°62} 16°62] 88°62 "°°" SAUTE

‘62 108) | 262 al Z9 “£8 ‘18 | 28 | 9'F8 | S22 | 28°62, £8°6S} $8'6Z] 66°62] 66°62! 66°62/88'62, F6'62| 16'6a\ "°° °°? “frady

*6L 192) “SZ 5 98 88 ‘08 | 9°€8 | O'F8 | S94 | €8°6%} G8'6Z| €8'6Z| 26°62] 66-62| £6°6%|\68'6Z} €6'6Z| 16°62] "°° yore

“BL ‘68 | “PL | “G8 “£8 ‘6L | 862 | G8 | 298 | 48°62] 16°62} 88°62; 00°0S| FO'OE| Z0'0E|E6'6Z| 66°62] 96°62) °° °° ‘AaenaAqag

m4 AZ) 16k ||. a8 98 ‘LL | 664 | 6°08 | T°SZ | 28°62] 06°62; 06°62 = 90°0€} £0°0) 2662]. S6'°6z F663)“ eeet‘Saonyg

o8Z | a8 I@bZ | 8'S8 a4 208 | 2°28 ‘b8 | LLL 1 68°62 rT ¢8°66| 46°62] 90°0€| 66°62] 06°62) F6'62 ciel Wd ss. jenuuy

“LL ‘GLA GS ie ec8 a "82 | 8°64 | 2°08 | SZ | 68°62! 26°62) 06°62; 66°62] G0°0E| 00°0E|Z6'6z| 96'°62| £6°6%) °° ** ‘Aequiaoaqy

‘9L ‘“6Z | “EL | °S8 ‘98 ‘68 | 918 | GG8 | F9L | 18'6Z) G8'6Z| €8°6Z| $662] 00'0E) $6°62| 68°62] $6'°6Z| 16'°6Z| °° °* ‘taquiaaony

“82 ‘62 | “Fé-|- “98 ‘18 | "BZ | TE8 | €'F8 | 992 | $8°6Z, 28°6Z| 28°63] £6°6Z, 66°62| 26°62|68'62, €6°6Z| T6'°6Z|°°°** ‘1240309

*6L 924 “82 | *28 ‘88 ‘68 | 88 | SFB | E22 | 986! 06'631 £8°6Z) $6°6Z| 66°62| 86°62|06'62| S6°6Z! Z6'GZ1 °° ** Staquiajdag

“LE “ZZ 1 °SZ } “98 88 ‘68 | LE8 | SHB] F6L | 28°62] £8°6Z| 28°62] 86°63] 00'0E| 96°62|06'6Z| 96°62] B8'6\ ‘°° °° “Qsnny

08 | 08 | “92 ! ‘98 ‘£8 €8 | F'98 | 6'F8 | “08 | 98'6Z| 886%] 08°6Z| £6°6Z| 00'°0| 86°62|86'6z| €6°6Z| Z6'6Z\ "tt * SATNE

SL ‘08 | ‘#2 | °98 98 ‘68 | PES | SHB | T6L | 08°62} 28°62] 88°62] 96°62] 96°62] £6°6S|F8'6S| 06'62| 68'6a| “°° ** founE

“18 92° | “PL | 258 ‘98 ‘€8 | 8°28 | T€8 | £°2Z | 18°62; 8°62] €8°62| 26°62) £6°62| 16'°62|06'62| 26°67; BBES\ "ot! CART

“82 "S21 “92 -b 68 88 ‘18 | @E8 | SFB | 6°82 | F8'6Z| 98°63] G8'6Z} S662] Z0°0E| 26°62/88'6z| 76°62! 06'6Z| "°°" “udy

18 "6L | *¥Z | *S8 98 08 | €'08 | ZF8 | 9°LZ | 98°63| 16°63] 88°62} FO'0E] 600] 80°0E|06'6Z! 96°62] F6'6Z] °° ** 8° * SyOaRPT

74 "O08 | “#2 | "#8 88 ‘82 | 9'T8 | 6£8 | E92 | 06'6Z| 066%] £8°62| 26°62] 00°0E| €0°08|4F6'6z| 96°6Z| G6°GS| °° +" ‘Axenaqag

LL “44 | “OL | °Gg "£8 “£L | £08 | €£€8 | HSL | 68°63] 88°6Z} £8°6Z| 60'OE| OT OS) 60°0E| 26°62] 00°0E] 66'6G| °° *'** ‘Arenuee

"Wd /UOON| “W*V| sw ‘d] ‘WOON| ‘Ww'v | ‘Wa [WOON] ‘Ww 'v| ‘Ww ‘a|-uoON| “HW vl W ‘d |"UOON | “WV | “W*d|"UOON | “HW 'V

9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9

‘asuvy ysevary ‘adury ysayvaiy ‘yQUO ‘suey yseary ‘aduvy ysovory “quo, Ash |

ay) JO sse10Ay a1) JO asuIdAy

‘1aj9MIOUIIIY J, ‘layoWMOIVg

432 Stars observed with the Moon at Nasirabdd. [Aué,

VII.—Culminating Stars observed with theMoon at Nasirabid. By Lieut.-

Colonel Thos. Oliver, &c.

“/No. of; Sidereal Time (Intervals in

Eee: Stars. wires.| of Transit. |sidereal time.

H.M. S. H. M. Ss.

February 16th, 1831,|)’s Ist border,...... 0 58 52.0

Ot Cebll ees cans yee 5 2 53 26.4 +1 54 34.4

Marchi Sst, M1e3a. oaleeOrionigs |. hd. Mods 12 eons |-0 48 31.3

)’s Ist border, ...... 5 6°34-352l 4

a Geminorum, .. .... 5 7 2349.0 |+0 49 15.9

o Canismin.s. 4. se. | 5 7 30 27.6 0 55 54.5

(8 Geminorum,.. .... 5 | 7 34 58.4 1 00 25.3

yer eS pe eee) i

March 22nd, .. ..:. ja Orionis,........ :. 5 | 5 46 018 1 48 34.8

a Geminorum,.. 5 Sanh BLISS 0 10 47.7

a Canis min..... .... 5 | 7 30 27.6 0 04 09.0

)’s Ist border,...... | 5 | 7 34 36.6

September 14th. ..la Scorpii,..........1 4 | 1619 047 \—1 17542

| )’s lst border,.... .. 5 | 17 36 58.9

November 12th,....| ))’s Ist border,...... 5 21 15 55.0

BrAQuarit, <. 7.5.0. .)5- 5 21 22 40.8 |+0 06 45.8

INOWZO AD sure eerere. oven 5 21 33 52.4 0 17 57.4

| 2586,).% sJ5, bem so) a 9 21 37 43.7 \ 0 21 48.7

——————— —_— | $e

November 13th,....|8 Aquarii, ..........| 5 | 21 2241.1 [+0 44 518

ING. 264i. ok 36s ote. 5) 22 04 25.6 0 03 07.3

1D ’s Ist border, ...... | 5 22°07 32:9 |

February 8th, 1832,/a Arietis,.........+6. | 5 | 157424 |-0 24 44.0

| )’s Ist border, ...... abel 5 2 22 264

inlet hee eee | 3 225 51.9 {40 13 25.5

a Tauri, Fi autho Pekets ous, 5) 4 26 17.6 pr adee 2 03 ae 2

February 10th, ..\..la Arietis,.......-..1 5 1 57 42.2 2 18 2 218 213.

NGS Mie oh. aalet ors: ees 3.18 03.7." 0 57 5Y.8

383, Ss GOES SES 5 3 24 29.9 0 51 33.6

oY retonsseis els ioreiene: 2 5 3 30 44.8 0 45 187

)’s lst border, ...... 5 4 16 03.5

INO25 Zl saesels tro cho cheseuo' 5 419 04.4 -0 0 cae wy)

a Tauri, 2 oR eee 5 4 26 17.1 010 136

March 9th,......-. )’s Ist border, ...... 5 | 4 57 29.9

wy Orioles ache | 5 | 516073 +0 18 37.4

March 10th,.. .. «-/a Tauri, ...... eee 5 426173 |—1 33 05.0

2 OPLOMIS Fes iersscprevenare tose 5 5 23 25.3 0 35 57.0

. sae o! Bee BaD 5 5 32 16.8 0 27 05.5

BOUOA0 20 4 OO DU GOO i) 5 46 04.5 0 13 17.8

> gyi a i eae 5 5 59 22.3

No. 768, . PB rcjavehsie 5 6 02 04.5 . |+0 02 42.2

TS CESER CET 16 1 ean 5 4 26 17.0 |—3 39 23.1

ly Orionis, .... ....+- 5 5 1607.1 | : 49 33.0

CP EA BEE ade At. Se Geir an 5 5 46 04.7 | 2 19 35.4

8 Geminorum,...... Bou 738d. O19 0 30 38.2

)’s lst border, 5 | 8 05 40.1 ie

1833.]

—

Date. Stars.

Wires,

April 8th,.... .. «-/a Geminorum, ......

GACANIS MIDG 2). +610

8 Geminorum, .....-.

)’s Ist border, ......

No. 989,

Or Or Or Or Or

oer ee ee ee eeee

May 7th,........--

Ne. 1197,

ee ee

May 9th,....

CNGEONIS | 0. Fe iyera as we

No. 1338,

No. 1369,

eee e ae ee ee

DUNE GUD, cs cle oo se |PVLCONIS, 2.0.6 scl ae ss

)’s 1st border,

2, VIER INIS; | 8.0.45 «0nd

ee MR ey case ae INO: 1400, 2. cares

- | )’s Ist border,

October Ist, .. ....

>) ’s Ist border, ......

B Aquarii, ......

po Aguero eared 8 |

November Ist, .. .. |8 Aquarii,.... ......

)’s 1st border,

7 Capricornis, ...

eAQuaril, Bs. sons <

a Piscis aust, ....

oeeveoe

November 29th,.... 8 Aguarti, f.... i»-.+

)’s Ist border, ......

a Piscis aust, re OEE

March Ist 1833,....\a Tauri, .....

MOTION IS; ici. isto ae

ING. (S04: soi thie.si'** se\s said

|) ’s lst border, PEASE

a Geminorum,

March 28th, .. c..%

> se ee we

\No. 820,

(OF he ec) eee sr

eeee ef

March 30th, .... ..

ere eer eer ae oe eeseee

B 5

No. 967, .....- re abla 5

)’s lst border,.. ...

No. 1048, ....

Stars Observed with the Moon at Ndsirabad,

433

No. of,Sidereal time of} Intervals in

Transit. Sidereal time.

H.M. §S H. M. S.

7 2352.2 |— 0 22 284

7 30 30.2 0 15 50.4

7 35 01.6 0 11 19.0

7 46 20.6

7 5620.7 |+ 0 10 00.1

9 29 32.9

9 5120.2 | 0 21 47.3

95925.5 | 0 29 52.6

“9 1920.0 |— 2 01.105

9 59 25.6 1 21 04.9

11 15 11.0 0 05 19.5

11 20 30.5

11 3638.7 !+ 0 16 08.2

11 4029.3 |— 0 16 49.2

11 57185

13 1622.1 | 1 19 03.6

12 3309.7 |— 0 14 536

12 48 03.3

18 21 28.1

21 22446 |4 3 01 165

21 22441 |— 0 04 37.1

21 27 21.2

21 3047.7 | 0 03 265

21 57 10.9 0 29 49.7

22 48 23.4 1 21 02.9

21 2244.4 |— 0 34 00.8

21 56 44.8

22 4822.8 |+ 051 38.0

426204 |— 2 03 57.8

5 1610.3 1 14 07.9

6 19 03.0 0 Il 15.2

6 30 18.2

7 2356.6 |+ 053 384

5 1543.5 |— 0 52 50.4

5 27 39.3 0 40 54.6

6 04 47.1 0 03 46.8

6 08 33.9

6 2803.3 | 019 29.4

6 33 39.1 0 25 05.2

6 54 12.0 0 45 38.1

7 23 56.1 115 222

7 35 05.2 1 26 313

7 2356.0 |— 050 23.6

7 35 05.1 0 39 14.5

7 45 54.8 0 28 24.8

8 1419.6

8 3007.0 | 015 47.4

434 Chemical Analyses. [Aue.

Tie Stica. No. of| Sidereal time of| Intervals in

ok alae |__ ‘Trans Transit. Sidereal time.

| a, Me Se H. M. Ss.

March 3lst,.... ../a Canis min..... Meras 5 7 3033.4 |— 1 46 319

8 Geminorum, ...... 5 | 7 35 05.2 1 42 00.1

No. 1130, .... catenin” SO 9 09 39.6 0 07 25.7

D’s Ist border, . sdoo0e 5 9 17 05.3 |

QULEONIS, wcle. «0 veiciae 5 9 5929.1 (—- 0 42 23.8

INOS 222s raratales otetene's 5 10 07 43.2 0 50 37.9

IN@), IEW Sea poeed 5 10 12 51.6 0 55 46.3

PASEINZ7 Ch hare 'elete reer INO MLOIZ cide Sie yaletoe 5 '— 0 07 32.5

)’s:Isteborder;. ... 2s 5 x

INO M122 Mec cisuaiersss 5 + 0 09 07.2

1130, 5 0 12 46.3

Ba da Ee ES ee Wie eS | a

Ao gl PIN ago oo cally SUVA de 66 a5 Bone 5 fy o2NAlS x 2 24 50.7

Doe Bo sak. eae) 9 36 21.9 0 20 43.1

WS ese Bor ted 9 49144 | 0 07 50.6

y’s Ist-border,...... 5 9 57 05.0

LCONISS . stax sleu ces 5 9 5928.8 !+ 0 02 23.8

No. 1254, ‘ 5 10 24 01.2 0 26 56.2

1284, sehr 5 10 40 29.1 0 43 24,1

April 29th, .. 1g Leonisy.s eee. ee | 9 5928.6 j— 055 40.2

“"|No. 1254, rane 5 10 24 01.2 0 31 07.6

WS OSE Rocrerets meetassts 5 10 52 05.6 0 03 03.2

D’s Ist border, B koress 6 5 10 55 08.8

NOI B28 5 sa ctewsoteie!'s' 5 11 08 42.1 + 0 13 33.3

US34 > Gv csicrewe 5 11 1231.7 0 17 22.9

1338, .... 5 11 15 13.2 0 20 04.4

April 30th, ....60% (a LeOmis, «2. tens] 2 9 5928.8 '‘— 1 51 50.1

INO DIST; ie seme ae 5 1377173 0 14 01.6

IB AGCONIS je ecoisrebesjer-elere's 5 11 40 32.9 0 10 46.0

)’s Ist border, ...... 5 11 51189

Noi 41S) 28 oo Aa 12 1122.55 ‘+ 0 20 03.6

N. B. The numbers in the column headed “ Stars’’ refer to the Catalogue of the

London Astronomical Society.

Any of your readers who may have had observations of Moon Culminating

Stars corresponding with any of the above, will confer a favor on me by publish-

ing them in your valuable Journal.

VIII.—Chemical Analyses. By Jas. Prinsep, Sec., &c.

1. Three specimens of soil from sugar-cane fields.

The first was from a village called Mothfon the Savju, ten milesnorth

of the bank of the Ganges at Buxar. The other two were from soils

on the south bank of the Ganges near the same place. Nos.1 & 2are

represented as requiring irrigation, and No. 3, as sufficiently retentive

of moisture to render it unnecessary. There is a substratum of kankar

* This evening I had no observations of well known Stars to determine the er-

ror of the Chronometer and Instrument : but the Intervals may, I think, be de-

pended on.

1833.] Chemical Analyses. 435

throughout the whole of that part of the country, and to some mixture

of this earth with the surface soil the fertility of the latter is ascribed :

the cane produced is of small size, but it yields a pretty rich juice : by

the native process each maund of juice affords six seer of gur.

100 parts of each sort treated simultaneously gave the following

results ;

No. 1.No. 2. No. 3.

Hygrometric moisture, on drying at 212° .....2 2. esecee 25 2.1 3.6

Carbonaceous and vegetable matter, on calcination,...... 18 2.1 4.0

Carb. lime from digestion in nitric .

acid and precipitation by carb. pot. } Pip alonactngeres iy 08 Ao

Mikal salt-dissolved, i6iscsiscs000 weds deceetdedveeee LO LP 03

Silex and aluminas ics sceodvs cece dene caac eoeeeceeoesreee 94.1 24.1 88.2

100.0 100.0 100.0

The earths were not further examined, but the two first consisted

chiefly of sand, whereas the third was somewhat argillaceous. All

three were of a soft fine-grained alluvium without pebbles : the analysis

confirms the qualities ascribed to each of the specimens.

2. Slaty anchracite from the hills south of Fatehpur in the Hoshangibdd dis-

trict, Nerbudda ; transmitted to Government by Captain J. R. Ouseley.

A heavy dull slaty coal, splitting into laminee marked with ferrugi-

nous oxide ; colour brownish grey, inclining, where rubbed, to the lustre

of graphite: streak brown: specific gravity 1.880. :

Exposed to a red heat, burns without flame, and leaves a very

copious red ochreous ash. It is of a poorer description than most of the

Indian coals, although evidently connected with the same deposit as the

Towa or Burhandlé coal, included in the table published in the

GLEANINGs, vol. ili. p. 283, and described further in page 293 ;—which

left only 15 per cent. of ash. Richer coal doubtless accompanies these

upper shales. Captain Ousrtzy has traced the deposit farther south to

Tumané near Bhawergarh, but no specimens have yet been furnished from

the latter place. The composition of the Nerbudda coal is as follows ;

Water, separated on sand-heat,.... ....- Sale sata sie ways are's 95 hed

Volatile matter, not inflammable,.. .....0.0 scsccesece 10.5

Heed reliactonkjres ee STs Ee AOL 820

Red earthy residue,.... ....

100.0

3. Peat of the Calcutta Alluvium, dug up from 30 feet below the surface, at

the Chitptir Lock-gates.

Composition—Volatile matter, principally aqueous,.... ...+...+ 62.0

Fixed carbonaceous matter,....00 ecccce sevcce 16.7

Red ABS sera G06 6 4\6in oxeioa/araieva.e, /w.njo,susjeisiels aie 6@uhe Lack

100.0,

2 ke

436 Chemical Analyses. [Ave..

4. Bell of St. John’s Cathedral, Calcutta.

The great bell of this church, whose jarring and discordant sound

has more than a million times reminded the neighbourhood of its crack-

ed condition, has at last been removed, and a new bell is about to be

founded to supply its place, under the superior skill of an eminent Engi-

neer officer. The metal of which the old bell was composed turns out to

be of a very brittle nature, and it is not surprising that it should have

cracked (as recorded) under the effects of a zor-se-fan injunction from

the delighted minister to the sexton, when it was first set up: it has

a specific gravity of 8.887, and consists, in a hundred parts, of—

Coppers, {0.0 se.c0,00/0 in airuabade et afateny stor aish qheieto's\ cielo? tee tees 67.0

ft ae i RP ARORECCOOR corr oon OD Ce STROD OA COe OS cc 25.0

PANG core et ea.siciois <sjei6 6% © a siela sieve rb atidtsini aie) eek eafouets aiaiote 8.0

100.0

5. Ancient Copper Spear-heads, from Agra.

An article in one of the English journals of science, some months

ago, having mentioned, that on analysing ancient weapons of copper,

found in Germany, the metal was found to be hardened with tin* ;

I was induced to examine some of the ancient spear-heads, which

are frequently dug up in the neighbourhood of Htawa, and are refer-

yed by the natives to the period of the Mahabharat war. Some of

these presented by Mr. Cracrorr to the Benares Lit. Soc. are describ-

ed in the Oriental Magazine, for December, 1826.

Three of them were examined: the exterior colour of all was that of

unmixed copper.

No. 1. An arrow head, (so called) broke with a purple granular frac-

ture: spec. grav, 8.459 at 85°.

No. 2. A similar weapon, broke with less facility, and had a better

grain: spec, grav. 8.801.

No. 3. A spear-head, or kind of sword-blade, true copper colour and

texture: tough; spec. grav. 8.835.

Very slight traces of tin were discovered’ on solution in nitric acid,

but not ponderable, and rather proceeding from slight impurity of the

metal worked up than from intended mixture—no traces of silver or

lead were found. The difference of specific gravity was perhaps due to

the brittle texture of the first specimen, and to the sword-blade

having been fashioned under the hammer.

6. New Patent Sheathing Metal for Ships.

A patent has lately been taken out in England, for a cheap marine

metal or metallic sheathing, stated to be compounded of lead, antimony,

and mercury, which seems to have succeeded in the only object which

* BRANDE’s Journ. xx. p. 296.

1833.) Chemical Analyses. 437

ever could have been aimed at by its inventor ; that of gulling those who

were foolish enough to put their trust in it. The following facts give

_ authentic testimony of the worthlessness of the invention :—

“The Renown, a new ship built at Port Glasgow, her first voyage to India, was-

sheathed with this metal ; she had scarcely been at sea a month before the sheath-

ing showed a rough and unclean appearance like a piece of wood which had

been long in the water, but without the grass to it, and this kept going on worse

and worse: and it was observed from the bowsprit, when the vessel pitched, that

in many places it hung from the bottom like pieces of rags ; in some places large

pieces were entirely gone, and what remained shewed every symptom as if it

would soon follow, which it did: on examination of the pieces which came off,

they appeared spotted, as if oxidizing fast into small holes ; by the time the ship

arrived here many hundred sheets were gone from the bottom, and what was

left as far as could be seen was very unclean.”’

The metal in fact is nothing but a soft pewter, consisting of 95 parts

of lead, and five of tin mixed with some antimony. Its specific gravity

of 11.130 corroborates this analysis. No trace of mercury could be dis-

covered by heating it in a retort to a temperature at which this metal

would have risen in distillation.

The invention may have been suggested by an American pateut taken

out in London in 1831 for a sheathing metal of zinc and copper, com-

bined in the proportions of 95 zinc to 5 copper. This compound,

although superior to the pewter on account of its stiffness, would

probably be liable to corrosion much more rapidly than copper ; the

inventor however states that the addition of a small portion of copper.

greatly diminishes this liability, and adapts it well for the sheathing

of ships and other purposes.

Zinc by itself corrodes very rapidly in a damp climate. A remark-

able instance of this was witnessed not long since, in removing some

slabs of spelter which had been stored on the floor of a godown belong-

ing to Messrs. CockEerett and Co, The lowermost slab was converted

into a solid white substance throughout, apparently crystalline in its

structure ; specific gravity 3.0. On heating in a test tube per se it

disengaged much water and became yellow ; it dissolved with moderate

effervescence in nitric acid. It was therefore a hydrated carbonate of

zinc, or perhaps rather a mixture of hydrated oxide and carbonate,

agreeing closely with the mineral from Bleyberg in Saxony, described

by Smiruson* as hydrous carbonate, a sub-species of calamine, which

he states to be a stalactitic formation. This is a remarkable instance

of the formation of a natural insoluble mineral by artificial, though

unintentional, means.

* Txomson’s Chemistry, iv. p. 483.

438 Miscellaneous. [Ave.

7. Argentiferous Galena, from the Bor Khamti country, on the sources of the

Trawadi river.

A small specimen of this ore, received from Mr. Brucs of Sadiya, in

Asam, was found to contain one-fifth per cent. of silver: or after

expelling the sulphur the lead would contain one-fourth per cent. This

would hardly pay the expence of extraction, but the specimen was too

small to give a fair average. The ore is however very valuable for the

lead alone, yielding from 60 to 70 per cent. of that metal.

At Brahmakund, in Asam, from Mr. Bruce’s specimens, occurs a very

fine white porcelain clay, which mightbe turned to use were there

any demand for fine pottery in India, and were the locality a little

more accessible.

IX.—Earthquake of the 26th August.

The daily papers have published notices of this phenomenon, as observed at a

great many places in the interior of India, with more or less detail, from which the

following general facts may be gathered :—

The direction of the vibration was from north-east to south-west : there were three

principal shocks ; the first about half past six Pp. m. the second at half past eleven;

and the third or most severe shock, at about five minutes to twelve (Calcutta time).

In the places where it was most felt slight and continued vibrations seem to have

been experienced for the whole of the day following. As the time of the second

vibration was accurately noted in Calcutta by the stopping of an astronomical clock,

we may assume it as the best point of comparison with the times noted at other

distant points. Applying the difference of longitude, a few of them may be thus

classed.

Observed Diff. Long. Cal. Time.

he ™ mM. he ™m

Katmandu, Nipal, second shock, 10 45 +T 12 = 10 57 very severe; loud noise.

Rungpur, ditto---+-+++-+eeeee 11 20 = 2 = ll 18 many houses injured, do.

Monghyr ditto,----++++++-+++-- 11 27. | 7 = 11 34 walls cracked, noise heard.

Arrah, ditto--++++ -+++++ serves 1 -- 14 = ll 29 walls injured, do.

Under Rotas hills, ditto,.----- 11 10 4 = 20 11 80

Gorakhpur, ditto,..---+----+++- 11 20 + 19 = 11 39 walls cracked, &c.

Allahabad (vague), ditto,-- ---- te, 0 - 28 = 11 28? hollow sound from river.

Bankura, ditto,-+-+--++++eeseee 11 30 & 4 = 11 34 none such since 1814.

Calcutta, ditto,--+-+--++eeeeeee = 11 34 48 no injury done.

At Monghyr, Rungpdr, Mozufferpar, Mallai, and other places within the direct

line of influence, many houses were destroyed or injured, and the alarm was great.

At Katmanda, however, the following extract of a letter from Dr. A. CAMPBELL,

dated the 28th inst. willshew that the consequences were more serious, and judging

from the course of the phenomenon we may reasonably fear some dreadful catas-.

trophe towards Lassa on the north of the great Himalayan range.

“On the evening of the 26th, about 6 o’clock, the valley and neighbouring hills

were visited by a severe shock of an earthquake : it lasted about 40 seconds, and

during its continuance, there was a distinctly audible noise as of ordnance passing

rapidly over a drawbridge. lt seemed to me to come from the east, and I felt. that

it was travelling with the speed of lightning towards the west, and just under my

feet: the houses shook most violently, and trees, shrubs, and the smallest plants were.

“

1833.] Miscellaneous. 439

set in motion, not shaking but waving to and fro from their very roots. No

damage was done to life or property. At 4 to eleven we had a similar shock in

severity and duration, and at eleven a most tremendous one. It commenced gra-

dually, and increased until the houses, trees, and every thing on the face of the

ground seemed shaken from their foundations. The earth heaved most fearfully,

and when the shock was at its worst we heard the clashing of falling tiles and

bricks in every direction ; and to add to the impressiveness of the scene, a general

shout rose from the people in all directions. The murmur of human prayers was

carried audibly from the city to our grounds (a mile), and nothing could be more

imposing and vast than the scene. Ina dead calm the noise ofa hundred cannon burst

forth : full grown trees bended in all directions, and houses reeled about like drunken

men. In our grounds no lives were lost, but in Katmanda 19 persons were buri-

ed under the ruins of their own houses, and in the towns of Bhatgaon and Patan,

many more. This great shock continued for nearly a minute, and during the follow-

ing hour there were six distinct and strong shocks, the ground in the intervals be-

ing scarcely if at all steady ; and from this time till yesterday morning there were up-

wards of 20 distinct and sharp shocks. The loss of property has been very great, 125

houses fell in Katmanda during the night of the 26th, and nearly as many more have

been levelled with the ground. Up to this time, in consequence of the torrents of

rain that have come down, finishing the work of destruction commenced by the

earthquakes, the city and towns have been evacuated, men, children and wo-

men of the purdah, rich and poor, have been and still are on the plains about

the towns. Innumerable temples have been destroyed, and the very gods of them

have been crushed to atoms. A fine and large brick temple (100 feet high), built

in imitation of the great one at Jaganath, came down by the run early yesterday

morning, and two fine pillars built by Buim Sen were demolished by the great

shock. All yesterday and last night we had occasional small shakes, and we are

still in a state of suspense regarding the finale. In 1829, daily shocks continued

to occur for 40 days, but none of them equal to the great one we had on the 26th.”’

A subsequent note from the same gentleman, dated the 30th instant, gives further

particulars of this disastrous event :—

“© We still continue to be revisited by occasional shocks of earthquake, all less

violent than the great one of the 26th, but sufficiently alarming. This morning,

when at breakfast, we had rather a sharp one: they all seem to come from the

same direction ; that is from the east and north-east. The places east of Kat-

mandi have suffered most: Bhatgaon, a large town, has been almost entirely

destroyed ; upwards of 1000 houses have been levelled with the ground, and few

have escaped serious injury. 300 souls have perished in this town (Bhatgaon)

alone, and the total number of lives lost throughout the valley, as yet ascertained,

is estimated at 500. The unfortunate people in many instances are in sore dis-

tress ; their stores of grain being buried beneath the ruins of their late dwellings,

and without money to purchase other food. The grain shops, as well as

all others, are shut, and the people dare not return to their houses, but remain

without sleep or shelter in the open air, under torrents of rain. The house of

Marasar Sine, (a goodly modern mansion) is quite destroyed, and the large

garden houses of Baim Sew, and his brother, Rau Brr, are rendered, for the

present, untenable. Scarce a large house in Katmandi has escaped serious injury.

The fort at Chiropani, on the road to this from the plains, is much injured, and

almost all the Government buildings have sustained great injury.”

A. C,

(Aue. 1883,]

Meteorological Register.

440

-AaaIng af} UY} JAMO] PHOS Spue}S SINOY aS0Y} Je pasn AaJoUIOIe oy} ‘AIOJeIOGL'] 9} JO Ile vaiz OY] UI popuedsns ore “W ‘d } PUP “WV OT IOJ SUSUINTYsUT oY L

“asVIDAV ULY] SSI] ULI {‘o]QeIIVA pur saLo[eo

‘Suluajyvaiyy? ‘yum Ajstur | *M Ufo ‘S

op ‘yeyys*uind ‘uno "109 | “QS = 'a ‘U s

“Apno[a *1QUITU op “7 mg see "Ty

‘ulexr «= “yeas “und op ‘a 'S “o “7

*Apnoya *17nuins op aS °8 TT .'9d

“IIPS "UND 2p 119 op aS mG | 0)

*snquila op op "S “T ‘Oo

“LPF ‘ynund tea | aS AS

*snyeq}s op op “a Tas Soy

‘Apnop = iquiru = Apnoys | ‘aq "S A'S ‘a

op ‘yeqjsuINd = “Ue

*snquira op op

“suyzziip *Apnoyo op

‘spnojd ‘Ijnuimd “13s ‘uno

op “yes “119 *pnos

*SNQUIIU ‘IQUITA § *JSBO19AO

‘WIOIS QuUIIU}eOy “Iley

*"snquIIu °}St010A0 *yeI4s

‘Apnojd *yetjs"ung op

op “IQ UTU *rea[a

op *I7muins op

“SNQUIT *919S "110 op

“7213S *119 op op

*snquIlu “Azey *azey

“MID “Spf "WYSE = “UT

‘snquitu “IQUE *azey

*uled op “UNL

op op “yerys

‘yerys m0 «*Apnops = =—s “snquaiu

op ‘und = “UT und

-Apnoya “Azey JOM

is>}

3 g 5

Et 5 3

8 ®

“IOY}CI NM “PUTA

“W ‘d *UI/G “UL Je SEM YOOYS JSALCAS OYJ, “UU UOUL “W “d ‘SBp“UIPE “UIT 3e ("S pue -N BSUQeIqIA) soWO s,[e4L9

-a 10KdAINS 94} 38 YDOTI TedIUIOUONse ue paddojs puosas 94} *W “A “WIP ‘YQ MOQe Ze ISIY ay} “eIQNITe_ Ul IeF OIOEM OyeNbDYIIa Ue JO syooYs 9aIY} ‘YI9g a4} UO

*JoIJBAIOY UIATS aq [ITM JoJOUIOAeT IOY}IO dy} L0J WOTIIII09 oY} ‘s,[e1eNay 10

8FS'6S, ULaT\

s1'8} 86 | 96 4h ‘| OF (I' | 8's [9°08 | 8°98 [2°06 [0°S8 J0'LS | BBS" | OBs* [669°

—. -} —-——— | - —__ | —_

SIO | 6 og foe | Le | e% | 9% |o‘18 | 948} ‘06 |9°28 | 9°28 | OOF | ep | Legs

16 6 JO% | 1S | 8% | 0% fers | e668 19°26 |T°98 | 0°18} OLG* | ThS< | OL9S

G20 | 96 #6 |e | ste | 0% | 9% fete | ros [9506 (0°28 ) 2°08 | 199° | PaO‘ | IIL‘

+6 s6 |se | ao | ee | oe | o'es | of98 |G |2°28 | O'T8 | LIZ. | aa9* | Le9°

v6 | +6 [9% | 59 | 09 lee | ree | 1°68 9°26 18°98 | O'T8 | Lak | gZoe | IL9F

G8 68 JO | 8B | BL | es Lo‘es | {06 |8°FG [E88 | F08 | GPO" | Lass | egok

oro | 28 16 [9% | 368 | LG | et | L‘eg | 7°68 |a°86 |F98 | B°6L | LL9° | E09° | 889°

68 96 |e | BL | 0% | ee [Ite | 9%68 |L°16 j0%c8 | L°6L | e89* | SIO" | STLS

&6 16. |6%@ | 0% | 9 | fet Pscss | 398 8°68 |2‘o8 | B°GL | O99" | 99S* | GODS

0F0 | 96 lo |ve | oe | ee | ow [rte | are [0°28 (s'e8 | F°6L | Geok | cap. | Geet

16 |L5% | #G | eS | es | 8°6L | 1'9g [2°88 |9%E8 | °6L | ces’ | GLb | opee

46 Joe | Le | 8S | ot FSIS | L’eg (6:98 |e | °6L Eos" | Boa" | FBG.

96 48S | HE | FE | os PUB | BFs [OIG | 1B | 2°08 fF sas | PPSS | BIOS

46 18% | 8 | He | BT TS'Ts | Ofcg |E°68 |8°E8 | S°BZ F 09% | BaS< | BBgS

96 40% | 2% | Se | ote [6B | F1g |8°88 |6°C8 | GBF OLS | East | Seg*

96 fre |S | oe | Be Pe'%s | weg |E°88 |o%68 | L'GB | BGR" | Boge | Spgs

g6 fee | Le 1 0 | ott FESR | 6'Sg [0°88 |0%S8 | 9°62 | 899% | O09" | ZB9S

46 16 | LE | Le | or Pose | 069g |SE8 |E°FB | B18 § G99" | PBS* | OES

96 10% | Lh | oH | oe FOOTE | 92g |S°26 |E'98 | €°s8 FOSS" | PLP. | OGE®

96 }9% | bh | OE | Te [0%eR | Licg |9°F6 |3°Z8 | G'cB | ceo" | OOP. | BEgt

6 10% | 8 | OM | ez Ps'te | 906 |o°86 je'98 | L:08 49s" | ZZr* | 409

oc Te | Gb |S | op 1808 | L’eg 4°96 \€%o8 | G18 4 e6e* | Bag* | GHge

#6 |7r | LE | Be | oe TOs | gfog | 1°88 |o'rs | 0°98 Fo9c* | PBS | Gsos 6

16 |i | 99 | So 1 ge FS'cg | Lag 9°86 1P°G8 | 9°68 F GBP‘ OSs GIs‘ 8

6 fo | LS | o% | om FSteg | L‘Z8 P16 S‘b8 | 0°68 | GBF. | T9bé oogé LZ

¥6 [Pr | LE | OF | HH [OFS | Occg 8°88 Io'es | 0°08 FOTG. | Leb! | Fg 9

46 {9T | I | oe | ge TTos | a‘Ze |P'06 |o'ce | O'e8 | Fess | ENS" | ILo° g

96 ee | Sh | Om | ag Fates | ofZe |0'06 {0%e8 | G08 | agg" ons oss‘ v

r6 Jer | 89 1 eH | oH P08 | bag |F.06 [I'bB | S18 | Srss | BGR | OBg* ¢

G6 IPS (9S | Be | oO FL'Es | 6s {0°08 |EeFs | O88 | C9S* 919° Brae z

66 1GE 18% 1G | es F8'se | O'Gg |9°S8 ILF8 ) LIB | 48¢° | SOs" | 1Z9 I

+ @ >

Ey Be be eci eee) e wee ee ==

Sobes SF 1S Rei Sal eas | So be a hoe & iS om

Pate gl Bes fee) ea ee eee oe a 5%

Boll LE eked Boiss a4 |e PRB gle LE me

: *19}9UL *IoJOULOUIIS i "UAT GE 0}

UleUT -orSAy sep | qinq-ystou ScUR SE TaC SEY PHVM tO} SRIOUMOUNE, paon pat dajouoirg

‘eee ‘asnbnp fo yzuow ay) 10f ‘vyynoqvy ‘a0 hosspy ayy yw yday ‘sagsibayy jn00h0j0.10072

JOURNAL

THE ASIATIC SOCIETY.

No. 21.—September, 1833.

I.—An Inquiry into the Laws governing the two great powers, Attraction

and Repulsion, as operating on the Aggregation and Combination of

Atoms. By Julius Jeffreys, Esq.

TuoveHu the causes of the three states of matter, as they are called,

that is to say, the solid, the liquid, and the aeriform, together with

those causes by which the union of the different kinds of matter in

compound bodies is effected, and those also by which bodies are ex-

panded, contracted, or preserved of the same magnitude are subjects of

great curiosity and importance, yet they belong to a branch of Che-

mistry which is at present in an unadvanced and imperfect state.

* Those justly celebrated philosophers who have done honor to our age

by their discoveries in other branches have not yet carried their ex-

amination so far into this part as to arrive at any settled opinions

concerning it, and not unfrequently in the same author doctrines have

been advanced which are irreconcilable with each other.

The branch of natural philosophy to which the present inquiry

is devoted having continued, with little advance, since it was written,

in the year 1822, the doctrines I have endeavoured to establish, and

the body of arguments by which they are supported, maintain still

whatever of novelty or importance they may have possessed. As,

however, in so considerable a period, a few of the arguments may

have been brought forward by others, though not perhaps similarly

applied, I have thought it proper to mark by including brackets, thus

[J], such parts as have undergone any alteration upon a revision.

The body of the work remains verbatim as when first written.

Whether by directing my attention to this part of Chemistry I have

been enabled to suggest any such modes of reasoning as may be applied

2 L

449 On the two great powers, [Sepr.

to the advantage of the science, it would be presumption in me to pro-

nounce an opinion. The question must depend upon the strength of

the arguments which I use, and which I now submit to the judgment

of the philosophic public.

Part I.—Of Attraction.

Attraction is usually divided into two kinds.

The first of them Gravitation, or that by which bodies have a ten-

dency to approach each other, and on which the sciences of Mechanics

and Physical Astronomy depend. The second Contiguous Artrac-

TION, or ATTRACTION of Atoms, by which the atoms of bodies are kept

in connection with each other, and which alone it is my province at

this time to consider.

Contiguous Attraction, by a division subordinate to the former, is

usually considered as comprehending two species, Attraction of Aggre-

gation, or the attraction existing between homogeneous atoms, and

Chemical Attraction, or that which is between heterogeneous atoms.

This distinction has arisen from a supposition, that similar particles

exert an attraction towards each other which obeys laws different

from those of the attraction between dissimilar particles. That such

isan unnecessary distinction might be inferred, were there no other,

from this consideration, that when one solid combines with another to

form a compound solid, it is not possible to make a distinction between

the attraction uniting its compound particles and the affinity by which

the constituents are united. Thus in sulphuret of iron the cohesion ,

of the iron and the sulphur is overcome by their mutual attraction

which forms them into compound particles, and these again cohere in

a new solid differing entirely from either of the former. The attrac-

tion which keeps the particles of the sulphuret in a state of aggrega-

tion cannot be distinguished from that which brought their elements

together ; for it favors the union of the elements, and aids in prevent-

ing their separation.

With reference to this and other differing opinions relative to

contiguous attraction, I propose to begin this Hssay by a somewhat

minute examination of it under the following heads. Ist. By inquiring

into the distance at which it operates; whether it is confined to near

particles only, or extends to more remote ones. Qndly. By inquiring

how far the attraction of atoms is general ; that is, whether all atoms

in nature attract, and are attracted by all, or whether attraction be-

tween atoms (chemical and cohesive) is confined to a limited number.

3rdly. By inquiring into the effect of mass on contiguous attraction 3

1833.] Attraction and Repulsion. 443

that is, how far the attraction between atoms (chemical and cohe-

sive) is increased towards any given atom by the mass.

4thly. In what ratio of the distance the force of attraction of atoms

varies; which will lead me to confirm by arguments the opinion that

gravitation and contiguous attraction are the same property of mat-

ter, differing only in the circumstances under which it is presented to

our observation.

Ist. Of the distance at which attraction of atoms operates.

From the effects of cohesive attraction being in most cases evident

only at very small distances, and from the particles of bodies in the

aerial state actually appearing to repel each other, it has been gene-

rally inferred that this force is exerted only at very limited distances ;

and hence its name, contiguous attraction.

Although the effects of cohesive attraction may be apparent only

at very small distances, yet it is scarcely correct to infer that this force

is exerted only at such distances until due attention has been paid to

the causes, which, by affecting the phenomena, may create deception

upon the mind. These appear to me of two kinds,—the minuteness

of attracting atoms, and all causes which operate against the attrac-

tion of atoms.

On the magnitude of atoms must in a great measure depend the

greatest distance at which the force of their attraction is sufficiently

powerful to be apparent.

If it be admitted that the force of this attraction decreases in as

great a ratio of the distance as that of gravitation, then, since atoms are

so small as not to be perceptible to our senses, it will follow that how-

ever strong their attraction may be when almost contiguous to each

other, it will not be apparent at any mensurable distance, though in

fact, it may be exerted in some degree at unlimited distances ; for if

two attracting particles of matter were sufficiently increased in magni-

tude without altering at all the laws of their attraction, this force

might be evident at any distance however great, unless it be supposed

(which would indeed be very unphilosophical) that attraction ceases at

some certain distance suddenly and abruptly.

The other causes which may create deception as to the distance at

which this attraction is exerted, are all powers which oppose its force.

From the attraction of particles being constantly opposed by the

powerful agency of heat, its force in liquids is scarcely apparent, though

in fact it may be very powerful, for it is only the excess of the attrac-

tion over the repulsion that can be measured.

2142

444 On the two great powers, {Sepr.

The two following are proofs of attraction in liquids, and also that

it is very considerable*.

Sir Humpurey Davy remarks very justly, ‘‘ Cohesion is usually said

to act only at the surface of bodies, or by their immediate contact, but

this does not seem to be the case. It certainly acts with much great-

er energy at small distances ; but the spherical form of minute portions

of fluid matter can only be produced by the attraction of all the parts

of which they are composed for each other ; and most of these attrac-

tions must be exerted at sensible distances.” To this remark, I

may be allowed to add, that the attraction between the particles of a

liquid, must, moreover, be a very powerful force; for it is not only

able to resist the force of repulsion, but also to gather the particles

into drops against their tendency to gravitate.

Another proof of the force of attraction in liquids, appears to me

afforded in the fact, that the expansion of liquids increases im a great-

er ratio than the temperature, or that liquids expand more from equal

additions of heat at high than at low temperatures. If the pressure

of the atmosphere were the only force opposing their expansion, li-

quids would expand less as the temperature increased ; for, as a liquid

expands, since it presents a greater surfacet either to the air or to

the vessel containing it, it is pressed on with increasing force. But

if the force opposing the expansion increases with the temperature, it

is plain that equal additions of heat would produce less and less

effect. |

If these equal increments of temperature in liquids be considered to

indicate equal additions of heat, as isthe general opinion, the only

means by which the increased ratio of expansion can be accounted

for, it appears tome, must be sought for in a powerful attraction

exerted between the particles of a fluid, by the decrease of which at-

traction, as the particles separate from each other, more effect is pro-

duced towards enabling heat to expand the fluid, than the increase of

atmospheric pressure produces in opposing the expansion; so that the

sum of the powers opposing expansion is a decreasing force, and hence

the expansion itself will have an increasing ratio.

The nature and physical properties of gases, have especially induced

most philosophers to consider the attraction of atoms as only acting

* Elements of Chemical Philosophy, p. 68.

+ This is of course the same effect ; for though a liquid expanding in a jar may

not have the surface exposed to the air increased, yet it displaces more and more

air, and is re-acted on by the vessel, with precisely the same force, as if it were

compressed on all sides by the atmosphere.

1833.] Attraction and Repulsion. 445

when atoms are very near to each other.. From the great elasticity of

gases, their atoms are treated of as beyond the sphere of mutual at-

traction, and some philosophers* have accounted for the expansion be-

ing equable for each equal addition of temperature, and for the ratio

of expansion being the same in all gases, by the supposition of no at-

traction existing between their particles, and as proofs of the non-exis-

tence of any such attraction. How far this reasoning is correct let us

presently examine.

The elasticity of a gas is certainly no proof of the absence of any

attraction between its atoms. It serves only to show that the whole

repulsion is very powerful and superior to any attraction that may exist

between its atoms. Since the attraction between the particles of a

gas is inferior to the repulsive power, it cannot be apparent, though it

may yet certainly exist.

The gas will possess elasticity, and will expand unless subjected ta

a compressing force, such as the atmosphere.

Again, the equable expansion of a gas from each equal rise of tem-

perature, is not any proof of the absence of attraction between its

atoms on the ground usually taken, that if there were any attraction

present, it ought, by decreasing as the atoms separated, and conse-

quently offering less and less resistance, to allow of an increasing ex-

q pansive effect from each equal addition of temperature. For it will

presently be seen, that equal increments of temperature in gases by no

means indicate equal quantities of heat, and therefore not equal addi-

tions of repulsive power. Neither does the atmospheric pressure offer

constantly equal resistance to the expansion of a gas; since asa gas

expands this force tending to compress its atoms must increase, for as

the particles of a gas recede from each other, each is subjected to and

has to support the pressure of a greater number of

a MM ! those of the atmosphere. ‘Thus in the annexed figure

A.serseses B the line A B may be supposed to mark the contact of

the atmosphere, anda volume of subjacent gas. Here, each particle

of gas with its elastic mediumt, denoted by the dots A B, is subjected

to the pressure of a column whose base is one particle of air.

Let the gas be expanded by heat until the distance of

AN the particles from each other is double. It is now clear,

B that each particle with its elastic medium (now greatly

* Murray, vol. i. p. 248, System of Chemistry. BrrrHoxuxrt, Chem. Statics.

LAMBERT, vol. i. p. 116, 117, and 143.

+ The seat of the repulsive force, according to most authors ; as will be pre-

sently considered.

446 On the two great powers, [Srpr.

enlarged) has to support a column of air, the base of which is four

particles, two being shown in the side view. Hence the atmospheric

force tending to compress any two gaseous particles must increase as

they recede from each other; and even very considerably, for aerial

fluids expand much from small increments of temperature*.

The experiments of Mr. Dauton, Dr Luc, and others, made chiefly

between the freezing and boiling points of water, lead to the conclusion

that gases expand zo (of their bulk at 32°) with each accession of

temperature of one degree (Farh.) in a simple arithmetical progression ;

and it appears assumed that this is the law of their expansion by heat.

Hence air at 32° by an advance of 480 degrees, i. e. to 512°, would

have its bulk doubled. Let us suppose two cubical pints of air to be

taken; and let one of them be expanded to double its bulk, i. e. to a

quart. Since the distance of the atoms increases as the cube root of

the bulk; the bulk of one of these portions of air having become 2 to

the other as 1; the distance of the atoms will have increased in the

former in the ratio of the cube root of 2 to the cube root of I, i. e. as

1.26 to 1 nearly ; and since the number of atoms under a given surface

of the gas expanded to a quart will be 100, while there are 158 under

the same surface in the pint, and the pressure being constant on a

given surface, 100 atoms of the former will have to support as much

as 158 of the latter. Let the pressure be called 158. It is plain each

particle of the quart will be pressed on by a force 1.58, while each of

the pint will have to bear only a pressure of 1.

Again, since, as was shown by Newron, the mutual elasticity of

the particles of air (and the same is assumed with regard to all gases),

varies inversely as their distance, i. e. decreases in the direct proportion

of their separation; and since the pressure increases as the square of

their distance; the total absolute force expanding a gas must be in-

* The reader will not, it is hoped, think that the following error is here com-

mitted of supposing that by increasing the surface of a volume of gas the compres-

sion of its parts is increased; as for instance, that the compression of the parts

of a spherical pint of gas (in which form the surface is the least possible) would

be increased by moulding the volume into any other form, as that of a long cylin-

der, where the surface would be greatly increased. So long as the number of par-

ticles in a given volume is constant, the pressure and mutual re-action of the atoms

will of course not vary, whatever may be the extent of surface exposed to the at-

mosphere or to any vessel it is contained in. But directly the number of particles

in a given bulk, ceases to be constant owing to expansion, the pressure on each

particle, of necessity must increase, whether it be a superficial particle contiguous

to the air, or inside of the vessel, or a central one receiving the pressure from the

other particles and re-acting against it.

1833.] Attraction and Repulsion. 447

creased in the direct ratio of the increase of the bulk.—Thus one cu-

bic inch of air will need the absolute elastic power of each particle to

be increased eight times, in order to expand it to 8 inches. The bulk

having been increased eight-fold, the distance of the particles will be

doubled (i. e. as the cube root of the bulk); on doubling their distance

their elastic force is halved, i. e. from 8 it has become 4, and at the

same time the pressure is increased as the square of their distance 2,

and is therefore 4. Here then the elasticity and pressure balance each

other, and the particles will be stationary. Hence the power endow-

ing the particles with mutual elasticity must have been increased in the

same ratio as the increase of the bulk. If these 480 degrees of tems

perature can double the bulk of a given volume of gas, they must

double the whole absolute quantity of heat in the gas. The specific

heat of the gas at 512° will be double that of the pint at 32° in the

experiment. Now this is a point which probably no one acquainted

with all that is known regarding caloric will maintain. We can hard+

ly suppose that the whole specific heat of a gas at 32° (viz. that due to

its capacity and temperature, and all the latent heat due to its gaseous

state) is equal only to that introduced by the 480 degrees. Analogy

would teach us, that it is, at least, three or four times as much. If

then the 480 degrees of heat can effect as muchexpansion as the whole

previously contained in the gas could, we are led necessarily to the

conclusion that the latter is opposed, even in gaseous matter, by an at-

traction, so far as to have an effective repulsive force equal only to that

subsequently introduced by 480 degrees of temperature, nay to much

less, for the fact of the presence of this attraction being once establish-

ed, between the gaseous particles, this force must be considered as

operating against the heat subsequently introduced ; and must lessen

its effective power. |

|_This argument I may illustrate in a more familiar manner. Let a cy-

lindrical. vessel half filled with any gas, nitrogen, stand inverted ina

vessel of water, so that the liquid being on a level within and without

the pressure on the gas shall be just that of the atmosphere. If the

surface be two square inches, this will be equal to thirty pounds. Let

an equal quantity of oxygen gas be added, and suppose it at first to re-

main under the nitrogen, and the vessel to be raised so as to preserve

the same level in the water. The oxygen will now bear the whole pres-

sure, and communicate the same to the nitrogen aboveit. Each will

be pressed on with a force of 30 pounds. In the course of time, how-

ever, the two gases will become completely mixed. Each will occupy

the whole vessel, the bulk of each being doubled ; but the two together

448 On the two great powers, [Supr,

not filling more space than before. Now, it is clear, each presses

on the water and each bears one-half of the pressure of 30 pounds, so

that the elastic force introduced with the oxygen gas has enabled the

nitrogen to double its bulk under the pressure of the air; and has

done nomore. If instead of adding the oxygen gas, heat had been add-

ed to the nitrogen until its bulk had been doubled by expansion, it is

manifest the 480° which effected this would have introduced as great

an effective dilating power as that of the whole specific heat of the oxy-

gen gas in the other case. But it will not be contended, that the

whole specific heat of the oxygen gas amounted to no more than 480

degrees : for analogy would lead us to conclude, that the latent heat

due to its gaseous state (including that of the previous state of liqui-

dity) must greatly exceed this quantity, and if we add all the caloric of

temperature, in a substance of a large capacity for heat, from the na~

tural zero up to the temperature of the experiment, we shall proba-

bly underrate the quantity at three or four times 480°. The question

then is, whence does it happen that 480° of uncombined heat could aid

the expansion of the nitrogen gas, as much as four times this quantity

entering with the oxygen? A reason, it appears to me, can only be

found in the following explanation. The latter heat is so far opposed

by a mutual attraction between the atoms of the oxygen, that its free

effective elastic power equals only that of the 480° in the other case.

Tf then any inference can be drawn from the equable expansion of a

gas from equal increments of heat, it is certainly this ; that a power-

ful attraction subsists between the gaseous atoms, reducing the elastici-

ty of their large quantity of specific heat, in so great a degree, as to

leave an effective elasticity equal only to what would be due to one-

third or one-fourth as much heat. But the attraction cannot be appa-

rent, because it is veiled beneath the excess of the elastic power. |

The alleged fact that all gases have the same ratio of expansion has

also been proposed as an argument against the existence of attraction

between particles in a gaseous state. It is said that all gases have the

same ratio of expansion, because the force opposing expansion is the

same in all, namely, the pressure of the air ; and that if an attraction be

admitted between the particles of a gas it must be considered as equal

in every gas, for otherwise the ratio of expansion would not be the

- game in all, and hence that there exists no attraction, for it cannot be

considered as equal in all gases. Mature reflection will perhaps in-

duce a different view of the subject. Though a certain change of tem-

perature may produce an equal change in the mass of all gases, yet the

separation of the particles may be scarcely the same in any two, for we

1833.] Attraction and Repulsion. 449

have no proof of different gases having the same number of particles

in equal bulks.

In the combination of gases, a comparison between their prime equi-

valents, their proportions by volume, and the resulting bulks of the

compounds, would lead to the conclusion that the number of particles

in a given bulk differed materially in different gases. Thus, if it be

assumed that in oxygen and nitrogen the number of atoms in a given

bulk of each is equal, since one volume of the former combines with

one of the latter to form the nitric oxyd gas, it would follow, that an

atom of each unite to form each particle of the compound gas. _ If,

then, in the latter, it be assumed, that in a given bulk the same number

of compound particles exist as of simple ones in either of the former, it

is clear that the two volumes ought in combining to condense into

one volume, since two atoms form one compound particle. But expe-

rience shews that no condensation takes place. Therefore, whatever

number of simple atoms have combined to. form a compound particle,

in the same proportion must the number of the latter in a given space

have decreased.

Many other combinations of gases would prove equally hostile ta

the supposition, that all gases are at the same temperature and pres-

sure equally dense. Hence, though equal rises of temperature may in-

crease the bulks of different gases equally, the separation of the parti-

cles may differ in all. And further, the capacities of gases for heat dif-

fer materially. If equal bulks of hydrogen and olefint gases be taken,

since their relative capacities for heat are as 1 to 1.7 nearly, we

shall have these numbers representing the relative quantity of heat. by

each degree of temperature. It would require 1.7 of heat to expand

an equal bulk of hydrogen. Since the pressure on each is equal

and increases equally, whence does this arise? We are compelled, I

think, to conclude that atmospheric pressure is not the sole force op-

posing expansion, but that it is aided also by an attraction subsisting

between particles in the gaseous state, more powerful in olefint gas

than in hydrogen, whence to effect an equal expansion more heat is re-

quired in the former than in the latter. J

If then any inference can be drawn from the equable expansion by

heat of different gases, it is this, that in every gas an attraction sub-

sists between the atoms ; but in some gases, as mighthave been expect-

ed, more powerful than in others.

By the above elaborate inquiry, I trust I have shewn that the facts

usually brought forward as evidence of the limited distance to which

dae le

450 On the two great powers, (Serer.

contiguous attraction is supposed to extend do in reality lead to an op-

posite conclusion.

Of an attraction between gaseous atoms, both similar and dissimilar,

we shall have further satisfactory proof by the consideratiou of the

following phenomena. In the transition of aqueous vapour to the

solid state, a number of particles, which must have occupied a con-

siderable space, convene to form a flake of snow. )

This must surely have been produced by a general attraction

throughout all the particles of that portion of vapour, the attraction

between the contiguous particles being doubtless the most powerful.

Hence each minute crystal of the flake is formed by the affinity of se-

veral neighbouring particles, but the aggregation of all the crystals to

form the mass must be the product of an universal attraction of all the

particles of the vapour. Otherwise no flake would be formed, but each

grain would be precipitated separately. This instance alone appears a

conclusive proof. Between dissimilar particles there are many like

instances. The deliquescence of a salt has been adduced by NewrTon

himself in proof of its attraction ‘‘ acting at a distance’’ on the parti-

cles of vapour in the air,

The mutual action of the particles of different gases on each other is

often evident at considerable distances, as when two gases combine to

form a solid or liquid, such as the muriatic acid and ammoniacal gases,

‘and many others.

If all these arguments and facts be admitted as true, sufficient has

been said to prove that the attraction of atoms, whether of similar or

dissimilar atoms, is not merely a contiguous force ; and as we have had

evidence of its being exerted by all atoms in a gaseous state, but have

no proof of its ceasing at any point, it must surely be considered as a

power that operates, though weakly, at a distance, and that it does not

-suddenly cease any where.

Qndly. How far the attraction of atoms is general, i. e. whether all

atoms in nature attract and are attracted by all, or whether attraction

between atoms, chemical and cohesive, is confined to a limited num-

ber.

It would seem to be the opinion of most modern philosophers, that

all homogeneous atoms exert a mutual attraction when sufficiently near

to each other, and hence that the particles of gases would cohere if

brought within the limits of their attraction. That all homogeneous

atoms attract each other, there is not any reason for doubting. It has

been above shewn that we have no proof of a limit to the distance at

which attraction may be exerted, and that even in the gaseous state

1833.] Aitraction and Repulsion. 451

all particles must be supposed to attract each other. Since then in

liquids and solids also an attraction is always manifest, it follows that

between homogeneous atoms this force is universal. We have equal

reason to admit its action between all heterogeneous atoms, though it

has until lately been considered to exist only between a limited variety.

The fact that many atoms refuse to combine may be readily explain-

ed, as Dr. Murray has observed, by taking all the forces that oppose

combination into consideration. These forces may in many instances

be superior to that of the attraction, and then the latter will apparent-

ly not exist. A very strong proof of the universal action of attraction

between dissimilar atoms, and even when in the gaseous state, is af-

forded by the fact that all gases without any exception will either

combine, or else mix, when brought together ; and further that all dis-

solve water when placed over it*.

The reason of an attraction being universally apparent between all

gases, though not between all liquids and solids, is readily explained.

In the former state, the particles of the body are not detained by any

cohesion, but exert an effective repulsiont for each other, which ren-

ders them easy to be put into motion ; hence even a weak attraction

exerted by another gas becomes evident. On the other hand, the par-

ticles of solids and of liquids, on a small separation from each other,

are detained by their cohesion, it being stronger than the attraction

of many bodies for them.

With respect to the attraction, which acts between atoms, I trust

that under the present head sufficient has been shewn, to justify its

being considered as a power, which is universal, i. e. which is exerted

(though with various degrees of force) between all particles similar

and dissimilar.

3dly. The effect of mass on contiguous attraction.

If the statements, laid down in the two former heads, be true, it fol-

lows of necessity, that attraction must also vary with the mass, or

number of attracting atoms ; and this is confirmed by experiment, with

respect to heterogeneous atoms. Thus it is well known, that a particle

of sulphuric acid has a stronger attraction for one of potash than one

*Itis well known Mr. Daron and others have endeavoured to explain these

facts, without the assistance of an attraction. This will be discussed in a future part

of this paper.

+ Lhave used the term effective, here and elsewhere, to denote the excess of

one force above its opponent ; thus, if the attraction be 4 but the repulsion 10,

the effective repulsion = 6. In like manner, there is in some cases an “ effective”

attraction.

2 we 2

452 . On the two great powers, (Serr.

of nitric acid has. Let the force of the former be 8, that of the lat-

ter 4. If a compound atom of sulphate of potash were in this case

exposed to three atoms of nitric acid, the potash would be separated,

by the united action of the three atoms of nitric acid. Inthe same

manner, the sulphuric acid may be taken from sulphate of barytes, by

an excess of potash, as BERTHOLLET has shewn. In both the above in-

stances, mass evidently operates*. There is also every reason for be-

lieving, that this attraction varies as the mass, between homogeneous

atoms, although there are not experiments proving that this is

absolutely the case; for such experiments can hardly be expected, nor

is it easy to propose a way of making them. . In a homogeneous solid

mass, this law does not plainly present itself, merely from the small-

ness of the atoms; from which, as formerly observed, the attractions '

of all those that are at a distance from each other (which is the case:

with far the greater part) becomes so much less than that of contigu-

ous particles, (on which the solidity chiefly depends,) as not to admit

of measurement with it.

The law of attraction which is here enforced, is also perfectly con-

formable with the doctrine of definite proportion, and does not in fact

at all affect it, as has been by some supposed.

From all that has been stated, it must surely be admitted as a law

of this power, that the attraction of atoms varies as their number.

4thly. The ratio in which the force of attraction varies, and the

identity of this power, with gravitation.

I have observed, at the beginning, that the opinions of philosophers,

upon the attraction of atoms, are various, and in many instances con-

tradictory to each other. They are particularly so in the present ques-

tion.

Among other theories is that of Boscovicu, which is very generally

known. In this it is supposed that atoms do not exert a simple

power of attraction towards each other ; but that their mutual attrac-

tion alternates with a mutual repulsion, not with variations of time,

(as has been by somesupposed of the affinity of bodies for light) but with

variations of distance. Thus that two atoms, when contiguous, repel

each other with great force: and that this repulsion decreases with

the increase of the distance, and at last vanishes, giving place to an

attraction, which increases with the distance to its maximum ; whence

it decreases, vanishes, and is replaced by the repulsion, which obeys

* This fact does in no degree militate against the well established and important

doctrine of definite proportions in combination.

1833.1} Attraction and Repulsion. 453

the same laws. And that there are numerous alternations of these

forces. According to this law, the particles of a mass must always

remain at some one of the intervals between attraction and repulsion.

This may be at various distances, and thus may be explained the vari-

ous degrees of density, which the same body may possess at different

times. To this hypothesis it may be objected that it cannot be easily,

admitted, of a simple force, that it should increase, as the centres of

attraction are separated ; much less then, that this force should sud-

denly, from a certain point, obey an opposite law, and decrease with

_ am increase of distance.

But to admit, in addition to this, that the same atoms, from another

certain point, exert an opposite force of repulsion, which obeys the

same complicated law, and that these alternations are frequently re-

peated, until at last a regular decreasing attraction prevails, is scarcely

possible ; since it does not accord with the extreme simplicity always

observable in the laws of nature.

Moreover, it is not possible by this theory alone, to account for the

gradual increase of volume which bodies undergo, without introducing

the repulsive agency of heat.

Though there are, according to this theory, many points of distance

at which particles may rest, it cannot of itself account, even for expan-

sion, much less for liquifaction and vaporization. And again, if

the agency of heat be added to it, on a reduction of temperature, bo-

dies would not contract in volume, for their particles would necessarily

be prevented from approaching, by that region of repulsion, at the li-

mit of which they lay. This would involve the necessity of another

extraneous agent, namely some compressing force. And thus the two

alternate forces, assigned in the hypothesis, are ineffectual without the

assistance of the other two, and with themare altogether useless ; con-

sequently it is not philosophical to suppose them.

An anonymous writer in the Encyclopedia Britanhica* treats of

cohesion as a force, which extending to a small distance, is within

this distance, ‘‘ little or not at all altered by slight compression, or

expansion.” And in another place he says, “‘ it appears, that the force

of cohesion cannot be supposed to vary much with the density, and

it is therefore allowable to consider it as constant as far as its action

extends.’”’ Ihave, under another head, I think proved, that this at-

traction must not be considered, as extending only to very small dis-

tances; and the arguments, adduced in support of this, also prove,

that attraction is a decreasing force. These are, the increasing ratio

* Supplement, Art. Cohesion.

454 On the two great powers, [Sppr.

of expansion in liquids, and the equable expansion of gases from de-

creasing additions of heat. The former can only be accounted for, by

supposing that its chief opponent force, the attraction, decreases. The

latter also requires the admission of an attraction between all gaseous

particles, and that this force decreases likewise. For, did it not decrease,

gases (as it was there demonstrated) could not expand as much from

certain additions of caloric of temperature, as from their specific heat,

so much more in quantity.

In Dr. Rexs’s Cyclopedia* we find another author, who expresses a

very different opinion. ‘‘ There is,” he says, ‘‘ an attraction, which is

found to obtain in the minute particles, whereof all bodies are com-

posed, which attract each other, at or near the point of contact, with

a force much superior to that of gravity, but which, at any distance

from it, decreases much faster, than the power of gravity.”

And others, observing the apparently great decrease in the force of

attraction, as particles are separated from each other, have supposed

that it must vary as the inverse cube, or some higher power of the

distance.

All these views have doubtless arisen, from attending to the appa-

rent, rather than the actual, force of attraction. Since attraction,

whenever presented to observation, is always opposed by a divellent

force, the law of the simple force cannot be investigated by any direct

experiment from its immediate effects.

There is however the strongest reason for concluding that contigu-

ous attraction, as treated of in chemistry, is identical with the great uni-

versal power, gravitation.

This opinion has been hinted at by philosophers from an early age

of this science, and among them by Sir Humpurey Davyt. But it

may be demonstrated, as I think, in the most satisfactory manner, from

the following considerations.

lst. The great Newron has demonstrated, that the gravitation,

which prevails throughout the bodies of the system, is composed of

the sums of the attractions between the atoms of the several bodies.

And thus it is, strictly speaking, an attraction of atoms; and it is ex-

erted between the same atoms as the attraction, which usually bears

that name.

2ndly. It will be found to possess the same properties also.—First.

That attraction of atoms, which constitutes gravitation, increases or

decreases as the distance at which it operates is less or greater. This

* Art. Attraction. + Sir H. Davy’s Elements of Chem. Philosophy, p. 68.

1833.] Attraction and Repulsion. 455

the same great author has shewn. For the attraction of a body in the

mass (i.e. gravitation) depends wholly on this supposition. This

same property we have seen* must belong to the other attraction of

atoms. Secondly. The absolute force of gravitation varies as the

mass. This, we have also seent, must be a property of the attraction

of atoms chemically considered.—Thirdly. By decreasing the mass, in

gravitation, until the force operating only between a few or single

atoms, this force would become imperceptible at a very small distance,

which exactly agrees with the attraction of atoms in question?.

Fourthly. It has been above§, [ think, clearly shewn that the attrac-

tion of atoms, as conneeted with chemistry, is universal ; and is there-

fore in this respect perfectly similar to the attraction of atoms named

gravitation.

We have here two forces exerted by the very same atoms, (namely

those of which all masses in nature are composed,) and possessing the

same properties, as far as a comparison can be carried on between

them ; and this extending through numerous particulars ; whence we may

conclude, that both are the same force differing only in the accident of

distance, from whence it has acquired distinct names—and therefore,

since, by the above-mentioned discovery of Newron, the forces of

atoms composing gravitation vary inversely as the square of their dis-

tances, this force must still obey the same law, when considered

under the name of contiguous attraction.

The truth of this doctrine, which I have been endeavouring to de-

monstrate generally, will I think be placed beyond all question, by

the consideration of the following case.

A celebrated author, whom I have already quoted, has adduced the

spherical figure of a drop of water in proof of cohesion operating

throughout all its particles. Let us now suppose such a drop, situated

in absolute space, to be enlarged by an accession of matter, until it be-

came an ocean. This ocean would unquestionably retain the figure

of a sphere ; its parts being kept together by the same force, not at all

changed in quality, but only increased in quantity. From having been

once a drop, it would become a planet, and its attraction, which was

called cohesion, would now be considered as gravitation.

In addition to this, it may be remarked, that part of the fluid, pass-

ing into vapor, would form an atmosphere around the planet, (admit-

ting that it was exposed to the usual source of heat.) The force,

which detained this atmosphere on the surface of the planet, would

constitute its gravitation, which would be no other than the cohesive

* Vide page 443. + Vide page 451, Head 3. + Vide page 443, § Vide page 450.

456 On the two great powers, (Serr.

~attraction. And, since it operates between the liquid and gaseous

atoms, most of which are at a much greater distance from each other,

than any two neighbouring atoms of the vapor, it at once proves that

atoms in a gaseous state attract each other at all distances.

Part IIl.—Of Repulsion. Div. 1st.

Were the attractive force, which we have hitherto treated of, op-

posed by no other power, it is manifest, that the atoms of all bodies

would be in perfect contact, and that all masses would be absolutely

dense. Hence there must of necessity exist some divellent, or repul-

sive power in bodies; for the atoms of none can be in contact, since

all are capable of contracting from certain causes. As they, in con-

tracting, occupy a less space than before, the differenee between their

present and former bulks must have intervened between their atoms;

and even much more; for no limit has been found to the contraction of

bodies. It is owing to the same divellent power, that heterogeneous

atoms cannot come into contact. Hence the limited number of com-

binations ; and hence it happens, that most gases, on being presented

to each other, merely mix, and cannot enter into combination.

Since a divellent or repulsive force is always as evidently operating

to prevent the contact of atoms, as an attraction, exerted by them, is

operating to favor their contact, the former has no less commanded

the attention of philosophers, than the latter.

Any theory, which would at all admit of investigation, must suppose

the great opponent force to the attraction of atoms to depend, either

ona repulsive power inherent in and exerted by them; or on this

force, aided by the power heat ;—or on the power heat alone.

These I shall attempt to investigate severally.—First. Whether the

opponent force to the attraction of atoms is a power inherent in and

exerted by them.

The theory of Boscovicn and a few others may be placed under this

head. His theory, as above observed, would sufficiently account for

the constitution of bodies, if their volumes were permanent, and their

particles always at rest. But, since all bodies are capable of possess-

ing every degree of density, and of expanding and contracting gradu-

ally, such a theory would interfere with known phenomena, which

could not take place on the admission of it.

Bodies, as I have before remarked, would never expand without the

introduction of some extraneous expanding power, nor could they con-

tract, without the admission of a compressing force, of which we have

no evidence, and the action of which could not be explained.

1833.] Attraction and Repulsion. 457

-Tn short, as all powers inherent in atoms must be permanent, and

as a permanent repulsion cannot alone account for densities and states,

which are not constant, the power opposing attraction cannot be solely

a power inherent in atoms.

Secondly. Whether the opponent force to the attraction of atoms

depends on a power exerted by them, aided by the power, heat.

In a modern treatise on attraction* and repulsion, it is thus assert-

ed :—‘‘ The states of elastic fluidity, solidity, and liquidity, in all of

which the greater number of simple bodies are capable of being exhi-

bited, at different temperatures, are not uncommonly conceived to de-

pend on the different actions of heat only, giving a repulsive force to

the particles of gases, and simply detaching those of liquids from that

cohesion with the neighbouring atoms which is supposed to constitute

solidity.”” And he adds, “ but these ideas, however universal, may be

easily shewn to be totally erroneous : and it will readily be found, that

the immediate effect of heat alone is by no means adequate to the ex-

planation of either of the changes of form in question.” ‘‘ There can

never be rest, without an equilibrium of force, and if two particles of

matter attract each other, and yet remain without motion, it must be

because there exists also a repulsive force, equal, at the given distance,

to the attractive force.”

To this I answer.—It is undoubtedly true, that, to enable the parti-

cles of a body to be at rest, the opponent forces, operating on them,

must be in equilibrio. And the remark, just quoted, might properly

be objected to those writers who have treated of the force of attrac-

tion between the particles of solids, as being greater than the repul-

sion. But, since the question is, whether or not heat be the repulsive

power which keeps bodies in the gaseous, the liquid, and the solid

state, this remark cannot be considered as a proof on either side, since

it has no reference to this question.

Admitting heat as the sole source of repulsion between atoms, its

force may easily, nay must be considered, as equal to that of the at-

traction, whenever particles are at rest. The opponent powers must

be in equilibrio, whether heat be the source of repulsion, or not.

In the same treatise also, attraction and repulsion, it would appear, are

considered as being both exerted between atoms, at all distances within

a certain limit. In the first place, it cannot be admitted as possible,

that at the same distance, the same particles should at once attract and

repel each other. But even supposing it possible ;—if this repulsion

* EncycLopapi1a Britannica, Supplement, Art. Cohesion.

458 On the two great powers, (Serr.

be equal to the attraction in the liquid state, since it must be a perma-

nent force, the attraction, being always opposed by an equal force,

would never be able, under any circumstances, to draw the atoms into

the solid state.

If the repulsion be considered equal to the attraction, when parti-

cles are at rest in the solid state, no solid could contract, unless ex-

posed to an extra-compressing force, of which (as before remarked)

we have no evidence, and which must only operate at certain times,

for otherwise no solid could ever expand.

Since then it has been shewn, that, if an inherent repulsion, exert-

ed by atoms, be considered, as one of the great opponent forces to

their attraction, it necessarily involves the introduction of an extra-

compressing force, which must only operate at certain times ; and since

no such compressing force can be demonstrated, it is manifest that

such a repulsion cannot be considered as one of the opponent forces to

atomic attraction.

Thirdly.—That the opponent force, to the attraction of atoms, de-

pends on the power heat alone.

It has been already proved, that no inherent force of repulsion can

be supposed to be exerted by atoms, and that such a force would not

account for the phenomena of repulsion, which could not take place on

the admission of it. It therefore follows, according to the division, that

in heat consists the great opponent force to the attraction of atoms.

It is manifest, that previously to an attempt to explain the action of

heat, as the source of repulsion, a decided opinion should, if possible, be

formed of its nature.

The difficulty of this is apparent, in the fact, that chemical philoso-

‘ phers are divided between the two opinions, that the phenomena called

heat depend on vibratory motions in the particles of bodies, or that

heat is a subtle highly elastic fluid pervading all bodies.

1. That the phenomena of heat depend on vibratory motions, in the

particles of bodies,

The phenomena of heat are of two kinds:—Those, which are appa-

rent to the senses, and commonly called heat; and those of repulsion.

The great philosopher Bacon, being unacquainted with most of the

facts proving the repulsive force of heat, could only judge of its nature

by those of the former kind. He, observing that great heat was pro-

duced by the friction and percussion of many bodies, that iron may

even be rendered red hot by percussion, was led to the conclusion, that

heat consists in a motion in the particles of bodies. But he did not ap-

ply his hypothesis to the explanation of repulsion. Of late years a great

1833.] Attraction and Repulsion. 459

philosopher* has extended the views of Bacon, and has endeavoured to

explain all the phenomena of repulsion by a vibratory and rotatory mo-

tion in the particles of bodies. This great and meritorious author writes

in these words :—‘‘ When any body iscooled, it occupies asmaller volume

than before, it is evident, therefore, that its parts must have approached

towards each other ; when the body is expanded by heat, it is equally

evident, that its parts must have separated from each other. The im-

mediate cause of the phenomena of heat then is motion, and the laws

of its communication are precisely the same, as the laws of the commu-

nication of motion.” Since all matter may be made to fill a smaller

volume by cooling, it is evident that the particles of matter must have

space between them, and since every body can communicate the power

of expansion to a body of a lower temperature; that is, can give an ex-

pansive motion to its particles, it is a probable inference, that its own

particles are possessed of motion: but as there is no change in the posi-

tion of its parts, as long as its temperature is uniform, the motion, if it

exist, must be a vibratory or undulatory motion, or a motion of the par-

ticles round their axes, or a motion of particles round each other.”

And, he continues, ‘‘ It seems possible, to account for all the pheno-

mena of heat, if it be supposed, that in solids the particles are in a

constant state of vibratory motion, the particles of the hottest bodies

moving with the greatest velocity, and through the greatest space; that

in fluids and elastic fluids, besides the vibratory motion, which must be

conceived greatest in the last, the particles have a motion round their

own axes, with different velocities, the particles of elastic fluids moving

with the greatest quickness; and that in ethereal substances, the particles

move round their own axes, and separate from each other, penetrating

in right lines through space. Temperature may be conceived to depend

upon the velocities of the vibrations ; increase of capacity on the motion

being performed in greater space ; and the diminution of temperature,

during the conversion of solids into fluids or gases, may be explained

on the idea of the loss of vibratory motion, in consequence of the revo-

lution of particles round their axes, at the moment when the body be-

comes fluid or aériform, or from the loss of the rapidity of vibration,

in consequence of the motion of the particles through greater space.”

It is under the deepest impression of respect for the author that I

allow myself to make my observations on the doctrine supported in the

above quotation, which observations are only stated from a persuasion

of the importarce of one decided and general opinion as to the nature

of heat in forming the science of chemical philosophy.

* Sir H. Davy’s Elements of Chemical Philosophy.

2N 2

460 On the two great powers, (Szpr.

It is certainly true, that when a body contracts on a reduction, or ex-

pands on arise of temperature, in the one case the particles approach,

and in the other recede, from each other. This approximation, and se-

paration, is a gradual and regular motion. Thus, if two particles are

kept at a certain distance from each other, by any force (whether of

heat or not) on the removal of that force the particles must have mo-

tion, if they approach; but when they arrive the distance at which

they are to remain, this motion ceases, and is no proof of vibratory

motions in the atoms, nor can it give rise to them. When particles

approach, they are put into gradual motion, by the force of attraction ;

and they will not separate, until a superior force urges them in a dif-

ferent direction,

Since the particles of matter have space between them, and since they

exert great attractions for each other, the force, which keeps them

asunder, must be equal to their attraction. If this force isa vibration of

the particles, it cannot be permanent. No motion can be lasting, when

opposed by any force, however small, unless it is preserved by an equal

force. But the vibration of atoms would be opposed by a very power-

ful force, their mutual attraction ; which would urge them into absolute

contact ; when any vibration must cease, from their impact against each

other. It cannot be said, that their motion is kept up by that of

neighbouring bodies, for the vibration of all particles in nature would

very soon cease for the same reason.

The expansion, which a hot body produces, in one of a lower tem-

perature, arises from the divellent power becoming superior to their

attraction, and producing a slow and progressive separation of the par-

ticles of the latter, which power, as above shewn, cannot depend upon

a vibratory motion, for any such motion must soon cease. And even

could such motion last, it would not be increased by superior vibrations

in another body, but lessened. If two vibrating bodies are brought into

contact, their vibrations cease directly, from the one body being a

mechanical obstacle to any motions in the other. But, if the motion

in the one is greater, it will still more check any motion in the other,

not only from the obstacle arising from its contact, but also from its

increased impact, unless it be supposed, that the particles of the two

bodies happen to be moving in the same direction, at the instant of

their contact. This, which would involve the idea, that all particles

in nature are always oscillating in the same direction, at the same

moment of time, is moreover contrary toa supposition in the above

theory, that bodies of different temperatures vibrate with different

velocities, from which their atoms would soon move in different direc-

tions at the same time.

1833.] Attraction and Repulsion. 461

That the particles of solids are in a constant state of vibratory mo-

tion is incompatible with their mutual attractions, and their gravity.

If temperature depended on vibration of atoms, bodies would soon have

no temperature, (i. e. fall to natural zero,) for their particles would soon

cease to vibrate.

This theory cannot explain temperature ; for bodies would lose their

temperature if temperature be vibration. Nor capacity, if capacity be lati-

tude of motion. Nor could radiation take place, if radiated heat be vibra-

tions communicated through the air, for according to this theory, the par-

ticles of elastic fluids move with the greatest quickness. Thus, suppose

the particles of any body A, are vibrating at any given rate 10, and

those of another distant body B, at any less rate 8, as the air between

them is vibrating with the greatest quickness, let its rate be 20. If

the air vibrating at the rate 20 does not increase the rate of vibration

in A and B, how can it transmit from A to B the small difference of

their vibration ?>—or how can it receive vibrations from A, which vi-

brates at a less rate than itself. And moreover, as matter of some kind

must be present to transmit vibrations, radiation could not take place

through a vacuum, as it is known to do, unless the ‘‘ subtle medium”

of NewTon* be supposed to exist, which is not a part of this hypothesis,

and which, as will hereafter be shewn, is very nearly allied to the *‘ mat-

ter of heat’’ of Lavoisi=Er.

That the repulsive force opposing attraction cannot be explained by

vibratory motions, supposed to exist in the atoms themselves of bodies,

has been, I trust, proved by numerous unanswerable objections.

2. That heat is a subtle, elastic fluid, pervading all bodies.

The doctrine of the materiality of heat has been adopted by the

greater part of modern philosophers; and the cause of its entering

bodies, and separating their particles, has been explained in three ways:

First.—Borruaave, with some other philosophers, attempted to ex-

plain the distribution of heat, solely by supposing that its particles are

mutually repellent. Hence its perfect elasticity, which it was supposed

would expand it equally through space, so that, in equal volumes of

space, there would be equal quantities of heat, whether occupied by

other matter or not. And hence he concluded that equal volumes of

matter always would contain equal quantities of heat.

That this is not the case, is proved by experiment, for equal volumes

of matter, it is well known, contain very different quantities of heat,

Moreover, the argument itself is not sound ; for very dense bodies, be-

tween the atoms of which a powerful attraction subsists, would never

* Treatise on Optics, Query 18,

462 On the two great powers, (Surr.

admit heat, until it was so accumulated in rare bodies, that their elasti-

city was superior in force to the cohesion of dense bodies, which is so

far from being the case, that the elasticity of the atmosphere is eva-

nescent in comparison with the cohesion of most solids.

Secondly.—In his Elements of Chemistry Lavoisier proposed another

explanation of the action of heat, in these words :—‘‘ It is perhaps more

natural to suppose, that the particles of caloric have a stronger mutual

attraction, than those of any other substance; and that these latter par-

ticles are torn asunder, in consequence of this superior attraction of the

particles of caloric, which forces them between the particles of other

bodies, that they may be able to reunite with each other*.”’

This hypothesis, which treats of heat as a non-elastic substance, is

liable to so many objections, that it has had very few advocates, and

was probably relinquished by its great author. It is only necessary to

remark one objection, which must have alone induced him to reject it.

If the particles of heat had an attraction for each other so far superior

to that apparent in the densest bodies, it is manifest; that it would not

be diffused through all bodies, but would collect itself into masses abso-

lutely dense, between the parts of which the atoms of no other bodies

could possibly exist.

Thirdly.—That doctrine of the nature and action of heat, which has

been much received of late years, and which was introduced by Dr.

CLEGHORN, is sosatisfactory, and conformed so nearly to the phenomena

of the actions and motions of heat, that it may be considered as the

true explanation. This doctrine, as is well known, considers heat as a

body, whose particles are mutually repellent, but attract those of all

other bodies, with various degrees of force. Hence its perfect elasti-

city, and hence its presence in all bodies, but in various quantities in

each. |

Previously to making any further inquiry into the laws and action

of heat, I propose to weigh the facts, which have been considered as

objections to its materiality, and to state various arguments in proof of

its materiality.

The following facts have been at various times opposed to the

material doctrine of heat:

1. That, when many bodies are subjected to percussion, much heat

is evolved. Iron may even be raised to a red heat. The explanation

of this, which has been given by others, does not perhaps place the

fact in quite so clear a light, as the following :—Since the force of

cohesion in iron is very powerful, it is plain, that the heat between its

* Elements of Chemistry, translated by Kerr, page 72.

1833.] Attraction and Repulsion. 463

atoms must be compressed with great force, and must exert an equal

repulsion. If the compressing force is suddenly increased, so also must

the repulsion, the iron being somewhat condensed. But, when these

forces become superior to the affinity, which detains the heat in the

iron, it is manifest that part of the heat must leave the iron, and this

will take place until the affinity for the remaining heat becoming very

great, little or none can be evolved, and the density cannot be increas-

ed.—This explanation is verified by the experiment. Less and less

heat is evolved, at every succeeding blow, until at last little or none

can be driven out, and here condensation ceases.

2. That much heat is made sensible by the friction and attrition of

many bodies.

Since the particles of heat attract so powerfully, the atoms of all other

bodies, as to enter even the densest, much more then will they be ac-

cumulated on the surface of bodies, and endow them with a repulsive

force. Hence the fact that two plates of glass cannot be brought into con-

tact, as Newton has shewn*. But if two bodies, rubbing againste ach

other, have this superficial heat compressed, with a force superior to that

which detains the most distant particles of it (which from their distance

must be weakly attracted), it must happen, that part of the heat will

be separated, while the friction lasts, and will be renewed as soon as

it ceases. This explanation, which I have given of the fact, appears

to render it perfectly conformable with the material doctrine of heat.

As, in attrition, both the forces of friction and percussion on compres-

sion operate, there will be a double cause for heat becoming sensible,

which has been just explained under the two former heads. The ex-

periment of Rumrorp, in which much heat was evolved, in the boring

of metal, and yet the parts torn off appeared to possess their former

capacity, has been sufficiently explained by Mr. Daron in these words:

** The fact is, the whole mass of metal is more or less condensed, by

the violence used in boring, and a rise of temperature of 70° or 100° is

too small to produce a diminution in its capacity for heat. Does Count

Rumrorp suppose, that if in this case the quantity of metal operated on

had been 1\b. and the dust produced the same as above, that the whole

quantity of heat evolved would have been the samet?”

3. The fact, that heat is evolved, in the sudden change of gunpow-

der, by explosion from the solid to the aérial state, has been consider=

ed as an objection to this doctrine of heat; for this appears contrary to

_* Treatise on Optics, Query 31,

+ New System of Chemical Philosophy, page 98.

464 On the two great powers, (Sept.

the known law, that in a change from a dense to a rarer state, heat is

not evolved, but on the contrary becomes latent. Though this is al-

most an invariable law, in a simple change of any solid A, into a gas

A; yet if in becoming gaseous, A undergoes a change into another

gas, B, an absorption of heat is not a necessary consequence; for the

heat in the solid A may be sufficient to keep B in the state of gas,

or may even be more than requisite, in which case some heat will be

evolved.

Thus the oxvgen, in the nitre of the gunpowder, during the explo-

sion combines with the carbon and sulphur. The carbonic and

sulphureous acid gases may not require so much heat for their existence

in the gaseous state, as is afforded by the solid oxygen; hence heat

will be evolved. If the experiments of Lavoisinr and CRawrurD may

be admitted as at all correct, they will prove the justness of this ex-

planation.

Lavoisier inferred from his experiments, on the combinations of

oxygen gas, that in nitre it retains Z of the heat, on which its gaseous

state had depended. Crawrurp has stated the capacity of oxygen gas,

as much greater than that of any of its compounds, and hence Z of its

heat will be more than sufficient to supply the latent heat of the

carbonic and sulphureous acid gases, formed in this instance.

_ The late experiments of MM. Ciement and Drsormas, if correct,

would show that the capacity of carbonic acid gas is equal or superior

to that of oxygen, and would increase the difficulty of the explanation

by making the one offered inadmissible. It must however be consi-

dered, that no conclusion can be drawn with regard to the habitudes of

caloric from instances of sudden and violent chemical and mechanical

action. Thus no small part of the heat may be liberated by the

resistance offered by the air to the sudden expansion of the gases

formed. Whence much heat that would have been latent became

caloric of temperature at the moment of the explosion, and whatever

was extricated would be readily absorbed again from the air on the

diffusion of the gaseous products of the powder.

Again, in so great a chemical change we cannot from any established

law affirm, a priori, that heat should be either liberated or absorbed.

Admitting the capacity for heat of the gaseous products to equal, or

even exceed, that of the gases condensed in the nitre of the powder,

it does not all follow that the datent heat due to the gaseous state

of the former should equal that of the latter gases; and these appear in

nitre to retain this heat, though solidified by the intensity of the

affinities.

[To de continued.]}

1833.] On Progressive Development, &c. 465

“II.-—On Progressive Development in the cold-bloodedVertebrata. By D.W.

Nash, Asst. Surgeon, Beng. Est. A. L. S. Corresp. Member S. A.

Among the many important considerations embraced by the theore-

tical department of geological science, the question of the gradual

transition of fossil remains in the strata which form the crust of our

globe,—the supposed development of the forms of organic life in a

progressive and ascending series,—and the application by analogy of

this hypothesis founded on actual observations of that which has been,

to the phenomena which are daily recognized in the present state of

things,—are subjects of the greatest interest to the geologist and natu-

ralist, while to the cause of science in general their elucidation is of

considerable importance.

On these questions the most eminent authorities among modern

geologists are divided, and though not perhaps so violent in the expres-

sion of their opinions as the Neptunists and Plutonists of a former

day, the advocates and opponents of the theory of progressive develop-

ment have entered with no little warmth into this interesting contro-

versy.

Mr. Lye tt in his Principles of Geology, in speaking of the conclu-

sions arrived at by Sir H. Davy from the consideration of geological

data, expressly states, that, ‘‘ the theory of progressive development

of organic life from the simplest to the most complicated forms, has

no foundation in fact.”

On the other hand many observers equally high in scientific

reputation have imagined that they see, not only in the fossil monu-

ments of former worlds, the imperishable evidences of a state of

things differing from, and antecedent to, that now under our observa-

tion,—but also in the organization of the present inhabitants of our

globe, indisputable proofs of a progressive advance to perfection in the

forms of organic life.

It cannot be denied that the fossil remains which have been observed

in the different strata of the earth’s crust, are arranged very nearly

in the order which the animals to whom they belonged, occupy in the

natural system of zoology ;—that those genera which zoologists are

agreed in considering as the least developed forms are found in the

lowest or most ancient formations, and that, as we ascend from the

primitive through the transition, secondary, and tertiary rocks, new

and more perfect forms of life meet us at every step of the investiga-

tion.

466 On Progressive Development (Spr.

Setting aside the consideration of the order in which the de-

velopment of the invertebrate classes has proceeded, as embracing too

wide a field and requiring a minute investigation of the anatomical

relations of this vast class of animals, the cold-blooded vertebrata

appear to offer the most convenient opportunity of observing the ana-

logies which subsist between animals of the same type of conforma-

tion, but differing in the degree of perfection at which their various

systems of organs have arrived.

It appears that at one period of the earth’s history—that in which

the deposition of the secondary formations was taking place,—circum-

stances were highly favorable to the development of the cold-blooded

tribes of vertebrata. The oceans swarmed with enormous cephalopoda,

with gigantic individuals of a saurian race which has long since vanish-

ed from the surface of the globe, but whose remains scattered in such

profusion through the oolitic group furnish the zoologist with data

which enable him to fill up many apparent vacuities in the scale of the

creation.

Nor, as might have been expected, if we determine to admit the

present as the only true standard by which to judge of the state of

things in past epochs, was this form of organization chiefly peculiar to

the inhabitants of the waters ; the ancient continents contained animals

of this type only ; the megalosaurus and the iguanodon peopled the

forests; the banks of the rivers and fresh-water lakes were frequented

by crocodiles and huge salamanders, while the pterodactyli pursued

their prey amid the palms, the cycadee, and the tree ferns, of the

primeval Flora. But not until after the deposition of the great cal-

careous formation do we find any trace of the existence of a warm-

blooded animal: not even the most strenuous advocates for the unifor-

mity of the past and present operations of nature have been able to

prove that animal life had progressed so far as the development of the

class mammalia, or of birds, until after the epoch just alluded to.

The only exception to be made with regard to this statement is met

with in three or four specimens consisting of fragments of the lower

jaw of an animal which has been pronounced by the highest authority to

have been a species of didelphis. This fossil, discovered in the Stones-

field slate, a member of the oolitic series, lying below the cornbrash

and above the Bath oolite, contains nine similar acuminated molares,

terminating in three elevated points; but as no living didelphis

possesses this number. of molar teeth on one side of the jaw, and as

those of the didelphis present the characters of insectivorous teeth,

1833.] in the cold-blooded Vertebrata. 467

it may be permitted to entertain a doubt as to the animal to which

this specimen should be referred.

The shape of the teeth appear to indicate a carnivorous character

in the animal to which they belonged, and bear a considerable resem-

blance to the molares of the seal.

Supposing this to be the case, the position of this fossil- would not

be, as Mr. LyE.t imagines, as fatal to the theory of successive deve-

lopment as if several hundreds had been discovered, since its appear-

ance is subsequent to the period in which the great Saurian reptiles

were the most abundant; and should it prove to belong to the genus

phoca or to some cetaceous animal, it would be an example of the com-

mencement of the type of mammalia in one of the least perfect tribes

of the order, and therefore an additional argument in favor of the

theory it is intended to subvert.

In endeavoring to show that there actually does exist what has

been called a stimulus of perfection in the organic world, it will be

necessary to take a system of organs in its most imperfect form, and to

investigate the steps by which nature has succeeded in effecting a

series of gradual improvements.

Of the various functions conducing to the preservation of the

individual, none is of more importance than that by means of which

the oxygenization of the blood is effected, and this fluid rendered fit

for repairing the waste of the body, and supplying materials for the

growth and increase of the different organs. The development of the

respiratory and circulating systems will necessarily be in a certain

and constant ratio to each other, and, wherever we see a perfect respi-

ratory apparatus, we have an indication of a proportionally complicated

set of organs for the circulation of the blood, and consequently an

increase in the irritability and nervous energy of the animal.

The respiration of the embryo in warm-blooded animals is at first

solely cutaneous, and the heart consists of two cavities, both systemic,

as no respiratory organs are developed. The systemic ventricle is

then divided by a septum, and the right ventricle thus formed is pro-

longed into a tube which opens into the aorta subsequently to the

origin of the branches which supply the upper portion of the trunk.

This prolongation of the right ventricle is called the ductus arteriosus,

and from it are given off small branches, which go to supply the lungs.

The circulation is now that of a reptile, the heart in effect consisting

of two auricles anda ventricle ; but on the emergence of the animal

from its foetal state, the lungs become the immediate organs of respi-

ration ; the blood is more perfectly oxygenized ; the irratibility of the

20 2

468 On Progressive Development {Sepr.

animal increased ; the ductus arteriosus is obliterated ; its pulmonic

branches alone give a passage to the blood, the whole of which, now

undergoing the necessary changes in the lungs, is sent from the sys-

temic side of the heart to perform its functions in the animal system. °

There is now therefore a heart of four cavities, and a perfect system

of respiration, in short, that of the highest type, birds and mammalia.

The first appearance of that form of organization which runs through all

the vertebrated classes is to be found in the most perfectly developed

tribe of the invertebrata, the naked cephalopoda. The chambered

and convoluted shell of the nautilus and the ammonite may be traced

in the internal skeleton of the sepia, which consists of numerous con-

centric lamelle of carbonate of lime, connected by an infinite number

of siphonculi running right angles to them. Now suppose each

lamella separated from that next to it, and the number of connecting

siphonculi reduced to one between each lamina, and a polythalamous

shell will be produced.

Still higher we find in the Joligo a single cartilaginous plate,

somewhat concave anteriorly, as though its edges were approximating

to form a tube, enclosed within the mantle, and lying posterior to all

the organs of respiration, circulation, digestion, &c. This cartilagin-

ous plate performs the office, though imperfectly, of a vertebral column,

forming an organ of protection for the nervous system. The carbonate

of lime, so universal in the external skeletons of all the Mollusca, has

here entirely disappeared, as though preparatory to the introduction

of a new element characteristic of the skeletons of the higher classes,

the phosphate of lime. By a very easy transition from this simple

skeleton of the Joligo we pass to the lowest of the cartilaginous fishes,

where in the petromyzon, the vertebral column presents a form almost as

rudimentory.

The respiratory and circulatory apparatus in the loligo are very

nearly the same as in fish, being entirely aquatic; the aeration of the

blood takes place in the branchiz, placed on each side, hanging freely

in the cavity of the mantle, and fixed on their dorsal aspect to cartila-

ginous laminz, which may be considered the rudiments of branchial

arches.

The blood brought by the vene cave to two muscular cavities

called auricles, and thence sent to the branchiz, is returned to a third

muscular heart, to which the name of ventricle has been given. There

is here no essential difference from the circulatory organs in fishes,

but a lower degree of development is indicated in the permanent dis-

union of the muscular hearts, a concentration of organs being one of

the most characteristic features in perfection of development.

1833.] in the cold-blooded Vertebrata. 463

In the most simple of the cartilaginous fishes the vertebral articula-

tions are not distinguishable; the spinal column is little more than a

cartilage through which are dispersed granules of phosphate of lime,

and even in osseous fishes the proportion of earthy matters contained

in the skeleton is comparatively small.

The normal form of the vertebre in fish is, a cylindrical body with

two concave, cup-like articulating surfaces; the interval between two

vertebre being filled up by a fibro-cartilage, which of course presents

two globular surfaces corresponding to the cavities of the vertebrz :

this circumstance is of considerable importance, as we shall be able

to show the steps by which a transition from this form, typical in fish,

to the vertebra of a reptile has been effected.

The lateral development and extensive mobility of the intermaxil-

lary bones are also worthy of observation, as the same characters

obtain in the next class, the Batrachia.

In the petromyzon, the nervous system exists in a very rudimentary

condition—very much in the state in which we observe it in the em-

bryo of the chick ; two delicate cords, placed along the back, and giving

off from their sides other nervous filaments.

The two nervous cords developed in the embryo upon the serous.

layer of the germinal membrane diverge anteriorly to enclose three

spaces, which being afterwards filled up by cineritious matter become

the medulla oblongata, the optic lobes, and the hemispheres of the

brain. In the class of fishes the optic lobes, dedicated to the supply

of organs of sensation merely, are nearly double the size of the

hemispheres ; but as we ascend in the scale, the latter become gradually

larger and extended backwards in proportion as the former are retard-

ed in development, and also in some indefinable ratio to the power

and extent of the intellectual faculties.

The organs of respiration in the class of fishes are always branchial,

but present some differences in the two great divisions of the order,

the cartilaginous and osseous fishes. In the latter the branchiz,

formed by innumerable ramifications of the branchial arteries, hang

suspended from the branchial arches, having their outer edges free

and movable. The water which is drawn into the mouth by the

action of the os hyoides and branchial arches, passes over these vas-

cular follicles, and escapes by an opening common to all the branchiz

of one side, and defended by a valvular structure composed of an

opercular membrane and a bony operculum.

In the cartilaginous fishes, on the contrary, with the exception of

two families, the sturgeons and the chimeras, the branchiz, instead of

470 On Progressive Development (Snr.

having a free margin, are fixed, being connected with the integument

by their external border. The consequence of this conformation is,

that the water which passes over the branchiz makes its exit through

distinct canals opening on the surface, whose number varies from

four to seven in different genera of the order.

In all this may be observed an evident tendency to a higher degree

of development, an attempt on the part of nature to cause the respi-

ratory apparatus of the most perfect of the class of fishes to assume

the appearance of that possessed by the most inferior among reptiles,

and the next step will be to inquire whether there is not to be found

some intermediate state between the two.

The larva of the common frog is, during its larva condition, bond

fide, a fish ; its respiration is aquatic ; its circulation double; it possess-

es four branchiz on each side, suspended from branchial arches, not

enclosed however by an operculum as in fish, but hanging free from

each side of the neck. The heart consists of two cavities, an auricle

and a ventricle ; the whole of the blood passes through the branchiz by

four branchial arteries on each side; it is returned by as many branchial

veins, which afterwards unite to form the abdominal aorta. This cir-

culation is strictly branchial not systemic, and is in every respect the

circulation of a fish. During this fish-like condition of the larva, the

spinal cord presents no enlargements in its course, and extends down

through a number of coccygeal vertebre ; at this period also the optic

lobes are larger than the hemispheres of the cerebrum, as in fish.

This then may be considered to be the intermediate point of deve-

Jopment between two series of forms of animal life, and here is the

stage from whence to set out in marking the changes which are re-

quired to render, not only the same type, but the same individual capa-

ble of exercising its functions in a medium very different from that in

which it originally existed.

After remaining in its icthyoid condition for an indefinite period of -

time, the duration of which is influenced by a variety of circumstances

immediately affecting the development of the animal, as temperature,

the action of light, the abundance or scarcity of food, &c. the tadpole

begins to undergo certain changes, which are the prelude to a complete

metamorphosis; changes which are to give it the organs and habitudes

of a land animal, and enable it to act a part in a situation totally foreign

to that to which it has been accustomed.

This first of this series of changes takes place in the nervous system.

The direction of development, which has hitherto been longitudinal,

becomes lateral ; the spinal cord shrinks up, and the coccygeal verte-

1833.] tn the cold-blooded Vertebrata. 471

bre of the tail are gradually absorbed ; enlargements of the cord are

evident at the points where the organs of locomotion are to be pro-

duced, and shortly after these organs begin to display themselves.

At the same time an important change takes place in the relative

magnitude of the hemispheres of the brain and the optic lobes. In

fish, as before stated, the optic lobes are the larger, the hemispheres

having attained but a very inferior degree of development ; during the

metamorphosis of the larva, the latter rapidly increase in size, till they

have become considerably larger than the optic lobes; the olfactory

tubercles are no longer separated from the hemispheres ; the whole

cerebral mass having assumed a more concentrated form, instead of

presenting the appearance of a number of imperfectly united ganglia.

In speaking of the mode in which the blood circulates in the larva,

I described four branchial arteries on each side, passing to as many

respiratory organs, and conveying to them the blood which is to

undergo the process of oxygenization.

Synchronously with the change which the nervous system undergoes,

this mode of circulation experiences considerable and important alter-

ations ;—the anterior branchial arteries, which are so many subdivi-

sions of the aorta, are obliterated—the posterior branchial artery alone

remaining pervious; while its numerous ramifications are reduced to a

single trunk, the union of which with the artery of the opposite side

forms the trunk of the abdominal aorta. From the thoracic aorta is

given off on each side a small pulmonary twig, which now becomes

the channel through which the blood passes to the organs of aeration.

Another remarkable circumstance is the change which now takes

place in the form of the vertebre. The vertebra of a fish, we have said,

presents two cup-like articular surfaces, the space intermediate between

two vertebre being filled up by elastic cartilage. The vertebre of

reptiles always present one convex and own concave articular surface,

the globular head of one vertebre fitting into the concavity of the one

immediately below it, so as to form a ball and socket joint. While in

the tadpole state, the vertebrae of the animal resemble those of fish ;

but it was observed by Durrocuet, that, at the period when the change

in the respiratory apparatus was going on, the intervertebral substances

became ossified, each uniting itself to the vertebra immediately pre-

ceding.

When the metamorphosis has been fully accomplished, the lungs of

the adult animal are found to be tolerably perfect, but still not so

minutely cellular, and consequently not presenting so extensive a sur-

face for the aeration of the blood as in the higher reptiles. Never-

472 On Progressive Development [Serr.

theless, the respiratory organ would appear to have made its appear-

ance in so perfect a form rather suddenly on the stage, if we were not

able to trace it progress towards perfection from fishes themselves

through other members of the Batrachian tribe, up to the point where

we have seen it completely formed, and capable of exercising all its

functions in the adult frog. For this purpose we must return to our

examination of the class of fishes.

All fish, with the exception of the genus pleuronectes, are furnished

with an air-bladder, for the most part entirely isolated from any

communication with the atmosphere, and inflated with an aeriform

fluid, secreted sometimes by the internal walls of the airsac itself,

sometimes by a distinct glandular organ attached to it. The air con-

tained in this bag is found to vary with the habitude of the animal, the

quantity of oxygen being increased in proportion to the depth of

water which it inhabits.

This air-bag, which is totally imperforate in the least perfect osseous

fishes, is found to*communicate with the external atmosphere in the

most perfect osseous, and in the cartilaginous, fishes; in the carp it

opens by a long canal into the stomach, in the sun fish and in the stur-

geon it communicates with the cesophagus.

In the proteus anguinus and the siren lacertina, animals belonging

to that division of the Batrachia called perennibranchia, from the

circumstances of their retaining their branchie and their aquatic mode

of life during the whole term of their existence—we find two air sacs,

very similar in appearance to the air-bladders of fishes, each communi-

cating by a narrow membranous tube with the pharynx. Upon these

sacs a minute branch sent off previously to the origin of the branchial

arteries, is seen to ramify, but the influence which can be exerted on

the circulation by this means is too slight to be taken into considera-

tion.

Advancing one step higher in the scale, we come to animals

which atacertain period of their life lose the organs of aquatic

respiration, and breathe atmospheric air only by means of lungs—in

short, undergo the metamorphosis we have been considering in the

larva of the frog.

This change is first observed in the tritons or salamanders,

belonging to that family of Batrachia which from the circumstances

indicated has derived the epithet caducibranchie. In these animals

the lungs still retain the form of simple sacs, in the upper and back

part of which a cellular structure and more complex ramification of

the pulmonary vassels begins to appear—a structure which is at length

1833.] in the cold-blooded Vertebrata. “473

perfected in the family of the Crocodilida, where the most complete

system of respiration obtains among reptiles.

It has now been shown, that in the two great systems which exer-

cise the most important influence over the development of the animal,

there is a gradual and well-marked progression towards perfection in

the organs by aid of which these functions are performed ; and that

it does not require the aid of the imagination to trace the steps by

which the simple air-sac of the sturgeon has passed through the inter-

vening stages in the proteus and the triton to the elementary lung

of the frog and the more perfect organ of the crocodile.

It will be as easy to show that the same system of gradual progression

has been followed throughout all the members of the series: the links

which unite Batrachia with the Ophidian reptiles, and these latter with

the Saurian tribes, are too evident to render necessary a lengthened

detail.

In the genus cecilia we are supplied with the form which connects

the Batrachia with the serpent race. The auricle presents a partial

septum, an indication of the change to be effected in the heart of the

true serpents, where there are three distinct cavities. In the arrange-

ment of the teeth upon the maxillary and palatine bones, the cecilia

resembles the proteus, but in the shape of the teeth comes nearer the

true Ophidia.

With regard to the respiratory organs, the left lung is, as in ser-

pents, retarded in development. The skin is soft and naked as in Ba-

trachia, but according to Baron Cuvizr, it contains, within its substance,

small scales regularly disposed in transverse bands. The true serpents

are separated from the Saurian reptiles by the total absence of any ves-

tige of sternum or extremities; this is the most prominent character,

and will therefore be the most easily traced.

If we passed at once from Ophidia, where extremities are totally

wanting, to the lizards where they are perfectly formed, we might sup-

pose that there had been a sudden production in one order, of an organ,

of which we had observed no elementary condition in the order imme-

diately preceding ; a circumstance entirely at variance with all that

has hitherto been observed.

But in this instance, as in every other, there have been successive

stages through which the organs of locomotion have passed. There is

a small family of reptiles placed between Sauria and Ophidia, in whom

these organs are seen to be gradually developed. In the anguis and

the ophisaurus a rudimentary sternum and pelvis are concealed beneath

the integuments; in the scheltopusik a small femur has been added,

2 P

474 On Progressive Development, &c. (Serr.

which here commences to display itself externally. From hence the

gradual progress of the organ may be traced through the chirotes, the

bipes and the seps.

In the same way may be seen the gradual increase in the size of the

left lung which had been retarded in growth in Ophidia—and the pro-

gressive perfection of the organs of sense, of the osseous, and of the ner-

vous systems. With regard to Chelonia, the highest in the class of cold-

blooded vertebrata, the consideration of the numerous analogies which

their anatomical structure shows to exist between them and warm-

blooded animals, the commencement of a perfect division of the ven-

tricle, and the evident transition from these animals to the class of

birds, are subjects which would extend this paper beyond the limits of

a brief memoir.

In the endeavour to trace the connection between these different

tribes of animals, itis to be remembered that the materials for investiga-

tion are comparatively few ; that unacquainted as we are with the inter-

nal structure, and more minute anatomical relations of the extinct

races, we are deprived of the evidence most material to our cause ; yet

imperfect as our knowledge of these animals must necessarily be, we

are able to trace in their analogies with existing genera, a type inter-

mediate between two important divisions of the animal kingdom, and

occupying permanently the station now held temporarily by Batrachia

during their metamorphosis.

Examples of this kind, where the intermediate stages apparently

wanting in our systems of zoology are to be discovered in the ancient

strata of the earth, are very numerous. Among the fossil Echinoder-

mata in the chalk formation, the gradation of development, from the

flattened and ramified ewryale, through the clypeaster, the sentella,

the ananchiie, the galerite and the spatangus, to the concentrated

and spherical form of the cidaris and echinus, must strike the most

cursory observer. The tertiary strata of the Paris basin, have furnish-

ed us with the links which were wanting in the order Pachydermata to fill

up the hiatus which separated the pig and the tapir from the ele-

phant.

If these observations be correct, no organ or system of organs, nor

any new type in the animal world, can be said to have suddenly appear-

ed on the stage of existence. There are certain laws to which nature

herself is compelled to submit, and by which all her operations must be re.

gulated ; and notwithstanding the weight which attaches to the opinions

of the learned professor already quoted, I cannot help believing that

amongst them is to be found the law of progressive development.

1833.] Geological Remarks, &c. 475

IIl.—Some Geological Remarks made in the country between Mirzaptr

and Sagar, and from Sdgar Northwards to the Jamna. By the Rev.

R. Everest, F. G. S. &c.

Mirzapir is situated on a kankar bank on the southern side of the

Ganges, and somewhat higher above the level of the water than

these banks usually are. The steep side of it, towards the river, shows

a section of strata similar to what is usually observed in this formation,

viz. beds of clay and calcareous mar] of different colours with nodules

of limestone imbedded in them. The lowermost of these beds exhibit

some inclination and faults in particular places, which indicate that

they have suffered some disturbance since their deposition. Upon

these the upper beds rest horizontally and unconformably. One or two

casts of shells (apparently fresh-water) and some small fragments of

vegetable stems, were the only remains I could observe. But the

appearance of the kankar nodules here marks more strongly their

origin than in any place I have yet seen. They are mostly of

the form of stalactites, from the size of a finger to that of a wrist in

thickness, and, when broken, shew a compact, splintery, bluish-grey

limestone, with occasionally minute scales of silvery mica disseminated

through it. Occasionally too they are dependent from the roofs of

small cavities in the clay-beds, and at other times spread out into

layers, so as to form a complete seam of limestone. Before quitting

the subject of kankar, I wish to notice a remark I have sometimes

heard made, that probably the formation of kankar is yet going on.

Mr. PippineTon alludes to this in his remarks on the silt deposited by

the river Hugli, and from his analysis it would appear that the quan-

tity of carbonate of lime in the silt is considerable. That kankar may

be yet forming in many places where calcareous springs are now

running, cannot admit of doubt; but that it is at present depositing

from the waters of the Hugli or Ganges I am inclined to disbelieve.

For, were this actually the case, we might expect to find kankar on

low tracts that had been flooded, after the retiring of the annual inun-

dations ; whereas the very reverse of this happens. Asfar as my experi-

ence goes, kankar is never found on the low grounds that are inundat-

ed. On the contrary the kankar banks are the only parts of the

country that remain several feet above the level of the highest floods*.

* Considerable deposits, however, of saline matter are to be found on lands

overflowed by the Jumna, when the rains are over ; which, of course, are a recent

formation: but the saline deposits, as I have noticed elsewhere, are usually above

the present level of the floods,

22 2

476 Geological Remarks between (Serr.

At the distance of four or five miles to the south of Mirzapur we

come to the sandstone range, about 200 feet high, and presenting a

steep escarpment to the alluvial plain at its base. Thence it sweeps

round in a N. W. direction to Vindachal, where it may be traced

nearly to the bank of the river. The front of it towards the water

is covered with rounded boulders nearly to its summit. From hence

this range extends to Chunar, as may be seen in Captain Franxtin’s

map, and east of that to a place called Jemorah, where I have before

mentioned it as occurring. It preserves here the same character as

at that place, viz. that of a small-grained, highly consolidated sandstone

approaching to quartz rock, usually of a greenish grey or faint pink

colour, and splitting into large slabs of divers thicknesses. At Vindachal

the general dip is to the west at an angle from 5° to 20°. Further to

the east, where the road to Sagar ascends it at the pass of Turd, the

dip is to the west, and scarcely perceptible. At the Tura waterfall a

deep section may be seen of it. It presents no variety of character,

nor is it at all interstratified with marls or shales. At the foot of the

pass I found an efflorescence of soda on a kankar bank, similar to what

occurs in the plain to the N. W. of Ghazipur.

After ascending the pass we travel over a country nearly flat and

covered with soil and vegetation. About 20 miles further on, at

Ldlganj, the rock was laid bare in the bed of a small nullah dipping

slightly to the north. The soil above it contained pieces of kankar

and iron ore, similar to what occurs about Bankaira and elsewhere.

Nine miles further on in the bed of the Balan river, the rock was ex-

posed with a slight dip tothe west. At the foot of the Aattra pass (for

the situation of which I beg to refer to Capt. Franxuin’s map, (Trans.

Phys. Cl. vol. i.) I met with soda efflorescing, and kankar, at the side

of a ravine, as I had done before at Tard. From Kattra the road

winds up a precipitous ascent over strata of sandstone dipping to

the N. W. The sandstone does not appear to differ from that of the

lower platform from Katira to Térd, but it is here interstratified with

thick beds of red and greenish-grey marl-slate, and rarely with thin

layers of a rock resembling greywacke, rather dark-coloured but con-

taining pieces of slate imbedded. At Mowganj, two marches beyond

Kattra, the dip of the rock was N. E. at an angle of from 10° to 15°;

as seen in the bed of the nala. At Lour, a little further on, they

were quarrying a slaty marl, with shining facets and white streaks

running through it. These streaks are calcareous and effervesce strong»

ly with acids. Pieces of a compact splintery limestone are also to be

found lying about on the surface. The strata here are horizontal. In the

1833.] Mirzapir and Sagar. 477

Pakariga nald, between Lour and Mangowa, we first came to a thick

slaty limestone, generally whitish, earthy, and marly, and varying

to yellowish, greyish, and fine splintery. At Mangowa the dip was

to the north, a red slaty marl. About this part of the country we begin

to see a distant range of hills, bounding our prospect to the south and

south-west,—the Kymur hills ; judging from the outline, they appear to

be sandstone with a horizontal stratification, and look as if a third

platform or table-land existed in that direction. Beyond Raypira

low hill appeared to the south of the road, of a thick slaty limestone

similar to that at Pakkartga: the dip very slight and irregular ;

layers of a black kind of porphyry are interstratified with it. This

black rock sometimes changes suddenly to white, and appears vitrified

exactly like porcelain. At Rewah the limestone was extensively laid

bare in the bed of the river, but it is here principally massive, passing

from grevish to bluish black and black, and exactly resembling the

mountain limestone of England. At Rampur, one march beyond

Rewah, strata of red and variegated marl, most of them calcareous,

were exposed in the bed of the rivulet for two or three miles to the

south ;—dip slight to the north. Beyond Rampur the same bluish

black limestone appeared as at Rewah. At Patrdhat a similar lime-

stone was resting on the variegated marl slates, with a slight dip to

the north. Near Lohdwel we passed over horizontal beds of a crumb-

ling green and red marl for a considerable distance. At Nagowar a

similar limestone appeared to that at Patrdhat, resting like it upon

the marl slate. But it here appears to abound in what I believe to be

coralline remains, I might rather say, to be entirely composed of

them. I forbear describing them, as I have sent specimens with this

paper, which can be examined by those who have means of reference

at hand*. I was not fortunate enough to discover any of the stems of

ferns and gryphite shells, described by Capt. Franxuin; nor in my

whole journey over this limestone did I meet with any other kind of

organic remains than the one I have just now spoken of, though I

made diligent search for them during a whole fortnight. They must,

therefore, be extremely rare, and in this respect the limestone differs

widely from any of the English limestones above the new red sand-

stone. From this place we passed alternately over strata of sandstone,

red marl slate, and limestone, without being able to trace their con-

nection with each other, until we came to Hattah. Here on the slope

’

* The specimens are deposited in the As. Soc. Museum: but their nature has

not been ascertained. They are identical with what FRANKLIN named “ stems of

ferns.’’ See As. Res. xviii. p. 29.—Eb.

478 Geological Remarks between [Sepr,

to the east of the village were horizontal strata of sandstone exposed

to view ; at the first nala, lower down, was a whitish argillaceous

limestone overlaid by sandstone; at a nala still lower down, layers

of sandstone, limestone, and red mar] slate were to be seen interstratified.

A few miles further on, at Nagar, a low cliff on the side of the river

Sonar shewed a section of the strata as follows: uppermost layers,

sandstone ;—middle, red marl slate ;—lowest (in bed of the river) argil-

laceous limestone. I had before conjectured that this would be the case

from the continual alternations of sandstone and limestone, every mile

or two along the road by which we had travelled, though both were

horizontally stratified, and little or no difference of level was to be

noticed. This led me to conclude that the limestone was of no great

thickness, nothing more indeed than a bed in the sandstone, and the

appearances I have now described at Hattah and Nagar confirm this.

Capt. FRANKLIN speaks of the limestone being not more than 100 feet

thick upon the sandstone, I have never found it 10 feet thick, without

layers of sandstone interstratified. Beds of limestone of a similar

kind do not appear to be uncommon in this formation: near Cheyn-

pir, about 35 miles to the south of Ghdztpir, I had an oppor-

tunity of examining one of these. The sandstone range there presents

nearly the same appearance as at the back of Mirzapar, except that

it is somewhat higher, and the dip, as far as I traced it, (which was

about 20 miles to the eastward) is inwards, or to the south and south-

west. Ata place called Mussaye the limestone may be seen cropping

out at the base of a sandstone hill, and dipping at a considerable angle

to the south. It is usually slaty, but varies much in character in

other respects, passing from grey to black, and then resembling the

English mountain limestone. No remains could be found in it, but

about 10 miles to the eastward it is seen again at Bétraband. But I

have neither seen, here nor elsewhere, any of the beds of loose slate

and clay that accompany the lias in England. Were it necessary to

class these with any of the European formations, transition limestone

would be the most proper name for them. Though it is certainly more

correct to consider them merely as beds in the sandstone; which sand-

stone, it must be remembered, is never found reposing on any but

primitive rock.

As we leave Patteria, the easternmost extremity of the hills of trap

fronts us, and the road winds along it for some distance. For 30 or

40 miles to the east of this the strata of sandstone had become broken

and disturbed, dipping in various directions. Rolled pebbles of sand-

stone and pieces of agate and chalcedony are seen lying about, not

1833.] Mirzapir and Sagar. 479

confined to the water-courses and lowest grounds, but extending over

the highest ridges. Near Patteria, the bank of the Sonar shewed a

section of a bed of pebbles several feet thick, containing fragments of

shells of the genera cyclas, paludina, and unio. At Usldma I obsery-

ed a curious appearance, which would lead to the inference that kankar

nodules and the soil in which they are imbedded were deposited on the

sandstone at a time when the latter was in a state very different from

what it is at present, viz. soft and flexible. At first sight it appeared

that the kunkar and soil were interstratified with the upper layers of

sandstone; but on looking further it seemed that both had come in

from above through a fissure in the rock, and that the layers at the

edge of this fissure had been bent downwards, as if by the superin-

cumbent weight. Thus GW A Se layers of sandstone.

WW, iy iy Wu, B, kaukar and soil.

Now no pressure however applied is sufficient to bend a layer of sand-

stone in its present state. In the ruined palace of Axsar at Fatteh-

pur Sikri, many slabs of sandstone that have formed parts of the roof

of the building may be seen broken asunder from long-continued pres-

sure, but none of them, though there are many entire, are in the

slightest degree bent.

Ata short distance beyond Patteria the road passes over a white

earthy limestone rock, containing sandstone gravel imbedded. This,

in some places, loses all massive appearances, and becomes a collection

of nodules not differing from kankar. They are however more white

and earthy, approaching to the nature of chalk, than I have met with

in the country to the eastward. As we advance, the peculiar outlines

of basalt present themselves in the country round. The road soon

crosses what has apparently been a stream or coulée, and has taken

the lowest ground. It is dark-coloured, nearly black, and considerably

cellular on the outside; yet this is an effect only produced by weather-

ing; within, it is a solid hard basalt, of great specific gravity, and

containing olivine imbedded. The surface of the soil in the country

round is strewed with large round balls, resembling the volcanic bombs

of volcanic districts: but they too, although scoriaceous on the out-

side, are, within, a solid basalt. With these are found abundance of

agate and chalcedony. - These appearances continue all the way to

Sdgar, and the rock does not differ in character, except that it some-

times becomes of a lighter colour, and is then in a high state of de-

composition, crumbling under the hand. Three or four miles before

reaching Sugar, where the road had been cut through the rock, a

480 Geological Remarks between [Sxpr.

ridge of basalt affecting the columnar form is seen resting upon a

lighter coloured stratum, which shews by its state of decomposition,

its great antiquity. From all I have been able to see or learn of this

formation from others, it appears every where to preserve great uni-

formity of character, and resembles (as stated by Mr. Lyzut when

speaking of it on the banks of the Nerbudda) the currents of prismatic

lava in Auvergne. Currents of porous lava, cones of cinders, scoria,

pumice, ashes, all those products that peculiarly belong to modern vol-

canic formations, are wanting. We meet every where with a compact

heavy basalt, with olivine sometimes and augite crystals imbedded, and

agates, chalcedony, and jasper in great variety and abundance. And

though some of the currents appear to have taken the lowest ground, yet

their outlines are so worn down and effaced, and their surfaces are so

deep in soil and vegetation, that it is difficult to assert even this with

certainty.

About a mile distant from Sagar many white blocks appear-

ed by the road side, which I at first mistook for a kind of trachyte,

from the peculiar rugged appearance of them : add to this, that crys-

tals are disseminated in the porous earthy base, leoking just like the

crystals of glossy felspar in that mineral. On minuter inspection,

however, it is nothing but limestone. Its softness, its strong efferves-

cence in acid, and specific gravity, (2.67) separate it from every sub-

stance with which it might be confounded. Besides the form I have

mentioned, it sometimes becomes altogether earthy, and then reminds

us of the most common form of deposits from calcareous springs : at

other times it is altogether crystalline, and then passes into a fibrous

form, resembling satin-spar, or calcareous alabaster. It has been

deposited at the side of a couleé of basalt, and it is here that Capt.

S.LEEMAN discovered the remains of palm trees changed to a brown-

coloured flint, or rather jasper. As one kind of palm tree (the date

palm, I believe) yet commonly grows by the side of most running

streams in this part of the country, we have no reason to suppose

any change of climate to account for their appearance here. The

manner, however, in which they are scattered through the soil is not

so easily explained. They are usually found above the solid stratum of

calc-tuff, and a trunk is seldom found entire ; but they are in sharp angu-

lar* fragments, as if they had been shattered by a violent blow: with

them are pieces of the calc-tuff, which is found below. In the short

distance from. Patteria to Sdgar we had met with two of these for-

* Nor do we find traces of any such substances disseminated through the

tufaceous limestones, as is commonly the case in volcanic tuff.

1833.] Mirzapir and Sagar. 481

mations*. They are nothing but kankar somewhat more developed,

and probably were deposited at a period when the continent was

raised above the level of the surrounding ocean. Among the remains,

however, from the neighbourhood of Jabalpur, which appear also

to have come from a recent calcareous deposit, are shells which appear

to be marine. At Tuismahi, about 30 miles north-east from Sagar,

I had an opportunity of observing another mineral more largely de-

veloped than I had seen it in the country to the eastward. This is

the hydrated iron ore, which occurs in loose pieces about Bardwan

and Bankiira, often accompanied by kankar. It is, I believe, the

laterite of Dr. Bucnanan, and here forms the summit of the Tuismahl

hill in a bed of many feet in thickness. For the reason why a

deposit from springs can thus cap an isolated hill rising out of a plain,

I must refer to M. Monttost=r’s ingenious explanation of the isolated

peaks and platforms of basalt in Auvergne. This mineral is largely

developed in the country to the north of Tuismahl, and is, I believe,

the ore which is usually smelted for iron.

We left Tuismahl in a N. W. direction, and soon came upon

the sandstone again. It is, to be sure, occasionally to be seen

in isolated ridges rising out of the basalt; but now this latter

disappears, and it becomes the formation of the whole country

round us. We find the basalt again some miles before reaching

Issdgarh, a fortress about 50 miles north of Seronj, and it here

shews more symptoms of a. recent formation than I have yet seen.

The couleés are better defined ; they have evidently, in some places,

taken the lowest ground, and their surface is yet rugged in a

degree, but their composition is, as before, a solid basalt. We quit

the basalt altogether at Issdgarh, and come upon the sandstone, which

we travel upon to Pahargarh, about 30 miles west of Gwalior, where

we descend into the plain, and find ourselves again among kankar

banks and ravines. The sandstone remains unaltered in character. In

the bed of the Betwa it was quartz rock. In the country round Delhi

it is usually quartz rock, nearly perpendicular, and dipping to the

eastward. A few miles to the south of Pahargarh I observed a pecu-

liar appearance of the kankar. It forms a calcareous cement to a bed

of rounded pebbles, and above this forms another bed similar to those

which are to be seen so frequently on the banks of the Ganges.

* There is no known force but that of an earthquake that could produce such

effects. From Dr. Sprtspury’s account of the fossil shells he found near Jabal-

pur, they appear to be scattered through the soil in a similar manner.

482 On the Native Alum or Salajit of Nepal. [Sppr.

IV.—On the Native Alum or Saldjit of Nepal. By A. Campbell, Assistant

Surgeon, &c.

In the number of the Asiatic Society’s Journal for June last, there is a

notice and analysis of one of the mineral productions of Nepal called “Sa-

lajit,” or, by the natives of this place more commonly “ Pathar ka Passeo” .

or simply “ Passeo” (Sweat). As the analysis was furnished by Mr. Sreven-

son with the object of bringing the substance to public notice towards its ex-

tensive employment in the arts, the following particulars regarding it may I

hope contribute in some degree to facilitate the above purpose. The specimen

analyzed by Mr. S. contained in 100 parts, 95 parts of sulphate of alumina,

but it is not generally speaking procurable in that state of purity ; the fol-

lowing, the result of examination by Captain Rogryson of several portions ta-

ken at random from the bazar, shews more correctly the value of the miner-

al as it is obtainable in large quantity, and in the state in which alone it could

be made available for use in the arts. The purer portions being in such de-

mand in medicine and surgery, are raised in price to an extent quite incom-

patible with their profitable application to the general uses of commerce. In

100 grains are contained, sulphate of alumina, 66.

The mineral in the above state (often more pure) is found throughout

the lower, central, and upper hills of Nepal. Its external characters are those

described by Mr. 8.* save that the lumps have generally an admixture of

red sand, and frequently portions of micaceous stone embedded in them ;

some of the lumps have the smooth surface of stalactites, and are not unlike

these deposits. All are readily soluble in water, and when touched with the

tongue give the taste of common alum. It is said to exude in this

state from the surface of soft rocks ; and sometimes to be dug out of their

substance ; and from these sources it is collected in considerable quantities

during the cold and dry seasons, and carried by the Bhoteahs, Murmis, and.

other hill people to Katmandi, to be exchanged with the merchants of that

city for money or other articles. From hence it is distributed thoughout

the valley in small portions for medical purposes, while the bulk of it is car.

ried to the plains of India by petty Newar merchants, and the numerous

Baiparis who’ annually visit this country from various adjacent, and remote

parts of Hindistan. The cost of production and transport of an article to

the scene of its consumption, is the first knowledge the trader wants ; and if

the price paid by Mr. S. for his specimen (one rupee for two rupees’ weight)

was the real value of Salajit on the banks of the Ganges, its use in the arts

* In small light lumps, colour brownish white ; externally anhydrous ; internally semi-

crystalline ; fracture slightly fibrous, with a lustre resembling asbestus ; porous, containing

small cavities lined with scarcely perceptible needle-like crystals ; adheres a little to the

tongue. Taste acidulous saline, soluble in twice its weight of distilled water ; specific

gravity not ascertained, but probably not quite double the weight of distilled water ;

friable.

1833.] On the Native Alum or Saldjit of Nepal. 483

of dyeing, printing, &c. at that place, as at any other further removed, must

for ever remain problematical. The price he paid for it was that which the

physicians of India give for a drug to which they attach an undue merit, and

on the sale of which they realize a huge profit from their credulous and

ignorant patients. A respectable authority tells me that he has paid for this

stuff at Benares one rupee for one rupee weight, and at more remote places

from Nepal it is sold at a rate still more exorbitant. The average price of

white* Saldjit in Katmandiéi ranges from 12 annas to one rupee a dharné

of three cacha seer, or from 11 to 15 rupees per pakka maund of 40 seers,

and the cost of transport to the banks of the Ganges or Gandack is as fol-

lows :—

A hill porter will carry two maunds from hence to Hitounda for two rupees

one anna, and a bullock will carry from thence to Patna four maunds at a

charge of two rupees seven annas, or from the same place to Govindganj

(on the Gandak, 10 miles south of Bettiah) for one rupee 14 annas. Thus

the mineral can be stored at Patna at an average cost of from 14 8 to 18 8

rupees per maund, and at Govindganj for 15 annas per maund less, i.e.

for-13 9 to 17 9rupees. This calculation except the carriage from Hitounda

is made in Nepalese rupees, the difference between which and sicca rupees is

as 128 of the former to 100 of the latter, and there is no additional expense

except an export duty of 23 per cent. ad valorem, levied by the Nepal govern-

ment, unless there be (unknown to me) an import duty levied in our pro-

vinces, on minerals the product of this state.

The quantity now annually exported from Katmandi, as far as I can as.

certain, is not more than 15 or 20 maunds, but I believe that there would

be no difficulty in procuring any quantity required of it, and that without any

addition to the present cost ; for as it is found without the previous expense

of digging mines, and transported without the necessity of making roads,

an increased demand would only have the effect of inducing a greater num-

ber of the hill people to collect the stuff in the hills of their neighbourhood,

and convey it to the capital ; or perhaps with a steady demand the produce

of the lower hills would be carried direct to the plains by the collectors of it,

and the profit of the first buyer or Katmandié merchants by this means saved

to the consumers in the plains. Saldjit in Nepal as well as in India is at

present confined exclusively to use in medicine and surgery, and in both

countries it enjoys a very high reputation, and is used in both as a remedy

in the same diseases.

In India it is in much greater repute than in the land of its pro-

duction, as its price there shews ; and its virtues in some affections are

* There is a dark bituminous substance used in Nepal, said to be exuded from rocks;

it is called “ Black Salajit.”” Iam ignorant of its nature ; it resembles in external cha-

racter the bituminous alum ore (called shale) which is said to he found in Sweden and

in many coal mines in England, but there is much vegetable matter in it, and-it

is probably a vegetable production, notwithstanding the belief by the Nepal physicians

of its mineral nature.

2°92

484 On the Native Alum or Saldjit of Nepal. (Sept.

said to be unequalled. Internally it is given as a sovereign remedy

in parméo (gonorrheea), in gleet, gravel, stone in the bladder, semi-

nal weakness, and sometimes in alvine fluxes; its dose is (to an adult)

10 grains finely powdered and given in ghee: it also composes an in-

gredient in several of the compound medicines administered by the na-

tive physicians, and is said (possibly with justice) to be an admirable re-

medy in gravel as well as in diarrhoea. Externally it is chiefly employed

in powder as a styptic in recent wounds, and, in solution, to bruises and

sprains, as well as a wash for foul ulcers. In severe cases of falls and bruis-

es it is internally administered, apparently without any better reason than

the one stated by themselves, viz. that its being good for a bruised leg

“ought to make it useful to the internals of a hurt man.” It is much

prized by old women as a remedy in infantile diseases, such as slight fever,

diarrhoea and bronchitis—and few faqirs who dispense health to the bo-

dy are without this mineral. It is exported, from Mepa/ in small quantities

to almost every part of India, as few traders, from the horse merchant of

the Panjéb to the Baipari of Tirhoot, leave this without some of the

drug, and the faqirs, who flock here annually in incredible numbers, distribute

their small stores to their brethren of the craft at every pilgrimage from

Jagarnath to Mansurwar, and from Réméswar to Dwarika. This mineral

is not confined to Nepal ; it is a produce of some part of Behar*, and is said

to be found in small quantity in different parts of the Vindhya range of

hills ; although according to the testimony of the Katmandiéi merchants

“ of inferior value in medicine to that of Nepal.” Its use in the arts of

calico printing, dyeing, &c. does not seem to have been contemplated even

in India, where those arts have been so long practised ; and although print-

ing is done after a rude fashion throughout the valley of Nepal, and the

mineral is a native of its surrounding hills, I cannot learn that it is ever used

in the making of mordants, for which purpose the sulphate of alumina is

above all other salts the best adapted, and for which it is in such large de-

mand throughout Europe. It remains therefore for European intelligence

to introduce this mineral into general use, and when it is considered that all

the alum used in Europe for dyeing, printing, whitening paper, tanning and

dressing leather, &c. &c. is manufactured by a tedious and expensive pro-

cess, it will seem strange that a nearly pure native sulphate of alumina

should be so abundant within a few days’ journey of the river Ganges, and

not have long ago, attracted the attention of the mercantile community of

India, or the numberless dyers, printers, and tanners carrying on their

separate vocations throughout the Gangetic valley. To assist Mr. Sreven-

Son or any other person in procuring this substance, I offer such aid as be.

ing on the spot will enable me to give.

* Dr. HamiTon in his account of Nepal says, “1 have collected Salajit in Behar with

my own hands,”

1833.] Defenee of Lt. Burt’s Trisection Instrument. 485

V.—Defence of Lt. Burt's Trisection Instrument.

To the Editor of the Journal of the Asiatic Society.

Sir,

The accompanying observations regarding the correctness of Mr. Burr’s instru-

ment for trisecting angles, described in No. 11, suggested themselves to me, in

consequence of my attention having been drawn to it by some remarks contained

in a note at page 159 of No. 15, and I take the liberty of sending them to you, in

the hope, that should you think them likely to be of interest to any of your

readers, you will give them a place in the Journal of the Asiatic Society. As it is

not improbable, however, that ere this letter reach you the subject may have been

taken up bya more able correspondent, or that its object may have been anticipat-

ed by Mr. Burr himself having forwarded a reply in defence of his invention, I

hope that in either of these cases you will have no hesitation whatever in laying

this communication aside.

In the note above alluded to, it is objected to Mr. Burr’s demonstration

of the correctness of his instrument, that the rad. bo is not proved equal

to rad. ao, and that it is in consequence imperfect. In the way however in

which I understood the description, it appeared to me that the length of o 2 was

constant, the leg a d being confined to a fixed point of it by a groove; and although not

so expressed, I imagine it must have been intended that, that point should be at an

equal distance from the centre with the point a. Should this supposition be cor-

rect, the demonstration would, I imagine, be complete, without the necessity of

proving that the locus of the point 4 is the circumference of the circle ; but that

such is the case whenever the angle is trisected, would be easily demonstrated as

follows :—Let BAF (fig. 1) beany angle whereof BF is the chord, and let AC be

the line trisecting the angle BAF and crossing the chord BF in D. It is required

to prove that if from the point B with the radius BD an arc be described cutting

AC in C (whence BC=BD) then, that the point C shall be situated in the cir-

cumference of the circle whose centre is at A and radius—=AB, or that AC will equal

AB.

First 2 BDA= 7 DAF + / AFD (EI.I. 32)

= Z DAF + Z ABD (Hyps.) (No. 1.)

Again 7 BDA= / DBC+ / BCD

= Z DBC + 7 BDC

= Z DBC+ / DAB+ Z ABD

Equating these two values of / BDA, we have

Z DAF + Z ABD=/ DBC + / DAB + 7 ABD

Taking Z ABD from each side, 7 DAF = / DBC + / DAB

But /£ DAB=#% Z DAF (by hyp.) therefore Z DBC also =} Z DAF

Whence also DAB= / DBC

But the angle ADF or its equal 7 BDC, or / BCA

= Z DAB + ¥ ABD or

= ZDBC+ 7 ABD or

== # ABC

Whence AB= AC,

With regard to the latter part of Mr. B.’s paper, concerning the remoyal of the

fourth leg of the instrument, I am not quite sure that I fully comprehend the

mode in which the construction of the scale is detailed, If, however, the follow-

486 Defence of Lt. Burt’s Trisection Instrument. [Szpr.

ing be a correct explanation of the meaning, there can, I imagine, be no hesitation

in admitting the conclusion he has drawn. In forming the scale of equal parts

upon this fourth leg AB (fig. 2) each point in the scale is to be successively brought

to the circumference by turning the scale round the point A, so as that each divi-

sion shall in turn terminate a chord of the variable arc AG, and the line marking

the division is then to be cut on it, in the direction of the radius passing through

it. At the same time the leg AD being placed in its corresponding position (viz.

at an equal distance on the other side of a perpendicular to CG), its divisions

will be marked by the same radius, and this is to be done for every point of the

circumference AGgB’.

The divisions upon AD, therefore, form a scale of chords equal in length to

those of the corresponding arcs AG, Ag, and each of the lines forming them, will

by the construction tend to the centre when AD is so situated as to cut off an are

three times the extent of that of which AG is the chord ; and the application of the

instrument merely consists in adjusting the line AD to the chord of the given arc,

and then turning round the movable radius CG till it coincide with the division,

which in that position would if produced pass through the centre, and which, if

the coincidence be exact, will of course direct the radius to an arc one-third of

AD. It must however be shown that in any position of AD there can be only one

of the divisions which tends to the centre (or can be made to coincide with the

radius), this may be easily proved ; for if FL (fig. 2) be the correct division on the

scale, cutting off (by radius passing through it) the are AG = one-third of the are

AD, and if f7be any other division belonging to anare A g the whole of the divisions

having been marked off in the manner above described, then it may be demonstrated

that the radius Cf will, if drawn through f, form with f/an angle / f n equal to the angle

FCF plus half the anglegCF*. The instrument therefore seems to be complete enough

in theory without the fourth leg, but in use, it appears to me that the want of it

would considerably diminish its accuracy, as it must be very difficult to hit upon the

exact coincidence when the divisions are very numerous, and as any error at the point

F would be multiplied at G in the proportion of the two distances CF: CG, this

would be a serious evil in large angles, as the focus of the point F is a curve which

* The demonstration of this is as follows, vide fig. 2.

First 7 CGA= 7 GCM + 7 CMG

= / GCM+ / CgA — Z gAM

= Z GCM + Z CgA — § Z GCM (Zi. III. 20.)

=/7CgA + Z$GCM

eae ae c ae (by hypothesis)

Therefore substituting these values in above equation

Z AFL= Z Afl + 4 Z GCM (No. L)

Again 7 CfD orAfn= Z CFF + Z fCF

Or Z AFl+ Z nfl = Z AFL + 7 fCF

Or, by substituting the value of / AFL found at (No I.)

=ZAfl+ 7 fCF + 47 6CM

And subtracting 7 Af/ from each side of the equation

Lnfli=ZfCF+% 7 GCM

Q.E.D.

1833.] Defence of Li. Burt’s Trisection Instrument. 487

gradually approaches, and ultimately (when the angle trisected equals 180°) passes

through the centre.

Mr. B. says that the fourth leg is absolutely necessary to the first construction

of the instrument, but it has occurred to me that by forming the scale upon AD

in a different mannerit might be dispensed with altogether. For since AG is always

equal to AF, and consequently the angles AFG and AGF also equal, it follows

thatif the arm AB be turned round till AG coincides with AF, that the point G will

also coincide with the point F, and the line FL would form an angle with AG; as

for instance the angle AGp equal to the angle AFL or AGF. The instrument

would therefore I think be equally correct if the divisions upon AB were first

drawn in the way that Mr. B proposes, as above described, and, if this leg when

complete were afterwards converted into the chord AD by reversing the inclinations

of all the lines Gg, making them form equal angles on the opposite side of a per-

pendicular to AB, for then “GA would be equal / BGg=Z FGA=/Z AFG,

As I before observed, the locus of the point F (fig. 2) is a curve passing through

the centre C. A representation of this is given in fig. 3, which also shows it conti-

. nued, and passing through the extremity of a diameter at right angles to GC, which

it again meets at M, GM being equal toGL, the diameter of the circle GDL. From

the circumstances of the distance DK being always equal to 2 vers-sin. Z DCG

(which may be easily deduced from Mr. Burr’s theorem) may be derived an equa-

tion to the curve when the co-ordinates originate at the centre (r being =GC)

pa a a

y= era—ax? + ——r rf tra+

2 4

As it is also easily described geometrically, it affords a very simple form for the

construction of an instrument for trisecting any angle from 0 to 180°, and consist-

ing of a single piece only. A representation of one which I have lately made up,

and found to answer my expectations fully, is given in fig. 4. It consists simply

of an ivory scale, whose edge is sloped off, and accurately formed to the figure of

the curve GKC (fig. 3), and a small part of the diameter GL produced on each

side to ensure its accurate adjustment to one of the sides containing the given

angle, for which purpose also small portions of the edge at C and G are cut away,

in order that the coincidence of these two points with the centre and point G of

the chord of the given angle may be accurately determined. As no graduation

whatever is necessary the instrument is very easily made, and the application of it,

which is also extremely simple, will be understood from the following example :

IT must first mention, however, that for more convenient measurement the exact

length of the radius GC is laid off on the centre of the scale between the points

M and N.

Let GCD (fig. 4) be any angle to be trisected.

From the point C with the distance CG or MN as a radius, describe an are GLD.

Draw the chord GD, then apply the scale so as to make its edge coincide with the

side CG of the given angle, and the point C with the centre of the circle

* From this equation may be derived the other properties of the curve just men-

tioned. For instance if x be taken equal to 0, theny becomes = oorr = CH. Ifx=

r, then y also becomes = 0 or 7 4/3 = GF;; and lastly, if x be taken equal to 3 7, then y

becomes = 0 or an imaginary quantity, The curve will therefore pass through the points

G,C,H and M.

488 Computation of the Area of Indian States. . (Supt.

GLD, and of course since the radius is by construction equal to GC, the point G

will coincide with the point G (of the chord). Make a mark at the intersection

of the curve GKC with the chord GD, and a line drawn from the centre through

that point (K) will trisect the given angle. As the curve GKC is the locus of the

point D in fig. 1, when DB is equal to BC and AB=AC, which corresponds with

the conditions of Mr. Burt’s demonstration, it is unnecessary for me to trouble you

with any proof of the correctness of the instrument in addition to that already

given by him. By extending the principle and making use of different curvest and

with some necessary modifications, an instrument might be constructed, in a single

piece, to divide any given angle in any given ratio (within moderate limits), but as

I have no hopes that any contrivance for this purpose, however simple in applica-

tion, or comprehensive in its powers, will ever supersede the good old method by

trials with the compasses, I shall not further trespass on your patience by indulg-

ing in any useless speculations on the subject.

T am, Sir,

Your obedient servant,

Masulipatam, J. S.

3rd July, 1833.

P. S. I imagine Mr. Burr’s parallel lines passing through the same point are

intended to be referred to different places, being coincident, and passing through the

centre when referred to the plane of the instrument, but parallel when referred to

one perpendicular to it.

VI.—Computation of the Area of the Kingdoms and Principalities of

India.

Captain J. SuTHERLAND, late Private Secretary to the Vice-President, having been

recently engaged in the preparation of a note on the political relations of the

British Government in India, adopted a mode, on the recommendation of the

Surveyor General, of obtaining in a rough way the area, or contents in square

miles, of each state, without the labour of elaborate calculation, to which the im-

perfect data of our maps of the country could not ensure very great accuracy.

The boundaries of each state having been marked off on a skeleton map drawn

on paper, of equable texture, as accurately as this could be done from information

procurable in the Surveyor General’s Office and the Political Department, the whole

were cut out with the greatest care, and weighed individually, and collectively as a

check, in the most delicate balance of the Calcutta Assay Office. The weights were

noted to the thousandth part of a grain, the balance being sensible to the tenth

part of that minute quantity. Fifteen precisely equal squares of paper (unfortunately

* If the whole curve be used and the chord produced each way, it will intersect it in

three points (as shown at KK’K”’ fig. 3), giving as many positions of the line CK, and as

many solutions of the problem. Tn this case the intersection with the interior loop, as at

K, marks the third of the given angle, while those with the exterior branches of the

curve trisect its complement (or if larger, its excess beyond 90°) and supplement.

+ The locus of the point of bisection for instance would be a semicircle on the dia-

meter GC.

iets)

nahi Bice

re)

gt ol

Malt,

Fh Ea EN a

* $i le a Pr ie

Bi id

Bout d at rit a

nlp AL ipa Sehaen ot

Nes my a oe eel ee

Sa a ie “as

iy ar hg Lae

¥ eT %

a * af a) ork

eames at are

1833.] Area of Indian States. 489

not the same as that used for the map) were previously weighed to ascertain the

extent of variation to which such a mode of measurement would be liable: the re-

sults were not very favorable, neither was the paper of such equal texture as might

be fairly compared with that used for the map: the weights were as follows—(to

the nearest hundredth of a grain,) apparently increasing towards the edges of the

sheet.

1 = 2.65 grains, 6 = 2.95 grains, 11 = 3.05 grains.

2 = 2.65 7 == 2:90 12) 2:75

3 == 2.65 8 = 2.90 13 = 2.65

4 = 2.68 9 = 2.80 14 = 2.65

5 = 2.80 10 = 3.10 15. =>,2.75

Before setting to work on the states, an index or unit of 100 square degrees, cut

from the same paper, was first weighed to serve as a divisor for the rest.

The weighing process commenced in the driest part of the day, taking the whole

of the papers together; thus the continent of India weighed 127.667 grains troy.

The sum of the individual weights of the separate states was 127.773. The addition

was proved to proceed from the hygrometric water absorbed towards the evening ;

thus weighed, the British states weighed at first 74.366, at the conclusion 74.445 ; the

native powers, at first 53.301 ; the sum of them weighed individually was 53.407 ;

afterwards, weighed in groups 53,456, being later in the evening. In drawing out the

table for calculation, proper corrections were applied to neutralize this source of

error, but coupled with the previous examination of the texture of paper, it is

sufficient to shew that the following table must be looked upon only as a rough

approximation in the absence of better information. The superficial area of Hin-

dustan, exclusive of the independent states of Nipal, Lahore, &c. according to

HAmI ton, between the latitudes of 8° and 35° north,and the longitude of 68° and

92° east, cannot be estimated at more than 1,280,000 English Square miles: and

the portion belonging to the British and their allies, at 1,103,000: this estimate

agrees very well with the present statement.

Square miles.

The area of the native states in alliance with the British Govern-

ment was found to be,

Mesheeoeitine To aa ae eT (CY ate ol 449,845

That of the territory under British rule with the remaining small

On a btentt Ses SL Sy ROCK AW TSEA SS yee ott ee 626,746

Eyaperacial area of-all India,.:.:.:.''.1.'.°.'.'e'cele'e ab-ac cs comea Pe ot 1,076,591

The extent of coast from Cape Negrais to the frontiers of Sinde is 3622 British

miles, the breadth from Surat to Silhet, 1260 miles.

Captain SUTHERLAND classifies the native states of India under the three fol-

lowing heads :

I.—Foreign, viz. Persia, Kabul, Senna, the Arab tribes, Siam, Acheen.

Il.—External, on the frontier ; viz. Ava, Nepal, Lahore, Sinde.

Il.—Internal, which are those included in the present list. All of these have

relinquished political relations with one another and with all other States, They

are, according to the nature of their relations or treaties with the English, divided

into six classes :

Firsr Crass. Treaties offensive and defensive : right on their part to claim

protection, external and internal, from the British Government: right on its part

to interfere in their internal affairs.

2*h

490 Computation of the Area of Indian States. [Sepr.

Square miles. Square miles.

1. Oude, containing, by weighment,.... 23,923 by Hamrrton*, 20,000

2... Mysore; ... .,<iclec10 16 dich Sensivadtnoreertp BCT ee eb aaet arclslae'e 27,000

3.) Berar or Nagpur, episescejss istic se > « DO;723; wets teeke Staeiece, 170000

A pA LAVANGCOLE) cays curtee ae is sf cisreraic cers 31 |, Aj B74 Wise eetaeveete 6,000

Hy COCHIN: gsemciomereteteleteevce s isleleie ele ele T9880 a eee 2,000

SEconp CLAss.

Treaties offensive and defensive: right on their part to claim

protection, external and internal, from the British Government, and to the aid of its

troops to realize their just claims from their own subjects :

no right on its part to

interfere in their internal affairs.

ile

Tuirp Cuass.

Square miles. Square miles.

88,884 by Hamiuton, 96,000

245950. a0 9 ojnisjislainine|- «Le, 000

Treaties offensive and defensive, states mostly tributary, ac-

Hyderabad, containing, by weighment,

Baroda,..... Bereketeraineiors ARIES Soe

knowledging the supremacy of, and promising subordinate co-operation to, the British

Government ; but supreme rulers in their own domains.

8. Indore, containing,.......... BRACES 4,245 square miles.

Rajputiéna States. Square miles. Square miles.

9. Oudipur,(H. 7,300,) 11,784 16. Jesalmir, .... .. 9,779

TO Jeypur, oo. 62. as 13,427 17. Kishengurh, 724

11. Joudpar,......... 34,132 18.) Banswaray sce 1,440

12. Kotah, (H. 6,500,) 4,389 19. Pertabgurh, .. .. 1,457

13. Bandi, (H. 2,500,) 2,291 20. Ddangarpir,.. .. 2,005

a TAN Wares celts sfscetelete oa2pe BAe WKerolis: S/n 1,878

V5. Bikhaniry.... oc... 18,060 22: -“Serow!,) 4 03eeue 3,024

Square miles.

23. Bhurtpir, (by Hamruton, 5,000,).... .6...-.. 1,946

a4, Biiopal, (dittd%S 000, ) 0:5 wie atsts ops 0:0 wish ieee ee

25. Kutch, (H. with the ae 13 (300,) As hthganvats alls ss OO:

26 Dhar andsDewasyyj... a< .deleiee <iivenc sive of 2b;466

27. AD WGlp ne: wits « Beloys tert eanela le Meee wT 1,626

28- Rewah, .........2. ose ialetobhevakelopavexs avers rate akohoyers 10,310

Boghelkhand, ! isin”

and ZO ee SANSI sa ier cists, slaveicleie ere siealevaloieleve(ei«(als/o cieeiaiemae ate

Bundelkhand, Terhi,

BOE) (SAWANEWANI,, 15 e\sisisi vis 16 cle c\cils ois ctaneelatelotsieleterete 935

Fourtu Crass.

premacy in their own territory.

Guarantee and protection, subordinate co-operation, but su-

Tonka ele chs 1,103

31. Ameer Khan, 4 Seronj, 261 - 1,633 square miles

Nimbahara, 269

Patiala, Keytal,

32.

Firtu Cuass.

33. Gwalior, containing,..

SrxtuH CLass.

Naba and Jeend,

Amity and friendship.

- 32,944 square miles.

coe cere ecoceeoeee cos

Protection, with right on the part of the British Government to

control internal affairs.

34. Sattara, containing, ..........

35. Kolapar

* This column, and other items marked H.,

comparison.

greece eceocees coca sees

7,943 square miles.

3,184

extracted from HAmiIxLTon’s Hindustan by way of

eecrevsecsrees

1§33.] Miscellaneous. 491

Of the above states, four are Mohammedan ; viz. Hyderabad, Oude, Bhopal, and

Tonk. Of the Hindu states, eight are Marhatta; viz. Sattara, Gwalior, Nagpar,

Indore, Banda, Kolapar, Dhar, and Dewas.

Nineteen are Rajput; viz. Oudiptr, Jeypar, Joudpir, Bandi, Kotah, Kutch,

Alwar, Bhikanir, Jesalmir, Kishengarh, Banswara, Pertabgarh, Dangerptr, Keroli,

Serowi, Rewah, Dhattea, Jhansi, Terhi.

Six are of other Hindu tribes ; viz. Mysore, Bhartpar, Travancore, Sawantwari,

Cochin, and Dholpar.

Besides these allied states, there are the following inferior Rajships and JAgir-

daris: viz. Chota Nagpir, Sirgijer, Sambhalpir, Singhbhum, Oudipdr, Ma-

nipir, Tanjore, the Bareich family, Ferozpar, Merich, Tansgaon, Nepani, Akulkote,

and those of the Sagar and Nerbudda country ; also Sikkim and the states of the

northern hills.

V1I.—MisceLLaneous.

1.—Importation of Ice from Boston.

The arrival of the Fuscany, with a cargo of ice from America, forms an epoch

in the history of Calcutta worthy of commemoration, as a facetious friend remark-

ed, in a medal of frosted silver. In the month of May last, we received a present

of some ice from Dr. Wise at Hugli, (whose efforts have so long been directed

to the extension of its manufacture by the native process*,) as a proof that the

precious luxury might be preserved by careful husbandry until the season when its

coolness was most grateful :—little did we then contemplate being able to return the

compliment with a solid lump of the clearest crystal ice, at the conclusion of the

rains ! nor that we should be finally indebted to American enterprise for the realiza-

tion of apleasure for which we have so long envied our more fortunate country-men

in the upper provinces; nay even the beggars of Bokhara, who, in aclimate at times

more sultry than ours, according to Lieut. Burnes, “ purchase ice for their

water even while entreating the bounty of the passenger f!’’ Professor Lesuin,

with his thousand glass exhausters, and his beautiful steam air-pumps, tanta-

lized us with the hopes of a costly treat, and ruined poor Tay or the bold adopter of

his theory :—but science must in this new instance, as on So many former occasions,

confess herself vanquished or forestalled by the simple practical discovery that a

body of ice may be easily conveyed from one side of the globe to the other, cross_

ing the line twice, with a very moderate loss from liquefaction.

We are indebted to Mr. J. J. DixweE t, the agent for the proprietors, for the

following interesting particulars relative to the Tuscany’s novel cargo, and the mode

of shipping ice from America for foreign consumption.

The supplying of ice to the West Indies and to the Southern States of the Union,

New Orleans, &c. has become within these few years, an extensive branch of trade,

under the successful exertions of its originator FrepEric Tupor, Esq. of Boston,

with whom S, Austin, Esq. and Mr. W. C. RoGers are associated in the present

speculation.

* See page 80 of the present volume, and former notices in the GLEANINGS.

+ Journal, vol. ii. p. 229.

Ps Bae

492 Miscellaneous. (Serr.

The ponds from which the Boston ice is cut are situated within ten miles of the

city. It is also procured from the Kennebec and Penobscot rivers in the State of

Maine, where it is deposited in ice houses upon the banks, and shipped from thence

to the Capital. A peculiar machine is used to cut it from the ponds in blocks of

two feet square, and from one foot to eighteen inches thick, varying according to

the intensity of the season. If the winter does not prove severe enough to freeze

the water to a convenient thickness, the square slabs are laid again over the sheet

ice, until consolidated, and so recut. The ice is stored in ware-houses construct-

ed for the purpose at Boston.

In shipping it to the West Indies, a voyage of 10 or 15 days, little precaution is

used. The whole hold of the vessel is filled with it, having a lining of tan about

four inches thick upon the bottom and sides of the hold, and the top es covered

witha layer of hay. The hatches are then closed, and are not allowed to be opened

till the ice is ready to be discharged. It is usually measured for shipping, and each

cord reckoned at three tons: a cubic foot weighs 583lbs.

For the voyage to India, amuch longer one than had been hitherto attempted’

some additional precautions were deemed necessary for the preservation of the ice.

The ice-hold was an insulated house extending from the after part of the forward

hatch to the forward part of the after hatch, about 50 feet in length. It was con-

structed as follows :

A floor of one-inch deal planks was first laid down upon the dunnage at

the bottom of the vessel ; over this was strewed a layer one foot thick of tan,

that is, the refuse bark from the tanners’ pits, thoroughly dried, which is found to

be a very good and cheap non-conductor; over this was laid another deal planking,

and the four sides of the ice-hold were built up in exactly the same manner, insul-

ated from the sides of the vessel, The pump, well, and main mast were boxed

round in the same manner,

The cubes of ice were then packed or built together so close as to leave no space

between them, and to make the whole one solid mass: about 180 tons were thus

stowed. On the top was pressed down closely a foot of hay, and the whole was

shut up from access of air, with a deal planking one inch thick, nailed upon the

yower surface of the lower deck timbers ; the space between the planks and the deck

being stuffed with tan.

On the surface of the ice, at two places, was introduced a kind of float, having

a guage rod passing through a stuffing box in the cover, the object of which was

to note the gradual decrease of the ice as it melted and subsided bodily.

The ice was shipped on the 6th and 7th of May, 1833, and discharged in Calcutta,

on the 13th, 14th, 15th, and 16th September, making the voyage in four months and

seven days.

The amount of wastage could not be exactly ascertained from the sinking of the

guages, because on opening the chamber it was found that the ice had melted between

each block, and not from the exterior only in the manner of one sclid mass as was

anticipated. Calculating from the rods and from the diminished draught of the

ship, Mr. DixwELu estimated the loss on arrival at Diamond Harbour to be fifty-five

tons. Six or eight tons more were lost during the passage up the river, and probably

twenty in landing. About one hundred tons, say three thousand maunds, were

finally deposited in the ice house on shore, a lower room in a house at Brightman’s

ghaut, rapidly floored andlined with planks for the occasion.

1833.] Miscellaneous. 493

The sale has not, we believe, been so rapid as might have been expected, amount-

ing to no more than ten maunds per diem, although Mr. Rocers has fixed the price

at the low rate of 4 annas per seer, one half the price estimated for the Hugli ice,

which was still calculated to be somewhat cheaper in proportion than saltpetre.

The public requires to be habituated to it, and to be satisfied of the economy of

its substitution for the long established process of cooling. There may also be

some doubts of the best mode of preserving so fleeting a commodity, but on this

head we cannot butadvise an imitation of the methods pursued on a large scale on

board of the Tuscany, For the application of the ice to the purposes of cooling

ample directions have been given in the GLEANINGsS of ScreNcE, vol. iii. p.120. A

box, or basket, or tin case, with several folds of blankets, or having a double case

lined with paddy chaff or any non-conducting substance, will preserve the ice until

wanted, and for cooling water or wine the most effectual method of all is to put a

lump of the clear crystal into the liquid : the next best is to spread fragments upon

the bottles laid horizontally, andleave them wrapped in flannel for a couple of hours.

So effectual was the non-conducting power of the ice-house on board, that a

thermometer placed on it did not differ perceptibly from one in the cabin. From the

temperature of the water pumped out, and that of the air in the run of the vessel,

Mr. DrxweE zt ascertained that the temperature of the hold was not sensibly affected

by the ice. Upon leaving the tropic and running rapidly into the higher latitudes,

it retained its heat for some time, but after being several weeks in high latitudes,

and becoming cooled to the temperature of the external air and sea, it took more

than ten days in the tropics before the hold was heated again to the tropical standard.

Mr. DrxweE tt has favored us with a sight of the daily register kept by him-

self on board, which we regret we have not space to insert at length :—The follow-

ing extracts however will serve to impart some of the useful information gleaned

in this first experimental passage from Boston : we sincerely hope and believe that

it will afford ample encouragement for a repetition of the speculation, and eventu-

ally for a regular annual consignment of this new staple produce of the northern

continents ! a scheme is now in circulation for supplying ice all the year round at

2 annas per seer.

Extracts from the Log of the Ship Tuscany.

oe eee eee

Date. ) Latitude ;Longitude } Temp. of; Temp. of} Fall of | wing,

1933. | atnoon. | atnoon. air. water. |Ice-guage. Remarks.

es ey oi . inches. be

May 13] 41 30 N| 66 44 W. 61 _ S. W. | moderate.

16 | 39 26 54 51 64 70 N. W. fresh.

20 | 34 24 43 00 70 68 W oe “ee

ay. temp. in N. tem

24) 27 48 | 33 44 71 73 N. E. nie sores ¥

28 | 20 48 | 30 29 78 76 E. | air 68.3—water 72.3.

June 1); 13 05 25 33 80 79 4 N. E. light airs. ’

: 6) 7 2 19 51 86 85 N. E. ditto. «

oO y >

16 | 0 52 | 18 05 84 83 71 | SE. ‘eo oe

19 4 04 S\ 92 Q1 82 80 S. E. W. 81°.5.

[Having occasion to open the run scuttle, found the air pouring up fram the hold quite warm: a

therm. which stood at 80° in the cabin, rose to 84° in the run. }

30 | 23 29 | 28 29 | 76 | 73 | 92 | =. {*% temp, S. tropic. a.

{July 2, bored with an auger into the ice house, under the main hatch, and came to ice at 10 inches

from the top. Cargo as usual dry. }

wy 4129 38 [ 19 3B°{ 7 [ 70 es iG | W. | fresh winds.

494 Miscellaneous. {Serr.

[Instead of the usual 10 minutes pumping, required an hour to free the ship from water owing to

eranckness, and having been 20 days on one tack. She has been pumped out generally 4 or 5 times,

or about 170 strokes per diem. ]

15 [38 53S.| 12 27E 51° 56° | guage. S. W. | {current

18 [39 22 23 10 68 70 11.5 N. W. in the warm Cape

[Since leaving the trades, the water pumped from the hold has been 2° to 5° warmer than the sea. |

30 | 39 33 63 00 61 60 13.2 w.n.w! moderate.

Augt. 6 | 28 35 83 O01 62 65 14.3 S. ditto.

17 5 18 85 45 86 86 24.0 calm. |incabin 83° run 78°.5

19 | 4 36 85 28 89 86 24.0 do. 83

21 2 34 85 14 89 86 25.0 do. 84 _ +82

23 0 59 84 57 8&9 86 25.0 do. 83 84

29} 11 23N.} 85 34 88 84 26.5 S. W. |fresh.

Sept. I | 20 14 87 08 86 86 S. W. |ditto,

3 | Diamond | Harbour. 88 88 S. W. jlight.

Average temperature of S. Tropic Indian Ocean, Air 81°.33 Sea, 81°.39

N. Tropic to Diamond Hr. 86.4 85.35

Average temperature of the whole voyage, Air 73.89 Sea, 74.17

Do of former voyages—

6 June to 18 Sept. 1827 71.71

16 June to 6 Oct. 1828 71.28

15 June to 18 Oct. 1829 70.16

2 Aug. to 18 Dec. 1830 = 71.52

22 Aug. to 16 Jan. 1831-2 74.57

2.—On the Action of various Lights upon the Retina. By Sir D. Brewster.

When the eyes are exposed to strong lights, objects cannot be seen of their true

colours, and even lights of ordinary intensity produce a decided deterioration in

the tints of a fine picture. Hence it is that we see paintings to most advantage when

we view them through two blackened tubes held close to the eye, By this means

the colours are not only more brilliant, but faint lights are brought out which

would otherwise have been overpowered by the action of lateral light upon the

retina. If we turna picture upside down, and look at it with the head inverted,

a similar effect is produced, because the image is received upon a part of the retina

which is not so frequently used ; and it is for the same reason that the colours of

the sky and of the landscape near the horizon are so beautifully seen by looking at

them either between the legs, or beneath the arm with the head inverted.

It is well known that the human complexion is seen to greater advantage in

candle, than in day-light, unless the complexions are very ruddy. This arises from

there being so much more red in candle, than in day-light. There are certain states

indeed, of the atmosphere, when dark-blue clouds prevail, in which the ordinary

complexion appears to great disadvantage ; and persons in variable health are often

described as looking ill, when the change arises from the prevailing colour of the

clouds.

When gas-lights were first introduced, it was acommon complaint among those

who frequented the theatre that they injured the personal appearance of the audi-

ence. This bad quality made them so unpopular, that a red colour was commu-

nicated to the light by inclosing it in a reddish coloured glass. The effect, however,

arose from the great quantity of light which was used, and from its influence upon

the retina; and if the same intensity of light had been obtained either from oil or

from candles, the same effect would have been produced. Our eyes are now so

much accustomed to the use of strong lights that the retina is not so easily rendered

insensible to the red rays, and the blue colour of the light is no longer complained

of. It is, however, still observed, by those who have been for the first time exposed

1833.] Miscellaneous. 495

to gas illumination, and the eyes of such persons must therefore serve an appren-

ticeship before they learn to see objects in their true colours.

The blue colour of gas-light was ascribed to the badness of the gas; and the

apparent removal of this injurious quality has been attributed to its increased purity

and to improved methods of burning it: but the truth is, that bad gas, or an

imperfect combustion of good gas, produces a much redder light than good gas

burnt in the best manner. The smoke which is produced in the former cases

invariably reddens the flame, and its perfect removal causes the gas to approximate

to the light of the sun, which is always bluer than that of the whitest flames from

wax, oil, or tallow.

There is a very pretty experiment illustrative of some of the preceding observa-

tions, which is easily made. Place two candles at the distance of two or three feet

from the eye, and about one foot from each other, and having closed oneeye, fix the

other intently upon either of the candles, as if it were examining with attention

some point of the wick. The other candle will be seen by indirect vision, and after

a little time, it becomes much brighter and bluer than the first, in consequence of

the part of the retina on which its light falls being more susceptible than the more

frequently used portion in the axis of the eye, upon which the light of the second

is incident. The higher degree of excitation of the retina, produced by the candle

seen indirectly, renders that portion of the membrane less sensible to the red rays ;

and if the excitation is continued, the image will become actually blue, and will be

surrounded with a halo of yellow nebulous light. The blue image, indeed, will

sometimes disappear, and leave nothing in its place but a nebulous hole.—PAz}.

Mag. March, 1833.

3.—Substances contained in Opium

M. PELLETIER in an elaborate memoir on opium printed in the Annales de Chimie,

mentions the following principles as contained in opium ; viz. narcotine, mor-

phia, meconic acid, meconine, narceine, caoutchouc, gum, bassorine, lignine, resin,

brown acid, and extractive matter, fixed oil, and a volatile, but non-oleaginous prin -

ciple, which rises in distillation with water.

Added to these substances, M. Berrr announces (Journal de Pharmacie, April,

1832), another peculiar principle ; it is bitter, crystallizable, forms salt with acids,

especially with acetic acid, with which it gives crystals in the form of very white

scales, and with sulphuric acid, white silky crystals ; no name is given to this sub-

stance by its discoverer.

M. RosiqueEt, it also appears, has separated a new alkali from opium, which he

calls paverin. Only a few details of its properties are yet given (Journal de Pharm.

Noy. 1832). It ditfers very remarkably from other vegeto-alkalies in being soluble

in water ; saturates acids, is insoluble in potash, and contains much azote; it

is very poisonous, and acts very particularly on the spinal marrow.— Phil. Mag.

4.—Death of Captain J. D. Herbert.

It is with feelings of sincere grief that we record the loss of our most worthy

friend and late coadjutor, Captain J. D. HErBert, at Lukhnow on the 24th instant.

He had been for some time suffering under the effects of the climate: a sudden

determination of blood to the head was the immediate cause of the fatal event.

$3 *1o}Jealoy UALS oq 1 be ob he om 30H agentes ous i fretaD I

. l De i) UL PO9PpUSAGSNS 912 °K * “Wt * uy 9

r= FAeams oxy meuy seMoT p40" spucys Smox osoy) se pan «WyeMoreA St ‘AIO }UIOGET ou Jo Ae Sone ee ees 19's | e98 | 1°18 | S19‘ |BPe° |eco° ae

ES ‘rapuny} yonur Ayyenbs “a pue's 618 | 26 96 ee {28 vs eT pe tae ek a | le A ei ie eka |g

es ae pee

i =| A ‘ 6 ‘ « ‘ « ‘ ‘ tod ‘ ‘

A] ov aay aw [go gulerol a | ap Lee ley | oe [ue Yom | une ltae Ho [arate || oe

= ‘“Ieaja“ur-yy"uNd = Op ae. ee oo} ee ee foe lee |e [ees | 0-06 |seotlz'o8 | 3°08 | Zoc° | ooe* | Zoqé

"ID op op “a's "7 2 °S 98 £6 v'¢ L'9 CF 6T 0‘28 | 1°68 10°66 !Z°¢8 | Of08 | O8s* 86r° 119°

vaya AIA Pc) “Iva “wes = “a i 68 £6 oe oe ‘e | ae fete | are lose lose | o*62 | 019° | geet | re9%

*UIND “119 ‘urel snqnuind | “@"S ‘a *s “T eo'T 88 66 49°6 Be 0% § 9°28 | O%¢8 }0°68 |F°S8 | 1°62] Ze9S | Zoos | 799°

“11110 op op aq‘S ‘acu aU 09'0 16 96 oF os & et | 008 | Z'98 16°68 |#*se | O08 | Fe9° | OFe* | e9*

*pAXY-IAOGe *1lD “JsvIIOAO “HIep oct “a “A O10 96 96 04 oe ov @ Leos | os |z'06 |9°98 | a8] ct9* | aot | $e0°

; ‘SurluejeoIy} “| _ 11ey op ‘om tu ‘0 98 16 jee ae | ¢o | oe Pres | 116 1Z'66 |eZe | 9'tet Zo9* | Too’ | LeZ* {p2o«

S eg ns OD at Se ae 18 | &6 IGE | bo | be lore (aes | cos lores lane | pee {aco | cost | soae [tree

x op op pp Spee Eee 2 eT Se 122 | oor] oe | ze face | oo lettorleze | oee | e99° | eee | 099° |zcoe

> Je ee eet eee te fe | ep fee loo lee {ae fore | ote lore lore | ees] coo | oo9: | tod lero.

3 “1899 op AEP St Se Se ee. % | G6 doe | re low | oc | ore | ore la96 l2:z8 | ete] coos | poe | Le0° |ro0.

Re *Azey op op "mS OMS cl S £6 &6 O'€ a9 0° 1% 1 06L | $'16 L'S6 9°98 | aes f gro‘ | OL6* | O0L* | Zr9«

SS *T ‘U3 uled op op S “MS 'S 16 £6 O%¢ ad hee 79 | aes | 0°06 [8°26 | 9°98 | 8°18 4 229° | SF9* | OSL loZo<

S$ op op op 'S “as ‘Ss 68 £6 8't 69 Ae 1% 12°98 | ‘68 [8°86 |e°28 | aee | FEZ Z99° | 69L° |ZTL<

S BP oP oe A ae ae oe See 06 | a6 fee |o9 | ae oe fare | ‘06 (0°96 leee | o-ted oez: | oeg* | 192° |can.

S oe oP oP S > ; | 98 | 8 GE | ce | oe | oe Lecce | orea lerte lores | eon | oad | Zeer | crc lrom, |G

3 op ‘snjels “ijnuino "s AL “Ss 3 +6 $6 9G gr ay or ag | ode le't6 |1°08 | 0°08 | 120° | Lec* | 929° long. Z

a op op ‘snjeqys | “a “al ‘2 1800} 16 | 96 Joe | cig | oH | Lp hee L'cg |106 |¢%8 | 0'08 | 6e9* | Trg* | shot loZe. | 9

*Ijnuns “ulel op “aS 3 7° y : A 4 4 A ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ Le | Gar ¢

aie = ae ort} a6 | oo foe [ae [ae | te oes | aan lees [pee | sere ove | oor | oor [eens |

* 6 € G € 6 6 6 c

‘asopp ul “S19 ‘Mua | -o Le0 | 96 | 96 Joe | 0% | Om | Lie | O'F8 | O'S | 0°96 1098 | G08] Tp | Ver" | Osst (Bp tT

Se P ® > | > >

= = se FIR | EIE(F |e |272 12 FRE Bape ele) a8

E 5 B. z Po os PS ol S| |e bese PS Be ee ee) s | ee Bee

8 ; e | 4 he ee] eels be | ie Pee les | se jee pes] = |e ee PRs

*10}0UL *JOJOWLOULIOY,L, 2 “UTR oGE OF

“Tay COM ae Sieee qrep{qqnq-istoutjo uorssaideqy —“TFV OU} Ul tejowWouLLoY TL, poonpar Jejauloreg

"EET ‘uaquaydag fo yzuow ayz sof ‘njjnaI0y ‘20xfQ hvssp ayy yo yday ‘sagsrbaxy joorh0j0.L0aja fy

BLE EDIE LLL LED IE TIO LISLE LID IE IDES FEELERS SIN ES SED EE EIDE DE SPIER SIGE SL ETE EET IC BEE LPN NIET IE DIESE TS IIE TTS SELES

496

JOURNAL

THE ASIATIC SOCTETY.

No. 22.—October, 1833.

I.—A visit to the Gold Mine at Battang Moring, and Summit of Mount

Ophir, or ‘‘ Gunong Ledang,” in the Malay Peninsula. By Lieut. J.

T. Newbold, 23rd Regt. Mad. L. Inf.

On the 20th April, I arrived at Assahan from Malacca on route to

Mount Ophir. Assahan lies about 31 miles E. N. E. from Malacca,

and is our most advanced outpost towards the frontier of the independ-

ent state of Muar. The stockade is situated on the summit of a knoll

partially cleared of wood and crowned by cocoanut trees; it consists

of a defence of upright piles driven deep into the ground, and is about

sixteen yards square, with a low banquette running round; enclosed

by this is a small unfinished caserne capable of accommodating thirty

men, constructed of Atap. The knoll terminates on the north-east and

west in a swampy sawah, and is approached by a footpath traversing

some rough ground from the south; through the eastern part of the

sawah runs the Assahan rivulet, and beyond this is a stretch of forest

amid which lies enshrouded Ophir’s gigantic foot. Assahan, owing

to the exactions and tyrannies practised by the petty Malayan chiefs

around, has been almost deserted by the native population; who are

now, however, re-assured by the presence of our troops, slowly return-

ing to their ravaged homes.

At a quarter to one ep. m. Lieut. Hawxezs and myself left Assahan,

with a posse comitatus consisting of a naique, six sepoys, and six con-

victs ; Amas Karo, the Panghulu of Sunjiedua, the Imam of Bokko,

Daniet Peters the Portugueze interpreter, Naszp an Abyssinian, and

a guide named Haji, with ten Malays provided with ‘‘ parangs”

to clear a path through the thick underwood and numerous ratans and

creepers with which a Malay forest abounds. After travelling along

498 Visit to the Gold Mine at Battang Moring, [Ocr.

a footpath through a dense jungle for an hour or so, we crossed the

frontier into the A/uar territory. The boundary mark, as pointed out

by the Malays, is a large Bankon tree growing close to the path on

the right hand. After crossing the Schong and Gummi streams we

arrived at the latter place at a quarter-past 3, P. Mm.

Gummi is, or rather was, a small village situated close to the foot

of Mount Ophir: it contained about 20 houses, almost all of which have

been forsaken by their inhabitants, owing to causes before-mentioned.

It does not appear to have ever benefited by excess of cultivation, but

probably owed its former population to the proximity of the a

mines, which merit a brief description.

About sixty yards from the deserted hut which constituted our

«¢ Serai,”’ nearer the mountain, is a house almost concealed by the

sloping ground on which it stands, inhabited by six or seven Chinese

miners, and immediately in front of it is a gold mine. This place is

called Battang Moring. The mine is nearly exhausted; it is situated

on the flat marshy ground at the foot of the slope on which the

Chinese house stands ; in length it measures about ten yards, by four

in breadth; and six or seven feet in depth. .

It is filled with muddy water, which is drained off by a simple bam-

boo hydraulic apparatus somewhat resembling the Indian Pukotah.

The miners descend for the purpose of digging out the metallic earth, by

means of rude Jadders formed of the notched trunks of trees; a

Chinese, who had embraced Muhammedanism, went through the pro-

cess, which is extremely simple: having dug out a quantity of the

earth, which consists of coarse sand, greyish clay and white pebbles,

among which crystals of quartz are found, and greenish stones, he

placed it in a shallow funnel-shaped vessel of wood, and carried it to

a stream of water, conducted by two narrow channels close to the

mine.

The water falling froma height of about afoot washes away the

lighter earthy particles and clay, assisted by the rotatory motion of

the miner’s hance. This done, he carefully picks out the stones and

other refuse too large for the water to carry off, whilst the gold dust,

in minute portions, sinks to the narrow bottom of the vessel, from

which it is extracted, carefully washed, and laid by to be made up into

small bags each containing one bunkal, (15 oz. tr.)

The gold of Ophir, though small in quantity, is as fine as that of

Pahang in quality, being estimated at ninety touch. A gentleman of the

Madras Medical Establishment, to whom I showed the crystals and

1833.] and the Summit of Mount Ophir. 499

earth, is of opinion that the latter is the debris of the granite forming

the summit; the white masses appearing to be felspar in a decompos-

ed state: the crystals are quartz, and the small grains in the earth also

quartz. The gold found in it he supposes to be washed down from

the mountain as the rock became disintegrated.

The Chinese showed me a specimen of a stratum of clay of a green-

ish grey colour, beneath which gold is never found; this is the case

with the present mine, which they intend quitting to open another a

few paces distant.

The Chinese affirm that one mine does not produce monthly more

than one ¢ael of gold. This is probably designedly underrated. A

tribute is exacted from each individual of one dollar monthly for the

privilege of mining here, by the petty Malay chiefs, Incuzs Auap and

MauMED,

They levy it in person every two months. These two chiefs are

nominally under the Tamangong of Muar, (whose maternal uncles they

are,) but in reality are little better than banditti.

I give the following on the authority of the head Chinese miner at

Moung, as the names of the places around Mount Ophir (for the

gold is always procured at the foot), where mines have been es-

tablished :—

Battang Moung, Kedanon, Rejang, Kaddam, Tanong, Paeedalum,

Berinjin, Terring, Kayo Arro, Kamoyan, Jongi, Deddam, Poggi Baru,

Ohindagon, Ayer Kuning, and Ayer Chamhi.

He also informed me that, formerly, nearly 1000 Chinese worked

in these mines ; but that of late, owing to the unsettled state of the

country, they had nearly been deserted. The Chinese, who still work

at the mines in spite of the oppression they suffer, depend on Malacca

for their supplies, for which they occasionally dispatch two or three of

their number, who take down with them the small portion of gold

dust they have been able to scrape together. The wild and deserted

state of the country, and the extent of forest to be traversed between

the foot of the mountain and Malacca, afford opportunities, not unfree

quently taken advantage of, by the marauders that infest the frontier,

for the sake of the pittance of rice and salt fish, and a few grains of

gold dust. Murder is almost invariably added to robbery. Shortly

after my visit, two of these Chinese going up to the mines were found

murdered, in the heart of the Rkeim forest on the road; one with his

head nearly severed from the body ; the corpse of the other lay about

300 paces from that of his comrade ; he appears to have sought safety

2s2

500 Visit to the Gold Mine at Battang Moring, [Ocr.

in a vain flight ; his left arm was cut through at the elbow, and body

horribly mangled.

We hada fine view of the mountain from Gummi, as the clouds

which had hitherto wrapt its triple peak in grey obscurity, now rolled

off in majestic wreaths, revealing to us Ophir’s picturesque proportions.

We started from Gummi at 9 a. m. on foot : the Malays went on in

advance clearing the path through the low thicket, through which our

path now lay, to the banks of the Jerram river, along which we waded

for some distance ; near this we crossed the track of a rhinoceros.

About a mile and a quarter from the river stood the deserted house of

a Malay, the last trace of human habitation; this place the Malays

call Rullowe, which I believe signifies a place where metal is melted,

or the smoke which is produced by fusion; from this it may not be

unreasonable to infer that a mine formerly existed in this vicinity.

A little in advance of Rullowe the ascent of Mount Tando com-

mences ; this is the longest but most gradual of the three acclivities

which constitute the ascent. Having descended this and scaled part of

Gunong Peradap, we arrived at a steep bank of rock, called Padang

Battu or Plain of stone. On the right of Padang Battu the rush of the

river Jerram down the mountain side was distinctly audible. The surface

of the rock is intersected by numerous creepers, which formed a sort of

rope ladder we were glad to avail ourselves of. Here we rested

a short time, enjoying the extensive prospect this elevated situation

afforded. Leaving Padang Battu far below, stands on Peradap’s

summit a bluff rock named Battu Serambi, which signifies ‘‘ the rock

of the porch.”

The rock was first mistaken for the peak itself, but on arriving at

the bushy platform that crowns Serambi's mossy head, Ophir still stood

before us, nearer, but steeper and as lofty apparently as ever. A short

descent brought us to the bottom of the third and last ascent, viz.

Gunong Ledang. The trees here are of a stunted and venerable ap-

pearance, being for the most part covered with moss and lichens, a thin

carpet of which barely conceals the primitive rock beneath : we had lost

sight here of animals larger than the smaller reptiles that creep among

the decayed vegetable matter beneath our feet.

After passing Gunong Tando, the first ascent, elephants’ tracks,

which were there numerous, were no longer visible. The solitary

scream of that singular caricature on the human species, the ‘‘ Oonka,”’

and the note of the bird Selanas on Mount Paradap, were the last sounds

of animal life the forest yielded.

1833.] and the Summit of Mount Ophir. 501

After a short scramble, in which we were obliged in some places

to draw ourselves up by the trees and roots, we attained the sum-

mit, from which we caught hasty glimpses through the rolling cloud,

fast clearing away, of a magnificent prospect beneath. To the

southward the states of Segamat and Muar; to the north-west

the mountains of Rumbowe and Serimenanti; and to the north-east

Jompole and part of Pahang, celebrated for its gold. Turning west-

wards lay the ruins of the ancient church of St. Paul’s, on the flag-

staff hill at Malacca, and part of the town itself; its bight and the sea

coast from Mount Formosa to Salengore, the glittering and placid

surface of the water enamelled with numerous verdant islets. The

view inland presented a vast amphitheatre of thick foliage (with

here and there slight bare patches of sawah and pasture land), thrown

into various shades and tints by the rays of a setting sun.

Theextreme apex of the mountainis formed of a block of greyish gra-

nite, surrounded by others, lying on astrip of table ground about 40 yards

long by ten broad, on which grew some stunted trees, a few of the fir

kind, some lichens and mountain shrubs, among which are found the

Petis Patis, Samoot, the Russam, and Pruik Krek; the Malays were

unable to tell the names of many of the shrubs, never having seen them

in the valley.

A thunder cloud growling and flashing a thousand feet beneath us

now interrupted the prospect; owing to its influence, probably, the wea~

ther had been sultry during the afternoon; the thermometer (Fahr.)

although in this elevated situation not sinking below 76° at 4 Pp. m. at

7 p. M. sunk to 69°, and at half past five a. m. the following morning

to its greatest depression 654. The height of the loftiest peak above

the surface of the sea, as calculated by the thermometer and boiling

water, is 5693 feet.

The storm gradually ascending the mountain’s sides induced us to

seek shelter under an extraordinary overhanging rock, a short way un-

der the summit, called Battu Seroodang.

The thunder storm had abated and finally ceased a little after sunset,

when a host of fire flies, sole possessors of these heights, contending

with the stars in liquid brilliance, floated around us, now soaring to the

loftiest peak (for we had taken up our bivouac for the night at the foot

of the rock near the summit) now sinking and gradually lost, sparkling

and twinkling as they went, in the dizzy depths below. The Malays

who were with me, complained much of the cold during the night and

particularly before sunrise ; but a brisk walk down the mountain side,

502 On the nest of the Tailor Bird. [Ocr.

which brought us in little more than three hours to Gummi, effectually

did away with the cause of complaint.

Whether the mountain just described, or its namesake on Pulo

Percha or Sumatra, called by Malays Gunong Passaman, or the Ophir of

Bruce in Sofala on the Mozambique coast, or Jamison’s Ophir on the

S. E. coast of Africa, be the Ophir of Scripture, or not, must still re-

main matter of doubt.

To the admirers of the marvellous I would recommend the careful

perusal of San Maumep’s wonderful adventures, in his ascent to the

summit of the mountain to entreat the hand of the enchanted princess

of the rock for his master, MaAumMzEp SutTan of Malacca, as contained

in the Malayan historical work the Silldlet-us-Salatin, and the Malay

Annals.

Nore.—In justice to the mountain I have visited, suffice it here to quote two

passages from Dr. Ropinson’s Theological Dictionary, Art. “‘ Ophir.’”’ ‘ Josephus

says, that the country of Ophir is in the Indies, and is called the golden country. It

is thought he means Chersonesus Aurea, known by the name of Malacca, a pe-

ninsula opposite to Sumatra.”’” Lucas HousTenius after many inquiries thinks,

** we must fix on India in general, or the city of Supar in the Celebes : again Lipx-

Nivs, who has composed a treatise concerning the country of Ophir, places it be-

yond the Ganges at Malacca, Java, Sumatra, Siam, Bengal, Pegu, &c.”’

I1.—On the nest of the Tailor Bird. By Lieut. T. Hutton, 37th Regt. N. I.

In Professor Renniz’s work on the Architecture of Birds, he gives

two accounts of the manner in which the Tailor Bird constructs its

nest, and as neither of these appear exactly to coincide with facts

which have lately fallen under my observation, I have been induced to

offer the following remarks for insertion in the Journat of the As. Soc.

At page 258, the professor says:

“The most celebrated bird of this division is the one which in the East is par

excellence named the Tailor bird (Sylvia Sutoria, Laru.) the description of whose

performances we would be apt to suspect for an Oriental fiction, if we had not a

number of the actual specimens to prove their rigid authenticity. We do suspect

however that these very specimens have misled European naturalists a step be-

yond the truth in their accounts of its proceedings. ‘The Tailor Bird,’ says

Darwin, ‘ will not trust its nest to the extremity of a slender twig, but makes one

more advance in safety by fixing it to the leaf itself. It picks up a dead leaf

and sews it to the side of aliving one; its slender bill being its needle and its

thread some fine fibres: the lining of the nest consists of feathers, gossamer and

down; its eggs are white; the colour of the bird light yellow; its length three

inches ; its weight 3; of an ounce, so that the materials of the nest and the weight

Jour AS. Sec. : Pot IT. Pl. XVI

WAscentof M”Tundo

poms) 7 '

Me Ophur

F093 Se, Kay

292 iy

tA,

p73

‘fae

‘Stockade at Assahan

houlefromAssatian to Mount Ophir: by L* Newbold:

Nest of the Tailor Bird { (Sylvia rapicapilla)

JB Tassin lh.

g-=

cee

os 4 :

~ ne

—— a an —.

3 i

geys ‘ere hit}

+ tena

Poel

Re tae Sha mie

‘age io

y , ;

Led ne 5 AN

4 Che

stioAY

"Nee jie cy teat : Tape lursthind: li a.

ae rane ne ie. : res ire cet Mir Pe et ae est Sue ni,

ae hoagie 4 tata pre si: prs ‘to-go ‘iat hs

, rane ay anesthe Beene bey var aloo Ae sai) $

| c pyaar dan! ans lad hae

i rv ‘pia Ons hada 2 ndecgmtting i wl

Mee ee

t pone TS, SY Des, RS <A ee ees

ed, US paar é a Riedie ele patel val meine : vib iigdel cin

: i a sayy + #4) ‘ Hh 8 rs ire, ie d x Ange Ph

4 qenh wit r x i: NA “ 4 tye av ‘Fiiaer ie oa be Riera): Ci Bete: ‘

t , : Aere : Sak y

a ie agp ri ert Ps F

}' Oy .: Pay tant ce cle at

we td e ean) ries :

ee ~— \ » ee ' wre, >

‘\ *

Vis Pa

; p ai 4 5 he

Ne i ve

> ‘“ "

Aut we

= Oe Nita 7

\ ‘ ett) ak

pil pees ‘ ee a

2 aa i q

gdh Sa pid Sei hE ft Blo

= 0 ,

; ie aa ry

d What gener vet we ‘ .

* a4 ! ¥ F

i - i;

j ’ yee At ‘

pe ah

‘i ) eee ihe ini pie Nee Abd oe a

+ s 7 ‘ © a y

' a rae tlk atk Se vine Fe anata

her Co a ee Ki ous oie eee Re

T n 4 st rh

: nes

7 4

c vi

i 2

: f

a ie dae an

im i acre

SDs.

- F 7

Wt i ‘ vii

; ee ee sited mete Ah 0 ef A es Om ore ramen ire ~ ) sa aor as ff weer

‘ ‘> “ ‘he c a : Hi i pis ft qj ‘B 7»; ct

AL) ‘ LW aon ie

oe, \ vie i ‘ 1 f

1 Th, eo

4 ‘ f

nad ee Lo Rm amg A Lee Se

» hie hs ae } ee ae

1833.] On the nest of the Tailor Bird. 503

of the bird are not likely to draw down a habitation so slightly suspended. A nest

of this bird is preserved in the British Museum*.’’

The second account runs thus :

“There are now three of such nests in the Museum, all of which certainly give

some colour to the story of a dead leaf having been sewed to a living one; yet we

have the authentic narrative of an eye witness of its operations which mentions

nothing of this kind, but on the contrary serves to confirm our doubts. It will

consequently be advisable to give this narrative in the language of the original ob-

server, whose splendid figure we shall also take the liberty of copying. Comparing

it with the Baya, which we have already described, he says: ‘ Equally curious in

the structure of its nest, and far superior in the variety of its plumage is the Tailor

Bird of Hindustan, so called from its instinctive ingenuity in forming its nest 5 it

first selects a plant with large leaves, and then gathers cotton from the shrub,

spins it toa thread by means of its long bill and slender feet, and then as with a

needle, sews the leaves neatly together to conceal its nest. The Tailor Bird (Mota-

cilla sutoria, Linn.) resembles some of the Humming birds at the Brazils in shape

and colour ; the hen is clothed in brown ; but the plumage of the cock displays the

varied tints of azure, purple, green and gold, so common in those American beau-

ties. Often have I watched the progress of an industrious pair of Tailor birds in

my garden, from their first choice of a plant until the completion of the nest and

the enlargement of the youngt.’ ”

In answer to these statements I shall make a few observations on the

structure of two of these nests now in my possession, which were found

in the garden of Capt. Hzarsry, 2nd Local Horse.

The first was neatly formed of raw cotton and bits of cotton threads,

woven strongly together, thickly lined with horse-hair and supported

between two leaves on atwig of the amaltds tree (cassia fistula).,

These two leaves were first placed longitudinally upon each other, and

stitched in that position from the points to rather more than half way

up the sides with a strong thread spun from the raw cotton by the

bird, leaving the entrance to the nest, at the upper end, between the

stalks of the leaves, at the point where they join the branch of the

tree. Both of these leaves were of course green and living. Subse-

quently, however, they were blown down by a high wind, and being

now withered, the nest appears enclosed between dead leaves.

Darwin’s account therefore will be found to differ materially from

mine, inasmuch as the bird neither makes use of a dead leaf in the

construction of the nest, nor does it stitch it with fibres, but with

strong cotton threads. The lining also of the nest, instead of being

“‘ feathers, gossamer and down,” is solely of horse hair}.

* Zoonomia, S. xvi. 13. 3. + Forses’ Oriental Memoirs, i. 55.

+ Mr. S. P. Stacy has favored us with two specimens in which also the stitches

are of spun cotton thread: the nest is of cotton and vegetable fibre.—Ep.

504 On the nest of the Tailor Bird. [Ger:

It appears to me that the nest described by Darwin may have been

originally constructed of living leaves, and that one of them through

some accidental cause, being detached from the branch of the tree and

becoming dry and withered, led to the belief of the dead and living

leaves being sewed together—and indeed a case of this kind happened

in Captain Hzarsry’s garden, in consequence of which the bird forsook

the nest.

I am moreover borne out in this idea by the figure given by PENNANT

and copied by professor Rennis, in which (as will be seen in the ac-

companying sketch*), the dead leaf appears to have been detached

from a small stalk growing out of the same stem as the green leaf to

which the nest is attached. This figure in very similar in appearance to

the nest in my possession above described.

The second specimen is more satisfactory still, as in it were found

an egg and two young birds nearly fledgedt. The nest was at

the end of a branch of the Bhela (semecarpus anacardium), about two

feet from the ground, and constructed of the same materials as the

above, viz. raw cotton, cotton threads, also a little flax, and lined with

horse-hair alone: the leaves are stitched together partly with thread

prepared by the bird, and partly with spun thread, and so well con-

cealed was it, that even after Captain Huarsny had discovered it (by

accident) he could scarcely find it again to shew tome. The young

birds were placed with the nest in a trap cage, and thus we succeeded

in capturing both the old birds.

I am however of opinion that this is not the kind to which the name

of the Tailor Bird has hitherto been applied, but a distinct species.

The following is a description of it :

(SYLVIA RUFICAPILLA? Mihi.) Length from the tip of the bill to the end of the

tail, 53 inches in one specimen, and four inches in the other; the tail of one is two

inches in length, the other 13 inch, and both appear imperfect. Crown of the head

fine rufous red, nape cinereous with a tinge of rufous; back, scapulars, and rump

and upper tail coverts, olive green; wings light brown, with a tinge of green at the

edges of the outer webs, and a tinge of the same on the upper wing coverts; tail of

12 feathers, narrow, the two middle ones longest, of a lighter brown than the wings

and with a faint greenish tinge; the outer feather on each side the tail with a small

white spot at the tip. All the under parts are white. On the sides of the throat

is a small black stripe, which is only seen when the bird is in motion, wholly dis-

appearing when in a state of rest. Legs slender and flesh coloured. Upper man-

dible dark horn colour, under one pale ; length of the bill half an inch ; irides

rufous red.

They differ only in length.

* See ‘ Architecture of Birds.’' Lib. Entertaining Knowledge. t Fig. 3,

1833.] On the nest of the Tailor Bird. 505

The young birds are similar in colours, except that they are paler

and the top of the head cinereous with a faint rufous tinge: bill yel-

lowish.

The eggs are white, spotted, chiefly at the larger end, with tawny spots.

They are very lively little birds, exhibiting a good deal of the man-

ner of the creeper tribe (Certhia), carefully searching beneath every leaf,

and into every chink and hole for insects, which they seize with great ra-

pidity, flirting their tails up and down, and utteringa sharp reiterated cry.

Now it would follow, the accounts of Darwin and Forses being cor-

rect, that there is more than one species of bird in India, to which the

specific name of Sutoria would apply: for instance Darwin says, the

Tailor bird is wholly light yellow, and in this Larnam agrees with

him ; while Forsss on the contrary declares it to vie in colours with

the humming birds of the Brazils. It appears to me however that the

latter author has confounded the tailor bird with the purpled creeper,

(Certhia purpurata, Lat), which is the only bird I can remember at all

approaching his description. The nest of the purpled creeper is how-

ever to me unknown.

That there is more than one species which sews the leaves of plants

together to support and conceal its nests, I am almost certain, as a

pair of birds, larger than those I have described, have been several

times seen frequenting large-leafed plants, among which were discovered

the commencement of one or two nests which had been abandoned, appa-

rently from the leaves being blown asunder almost as soon as sewed to-

gether by the strong S.W. winds which prevail here. These birds were

brown above and dirty white beneath.

The purpled creepers are now becoming plentiful in gardens here, and

as I shall pay attention to their habits, and watch them closely, I am

in hopes I shall be able to ascertain their method of constructing their

nests also.

The description which approaches nearest to my specimens, is that

of the ‘‘ Long Tailed Warbler” of Laruam ; viz. top of the head pale

rufous, hind part of the neck, back, ramp, wing coverts and tail, pale

olive green; quills olive brown, tail long, slender, composed of narrow

feathers ; the two middle ones as long as the body. Inhabits China.

This is so near, that I can consider mine as none other. I do not

perceive a specific name affixed to it, and have therefore given it that of

«‘ Ruficapilla.”” This however can easily be dropped, should the bird

have been already christened.

Nore. As the two first figures referred to by Lt. H. will be found in the “ Archi-

tecture of Birds of the Library of Entertaining Knowledge, we have omitted them:

the author’s own sketch, No. 3, is inserted in plate xviiii—Ep.

506 On the two great powers, [Ocr.

TI.—An Inquiry into the Laws governing the two great powers, Attraction

and Repulsion, as operating in the Aggregation and Combination of

Atoms. By Julius Jeffreys, Esq.

; [Continued from page 464.]

Moreover, there is another source for the sensible heat, in the

sudden and forcible compression, which the circumjacent air under-

goes, at the moment of the explosion, from which condensation the

air itself must evolve heat. The explosion of euchlorine gas, with

an evolution of heat, is perhaps a stronger objection, than the former,

for it is not attended with a new combination of the elements. This

is, however, an objection rather to one of the laws of heat, namely, its

becoming latent, than to its materiality, against which, in fact, it is

only an indirect objection, by shewing the law, that heat becomes

latent in a change to a rarer state, not to be universal. But the whole

doctrine of Jatent heat might be imperfect, and yet not invalidate the

materiality of heat. Nor should an individual exception (supposing it

to be such) be considered as subverting a doctrine of so perfect, and

almost universal application, as is that of latent heat; much less then

does it refute the material doctrine, which is not necessarily dependent

on the former.

The manner however, in which the above experiment is made,

appears to me, as lessening greatly its force, as an exception to the

doctrine of latent heat. A small quantity of the gas is used over

mercury. As this liquid is incompressible, and so weighty as not to

be readily susceptible of sudden motion, it must offer a very great

resistance to the instantaneous expansion of the gas, and by this

re-action may force out sufficient heat and light to become visible

(i. e. a spark or flash) ; but after the expansion is finished, if much of

the gas had been used, it is not improbable, that a fall of temperature

would have been evident, in a thermometer introduced.

4. The fact that some gases combine with each other, and form

solids, with but a small rise of temperature, as when ammonia com-

bines with many gases, is an objection the reverse of the former; and

like it is an exception to the doctrine of latent heat.

It may however be thus explained; that the affinity of such gases,

both for heat, and for each other,” is so great, that it condenses most

of their heat, without evolving it; in the same manner, as when

oxygen and nitrogen gases are condensed in nitre.

5. The contraction of clay by great heat, and of water in advancing

from 32° to 40° of Fahrenheit, have been considered as objections to

the law of expansion, and therefore to this doctrine of heat. The

1833.] Attraction and Repulsion. 507

former however may arise from the great attraction of clay for

water; which only the greatest heat can drive off; and of the latter

the usual explanation, that it arises from the loss of polarity, which

the particles had assumed, appears quite satisfactory. If these be

objections, they apply, at least as much, to the theory of vibration ;

for even were it possible, that an increase of vibration in particles

could give rise to expansion, these experiments would show increase of

vibration attended with contraction.

6. The combinations and decompositions often effected by the rays

of the sun, are certainly not always conformable to the laws of this

doctrine of heat; but neither are they to any other doctrine.

7. It has been objected to heat being the cause of elasticity in gases;

that this force varies as the density, although in the condensation of

gases, much heat is evolved. But this experiment only shews, that,

in the condensation of gases, part of their heat is evolved; which if

it remained would cause their elasticity to vary in a higher ratio than

that of the density.

8. Lastly, it has been objected to the materiality of heat, that

notwithstanding the most accurate experiments have been made, it has

always been found impossible to ascertain, that it has weight.

This objection however is not valid, since it has neither been possible

to weigh light, though few will doubt its materiality, or the materiality

of some ether in which its phenomena are seated; which hypothesis

merely removes the difficulty of its materiality one step farther. It

has also been very justly remarked by.a great philosopher, whom I

have already quoted, that if this etherial fluid be supposed as much

lighter than hydrogen gas, as the latter is than the metal platinum,

it could not probably be ascertained to have weight by any means

which are known*,

The above are most of the facts, which are considered as objections to

the material doctrine of heat, many of which may be sufficiently explained.

~ Much more may be said in support of the doctrine.

As the materiality of light can scarcely be questioned, since Sir

Isaac Newron has so ably argued in proof of it, and since on it he has

built his system of optics, which could not be founded on any other

doctrine, the striking analogy between it and heat, must strongly

point out the materiality of the latter. Heat, like light, is radiated

from the sun ; like light, it travels with exceeding velocity ; like light,

it is radiated by many bodies, is reflected, is refracted ; and according

to Berarp, is sometimes, like light, polarized. From analogy so strik~

* Sir H. Davy’s Elements of Chemical Philosophy, p. 97.

27 2

508 On the two great powers, [Ocr.

ing as this, some philosophers have been induced to consider them

as modifications of the same matter ; or that light, by its actions on

bodies, produces the phenomena of heat. But of late years sufficient

evidence has been brought of their being separate substances. The ex-

periments of Herscuex, and Sir H. Eneieriexp, shewing that heat is

not quite so much refracted in the prismatic spectrum as light, whence

that much heat is found within the red ray, are a strong proof of this.

Nor do the later experiments of Bsrarp (supposing them more correct),

which would prove, that the intensity of the heat within the red ray

is less than was represented by these philosophers, at all invalidate

the argument. For it is only necessary to shew, that any heat may

travel from the sun, independent of light, to prove a difference between

them.

HerscueEz has also shewn*, that if the red ray be thrown on red

glass, the light is transmitted, but nearly ;% of the heat are detained ;

and hence, that this appears incompatible with the supposition that

the ray is homogeneous ; for were it so, the heat transmitted should

have corresponded with the light.

The rays from a fire being differently transmitted by glass (those of

light being transmitted, but those of heat being most of them detained)

is an argument of a similar nature.

Heat is radiated without light by many bodies below certain tem-

peratures, and others, as phosphori, radiate light without heat.

The analogy between light and heat is so striking, that since the

former is material, it is almost necessary to consider the latter as such,

and yet there is sufficient evidence of a distinction between them.

TItis evident from his writings, that Sir Isaac Newron was of opini-

on, that the phenomena of heat arise from the action of light on bodies,

causing vibrations in a ‘‘ subtle medium” in them. But it is equally

plain that by heat he meant, those phenomena only which are appar-

ent to the senses and commonly called heat. From the very imperfect

state of chemical philosophy in his day, the doctrine of calorific repul-

sion was scarcely taught; and most of the experiments, in proof of the

materiality of heat, have been since performed.

This great man has by several passages, especially by some in the

18th query in his Treatise on Optics, suggested the existence of a high-

ly elastic subtle fluid, so nearly allied to the matter of calorific repul-

sion of the present day, that part of this query, with but the smallest

modification, is an accurate description of the latter. ‘‘ If,’’ observes

* Philosophical Transactions for 1800.

+ Optics, Query 18.

1833.] Attraction and Repulsion. 509

Sir Isaac Newron, “ in two large, tall, cylindrical, vessels of glass

inverted, two little thermometers be suspended, so as not to touch

the vessels, and the air be drawn out of one of these vessels, and

these vessels, thus prepared, be carried out of a cold place intoa

warm one, the thermometer in vacuo will grow warm as much, and

almost as soon, as the thermometer which is not in vacuo, And

when the vessels are carried back into the cold -place, the thermo-

meter in vacuo will grow cold, almost as soon as the other ther-

mometer.”’

«« Ts not the heat of the warm room conveyed through the vacuum

by the vibrations of a much subtiler medium than air, which, after

the air was drawn out, remained in the vacuum? and is not this

medium the same with that medium by which light is reflected and re-

fracted? Anddo not hot bodies communicate their heat to contiguous

cold ones, by the vibrations of this medium propagated from them into

the cold ones? And is not this medium exceedingly more rare and

subtle than air, and exceedingly more elastic and active ? And doth it

not readily pervade all bodies* ?”’

If to these questions were added this one, ‘“‘ And is it not attracted

by all particles of all bodies, but with various degrees of force in each ?”’

This medium would at once form the matter of calorific repulsion,

and the phenomena of moving heat would arise from its motion and

vibration, which must necessarily happen, both from its various affi-

nities, and from its own elasticity tending to an equilibrium of force.

Caloric, like this medium, exists, from the minuteness and mutual

elasticity of its particles, in what isa vacuum to other bodies. By

* It is a singular circumstance, that some late authors have quoted this pas-

sage in order to shew, that Newton was doubtful about the nature of light, and

seemed to accord with the theory of tremulous motions in an universal ether,

rather than of moving particles emitted from bodies. It is certainly incredible

that Sir I. Newron should at the end of his Treatise on Optics, introduce an opinion

which would thus overthrow the whole doctrine he had been labouring to establish.

Nor is it more probable that entertaining such an opinion, he should have written

the 14th section of the 1st book of his Principia, which with it would be nothing more

than vain and idle speculation. But the words of the query convey no such mean-

ing. ‘They express an impression upon the author’s mind, that the phenomena of

refraction, and reflection, are not the effect of attraction or repulsion exercised by

the particles of the grosser bodies, commonly called mediums, upon the particles

of light, but those of a very far more subtle medium interspersed between the par-

ticles of the above-mentioned bodies. Nothing is said implying that this subtle

fluid is light itself; on the contrary it is spoken of in a totally distinct character,

as a medium, that is, as a substance having a boundary through which light finds

a passage, or from the surface of which it is reflected.

510 On the two great powers, [Ocr.

the motion and vibration of caloric, or this medium, bodies become of

equal temperature. By the atmosphere of caloric round the atoms of

bodies, may be effected the reflection and refraction of light, in like

manner as this medium is supposed to operate. Caloric, like this me-

dium, is exceedingly more rare and subtle than air, and exceedingly

more elastic and active ; for it loses much of its rarity, subtlety, and

elasticity when attracted by the gross atoms of gases, which it encom-

passes, endows with mutual repulsion, and in fact transforms into

elastic air. Caloric, like this medium, readily pervades all bodies.

Ts not caloric therefore no other than this medium ? and hence,

material ?

[Lastly, although we have above seen that a vibration or other mo-

tion of the gross particles of bodies cannot in any way account for the

dilating power of caloric, it does not at all follow that the phenomena

of sensible heat may not depend on a peculiar condition of the particles

of the matter of heat itself, such as vibrations in them of differ-

ent degrees of intensity. Hence the absolute quantity of the matter

of heat may not always be indicated by the phenomena of sensible heat,

And in sudden or violent actions, as those of friction, detonation, and

combustion, these phenomena may thus be considerably increased with-

out any increase in the absolute quantity of the matter ofheat. In

this manner the two leading hypotheses may be united, and the chief

difficulties attendant on each being removed, a doctrine, deserving of

reception, may be established as a well-digested theory of caloric, in

its characters of an expanding and heating medium. ]

Having now, I trust, shewn, that the opponent force to the attraction

of atoms cannot be a repulsive power inherent in them, but, that it arises

from the agency of heat; and that heat cannot be considered as arising

from a vibrating motion in the atoms of bodies themselves, but that

it is a very subtle fluid, whose particles are possessed of two powers,

always inherent in them ; namely, that of repelling each other, and

that of attracting all other matter :—having shewn this, the next in-

quiry which would present itself, is, into. the laws governing these

two powers of heat, were such a direct inquiry possible.

From the extreme minuteness of the particles of heat, and from

their attracting powerfully the atoms of all other matter, it will follow,

that every atom of the latter is surrounded by numerous particles of

the former ; all of which particles of heat, must tend with great force

towards the centre of the atom they surround, and would be in ab-

solute contact with each other, did not their other power (namely, the

repulsion which operates between the particles of heat themselves,)

1833.] Attraction and Repulsion, 511

prevent their actual contact. Hence they do not form dense masses,

but atmospheres round all the atoms of bodies, and endow them with

mutual elasticity, which operating against the cohesion of bodies pre-

vents the contact of their atoms.

From this it is manifest, that the mutual repulsion between the

particles of heat themselves and their attraction for the atoms of all

other matter, are forces which operate against each other ; the former

tending to expand heat, and the latter forcing its particles near to

each other by collecting it around the atoms of bodies in the form of

atmospheres, the density of which will vary as the force by which

they are detained round atoms varies.

Since, then, these two powers of heat are always operating. against

each other, no opportunity can be afforded of measuring, either of

them as asimple force. Since also the atmospheres of heat are always

from other causes subjected to compression, the only force, which can

be judged of, is a compound repulsion ; namely, the elastic force of

the particles of heat modified by their other power, attraction, con-

densing them round atoms.

The ratio in which this compound repulsion varies, must greatly

depend on the force with which the atmospheres of heat are detained

by atoms, and will therefore probably differ in all bodies.

It is however of great importance to obtain so much knowledge of

its properties, as may account for the stability of atoms which takes

place in the formation of bodies, &c. which must arise from an equi-

librium subsisting between the compound repulsion above-mentioned,

and the mutual attraction between the atoms themselves.

This investigation, though essentially necessary to a sound explana-

tion of the constitution of bodies in their various states, has not hi-

therto, I believe, ever been carried on. I shall endeavour to effect

it by pursuing the following inquiries :

lst. Whether the repulsion from heat varies in a less inverse

ratio of the distance than the attraction of atoms.

2ndly. Whether it varies in the same inverse ratio as the attrac-

tion.

And, having shewn that neither of these laws can take place in

nature, I shall proceed in a second division to consider the important

proposition which remains ; viz.

That the force of repulsion with which heat endows atoms, varies

in a greater inverse ratio of the distance than the attraction; and to

demonstrate that all states and combinations of bodies are satisfactorily

accounted for by this law.

512 On the two great powers, [Ocr.

lst. Whether the repulsion from heat varies in a less inverse ratio

of the distance than the attraction between the atoms of the bodies it

pervades.

If this be admitted with respect to the law of repulsion, since at-

traction varies inversely as the square of the distance, let the repul-

sive force vary inversely as the distance. And since these two forces

must be in equilibrio in any solid whose atoms are at rest, let the

following represent the forces operating between any two atoms, A

and B, at various distances; and let the atoms be placed at any dis-

tance 3, at which point the forces must therefore be in equilibrio.

Distances. 1 2 3 4 5 &e.

Repulsion, 96: 48: 32: 24: 19,2: &c.

A B

Attraction, 288: 72: 32: 18: 11,5: &c.

Here it is plain, that at distance 3 these atoms can be stationary ;

but if by the slightest force or agitation they are made to approach

each other in the smallest degree, as their mutual attraction becomes

stronger than the repulsive force, and increases as they approach in a

higher ratio, it is manifest, that A and B will come together, and

remain in absolute contact.

Again, if A and B are separated in any degree beyond distance

3, they will instantly lose their adhesion, as now the attraction loses

force in a greater ratio than the repulsion.

This law would in fact constitute what is called in mechanics an

unstable equilibrium ; and hence atoms of matter would soon be either

in absolute contact or at infinite distances from each other.

Yet, however, in one of the ablest systems of chemical philosophy,

which has ever appeared, we find the following passage; ‘‘ From the

very abrupt transition of steam, from a volume of 1700 to that of 1,

without any material increase of pressure, one would be inclined to

think, that the condensation of it was owing to the breaking of a

spring rather than to the curbing of one.” ‘The last however, ”’ says.

the author, ‘‘ is the fact. The condensation arises from the action of

affinity becoming superior to that of heat, by which the latter is over-

ruled, but not weakened.

«As the approximation of the particles takes place, their repulsion

increases from the condensation of the heat, but their affinity in-

creases, it should seem, ina still greater ratio, till the approxima-

tion has attained a certain degree, when an equilibrium between those

two powers takes place, and the liquid water is the result*.”

* Datron’s New System of Chemical Philosophy, Part Ist, page 149.

1833.] Attraction and Repulsion. 513

This passage exactly proposes the above law, that as particles ap-

proach their affinity increases in a greater ratio than the repulsive

force, or that the repulsive force varies in a less ratio than the attrac-

tion. The inadequacy of this explanation may at once be shewn.

If, between the atoms of steam, the attraction has become greater

than the repulsion, and if the attraction varies in a greater ratio,

i. e. increases faster as the atoms approach than the repulsion, the

particles must come into actual contact. The equilibrium spoken of

in this quotation, can no more take place than between the forces of

the atoms, A and B, in the diagram, should they be once within the

point of unstable equilibrium.

It cannot then be a law of the repulsion of heat that it varies ina

less inverse ratio than the attraction.

Secondly.— Whether the compound repulsion from heat varies in

the same inverse ratio of the distance as the attraction of the atoms

of the body.

Supposing it a law of repulsion that it varies in the same inverse

ratio of the distance as the attraction, it is evident that if the two

forces are equal at one distance, they will also be equal at any other ;

and if one force be the greater at one distance, it will also be the grea-

ter at any other ; and therefore likewise, if one force be less than the

other at one distance, the same force will be less at any other.

Let us apply this law to the explanation—

First. —Of the constitution of solids.

When any body passes from the liquid to the solid state, it is right-

ly supposed, that by the abstraction of heat, the attraction is enabled

to bring the atoms of the fluid within the distance at which from the

form and qualities of those atoms, solidity naturally subsists. But

according to this law ; as the attraction was more powerful at the

greater, it will also be at the smaller, distance ; and, in the solid, all

the heat would either be expelled or so compressed, that the atoms

would be in absolute contact, which certainly is not the case ; for all

solids are capable of contraction.

Secondly.—Of the constitution of liquids. Although most philoso-

phers admit the existence of an attraction between the atoms of liquids,

yet many* consider the liquid state as depending solely on the pres-

sure of the air; without which, all bodies would either be solids or

gases.

* BerTHouueT in his Chem, Statics. Translation by LAMBERT, page 352—

And many others.

514 On the two great powers, [Ocr.

This Lavorster himself has enforced. After some former remarks

he continues thus* : ‘‘ Whence it appears, that without this atmos-

pheric pressure we should not have any permanent liquid, and should

only see bodies in that state of existence in the very instant of melt-

ing; for the smallest addition of caloric would then instantly separ-

ate their particles, and dissipate them through the surrounding me-

dium.” This doctrine this great philosopher has supported by ex-

periments on liquids placed in vacuo, which rapidly pass into vapor on

the removal of atmospheric pressure.

Although most of these experiments appear to confirm the above

doctrine, yet I may state certain objections which appear to me unan-

swerable. Though most liquids do pass into vapor under the ex-

hausted receiver, yet there are some, such as concentrated sulphuric

acid, which scarcely appear to do so. This acid (as is well known in

what is named the freezing experiment) by its great attraction condens-

es aqueous vapor formed in an exhausted receiver, and thus preserves

a partial vacuum. It not only remains in the liquid state itself, but

also condenses the vapor from the vacuum.

Again, If even all liquids could be shown to vaporize at natural

temperatures in vacuo, it would not be any proof of the doctrine, ow-

ing to the imperfect nature of the experiment itself. Any liquid un-

der the pressure of the air, must soon be of the same temperature with

the air, i.e. endeavour to part with heat with the same force: but as

soon as the atmospheric pressure is removed, a great force, tending

to expel heat from the liquid, is removed ; the effort therefore of the

liquid to expel heat becomes less than before, and therefore less

than the effort of the circumjacent air. The consequence of this

must be, a continual passage of heat from the air to the liquid, and its

vapor, which will make the evaporation unlimited. Were it possi-

ble to procure a receiver which should not be permeable to heat, there

-would soon be a limit to the evaporation of a liquid, and the receiver

would doubtless remain exhausted. It is certainly true, that under

such circumstances, water would not remain a liquid, and a small part

of it would pass into vapor, most of it would become ice. But ether,

alkohol, and other liquids which would resist freezing, would proba-

bly continue as liquids in a receiver impermeable to heat. The receiv-

ey of any air-pump is in a similar situation to that of a common pump;

except that on the removal of the pressure, heat is forced into the

former and water into the latter, by the very same force ; namely, the

* Elements of Chemistry, translated by Kerr, page 56,

1833. ] Attraction and Repulsion. 515

pressure of the atmosphere. Hence it would appear, that the pressure

of the atmosphere does not so materially affect the constitution of li-

quids, as is generally supposed ; for, although by compressing them

with great force, it resists their passing into vapor, yet it at the same

time endeavours to afford them the heat requisite for this transition,

though doubtless with less force.

Let us now consider the constitution of a liquid, supposing the

repulsion from heat and atttraction as varying in the same ratio.

And first.—In a liquid, these two forces could not be equal to each

other at any one distance of the atoms ; for since they would also be

equal at any other, no resistance whatsoever would be offered to any force,

such as that of the atmosphere compressing the liquid into an absolute-

ly dense mass, the atoms of which would be in contact. They would,

in fact, constitute, what in mechanics is named an equilibrium of in-

difference, liable to be destroyed by the slightest extraneous force.

Again : the attraction could not be the greater force at any one

distance, for it would also be greater at any other; and much more

then could no liquid exist, for there would be, besides external pres-

sure, this additional force tending to condense the liquid, and no force

to resist their action.

Lastly : if the repulsive force be greater than the attraction at one

distance, it also will at any other, and this excess of the repulsion

over the attraction, might be sufficient to resist also the pressure of the

air ; and the constitution of a liquid might be considered as compatible

with such a law. But let us examine this more minutely. If the

pressure of the air were removed from a liquid, since the repulsion was

so far superior to the attraction, it would necessarily expand the liquid

without limit ; for it would, at any distance of the atoms, continue the

more powerful force. But it has, I think, been above shewn, that

there is no evidence of liquids expanding into vapors without any ad-

dition of heat. The vapor from a liquid in vacuo is expanded, both

by heat assumed from the liquid and by heat forced in by the atmos-

phere without ; and yet the evaporation of most liquids in vacuo is

not instantaneous, as it would be according to such a law. Of some,

as sulphuric acid and certain oils, it is at most, exceedingly slow.

There is moreover evideuce of the attraction in liquids becoming, on

a small separation of their atoms, stronger than the repulsion ; for

otherwise no attraction would be apparent in them, nor would their

atoms ever be collected into spherical drops; which can only be effect-

ed by the excess of the attraction over the expanding force. This

2u2

516 On the two great powers, [Ocr.

last is a two-fold argument ; for since, on a small separation of the

atoms of liquids, their attraction becomes superior to the repulsive

force, how is it possible that without any addition to it, this repulsive

force should expand them into gases ? And again, since the attrac-

tion is the stronger force, when the particles are somewhat removed,

if the two forces varied in the same ratio, it has been already shewn

that no liquids could exist ; but atoms, so acted upon, must be reduced

into masses absolutely dense.

The constitution of liquids then could not be accounted for, if the

compound repulsion of heat be supposed to vary in the same ratio as

the attraction.

Thirdly.—Of the constitution of gases.

When a liquid passes into the gaseous state, its atoms are so far se-

parated from each other that their mutual attraction is much lessened,

but from its great augmentation of bulk, the pressure it is subjected

to is greatly increased. Hence, in a gas the chief force opposing

expansion, is the pressure of the air ; and to enable it to resist this force,

the repulsion must be so augmented as to exceed the attraction by a

force equal to the pressure.

It is this excess of the expanding force over the attraction, which is

alone capable of being measured.

The experiments of Mr. Boyts, as is well known, tended to shew

that the density of gases varies as the compressing force ; and New-

Ton proved that if this be true, the expanding force operating between

the atoms, will be inversely as their distances.

But as only the excess of this force over the attraction is capable of

measurement, it is plainly this excess of the repulsion which was

shewn to vary inversely as the distance between atoms.

If, then, the repulsion from heat and attraction vary in the same

ratio, and if this ratio be the inverse square of the distance, any differ-

ence between the two forces ought also to vary in the same ratio.

And although this difference in the experiment of these great

philosophers, is seen to vary in aless ratio than the inverse square of

the distance, yet it will not appear incompatible with this or even

some higher power being the real ratio of the repulsion between the

atoms of any gas, when it is remembered, that on increasing or lessen-

ing the density of a gas, by varying the compressing force ; in the

one case much heat is given out, and in the other much is assumed.

This must cause the expanding force apparently to vary in a far less

inverse. ratio, than it otherwise would, if heat did not pass out on in-

creasing, or were not assumed on lessening, the density of a gas.

1833.] Attraction and Repulsion. 517

I am ready indeed to acknowledge, that it is not possible to prove

from the constitution of a simple gas, that the two powers attraction

and repulsion from heat do not vary in the same ratio ; for the effec-

tive repulsion, though (according to this law) superior to the attraction

at every distance, may have its force limited by atmospheric compres-

sion.

Yet, however, since both in solids and liquids it has been proved

that the two forces cannot vary in the same ratio, it may be concluded

that they neither can, when a body has assumed the gaseous state,

although from the peculiar nature of a gas, it may not be possible

directly to prove this fact.

Fourthly.—Of the solution of solids in liquids.

Of all combinations none are more frequent, than the solution of solids

in liquids ; and ofall states no one is more remarkable, than that of many

bodies in solution. Oftentimes a dense solid is disintegrated by the

powerful affinity of a liquid ; and yet a very weak combination takes

place. A combination, in which most of the characters of the bodies

remain, contrary to a well known law of combination.

Tt is somewhat remarkable, that even BeRTHOLLET, who has written

very fully and ably on Chemical Statics, should have said very little

in explanation of the weakness of the combination in many solutions.

The two following are the chief passages in his work, which refer to

this important question.

«* Solution,’’ he observes, ‘‘ is therefore the effect of a power which

can overcome the resistance of the force of cohesion, and the differ-

ence of specifie gravity* : and again, ‘‘in reality it (the solvent) exer-

cises a force similar to that of the affinity which produces combinations,

and whose effect is limited, in the solution of a solid, by the force of

cohesion, &c.¢” The late Dr. Murray, while supporting his doc-

trine of mixed gases, has written more definitely on this subject, ‘* In

-_ the solution of a solid,” observes this able author, ‘‘ there are opposed

the force of affinity between the solid substance and the solvent, and

the cohesion of the solid retaining the solid particles in aggregation t.”

And again he writes ; ‘‘ In the solution of salts in water, the attrac-

tion exerted is merely sufficient to give fluidity to the solid and to coun-

teract its cohesion and specific gravity ; the properties are not alter-

ed, &c.§”

* Chemical Statics, translated by LAMBERT, vol. i. 20,

+ Ditto, vol. i. 295.

t System of Chemistry, vol. i. 40.

§ Ditto, p. 41.

518 On the two great powers, [Ocr.

These explanations, however, though perhaps at first sight appa-

rently satisfactory, will not account for the imperfect combinations

which generally take place in solution.

It will not be difficult to shew that the cohesion and greater spe-

cific gravity of the solid, cannot be the forces, which prevent an in-

timate combination from taking place.’ When once the attraction for

the atoms of the liquid has overcome these forces, the atoms of salt

and water would come into absolute contact and form a most intimate

combination.

This is evident from the following considerations :—that, as the

atoms of salt separate from each other, their attraction decreases.

But, as they approach those of the water, their attraction for the lat-

ter, increases in as great a ratio as their own cohesion decreases.

Hence, since the attraction for the atoms of the water, when compara-

tively at a distance from those of the salt, is superior in force to the

cohesion of the latter, when near to each other,—much more then

would the attraction for the water exceed the cohesion of the salt,

when the atoms of the salt have separated from each other, but ap-

proached those of the water.

The difference of specific gravity in itself, but an inconsiderable

force, does not increase. The effect resulting from all these forces

would be, an actual contact of the atoms of the solid with those of the

fluid. How much more then, an intimate combination.

This effect can only be prevented, by the repulsive force of the

heat ; which must operate between the atoms of a solid and those of a

liquid, in like manner as between any other atoms. But if the attrac-

tion is superior to the repulsion at one distance, it will also be at any

other, (according to this law ;) and this superiority of the attraction

will increase as the atoms of the solid approach those of the liquid.

The intimacy of the combination therefore cannot be prevented by the

repulsion, if being already inferior to the attraction, it varies in the

same ratio with it.

The solution of solids in liquids and the weak resulting combina-

tions, cannot then be explained, if the force of repulsion be supposed to

vary inthe same ratio as the attraction. Neither could the mere

condensation of many gases by liquids be accounted for, as might also

be proved. |

Fifthly.—Of the solution of liquids in gases.

Although various theories have been proposed, in explanation of the

solution of liquids, in gaseous fluids, yet no one is altogether satisfac-

1833.] Attraction and Repulsion. 519

tory, for to each objections may be brought. I shall briefly review them

separately, and then inquire whether this fact can be explained, on

the supposition, that the repulsive force of heat varies in the same

ratio as the attraction. The inquiry will be directed especially to

the solution of water in the atmosphere, as being the most familiar and

striking instance.

First, that aqueous vapor exists in the atmosphere, solely by its own

expansive force. This hypothesis has had two forms. Mr. Datron

has supposed, that between different gases the attraction and repulsive

force of the atoms are so nearly equal, that gases are neutral to-

wards each other* ; and therefore, that the air has no effect on its hy-

grometric vapor, which would exist from its own elasticity equally,

whether the air be present or not.

Several objections have been brought against this theory, some of

which Mr. Datron has very ably and ingeniously answered. But

there are others, which cannot be answered. One of them appears to me

alone so weighty an objection, as to render it unnecessary to enter in-

to any besides it,—namely, that if vapor, existing in the atmosphere,

were perfectly neutral towards it, then certainly the density, and not

the bulk of the atmosphere, would be increased by the presence of the

vapor. But Newton has proved that the contrary takes place.

Aqueous vapor increases the bulk of the air, and even so much as

to lessen its density.

If the vapor and air are quite neutral towards each other, how

could the elastic force of the former act against the atoms of the air

so as to separate them, which must be the case; for otherwise the

density would be increased in proportion to the vapor present, instead

of being diminished ?

Mr. Dauton has endeavoured to answer this objection by the fol-

lowing comparison, which I shall attempt to examine, inasmuch as I

am persuaded it is not applicable, though it has been admitted as such

by many ; and J may state a refutation of it, which has presented it-

self to me, and which I do not think has hitherto been proposed.

** Let” (he says) ‘ a tall cylindrical vessel of glass containing dry

air be inverted over mercury ; and a portion of the air drawn out by

a syphon, until an equilibrium of pressure is established within and

without ; let a small portion of water, ether, &c. be then thrown up

into the vessel ; the vapor rises and occupies the interstices of the air

as a void ; but what is the obvious consequence” ? ‘‘ Why,” he says,

** the surface of the mercury being now pressed both by the dry air

* New System of Chemical Philosophy, p. 162.

520 On the two great powers, [Ocr.

and by the new raised vapor, is more pressed within than without,

and an enlargement of the volume of air is unavoidable in order to

restore the equilibrium. Again, in the open air; suppose there were

no aqueous atmosphere round the earth, only an azotic one equal to

twenty-three inches of mercury, and an oxygenous one equal to six

inches, ‘‘ the air being thus perfectly dry, evaporation would com-

mence with great speed. The vapor first formed being constantly

urged to ascend by that below, and as constantly resisted by the

air, must in the first instance dilate the other two atmospheres,

&e. Fie

To this I may object, that in the experiment made on the gases

over mercury, this liquid presses on the aqueous vapor as well as on

the air ; and therefore both of them can re-act against it, and will de-

press it more than either singly. But in the atmosphere the super-

incumbent atoms of oxygen and nitrogen (which are according to the

theory perfectly neutral towards the vapor), being the compressing

force, cannot press on the vapor, and therefore cannot be re-acted

against.

Hygrometric vapor could not therefore cause the atmosphere to ex-

pand as the vapor does the air in the experiment ; for the former va-

por does not act on the compressing force of the atmosphere as the

latter does on the mercury.

The impact of the vapor against the atoms of the air, would be so

transient and occasional (owing to the minuteness and rarity of the

atoms), thatit is unworthy of notice as an opposition to the rise of

the vapor.

Again, Mr. Darron continues thus: ‘‘ At last, when all the vapor

has ascended that the temperature will admit of, the aqueous atmos-

phere attains an equilibrium ; it no longer presses upon the other two,

but upon the earth ; the others return to the original density and pres-

sure throughout.” To this I may observe ;—it is very true, that the

others would return to their original density and pressure, but this

is an admission which itself destroys the supposed analogy of the

experiments, in which, while the vapor is present, the air does zot.re-

turn to its original density. Mr. Daron continues: ‘‘ In this case

it is true, there would not be any augmentation of volume, when

aqueous vapor was combined with the air; humidity would increase

the weight of the congregated atmospheres, but diminish their specific

gravity, under a given pressure.” To this it may be replied. It is

* Daxton’s New System of Chemical Philosophy, p. 162.

1833.] Attraction and Repulsion. 521

certainly true, that when aqueous vapor was added to the air, it would

not (according to this doctrine) increase its volume, but this is likewise

an admission which would destroy the analogy of the experiment ; and

it even forms an impossibility, with the latter part of the sentence.

How is it possible that hygrometric vapor (which is an addition of

matter) should lessen the specific gravity of the air, and yet not in-

crease its volume ?

The truth, in short, is, that according to this theory, the hygrome-

tric vapor could not increase the volume of the air, but then it must

increase the specific gravity. And since this iscontrary to the physi-

cal fact, it is manifest, this theory is inadmissible.

Dr. THomson has adopted the other form of the hypothesis, that li-

quids pass into vapor solely by their expansive power. He supposes,

that the vapor and air are not neutral (as was once Mr. Datron’s

opinion), but elastic towards each other ; and therefore, that water pass-

es into vapor, although repelled by the air. The following objections

will, I think, shew, that this theory will not afforda satisfactory explana-

tion of the fact. It is plain, that the mutual elasticity of the air and

vapor must be inferior to the elastic force of the vapor of water, other-

wise the latter could not pass into vapor. But the elastic force of

aqueous vapor, at most natural temperatures, is not equal to more, than

35 of the pressure of the air, which pressure must be supported by the

water, and therefore must press on it with a force far superior to the

elasticity of vapor, at any natural temperature. And even, if water

could pass into vapor, this vapor, being lighter than air, would separate

from it and float above, since it repels the air, unlessthis repulsion be

exceedingly weak.

The experiments of Picrer and of Dre Luc, shewing that evaporation

takes place quite as readily in vacuo, are no proofs, that evaporation in

the air arises solely from the elastic force of water. They only shew

(what no one will deny) that the expanding power in water greatly

aids its evaporation. Water, under the atmosphere, is compressed

with a force 30 times as great as the strength of its vapor (at most

natural temperatures) ; there must then exist an attraction between it

and the air, to enable it to evaporate as much as it does in vacuo,

when no force is opposing the expansion.

Lastly then, it would appear that the hygrometric vapor must be at-

tracted by the air ; and of an attraction between air and water many

presumptive proofs have been already adduced.

But, according to the law, that attraction and the force of repulsion

vary in the same ratio, if the former be superior to the latter force,

522 On the two great powers, [Ocr.

between the atoms of air and water when at a distance, it will also:

be superior when they are near to each other. Hence this superior at-

traction would bring the atoms of the two fluids into absolute contact,

much more then, into intimate combination.

But hygrometric vapor is in a very weak state of combination. The

mere solution of liquids in gases cannot then be explained, if the two

forces are supposed to vary in the same ratio.

Sixthly. Of the constitution of mixed aerial fluids. The fact that

all gaseous fluids, however different their specific gravities, mix when

placed together, has been already noticed in a former part of this es-

say. I shall now attempt a brief inquiry into the various explanations

proposed, to account for this phenomenon. These have been applied

chiefly to the constitution of the atmosphere ; it being a remarkable in-

stance of a mixture, or solution, of gases in each other.

When treating of attraction, | endeavoured to prove, that between

all gaseous fluids an attraction is exerted, with more or less force, at all

distances.

That the atmospheres of heat round atoms, must endow them with

mutual elasticity, is itself evident ; and is proved by ‘the fact, that

compound atoms are separated by an addition of heat, as is evinced in

the decomposition of bodies by heat.

I shall therefore consider both forces, as operating between all atoms

of gases; and inquire whether the nature of mixed gases, can be ex-

plained, according to the law, that attraction and the force of repulsion

vary in the same ratio ; supposing, first, that these two forces are equal

between gases ; or secondly, that the repulsion is superior ; or thirdly,

that the attraction is superior.

1.—If between mixed gases, the attraction and force of repulsion

are equal.

Mr. Datton was formerly of opinion, that mixed gases neither at-

tracted nor repelled each other ; and he explained the mixture of gases,

by their own elasticity expanding each, which occupied the whole

space between the atoms of the other, as if it were a void.

This very ingenious theory, which in many respects would give a

sufficient mechanical explanation of mixed * gases, has, as is well

known, been the subject of various discussions. Among others, the fol-

lowing objections of BertHouier, and Dr. Murray, are doubtless in-

superable.

* It has been already shewn under a former head, that this theory cannot afford

even a mechanical explanation of the solution of water in the atmosphere.

1833.] Attraction and Repulsion. 523

I shall quote the words of this last author, as being concise. ‘‘ The

repulsion between the particles of any individual gas, is owing to the

operation of caloric, and is a necessary attribute of the form in which

it exists; and why should there not be the same repulsion between

the particles of two bodies in this form ? What cause can counteract

it, but a chemical attraction exerted between them?” “Besides, if there

is no repulsion between the particles of different gases, as Mr.

Daron conceives, what prevents them from entering intocombinations,

when they approach within short distances, as they must frequently

do in the internal movements of a mixed elastic fluid ? And if there

exists no mutual attraction, how are they under any circumstances, as,

for example, by compression, or elavation of temperature, brought to

combine? It may be added, that were Mr. Datron’s hypothesis just,

two elastic fluids ought, in every case, to diffuse themselves in any

space, and mix equally, with the utmost rapidity, each being as a va-

cuum to every other. Yet this facility of mixing is much dependent

on their specific gravity.” In many cases it is very gradual*,

Mr. Daron afterwards did somewhat modify this doctrine. He

supposed, that both attraction and the force of repulsion, operate be-

tween different gases ; but that these forces are so nearly equal, as to

have no effect in producing the mixturet.

Many objections against the former doctrine are thus obviated,

and the spirit of the theory is preserved}.

_ * Mr. Darron endeavoured to explain this objection away, by an ingenious

comparison. Page 175. He argues, that, if a ball of lead, which falls throurh the

air at any given rate, be divided into numerous atoms, it will descend with far less

velocity (for gravity increases as the cube of the diameter of any sphere, but the

resistance only as the square of the diameter), and therefore that atoms of air must

meet with very great resistance ; and hence the slowness of the mixture. This is

surely not a just comparison ; for the atoms of lead are not resisted merely by ab-

solute impact against atoms of air themselyes, but by the atmospheres of heat

round atoms which fill the void space between them, and must be elastic towards

particles of lead, as towards any other particles. If these atmospheres were re-

moved, and only the atoms of the air itself remained (they being kept asunder by

some inherent repulsive force, which in conformity with the theory in question,

did not operate against the lead), then the lead would probably fall with at

least equal velocity, by being extremely divided; as its atoms might descend

unobstructed, the air being almost a vacuum to them ; for its own atoms pro-

bably do not occupy more than 5,55 of the whole space. For this same reason,

two gases ought to mix with the utmost rapidity : the actual impacts of their

atoms themselves being very few. But since they do not mix with such rapidity,

they cannot be mutually inelastic.

+ New System of Chemical Philosophy, p. 162.

+ Let it be however kept in mind, that this theory cannot explain the evapora-

Q2y¥ 2

524 On the two great powers, [Ocr,

To this, however, I may state an objection of another nature, and

no less powerful. If these two powers are so equal at every distance,

as to neutralize each other, what must be the effect of the smallest

addition or abstraction of heat ?

In the one case, repulsion becoming the stronger force, the gases

must be totally separated. In the other, the attraction predominating

will bring the atoms into contact, much more then into intimate com-

bination.

2. Secondly, That between mixed gases the repulsive force is

stronger than the attraction. Under this head may perhaps be placed

the last modification of Mr. Dauton’s theory. He admits of gases

being mutually repellent, but lays down the following maxim on which

he explains the mixture. ‘‘ That every species of pure elastic fluid,

has it particles globular and all of a size. But that no two species

agree in the size of their particles, the pressure and temperature being

the same*.”

Hence Mr. Datron argued, that in a pure gas the atoms being all

of a size can remain at rest, as the pressure must be equal through-

out. But when a gas of larger atoms is placed on the former, that

the pressure of their atoms owing to a difference of size will be irre-

gular and unequal ; and that therefore an intestine motion must ensue,

until, the gases having mixed, each can rest on the same base.

Even if the atoms of bodies endowed with their atmospheres of heat

were spherical, it is very questionable whether the above doctrine,

though evincing much ingenuity, be really applicable.

It is difficult to say what would be the effect of spheres of different

sizes pressing on each other. But the atmospheres of heat round atoms

are highly elastic, and hence do not press on each other by single

points only, as inelastic spheres would ; but must assume some form

requisite for general and regular contact ; without mixing. Thus if a

long hollow cylinder placed perpendicularly, and closed at the upper

end, have the air of a few inches from the top heated ; the atoms of

- the heated air being enlarged (it might be greatly), and according

to Mr. Datton’s theory, pressing unequally on those below, a mixture

ought to take place. The heated air ought to descend and diffuse it-

self completely among the cold air, There is little doubt, however,

that no sych occurrence would take place ; the heated air would con-

tinue above. But let the cylinder be inverted, and the heated air will rise

tion of water, and its lessening the density of the atmosphere. The objections

stated under that head still remain.

* New System of Chemical Philosophy, p. 189.

1833.] Attraction and Repulsion. 525

rapidly ; and, even then, a great part will pass through the cold air

without mixing with it ; as is plain from the fact, that the hottest air

in theatres and heated chambers, is near the ceiling, though it re-

ceives its heat below. Yet, in a mechanical point of view, the vo-

lumes of air of different temperatures, precisely agree with the differ-

ent gases ofthe same temperature, mentioned in the supposition, as

far as having their atoms of different sizes.

Dr. Tuomson rejects both Mr. Datron’s and BertHou.et’s expla-

nation of mixed gases. The opinion which he holds, may be brought

under this head. In his System of Chemistry he states it in the follow-

ing words: ‘‘ I conceive, that when two gases are mixed, the parti-

cles of each are beyond the sphere of the affinity of the particles of the

other. Ifthe elasticity be owing to the action of heat, it seems to.

follow as a consequence, that different gases must be mutually elastic

towards each other. But I think that the elasticity itself is sufficient

to account for this mixture taking place, without being under the ne-

cessity of having recourse to the hypothesis of Datron*.”

To this doctrine, I may be permitted to object, that since the atoms

of any simple homogeneous gas, cannot be supposed continually to

circulate, if heterogeneous are mutually repellentt, like homogene-

ous atoms, why should a mixture take place between gases which are

of the same specific gravity ? But between gases of different specific

gravity, much less, then, could any mixture take place! Lest it

should be supposed that difference of gravity in gases may depend

merely on their ultimate atoms being of different sizes, but of the

same specific gravity, the atom of oxygen, for instance, being 8 times

as large as the atom of hydrogen, let it be remembered, that although

their ultimate atoms might have the same specific gravity, yet when

endowed, and hence enlarged, with heat, their relative size is greatly

altered, the atom of hydrogen becomes twice the size of that of oxy-

gen, and therefore has only th the specific weight.

There would be no more reason for gases, even of the same specifte

gravity (supposing such), to undergo a mixture, than for any simple

homogeneous gas to have circulation among its atoms continually ;

and still less should gases of different specific gravity mix ; and should

the latter already be mixed, surely they would in a short time sepa-

rate. It does not appear then, from all that has been stated, if the

* System of Chemistry, last Edition, vol. iii. p. 35.

+ By this expression I mean of course the gases having an effective repulsion

between them.

526 On the two great powers, [Ocr.

repulsion be superior to, and vary in, the same ratio as the attraction,

that the constitution of mixed gases could be accounted for.

3. Thirdly, That between gases, the repulsive force is inferior to the

attraction.

After having urged the analogy of a solution of a salt in water, Dr.

Murray observes: ‘‘ It may equally be concluded, that such weak at-

tractions may be exerted between aeriform bodies,—attractions suf-

ficient to counteract their elasticity and difference of specific gravity,

withont being sufficiently energetic to cause an intimate combination.

And this principle explains the constitution of the atmosphere. An

attraction of this kind, may be exerted between the particles of oxygen

and nitrogen gases, may counteract the difference of their specific

gravities, and prevent them from separating from each other ; and thus

may be accounted for the two facts, which on former hypotheses ap-

peared incompatible, the uniformity of the composition of atmospheric

air, and its having no properties different from those of the gases of

which it is composed*.”’

Under a former headt I have shewn, that the explanation which

Dr. Murray has given, of a solution of a salt in water is not correct ;

and therefore the analogy does not hold good between it, as stated,

anda mixtureof gases. Although the above passage may appear to ac-

count sufficiently for a mixture of gases, it will not admit of a close

investigation. It will be easy to shew from their writings, that

many authors have reasoned, as if attraction and repulsion were supposed

to vary in the same ratio, though none have expressed a clear and di-

rect opinion concerning them.

If then (according to this law{) there exists ‘‘a weak attraction suf-

ficient to counteract the elasticity’ of gases at any distance, however

great, it will also be able to counteract the elasticity at any less dis-

tance, however small ; and hence, of necessity, to bring the atoms of one

gas into contact with those of the other; before which an intimate

combination would take place.

Supposing then the repulsive force, operating between gases, to be

weaker than their attraction, and to vary in the same ratio with it, the

mixture of gases could not be explained, since a perfect combination

would ensue on their being presented to each other.

* System of Chemistry, vol. ii. p. 41.

+ ‘‘ The solution of solids in liquids.”’

t~ That the two forces vary in the same ratio.

1833.] Attraction and Repulsion. 527

Parr IT.—Division 2.

The minute inquiry which I have endeavoured to pursue into the

laws of repulsion, I trust has shewn, that this force cannot vary either

in a less, or the same, inverse ratio of the distance as the attraction.

That this inquiry has not hitherto been strictly pursued, by the

ablest writers on chemical philosophy, is evident from the numerous,

and even opposite doctrines, which have been laid down to explain the

various states, and degrees of combination, in which bodies exist ; and

also from numerous passages throughout their writings. Thus the

following quotation from the great Lavoisier will shew at once, that

(from want of a sufficient investigation) he reasoned as if the two

opponent forces to each other, attraction, and the repulsion from heat,

varied in the same ratio.

‘** We have already seen,”’ observes this eminent writer, ‘‘ that the

same body becomes solid or fluid, or aeriform, according to the quanti-

ty of caloric, by which it is penetrated ; or more strictly, accordingly as

the repulsive force exerted by the caloric, is equal to, stronger, or weak-

er than, the attraction of the particles of the bodies it acts upon.”

And again he writes: ‘‘ But if these two powers only existed, bodies

would become liquid, at an indivisible degree of the thermometer, and

would almost instantaneously pass, from the solid state of aggregation,

to that of aeriform elasticity. Thus water, for instance, at the very

instant when it ceases to be ice, would begin to boil, and would be

transformed into an aerifurm fluid, having its particles scattered indefi-

nitely through the surrounding space*.”

And in another place, he further states that, ‘‘ without the atmos-

pheric pressure we should not have any proper aeriform fluids ; because,

the moment the force of attraction is overcome by the repulsive power

of the caloric, the particles of bodies would separate themselves inde-«

finitely, having nothing to give limits to their expansion ; unless their

own gravity might collect them together, so as to form an atmos-

pheret.”

It is only a want of due reflectiun on the laws of thetwo powers,

that could have permitted the first of these passages to exist in the

work of such an author. How could the attraction in a solid be great-

er than the repulsion, without bringing the atoms together ? That they

are not in contact, he himself has proved}. That the other statements

* Elements of Chemistry, (translated by Kerr,) p. 55.

+ Elenents, p. 56.

~ Elements, p. 50.

528 On the two great powers, . [Ocr.

might be true, it is evidently necessary, that repulsion be supposed to

vary in the same, or a less, inverse ratio of the distance, than the at-

traction ; either of which has beenabove proved impossible.

Another author of great merit appears to have written with the same

impression. Mr. Daxron argued against BerTHOLLET, that if the mix-

ture of gases depended on an attraction exerted between them, they

ought to enter into perfect combination*. This is a just objection, if

repulsion be supposed to vary in the same, or a less, inverse ratio of the ~

distance, than the attraction. And neither BerTHoLLeT, nor Dr. Mour-

RAY, had shewn, that either of these suppositions is impossible ; nor

did they answer this objection of Mr. Datron’s as if they were

aware, that the two forces could not vary in the same ratio.

Again, in explaining the nature of mixed gases, Mr. Datron (as

has been already observed) considered the attraction, and force of re-

pulsion, between the atoms of the fluids so nearly equal, that neither

force affected the mixture at allt. But then it is necessary to suppose

(to the end that neither may affect the mixture of the gases) in addi-

tion to the two forces being equal, that they should also vary in the

same ratio.

For, did they not, one of these forces beyond, or within a certain

point, becoming the greater of the two, must operate}.

It would be easy to shew, by quotations from all authors, that none

have hitherto pursued the inquiry spoken of above ; but it is sufficient

to have proved this fact, from the writings of two of the ablest philo-

sophers.

After having maturely considered the various doctrines, and theo-

ries, which are taught in the statics of chemistry ; I became persuaded,

that several of them were far from satisfactory ; among them in parti-

cular, the doctrines, upon which I have been remarking. And while

endeavouring to investigate the cause of their insufficiency, an expla-

nation presented itself to me, which appeared free from all the difficul-

ties, and objections, to which former theories are liable ; and which

will account for the permanency of all states, and combinations of

bodies; namely,—

That the force of repulsion, with which heat endows atoms, varies

an a greater inverse ratio of the distance than their attraction.

* Manchester Memoirs, vol. v. part 2.

+ New System of Cheniical Philosophy, p. 162.

+ Vide Repulsion varying in a less ratio than attraction, and also the following

law.

1833.] Attraction, and Repulsion. 529

Let us apply this law,

First.—To the constitution of solids.

Let there be a liquid between the atoms of which, owing to a loss

of heat, the attraction has become so far superior to the repulsion, as

to bring them to that distance, at which solidity naturally subsists.

And, since the attraction may be conceived to vary as the inverse

square of the distance, and repulsion varies in a higher inverse ratio,

let this ratio be the inverse cube of the distance, and let the atoms of

the liquid be supposed to have been at any distance 4 from each other,

and let the following diagram represent the opponent forces operating

between any two atoms, A and B, at different distances.

Distances. ] 2 3 4 5 6

Attraction, 576 144 64 36 23 &c.

Ay . +B xB

Repulsion, 1728 =. 216 64 27 13.8 &c.*

Here it is plain, since between the two atoms at distance 4 from

each other, the attraction is 36, but the repulsion only 27, that these

atoms must approach, and will come to distance 3, where both forces

are equal, each being 64. The atoms of the body, which is now a

solid, cannot come nearer ; as at any distance within this, there is an

effective repulsion operating, which must keep them at this distance,

unless, by abstracting or adding more heat, the point of equilibrium

is transferred to a smaller, or greater distance. Thus will be consti-

tuted a true mechanical stable equilibrium, and thus the nature of

solids, and their contraction, and expansion, are at once explained.

Secondly.—To the constitution of liquids.

A true explanation of the constitution of liquids, which has hitherto

never been clearly given, appears to be afforded by this doctrine.

In applying this law to the constitution of liquids, a third power

must be taken into consideration, namely, the pressure of the atmos-

phere.

Let it be supposed, that these forces have brought the atoms of a

gaseous fluid into the liquid state ; and let the following represent all

the forces operating upon any two atoms, A and B, of the liquid

at various distances.

* It is evident that these series are not supposed to represent the real forces,

but are merely intended to illustrate the doctrine more clearly. The diagram re-

presents the forces acting from one atom only, the relative power being the same,

as if the forces of both atoms had been represented.

+ Lest when a vapor is passing to the liquid state, any one should attribute the

cause solely to atmospheric pressure overpowering the expansive force of the

vapor, I may instance the condensation of hygrometric vapor in the air, on a fall

530 On the two great powers, [Ocr.

Distances. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Pres. of the air, 1 4 9 16 25 36 49

Attraction, 1024. 256 113.7 64 40.9 28.4, 20.8

Ay F A By *

Repulsion, 5120 640 189.6 80 40.9. 23:7 . Y¥4:8*

Here it is manifest, that both the mutual attraction of the atoms,

and the pressure of the air, are tending to compress thie fluid.

Tf the former force only operated, the atoms would be at distance 5

from. each other; as there the attraction and repulsion would’balance

each other, and constitute a stable equilibrium. But since the latter

force (pressure), operates on the liquid, the atoms are brought nearer

to each other, to distance 4 (e. g) where the attraction and pressure,

amounting together, to aforce (16 +64 =)80, are balanced by the repul-

sive force, which at that distance is also 80. The point of stable equi-

librium is thus removed to a smaller distance, where, as:long as the

same forces operate on the atoms, they can neither approach nor recede

ofthemselves. Again as, in a liquid, theatoms are pressed within the dis-

tance, at-which the attraction alone balances.the repulsion, by a force

(the pressure of the air), the effect of which is merely.to keep the

liquid within a certain bulk, it is manifest, that. this.erternal force

does not operate towards keeping any two atoms.in particular near to

each other. Hence the atoms may move on each other, as long as

others supply their place. And thus the peculiar character.of the:

liquid state may be explained.

The remarkable property of a liquid, of collecting itself into drops

under certain circumstances, may also be readily explained by this law.

The pressure of the air can. have no more effect in forming. liquids

into spherical drops, than into drops of any other form,. The only.

force, which can effect this, is the attraction of the atoms, which, as

in the diagram, though weaker than the repulsion between. the neigh-

bouring atoms A and B, must become the more powerful force. be-

tween any, but neighbouring atoms; and being the more powerful

of temperature. Atmospheric pressure can only act on this vapor (whose atoms

are perfectly intermingled with its own) so far as it is endeavouring to expand the

air, and can only increase the density of the vapor, until the elasticity of the at-

mosphere itself prevents its own atoms from approaching nearer to each other, or,

in other words, until the vapor is of the same density as the natural density of the

air; the force therefore, which in this case reduces the vapor into a liguid, must

be an effective attraction, and in part the gravity of the vapor.

* The first of these forces, the pressure of the air, varies as the square of the

distance of the atoms. The second, the attraction, varies inversely as the square

of their distance. The third, the repulsion, varies in any higher inverse ratio of

the distance, e. g. inversely as the cube of the distance.

1833.] Attraction and Repulsion. 531

force, it collects several atoms into a drop, under favorable circum-

stances.

The gradual expansions and contractions of liquids can also be

explained by this law. The distance of the equilibrium is gradually

increased, or lessened, by an addition, or abstraction of heat; and

whatever difference should exist between the forces at any one dis-

tance, a stable equilibrium would be formed at some other, where the

atoms would be fixed. The doctrine then, that the force of repulsion

from heat, varies in a greater inverse ratio of the distance, than the

attraction, affords a happy explanation of the nature and constitution

of liquids, and also of their gradual contractions and expansions, with

variations of temperature.

Thirdly.—To the constitution of simple gaseous fluids.

It has been above remarked, that the pressure of the atmosphere is the

chief force opposing the repulsion, in a gaseous fluid. But it has also

been shewn, under a former head*, that atoms in a gaseous state at-

tract each other. And this force, though certainly much inferior to

the pressure, must aid the operation of the latter.

Let all the forces operating from any atom A towards any other

atom B, of a simple gas be represented by the following diagram :

MR 8 AS Ge 7 BG 10. IN 12, 1S 1a IG 17 1B 9 90

Pr. 1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81100 121 144 169 196 225 256 289 324 361 400

Att. 648 162 72 40,526 18 13,4 10,1 86,4 5,3 4,4 3,8 3,3 2,8 2,52 2,24 2 1,8 1,62

Be OOP n Rite Hy Bu? 38 Dera ey oq) 10 i Daeg le glog

Rep. 11664 1458 432 182 93,3 54 34 28,8 16 11,6°9,64 6,7 5,3 4,2 3,4 2,9 2,37 2 1,7 1,45

In this case, the atoms of the gaseous fluid will be stationary at dis-

tance 6, where the repulsion, being 54, is equal to the united attrac-

tion and pressure, (18-36) which are also 54. On removing the at-

mospheric pressure there being a powerful effective repulsion, the

atoms must separate greatly, unto that point at which, from the re-

pulsion varying in a higher ratio than the attraction, a stable equi-

librium is established. In the above instance, this is at distance 18,

where the attraction and repulsion being each 2, the gaseous fluid will

expand no further, although all external pressure is removed.

To this, I am aware, it may be objected, that the air in the receiver

of an air pump expands without limit, as long as a portion is removed,

and, therefore, that the attraction cannot be equal'to the repulsive force

at any distance of the atoms.

This however it will be easy to shew is no objection. In proportion

as the air expands in the receiver, so does its tendency to part with

* The distance to which attraction is exerted.

2 pe

532. On the two great powers, [Ocr.

heat grow less, (i. e. it falls in temperature,) and hence it rapidly re-

ceives heat forced into it from the vessel and external air. The truth

of this is evident from the fact, that, during the experiment, the rare-

fied air at first falls in temperature, but afterwards rises to the same

temperature as the external air; and if the exhaustion be again con-

tinued, the air again expands, falls in temperature, and therefore again

receives heat; and, as long as heat is forced into it, so long must it

expand, and the point of stable equilibrium be removed toa greater

distance. Were it possible to procure a receiver impermeable by heat,

there is every reason to believe, that the expansion of the contained air

would terminate after several increments of volume ; for it cannot be

supposed, that, on the removal of pressure, a gaseous fluid would expand

without limit, unless the repulsive force, operating between its atoms,

be considered to vary either in the same or in a less inverse ratio

of the distance, than their attraction ; and since it has been already

shewn, that either of these cannot be a law of the repulsion in bodies,

in any degree of combination, or inany other state, analogy will show,

that neither of them can be a law of the repulsion of atoms in the

gaseous state.

Another objection which may be presented, is, the apparent fact, that

the effective repulsion in gases, varies inversely as the distance of the

atoms ; for, according to the doctrine which I have laid down, since the

actual repulsive force is considered as varying in a higher inverse ratio

of the distance than the attraction, and since the attraction is supposed to

vary as the inverse square of the distance, the effective* repulsion ought

to vary ina higher inverse ratio of the distance than the inverse square ;

and not therefore only inversely as the distance, as it appears to do. To

this I may answer, that, as I have before remarked, an ingress of heat

takes place, on removing pressure from the air, and an egress on increasing

the compressing force. This reception of heat on the one hand, and loss

_ of heat on the other, must cause the effective repulsion apparently to

vary in a much lower inverse ratio of the distance, than it would, did

the air always possess the same quantity of heat ; and from this cause

Mr. Boyun’s experiments, and the doctrine I have laid down, contain

nothing contradictory.

In like manner, in the case of a body gravitating towards a planet,

the force varies inversely as the square of the distance from the cen-

tre. But, by varying the quantity of matter in the planet, in some

* The excess of the repulsion, over the attraction ; the only force which, in a

gaseous fluid, admits of measurement.

1833.] Attraction and Repulsion. 533

direct ratio of the distance, its attraction might be made to vary in any

less ratio than the inverse square.

The reader will perceive, that the ratio of the attraction of the pla-

net, in the one case, and the doctrine I have laid down, of the ratio of

the repulsion in the other, were both disturbed by the absolute forces

varying. Inthe former case, by the quantity of matter in the planet,

in the latter by the quantity of heat in the air subjected to experiment

being constantly changed.

And moreover, I may observe, it would appear from later experi-

ments than Mr. Boytn’s, as is well known, that the elasticity of the

air varies in a somewhat greater rativ, than the density, and there-

fore that the effective repulsion varies in a higher inverse ratio, than

inversely as the distance.

The following quotation from an author in Dr. Rrzs’s Cyclopzdia*

will strongly corroborate the views I have taken of the constitution of

gases. After some former remarks he observes ;: ‘‘ Thus also in high de-

grees of rarefaction, the elasticity is decreased rather more than in ex-

act proportion to the weight or density of the air ; whence it may be

concluded, that there is a limit to its rarefaction, or expansion, so

that it cannot be expanded to infinity.”

This observation, which is founded on actual experiments of philo-

sophers (and which appears to me a just one) is exactly conformable to

the doctrine I have laiddown. This doctrine therefore (that the force

of repulsion, from heat, varies in a greater inverse ratio of the distance

“than the attraction) which must be admitted to explain the situation of

of atoms, in other states of bodies also, I think, elucidates clearly the

nature of gaseous elasticity.

Fourthly.—To the solution of solids in liquids.

In applying this law to the solution of a solid in a liquid, it is pro-

per to take into consideration all the forces, which can operate either

for, or against the combination.

In a saline, or any other solution, of a solid in a liquid, there are at

least, five forces, which must greatly affect the solution. Two of

these operate in favor of the solution, and three against it ; and in pro-

portion as the former forces exceed the latter so will the combination

be the more intimate.

When a salt is immersed in water, it is true, that the cohesion and

greater specific gravity of the salt are opposed to the affinity between

the water and salt, but these (which as far as I am aware are alone

* Article Air,

534 On the two great powers, (Ocr.

mentioned by Bertrnouter and Dr. Murray) are not the only forces

which affect the solution. There are two others, which perhaps have

quite as much influence on the extent of the combination ; namely, the

repulsive force, operating between the atoms of the salt, and the re-

pulsive force between these atoms, and those of water*. Itis this last

force, which prevents the most perfect combination from ensuing. It

has however, been shewn, under a former head, that if this force, (viz.

the repulsive force operating between the solid and liquid) varied in

the same ratio as their attraction, it certainly could not prevent the

atoms of the former, from being brought into absolute contact, with

those of the latter.

But, admitting this repulsive force to vary in a higher inverse ratio

of the distance, than the attraction, the nature cf the solution may be

clearly explained in the following manner.

It is plain, that the forces opposed to the solution, are the cohesion,

the greater specific gravity of the solid, and that repulsive force which

must operate between its atoms, and those of the water. That the

forces favoring the solution, are the repulsive force operating between

the atoms of the salt itself, and their affinity for those of the water. If

when the salt is immersed in the water, the two latter forces united,

are more powerful than the three former united, the water must begin

to act on the salt. As the atoms of salt separate from each other, the

repulsive force operating between them, which is one of the forces fa-

voring the solution, at last loses its effect, owing to its varying ina

greater inverse ratio of the distance than the cohesive attraction of the

salt, and therefore becoming weaker than the cohesive attraction.

Again, as the atoms of salt and water approach each other, the re-

pulsive force operating between these two. bodies, though formerly

much inferior to their affinity, owing to its varying in a higher ratio.

becomes at last, at a certain point, equal to the affinity. And could the

atoms of the salt be brought still nearer to those of the water, the re-

pulsion for the same reason would grow superior to the affinity. It is

manifest then, as the atoms of salt and. water cannot approach nearer

to each other than the point, at which the two powers are equal, that

the atoms must rest at this distance from each. other : for there the

two forces form a stable equilibrium.

And, since the atoms of liquids are endowed with greater atmospheres

of heat, than those of solids, this superior repulsive force in them may

* The repulsive force and attraction. operating between the atoms of the water

themselves need not be mentioned: as the doctrine may be explained without tak-

ing them into consideration.

1833. ] Attraction and Repulsion. 535

cause the point of stable equilibrium, between the atoms of the solid and

the fluid, to exist at a greater distance, than between the atoms of two

solids when in combination, and hence the latter combinations are ge-

nerally much more intimate than the former.

The solution of solids in liquids and the weak resulting combination,

are therefore satisfactorily explained by this doctrine ; which considers

the force of repulsion from heat as varying in a greater inverse ratio

than the attraction.

Fifthly.—To the solution of liquids in' gases and in the atmosphere.

Under a former head, I have endeavoured to prove, that the hygro-

metric vapor of the atmosphere must exist in that state, partly by its

own elasticity, and partly by an attraction exerted on it by theair. But

it was also proved, that if the repulsion of atoms varies in the same

ratio, as the ratio of attraction, the atoms of water would come into ac-

tual contact with those of the air ; which cannot be the case, as hygro-

metric vapor is in the very weakest state of combination with the air.

The solution of vapors in gases, without an intimate combination ensu-

ing, may however, I think, be readily explained by the present doctrine.

o ° o 0 Let a liquid A be’ placed under a column of

reeuttits sseesttttieee sth. dry air B, which is pressing on it with the

usual force of the atmosphere. It is plain that

the layer of air nearest the liquid must’ press on the latter with the

whole force of the atmosphere which it supports. But the particles of air

are far more distant fromeach other than those of water; probably

ten times as far. Let us. suppose this to be their relative distance.

Every tenth particle only of the liquid will be pressed on perpendicularly

by the lower stratum of air; and the:condensation of the circumambient

heat of this stratum will be so much greater perpendicularly under

each particle of air, than obliquely between them, that it will re-act

more upon the water directly under those particles, and press it into

dimples, as in the figure: The ridges between these dimples will be

pressed on laterally by the elastic medium of each aerial. particle, but

with little force downwards.

All the aerial particles above this lowest stratum must be ata great-

er distance from those of the water, than the point at which the forces

operating between them and the water, are equal. And, being at a great-

er distance than this point, they must attract the water with more force

than they repel it, according to the present postulate. If then the

united effective attractions of all atoms of air above the lowest stratum,

together with the tendency to expand in the water itself, be superior to

the gravity of the atoms of water situated in the several ridges, the

536 » On the two great powers, [Ocr.

latter must rise into vapor, and so also must those which supply their

place. And the atoms of water, as they rise, will necessarily become

intermingled with those of the air, and will be detained among them by

their attraction for them. But, since the repulsion varies in a greater

inverse ratio of the distance than the attraction it will form a stable equi-

librium with it, at a certain point, within which it will prevent the

atoms of water from approaching those of the air ; that is, prevent an

intimate combination from ensuing.

Thus is explained the fact, that an attraction between the air and

water may favor the transition of the latter into vapor, and yet not

bring the atoms of water into intimate combination with those of

the air, a fact, which I do not think can be explained by any other

doctrine.

Sixthly.—To the constitution of mixed gases.

The minute investigation into the various theories proposed to ex-

plain the nature of a gaseous mixture, which I have endeavoured to

pursue, has shewn, that each of them is liable to one or more insuper-

able objections.

It appears to me that this phenomenon also, may be explained by

the application of the present doctrine.

Having first stated the theorem, I shall endeavour to demonstrate it.

If a cylindrical vessel, of any given length, be filled with hydrogen

gas, and inverted (so as to fit closely) over a similar vessel filled with

carbonic acid gas ; part of the former gas, although of far less speci-

fic gravity than the latter, will descend, and part of the latter will as-

cend, until the atoms of hydrogen gas, are perfectly mixed with those

of carbonic acid gas, and, when mixed, they will not enter into com-

bination.

This may be demonstrated in the following manner.

Since the repulsive force, operating from the atoms of the one gas

towards those of the other, varies in a greater inverse ratio of the

distance, than their attraction, it must form with this force, at a certain

point, a stable equilibrium. Since when the hydrogen gas is placed

on the carbonic acid gas, the lowermost atoms, of the former, press

upon the upper stratum, of the latter, these contiguous strata, of the

two gases, must be brought within the point of equilibrium, between

their attraction and mutual elasticity; and must therefore have an

effective repulsion for each other.

But, excepting the contiguous strata, all the atoms of the one fluid

must be farther from those of the other, than the point of stable equi-

librium, and must therefore, exert an effective attraction for them.

- 1833.) Attraction and Repulsion. 537

If then their mutual effective attraction be superior to their differ-

ence of gravity, atoms of hydrogen gas must descend, and of carbonic

acid ascend until the mixture is complete. When mixed however, no

atom of the former can approach nearer to one of the latter gas,

than the distance at which the forces, operating between them, form a

stable equilibrium : for within that distance an effective repulsion ex-

ists. This distance, owing to the great quantity of heat round gaseous

atoms, will be so considerable, that the atoms of the two fluids cannot

produce on each other those changes, attendant on combination.

From which, the gases must be considered, as merely having their

atoms detained approximate to each other, by their mutual attrac-

tion.

Tn like manner, may the constitution of the atmosphere be elucidat-

ed ;—its consisting of gases in a state of mixture, though of different

specific gravities, and yet not entering into intimate combination with

each other.

ConcLusIon.

The inquiry into the law of the repulsive force, with which heat en-

dows atoms, namely, of that compound repulsion resulting from the op-

posed action of the two ultimate powers of heat, themselves, which it

has been my endeavour to pursue with such minuteness, as the length

of this essay would permit, has, I trust shewn, that this power must

vary in a higher inverse ratio of the distance, than the attraction.

By way of illustration, I have imagined this ratio to be the inverse

cube, that of attraction being the inverse square of the distance ;

but I would by no means be understood as intending to enforce this as

the actual ratio. Since (as has been above remarked) the actual ratio

of this compound repulsion, it is probable, differs in bodies according

to the force of their attraction for the particles of heat, it will perhaps

never be possible to ascertain it exactly in any individual case. But

the limit, which has been laid down, is of the highest importance, since

(as I trust) I have deduced from it a simple doctrine, which accounts

for the stable residence of atoms at various distances from each other,

constituting in nature, solids and liquids, combinations of solids with

liquids, liquids with aerial fluids, and mixtures of aerial fluids with each

other; and without which none of these phenomena can be accounted

for, but they may even be demonstrated impossible.

538 Iron Suspension Bridge over the [Ocr.

IV.—Iron Suspension Bridge over the Beosi River, near Sdgar, Central

India. Pl. XVI.

We take peculiar pleasure in bringing to the notice of our readers the

completion of this work of art, because it has been constructed entire-

ly out of the resources of the country, and being the first attempt at

such an adaptation of native material and native workmanship, more

than ordinary credit is due to the skilful engineer who planned and

executed it, and who moreover, from his long residence in India, could

have acquired only a theoretical acquaintance with the system of sus-

pension bridges introduced within these few years, and now so rapidly

spreading, in Europe.

The bridge was erected at the suggestion of T. H. Mappocx, Esq.

agent to the Governor General in the Sagar and Nerbada territories,

upon the plans and under the sole superintendence of Major Duncan

PRESGRAVE, mint and assaymaster at Sagar.

Engineers in Europe, accustomed to find every thing provided to

their wants, can have little idea of the personal labour which devolves

upon their brethren of the craft in this country, where to the duties of

architect and draughtsman are not only added those of builder and over-

seer, but the whole of the subordinate trades of the brick-maker, mason,

carpenter, and iron-manufacturer ; in a climate too where a trifling

exertion produces exhaustion ; and incautious exposure, fever or death;

and where the tools must be made and the hands that employ them

instructed ab initio. We will not say that the native mistrees and

labourers are not capable of learning or of working well, especially

in upper Hindustan; the bridge before us is a sufficient refutation of

that common and indolent remark: but all will agree that a peculiar

talent is requisite to manage, instruct, and drill them ; and this faculty

is possessed by Major Prescrave in an extraordinary degree. The

secret of his influence may be easily traced ;—he is a workman him-

self: he wields the hammer; makes and works the lathe; surveys

the ground; searches the mines ; smelts the ore ; and has all the skill

of contriving with the simplest means*, for which the people of this

country are themselves so conspicuous.

The SAgar bridge may indeed be called an experiment to try the

resources of the country ;—to see whether the iron could be manu-

factured into bars of a quality fit for bridges;—and whether these

bridges could be made by native workmen who had never wrought or

* As an illustration of this remark, we refer to the description of the rollers on

which the chains rest.

1833.3 Beosi River, near Sagar, Central India. 589

even seen iron of the dimensions required. The question has been

satisfactorily answered ; and even in point of economy, notwithstand-

ing the numberless extra expences incident to a first undertaking, and

the distance, eleven miles, of the work from the yard at Sagar, the

bridge has been pronounced cheaper than those in Calcutta made with

English materials: while of its design and execution no higher

encomium can be given than the assurance of the visiting engineer,

Major Irving, that he had seen nothing superior to it in Europe. The’

Governor General is stated to have expressed equal satisfaction after in-

spection, and only to have regretted that so noble a bridge should be

wasted upon so remote a locality !

We have with permission taken a reduced copy of the elevation and

plan, lithographed by M. Tassin, to accompany a private Memoir of

the Beosi bridge. The latter authentic source supplies us with the

following particulars of the work.

The foundation was laid in April, 1828, and the roadway opened to

the public in June, 1830.

The iron of which it is composed is entirely the produce of the Sa-

gar district. When the bridge was projected, it was still in the state

of ore in the mines, whence it was extracted, smelted and made into

irregular small lumps, in the common native fashion. The working

of these crude impure masses into good bars of the requisite dimensions '

was a matter of very great labour and difficulty.

The bridge is 200 feet in span between the points of suspension.

The piers, resting on the solid rock, six feet under the low level of

of the river, are 42 feet high to the roadway; being elevated two

feet above the ordinary surface of the country: they have a base of

32 feet by 224, decreasing upwards in front one in five, and on the sides

one in eight feet ; which gives on the road a superficies of 21 by

14 feet for each pier. On the sides are wing walls or abutments, running

back into the bank 26 feet.

‘The pillars, or rather arches, of suspension have a base of 21 by 12

feet, admitting a roadway of 9 feet broad. The arches are 15 feet high,

and are faced with accurately wrought stone. The points of suspension

are elevated 22 feet 45 inches from the road : the pillars have a total

height of 33 feet, and the whole masonry from the rock, 68 feet. The

piers and abutments contain 82,488 cubic feet of masonry; the arched

standards and bridge parapets, 8900 : in all 91,388 cubic feet.

The platform measures 200 feet in length by 12 feet broad, and is

calculated to weigh, with the chains, 52% tons. Supposing the bridge

crowded with men, at 69 lbs. per superficial foot all over the platform,

3 Aa 2

540 Tron Suspension Bridge over the [Ocr.

the whole weight would be 120 tons, whence it is calculated that the

tension to be sustained at each point of suspension would be 85.632

tons.

The suspending chains are 12 in number, arranged in pairs, three

pair on either side, two feet above one another. They pass over rollers

one foot in diameter, and are securely moored in masonry 16 feet be-

low the surface of the road. The back chains are 101 feet long, rising

at an angle of 27 degrees. The angle of the catenarian at the roller

is 16° with the horizon : the versed sine at the centre of the curve is

14 feet 3 inches.

The twelve main chains are of round bar iron, one and half inch

diameter, bolted together in pairs. They are from 15 to 15.5 feet

long, and so arranged that the vertical rods may fall from the joints

of each chain alternately in parallel lines five feet apart. The descend-

ing chains are.square bars measuring 14 inch on the side: their lower

ends pass through 24 conically wrought stones, below which they

are capped and keyed. (Figs. 1 and 2.)

The connecting links of the chains, and indeed all the bolt holes

in the bars, and the drops, are bored out of the solid iron, and broach-

ed to fit the bolts accurately. (Figs. 5, 6.) None were punched at the

forge. The bolts are 14 inch in diameter, and are secured by rings, or

washers and keys. Two adjusting links with iron wedges are fitted to

each chain, close to the masonry landward, to regulate its curve and dip.

(Figs. 7, 9.)

The method of constructing the rollers is thus described in the

memoir :

“* The iron rollers 12 in number weigh about one cwt. each. They are not solid,

but are composed each of about 28 separate pieces of wrought iron, viz. a centre

tube or box for the axle over which thick rings are driven ; and an exterior drum be-

tween which and the inner ringed tube, flattened bars, as spokes, aredriven. The

centres were broached out clean and true, and cylindrical axles 3.1 inch in diame-

ter were turned to fit ; the ends of these axles rest on broad thick iron bearings

mounted on very strong and solid frames of timber well bolted, clamped and block-

ed together, covered with pitch cement and secured in the masonry of the pillars.”

(Figs 7, 8.)

The platform was made ina different mode from those of our Calcutta

bridges, as will be understood by the following explanation:

‘‘ From the short links set between the centre plates of the shackles (of the main

chains), are suspended alternately from each tier, 74 vertical round rods one

inch in diameter connected to a short link (Fig. 6) by a one-inch round bolt

passing through it and the socket at the upper end of the bar ; at their lower

ends the rods have eyes, through which doubled loops of iron pass (3, 4) for sus-

taining the flat bars or girders, set on their edges and proceeding from one end to

the other on both sides of the bridge.

1833. ] Beosi River, near Sagar, Central India. 541

* The flat bars, four inches broad by 2 inch thick and in lengths of fifteen feet,

are joined together at their ends by nicely turned bolts passing through bored holes

two inches in diameter ; they are adjusted in their height by double wedges,

resting on holders that connect the sides of the loops together. The girders are

also adjustable in their lengths, the bars that enter the masonry have their ends

made broader than the rest of the bars, in which are long openings 2 inches broad

to receive wedges. (Fig. 10, 11.)

“ Eight timbers in an upright position are set in the masonry of the pillars, having

upright grooves or spaces cut through them, and faced with thick plates of iron ;

through two of these beams each end bar passes, and may be wedged on either side

of the timber towards the land as occasion may require ; thus is the whole length

of girder drawn more or less to either end of the bridge, and also rendered exceed-

ingly tight and steady. The grooves in the timbers towards the river, being about

four inches longer than the breadth of the bars, permit them to adapt themselves

to their proper directions when drawn lengthwise by the wedges acting against the

landward beams ; by these means the bars have sufficient play to adapt themselves

to the motion of the platform, and all jerks at the pillars are obviated.

“ Thirty-seven double joists twelve feet long are, (having their ends notched be-

low for the purpose,) laid on the girders: their centres five feet apart correspond

exactly with the vertical rods that pass through them ; the joists are composed

each of two cheeks a foot in depth and three inches thick, separated at intervals

by four blocks of wood of the same height and thickness ; all firmly put together

with bolts, screws and nuts : two cleats are nailed to each end of the joist on their

under sides, whose ends fit flat against the girder and keep all steady.

“Planks sixteen feet in length running longitudinally, each plank stretching rove

three spaces, and regularly disposed as to their joints, are spiked down on the joists :

in a direction across these and upon them other planks are spiked down, their lengths

being the same as the breath of the platform. The planks are allimbedded ina com-

position of resin boiled in linseed oil, which in laying on is mixed with ashes.

The lower planks are three, and the upper ones two and half inches thick: they are

only six inches broad to prevent warping, and have two strong square-headed spikes

passing through them near their edges, at every crossing of the upper over the

lower planks: their points are clinched below the platform, to accomplish which

16,370 spikes, weighing a ton and a half, were used; thus the platform has been

rendered extremely strong and firm.

“The better to secure the sides of the platform and the ends of the timbers from

the weather, a cornice or moulding of wood is nailed along the outside.

“The hand-rail is trussed, and consists of iron pillars or stanchions ; diagonal

braces of iron ; and a stout wooden rail running from end to end of the platform :

the whole put together with screws aud nuts, and adjusting screws for setting up

or tightening the diagonal braces whenever required. (Fig. 10.)

“The rise in the platform is (as before stated, nine inches, but the curve of

the hand-rail is only three inches, to effect which the stanchions that support the

rail are of varying lengths. The rail being four feet six inches above the platform

at its connection with the masonry, but only four feet in the centre of the bridge.’’

The following are the weights of the chains, rods, and materials of

the platform :

452 Additional Note on the Climate of Nagpur. [Ocr.

Tron. Wood.

Tons. Fons. Tons.

6 double main chains, joints and bolts............ - 8.5

' 74 vertical rods, with joints, bolts, &c............... 1.385

Flat bats and! boltse.. ore peioent a lhe en sce chve scmac ake

37 double joists, blocks, cleats, &c..... .....-.e0% 6.190

' Bolts, nuts, screws, stanchion plates, flat rings, &c. &c.

Som seams ts cco hatte ecg eee ok a tit ai ee. 0.383

Planking 1.124 cubic feet, sal wood,...............- 27.000

Tron spikes, 16.37 Q fox, planks aie 0 oss wletsma ejmie aie 1.467

Tron railing trussed, screws, nuts, &c............ .. 1.314

Wood for the hand rail, 52 cubic feet,...........-..- 1.479

376 feet of cornice to theplatform........ ...0.¢.- —- 1.531

14.775 36.200 50.976

Composition of resin and oil,,............ ABBE Es se 1.745

Total weight hung between the pillars,.... . Sabboseae tons. 52.720

V.—Additional Note on the Climate of Nagpur. By J. Prinsep,

Sec. As. Soc. &c.

In the May number of the Journat were published the results of Dr.

Geppxs’ Meteorological Observations made in 1831-32 at Kampti, in

the neighbourhood of Nagptr, which, as observed by the author, were

in some degree deficient for the want of abarometer ; the sympiesometer

which took the place of that instrument shews by the registers a con-

stant deterioration from the increase of the column of air*, which ren-

ders its indication of comparative inutility in accurate calculations. Iam

now fortunately able to supply the deficiency, of barometrical data, from

the copious registers kept by Dr. Wy.rz at Nagpur, between the years

1820 and 18380, (with some intermissions,) of which that gentleman

was so kind as to permit me to take copies ere he proceeded to Europe.

Dr. Wyutn’s barometer was filled by himself without boiling. A

note in his diary in 1820 states, that it stood 0.235 lower that some

other tube (Dr. Voyssry’s? ) with which it was compared. In Febru-

ary 1822, the tube was cleaned twice, and fresh mercury added: in May

of the same year it was again cleaned. On each of these occasions, the

height of the mercurial column was elevated more than a tenth of an

* This isa fault in the sympiesometer which might perhaps be remedied by-

making the oil-cistern higher, so that the oil should on an average stand on the

same level in the two legs of the inverted syphon. In an instrument in my posses-

sion after one year, in 1822, the index point had fallen 0.3 inch below the baro-

meter ; in 1823, 0.5 inch; in 1825,0.8; and now, in 1833, I find it 1.38

inches : Dr. GreDDEs, according to his register, must have followed the same rate

of deterioration : the level in mine is now nearly even with the reservoir.

1833.] Additional Note on the Climate of Nagpur. 543

inch for the time, proving that air or moisture had previously insinuated

itself into the vacuum. In November, 1824, a note occurs, at Bombay :—

«« add .200 to make barometer agree with one afterwards used and found

to be more correct.” The change of instrument was made in January,

1826: the new tube was againcleaned and repaired in June and in No-

vember* : it broke in May, 1829, and was replaced by one standing full

.200 lower. These circumstances were pointed out by Dr. Wyuin, as

depriving his tables of that measure of exactitude required for deducing

the altitude of Nagpur barometrically ; but with the precaution of aug-

menting the whole of the indications up to September, 1823, by two-tenths

of an inch, and proceeding in the same manner with May—September of

1826, and with new barometer of June, 1829 ; all of which alterations

_are borne out by notes on the diary ; the results will be found to agree

very well inter se, andto be fully sufficient for the determination of

the annual and diurnal oscillations, whichit is my object to deduce for

as many points as possible on the Indian continent.

The following tables present an abstract of the monthly means de-

duced from Dr. Wyuin’s daily observations: they have been reduc-

ed to the temperature of 32° Farh.

Five months of 1820 are omitted for want of space, as the year was

incomplete ; but the entries were used in the calculations of the monthly

means in the tables which follow.

Taste I.—Meteorological Observations at Nagpir, by Dr. Wrutz.

Barometer reduced to 32° Farh.

1821 1822 | 1823 1826 | 1827 | 1828 | 1829

9a.mM.5P.M.|9 A.M.5 P.M.|9 A.M. 5 P.M.

NOON. | NOON.| NOON.| NOON.

January, |28.906| 28.783 | 28.839 |28.722|29.026|28.927/28.880] .... |28.867|28.807

February|)29.031} .914} .866) .725/28.980} .886] .780] .... 402} +.796

March, .| .102| .989! .756| .642| .862| .779! .... '28.759; .716! .733

Apts!) .0d5| 690) .698) .587] -.763| .600)).... 666} .622) .615

May, ~.-|28.842! .729) .710) .646| .695| .610) .612 062] ...-

427) .390

July,.....| .563} .492| .643) 543] .630} .514] .455 401| 437] 458

August,..] .465} .412) .646) 560} .693) .610, .507; .478; .512/ .508

June,..-| .695| .611| .667} 1593] .682/ .568} .481| .402

Sept....| .558) .472| .706| (613! .g03| .680| .547| .515| .515| .556¢

October,} .733; .634| .828] .724 724] .711] .688) .675f

Nov. | .805| .760| .970] .859 844} 811} .841] .845fr

Dec. emnere| .889| .770)29.012}| .922 arte .847| .847f

+ 0.200 has been added to these five months as supposed index error of a new tube

then used.

* After this filling of the tube in the damp weather of June, we find the mercury

for five months standing full two-tenths too low, confirming my remarks in a for~

mer number of the Journau. The cleaning in the dry weather of November again

raised the index to the same or even a greater amount.

544 Additional Note on the Climate of Nagpur. [Ocr.

TasiE [].—Thermometer in doors, attached to the Barometer.

1925" ea 1823 | 1826 | 1827 1828 | 1829

9a.mM.5P.M./9 A.M. 5 P.M./9 A.M. 5 P.M.) NOON. |NOON.| NOON. NOON.

January, | 72.9 | 78.7 | 71.3 | 76.3 | 74.7 | 78.0] 74 ].... | 71 | 72

February} 76.0 | 82.3 | 75.0 | 82.4 | 77.0 | 82.0] 78 | .... | 76 | 72.5

March, ~ 81.0 | 84.0 | 82.8 | 88.2 | 80.3 | 84.5 | .... | 83 ) 81.5) 83

April, ~-| 87.7 | 90.7 | 86.0 | 88.3 | 88.0) 91.0! ....] 84 183 ! 85.5

May,..~~| 87.8 | 91.0 | 91.5 | 93.2 | 888 | 88.6 | 82.5 | .... | 84 | oe

June,vve| 89.0 | 91.3 | 87.0 | 90.1 | 88.5 | 89.4 | 88.7] 89 | 86 !....

July, | 81.9 | 84.7 | 83.1 | 84.9 | 84.2 | 86.2 85 | 83 | 81.5

August, 80.9 | 83.5 | 82.6 | 84.0 ; 82.9 | 84.3 81 | 83 | 81

Sept....| 81.0 | 83.4 | 82.0 | 83.2 | 83.0 | 83.7 g2 | 82 | 82

October, | 77.7 | 83.5 | 83.0 | 86.0 | ....|.... 83.5| 81 | 82

Nov. cn| o> | 799 |. 768 | Sled... Noms. 76.\ 76 | 75:5

Dee 66.7 1 74.0 72.8) 761 Ch. tenes 73°) 91 795

eS aaa rT Se. Oe aren ao Seer hae

Means.....! 79.8 | 84.0 | 81.1 | 84.5 | | 309 , | ee tvey

Tasus III.—Fail of Rain at Nagpur, registered by Dr. Wru1E.

(Lloyd); |

Month. 1814-15, 1826 | 1827 | 1828 | 1829 | 1830 | 1831 | 1832

“Sautarys fee. sce 7 2.30 | 0.40 | 0.19 | .. we:

Behenaryy pe. . coe. Meee ee 050 | “222 0.76" 1". - .98

Marchi than ace « .. | 3.84 | 0.71 | 2.49 1.57.) : oll sd

RE Pe A Age ake tgs 1.01 | 0.06 | 0.06 0.68) .. | .-

ay, . fe Lohigge | B10 | 90214 Hes" Ve°| see

SS Sel eh 0.23 | 22.23 | 6.25 | 8.37 | 8.07 | 8.54 |13.78 | 8.01

July, 7.08 | 12.00 | 14.93 |; 9.33 | 15.94 | 7.10 | 722 114.49

August, 14.72 | 18.50 | 7.51 | 9.07 | 7.89 | 7.00 | 14.58 | 3.46

September, -| 736 | 8.13 }1632 | 9.40 632! 4.78 | 11.98 | 7.77

October, .......... 2.97 | 0.04! 0.00! 6.46 | 8.22 i 1.98.1 7.24/32:

November, ........ 0.45 | 1.31! 289| 0.26] .. ag Sel

December, 2.5 /roc22i) "= 0.13 ae 0.50 S224. | 8

Annual, Total,......| 32.81 | 65.61 37.14

53.99 | 46.61 | 50.25 = 165.31

In the Monsoon,.... | 32.36 162.00 45.22 | 44.18 | 46. 44 | 30.75 | 54, 80 |33.73

Averareof eightiyeatsjaass:<kisio.- leas 48.10 inches.

From these data we may proceed to calculate the annual and diurnal

ranges, according to the form adopted in my former tables in the first

volume of this Journal, page 23. The Latitude of Nagpur is about

21° 10’ N. and the Longitude 79° 15’ E., the Barometer therefore

should have a smaller rise and fall, during the year, than that of Cal-

cutta, but greater than that of Madras, and so it turns out. There

should also be a corresponding modification in the annual range of

temperature, and in the diurnal change of heat and pressure: but I

must leave any general deductions until I have accumulated other

tables, to place in comparison with those alreedy collected. A very

accurate annual series has been kept at Cuttack by Captain B. Buaxz,

which I trust will shortly appear in the Journal.

1833.] Additional Note on the Climate of Nagpar. 545

Average Range of the Barometer at Nagpir, reduced to 32° Farh.

| For the years For the years} Monthly |Mean Diur- eae

1820-23. 1826 to 1829,| difference |nalBarome- Pevau-

Month. ean.| atabout {from annu-| tric Tide, ad

9a. ae P.M. lp. M. al mean. | 1820-23, | VS:

= | ee ee eS ee

inch. | inch. ; inch. inch. inch. inch,

January, .. |28.926| .810 |28.868 28.851 +.162 116 E.

February, ..) | .959{ .845 902 776 +.142 114 var.

March, ..} .906; .803 .854 736 -+.098 103 yar

Apmis ..s-] Bad! *.712 772 634 +.008 121 Wy.

May, =< ..| -749 | .662 705 587 —.051 077 Ww.

June, «0. 284)! 637 | “.539 588 425 —.191 098 W.

mugs. ..| 076! .486 531 438 —.213 090 W.

August, ..| .587] .507 547 501 —.173 .080 WwW.

September,}| .674) .575 625 aa —.118 099 | W.

October, ..| .796| .683 | .739 699 +..022 113 |’ Ny.

November,. | 887 | .809 848 835 +.144 078 NE.

December,. 950 | .846 .898 .847 | +-.175 104 var.

2 ee ee pee

Means,.... |28.790 |28.689 |28.739 | 28.657 Range .388 100

In lieu of taking the thermometric means from Dr. Wrytin’s

Tables, which are only entered for the hours at which the barometer

was registered, the following extracts from a Journal kept by Captain

Luoyp, for which also we are indebted to Dr. Wrtiz, will better

serve to furnish the range of the daily temperature.

Thermometric Range at Nagpir, by Captain Lloyd.

Monthly

Month 1809. 1814-15. difference |Mean diur-

i Petes e —_______—— | from annual] nal range.

max. | min. | mean.; max. | min. | mean.| Man.

0 0 0 0 0 0 o) 0

January,..! 78 69 68 83,8 | 57,5 | 71,0 | —11,4 Lv ed

February,..| 87 724° 75 87,161) 63,50 [ 73,94. = 655 19,4

March, 98 64 83 98,9 | 69,0 | 85,2 + 3,1 31,9

April,.. .-| 100 77 | 89 |102,5 | 81,3 | 93,0} -+10,5 21,6

May, .. -.! 101 79 90 1104,4 | 91,6 | 98,4 | +13,3 18,4

June, .-.-| 91 76 84 | 103,6 | 85,6 | 90,3] + 6,2 16,0

July, .. ..| 88 74 | 79 86,9 | 78,4 |, 82,5-| — 9,2 10,8

August, ..} 86 70 79 SE,d 4. Asso) Sess | Oak 13,8

September,{ 85 75 79 91,9 | 78,2 | 84,3 + 0,7 | 11,8

October, "| 88 64 | 79 89,3 | 74,4 | 83,1 | + 0,1 19,4

November,.| 86 54 73 87,8.) 60,9 | .75.% 4. — 6,8 24,4

December,-! 85 57 72 34,9) 60,6 | 72,6 1 — 8,6 | 26,1

Mean, ....| 89.4 | 69.3 1 79.2 | 92,5 | 73,5 | 82,7 |Range 24,6| 19,2

The constant difference between the numbers of the two years leads

me to attribute it to an index error of one of the thermometers. Pro-

bably the second instrument stands too high, for the other more nearly

agrees with those of Drs. Wyiiz and Geppzs. A want of prior compa-

rison with a standard instrument thus often destroys confidence and robs

of half its value the labour of years. Such an error however does not

546 Asiatic Society. [Ocr.

interfere with the results derived from this table, namely, the monthly

and diurnal range :—it only affects the mean annual temperature,

which, with all the data before us, cannot positively be determined,

although the numerous observations of different hours and with differ-

ent instruments may neutralize many irregularities: thus we have the

mean annual temperature,

At Sunrise, in the openair,. 69,5 from Dr. Geddes’ Tables (page 241.)

Minimum temperatnre,.. .. 69,3 by Captain Lloyd.

At nine a. M. in the house,.. 80,5 by Dr. Wylie.

At noon ditto,............ 80,3 (tatty used in the hot months ?)

At two P.M. ditto,........ 81,1 by Dr. Geddes.

Maximum temperature, .... 89,4 by Captain Lloyd.

At five Pp. M. ditto, ........ 84,2 by Dr. Wylie.

At eight p. M. ditto,........ 80,2 by Dr. Geddes.

Mean of maximaand manima, { Be \ by Captain Lloyd.

From the mean of the maxima and minima, and from the pair of

observations at 9 a. mM. and § Pp. M., it may be assumed with tolerable

confidence that the mean temperature of Nagpur does not differ much

from 80° Farh. which is nearly two degrees higher than that of Calcutta,

and 14 lower than that of Madras.

VI.—Proceedings of the Asiatic Society.

Wednesday Evening, 30th October, 1833.

The Honorable Sir Cuartes Tueopuitus Mercatrs, Bt. V. P. in the

Chair.

The Proceedings of the last meeting were read.

Read, a letter from Colonel Casement, Military Secretary, stating that

the Government will have much pleasure in transmitting to the Honorable

the Court of Directors the Report on the Experimental Boring, and in re-

commending a compliance with the Society’s application for such a supply of

apparatus as will enable them to continue it in an efficient manner.

Read, a letter from G. A. Busupy, Esq. Sec. Gen. Dep. communicating the

permission of Government for the dispatch of 100 copies of the 18th volume

of the Researches by the first ships of the season, free of charge for freight.

Read, a letter from W. Twintne, Esq. Secretary tothe Medical and Phy-

sical Society, expressing their regret at being unable to pay amonthly con-

tribution for the use of the rooms occupied by their Library and Museum,

and repeating the acknowledgment of the President and Members for the

liberality which has afforded them that accommodation.

Read, a letter from J. C. Morris, Esq. Secretary Mad. Lit. Soc. request-

ing the loan of a volume of the Mackenzie MS. Translations of Inscriptions

in the South of India. Resolved, that the request be immediately complied

with.

1833.5 Asiatic Society. 547

Read, a letter from the Rev. Dr. Burrow, forwarding the printed pros-

pectus of a plan for an expedition into Central Africa, and requesting the

encouragement and assistance of the Physical Class of the As. Soc.

Resolved, that the funds of the Society are not in a state to allow a con-

tribution towards the objects of the African expedition, but that the aid of

individuals be invited by circulation of the prospectus amongst the mem-

bers*.

Library.

The following books were presented :

Third part of the sixteenth volume of the Transactions of the Linnzan Society,

together with a list of its members, for 1832—6y the Society.

Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, part 2nd, vol. 4th, new

series—by the Society.

Memoirs of the Astronomical Society of London, vol. 5th—by the Society.

Report of the First and Second Meetings of the British Association for the ad-

vancement of Science—by the Yorkshire Philosophical Society.

Proceedings of the Natural History Society of the Mauritius, for June, 1833—éy

the Society.

Proceedings of the Geological Society of London, No, 28—by the Society.

Madras Journal of Literature and Science—by the Madras Literary Society.

Journal Asiatique, Nos. 58, 62, and 63—4éy the Asiatic Society of Paris.

Thirteenth and fourteenth volumes of the Transactions of the Batavian Society—

by the Society.

Second Annual Report of the Council of the Naval and Military Library and

Museum—Jy Messrs. Bagshaw and Co. for the Council.

Von Hamner’s History of the Ottoman Empire, 9th volume, and some loose

tracts—by the Author.

Jahrbucher der Literature, vols. 57, 58, 59, and 60—dy Councellor Von Hammer.

Marcoz, Astronomie Solaire Simplifiee—by H. T. Colebrooke, Esq.

De Tassy, Memoire sur le Systeme Metrique des Arabes—by the Author,

Leipziger Literature Zeitung, Nos. 206, 207, 208, and 209—dy the Editor.

D. H. Firron on the Progress of Geology in England—by the Author.

Ditto’s Geological Sketch of the Vicinity of Hastings—by the Author.

A short system of Polite Learning, compiled and translated by Maha Raja Kari

Kissen Bahadur—by the Translator.

Select Extracts from Lord CHESTERFIELD’s Advice to his Son, translated into

Bengalee, by RapHANATH DEy—bdy the Translator.

SrocauELeEr’s Fifteen Months’ Pilgrimage through untrodden tracts of Khuzistan

and Persia—by the Author.

The following books were received from the Book-sellers :

LarRpDNER’s Cabinet Cyclopedia—British Admirals, Ist vol.

Tron and Steel, 2nd vol.

Christian Church, Ist vol.

Library of Useful Knowledge—Wanpineron’s History of the Church,

Spain and Portugal.

* Printed on the cover of the present number.

or Bw

548 Asiatic Society. [Oct.

LyE.v’s Principles of Geology, 3rd vol.

Theatrum Pontificiale, 5 vols.—purchased by the Society.

Memoires Concernant les Chinois, 14 vols.—presented by the Secretary.

Read, a letter from Mr. A. Bou’, Foreign Sec. of the Geological Society

of France, offering an exchange of their publications against the Journal

and Transactions of the As. Soc. Resolved, that the exchange be made with

pleasure, through the Society’s Agent in London.

Read, also letters from Professor Von Hammer, the Secretaries of the

Philadelphian and Batavian Societies, &c. relative to the works detailed

above.

Antiquities, Statistics, &c.

Read, a letter from Mr. Turnet, Sec. of the Right Honorable the Go-

vernor of Ceylon, presenting copies of some inscriptions in the Nagari cha-

racter, collected by Captain Forszs of the 78th Highlanders, agent in the

Matele district.

Thousands of inscriptions, in the same character, are stated to be found in the

island: but we have not yet any clue to the relative value of these letters in the

modern Nagari alphabet. They are evidently identical with those of the Kanouj

coins* and with the inscriptions referred by Mr. Stirxr1e to the Buddhists, or

Jyns ; which their occurrence in Ceylon certainly tends to confirm.

Read, a letter from KE. Stiriiwe, Esq. submitting a tabular statement of the

price of grain at Alligurh, from our first possession of the country, to 1832.

A statistical report on the population of the town and district of Mur.

shedabad, drawn up by Mr. H. V. Harsorn, was submitted by Mr. J. R.

Cotvin.

[We shall give an abstract of these statements in our next. ]

Read, a note from Mr. J. H. Stocauetser, presenting some coins, collected

during his travels in Europe.

A Fac Simile of an Arabic Inscription, cut in an escarpment of the rock

at the Fort of Chanderi, was presented by Dr. J. Tyrer, in the name of

Lieut. Macponaup ; from whose letter, the following extract was read:

‘* T have discovered an ancient inscription at Chanderi, near which I am now en-

camped, This place now belongs to Scinp1a, who took it from the former Raja,

20 years ago. The Fort of Chanderi, which consists of a sandstone wall, flanked by

circular towers, built upon a steep hill, was in former days considered impregnable.

Colonel Baptista, of Scinp1A’s service, succeeded after a five months siege in

starving out the Bundela garrison, and it is now occupied by Marhattatroops. To

my inquiries into the ancient history of the place, I could obtain no satisfactory

information. The ignorant Marhattas and Bundelas could only name one famous

Raja, Stsupa, who flourished in the days of Hindu supremacy, and founded this

place. It was afterwards rendered famous by being the residence of ALEMerR for

a short period. The ruins of mosques, sarais, madrissas, and baolies, mahals and

zenanas, indicate its former magnificence under the Musulman sovereignty.

There are many ancient inscriptions, but I selected the accompanying, which I

found upon a famous ghat or passage which has been cut with stupendous labour

* See page 415 and p. 317.

1833.] Asiatie Society. 549

through a sold rock 100 feet high. This ghAt which leads from Chandert through a

sandstone ridge into the adjacent country is in itself a lasting monument of the

gigantic undertakings of the Musulman sovereigns, but to the modern inhabitants

even the name of the monarch who accomplished this great excavation is unknown.

I hope therefore that this inscription will rescue it from oblivion.

“ The inhabitants of this country view our trigonometrical operations with sus-

picion and dread. They cannot comprehend the object of burning lights upon the

summits of distant hills, and they can only atribute it to some black art, or jadu,

by which we wish to take possession of their country. ‘The weather is getting

hot, the thermometer ranging between 88° at sunrise, and 108° at 2 Pp. m. in my

tent.

18th May, 1833, Camp near Chanderi.

The inscription, after insertion of the second Swra of the Koran, called Ayet-

ul-Kursi, sets forth that the lofty gate of Gumti and Kerolf, near the tank, were

erected by Jaman Khan, son of Shér Khan, by order of the Sult4n-us-Salatin

GuIAS-UD-DIN, on the 14th Jumdd-us Sdni a. u. 700 (a. p. 1301).

Physical.

Lettersfrom Lieut. Burr, Engineer, of Allahabad, dated 26th August, and

from Lieut. Newsorr, of Malacca, 11th July,were read, intimating that they

had dispatched shells and geological specimens, which have not yet reach-

ed their destination.

Specimens of coal, lignite, pyrites, &c. from Kyook Phyoo, were pre-

sented in the name of Lieut. Fonry.

[A note on the subject of Lieut. Fotny’s discoveries will appear in our next.]

Specimens of the fossil shells discovered by Dr. H. H. Spry, Correspond-

ing Member, Ph. Cl. in digging a well near Sagar.

These are the specimens alluded to in a notice published in the July number of

the Journal (page 376), announcing the discovery of fossil shells, 17 feet below

the surface, Dr. Spry’s account has not been yet received, it may suffice there-

fore to state that the shells are of one species, all left-handed, and precisely the

same as those discovered by Dr. SpitspuRy, silicified in indurated clay, near Jabal-

pur, and described in the Proceedings of the Society for April, (p. 205) ; these how-

ever are in their natural state, imbedded in a loose cellular wacken, the white granu-

lar appearance of which is derived from silex in a white crumbling state, lining the

numerous cells of the matrix as is often observed in the geodes of zeolite and helio-

trope. Both above and below the shell stratum are beds of wacken, a basaltic clay,

becoming harder below, and more earthy above; the surface being the common

black cotton soil, abounding throughout the trap district. The same shell

deposit will probably be found to extend over a considerable field.

On turning to Dr. Voysry’s description of the shell stratum in the Gawilgarh

hills, a perfect identity is observable in the thickness and nature of the superin-

cumbent and subjacent beds of wacken and basalt: the shells however are de-

scribed by him as conus or voluta, but as they were much broken and compressed,

they were probably not easily recognized, and may have been after all identical

with the present shells. They bear some resemblance to the common ampul-

laria of the tanks and jheels of Upper India, described by Mr. Benson, GLEANINGS,

i. p. 265. The fossil shell however has some specific distinctions, in its more

550 Asiatic Society. . » [Ocr,

oval form, and the constant reversion of the whorls. Should it turn out to be

an ampullaria, it will be a proof of fresh water lakes, co-existent with the emission

of the Upper Sagar trap, and perhaps with the fossil bone deposit, and as both by

Voysry’s testimony and by that of Dr. Spry the shell bed bears all the appearance

of a regular stratum—it will serve as a mark of distinction between the older and

more recent volcanic emissions of that extensive field.

Further specimens of fossil bones and of shell breccia, and the fossil jaw

of an elephant ; also specimens of the rock on which the bones were dis-

covered, near Jabalpur, by Dr. Sprrspury. [A note and illustrative section

will be given in our next. |

A stuffed eagle from Nipal, and a pole-cat, presented by Captain Rox-

BURGH.

Two specimens of the nest of the Tailor bird—by 8. P. Sracy, Esq.

A report from the Curator wassubmitted on the subject of a collection

ofinsects and shells, which had been purchased in anticipation of the Socie-

ty’s sanction, for the Museum, at an expence of Rupees 100. The collection

was made in the Silhet ard Kasya hills, and contains several new species,

particularly one of a paludina, first described by Mr. Benson, in the

first number of the Journal. A paper on the subject of this shell, by Dr.

J. T. Pearson, was read, and the purchase of the collection was sanctioned.

The thanks of the Society were voted for the several contributions of the

evening.

MADRAS LITERARY SOCIETY AND AUXILIARY OF THE ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY.

Thursday, 8th August, 1833.

The Right Honorable Sir F. Apa, K. C. B. Present. Honorable Sir R. PAtmsr,

President, in the Chair.

An able and interesting paper on the rise and early history of the Syrian Chris-

tians on the Malabar Coast, by the Venerable the Archdeacon, was read to the

meeting by the learned author, to whom the thanks of the Society were unanimous-

ly voted. It was further resolved, that the paper in question be adopted by the

Society and be set aside for publication.

It was then proposed by Lieut.-Col. Coomss and seconded by Lieut.-Col. CuLLEen.

That it is desirable with reference to several interesting memoirs and papers

which have already been submitted to the Society, and to others which may here-

after be received, to adopt means for giving them earlier publicity than the neces-

sarily distant and slow publication of the Society’s transactions will admit ; and,

that independently of papers read before the Society, and of notices of their meet-

ings and proceedings, the publication under the auspices of the Society of a month-

ly or quarterly journal, similar to the Asiatic Journal of Calcutta, would, by afford-

ing a suitable vehicle for occasional essays and papers connected with objects of

oriental literature and science be in strict furtherance of the professed object of

the Society, and likely to prove if adequately supported and encouraged, eminently

and extremely useful.,

The foregoing resolution having been discussed, was agreed to, and it was resolv-

ed to refer the same to the Committee of Papers in the Asiatic Department, to

arrange the details and adopt the necessary measures for carrying the plan into

effect. Several works were presented and thanks voted for the same.

1833.] Analysis of Books. 551

Vil.—Anatysis or Books.

Seventeenth volume of Astatic RESEARCHES, or Transactions of the Society insti-

tuted in Bengal for inquiring into the History, the Antiquities, the Arts and Sci-

ences and Literature of Asia. Calcutta, 1832.

This volume is prefaced with an address from the Society to its late Secretary

Mr. H. H. Witsown, upon the occasion of his departure to Europe, which will be

found printed at length in the Journal, vol. i. p. 563.

I. The first paper isa Statistical Report on the Bhotia Mehals of Kemaon, by

G. W. Traili, Esq. Commissioner. It forms a supplement to the more elaborate

report by the same officer on the district of Kemaon, printed in the sixteenth vo-

lume of the Asiatic Researches, 1828.

The Bhot Mehals, forming in extent one-third of the Kemaon province, are

bounded at the north by the table-land of Tibet, on the south they extend to the base

of the Him4laya range, and are irregularly defined, piercing through the barrier

of the snowy range at the passes of the five principal rivers, Mana and Nité, on the

feeders of the Ganges ; Juwar, Darma, and Byanse, on those of the Sarda or Gogra.

These limited valleys, or gorges, are the only productive and inhabitable parts

of Bhot, the rest consisting of snow and barren rock. They are elevated 6000 feet

above the sea, while the peaks around them tower to 20 and 25,000 feet. The Bho-

tias insist that the zone of snow is continually extending, andcutting off passes from

one valley to another, which were formerly passable at least for a few days in the

year. The only accessible roads now follow the direction of the streams, and ow-

ing to avalanches (hzéén gul) and slips (patra) require constant toil for their pre-

servation. The Nit isthe most practicable pass, but at many points ponies and cattle

are forced to be raised or lowered by means of slings passed round their bodies !

There are but 59 villages and 1325 houses, and about 10,000 inhabitants in this

mountainous district, of whom nine-tenths are Bhotias or Tibetans.

For half the year the ground is covered with snow, and an interval of four

months without a fall of snow, forms an uncommonly favorable summer !

Phapar and Ugal, two varieties of buck-wheat, Ud Jao and Jao, beardless and

common barley, are the principal agricultural products of the province. The Pha-

per seem indigenous, as it is found wild on all high mountains. Wheat and Marsa,

a species of Amaranthus, yield an uncertain crop.

*“‘ Turnips and leaks are the only vegetables raised in Bhot! but many useful roots

and herbs are spontaneously produced, among these are, the wild garlic, ce-

lery, rhubarb, frankincense (mari or balchar), laljari, chora, bhotkes, and kathi,

objects of export to Hindustan. The rhubarb is somewhat inferior in its color and

properties to the Turkey, and the Bhotias do not take it inwardly, though they

apply the powder to wounds and bruises : it is also used as an ingredient in the

formation of a red dye, in conjunction with Manjith (very abundant here) and

potash.”

Among the fruits, Mr. TrarLu enumerates the gooseberry, currant, raspberry,

strawberry, and pear. Walnuts and hazlenuts are common, but small; apricots and

peaches do notthrive. Oaks, pines, the celebrated Deodar, and the Suryt or Arbor

vite, with trunks of 20 and 25 feet in circumference, are common ; to them succeed

the Rhododendron, the king pine, the yew, the Naspati, or white Rhododendron,

(used as snuff,) Bindhara or juniper, and above all, the Bhoj (bhuria), or birch on

the very verge of perpetual snow*.

* See note in page 337,

552 Analysis of Books. [Ocr.

The domestic animals are the common hill black cattle, and the Surdgai or Yak of

Tartary ; the Jabu and Garju are prolific mules between these two, very serviceable

for carriage : sheep and goats, used also for burden ; stout ponies, called Gunts, dogs,

(the Buansu, tamed,) and cats. The wild animals are the Barjé or tawny bear; the

Bharal, wild sheep ; Kasturi, musk deer ; the Bhia, a small brown marmot; the

Kukar, ferret, and rats with short tails.

The birds peculiar to Bhot are the falcon and hawk, the Hién-wdl (bird of

snow), ptarmigan ; Miékao, wild pigeon, and Kyang, or chough, with scarlet bill and

legs. The Bhaunr or wild bee builds its nest on the southern aspect of the Hima-

laya.

Of minerals, Mr. TRArLt mentions iron, sulphur, and yellow orpiment. The fossil

bones called Bijli har are chiefly found at the crest of the Nézé pass, full 17,000 feet

high. Hot springs are numerous, and there is reason to suspect that a volcano

exists on the Nanda Devi peak.

We have not space to follow the author into the history and manners of the people

who inhabit this secluded tract: they derive their origin from Tibet but shew an

equal admixture of Hind& in their institutions. It would have been interesting to

have added a vocabulary of words in the unwritten Darma dialect spoken by the

aborigines of the country.

Situated between the Tibetan and Gorkha powers, the Bhots have had to pay

for the protection of both: and being the key of commercial intercourse between

Tartary and Hindustan, the revenue jama, raised from this limited population, on

theintroduction of the British Government, in 1872, Samat, amounted to so large a

sum as Rupees 11,565. By an enlightened policy, the transit duties were soon after

all abolished, and though the direct receipts were thus reduced to one-half, the in-

crease of trade must have amply compensated for the loss.

The principal exports from Bhotia to Tibet or Hiundés (snowland) consists of

grain, calico, hardware, broadcloth, gir, sugar, and timber. The imports are

salt, the natural produce of lakes in Hiundés, 15,000 maunds : tincal or borax, also

the natural produce of a lake; in this article there was much speculation for the

British market, and the import increased from 1500 to 20,000 maunds in 1818-19,

a quantity far exceeding the demand in Eugland. The supply has since fallen to 7

or 8000 mds. The other imports are wool, shawl-wool, gold dust, and a few trifling

articles. As the imports from 1816 to 1821 much exceeded the exports, a large

amount of Furukhabad rupees found their way to Hiundés, of which they have be-

eome the favorite currency.

Mr. Traitt’s able report terminates with a few remarks on the province of

Hiundés, of which a full account has already been given in the Journal in Mr. A.

Csoma’s Geographical Notice of Tibet, (vol. i. p. 124.)

II.—The next paper is an Essay on the mode of performing the arithmetical

operation of the extraction of roots, as practised by the Arabs, and given in the

Ayoun-ool-Hisab, by John Tytler. At first sight this paper appears rather lengthy,

but its subject is one which it is difficult to compress so as to render intelligible, and

indeed without a diagram it is by no means easy to render it intelligible at all.

The Binomial formula of any power (a -++ 4)” is ar -+-na"—l$+ dePsl.

an—2}? &c....... 6% This may be considered as consisting of two terms a” and

n.n—I1

RES 6S B? ..,. 8%. Supposing a given number to consist

1833.] Analysis of Books. 553

of more than a figures, and consequently to be of the form eX 10” +r then if

u® be the nearest approximate x” power to e and if ex10%—w" x10" = v and

n.n—l

u” x10” be supposed to expound a” and v-+r to expound na”—! b +

an— j? ...,.n, the complete nth root of ex 10” +r willbe found by finding an

approximate nth power toe, and then seeking such a number as when substituted

for db in nav—'! 8 + a an— 0? .... b” will render the sum of this ex-

pression and the product of the nearest nth power already found into 10”, less or

not greater than ex10”-+r or (a+b)”. And this operation is to be repeated

according to the number of figures in (a+)”.

Our books of arithmetic contain nothing farther than the above statement, and

leave the mode of finding the second number of the root, and of its successive invo-

lutions and multiplications into its proper co-efficients, entirely to the student.

The Arabian arithmeticians, with a good deal of ingenuity certainly, (whether

well or ill directed is another question,) have invented a table or diagram in

which, by a sort of mechanical process, the sought number 4 by the bare process

of multiplication into one figure, and addition to the number above it, is succes-

sively involved to all its powers, multiplied into all its co-efficients, and the sum of

the whole found.

The Arabians give to their diagram the quaint name of Shukul-i-Mumburee, or

Pulpit, or, as Mr. TyTLeER more grandly translates it, Anabathroidal diagram. The

figure consists of ascending steps like those of the stairs of a Mohammadan pulpit.

The etymologies of by far the greater part of our technical terms are not more ra-

tional.

The Arabian operation, in fact, is a very careful mode of finding the result of

n. N—

nan— 6+ Fae a™—?}.... 6% so as not to repeat any of the stepsor per-

form the same calculation twice over. With our present improved methods,

it is seldom that the arithmetical extraction of roots of high powers is

performed; but were it often required, we should soon find the necessity of

attention to this matter, and of some system in arranging our operations, so as to

avoid doing the same thing over and over again.

Such mechanical contrivances have been employed by the greatest Mathemati-

cians: it will be sufficient to instance the celebrated square, almost on tke prin-

ciples of a magic square, invented by Sir I. Newron, forsolving equations by means

of converging series- A mind curious in tracing analogies, might discover in the

Arabic anabathroidal diagram, some traces of that reasoning which must have led

to the discovery of the wonderful calculating machine of Mr. BaBBaGe.

To give an idea of the Arabian method, we shal! here extract the approximate

6th root of 166,571,800, which is the two first steps of the example given by Mr.

Tytrier. In the original diagram longitudinal lines are drawn between each two

figures: for those we have substituted dots, and the several steps of the operation

are numbered I. (which is at the bottom) II. III. &c. To abbreviate, let 10 be

denoted by ¢, 166 by e, 571800 by 7, 2 the approximate 6th root of 166 by a and

3 by 4, and the effect of the several operations will be as marked in the following

diagram,

554 Analysis of Books. ' (Our.

166 =e

V1}. 64 = V X a=a‘ or 6th power of approximate root of e or first

SS Subtrahend.

VIT.|102571800—= (e—a) $° + r = Resolvend.

XLVI]. 84035889 XLV X 3 =6 a gb + 15 at ot 2? + 200° g B +15

pes biden st bod, a ¢? b++ 6a 0° + J or second Subtrahend.

XLV.}. 28011963= XLIV + XVII = 6 a’ ¢* + 15 atot bd 4-20 a o° B? 4

1 @¢?h+ 6a 5+ + B.

XLIV.|..8811963= XLII X 3 = 15 at ot b + 20 a? gO? 4 15 a? 9? +

6ag bi + 3B.

¥ XVIT|. 1925. <. —— VEX O° Gia?

Ky Moe aoa XK Vier Wi 6.8)

KV 160. ccc = XV na eae

oH eee =WVxXa=a’'.

XLIIL.|. .2937321== XLIT + XXV = 15 at 9 + 20 a G9 b+ 15a? g2? +

Lenk 6 ag be + dt.

XLIL'...537321= X3=WEOB+1 age + 6 ag B+ Dt

*XXV.|..240....= XXIV X gt = 15 at ot. peop Sk

XXIV |240......= XXIM + XIV= 15 a’,

XXII. 160!. P= XXX a= 10%

KV le SOl. est = XII +1V=5 at.

XIT.|; 64....5.= XM & a4 at.

TVA Gee cece == Xan a

XLL|...179107== XL + XXXI= 20 a? g? + 15 a? ¢? b +6 2 3

Kenta Seles ete KER EL Sues aoa

* XXXL)... 160... XXX X g? = 20 a? ¢*.

XXX(160... 0.3 = XXIX + XXII = 20 a’.

SO bagel UBSRaSo = XXVIII * a= 10 a’.

TI GUE ace = KAL-- X= 10 a’.

KOK |S4ASis eae ==/XX 3) a == 6.0°.

SAIL bexsonGOr = XI + Il = 4a’.

MEP «ens ee.

Hie Secies Sa Xa a;

— -

XXXIX,|.....6369= XXXVIII + XXXV=—15 a? ¢? + 6a96+4 07.

WR KVITE I Oo. 369= XXXVII X 6=6a96+ 28.

*XXXV,| 260.0 XXIV 407 15 je?"b>

YOON GEA ago ee = XXXIII -- XXVIII = 15 a’.

SO-O-GII Oe Fae = XXXII * a@=5 a’.

XXVII 40 eeter te = XXVIII + XX = 10 a’.

MRTG Nhe — XXVI X¥ a=4 a’.

XX. 24.0000052 XIX 4X = 6 a.

ORK alicgl Zistesescuete — XVIII & a= 3 a.

KEE ee vevetareie = 1X +11 = 3 a’.

TDelbaGhosorsese bless ss 2 0c

18) Fe: Se =Ixl=axa=a’.

* XXXVIII...... 123—= XXXVIxo¢+3=6ao+48.

XXXVI. mpeatats — XXXIl+a=6a.

XK Me Ose eee = XXVI + a=5a.

WXME loos: cals = XVIII + a=4a.

VILE cs.(Oieito ober =Vili+a=3a.

WL. 4o ws ee hb One +e = 22:

1.|..2......== @ or approximate root of e.

___ The only parts that require explanation are those steps of the operation marked

with an asterisk. In these it is to be remembered, that if there be a given row-of

figures as 8811963, and there be added to, or subtracted from it, another row, so that

1833.] Analysis of Books. 555°

the units of the second may be under the figure in the nth place of the first, the

tens of the second under the (n + 1)th place of the first, the hundreds under place

n + 2 &c. this is in reality adding or subtracting the product of the second row

by 10"—1, Thus 8811963

192

8813883 is in reality 8811963 +- 192 x 10.

Again 8811963

192

8831163—=8811963 -+- 192 y 10?

and so on to 8811963

192

28011963 = 8811963-4- 192 10°.

The course of the other operations, by which the co-efficients of the Binomial

Theorem are formed by successive additions of the several orders of figurate num-

bers, will be obvious to any one who takes the trouble of tracing them in the order

of the diagram: for the mode of repeating the whole operation, so as to find roots

of many figures, we must refer to the original paper: a little consideration however

of the diagram already given will render that obvious also.

The method here detailed gives no more than the integral figures of the root,

and the Arabs being unacquainted with decimal fractions, could go no farther. To

remedy this, they employ a formula for finding a fraction, to be added to the

integral part of the root, so as to give a nearer approximation.

Their formula is this; Let m be the approximate uth root of M and M— mz = +

thenf“m a+ sean ak | will be less than M and consequently m-+ Crave

is a nearer approximate mth root of M, as may be easily proved. In this case r and

(m+1)” —m* are found by the last revolution of operations in the Anabathroidal

Diagram.

This formula however is imperfect, and when applied to high powers, pro-

duces great errors : in the square it never can be greater than , but in seeking, for

example, the 6th root of 396, the error is more than 1527. This imperfection the

Arabians appear to have been anxious to remedy : their method is this ; if in

the above formula n=2, that is, if the root sought be the square root, then

—, becomes m “+

r r

Pes 1) 8 —m 2m +1

square of this and M may approximate to 4. To remedy this, the Arabian arith-

and the difference between the

d of m+ = assume the formul ‘nose

ae : m

meticians instea or m 2m+ 1 ale rn i 4m+-1 pp

2 or 2 ‘ee 2

then (m+) that is m +r—(m-+3 ae eet ice

Now this expression is either positive or negative. If positive, Mr. TyTLEr shews,

it never can exceed 31; ; if negative, then since a negative deficiency is an excess, this

shews that the assumed root is greater than the truth, and in this case the excess of

its square above M willincrease according to the value of m, and will approximate to 3.

‘ These results the author easily produces by the application of fluxions. The

puzzle is, to understand by what reasoning the Arabians without any means of

3c 2

556 Analysis of Books. {Ocr.

this kind, hit upon a convenient formula such as m +igias Though the

m+ 1

formula, when found, appears simple, yet the difficulty of actually finding it, with

their limited means, must have been very great. It was like the Druids elevating

the immense blocks of Stonehenge without mechanics. Most probably it was

discovered by long and laborious tentation.

The author then discusses the effects of assuming as the approximate square

re%

2mz2+1

to the Arabs, we omit, and shall sum up the whole in his words—

“We may hence form some judgment how much the old arithmeticians must have

been perplexed and retarded by the labour of long multiplication. We, who enjoy the

benefits of the great discovery of Logarithms, can now scarcely form an estimate of the

difficulties with which they had to conteud from this want, and the facilities which we

enjoy from their use. While, therefore, the Arabian method of extraction may inspire us

with more gratitude to Lord Narrer, we must not too hastily condemn it as uselessly

laborious, till we can show that, without a knowledge of his discovery, we could have

more happily succeeded in the facilitating and abbreviation of calculation. Should, after

all these considerations, the intention of the Arabian operation be thought of little value,

and the labour employed to accomplish it misused, yet the artful contrivances by which

it is attained, and the skilful adaptation for this purpose of the simple principle of the

variation of the signification of symbols from the variation of their situation, must, I

think, in justice, always cause the Pulpit Diagram to be considered a deserving monu-

ment of Arabic ingenuity.”

The Author concludes his essay—

“With an acknowledgment of my obligations to my very intelligent friend Dewan

Kanu JzEE of Patna ; by him I was furnished with the extract of the Ayoun-ool-Hisab.

His treatise of Arithmetic formerly mentioned*, and his oral explanations enabled me

to comprehend the obscure and studied brevity of the Arabian Author ; and from the

same sources I derived those observations on the fractional part of the root which form

the basis of the concluding paragraphs of the present Essay.”

The treatise of Arithmetic here alluded to, and named by its author, the Khiza-

nut-ool-Ilm, is described in vol. xiii. of the Researches, p. 466. It is avery large

work, consisting of three parts : first, anaccount of Arabian Mathematical Science ;

next, of that of the Hindus, and lastly, as much of the European as the author was

acquainted with. The whole, we are happy to say, is in the course of printing by the

Committee of Public Instruction, and will, when complete, form an invaluable store

of information respecting Oriental Mathematics.

The European part of the Khizanut-ool-Ilm consists of two sections: first, a

complete translation by the Dewan of Bonnycastle’s Algebra; secondly, an extract

consisting of acollection of Geometrical Problems from the papers of the celebrated

Turuzzoou Hosain Kuaun of Delhi. This person during his life, was considered

we believe, the best Mohammadan mathematician in India, and he appears to have

employed his time in translating European mathematical works into Arabic ; after

his death, which took place some years ago, Government, we are told, made strong

efforts to obtain his MSS. but in consequence of legal disputes between his rela-

tions these were unsuccessful, and the fate of the papersis probably not known. It

is much to be wished that they could be procured.

* See Essay on the Binomial Theorem, vol. xiii. of the Researches, p. 466. The Dewan here men.

tioned is since dead.

root the formula m + in which z is indefinite ; but this, as foreign

1833.] Miscellaneous. 557

The above facts, the pains taken by Dewan Kanu Jer, in translating from Eng-

lish, which he understood very imperfectly, and in which (as he acknowledges) he

was greatly assisted by the kindness of Henry Dovetas, Esq. of Patna, and his ex-

tracts from the papers of the Delhi mathematician, are strong proofs, notwithstand-

ing the present fashionable doctrines, of the value set by Natives on translations

from English works, when well chosen and judiciously executed.

Turuzzoot Hosain Kuaun’s choice of Arabic for the vehicle of his translations

is also a proof that intelligent Natives do not see the advantages of proscribing that

language so clearly as we.

[To be Continued.]

Il.—Madras Journal of Literature and Science, published under the auspices of

the Madras Literary Society and Auxiliary Royal Asiatic Society, edited by

the Secretary, No. 1, October 1833, price to Subscribers 3 Rs. per quarter.

We cannot but feel highly complimented by the appearance of a new periodical

at Madras, professedly founded on the model of our own journal, and imitating

our arrangements even to the style of the title page, the price, the number of pages,

and the gratuitous conduct of the editorial department. Welook uponit not asa

rival but as a powerful auxiliary, and we hail it as a guarantee of the revival of

the efforts of the Madras Literary Society. The publication of Researches in an

occasional quarto volume at distant periods has been adduced as a bar rather than

an incentive to contributions of a learned nature, while the limited sale of such

works makes the printing charge fall heavy on a small Society: this has been

partially felt in Calcutta; and it has led at Bombay, as at Madras, to the absorp-

tion ofthe institutions there into branches of the Royal Association at home. Under

the new system however of giving rapid publication, free of cost, to short interesting

and ephemeral papers (in which the Bombay Geographical Society may also easily

join by a similar journal for the west of India), the independence and orientality

of each might still be assured ; while by a combination of the means and labours

of the three Indian Societies, a volume of Researches might simultaneously be

kept in hand at Calcutta for their more erudite and lengthened communications. We

haye not room to notice the contents of the Madras Journal at present, but we shall

not scruple to extract matter that will be interesting to our own readers. We sin-

cerely regret the untimely end of Lieut.-Colonel Coomss, whom we perceive to

have been one of the chief promoters of its establishment.

VIII. —Miscellaneous.

Circular Instructions from the Geological Society, for the Collection of Geological

specimens, with a plate.

[We beg the attention of our Indian geologists to these simple instructions ; to

which we have only to add that numbers should be put on the stones, where

possible, as paper labels are soon, destroyed by insects in this country.]

1. The Geological Society begs to impress upon the minds of all collectors, that

the chief objects of their research should be specimens of all those rocks, marls, or

clays, which contain shells, plants, or any sort of petrifaction.

2. The petrifactions should, if possible, be kept united with portions of the rock,

sand, or clay, in which they are found; it being more desirable that the mass should

558 Geological Instructions. ‘[Ocr.

be examined carefully when brought to England, than that any separation of the

shells should be attempted at the time of their collection. This injunction, however,

does not apply to those cases in which the shells fall readily from their surrounding

matrix ; but, in this event, great care must be taken of the petrifactions, by rolling

them in paper, or some soft material.

3. If several varieties of stone are seen in the same cliff or quarry, and-particu-

larly if they contain any petrifactions, specimens of each should be taken, and

numbered according to their order of succession; marking the uppermost No. 1.,

and thence descending with Nos. 2, 3, &c., making as correct an estimate as time

will permit of the thickness of the beds. None of these specimens need be more

than 3 in. square, and one and a half or two thick. (fig. 1.) i

4. If the rocks are stratified, that is, divided into beds, state whether they are

horizontal, inclined, or twisted. If inclined, observe pretty nearly at what angle,

and to what point of the compass they dip; if twisted, a sketch, however slight,

is desirable. —N.B. The true dip can seldom be ascertained without examining

the beds on more sides than one. (fig. 2.)

_ 5. One kind of rock is occasionally seen to cross and cut through the beds of

another. In such a case, observe whether the beds are in the same plane on each

side of the intruding rock ; if not, mark the extent of the disturbance, and also if

there be any difference in the nature of the stone of which the beds are composed,

at those points where they touch the intruding rock. Take specimens from the

junction, and make a sketch of it. (fig. 3.)

6. Where there are wells, get a list of the beds sunk through in digging them ;

specifying the thickness of each stratum in its order, from the surface downwards,

7. In volcanic districts, procure a list of the volcanoes now or recently in action,

and of those which are extinct ; stating their position, their distance from the sea

or any great lake ; the extent, nature, and, if possible, the age, of particular streams

of lava, or the relative age of different streams: also whether the lava currents

conform to the valleys, or are seen at different heights above the present rivers ;

and also if any gravel beds be discoverable beneath the streams of lava. (fig. 4.)

8. Note the names of all places known to contain coal, bitumen, salt, alabaster,

metallic ores, or any valuable minerals, specifying their extent, and the nature of

the rocks in which they occur; but do not bring away large quantities of iron ore,

Spar, salt, &c.

9. In cases of coal-pits, specimens of the coal itself and of the beds passed

through to obtain it (especially when plants have been found) will be valuable.

State whether limestone, iron ore, or springs of bitumen are found near the coal;

and if the limestone contains shells, collect abundance of them.

10. Make particular inquiries whether, in digging gravel-pits, or beds of sur-

face clay, mud, and sand, the workmen are in the habit of finding any bones of

quadrupeds ; and obtain as many of them as possible, selecting particularly teeth

and vertebre.

11. Search also for bones in cracks of rock, and in caverns. In the latter, the

lowest pits or hollows are most likely to contain bones; and if the solid rock be

covered with a crust.of spar or marl, break through it, and dig out any bones, horns,

or pebbles from beneath. (fig. 5.)

12. Observe if the surface of the country be strewed over with large blocks of

stone ; remark whether these blocks are angular or rounded, and whether they are

1833.]. Miscellaneous. 559

of the same or a different nature from the stratum on which they are laid. If the

latter, endeavour to trace them to their native bed. Note the different heights at

which gravel is found, and whether or not it is composed of the same rocks as the

adjoining country.

13. Nautical collectors are requested to separate and preserve any shells or

corals which may be brought up, either with the lead or the anchor; noting the

depth and the locality.

14. On coasts where there is a considerable ebb tide, and where the shore con-

sists of rocks or clay containing fossils, some of the best of these petrifactions

may be looked for, by breaking up with a pick-axe the shelving beds exposed at

low water.

15. In making sections, or memorandums, distinguish well upon the coast,

between masses which have simply slipped and fallen away, and the real cliff itself,

16. When drift wood is met with at sea, collect pieces of it: note the longitude

and latitude, the distance from the nearest land, and the direction of the current by

which it has been borne. Examine well the state of the floating mass, and see

whether any roots or leaves be attached to it.

17. Every specimen should be labelled on the spot, or as soon after collection

as possible, and then rolled in strong paper, or any soft material, to protect its

edges.

18. A heavy hammer to break off the specimens from the rock, and a smaller

one to trim them into shape, are indispensable. If the larger hammer have a pick

at one end, it will be found very useful in digging up and flaking off those thir

shelly beds which usually contain the best preserved shells, &c. A chisel or two

are also desirable.

19. The recommendation expressed in the instruction No. 1, may be repeated :

—That it should be a general maxim with geological collectors to direct their prin-

cipal attention to the procuring of fossil organic remains, both animal and vegeta-

ble. These are always of value when brought from distant countries, especially

when their localities are carefully marked ; but when the rocks contain no petri-

factions, very small specimens are sufficient.

2.—Mirrors of Fusible Alloy.

Berze ius has found that by the unionof nineteen parts of lead and twenty-nine

of tin, fusible alloy is produced, which affords, on cooling in thin plates, very bright

surfaces. A convex lens dipped several times into the melted alloy, yielded from

the surface dipped, a concave mirror of great lustre. This, mounted upon plaster,

was preserved for some time in the air untarnished. Dust destroys these mirrors,

which will not bear wiping. —Traité de Chimie.

3.—Liverpool and Manchester Railway.

It appears from the account of the Company for the half year ending the 31st

December last, that notwithstanding a diminution of nearly 74,000 in the number

of passengers during July and August, (supposed to have been caused by the cho-

lera), the loss on this account had, in a considerable degree, been made up by the

greater quantity of merchandize conveyed, anda reduction in the general expenses

of management. The total number of passengers during the half year, was 182,823

—the receipts £43,420. The merchandize conveyed amounted to 86,642 tons—

receipts £37,781. The expenses, including £12,646 for repairs of engines,

amounted to £48,278, leaving a clear profit of £37,781, which enables the Com-

pany to make a dividend, for the half year, of four guineas per share.—Mech. Mag.

Seen eee ST aac aaa

oA)

ise]

oO ‘gurerd ayy uo Ajayeapout olour pue ‘fedIN UT IEF SEM PITY & YI9Z 941 UO “UOHeANp J9}L0Ys JO PU dyeIOpOUT 9IOUT saoetd aures oy} 38 poouatiedxs sem yooys

et rayjoue WISI 9y3 WO £ ‘92p “peqeyeTiV ‘S[IIY SeIOY OY} “JOOUILL ‘euyed ‘IAYSUO| 3e AjosoAss G1OUI pue ‘vz{NI[eD UT 4JOJ sem OxENbDYZIea Ue “WV “UU Gp “YZ Je YIP 9Y} UO

6 “loyeaM oUuy *suyRo } sore | 18 16 per | 9% | 9fG | 9°34 L'08 | 8.98 |S°E6 | wes |8‘8L | GTB | TSZ° |o98* | O6LS ‘ueoy

LS *azey op “ys*D | ‘Oo "Nt *EH*N LL gs fits | cit] 0% | om P22 | Les 18°88 10°18 | abt E26° | 1e6‘ | 8005 0g

*9zey “11119 op op ‘ON “AA ‘N 8 06 {9.9 | oor | 0% | Ue | L622 | o°S8 JOG |o°ss | T'9L | 926" | E8Bt | 66‘ 66

“ays ‘wimo ‘yuo «wind |\a1 “NM NU MU 68 68 f9'9 | 06 | 09 | SE hn Se pate ae 8*cL 6665 88° | 000' 82

“IMU ‘UL op op fe) ‘oO ‘u 8 06 [Eh 16 | 09 | $e | 1'9Z | 0°28 1S°86 10%cg | FOL | BEG. | O8BBS | Sz0‘

“uid “119 op op “ul “oO 0 +8 06 feo | v6 | 0f9 | Ofe 18‘8Z | 8°88 | 1°46 |s‘98 | L'8Z] 296‘ | OG. | OGus a

*1e9]9 op op ‘oO u 2's 98 o6 fos | ae | Lie | le | 2°68 | 9688 |9°26 |a'98 | L°9L} F00% | Te6< | FrOS GB

“poo reayo op op “a s ‘Oo ras) 06 fa9 | oor] 19 | A6t | a‘ss | 9°68 |S‘F6 | 0°28 | 1°8L} G96. | OT6S | I665 $Z

‘UND “110 op *1va{o “a s ‘s +8 98 [ob | 96 | BZ | 3% | a6L | L°68 |0°FG \S°Z8 | 0°08 | ca6. | SEBS | 006" &%

*1ea]9 op “Boy ‘S ‘Ss ‘oO €8 1g |i | 9% | HL | 0% FITS | 0°06 (8°FG 16°28 | S08 F OSB’ | OBZ. | FEBS BS

F “T1110 op op s S ‘0 06 cg fem | 86 | SB | BT f0'%8 | 3°06 10°96 |S°28 | 3°61} 898° | BI8° | G06. 1

a op op op ‘S ze) ‘s 98 g8 ise | 96 | o°L | Lr Pes | G05 (E86 15°28 | E61 | ocB* | GOL. | 88° 02

2 op “ead op ‘S ‘3 ‘Ss 18 16 |i | sor] oO | St | ITS | S606 |9°F6 10°48 | BG f eae | FOL‘ | ages 6I

22 op aug op 'S i 08 68 fee | sO | 09 | Im | 0'8 | 0°06 | T'F6 |6%98 | OTB] co8é | OEZ" | 9c8° 81

a op “ynurnd op 0 u "0 08 06 }9Z | 9101 | eZ | 8's | TSB | 0G |8°26 [E98 | BIB | OL | BaZ< | Z9BS II

= op op op 0 ‘N "0 98 26 |2Z'9 | 8 | Oe | Le | 8's | L’88 | 1°96 |6%28 | OF8 | 9aBt | OSZ* | LOB. OL

Re op “rea[o “Te9]9 'O'm~ 20048 ‘0 4 18 76 pro | L9 | bh | 6% Pore | 1°28 |6°96 [98 | Lé08f OPL* | PELs Legs | ST

= eee ainerng a 508 * = = 96°T | 88 6 j8r | €9 | OF ue 9°%8 | 1°98 Hes £°68 | BBL f oth orl‘ 9186 PL

. . *. * . . . * * if € ‘ e € a6 fee € € OF

Ss op op *JSv919A0 | 0 ‘OF “soso 96 16 jor | Ve | 8% | 91 Feed | Side 8°28 |B8%e8 | 008 | 9eR* | EEL. | 9aBF Il

BS B ak eee he OE Oe a as & ‘u | FIO | 96 86 FOS | Bh | ste | BT | efog | St¥B |9/68 9°28 | O°LL | OBL. | 999% | TOL’ IHGOe FT OF

SP coh: Meee mR Se LL [ee Lae he Les Uae | See lo loves | Le | er: | oe oon (uae | 8

s “ured “yerjs‘uund = Op ‘A MS 0 | 86'S | 96 oo VL «| eh | 19 | Te Woes | P18 |O°F6 [0°88 | BIB] ELL. | GILS | OLS |rPLs FZ

= “reayo op op “a ‘a An 18 26 [to | 22 | oe | Se | Teg | 6°06 |9°F6 |2'98 | O'I8} BBL | OL9* | FOB. |FHLs | 9

— sramoys op op 0 ‘ou 98 zo jee | 28 | 8¢ | oe Pesce | B’06 |°C0T 0°28 | O'S | TFL! | Ee9° | OFLS |zoos | ¢

op op op ‘0 ‘a ‘0 18 16 {9% | ‘2 | o°¢ | GT J o‘es | S'88 |S°001) 0°28 | 6°62 | cBo* | BBa* | B69" |Eco FF

op 8°) aU op “a gee a "ul £6 76 Jee | 1S | 9% | 0% | Big | S98 | P26 [6°98 | a62} cB9* | TE9* | P69" joS9* €

op SIOMOYs‘I[2 OP iOS. wesOwL a0 £6 c6 lee jos | ee | 0% PSite | P28 {S{1OT|Z‘98 | 0608 F Loo | Bess | SFOS oss Fs

*rvayo ‘uu UND *teaTD |} “OL fc ae eS t6 | 96 Joe | Lh | GE | ET Fits | Ie (86 (6's |) OTS} GI9* | IIS‘ | GOO‘ (Ole | 1

] pe 4 iele)ele le le lele |e [pele jsele |e le

: g ptlet= ce Se Pepe EELS Re cled 2 ee eerie es (ered ole af

ep 5 B leh 5 3 @ S S os S oe ° = : eye ee eee |S S 5

5 > = 5 ; = 2 x > fs | > |e |e mo jes rp |PBIS | > ip Bo

oa cS om v8 2 |e fe le |e |e be be les] es lees fe | = Po

——— = iS ° ° . . . . . ° . B

i ; , *1a}9Ul *JOJOUIOULISY,], 3 “YIP oCE 0

TOUIOM. Pur ured -o1sAY Ie YH] Q[Nq-ystoul Jo uorsserdaq ATVEOM) Wise aMOUeuE, poonper qoyouloreg

“eegT ‘uagoj9Q fo yjuow ayz sof ‘vzynazvy ‘a0lQ hnssp ay. yo yday ‘saqsibay 1091h0]0.100,9

560

Jourm. As. SOC. i Vol. PLA.

}

nee am

yA LUN y i hs gt 1 ke ml :

ere: «Se Pa) Tne Ma lye

ee SN hee le \

r TA eyes alSe IY et

) fl } ay \ he opera i

i net 4 , e iL yl i | ~ i ia : ry

We shes SY (Os “TAA AS MAAN

\) Pea tt Fm _-_ > x, Sasa y

y a NS ve ax aN —— SS

vy iM

non AUN i Ns

‘se

“My,

Gy %

yy =.

Wins

gus Prrsep s0ule

JOURNAL

THE ASIATLC SOCIETY.

No. 23.—November, 1833. -

I.—On the Colossal Idols of Bamian. By Lieut, Alexander Burnes,

Bombay Army.

On the 23rd, we reached Bamian, which is celebrated for its idols

and excavations. These caves are to be seen in all parts of the valley

for about eight miles, and they still form the residence of the greater

part of the population. They are called ‘‘ Sinaach’” by the people. A

detached hill in the middle of the valley is quite honey-combed with

them, and brings to our recollection the Troglodytes of ALEXANDER’s

historians: it is called the city of -Ghulghula, and consists cf a con-

tinued succession of caves in every direction, which are said to have

been the work of a king named Judal.. The hill of Bamian is formed

of hardened clay and pebbles, which renders its excavation a matter of

little difficulty, but the great extent to which this has been carried excites

attention. Caves are found on both sides of the valley, but the greater

number are on the northern side, where we found the idols : altogether

they form an immense city. Labourers are frequently hired to dig in the

ruins, and their labours are rewarded by rings, reliques, coins, &c. They

generally bear Cufic inscriptions, and are of a later date than the age of

Munammep. These excavated caves or houses have no pretensions to

architectural ornament, being no more than squared holes in the hill :

some of them are finished in the shape of a dome, and have a carved

frieze below the point from which the cupola springs. The inhabitants

tell many remarkable tales of the caves of Bamidn, one in particular,

that a mother lost her child among them, and recovered it after a lapse

of 12 years! The tale need not be believed, but it will convey an

idea of the extent of the works. There are excavations on all sides of

the idols, and in the larger one half a regiment might find quarters,

562 On the Colossal Idols of Bamidn. [Nov.

Bamian is subject to Cabul, and would appear to be a place of high

antiquity ; itis perhaps the city which ALexaNnpzER founded at the base of

Paropamisus before entering Bactria. The country indeed from Ca-

bul to Balkh is yet styled ‘ Bakhtar-zamin,’ or the Bakhtar coun-

try. The name of Bamidin is said to be derived from its elevation,

‘ Bam,’ signifying balcony, and the affix ‘ian,’ country. It may be

so called from the caves rising over one another in the rock.

There are no reliques of Asiatic antiquity which have more roused the

curiosity of the learned than the colossal idols of Bamian. Itis fortunately

in my power to present a drawing of these images. They consist of two

figures, a male and a female; the one named Sarsat, the other Suaw

Mama. The figures are cut in alto relievo in the face of the hill,

and represent two colossal images. The male is the largest of the two,

and about 120 feet high. It occupies a front of 70 feet, and the niche

in which it is excavated extends about that depth into the hill. This

idol is mutilated, both legs having been fractured by cannon, and the

countenance above the mouth is destroyed. The lips are very large,

the ears long and pendent, and there appears to have been a tiara on

the head. The figure is covered by a mantle, which hangs over it in

all parts, and seems to have been formed of a kind of plaster, and the

image has been studded in various places with wooden pins to assist in

fixing it. The figure itself is without symmetry, and there is no ele-

gance in the drapery. The hands which held out the mantle have been

both broken.

The female figure is more perfect than the male, and has been

dressed in the same manner. It is cut out of the same hill, at the

distance of 200 yards, but is not half the size. One couldnot discover

that her ladyship was not a brother or a son of the twin colossus, but

for the information of the natives. The drawing which is attached

will convey better notions of these idols than a more elaborate de-

scription. The square and arched apertures which appear in the

plate represent the entrance of the different caves or excavations, and

through these there is a road which leads up to the summit of both

the images. In the lower caves the caravans to and from Cabul

generally halt, and the upper ones are used as granaries by the com-

munity.

Ihave now to note the most remarkable curiosity in the idols of

Bamiin. The niches of both have been at one time plastered and or-

namented with paintings of human figures, which have now disappeared

from all parts but that immediately over the heads of the idols. Here

the colours are as vivid and the paintings as distinct as in the Egyp-

1833.] On the Colossal Idols of Bamian- 563

tian tombs. There is little variety in the design of these figures, which

represent the bust of a woman with a knot of hair on the head and a

plaid half over the breast, the whole surrounded by a halo, and the head

again by another halo. In one part I could trace a group of three

female figures following each other. The execution of the work is

bad, and by no means superior to the pictures which the Chinese make

in imitation of an European artist.

The traditions of the people regarding the idols of Bamidn are

vague and unsatisfactory. It is stated that they were excavated

about the Christian era by atribe of kaffirs (infidels), to represent a

king named Sazsau and his wife, who ruled ina distant country, and

was worshipped for his greatness. The Hindas assert them to have

been excavated by the Pandis, and that they are mentioned in the

great epic poem of the Mahabharat. Certain it is that the Hindis

on passing these idols at this day hold up their hands in adoration,

though they do not make offerings, which may have fallen into disuse

since the rise of Islam. I am aware that a conjecture attributes

these images to the Buddhists, and the long ears of the great figure

make it probable enough. I do not trace any resemblance to the co-

lossal figures in the caves of Salsette near Bombay, but the shape of

the head is not unlike that of the great trifaced idol of Elephanta.

At Manikeala, in the Panjab, near the celebrated ‘ Tope,’ I found a

glass or cornelian antique which exactly resembles this head. In the

paintings over the idols I discover aclose resemblance to the images of

the Jain temples in Western India, in mount Abé, and at Girvan and

Palitana in Katywar, I judge the figures to be female, but they are very

rude, though the colours in which they are sketched are bright and

beautiful. There is nothing in the images of Bamidn to evince any

great advancement in the arts, or what the most common people

might not have executed with success, They cannot certainly be referred

to the Greek invasion, nor are they mentioned by any of the histori-

ans of ALEXANDER’s expedition. I find in the history of Timour.ang,

that both the idols and exvavations of Bamidn are mentioned by

SHeri’F up Din, his historian. The idols are described to be so high that

none of the archers could strike the head. They are called Lag and

Manas, two celebrated idols which are mentioned in the Koran; and

the writer also alludes to the road which led up to them from the in-

terior of the hill. There are no inscriptions at Bamidn to guide us

in their history, and the whole of the later traditions are so mixed up

with Axi, the son-in-law of MunamMeEpD, who we well know never came

into this part of Asia, that they are most unsatisfactory, It is by no

3D 2

564 Account of the Earthquake at Kathmandi. [Nov.

means improbable that we owe the idols of Bamidan to the caprice of

some person of rank, who resided in this cave-digging neighbourhood,

and sought for an immortality in the colossal images which we have

now described.

II.— Account of the Earthquake at Kathmandé. By A. Campbell, Esq.

Assistant Surgeon, attached to the Residency.

On the 26th of August last, about 6 o’clock p. m. a smart shock of

earthquake was experienced throughout the valley, and the neigh-

bouring hills, westward in the valley of Nayakot and Dény Byas ;

eastward at Panout?, Baneppa, Dulkele, and Pholam Chék ; and south-

ward at Chitlong, Chisagarhy, Etounda, and Bissoulea. The shock

was preceded by arumbling noise from ‘the eastward. The motion

of the earth was undulatory, as of a large raft floating on the ocean,

and the direction of the swell was from north-east towards south-

west. The shock lasted about 1 minute. At 10-45* p. m. of the

same day another shock of equal duration and of the same character

occurred, and at 10-58, a third and most violent one commenced: at

first it was a gentle motion of the earth, accompanied by a slight rum-

bling noise; soon however it increased to a fearful degree, the earth

heaved as a ship at sea, the trees waved from their roots, and houses

moved to and fro far from the perpendicular. Horses and other cat-

tle, terrified, broke from their stalls, and it was difficult to walk with-

out staggering as a landsman does on ship-board. This shock lasted

for about three minutes in its fullest force. And the following is as cor-

rect an estimate as can be ascertained (without official documents) of

the damage done by it to life and property throughout the great valley

and neighbouring districts of Nipal. It is believed that the two first

shocks were harmless.

* Not by chronometer, but by a good-going clock, which stopped during the great

shock. Its pendulum vibrated north and south. [If the clock wasset by the

sun, the shock must have been 51m. earlier than in Calcutta.—Ep.]

+ Doctor Campbell’s subsequent letters inform us, that there have been frequent

shocks of less violence since the above, many of which (on the 4th and 18th Oct.

particularly) were felt at Calcutta, Monghyr, Chittagong, Allahabad, and Jabalpar,

nearly simultaneously. On the 26th Oct. he writes, “ At 10h. 45m. a. mM. a sharp

shock of the dangerous or undulating kind occurred. The embassy has returned

from China, and I am informed that the great shock was not felt at Lassa, so that

it would appear to have been confined to India within the Himalaya,’”’—Eb.

1833. ] Account of the Earthquake at Kathmandi. 565

Number of Lives lost and Buildings destroyed.

3|2| 3

Places. = Bs Temples and other Buildings.

Mare 1s

————

British Residency

grounds, ... none|none| 1 none.

City of Kathmand4, 60 | 38 | 400, Two pillars, built by the minister, each up-

—. wards of 100 feet high: the large Temple of

South of cree oml |\Jagarnath, built by Ran Bahadur, after seven

Patan, 6 | 25 | 285 years labour, and about a dozen temples, de-

Sano aon, Mada: ale. oie none| 0 40 stroyed. The modern-built garden houses of

Harra Siddhi,...... 0 0 20 several members of the minister’s family have

Teshu gaon .... «- 0 | 6} 25 been rendered untenantable; one of them, a

Selli gaon,.... ..-- 0} 0 | 16 handsome and ornamental edifice, has come to

(Pagal or, .foteh'e « 3's 0] 0 | 24,the ground.

Riga $2. ces. perl Q | 130

Baghmati,.. .....-| 0 | 0 | 80) A crack in the ground of 20 feet in length

Phurphing,.......-| 9] 0 8 )was observed at this village on the morning

Chappa gaon, .....- 0 0 35 of the 27th ; the entire number of houses in it

7 ae Come Oe 0 Fs was 206, more than a third of the whole were

Taiba, . 0 0 18 destroy ed, and about 100 men have been much

Bara gaon, ..... ...| 0| 0 | 35 damaged. The injury sustained here is pro-

Balin. 02: 0! 0 i portionally greater than in any other part not

Pong ssh oha)«,, Peters. 0} 0 3/\to the east of Kathmanda.

Sasanelly, 0; 0 2

5 0 eo 0}; 0} 25

Sana, Oi}, 30 7

Hills about " Sasanel-

Jpg ie Were lias 0 cele 0; 0 | 20

East of Kathmandi At the eastern extremity of Deo Patan is

in the valley. the Temple of Paspatnath, containing Pus-

DeorPatan) iis. 8] 3 0 30 \puti Jee, the patron deity of the Brahminical

Handi gaon,.. .... 0 0 20\inhabitants of Nipal. The building escaped

Nag Désa,.. ....--| 4 0 20junhurt to the great joy of the rulers and

AGENT lel. 2 aivis-vlall | 0 0 20\people of the land, who attribute the cir-

Temi, .......-----| 0 | 0 | 150,cumstance solely to the interference of the

Gow) Karan... ss.-}) 0 |} 00 8\blind goddess, in behalf of their favourite

god, rather than to the stout deposition of

brick and mortar.

Changu, .... 2.00: 0 | 0 | 20| A fine old temple destroyed.

Sankha, .. ...- 20 | 5 | 45| A handsome Temple of Mahadeo, situated

on a hill above Sankha, is reduced nearly to

ruins.

200 1104 |2000| ‘The total number of houses in Bhat gaon is

reckoned by Mr. Hopeson at 4,700, }th of

‘Bhat ZAON, oe seeees

East of Kathmandu the town is said to be destroyed, 2,000 is the

beyond the valley, average of many accounts, six or "eight fine

but intheimmediate temples destroyed, anda statue of Rajah Ran-

neighbourhood. gir Mau, one of the Newar Princes of the

Sangu,.....++-eee- 2). 0 8|Bhat gaon division of the valley.

Baneppa,.. ..-+--+- 10 0 20

Nala gaon,...... .- 6} 0| ll

PANOULL 5) 5.0.0.« cearmarae LS 0 | 19| Six persons were killed under the ruins of

Dulkele,...... ..«-| 10 0 | 2llone house in this village, their remains were

found where they had gone to sleep.

Phulam Chok, .. ..| 60 | 0 | 300) A fine temple destroyed here.

* One woman became Satti at this village, her husband having been killed.

566

Account of the Earthquake of Kathmandi.

[Nov.

Places.

North-east of the val-

ley and more remote.

Dhtilakas es) eres eter.

Mundun Pahar,

Kan Sing Chok,

Kassa,

Kuti,

Listi gaon, ........

Shipa—the coun-

try residence cf Co-

Jonel Runbir Sinh,

20 miles from Kath-

mandt on the Lassa

road, by the Kuti

Pass, is seriously in-

jured. Many small

houses attached were

destroyed and seve-

ral lives lost.

eevee ere 2889 of

West of Kathmundi.

Swambunath,..

Hal Chok,.. .

Narod Devi,.. ....

Changu Narayan, ..

eceee

GoorkhaCantonment

or Campoo,......

Kirtipur,....

Thankote, ....

West of the valley.

Duny Byas and

neighbouring hills,

Tewanpur, .....- «

Nayakoth, .... ....

North of Kathmandi

Dharmtuli, ....28 <<

Hukm gaon,.... ..

Toka goan,........

Burha Nil Kanth,

Chapalysins s.r oy

Dharmpur,.........

South of the aalieee

Chitlong,......

Chisagarhy, 56 a0Not

Mukwanpur,.... ..

— | ——| ———

ooocoo

Satis

a) oS

oO se

= |x

Temples and other Buildings.

0| In this direction the earthquake was much

more severely felt. Kati, a town on the

Bhote frontier, on the road to Lassa, is

said to have been nearly all destroyed, it con-

tained about 600 houses ; 50 of which only

remain. At Listi gaon, also on the Bhote

frontier, alarge portion of a_ hill came down,

and an iron bridge was destroyed.

At Kan Sing Choke, in the same direction,

vulgar report says, that for five days before

the “earthquake took place, noises similar to

the firing of cannons were heard as if under

ground: and in this neighbourhood the high

road to Lassa is said to be in many places

blocked up by the fallen earth from the

mountains.

3| One small temple destroyed, and the large

3lone alittle injured. The form of the large

llone must have preserved it. It is the chief

2|Buddhist Temple in the valley, built in the

fashion of that religion—an immense cir-

cular mound of brick work, surmounted by

a 4-sided spire or jweet.

4| The house of a Captain much injured here.

Contains 532 houses, and is built along the

0 | 23\ridge and browofa hill 300 feet higher than the

coo

cococo

surrounding part of thevalley. Its tenements

are old and frail. To account for its escape,

the inhabitants say, “‘ That some nights previ-

40\ous to the earthquake, and on the memorable

10|night itself, a large tiger or leopard paraded

3\several streets of the town, without molest-

ing any of the inhabitants. This forbearance

was reciprocal, for the ‘‘ guardian angel’’ was

2\allowed to continue his protecting visits: the

ljadmiring crowd, firm in the belief of correct

15|vision, hailed him as Ramgt’, another incarna-

2\tion of the ‘‘ great preserver.”’

0| The fort here much injured : a large portion

of the breastwork facing the south has fallen,

and the wall in many other places, although

not fallen, is seriously injured.

0} The fort here has also suffered, but in a

——j|——|——-|much less degree than the one at Chisa’ any.

Total, .. 000 severe(4l4 [172 14040 ie.

1833.) Population of the City of Murshedabad. 567

The above shews that the earthquake was much more severe to the

north and east of the valley than here; and that even within the

valley it was much more violent to the east of Kathmandé than at

the capital itself, or other places to the west of it. The town of Bhat

gaon is not more than eight miles in a straight line from Kathmandi,

and even there its violence must have greatly exceeded what it was at

the latter place. To account for the immense disproportion in the loss

of life and property at both places, something may be allowed for the

more frail state of the buildings at Bhat gaon ; but this is not sufficient,

and this circumstance must be considered as inexplicable as most

others attending this fearful phenomenon. The brahmans of Nipal

say (and it is believed with truth) that the occurrence of a more vio-

lent earthquake than this is recorded in their histories. It was

about 600 years ago, and then the cities of Mangah, Patan, and innu-

merable towns were utterly destroyed and thousands of their inhabi-

tants killed* ; the modern capital Kathmanda did not then exist.

III.—Census of the Population of the City and District of Murshedabad,

taken in 1829.

To the five or six accurate estimates which we possess of the popu-

lation of the cities of India, we are happy to be able now to add one

of Murshedabad, both city and district, which we owe to the private

or ex-official industry of Mr. H. V. Harnorn, while magistrate of that

zillah in 1829. The detailed statements accompanying this officer’s

letter to the Government will be published without doubt in the Trans-

actions of the Asiatic Society, to which body they have besn trans-

ferred : we proceed however, as on former occasions, to offer an abridg-

ed analysis of the tables, that the readers of the JournaL may be in

possession of all the accurate statistical knowledge of India furnished

from authentic data. How easy would it be for every officer in charge

* The Jyotishis say that the planets Jupiter and Saturn were at the occurrence

of this present one in the same situation as when the above destructive one hap-

pened. From this greater mischief was for many days after the 26th hourly ex-

pected, and many lucky moments were fixed upon by the said astrologers for the

catastrophe ; but all fortunately have come to nought, and although slight shocks

continued to recur until about the 15th instant, no addition has been made to the

effects of the one great paroxysm of the 26th.

568 Population of the City of Murshedabad. [ Nov,

of a town ora zillah to employ a few of the leisure hours of his

police in framing reports of a similar nature.

Mr. Harnorn describes his mode of proceeding as follows :

‘* The work was done under my personal superintendence, through

the medium of the Darogas, who were furnished with blank forms,

accompanied with particular instructions as to the mode to be adopt-

ed in estimating the establishment of natives of rank and respectabi-

lity, in order to be as accurate as possible in point of numbers, and at

the same time to avoid giving offence by requiring a detailed state-

ment of their dependants of both sexes.

departure from Murshedabad, in 1829, and my absence in England, for

*« T regret that my sudden

a period of three years, on account of health, has prevented me from

revising and submitting these papers at an earlier period.”

Population of the City of Murshedabad.

Number of Houses. \No. of Inhabitants.

Names of Thannas. Musul- | Hinda. Total. | Musul- | Hindus.}| Total.

man. mans.

Mura gowar, ...... - 156 300 456 935 1557 2492

Pul Hasan Ullah Khan,| 1161 936 2127 4780 3554 8334

Man Ullah bazar, .... 337 1551 1888 1841 5557 7398

Raja Bazar, «3.2... 1600 1122 2722 4914 3425 8339

Akhara Ramshah,.... 330 2978 3308 1390 12132 13522

Mohémpur, ........ 322 1196 1518 1174 3854 5028

Gundiifala, 2-2. o--c- - 1323 752 2075 2871 1627 4498

Nakla khalf, ........ 625 993 1218 1825 1760 3585

Shahin payers sjacietelale = 788 897 1685 4000 2282 6282

Jan Mahomedpur,....| 1375 1849 3224 5820 5330 11150

Kasim bazar; ..2. .... 491 809 1300 1325 2213 3538

ICI OTI, AGlacagodns 422 778 1200 1602 2314 3916

Sujavganys enc cate 566 2887 3453 2408 12010 14418

Ramsar pot! shi. a pede e 369 1749 2118 1653 6554 8207

Mahajan) tola}:.c-/<- -- 269 1551 1820 843 2146 2989

Mabariinn ca desm ese ; 939 1979 2918 2510 5356 7866

Asanpuras praia «srs oslo 3 290 1882 2172 3043 3109 6152

Berhampur, ........ 839 1279 2118 4832 Wiayev4 12154

ROR tee ie es len at 2049 749 2798 8324 7984 16308

Total of the City, .... | 14281 25837 | 40118 | 56090 | 90086 146176

Add for strangers,.... ae te Bo) Ac Ke 787

Total population, .... rs an s SUNY OEE aoe

males. females.

Proportion of sexes, Musulmans, ........ corominn contooet 28442 27648

Finds Se Se BPS, PA, Oi 44438 45648

Number of inhabitants per house, Musulmans,............ 3.90

Hindus)? 2'.... aes, & 3.48

Averaceiof the Whole... sje oie. «ayes ers sone ecto eas 3.66

1833.] List of Birds, &c. 569

Population of the District of Mirshedabad.

Number of Inhabi-

Names of Number} Number of houses tants.

Thannas. |fofvillages; Musul- ) Hindu. ; Total. | Musul- | Hindus. | Total.

in each. man, mans.

Gokaru, .... 149 2666 7724 10390 12771 38045 | 50816

Gowas, .... 87 8395 5427 13822 | 46716 27653 74369.

WhAra,. ....-- 114 3702 3413 7115 | 17863 16070 | 33933

Sulatabad, .. 158 5612 6904 12516 | 25368 30836 | 56204

Gig vias. 128 3021 1795 4816 | 28499 6162 | 34662

Harharpara, 86 3862 7290 11152 | 16282 | 36827 | 53109

Govindpur, .. 121 1988 6166 8154 12305 27159 | 39464

Sharsherganj, 87 8395 5427 13822 | 40416 | 27023 | 67439

Kalyanganj,.. FS. 868 4626 5494 4444 21865 | 26309

Nowadah, .. 33 1782 2732 4514 | 10460 12311 | 22771

Jalinghi .... 73 3944 3619 7563 | 19197 20598 | 39795

Chendaga ,. 70 613 2302 2915 2820 10102 | 12922

Ranitalao, .. 157 5780 6733 12513 | 34649 | 34768 | 69417

Bhadrihat, .. 129 1269 3904 5173 5890 15500 | 21390

Banwa, .... 104 5080 | 10739 15819 | 16441 48012 | 64453

Mirzapur, .. 168 2862 10682 13544 14576 51615 | 66191

Dewansaray, 141 4483 4634 9117 |}. 21831 22375 | 44206

Bhartpur, .. 152 6131 3541 9672 | 26198 18302 | 44500

Total of the

district, ..] 2070 70453 * 97658 {| 168111 | 356726 ' 465224 | 821950

Add for strangers or non-residents,.. .........cecccccecccoscveces 534

822484

Males. Females.

Proportion of sexes, Musulmans, 188036 168696

Hindus, 241710 223514

429746 392210

Total of the Town and District, Houses, 208229

Inhabitants, 969447

Ratio of inhabitants per house, 4.73

1V.—List of Birds, collected in the Jungles of Borabhtim and Dholbhim. |

By Lieut. S. R. Tickell, 31st Regt. N. I.

1. Fauco Latuami. Colvy Falcon? Latuam. Male. From head to

tip of tail 18 inches, breadth of wings 40 inches; eyes orange yellow,

bill and cere bluish, top of head in front grey, sinciput pale orange-

brown; feathers streaked dark and produced into a long horizontal

crest, the end feathers of which are black, tipped with white ; face and

auriculars ashy; back of neck and top of back, pale rusty; feathers

centered dark-grey brown; whole of back, scapulars, primaries, and

part of tertials, dark clouded rich brown ; coverts of wings pale rusty,

clouded grey-brown, and blotched with white spots; some of the tertials

3 E

570 List of Birds, collected in the Jungles [Nov.

the same, greater coverts reddish ash-brown ; tail dark greyish brown,

barred broadly with dark brown, and tipped obscurely white (as are

the tertials), under parts white ; streak of black down centre of throat,

neck white tinged rusty, broad bars of rusty on breast and belly, spots

of the same on thighs; legs clothed with short white feathers to the

feet, which are of a horny color ; exposed part of the tarsi reticulated,

claws black and solid. The head is broad, eyes protruding, crest

erectile, bill with scarcely any notch, legs short and stout, body mus-

cular and compact.

This subject was killed at Sisdah, in Borabhiim, in dense bambi

jungle, occupying the interval between two ranges of hills. It was

one of a pair; the other, probably the female, appeared larger and

showed more white on the wing. They perched high on the summits

of tall decayed trees, and uttered wild plaintive screams. (The only

specimen seen.)

2.—(Honey Buzzard ?) Length 19 inches, spread of wings 44. Fe-

male. Eyes yellow, bill blue, lores green, top of head, nape, and sides

of chin, (at base of the bill,) white, streaked brown ; whole upper

parts uniform clear ambre-brown, brightest on wings, dunnish on back,

upper tail coverts pale rusty and whitish grey. Tail a hoary gull

grey, primaries do. but darker and bluer: some of the outer ones

nearly black, 3rd quill longest ; under part a clear reddish brown, legs

yellow. (Tarsi reticulated.) Killed at Kosmak, in Borabhim, in thick

grass jungle, perching on the ground. Stomach contained lizards.

It was in company with the annexed.

3. *Fatco Hersacota. Kohee Falcon, T. Female. Length 18

inches, breadth 39. Aspect keen, body light and elegant, tail and

wings long, tarsi elongated ; bill blue, tipped black, eyes dark, lores

and legs yellow ; eyebrows, forehead, patch under the eye, and an

indistinct ring round the neck, whitish ; whole upper parts pale brown,

margined as in our female Kestrel (F. Tinnuncutus), greater coverts

dark lead brown, primaries brownish hoary grey, banded dark brown ;

upper tail coverts white, with reddish brown crescent-shaped marks ;

tail, two middle feathers full hoary grey, two next do. melting into

rusty towards their shafts, outer ones pale rusty greyish white, the

whole broadly bunded with sepia; upper half of outside tail-feathers

banded rusty and white : all the feathers tipped white. Breast, belly,

vent, &c. striped brown and fawny white as in female Kestrel.

* The names of such birds, as have never come under my notice before, and are

necessarily of my own coining, I have distinguished by the addition of a T.

1833.] of Borabhiim and Dholbhiim. 571

This and the foregoing species appeared tolerably common in those

immense tracts of grass jungle which extend with little intermission

from near the Kossai river, to the base of the Lakisinnf hills, in Su-

trakehanf. They perch on the ground, or on the small babal trees

which are interspersed among the jungle, occasionally soaring with a

low steady flight over the top of the grass, in quest of prey. They are

called by the Hindus inhabiting those regions, ‘‘Shahfn’ and

**Kohf,” and are much prized by the Coles for their hawking qualifi-

cations. The stomach of the present subject contained greater part of

a Myna.

4. Fatco Nisostmiuis. Jungle Sparrow-Hawk, T. Size and

shape of English sparrow-hawk, upper parts and head a dun-brown ;

upper tail coverts pale obscure brown ; tail as back, with four cloudy

bands, tipped lighter; quills as back, eyebrows and forehead white ;

feathers tipped dark, auriculars, cheeks, and throat white with short

brown stripes. Breast, belly, and thighs white, with transverse brown

streaks, vent white. Thigh feathers each a little lower than knee, legs

and toes long and slender as in sparrow-hawk. Billand cere pale

bluish, lore with dirty white bristles. Eyes pale gold, legs yellow,

(tarsi scutellated) : wings reach to the middle of tail, 4th and 5th quills

longest. Eyes operculated by the brow asin F. Nisus. Male. Sto-

mach contained lizards. Killed at Marcha, in Borabhum. Frequents

topes and cultivation.

5. Srrix Dumericota. Jungle Horned Owl, T. Male. From head

to end of tail | feet 9 inches, spread of wings 4 feet 4. Eyes deep

gold, bill black, legs horny, and bare ; claws black : whole upper parts,

face, and crest pale brown; feathers centred darker, wings do. mottled

with grey and blotched occasionally white ; primaries and tail pale-

brown, barred darker. Breast, belly, thighs and vent tawny-white,

barred transversely with rusty and striped longitudinally dark brown,

Frequents the thickest jungle, in deep retired dells, between high

rocks or scarped hills, perching low and passing the midday in the

centre of some impervious thicket. It is however partially diurnal,

and easily flushed in the brightest day, when it flies heavily over the

underwood toa short distance, and drops headlong into the first conve-

nient bush. Towards twilight, it emerges from its concealment, and

may be observed seated with great majesty on the summit of some

granite boulder, on the side of a hill overlooking the surrounding

jungle. Its voice is hoarse and hollow, and connected with the gloo-

my scene and hour in which it is heard, the repulsive laugh in which

it occasionally vents its notes ‘‘ Haw, Haw, Haw, Ho!” cannot fail

ome

ah te Legge

572 List of Birds, collected in the Jungles [Nov.

to strike a fanciful listener with unpleasing associations. I met with

two of this species near Sfsdah in Borabhim, probably a solitary

pair, and have placed it as a new addition to the Srrix family, as it

differs essentially from any yet described by Pennant, Laruam, or

Harpwicke, as found in India.

6. Srrix Canpipus, Jungle Owl. T. Male. From head to tail

16 inches, spread of wings 3 feet 4. Eyes black, bill and legs horny,

tarsi denuded : whole upper parts shaded with dark and light brown,

as in the short-eared owl, the feathers indiscriminately sprinkled with

clear white spots ; primaries and tail tawny-brown, broadly barred

darker, radial feathers of face, breast, belly and vent pure white.

This species frequents the long grass jungle, and passes its life almost

entirely on the ground, seldom perching on the lowest trees. When

flushed, it rises heavily, and drops again into the grass, as suddenly as

if shot. It is silent and solitary, the youngkeep in company some time

after attaining their full growth. The jungle owl is found through-

out Bengal and the upper provinces in tracts of long grass, to which it

appears wholly confined. Male and female scarcely differ.

7. Srrix Raprata. Little barred Owl, T. (St. Castanoptera ?

Horse. Java.) Male. Length 74 inches, breadth 18; 4th quill longest.

Bill greenish horn. Eyes gold, feet and claws horny, slightly feather-

ed to the claws. Face, head, and upper parts pale amber-brown, clearest

on head, greyest on scapulars and back, the whole barred with dull -

sepia ; greater wing coverts black, the outer webs of the feather white

mixed with rusty, edges of wing chesnut, barred brown; alula spuria

and primaries do. barred black ; edges of scapulars have greyish white

patches. Tail dark coppery brown, barred pale rusty; breast as

black but paler, the brown changing to griseous white towards the

belly and thighs ; the whole under parts barred dingy sepia. Very com-

mon in the thickly-wooded parts of the Jungle Mehals, selecting

the largest trees for its abode, from whence it keeps up its clamorous

cries the greater part of the day. It is active, frolicksome,.and diur-

nal, and feeds on insects.

8. Srrix Lueusris. Brown Wood Owl, T. Male. In length 12

inches, breadth 2 feet 2. Eyes gold, bill and legs horny, tarsi and toes

feathered, whole upper parts dull uniform brown. Beneath whitish,

barred rusty ; primaries and tail, leaden brown, barred broadly darker.

Inhabits the retired parts of the thickest jungle, coming towards the

edges and open parts at night. It is completely nocturnal, and ina

calm moon-light night, its incessant cries are heard to a great dis-

tance, resembling strongly those of a strangling cat. The only speci-

men seen was killed at Dampara, in Dholbhim.

1833.] of Borabhim and Dholbhim. 573

9. Lanrus Sizens. Silent Shrike, T. 9 inches from tip of bill to

tip of tail, of which tail 4. Wings spread 143 inches, 3rd quill long-

est; eyes hazle, bill and legs black, plumage iron-grey, quills darkest ;

upper mandible slightly notched. Young bird is marked on the

under parts with indistinct transverse bars. Common. Frequenting

topes and large trees.

10. Ixos Virescens ? Temminck. Male. Size of a starling. Eyes

blood-red, feet and bill dark, body plump, olive-green, palest on head,

where it is slightly greyish, tinged with yellow on upper tail coverts,

quills and their coverts do. edged brighter green ; tail as back, long,

square ; vent and under tail coverts, chin and base of lower mandible pale

clear yellow; over the eye, and a spot on base of upper mandible, ex-

tending below the eye to the auriculars, obscure white; lower parts

whitish tinged pale yellow ; breast dashed with grey, bill deeply

notched.

Killed in woody and barren country, at Bamireah, near Midna-

pur: appeared shy, silent and solitary, and partakes of the nature of

the fly-catchers and thrushes. It flew and settled about the lower

parts of bushes and thickets. Stomach contained berries and seeds,

11. Droneo Ca@rutzsscens. Fork-tailed Shrike, Latham? Male.

Shape and size of the smaller ‘‘ King Crow.” Head gross, bill hooked,

not notched; eyes orange-red, bill and feet black, tail deeply forked,

as long as the body ; whole of upper parts dull metallic-black, deepest

on head, brownest on quills; chin, throat, and breast iron-grey, below

sternum white. Female does not differ. Frequents high timber, and is

tolerably common. ) Note a wild mellow whistle, pleasingly and fan-

cifully modulated. Insectivorous.

12. Lanrus Griszeus. Grey Wood Shrike, T. Male. Length 64 —

inches, ashy-brown above, dull-white beneath; bill, eyes, and legs dark ; ‘

mandible hooked, not notched ; two centre feathers of tail as back, two

next black, outer ones white; dark brown patch through the eyes, a

white one above them, obscure brown mark from under mandible;

breast tinged dusky reddish ash. Shy, solitary, rather rare, frequents

saul jungle, has a jarring note.

13. Vanea Fravivenrris. Yellow Bulbul, T. (Lanius Melano-

cephalus ? Gml. Turdoides Atriceps. Tem.?) Male. Length 7 inches.

Eyes pale yellow, bill black, legs dark horn. Head and a slender

erectile crest glossy-black, rest of plumage olive-green above, clear

olive-yellow beneath ; belly and vent bright yellow, quills and tail

dusty. Frequented the beautiful hanging-woods of Dampara, in Dhol-

bhim, where alone I met with them. Manners sprightly, hurrying

from tree to tree, with a short repeated song, like the common bulbul.

574 List of Birds, collected in the Jungles [Nov.

14. Crinicer Sprenpens, T. (Irena Puella, ? Horsf. Edolius ? of

Natterer.) The bill totally dissimilar to the Drongo, with which

Irena and Edolius are grouped. It is long, hooked equally in both

mandibles, nostrils denuded, and more like the bill of the Chough than

any other bird. The chief peculiarity of the bird is a crest, composed

of long recumbent hairs, which ride from the head and fall back on the

shoulders. The tail is long, slightly forked; the ends of the outer

feathers turned up, in the shape of a scoop. In other respects it re-

sembles the Drongo. The plumage is deep black, reflecting purple

and blue in various lights ; the wings are a deep glassy-green. These

birds are tolerably numerous, but confined in locality. They frequent

the large timber, which luxuriates in the lower portions and richer soil

of the jungles, on the banks of nullas, tanks, &c.: the cotton tree,

when in blossom, is a favorite resort, where they may be seen in small

parties frolicking about. The voice is very changeable and in constant

exertion, from a beautiful song, to whistling, chattering, and creaking,

like a rusty wheel. The notes at times resemble the higher strains of

an organ, and heard in the wild and lovely scenes where this bird is

found, appear singularly striking and plaintive.

15. Muscicapa Tyrannipes. Shrike-like Fly-catcher, T. Male.

Length 4 inches. Eyes orange-hazle, bill and feet black. Bill flat,

broad, long, straight, hooked, not notched. Head, nape of neck, back,

wings and tail, black ; rump, wing coverts, and linealong tertials, anda

broad streak along auriculars, from base of bill, white. Breast and

belly pale silvery grey. Outer tail-feather white. Killed at Sisdah in

Borabhtm. Rare, frequents high timber, has a slight song.

16. Muscricapa Princers, Cuvier; M. Miniita. Temmink. Rare.

Indiscriminately spread through the jungles. Sometimes solitary, at

others, flying in small parties. (Figured in Gould’s Century of Birds.)

17. M. Hyacintua, Temmink. Size of a Robin. Male. Upper

parts, wings, and tail ashy Antwerp-blue ; between the eye and beak a

dark space. Chin and breast buff-color, rest white. The colors are

paler, but distributed not unlike those of the American blue Robin.

Rare, silent, frequenting high trees: killed at Lika in Borabham.

18. Muscicapa Occrpiratis. Common in all parts of the jungles.

19. M. Caruria. Common.

20. M. Macuzata. Pied Fly-catcher. Linn. Marked the same as

the subject mentioned in Bewick. Rare.

21. M. Perecrinus. Parus ? Figuredin Gould. Common in the

jungles. In manners closely resembling our long-tailed titmouse. The

males unite in flocks apart from the males at the close of the cold

season.

1833.) of Borabhiim and Dholbhim. 575

22. Moracitia Syuvatica, T. Rare, shy, found in low, barren

saul jangle; black, with white wing covers, small.

23. M.Luzonia. Numerous, frequenting high timber near nul-

las, &c. well known in Bengal as Indian Robin.

24. Turpus Macrovrus, Vaillant ? Shahmour Warbler. 94 inches

long, of which tail5; plumes glossy-black, tail cuneiform ; outer fea-

thers tipped white. Upper tail coverts white, lower part of breast and

_ belly deep chesnut, eyes and belly black, legs fleshy horn. The Shah-

mour is well known and justly prized in India for its song, which in

its native jungles is heard in a degree of perfection, to which the notes,

when encaged, can bear little comparison. It is spread throughout

the jungles, and haunts the deepest glades and hollows, keeping in the

centre of thickets. In the grey mornings and evenings the notes are

heard through the valleys, ceasing with twilight. The song of the

Shahmour is fully equal in compass, power, depth and modulation to

that of the Nightingale. The strains sweep with a gush of sweetness

through the enchanting solitudes which this bird makes its favourite

resort, at times when the other inhabitants of the forests are silent in

rest.. And in unison with the surrounding scenery, in which nature

seems to have lavished every fantastic invention of beauty, the effect

_ produced on the mind and ear can alone be appreciated by those who

have witnessed the magnificence of a tropical forest.

25. (Moraciztyia Suscica, Blue-throated Warbler. Linn?) (Sylvia

Cyanecula, Meyer?) Male. Size and shape of Redstart, whole upper

parts dark olive-brown, feathers of the crown centered darker, with a

white patch over the eyes as in Whinchat. Eyes, bill, and legs dark

horn, throat cobalt. The space from thence to the sternum is divided

into transverse portions of color. Uppermost a band of chesnut-

brown, then one of cobalt-blue, then white, and lastly chesnut again ;

below this all white ; on the centre of the neck, adjoining the blue and

chesnut of the throat, are two confluent patches of white and dark

brown. A single specimen of this elegant species was seen and killed

at Bamirah near Midnapur, in wild bushy country.

26. Moracitua Catuiorr. Ruby-throat Warbler, Pallas. (Turdus,

apud Latham and Gml.: Accentor, apud Temminck.) Male. Length

6 inches, plumage above olive-brown, beneath dull whitish. Band

above and below eyes white, intermediate space black, feathers of

throat slightly scaly (stiff and strongly scutellated) ; light scarlet with

silvery edges ; bill and legs horn, eyes dark. Rare, solitary, silent.

Haunts thickets and underwood. Found at Dampara in Dholbhim,

and at Jehanabad, west of Hoogly.

576 List of Birds, collected in the Jungles [Nov.

27. M. Rusrcapmna. Rusty-crowned Warbler, T. Female. 5

inches, eyes reddish hazle; bill and legs pale horn, crown of head rusty;

feathers of nostrils, over the eyes, auriculars and sides of neck, pale

yellowish green; upper parts olive, throat and breast pale yellow,

shafted black. Found in the thick underwood, hollows, ravines, &c.

Lively and agile, with a frequent piping note and occasional chatter.

28. M. Canrator, Chiming Wren, T. 4 inches. Male. Eyes

hazle, upper mandible dark, lower pale orange ; legs pale horn, crown

black, with a longitudinal central yellow stripe; black stripe through

eye and a yellow one over it; throat bright yellow, extending towards

breast, lower parts lint-white, vent yellow ; plumage above, clear olive-

green. Frequents trees in the thickest parts of the jungle. Has a loud

and incessant note, ‘‘ pio, pio, pio, pio.” Bill rather gross, as in Win-

chat, not flattened, not hooked as in Regulus, slightly notched : nos-

trils large, oblong, almost pervious.

29. Syuvia Lonercaupata. Long-tailed Warbler. Gml. (Malurus

of Veillot.) Male. 53 inches, of which tail 23, bill and eyes dark, legs

orange-horn color. Upper parts a pale dull brown, on face ashy.

Under parts satin-white ; quills and coverts pale clear brown ; tail ashy

brown, tipped obscurely black and then whitish ; wings much rounded

and short; first quill almost spurious, 5th and 6th longest ; tail cunei-

form. All the plumage waving and flimsy in texture, scarcely any

tail coverts. Common. Has a sprightly intermittent song, perching for

a time on the summit of a bush and then seeking thickest underwood.

Frequents barren saul jungle.

30. Moracitia Orrinis. Olive Willow Wren, T. (Willow Wren?)

54 inches. Male. Upper parts dark olivaceous ashy-brown. Beneath,

brownish yellow ochre. Clear yellow streak over eye. Upper man-

dible dark, lower pale horn: legs horn, eyes hazle. Killed in high-

timbered jungle, on the banks of a stream.

31. M. Dumericota. Thicket Warbler, T. Male. Nearly 6 inches

long, eyes reddish hazle, bill as former subject, legs pale fleshy horn ;

crown dingy rust, face and over eyes dirty whitish brown, auriculars

darker. Whole of the plumage dull olive-brown, as in the thrush ; tail

slightly rounded, whole under parts white, streaked with the color of

back, throat white. Female and malealike. Frequents the thickest foli-

age, at the top of high trees, andis rarely seen. Has a monotonous

note, consisting of three sounds, which is heard incessantly during the

morning.

32. M. Funicara. Sooty Warbler, Cuvier. (Bill in no way

allied to the groupe in which Cuvier has placed it.) Male. Size of a

1833.] of Borabhtim and Dholbhim. 577

robin. Upper parts dull dark brown; under parts, including the eye,

burnished black ; greater wing coverts white, next greater as back,

but with a gloss of steel; tail black, vent and centre of belly chesnut,

quills of wings a deep claret-brown. Frequents low bushy jungle, and

has the manners of the stone chat. The bill however is cylindrical,

long, thin, partially curved, not unlike that of the house wren. Bill,

legs, and eyes dark.

33. M. Susviripis, T. Male. Allied tothe M. Zeilonica of Horsf.

Bill and legs pale bluish horn, eyes hazle ; plumage above olive-green,

below olive-yellow ; wings black, edged yellow, greater coverts tipped.

white, tail dark olive-green. Common in thick bambi or saul jungle,

on hills.

34. Turpus Livipus. Leaden Thrush, T. Head and neck pale

orange brown. Rest of plumage blue grey. Size of a redwing. Female

rather larger and duller in plumage. Shy, silent, solitary. Frequenting

thickets in rocky jungles. Killed at Lattapora, in Borabhim. Rare.

35. T. Unicotor, T. Size of preceding. Female. Eyes dark, bill

and legs yellow horn, plumage a dirty grey, mixed on the back with

olive, tinged on the head with brown. Wings and tail brownish; co-

verts of tail iron-grey ; breast Isabella grey, belly white. Silent. Fre-

quents large trees. Rare. Killed at Bansighar in Borabhim.

36. Oriotus M’Cosui, T. Male. Length 9 inches. Bill, feet,

and eyes black. Top of head black, each feather edged yellow; fore-

head yellow, throat and front of neck white, streaked black. Rest

of body yellow ; coverts all centered black, quills brownish black, frin-

ged pale grey-yellow; tail centered olive, tinge of olive on back.

Frequents the highest trees in open jungle cultivation, &c. Sings

beautifully. (The only specimen seen.)

37. Necrerinia Seneriz, T. (Cynniris Gouldii ?) Male. Length

4 inches. Crown burnished copper, with green reflections. Neck, back,

and breast, a deep blood carmine color. A stripe on each side the

throat, from the under mandible brilliant violet ; lower part of back

yellow ; tail coverts bright green, tail violet and green, blended with

metallic lustre ; quillsdusky brown, belly and vent dusky ; eyes, bill; and

legs dark. This rare and elegant subject was procured near Seheria

in Borabhum, flitting about the low willow bushes in the dried bed

of astream. It has nowgong, but a shrill chirp.

38. N. Minima, T. \Male. Length 3 inches, plumage ashy olive,

paler beneath ; wings and tail brown. Common in saul jungle.

39. Cutororsis CasmaryncHos. Hook-billed Chloropsis, Jardin.

Appears to be completely out of its place in Cuvier’s arrangement. But

3 F

578 List of Birds, collected in the Jungles [Nov.

the description is scanty and ambiguous, and may possibly not refer to

the present subject. Male. Length 74 inches. Bill as in warblers, but

hooked throughout, (much, as in Certhia.) Toes, three before, one

behind ; plumage parrot-green, palest beneath; throat, part of cheek, and

forehead black ; a lilac spot by lower mandible, spot of bright blue on

humerus ; bill black, eyes hazle, legs pale bluish horn. It has a beau-

tiful song, and is common in the jungles, flying about in small parties.

It is an excellent mocker, and imitates the notes of almost every small

small bird of the country. (Frequently sold in cages at Calcutta and

Monghir.)

40. Emprriza Syzivatica. Bush Bunting, T. Very common

throughout India.

41. Loxra Bicotor. Gobergosee Grosbeak. T. Male. Length 43 inches.

Bill dark bluish, eyes hazle, legs dark ; breast, belly, and part of upper

tail coverts white; rest of plumage dense brown; tail black, cuneiform.

Flies in small flocks, with a low piping note, frequenting sugar fields,

low bushes. Fructivorous.

42. Frineww1a Aciiis. Piping Finch, T. Four inches long; plum-

age ashy-olive, with grey and greener portions; below dull white

tail partially tipped white; legs black, bill bluish, eyes orange.

Perched on summits of trees. Appeared lively and agile, with a sharp

clear whistle. Not uncommon.

43. Emssuriza Oxtvacea. Kirwa Bunting, T. Male. Rather

larger than a sparrow. Olive-brown above, obscure white beneath;

feathers of head and neck centered darker; greater coverts dark brown,

tipped white; tertials do. edged olive and tipped grey ; primaries and

tail dark-brown edged olive-green; eyes hazle, bill bluish, legs flesh,

In flocks, on open cultivated land.

44. Frineitta Fuiavicouuis. Chilliama Finch, T. Male. Size of

a sparrow, siighter, with longer bill and wings ; the same color as the

hen sparrow. Lesser coverts chesnut, throat white, a patch of yellow

immediately below, in front of neck.

45. Picus Gutracristatus. Pearl-crested Woodpecker, T. (P.

Amantius, Horsf. Java ?) Female. Length 104 inches, bill 1+; eyes am-

ber yellow, bill blackish horn, legs pale blue, forehead dusty brown ;

crest large, full, black, with round white spots ; neck white, with broad

longitudinal black stripes, one through eye, two narrower from max-

illary angle, confluent below auriculars, another down centre of neck;

front of neck, breast and belly, marbled black and white ; tail and quills

black; back and upper tail coverts pale bright scarlet, with subterja-

cent white bars; rest of upper parts and coverts deep olive-gold color..

1833.] of Borabhiim and Dholbhiim. ‘579

Common, Frequenting the largest timber, cotton trees, &c. Noisy, agile,

46. P. Beneatensis, Horsf. Differing merely from the foregoing

in having the crest red and the tail coverts the same as the back. Is

too well known in Bengal to require description.

47. P. Aurocristatus, T. Plumage and size scarcely differ from

that of the P. Medius of Bewick. The crest is of a golden-buff color,

with the extremity scarlet; lower parts brown and white ; belly scar-

let. The male is 4 larger than the female. The latter has the entire crest

golden-buff. Pretty common in thick jungles. Has a squeaking

monotonous note.

48. Srrra Frontauis. Swainson. S. Velata, Temminck. Ortho-

rynchus Frontalis, Horsf. Java. Does not differ from the description

given in Cuvier. Rare. The single specimen seen was procured at

Kankarjurf, near Dampara in Dholbhim. It flies and climbs about

the underwood with great rapidity, and is found in the thickest parts

of saul jungle.

49, Bucrros Marasaricus. Malabar Hornbill? Male. Length of

bill 7 inches ; of excrescence 8; from maxillary angle to end of tail

2 feet 3, of which, tail 1 foot 1; from tip to tip of wings, 3 feet 2.

Bill pale yellow, excrescence or horn black, with a broad lateral irre-

gular line of yellow, occupying nearly the whole of it ; pale, livid-fleshy

patch on the base of lower mandible; eyelids ciliated, eyes scarlet; feet

iron-grey, tarsi strong, thick, short, and scutellated ; from sternum

downwards, and all the feathers of the tail (except the two centre ones)

white ; rest of plumage shining metallic black.

These birds were very common in all the more open and large tim-

bered spaces in the jungles, frequenting in preference the pfepal trees,

the berry of which forms their principal food. The young continue with

the parent birds for many months, after leaving the nest; hence these

hornbills are generally met traversing the forest in flocks of eight or ten.

They are shy and wary, and the voice loud, clanging, and harsh. The

horn is not developed till after the first year, the nestlings having the

bill plain and without any trace of excrescence. These birds are

never met with in the high rocky lands, nor in the barren tracts of

saul jungle, but abound in the rich meadows composing the valley of

the Subonrika, where the country in many parts has the appearance

of a well-cultured English park.

50. B. Ginetanus. Gingi Hornbill. Very common in the same

haunts as the foregoing, and well known throughout India.

51. Bucco Linrata. Hackled Barbet, T. Male. Length 9 inches;

shape and manners of B, Lathami, (the well known green species.) Bill

3 F 2.

580 List of Birds, collected in the Jungles [Nov.

and base space round eyes orange; eyes grey, feet horn ; head and

neck as far as breast, and back, brown with light shafts; the feathers

narrow and pointed; rest bright green, pale on belly.

52. Trocon Dvuvavucentit. Duvaucel’s Curucui, Vaillant. This

most elegant subject is described in Cuvier. The solitary specimen

seen was killed near Dampara, Dholbhum. It frequents the thickest

jungle at the bottom of ravines and dried rocky nalas, flying from

tree to tree, with a wild querulous note, like the mewing of a cat. It

pursues and catches insects on the wing, like the Muscicape: the

stomach of the present specimen was crammed with them. The bright

and glowing colors of this bird seem little suited to the gloomy depths

which are itsresort. Those abodes of everlasting shade, where the

meridian sun barely penetrates, overhanging arches of vegetation, and

which are inhabited by undisturbed flocks of bats, owls, and night-jars,

afford a striking exception to the general rules of nature, which has

clothed in sombre garbs ‘‘ the birds that shun the light,’’ by har-

bouring so beautiful a tenant as the Curucut.

. 58. Caprimuteus Axsonoratus. Dampdra Night-jar, T. Male

and female alike, larger than the common English night-jar, which it

closely resembles ; the plumage is greyer however, and it is distinguish-

ed by a large patch of white on the neck, two or three on the tertials,

and on the outer feathers of the tail. It is extremely common in the

jungles, keeping in thickets during the day, and coming out as evening

sets in, to the open parts, grass plains, and khéts, which it skims over

with a low silent flight. When on the wing it emits a low chirp, some-

thing like a sparrow. It has another and very peculiar note, when

seated on the top of some decayed tree, and which on a calm night may

be heard for a mile, sounding as if some one was striking a plank with

a hammer deliberately.

54. Hrrunpo Coronata. Dhudka Swallow, T. (H. Cristata of Le

Vaillant?) Male. Length 8 inches, 1 ft. 1 across the wings; cheeks

and base of lower mandible chesnut ; from eye to bill, black space; head

adorned with a pointed, erectile crest, of a bluish clear grey, as are the

upper parts ; breast and belly do. paler ; wings and tail glossy black with

green reflections ; eyes, legs, and bill dark. The female has a smaller

crest, and instead of the chesnut mark on the face, a black patch, bor-

dered below with a white line. They fly in large flocks, but are partially

met with hovering over the marshy spaces in the jungles. The note

resembles the monotonous “‘ kia, kia’’ of the parrot. They disappear in

those regions by the end of March, but I never could trace the direc-

tion of their flight. .

1833.3 of Borabhiim and Dholbhim. 581

55. Cotumpa Syuvatica. Great Jungle-Pigeon, T. Length 13

inches. Eyes orange, feet rose-color, bill horny, bluish over the nostrils ;

head, breast, belly, a pale violaceous grey, with vinous tints; upper

parts, wings, and tail, brilliant changeable-green, with purple and

coppery reflections. Common in some parts. Preferring the open and

large-timbered tracts. Wild and difficult of approach. They go gener-

ally in small parties of four or five. The voice is deep, and resembles

groans. Sexes alike.

56. C. Aericoua. Foxry-Pigeon, T. Male. Length 11 inches ; eyes

orange; bill and feet lake; head, neck, and breast reddish vinous brown ;

forehead and belly ashy blue; back, coverts, and quills vinous chesnut,

each feather centred dark brown ; upper tail coverts iron-blue grey ; tail

dark-clouded brown, patch of black ; white-edged feathers on each side

the neck. Met with in open cultivated parts. Shy and difficult of

approach.

elongated as in the ground-turtle, nevertheless perches; tail short,

rounded, fourth quill of primaries longest; crown, pale ashy-lilac, which

extends along the back of the neck to the back; white patch over eyes,

enclosing forehead ; rest of head, neck, breast, and belly vinous-grey,

with a rosy blush ; some of the feathers of the back black, edged green;

lower down a broad bar of brown, edged black and white above and

below ; upper tail coverts blue-grey, primaries dusky-brown; the rest

of wings a deep brilliant green, flashing gold in various lights ; tail

black, outer feathers white with black tip; bill red, tipped black,

eyes black, legs flesh-color. This most elegant and diminutive species

haunts the most impervious parts of the jungle, and is seldom seen ex-

cept in the cool of evening, when it repairs to the open parts of

streams and meadows. Two specimens alone seen in the Jungle Mehals,

one of which, the female, differed merely in having the green of the

wings tarnished with copper.

58. The Stone or Norfolk Plover of Bewick, abounds in every open

tract in the jungles, coming out to feed at night.

59. Rauuus Javanicus, T. (Gallinula Javanica, Horsf, Java.) Male.

Size and shape of the Parra enea; the claws however as in Gallinula.

Eyes blood-red ; bill pale green, with orange-colored ridge ; nostrils per-

vious ; whole upper parts, quills, and tail plain black, with greenish

reflections on the coverts ; belly, vent, under tail-coverts, dusky-red ;

inside of thighs dirty white, outside chesnut and dark-grey, legs

dusky. A solitary specimen seen at Tumcharararo, in Borabhum. Had

the same haunts and manners as the common Parra of Bengal.

582 List of Birds, &c. [Nov.

60. Parra Arata, T. Male. Size and shape of P. enea. Eyes dark

hazle ; bill greenish horn, upper mandible darker, nostrils pervious ; a

flap of detached skin on the forehead, crown deep bay or dark chesnut;

eyebrows light, face white; from the back of the head, along the nape

of the, neck, glossy purple-black, changing to lake and coppery purple

towards back; throat and narrow strip in front, extending to middle of

neck, white ; rest of neck and breast pale buff; belly and vent white ;

back cupreous olive-green; upper tail coverts and tail a burnt copper-

ish lake; primary and secondary quills black ; tertials as back, partly

fringed white ; greater coverts black, smaller:coverts and scapulars as

back ; outer side of thighs; black and white radiated ; inner white, flanks

black. Pretty common, in small marshy pools, overgrown with jungle.

A great variety of birds in addition to these, met with in the Jungle

Mehals, might be added to the list already enumerated; but as they

are indigenous to the whole or various parts of Hindustan, and have

been described by former .collectors, their insertion here would be a

useless repetition. Ornithological research, which has made such ex-

tensive progress into the heart of America, Africa, and the compara-

tively unknown regions of Australia, has as yet had little insight into

the productions of this country. especially in those parts which have

not been more immediately located by Europeans. Many of the most

rare and beautiful birds, inhabiting the Himalaya’ mountains and the

adjoining forest in the Teraye, have been brought into notice by the

talents and spirited researches of one or two gentlemen; but even sup-

posing their exertions would make us eventually acquainted with every

species found in those immense tracts, there. yet would be left a wide

blank ‘in our acquisitions, so long as the extensive, unknown, and

unvisited portions of the Jungleterry districts remained shut out from

the inquiries of the naturalist. These regions, placed in a sensibly

warmer latitude than the Nipal forest ;—differing in soil, in altitude;

in vegetable productions ;—presenting ever to the eye an altered,

a peculiar, appearance of scenery ;—rendered in parts uninhabitable

even to the half-humanized denizens of the jungles, from the in-

fluence of pestiferous exhalations, issuing more or less throughout

the year from abysses, overgrown by rank vegetation, where. the

light of day seldom enters, and the cadaverous weeds, fixed in a

stagnant atmosphere, never wave in the refreshing breeze ;—afford

asylums to the rarer and wilder animals of the forests, which few or no

human footsteps have invaded. The Trogon or Curucui (No. 52),

hitherto asserted as belonging alone to the interior of Africa, has been

found here. The Hippopotamus, also exclusively consigned to Africa,

Journ .As Soc. Vol Pl. XX.

/ Vy

te fh

4 wl

Dimerstons A Granite

A WU [2 wecpres C Sandstone

efi et Oe L Do uth

LB Pe6 organs LeMans

gate gh 24 in G Trap

bie Jossui bones

{30 feel

——=

Suictfied fossa shel from 18 miles Voyseys. fossil shel

(see JuG4)

cast of Sabayi fje.205)

SJeeraciliae Sitsjdiunr Sjeeracilisine fATVUIR

oa hacia SAR: cee .

Hea 1 ae aud rome eae * beh,

en Ps

;

’

‘

“¢

oti “6 ‘ iy ae

y a, Ce Pet cai Me tretherneeaanl

1833.] Note on Fossil Bones near Jubalpur. 583

has been met with in the portion of jungle which extends into the

Bhil country*. The Gour, a species of bull, which by its description

(as taken from a young one) must be the noblest in appearance of all

known animals, ranges the hilly portions of the jungles, defying pur-

suit. A snake, which by the testimony (exaggerated doubtless) of the

natives, must equal in dimensions the pythons of antiquity, inhabits

the low marshy recesses of the jungle. A flying squirrel, hitherto

undescribed, is tolerably common; and lastly, from a casual glance

I once caught of an animal, in the thick and high woods bordering

the Gurum nala, near the valley of the Subonrika, it would be

the corroboration of an anxious surmise, were after researches to

establish the fact, that the Orang Otang is an inhabitant of these forests.

V.—wNote on the Fossil Bones discovered near Jabalpur. By J. Prinsep,

Sec. As. Soc.

[Read at the Meeting of the 30th October.)

The last despatch from our zealous and disinterested contributor

Doctor Spitssury puts it in our power to speak with some degree of

precision of the nature of the fossil remains discovered by Captain

Sieeman, and followed up by himself, in the neighbourhood of Jabal-

pur—a field, it must be remembered, that had been passed over by

Captain Franxuin and other geologists without any suspicion of the

existence of such treasures.

The despatch I allude to consists of a classified series of specimens

of the strata wherein the bones were found imbedded, with references

toa rough vertical section of the country. (Pl. xx. fig. 2.)

We observe that the low plains covered with jungle, at the foot of

the hills in question, consist of sandstone lying upon granite, which

protrudes in several places, as at A A A. towards the town.

Above the sandstone lies a conformable stratum of compact silicious

limestone, which on solution in acids proves to be composed of grains

of clear silex, united together by carbonate of lime, here and there

tinged with chlorite, or holding nodules of that mineral imbedded ;

at other places, passing into pure quartz, and jasper conglomerate :

no stratification is perceptible in the limestone, which seems rather to

bear the character of a tufaceous deposit. At one place, E c, an oval

* I have been credibly informed of this, by several who witnessed the animals at

a distance, and afterwards examined their foot-marks (their surmises being corro-

borated by the natives of the country.)

584 Note on the Fossil Bones [Nov.

concretion is enclosed, which resembles a seed or almond :—it is filled

with green earth.

Towards the southernmost hill this rock contains bones imbedded

in its substance, and having that pink colour observed in the first spe-

cimen sent to the Society ; they are accompanied with water-worn

pebbles and chlorite.

Half way up the same rock, of which Dr. SpiusBury represents a clear

section to be open to view from Q to P, aplatform (Q P) exists, varying

in breadth from five to twelve yards. This Mr. Lyeut would explain

to indicate (as the rock above and below is of the same quality) the ex-

istence of an ancient coast, worn away by the gradual action of water

before the level of the latter was depressed: another partial ledge

occurs on the surface of the silicious limestone, marking an anterior

water line, when only the superincumbent beds were exposed to the

corroding action of the sea or lake. It was upon this ledgein the

southernmost hill that the first bones were discovered, imbedded in a

gravel or alluvial conglomerate.

The uppermost rock is a fletz trap, or horizontal bed of compact

volcanic basalt, which must have been spread over the whole surface

long before the denudating causes began to prevail, though pos-

terior to the existence of the animals whose bones are imbedded in the

subjacent rock at L4 ; unless indeed it should turn out that the breccia

containing them occurs only in exterior patches, formed of their de-

tritus, and containing also portions of the basalt, which one or two of

the specimens whose labels are lost seems to render probable.

Of the nature of the bones found imbedded at L 4, and of the period in

the history of the globe to which they belong, the imperfect broken

state of the fragments precludes us from pronouncing any opinicn. For-

tunately, however, Dr. Spilsbury’s discoveries did not stop here; as he

correctly observes himself in one of his letters, one discovery has gra-

dually led to another, and he has become a geologist in spite of him-

self, by the force of accidental circumstances, and the intense interest

which such discoveries are calculated to awaken in the mind of man.

‘A notice is inserted as a hint in the Journal, that fossil bones may

be met with near Jabalpur:—‘‘ I am put on the qui vive—set

out for the hills and bring in a collection of specimens :—my'

people perceive my curiosity, and bring me in any thing uncom-

mon they meet with:—I go to Brimhan Ghat, whither the Eu-

ropean residents have constantly resorted for years past, and the

moment my mahout sees a huge bone, he brings it to me, and

it is discovered to be an elephant’s jaw-bone in a perfect state of preser-

1833.) discovered near Jabalpur. 585

vation.”” A Fakir it seems had occasion to pull down and rebuild his

hut, near the banks of the Nerbudda, when in the foundation these

curious reliques were found and thrown aside. ‘‘ So again,” says Dr. S.

‘«* some four monthsago, alittle boy tells me of a wonderful skeleton, said

by the natives to be that of a giant, describing the fingers as a foot

long: a patel hasa kneepan that serves for a scale to weigh 8 or 4 seers

of cotton in ;—‘ is not this,’ says the boy, ‘as wonderful as your jawbone ?”

to this I readily assented, determined at any rate to sift the rumour.

It was stated to be in Captain GarstTiIn’s district in the Omar Nadi,

about two kos (9 miles) from Narsinhpur (Garawara). I applied to

Captain Garstin, who, owing to the rains, was only two or three days

ago able to send me ina specimen. I suspect it will turn out to bea

fossil elephant, but I shall be better able to speak on the subject when I

have visited the spot on my way to Narsinhpur a few days hence.”

Thus are our eyes at once opening to an unexpected and most inter-

esting object of geological research. Upon the first inspection of the

fragments the question naturally arises, to what animal do they belong,

and to what species ? as it may be remembered that all the fossil mam-

malia discovered in the tertiary deposits of Europe and America, and

even those brought away by Mr. Craurorp from Ava, have been pro-

nounced to belong to extinct species by the most competent authority,

and generally on the unequivocal testimony of skeletons, nearly com-

plete, if not perfect. It would be rather hazardous therefore to pro-

nounce upon the single half jaw-bone* before us, that the Jabalpur

fossil elephant was an exception to the general rnle; yet, upon com-

paring the specimen, side by side, with a recent skeleton in the Society’s

museum, it is impossible to discover any such distinction as should con-

stitute a difference of species: it is in all respects of the Asiatic type

of elephant, and can be confidently distinguished from the elephas

primigenius of Cuvier, so common in Germany and throughout Asiatic

Russia, which has itself been pronounced ‘‘ more different from the In-

dian species than the ass is from the hurse, or the chacal from the wolf

and fox.” —Pidgeon’s Fossil Remains, 59.

I hope that the accompanying drawing will enable more experienced

geologists to decide the question of the identity of the specimen with

the existing species of elephant; for although it may thus lose in an-

tiquity, it may perhaps gain in value, as an intervening link between

the inhabitants of our planet in two geological periods now separated

by so strong a barrier of dissimilar organization.

* Part of the opposite jaw has been since received, and has been added to the

drawing. (Pl. XX. Fig. 1.) They are both inverted in the engraving.

3 °¢

586 Note on tie Fossil Bones [Nov.

While committing the foregoing notice to press, I have received the

following account from Doctor Sritspury, confirming the expectation

alluded to in his former private communication. J. P.

Account of the Fossil bones discovered in the bed of the Omar Nadi, near

Narsinhpir or Garawara, in the Valley of the Nerbadda. By G. G.

Spitspury, Surgeon to the Nerbudda Commission, &c.

Some months ago a native report reached me, that in a nala of the

Narsinhpir district the skeleton of a giant was to be seen, the fingers of

which were said to be three feet long, and that a kneepan served asa weight

of five seers to the patel of the village. On hearing this I applied to Mr.

GanstIn, the magistrate of the district, requesting him to inquire into the

truth of the story: that gentleman immediately with his accustomed kind-

ness sent out and procured some specimens, which he forwarded to me at

Jabalpur. Finding they were fossil bones, [ made arrangements for visit-

ing the spot in person, and beg to forward the accompanying specimens and

plan of the place.

At the spot marked A a, (Pl. XXI. fig. 1.) the water had worn away much

of the stone, at the under side of which I could perceive a large bone. By

the aid of villagers, and digging all round, I was able to upset this stone,

under which imbedded lay a thigh-bone five feet three inches long*, quite

perfect from the round head to the condyles, and altogether a most magni-

ficent specimen: in turning over the stone, however, it was split into two

pieces, and the bone fractured about two feet from the condyles. A is the

general rock found in the bed of the river,—B portion from that in the

stream—b c, spots where large fragments of bones (one apparently the

condyles of a similar thigh-bone) were lying. In the dry bed of the nalla

are strewed nodules of which the accompanying is a specimen, and generally

about that size. Isend a small tooth (fig. 3) which I picked up between A a

and the fossil imbedded in the cliff. The tradition of the village is, that the

head of this animal was washed down the river some sixty or seventy years

ago. I obtained one large tooth from the Thakur of Omarin ; this, together

with five specimens, I hope at a future opportunity to submit to the notice

of the Society.

Description of Plate XX. illustrative of the Jabalpur fossils.

Fig 1. Represents a superficial view of the two fragments of the fossil

bone, placed as forming parts of the same lower jawbone of the elephant,

which on comparison with the plate in Cuvier or Grirrirus will be found not

to differ materially from the type of the Asiatic species. The central con-

necting part is represented too broad. The surface of the bone is in many

places, and especially in the cavities, covered with small granitic gravel,

cemented with lime. On dissolving a portion of the bone in acid, a fibrous

skeleton remains of silicious matter, which has occupied by infiltration the

place of the animal matter: the ivory of the tooth dissolves without resi-

due. The dimensions of the tooth as shewn on the plate are, in length 11}

* Diameter of the bone about the middle and its smallest cylinder nearly six inches.

1833.] discovered near Jabalpur. 587

inches: breadth, 33 in.: grinding surface 83, by 3 in.: girth of the jaw.

bone, 24 inches, and probable length from K, the apex of the chin, to the

socket, 26 inches.

Fig 2. Represents a geological section of the insulated hills to the

east of the line joining the cantonments and the town, distant 14 miles.

The letters refer to the specimens sent down by Doctor SpitsBurRyY.

A. Granitic hills to the north, extending to the town, where they dip, and

rise again near Garrah ; white quartz and felspar, dark grey mica.

B. Smaller grained granite, decomposing.

C. Granitic sandstone, friable, fine grained.

D. (From a watercourse), ferruginous sandstone, shewing the action of

fire. Between D and E, veins of quartz protrude.

The loose sandstone is stated to form the whole surface of the plain,

covered with low jungle at the foot of the hills, intersected with ravines. In

it, half way between the residency and the city, was found the specimen of

silicified wood, formerly presented.

At I and K seams or beds of fine potter’s clay are found: at J the sand.

stone is quartzy, ferruginous, and friable.

EE is a compact silicious limestone, containing crystals of calcareous spar,

shell impressions (?) and amygdaloidal concretions filled with chlorite, which

have the appearance of fossil seeds. At Ec Ed it incloses quartz pebbles,

and fragments of bone mixed up with green earth, and apparently incorpo.

rated with the substance of the rock : in some places the limestone passes into

quartz. On solution in acid, it leaves a fine clean sharp angular quartz sand.

Captain Franxuin describes a calcareous conglomerate near Jabalpur as

composed of rounded fragments of wacken, basalt, sandstone, quartz, and fine

sand, cemented by calcareous matter, and resembling calcareous sandstone.

Its stratification is always horizontal, and it occurs in the beds of most rivers

whose sources are in trap countries: he supposes it to be formed from the

detritus of sandstone and overlying rocks, reposing on primitive rocks, and

covered with 30 feet of alluvium; but it is doubtful whether his account in.

cludes the present rock, which seems to extend for a great distance in each

direction underlying the basaltic trap.

From Q to P occurs the ledge in this rock before noticed, marking the

former position of a coast. At O, a small water course between other hills,

is a conglomerate containing pebbles of red jasper, basalt, felspar, &c. united

with silicious cement. At H a similar variety occurs, and veins of brown

silex are frequent in the limestone.

Above the ledge L is a continuation of the same limestone, which to.

wards La becomes a bone breccia, and at Ld is much broken and mixed, from

the protrusion of a basaltic vein at M. § is the platform covered with a kind

of gravel, on which Captain Sieeman first discovered the fossil bones: it

was evidently part of the lacustrine bed previous to the denudation of the

lower valleys and the present Nerbadda plain.

Gis a stratum of compact basalt, conformably stratified and overlying

the limestone on the three hills, whence it may be concluded to have been

588 Report on a Collection of [Noy.

once continuous over the whole space. The sketch does not pretend to

accuracy, but the height of the hill to the right is stated in round terms to

be 150 feet. It would be a profitable employment for a geologist to strike

a complete section across from the trap hills 8. E. of Jabalpur to the sand-

stone range of Pataria, and another from Tendukaira to the hills south of

Narsinhpir, sounding through the alluvium of the valley of the Nerbadda,

and so putting us in possession of the true features of this field, now becom.

ing every day more important from the discovery of its coal, fossil wood,

shells, and animals.

Description of Plate XXI. the locality of the Narsinhpur Fossil Bones.

Fig 1, the section of the bank laid bare by the gradual action of the Omar

Nadi exhibits ; first, an inclined plane, C D, marking the limit of the rise

and fall of the stream, about 12 feet. Above this the bank is exposed for 25

or 30 feet in height between two ravines, which, and the surface, are

covered with thick jungle. The upper part of the bank is composed of a

light soil, mixed with kankar, and a number of globular kankar nodules are

found inthe bed of the stream, containing silicious nuclei.

A A, the rock in which the bones are imbedded, is a gravelly concrete,

formed of rounded pebbles, grains of quartz, jasper, and basalt, united into a

hard rock, with calcareous cement : it seems to agree with Captain Franklin’s

rock, which may thus prove very fertile in organic remains, while it must

also be of great extent in the valley of the Nerbadda.

Fig. 2, the plan of the locality requires no explanation.

Fig. 3, is the fossil tooth alluded to in Dr. Spiuspury’s note. This tooth,

according to Mr. Prarson, is the third molar of the left side of the lower

jaw of a horse, and it agrees with other fossil bones of horses in being a

little smaller perhaps than the present species, but it is impossible to judge

from a single bone. Fossil remains of horses are common enough along with

those of the elephant, elasmotherium, hog, &c.

An elephant 14 feet in height will, according to Cuvier, have a thigh.

bone 5 feet in length. It is doubtful whether any Indian elephant has been

seen of that height. P.

VI.—Report on a Collection of Objects of Natural History. By the

Curator of the Museum of the Asiatic Society.

[Read 30th October, 1833.]

A valuable collection of objects of natural history having been offered

for sale for Rs. 200, it was thought advisable to purchase them for the

Society’s museum, with the intention of disposing of the numerous

duplicates to private collectors in exchange for other specimens.

Owing to the sad state in which the insects were brought, and the

trouble of cleaning them, time has not been allowed to do more than

put them on the table for the Society’s inspection this evening, with-

out any attempt having been made at arrangement; the same reasons

apply to the shells; and will, it is hoped, be a sufficient excuse for

the dromiscuous manner in which they are placed,

Journ. As Soc... Voli Fi LET

ke ocality of the Nars dejar

Fosst Bones.

seis Preah = atllin

etched n< or

Vhetchad § 7 «1, = i = -

| Y Lie FMarsden 297m, re ae See

0 maria : “he

a is ——

<a 2 —.

©} DeoCackar

x // ~

re =< ae

Wy,

fossil tooth of w horse Kankar

{Prinsep soup

1833.] Objects of Natural History. 589

On the very cursory inspection, however, which has been made, it

appears that there are several new forms, both of the insects, and of

the shells. Of the former, among the Coleoptera, the specimens of the

families, of which Lucanus, Cerambyz, and Curculionide are the types,

are numerous; and some of the species very extraordinary and beauti-

ful: of the Lamellicorn Beetles, there are but few, consisting chiefly

of the Cetoniade and Dynastide : of the Serricornes, Buprestis and

Elater are the only genera; whilst the collection is remarkable for

the few specimens of that numerous family comprising the genus

Carabus of Linneus.

Of Orthoptera, the species are few; butamong them aretwospecimens,

unfortunately both mutilated, of the celebrated leaf insect from Sylhet.

The Hemiptera are numerous, consisting chiefly of Pentatoma and

its affinities.

Of the order Omoptera, the genus Cicada and its affinities have

many specimens, some of which appear to be new.

The Lepidoptera are all more or less injured. Some of the butterflies,

however, are very beautiful, and may be preserved until better speci-

mens shall be procured. The same may be said of the moths: and

there are some species of the genus AZlas, one of which is of large size

being 92 inches from tip to tip of the wings; and another, believed

to be as yet unknown.

The collection of shells consists chiefly of the Phytiphagous section

of the Trachelipodous Mollusca ; some few belong to the Zoophagous

section of the same order ; one genus comes under the class Conchifera,

and one is placed in the section Hydrobranchie of the Gasteropoda.

In all there are about 22 different genera; and at least 60 different

species, comprehending between 6 and 7 thousand individual specimens.

Among these, some of the species of Caracolla, Cyclostoma,

Melania, and Paludina are especially remarkable. There is also one

species entirely new, of a genus first described by Mr. Benson in the

first number of the Journal of the Asiatic Society, for January 1833,

under the name of Pierocyclos. It has been thought proper to change

that name to Spiraculum, for reasons which are fully detailed ina

paper the author has the honour of presenting to the Society to night.

In conclusion, it may be remarked, that the collection is one suffici-

ently interesting and valuable, perhaps, to secure a vote of indemnity

for purchasing it. It is probable that on inquiry it will be found to

contain many new forms, particularly among the shells: for, not pos-

sessing the kind of beauty that makes them estimable to ordinary

collectors, land and fresh water shells have rarely formed any consi.

derable part of cabinets made for shew or for sale, and are accordingly

little known to, and much valued by, the naturalist.

590 Note on the Genus Spiraculum. [Nov.

VII.—Note on the Genus Spiraculum. By J. T. Pearson, Curator As. Soc.

[Presented to the Asiatic Society, and read 30th October, 1833.)

Class, Mouuusca, Order, TRACHELIPODA.

Section, Phytiphaga. Family, —————?

Genus, Spiraculum.

Animal—unknown.

Shell—discoidal, upper surface plano-convex, almost flat at the

top, largely umbilicated; whorls cylindrical; mouth circular ; lip

thickened, reflected; last whorl a little bent downward toward the

umbilicus; a shelly, projecting spiracle, or breathing-tube on the

upper edge of the body whorl, where that whorl touches the preceding

one.

Operculum horny ; very thick; formed of several spiral lavers.

A species of this genus having been found by Mr. Benson, on the

Rajmahal hills, he formed a new genus for its reception; and de-

scribed both its generic and specific characters, so far as he knew them,

in the first number of the Journal of the Asiatic Society. To this new

genus he gave the name Pterocyclos, and that he was right in ventur-

ing to institute it can hardly be doubted, when its strongly marked

characters are considered fully. But the discovery of another species,

with additional generic characters, has rendered improper a name

taken from the form of the aperture of a young specimen merely, or

from a species, as it would appear, far removed from the typical one of

the genus. Mr. Bunson’s name, therefore, has been altered to that

of Spiraculum, and the genus, according to characters it is now

known to possess, differs from all shells that have hitherto come to

the notice of the naturalist. No land shell besides it, excepting the

genus Cyclostoma, has a circular aperture ; and it is a curious fact, that,

in the genus Haliotis only, is there any process at all analogous to

the shelly tube which form so remarkable a feature in the generic

character of Spiraculum.

For the use of this tube analogy must be resorted to in the absence

of proof; and analogy justifies the supposition of its being intended

for the purpose of protecting the breathing organs of the animal;

while it admits of the free passage of air when the mouth of the shell

is closed by the operculum. Why it should be so; why this genus,

which seems to be allied closely to the second division of the Colimacés,

near to Cyclostoma, should have such an apparatus, while Cyclostoma

has nothing of the kind, though the operculum of the latter shuts up

the shell as completely as can that of the former, it is not easy to say.

But it is equally difficult to account for the above-mentioned genus

1833.] Note on the Genus Spiraculum. 591

Haliotis being furnished with tubes or spiracles well known as so many

passages for a syphon; while Stomatella and Stomatia, which in other

respects so much resemble it, have none.

And yet a mere breathing hole would scarcely require to be protected

by a tubular process. But there may be attached to the neck of the

animal of Spiraculum, an apparatus similar to that described by La-

MARCK as possessed by the genus Valvata of his Péristomiens ;—“ un filet

branchial et tentaculiforme au cété droit du cou, et quelque-fois une

branchie en plumet et contractile, qu’il fait sailler hors de sa cavité :”’

or a projecting syphon, such as carries on the respiration of the se-

cond section of the Trachelipoda. Thus there would be an animal

breathing air yet furnished with the apparatus, or a modification of the

apparatus of one inhabiting and breathing only water, and consequent-

ly occupying an intermediate place in the chain of affinity, and form-

ing an inosculation between the two. If so Lamarck might have

adduced it, had it been known to him, as another fact, strongly

confirmative of his celebrated idea of the gradual perfection of the

animal form. His remarks on the subject are so apposite,

that they deserve to be quoted entire. ‘‘ A mesure que,” says

Lamarck, ‘‘ les animaux se repandirent partout de proche en proche,

il parait que ceux des trachelipodes fluviatiles que habitérent les

eaux qui ont peu de profondeur, comme celles des petites riviéres des

étangs, et des marais, que sont exposées a tarir, furent souvent réduits

a vivre dans une vase plus au moins desséchée. IIs se trouverent donc

forcés a s’habituer a. l’air, a le respirer. Or cette habitude ayant modifié

leurs branchies, comme celles des colimacés, est devenu pour eux une

nécessite ; en sorte que quoique vivant dans l’eau ils sont maintenant

obligés de venir de temps en temps a sa surface pour y respirer lair libre.”

If any change of this kind ever did take place, it may perhaps be

found at some future time, when physiological investigations are better

understood than at present, that these animals are able to breathe both

air and water; and further, should the above conjecture as to the re-

spiratory apparatus of Spiraculum prove to be correct, there will be ano-

ther link of union between the second section of Colimaceés and the

Péristomiens beside that of the Lymnéens.

Genus, Spiraculum. Species, Hispidum.

Specific Characters. Animal unknown.

Shell white, subdiaphonous, upper surface of the body whorl

slightly patched with rufous. Epidermis dark-brown, covered with

short bristly hairs, which at the outer and under side of the whorl are

placed thickly together, giving an appearance to the shell of its being

zoned with three narrow dark lines ; whorls five, breathing tube one line

592 On the Kukumb ka Tel. [Nov.

in length, conical, compressed, pointing backward and inward ; mouth

circular, lip thickened and reflected. Diameter one inch.

Operculum corneous, formed of several spiral layers, deeply cupped

at the outer surface, and plano-convex at the inner.

All the specimens of this collection have the mouth dilated at the

upper margin into a surface more or less flat, or concave, or formed

like a sinus. But in the above description it is assumed to be circular,

because it is almost of that form in the more advanced specimens,

from the dilatation having become a well-marked sinus, and in one or

two nearly formed into a tube. Ina smaller species also, in the col-

lection, the tube is actually formed in this manner, being at first a di-

latation, then a sinus, as fresh shelly matter is deposited, and finally a

tube: and in proof of this, a series of specimens may be seen in the

collection, in which are gradual changes from a slight dilatation

of the upper margin of the aperture, to the perfect tube and circular

reflected lip.

2.—Spiraculum Parvum.

Shell white, subdiaphonous, zoned with a dark-brown line along

the circumference of the whorl, striated above with brown zig-zag

strie, and less distinctly so below. Shelly spiracle or breathing tube

situated near to the mouth. Mouth perfectly circular ; lip thickened

and reflected, umbilicus largely dilated, upper surface plano-convex,

almost flat. Diameter =, of an inch.

Operculum unknown, supposed to resemble that of S. Hispidum.

Epidermis dark-brown.

3.—The shell described by Mr. Benson under the name of Ptero-

cyclos rupestris.

It is thus ascertained that there are at least three species of this in-

teresting genus, and it is hoped that the reasons detailed above are an

excuse sufficient for changing the name bestowed upon it by Mr. Bzn-

son; at all events, it has been done from a sincere conviction of its

necessity, and not from any spirit of innovation.

ee ee

VIII.—On the Kukumb ka Tel, or Concrete Oil of the Wild Mangosteen.

To the Editor of the Journal of the Asiatic Society.

Sir,

The motto on the title page of your Journal induces me to send

you a few remarks on a substance which I have reason to think

possesses some very peculiar properties, which entitle it to be made the

subject of experimental investigation.

1833.] On the Kukumb ka Tel. 593

This substance is the Kukumb ka Tel of the natives of this part of

the country, or the concrete oil of the wild mangosteen, a tree which

is common in some parts of the Southern Konkan. Iam not aware,

whether any or what difference, further than may be induced by

cultivation, exists between the above and the much-extolled mangosteen

of the Straits. The fruit ripens in April and May; is small, and of a

flattened globular form. The rind or shell is about 4th of an inch in

thickness, of a deep crimson colour, and intense acidity. Within this,

but without adhering to it, is contained a pulpy mass, in which the

seeds are imbedded. The oil is extracted from the seeds by boiling.

They are first exposed for some days in the sun to dry, and then pound-

ed and boiled in water: the oil collects on the surface, and on cooling

concretes into a solid cake. When purified from extraneous matter,

the product is of a rather brittle quality ; of a pale yellowish hue, the

shade inclining to green; exceedingly mild and bland to the taste,

melting in the mouth like butter, and impressing a sensation of cold on

the tongue, not unlike what is experienced on allowing a particle of

nitre to dissolve on the tongue.

From several experiments on this substance with the thermometer I

have been led to the conclusion that in passing fromthe concrete to a

fluid state, and conversely from a fluid to the concrete form, it is guided

by some peculiar law, in consequence of which it has two distinct

temperatures, removed from each other by several degrees, at which

it passes respectively from one state into the other. I need not here

detail the numerous trials I made on it, as the general result was the

same in all, My first object was to ascertain the temperature at which

it congealed or passed into the concrete form. This from repeated

trials I invariably found to be about 90°. In one instance, having

brought the substance into a perfect state of fluidity, I placed it in an

_oven with a temperature at first above 100°, but allowed gradually to

descend. When the Thermometer, which was placed beside it, indicated

88°, I expected to have found it congealed; but perceiving that it still

retained its fluidity, ] took it out and plnnged the bulb of the thermo-

meter into it. The thermometer immediately rose to 94°, at which it con-

tinued for some minutes, (the external air at the time being 72°,) and

then gradually descended to 90°, at which it became stationary for some

miuutes before the substance began to lose its fluidity and transparency :

then without indicating any change of temperature, the process of

congealing commenced at the sides of the vessel, the opaque cloud

slowly creeping in towards the centre, and the thermometer all the

while remaining at 09°,

594 On the Kukumb ka Tel. [Nov.

The result of various trials satisfied me, that this substance could

not be brought to congeal at a higher temperature than 90°; but in

experimenting on it in the solid state, that temperature was found

quite insufficient, by several degrees, again to liquify it. The follow-

ing is a brief statement of the result of several trials to ascertain its

melting point. It was subjected to a gradually increasing temperature,

commencing from 90°, with considerable intervals between every

higher accession of temperature, to allow time for the effect which was

capable of being produced on it. From 90 to 100°, the effect was

merely to soften it: at 102°, it still preserved its cohesion, but the con-

sistency was that of butter in warm weather: at 106 part began to

separate in a semifluid state, transparent at the edge and opaque in the

centre; and a few minute globules were separately observed in a per-

fectly fluid state. Every fresh accession of temperature had of course

the effect of bringing it more and more towards a state of fluidity; but

up to 116°, there was still observable a partial opacity, and it was only

when the temperature had reached about 120°, that it could be said to

have attained perfect fluidity and transparency*.

Another peculiarity in this substance is the irregular form its sur-

face is thrown into in the act of concreting. Nor does it appear capable

of being prevented by any management, or by conducting the process

in the most gradual and gentle manner. But the effect may be consi-

derably increased by exposing it in a fluid state to the sudden applica-

tion of a cooling medium. Having a stratum of the fluid oil at 120°,

floating on water in a small cup, I suddenly exposed it to the chilling

influence of a slight drizzling rain and sharp breeze, the temperature

of the air being 70°: the rapid abstraction of heat soon caused the

congealing process to commence, and the entire surface shot up into a

series of prismatic or columnar masses, about 4th inch in height, and

separated from each other by small intervals. This effect took place

some time before the substance became perfectly opaque; and while

in this state, it had the appearance of a crystallized body, in an

intermediate state between opacity and transparency, of which we have

a familiar instance in a piece of loaf-sugar dipped in water.

The concrete oil of the mangosteen might I apprehend be advan-

tageously introduced into pharmaceutical preparations. It is used by

the natives as a healing application. I have noticed among its sensi-

ble properties, that it impresses a sensation of cold on the tongue;

from which it would appear, that it powerfully absorbs heat, as several

salts do in the act of dissolving. It is easy to conceive that this

* The same peculiarity is observable, more or Jess, in all the concrete oils : itis

probably owing to their bad conducting power.—Ep.

1833.] Note on the Khytik Phyt Coal. 595

property may often be of great service in wounds or sores, accompanied

with inflammation, which it is desirable to abate.

The quantity of the concrete oil that may be obtained from the

seeds may be taken at about one-tenth. From 3 lb. avoirdupois or 3,500

grs. of the seeds, I obtained 360 grs. of the concrete oil in a moderate-

ly pure state. The above is somewhat more than 1-10th; and with

better management, the product might perhaps be greater. It requires

however long-continued boiling to extract it, and it is still more tedious

to purify it from the fibrous matter of the seeds.

Western Ghauts, 25th September, 1833. Ne Noli

1X.—Note on the Coal discovered at Khytk Phyu, in the Arracan District.

[Read 30th October, 1833.]

Lieut. Fonzy has been most active in investigating the mineral

resources of this almost impenetrable country, where swamps and

jungles of the worst description render it hazardous to reside, while they

hide for the most part the features by which a geologist is enabled

to direct his researches.

The seam of coal discovered at Syneg Kyong, as shewn in Captain

Marerave’s sketch, Plate XIX. Fig. 3. is most conveniently situated for

exportation, should it turn out abundant, and of good quality. The Oong

Kyong* creek (reed-nala) falls into Khywik Phyé harbour, just be-

yond the anchorage of the ships, and the nala itself is deep enough

for all small vessels. The following description of the place is extracted

from a note by Captain Marcrave.

“«*The hill towards the creek describes the segment of a circle, is

very steep, and no more I think than 50 or 60 feet from the sea level ;

the soil is sand and clay, variously proportioned, of grey, yellow, and

sometimes a reddish colour, resting apparently on coarse grey sand-

stone. It is isolated by the spring-tide, whose fall leaves exposed a

flat level ledge of rock, (extending some 70 yards or more N. W. of

the hill,) composed of grey sandstone with a brick-red tinge on the

surface, particularly near the edges of the blocks and fissures. This

sandstone seemed to me to disappear under the hill, for on the other

side I found precisely similar stone in fragments, but not the same per-

fectly horizontal bed. The vein of coal runs about E. and W. (along

the line DB) across the southern part of the ledge; at B is the pit

sunk by Lieut. Fotry, 3 or 4 feet deep, on a former visit: at A and

C are the smaller excavations whence came the best specimens of ore

andcoal. The vein is not straight, however, but rather serpentine, or

* In the plate this has been called Syneg-kyong by mistake.—Ep.

oH 2

596 Note on the Khyttk Phyii Coal. [Nov.

zig-zag from D to B, where it disappears, apparently passing under

the hill. The seam is nearly vertical, from 80° to 85° dipping to the

north. The order of the strata from the north was—1, the reddened

grey sandstone; 2, a black or dark-grey sandshale, mixed with thin

veins and grains of coal; 3, the hard brittle shining jet coal, sometimes

covered with a yellow argillaceous substance, with layers of the sand-

stone and fibrous bituminous shale ; then came the pure coal, succeeded

below by the same mixed substance, and this followed by a hard grey

sandstone. We followed the vein down as well as our imperfect means

would permit, but lost it always I think at the depth of 2 or 3 feet.

Including the soft lavers it was generally from six inches to a foot in

thickness, and could be distinctly traced from D to B by the blackish

grey appearance of the stone. My attention was most excited how-

ever by the abundance and apparent purity of the iron pyrites, which

was extracted during such imperfect operations.”

Lieut. Fotey subsequently extracted a considerable quantity of the

Syneg Kyong coal, and of the curious silicified coal found here and else-

where in contact with it* : some of the latter specimens are almost wholly

converted into silex, and give an insight into the process of formation

of the fossil wood so common in Arracan, Ava, and Assam. As to the

denomination of the Khyiwik Phya coal, whether it be what used to be

called a true coal or a more modern lignitef, itis of little importance now

that all such formations are attributed to a similar origin, namely, the

gradual deposition of vegetable matter along with the sedimentary sands,

and mud of an ancient river or estuary. It is the extent and thickness

of the bed which is of importance, and in this the Syneg Jvyong coal

seems to be deficient as far it has been hitherto explored. This

circumstance and the quantity of pyrites may deprive it of a part of its

value, although it is otherwise ofa very rich and good quality, and well

adopted for getting up boiler heat. The analysis of the larger speci-

mens sent through Mr. H. Waursr, Commissioner of Arracan, being

more accurate than that noted at a former meeting, is here repeated.

Oogadong Silicified

Syneg Kyong coal. lignite. coal with ditto.

Volatile matter.... 37.1 63.0 32

Warbons. 3... sss 60.5 35.5 4.3

Red ferruginous ash, 2.4 1.5 0.0

Silex... 5% -f) «+ 92.5

100.0 100.0 100.0

* This appears to be the case in a specimen marked No. 5, Phitringu coal,

which is of the same nature as the silicified coal which accompanied Mr. Wax-

TER’S specimens of Sandowy lignite, and is stated by him to exist in such abun-

dance there.

+ See page 606. of the present number.

1833, ] Analysis of Books. 597

Lieut. Forry describes the Oogadong and silicious or Phiringi

beds of coal as follows :

2. The Oogadong coal (See. Pl. XIX.) occurs in what geologists would

call the newest floetz trap formation : it consists of pitch-coal, brown coal,

and a slate coal; it is found in conjunction with iron pyrites beneath

a stratum of sandstone, &c. similar to that of Syneg Kyong. The

vein appears to run from east to west, extending from the foot of a

small hill towards the sea.

3. The Phéiringué bed is apparently a continuation of the last,

lying in the same direction, at the distance of two coss, though sepa-

rated by the sea. It crops out from between layers of a fine greyish

sandstone, in a small island, one of the ‘‘ Balungahs,” or broken

islands: the beds are nearly horizontal, dipping slightly towards

Oogadong.

Lieut. Founy also alludes to the plentiful supply of coral lime along

the coast, and in Ramree Island, where there is a loose calcareous

rock forming !ow hills in the direction of Moira, probably formed from

the degradation of the coral.—There are mud volcanoes in Ramree as in

Cheduba*, which spout out abundance of pyrites and kidney iron ore.

A crater of this kind is pointed out at Oogadong, where scoriaceous

matter, trap minerals, and basalt shew evidence of more active volcanic

agency in times past. Petrified wood occurs also near Nagadong.

J.P.

X.—Analysis of Books.

Transactions of the Batavian Society of Arts and Sciences, Vol. XIII.

The half of this volume is occupied by a subject, we may say, of interest to

every individual in the world; Cholera Morbus. Important however as it may

be in itself, it has now been the subject of so many volumes, treatises, and essays,

that each singly conveys but little information that is new, and the greatest part

of any one is a repetition of the others. Unfortunately also it cannot be said that

all the labours of medical men have advanced our knowledge respecting this

formidable disease much beyond what it was in the first year of its appearance.

It would be difficult to name a subject in Pathology which medical men have ever

so heartily and so strenuously united to investigate, and on which such a mass of

intellect throughout every quarter of the world has directed its concentrated energy,

and yet after sixteen years of unwearied observation, experiment, and research, we

are obliged to confess that the cause of Cholera is unknown, its pathology inscrut-

able, and its treatment totally unsettled.

These reasons might be supposed sufficient to induce us to pass over very briefly

the articles on Cholera in the present publication: as however among all the

* Nodular iron pyrites, the exterior of which has been deprived of its sulphur,

and converted into red oxide of iron by heat,

598 Analysis of Books. [Nov.

opinions respecting it which have been published, those of the Dutch Physicians

in the Eastern Archipelago are perhaps the least known, it may not be uninterest-

ing to give a brief analysis of them as they appear in these Transactions.

I. The first paper is by Dr. M. T. G. Mutter, Physician to the Hospital at Wil-

tevrede. He sets out with an account of the several appearances of Cholera in the

Eastern Islands: the first notice of it is in Bontius, Physician to the Dutch

Settlement of Batavia, who published an account of the diseases of the East Indies

in 1629, and among others of Cholera Morbus, which according to him was so

violent, that ‘¢ Cornelius Van Rayen, steward of the hospital of the sick, being in

perfect health at six in the evening, was suddenly seized with the Cholera, and

expired in terrible agony and convulsions, before twelve o’clock at night ; the

violence and rapidity of the disorder surmounting the force of every remedy.”

Bontius, Chap. vi.

On the news of the appearance of Cholera in Malacca in 1819, the Dutch

Government of Java directed all ships coming from infected parts to undergo a

strict quarantine. In spite of this, the disease broke out at Java in April, 1821, with

such violence, that at Batavia, 156 deaths took place in one day, and by June it had

visited every quarter of the island. The violence abated in December, by which

time it is reckoned 110,000 persons fell victims to its rage.

This, it will be seen, is avery different account from that in the Lancet, the

Editor of which is determined to maintain the contagious nature of the disease,

and shapes according to that the history which he gives in the number for November

1831. He informs us that,

“In 1823, coincident with the Burmese war, and the march of our troops from sick

districts in British India, the Birman empire became affected. Coincident again with

the general or particular periods of the arrival of individual vessels or trading flotillas,

we find the malady in Acheen, the capital of Sumatra ; at Banca, Java, and Borneo, in

the Philippine Islands; at Amboyna, in the Molluccas, and at length in Macao and

Canton on the west coast of China.”—

Thus insinuating that it didnot appearin Java before 1823, and omitting all men-

tion of the quarantine.

The author then gives a summary account of the course of the disease—‘‘ A few

minutes after being attacked by Cholera, the following appearances are observable.

The patient lies without motion, stretched out in one posture ; the skin is blue or

dirty brown, and sometimes marked with lividor purple spots, as is seen in frozen

persons ; some times altogether dry, at others covered with cold sweat. It is cold,

hard, and contracted, quite different from health, and conveys to the fingers, par-

ticularly when covered with sweat, a peculiar disagreeable sensation. The turgor

vitalis disappears, so that even corpulent persons appear to have become lean*.

The countenance falls in, and indicates great weakness ; the forehead is covered with

cold sweat ; the eyes lie deep in their sockets, and are surrounded with a dark ring.

The half shut eyelid allows only a part of the muddy eyeball to be seen, but when-

ever it is fully opened, the exhausted eye looks out with a melancholy gaze. The

blue lips remain half open, and allow exit to cold expiration ; the chest heaves

laboriously, the abdomen labours to maintain the respiration. It is however

tolerably even, and neither tumid nor retracted ; the extremities are stiff, the skin

of the half shut hands wrinkled as in persons who work much in water, but cold,

* This striking symptom appears to be unnoticed in our Medical Publications.

1833.] Analysis of Books. 599

and the nails are blue. The patient appears almost quite indifferent to his situation,

and speaks unwillingly.

“*Scarcely have these appearances been observed than the scene changes. The half

dead patient revives, the countenance assumes a painful expression, the legs are

drawn to the belly, the feet and toes crook themselves downwards, hard moveable

knobs are felt in the calves and thighs. These are the muscles drawn together by

agonizing cramps. The arms are also often attacked by cramps, and the patient

exhibits such strength that several persons are necessary to hold him. Oppressive

sighing takes place ; the cramps at length cease, but another painful phenomenon

makes its appearance ; the patient worn out by internal heat, cries out for cold water,

swallows a quantity of it greedily, which scarcely gets to the stomach before it

comes up again, generally followed by severe retchings ; and im proportion as the

stomach empties itself above, so the bowels empty themselves below in rapid suc-

cession of evacuations of a large quantity of thin rice-water liquid, which generally

exhaust the patient, who now refuses to speak, except to cry for drink, or utter

broken complaint of weakness, and groanings extorted by the spasms.” Page 7.

The author then proceeds to a more minute and detailed account of the whole

course of the disease, which he divides into three stages. The first, consisting of

the preliminary symptoms till the appearance of vomiting ; the second, from that

period till the commencement of the state of torpor and insensibility ; the third,

from thence to death. In all this it will be seen that not the least notice is taken

of the state of re-action previous to death on which the European Physicians dwell

at such length ; nor indeed has it been noticed by any practitioner we believe in this

country. Is this state peculiar to the Cholera of cold climates, and does it constitute

a difference between the disease as it occurs there and in India?

The reader must always remember that there is a certain degree of Poetry in

Physic as in every thing else, and that a sick man constitutes in some respects a very

picturesque object, particularly when dying of a horrible and incurable disease. Most

Physicians (even the very soberest) are apt to indulge their poetical vein a little in

describing the circumstances of such patients, and to make a striking picture out

of the collection of their symptoms. Hence in reading accounts of Cholera, or

indeed of any other fatal ailment, we must always substract a certain proportion of

the terrible, and endeavour to judge of what the description would be, if written in

plain prose.

Dr. Muuuer then goes on to an account of the post-mortem appearances, which

are detailed with great minuteness ; he divides them into sections, the external

appearances, the cranium, the thorax, the heart, the lungs, the abdomen, the

stomach, the duodenum and jejunum, the ileum, the mesentery, the colon, the

liver, the gall-bladder, the spleen, the kidneys, the bladder, the abdominal gan-

glia: of these last the aathor observes, that ‘‘ they have been frequently examined

without exhibiting any thing unusual except an increase of redness, arising from

the plethora of their blood vessels, the ganglions themselves seemed unaltered.”

Pas9.

He then proceeds to the diagnosis, which we pass over, concluding that it can

present little difficulty. The symptoms of Cholera are too formidable to be easily

or frequently mistaken.

Then follow the causes of Cholera, in which however he merely confines himself

to that disposition of body which renders an individual susceptible of the disease,

and this in general he considers to be debility, or, to use his own words,

600 Analysis of Books. (Nov.

“Tt thus appears, that a weakened state of the body produces the chief predis-

position to Cholera. By a weakened body, I understand a body in which the vital

powers have descended below their just and necessary degree : a weak body is quite

a different thing, that is, only in comparison with other stronger bodies ; a smaller

degree of vital power, which may however be just and complete for the health of

that individual itself.’’ P. 54*.

He observes with respect to Europeans, that the disease does not appear in them

on their first arrival in Java, but generally after they have been some time resident,

and the climate has begun to affect them. He then reviews the various opinions

respecting the exciting cause of the disease, and is dissatisfied with them all. He

himself offers nothing better than an altered state of the atmosphere.

After an investigation of the proximate cause the author sums up thus, ‘‘A sudden

and great debility of the nervous and vital powers, with increased excitement in the

abdominal viscera, are the proximate causes of Cholera.”’ P. 64.

We fear this explanation casts but little light on the disease. He then goes on

to the prognosis, through all the minutia of which, we cannot follow him ; he seems

to lay most stress on the state of the pulse.

“The first and chief symptom on which any hope of recovery can be founded is

the pulse becoming stronger ; it is of little consequence whether it be quicker or

slower, harder or softer, if at the same time it exhibits more fulness ; nay a slight

variation in the pulse is not upon the whole a bad sign, as it is generally accompa-

nied by a diminution of uneasiness.’’ P. 71.

We now come to what is most interesting of all, the treatment; and this the

author comprizes in four indications: first, the re-excitement and preservation of

the nervous and vital powers; second, the restoration of the circulation and the

natural state of the blood; third, the diminution of the excitement in the stomach

and bowels ; fourth, the diminution of the disposition to spasm.

The means for all this the author divides into two classes, external and internal.

In the first class he arranges (whether properly or not), the evacuation of blood by

the lancet orleeches ; of the first he observes that it is chiefly useful to full-blooded,

fresh-arrived Europeans, not yet become weak. Of the few patients cured under

such circumstances, the greatest number have been bled. Leeches produce the

same effects, but more slowly; in advanced states of the disease, they remain for

hours on the patient’s skin without becoming fuller. He then discusses the

derivantia, that is, all those means which, by exciting the skin, diminish the

internal irritation. He lays a good deal of stress on simple shampooing, and

then on dry friction ; he approves of the application of mustard pastet to the breast

and extremities: moxa can hardly be used ; but in two instances, the author made a

moxa of phosphorus, and burnt it on thespine, without any effect.

He then enters upon the external medicines ; the well known list of stimulants,

alcohol, ether, oleum menth. &c: even phosphorus, he says, was tried to the extent of

four grains in 24 hours, to no purpose: opium he declares to have had no visible

* It isa little odd that this should be the doctrine of the old Arabic Physicians, in

what they called Aslah-ool Amzijati lahoo, hy which they meant, not the best state of

health absolutely, but the best state of health with reference to the constitution of a

givenindividual. See printed Edition of the Kanooncheh, 1827. P. 3.

+ This remedy is also highly, and we believe justly extolled by Dr. Twininc.

Practical Account of Epidemic Cholera, 1833. P. 72.

1833.] Analysis of Books. 601

effecton the disease: of calomel, he observes, that it was much more used formerly

than now, and he ends with a list of the cholera mixtures published officially in

the Batavia Courant. We select one or two of those least used with us.

(4) R. Infus, Valerian, .... 3v. (5) R. Calomiels. o,00 o0:.0:00,3> 46) OF

Ol. Cajapooti,...... Si—ii. Camphor, elect.. .. gr. viii

Ether Sulph. acet..... 3ii QD DORs cle ccpypiensit non OTe AD

A spoonful every hour. Saech. AID, . 6 éevo> 030) 3l

divide in puly. vi.

One to be taken every quarter

of an hour.

(6) R. Ol. Phosphor, .... 38. ( 3i Gi) Bl Aids Reba sso cosere eons on BAN,

continet Phosphor .. gr. ii) Arcet, | Morp Bats a5 js:e)s' 00:0, £0» 1,

Pulv. Gum Arab. ...... 3i M. as the former,

Aq. Menth........ as paaeev (8) R. Ol. Jatrophe,........0+ 3i

Mini Opitibs css. cs Sta0% ore | Bl Pulv. Gum Arab........ 31

M. f. emulsio Aq. Menth.. .....;. wn oth

as the former. M. every hour two spoonsful.

II. The length of our observations on this first article renders a detailed account of

the succeeding on the same subject unnecessary, by H. ScuriuetT, Surgeon Major of

the Royal Netherland Marine. He inquires into the name of the disease, its cause,

(in which he is an opponent of contagion) its effects, its species, its diagnosis,

its treatment, (and here he quotes largely from the works of our Indian Sur-

geons, JoHNSON, CorsyNn, Boyie, TyTier, &c.) and then the post-mor-

tem appearances. In these he chiefly notices the state of the brain, and

gives a plate of that organ, its vessels loaded with blood, and the dura ma-

ter deeply stained with inflammation. He also gives a figure of a portion of

the stomach and the jejunum. In an account of the prophylactics, he takes

notice of the dispute respecting the effects of bad rice in exciting the disease.

“Tt is well known, that Dr. Tyriur connected the food of the Hindoos with this

disease, and on account of the bad qualities of the last rice crop, which is their

daily food, he ascribed this epidemic sickness to that ; thereupon his well-known

work saw the light, endeavouring to ascribe the epidemic which has prevailed in

different parts of the world, for many years, to the bad qualities of the rice, on

which account he gives to the Indian cholera the name of morbus oryzeus; bad

food is doubtless one of the chief predisposing causes of this disease, but cer-

tainly not the proximate cause.” P. 178.

III. The next article is a dissertation on the origin of the Japanese, by Dr. Vonsin-

BoLD. Like all other eastern nations, these people pretend to a divine origin and

unfathomable antiquity. The race of gods, called TewsEN Setsip At, had employed

themselves, somewhat unsatisfactorily we should think, for millions of years in

hovering over the land of Nippon: at lenyth the seventh in succession to the celestial

throne, by name Tsanace Namik, with his wife, came to the resolution of descend-

ing from the clouds on Japan, and there multiplying like men, they produced a race

of demigods of limited but very long life, and dignified with polysyllabic names,

European antiquarians have given various interpretations of this fable, with

which we need not trouble our readers. Four different opinions are entertained

respecting the origin of the Japanese :—

602 Analysis of Books. [Nov.

A. That they are descendants of the Chinese.

B. Or of some of the Tartar tribes.

C. Or of a mixture of various Asiatic tribes.

D. Or they are aborigines.

Which last supposition cuts the knot at once.

The resemblance between the Chinese and Japanese is so strong, in physiogno-

my, religion, and manners, as as to have impressed all travellers with the idea of the

latter people being a colony of the former.

The author omits other considerations, and enters into an inquiry respecting

the oblique position of the eyes, supposed to be peculiar to the Chinese, and the

nations consanguineous with them; but as he observes, nothing can be built on this

till it be ascertained what are the Asiatic tribes to whom this conformation belongs,

and whether any of those of North and South America partake in it. The skin

of the Japanese is of all colours; in town many approach to the fairness of

Europeans, in the country they are copper red or earthy cloured.

His next inquiry is into the resemblance of the Japanese and Chinese language

and writing. The Chinese say, the first appearance of the Japanese among them

was A. D. 57, at which time, they were barbarians, without writing, government or

morals, but they at the same time assert, that Japan was peopled by a colony of

Chinese in the year 1195 before Christ ; ifso, why did not this colony carry their

writing and manners along with them ? The author allows that Japanese writing is

borrowed from the Chinese, but still contends, that Japan must have been peopled

by a nation using a different language from theirs.

The Japanese alphabet consists of 47 letters, which are originally Chinese cha-

racters, having the same sound ; but the Japanese language, unlike that of the

Chinese, is polysyllabic : hence, says the author, Japan must have been peopled

by some Asiatic tribe before the art of writing was spread through the northern

parts of Asia.

The author next proceeds to the religion, and, ‘‘ Though,”’ says he, ‘‘I cannot

prove that the religion of the old inhabitants of Japan might not have been the same

with that of their Chinese contemporaries, yet I can maintain, that the religion

prevailing among the Chinese and Japanese in the present day has not the least

resemblance to that of the ancient Japanese.’ P. 220. To prove this, the author

enters into a long investigation of the ancient and modern Chinese and Japanese

godderies, which we have found it difficult to understand, and would find it more

so to make intelligible to our readers; we shall therefore take it for granted that

he has proved his point, and go on to the rest of the argument.

The author then considers the relationship between the Japanese and the

Tartar races, but we have not leisure to follow him through this research, par-

ticularly, as after examining the language and manners of the Japanese and the

neighbouring kingdom of Corea, at great length he does not appear to come to a

positive conclusion. He then asks if the Japanese are a mixed race, composed from

various Asiatic clans ; and though the author is not very clear, we consider this the

opinion to which, upon the whole, he is most inclined. He even considers that

there is a strong relation between these tribes and the Peruvians, and gives

some instances of verbal resemblances in their respective language, thus supporting

the theory of Mr. RANKEN on the origin of the Peruvians. He concludes, ‘‘ I com-

mit these fragments to the hands of the literati, earnestly entreating them to receive

1833.] Analysis of Books. 603

with favour the nosegay I have gathered with so much care from the islands of

this archipelago and the neighbouring continents, and to take them under their high

and mighty protection.” P. 275.

IV. The next paper by M. H. HatEwyn is an account of the tribe called the

Dayakkers of Borneo. They seem in avery low state of civilization, being totally

ignorant of reading and writing, and have a number of very peculiar customs well

worth noticing, did our space allow of it. We shall only notice one, which will serve

as a complete refutation of those who are disposed to hold Oriental civilization in

low estimation. ‘‘ The Dayakkers are governed by their chiefs, who are entirely

dependent on their subjects, and are chosen from the eldest of the people. If the

chief acts arbitrarily, the people rebel against him and put another in his place.”

P. 291. This it must be confesscd is the very acme and beau ideal of government,

sufficient surely to satisfy the most liberal reformer. How wonderful it is that so

perfect ascheme should, in the midst of the march of European intellect, be

reserved for such a remote and unnoticed part of the world as this. “‘ There are,’’

proceeds the author, ‘‘ many debtors in Dayak : the custom is, that if the debt be

not discharged in four months, itis doubled.’’ P, 291. This is worse than Calcutta

Sircars and Life Insurances yet.

V. The next article by Mr. VANDER JAurt is an account of the groupe of islands

called the Kokos or Keeling Islands, of which a full and authentic account, derived

from the Reports of Admiral OWEN tothe Government, was published in the GLEAN-

INGS OF SciENCE, for Oct 1830. The article terminates with an account of the

interview between the author and Mr. Ross, also given in the GLEANINGS.

VI. The last article is an account of the mountains of Tinger, in Java, by

H. T. Dornis, Resident at Soorabay. The author examines their geogra-

phical situation, the dwellings of the inhabitants, their religions, their mode of pray-

er, their festivals, their ceremonies of birth, marriage, and funerals; all these

seem borrowed from the Indian Brahmins, and are quite different from the

Muhammedan Javanese. Above the head of Brauma, VisHNu, and Siva,

however, they acknowledge a supreme power, whom they call PrRaBo Goro

IncGLoHorR. One ortwo singular customs may be noticed—‘“‘ widowsare highly priz-

ed among them, and as soon as a woman has lost her husband she is sought after by

almost all the bachelors; a young miss gets a husband with great difficulty.’

P. 330.’ One might be tempted to ask how then are widows produced? The case is

similar to WINIFRED JENKIN’S puzzle as to how sheep’s heads could be found in

Scotland unless there were sheep too. ‘‘ When the Tingerians wish to exhilarate

themselves, they drink tocak, i. e- fermented palm wine, mixed with water, which

renders them immensely frolicksome; the smoking of opium and drinking of

strong waters is unknown-” Ibid. We know not whether the Temperance Societies

would approve this distinction,

On the whole, the author is so delighted with the climate and manners of the

Tingerians, that he breaks out into a Virgilian rapture, which not to do him injus-

tice, we shall give both in the original and translation as a conclusion to our

analysis. ‘‘ Gelkkige bewoners van Tinger! hoe weining gevoelt gij mischien zelve

het vo oregt hetwelk gij geniet !’’

‘Happy inhabitants of Tinger, how little perhaps do they feel the privileges

which they enjoy.”

eet

are

604 Miscellaneous. [Nov.

XI.— Miscellaneous.

1.—Register of the Temperature of Ghazipur. By the Rev. R. EVEREST.

I am fully aware how imperfect these observations are, but in this country, where

so little has been done, I publish them in the hope they may hereafter be of use to

individuals engaged in the same pursuit. To obtain the mean of every hour in the

24, as was done at Leith, is beyond the power of any one without assistance.—R.E.

in 1831-2 in 1832-3.

, Sun-,% past 2

rise. | p.m. | Mean Saas ae ; eaete | piensa ete:

1831. S| a |e | ee

Highest, .. [86 111,1 78 110,6

April, .. _.SLowest -- |70 93,5 62,5] 95

Mean, ....176,91 99,2; 88,05} 22,3 #72 98,4} 85,2 ; 26,4

ighest,..|90 | 111,6 a ne

May, .. Shoes ea Sh 95 69 97 |

Mean, .... |86 109,5 | 97,75) 23,5 §-76,2| 107,6; 91,5 | 31,4

Highest, .. }87,5 | 111,2 84 115,5

June, . “bie aa WE 19 75. (81

Mean, ....|82 | 97,6] 89,8 | 15,6 80,6 102,2| 91,7 | 21,6

Highest, .. (82,5] 103,5 83,5 | 106,5

July, .. Lowest, ..|75 85,5 75 82

Mean, ....|80,6| 94,1 | 87,35} 13,5 §80,7| 94,8) 87,75] 14,1

Highest, ..|81,5| 96 83 | 100,5

August, Lowest, o- 177,51 795% 77 81

Mean, ..-.|79,7| 89,1] 84,6 | 9,4 79,2] 91,1] 85,15! 11,9

Highest, -./82,5| 98 80,5} 99

September, ia aac 80,5 72 82,5

Mean, ...-|78,3 x 84,2 | 11,8 69 91,7| 84,3 | 14,8

Highest, .- |78 94 76 94

October, .. } Lowest, -{99,5} 85,5 63 | ToD

Mean, ....|70,5}] 89,9| 80,1 | 19,4 #70 78,5; 79,2 | 18,5

Highest, ..|72,5| 88,5 65 | 90 |

November, } Lowest, Saito Ze! 51 80,5

Mean, ....|53,2| 79,1! 66,25) 25,9 [56,7| 84,4) 70,5 | 27,7

Highest, .. |65 70,5 63 88

December, } Lowest, . (46 63 38 66,5

iti Mean, .... [55,4] 67,9] 61,65} 12,5 [50,3] 74,5 62,4 | 24,2

Highest, .. {53 77,9 57 83 |

January, .. SLomest, .. 139 62,5 37,9 | 68

Mean, ....|45,3] 68,4] 56,85! 23,1 [47,1 75,5 | 61,3 | 28,4

Highest, .. {60 76

February, .. } Lowest, . {41 70,5

Mean, .... 0,7 | 73 | 61,85) 22,3 |

Highest, ..!66 94

March, - Soves, Rass O Nedie, | |

Mean,....|55,5] 84,2] 69,8 | 28,7

Yearly means, .... ....'....|......{ 77,36] 19,0

Radiation.—I also made a few experiments on Radiation towards the latter end

of the year 1832. The Thermometer was covered with black wool, and laid on

the grass. The following are the results :

1833.] Misceilaneous. 605

Sept. A.M. Pr. Me

1{ 2) 3 4, 5 6| 7 8 9} 10 11 | 12 i] 2 3 4 5] 6{ 7| 8] 9] 10 11/12

Oi he aces IS) (es iy eo} selee Moet sll Szeot <9 44. 5r140 -- | 126 {103 | --|81 73

29172.5 70 70 68.5 |69.5}80 |94.5|108\131 |140 }140 |138 |132 | 192 [106 | 93/82 77-5 76| 74 72.5

30] -- + | =+|70.5/71 |-- | ++ |106|129 }138 }140 [135.5|129 | 119 | .. 82|78 | 76 |76 | 75|74

Oct.

18 re «+171 '70.5]-- Pee Bree | ee LLL 119 P 79

| | «+174 kal Pall psi te net 142 1141

NE | PEM eweWdl Ci Paci hW a ove feo iflecce, AULD ae “% -- | 76 71.5

| ieee TA -+173 AIO) etal ocel fuga as a, os 120 = 76

Ghee in Cai ee eae St (a | |e, ae ee 128 . 75

i) veiellisie ++ (75 ealicten tl. cca ifererenl tere «+ |129 101 72

BE Salle eel AL eat beeen Neston |= cl ers 72

Oh Sails G7 Re aol ea boeel tepe| Wicd toad essed eee =

TO). ~=}ac PAGO ar cienateife fe [Se] tes te 128 | 64

yO cal (oes -160 |59.51-- oy) ace 132 ate 62

12 77 fia WEES |" | ool ine ee 138 64

13 ae Sita flood Paco! fre 137 ie 68

28 59 cram bye ° «- 1194 102 65

81 60 yp se + 1132 |130 124 a 66

I subjoin, for the sake of comparison, the height of a Thermometer suspended in the

_ shade, during the above days.

1832 -M. Pp. M, |

Sep.} 1] 2] 3 en ieras (ie Gu lec7 a) 9) Wa ir ise a 25) Oop SO EG Cinta) LOiahE | 12

98] .. ae Bon Wick oP o« riehf! oe fi tale ° --# 90] ++ 186,5] -- 83 80|_

29 | 76.5 76.3' 75.5 | 74.8 | 75.5 | 78-3] 80.5|83.5| 86.6] 89.2] 92.1% 93.5|88.5 87.7 | 86.1] 85.5183] 98] 79 73

ol a a =» [75.5 75.3] -. -- | ++ | 86.8190 | 92.3/95.5| -- | 90] -- 93| 81 79 | 79 |78.4| 78

ct. 1

1) SP a TOUTI9G * th. . me iets, Waele a San ce [ROA Toca rete 80

Di atta ® Wate N27 dilhew -alle's Se eae Rie Ree Is A a ea Ua | 82.5

53) ioe) fous hes | (77 pl Waco Fee rom ieve, 1h fais -- | 96.8, 82.5

A) SIV name rte) tesa hen) fees pserbe- cafes Poets” [apet oops. | 76 73

(=) etc Wee | 28 oe 174 oats, ampretee hy ite oe --B-- (88.5 he: 76

Cy eal foe oo FAO Mei fie Act wea art os Sy ces (1); ci 76

7 oes Beha ++ 175 Sa ripe lS] ae 56 87] -- SAA as sae 74 72.5

By oaths Se PAL-Dile- mbes el rer db es. Std pes Mee | Ogwece tt.. 77.5

QO} -- jae].. One) oe ee ah ece| ae o. -.9.. 93 | -. oe §

AO cape ee TEED hg TG ieee ps | I | (Cai sys eee 79.5 75.2

DVT <a gbceltt < 66 as ¥es =| | Eom te 44 PR las g92|.. ty

» ieee (ee (ee - 163 Tr ae Boy este eee He AR lates Ct |e [Stes 60.5

je en re) oe GOAL <2 4h. Cort an thei ee te OB Tere atte.

2.— Note on the Saldjit of Nipal.

To the Editor of the Journal of the Asiatic Society.

DEAR S1r,—I have been much gratified and interested by reading Mr. CAMPBELL’s

paper on the native alum, or Sa/djit of Nipal. I think it is more than probable,

that if an average sample of the various qualities were collected, and subjected to

analysis, the general result would be what Mr. C. has advanced, viz. about 66 per

cent. of sulphate of alumina, As I had only one quality to operate upon when

I made my analysis, why it was ‘ Hopson’s choice” with me. From the informa-

tion I could gather from Nipal merchants, I am led to believe, that Mr. C. is per-

fectly correct as to the quantity that may be collected.

But what I am now going to state, may set the matter beyond a doubt. I have seen

the organic remains of an ammonite (Ammonites sacer of SowrERBy) imbedded

in alum shale from the banks of the Gandak river in its early course. This per-

fectly agrees with specimens (now in my possession) which I formerly collected at

the alum works on the Yorkshire Coast to the north of Whitby. This fact I think

clearly proves the existence of alum shale strata in the secondary formations at the

foot of the Himalya range, and that it may extend through the hills of Nipal.

I also concur with Mr. C. relative to the tedious and expensive processes attending

the manufacture of alum at home ; so much so, that the return has scarcely equalled

the outlay. A friend of mine knows this to his cost.

606 Miscellaneous. [Nov.

I have no doubt but European skill and capital will shortly turn to some account

these notices of a native, and valuable substance, which has not remained hidden,

but has been at least unknown to the generality of enterprizing commercial men.

In conclusion, should this meet the eye of Mr. Campze Lt, I beg leave to thank

that gentleman for his kind offer of assistance, and will feel obliged by his sending

me samples, or specimens of the various kinds of Saldjit, especially the black kind,

a variety which J have not yet seen. Any expense in collecting, or conveyance to

my address, (Singhea, Tirhoot,) will be cheerfully paid.

I am, dear Sir, &c.

10¢/ Nov. 1833. J. STEVENSON.

3.—Summary Sketch of the Geology of India.

{Extracted from the Rev. W- D. Conybeare’s Report to the British Association at Oxford,1882.]

In Southern Asia, many of the British residents have been far from inactive ;

among these we may specify the names of FRANKLIN, Voysrey, HERBERT, CHRIS-

Tiz, Low, Harpir, and Govan: but CaLper’s General Memoir on the Geology

of India conveniently and ably brings together in one view the substance of the

insulated observations of others.

From these sources we learn, that primitive formations, in which granitic rocks

bear the principal proportion, occupy not only the great Himalayan northern

chain, but also three-fourths of the entire peninsula, from the vale of the Ganges

below Patna to Cape Comorin; although these rocks are frequently overlaid by a

thin crust of laterite (a ferruginous clay, considered as associated with the trap

formation). The transition formations have not been clearly distinguished ; the

secondary formations described are :—1l.- The carboniferous group. Coal has

been said to occur extensively in the grits bounding the southern slope of the Him-

Alaya; but it has been questioned, whether this formation is the older coal, or

only lignite associated with nagelflue, (as on the slope of the Alps;) it has been

particularly described however where the river Tista issues from this chain (88°

35’ Long. E.), and there undoubtedly bears all the characters of the older formation ;

its strata are highly inclined, whereas the tertiary beds, and even most of the se-

condary in this part of India, are horizontal: but the only coal district regularly

worked is that on the river Damfdda, about 100 miles N. W. of Calcutta; this

extends on the banks of that river about 60 miles, and appears from its fossil

lycopodia to be undoubtedly the older coal; it reposes apparently on the surround-

ing primitive rocks, but it has been conjectured, that it may possibly extend across

the delta of the Ganges to Silhet (almost 306 miles distant at the eastern extre-

mity of Bengal) ; it seems doubtful however whether the Silhet coal be not really

modern lignite, as tertiary rocks certainly prevail in that quarter. No carboni-

ferous limestone has been observed.

2. Next to the coal we have to notice a great sandstone formation, which is

usually considered equivalent to our new red sandstone ; this includes many varia-

tions of character, comprising, besides sandstone and conglomerates, shales often

approximating to older slate; the diamond mines of Panna (in Bundelkhand) and

of the Golconda district are situated in this formation, the matrix being a conglo-

merate bed with quartzose pebbles: rock salt and gypsum are found where this

formation extends on the N. W. into the great basin of the Indus: the stratifica-

tion is uniformly horizontal ; no organic remains occur. Beginning at the Ganges

1833. ] Miscellaneous. 607

on the east, this formation first shows itself, supporting basalt, on the Rajmahal

hills ; it again prevails throughout the interval between the confluences of the

river S6n (Soane) and of the Jamna with the Ganges, and thence stretches across

W.S. W. through the Bundelkhand district to the banks of the Nermada (Ner-

budda), which flows into the Gulf of Cambay, as far as 79° Long. E.; where it is

overlaid by the eastern extremity of the great basaltic district of North-western

India near Sagar: the red sandstone shews itself again emerging from beneath the

north-western edge of this basaltic district, at Nimach, near the western sources

of the Chambal (the great southern branch of the Jamna) and at Baug, in the

valley of the Nermada. In both places, as also along the central portion of the

platform before described, stretching through Malwa, it is frequently covered with

a thin crust of grey argillaceous limestone, supposed to represent our lias, but

nearly destitute of organic remains, although a single gryphite is said to have been

found. The general absence of organic remains in the secondary rocks of India is

remarkable ; but Mr. Voysry mentions an argillaceous bed full of fossil shells

(species not stated) beneath the trap of the Gawilgarh hills (between the conflu-

ences of the Tapti and Purna, in the Berar district :) the same lias-like beds occur

with the red sandstone of the Golconda district. A primitive range, extending

from near Delhi to the head of the Gulf of Cambay, separates the secondary rocks

of Malwa from those of the great basin of the Indus ; but on the western borders

of this ridge through Ajmir, the red sandstone again shews itself, containing rock-

salt and gypsnm. ‘The whole of this immense basin appears to have been hitherto

geologically neglected, although it would probably best repay such an examination,

for here if any where in India, we might most probably expect a fuller series of

secondary rocks. Mr. Govan has observed at the very source of the Satlej, one

of the chief tributaries of the Indus, amid the highest primitive peaks of Himalaya,

a small basin of secondary limestone, containing ammonites and cardia.

3. Tertiary rocks at the foot of the first rise of the primitive rocks of the

Himalaya, in the north west of Bengal, where the Brahmaputra issues from them

at the pass of the Garrow hills; cerithie, turritelli, remains of lobsters, sharks,

crocodiles, &c, are here found, and further east, nwmmulite limestone prevails at

Silhet. The soil throughout Bengal is often occupied by deposits of clay, contain-

ing concretionary lumps of limestone, called kankar; this, which affords the

principal supply of lime in India, is probably of very recent origin. It remains

only to notice the great basaltic district of the north-west. This extends from

Nagpur, in the very centre of India, to the western coasts between Goa and

Bombay, occupies the whole of that coast to its termination at the Gulf of Cam-

bay, and thence penetrates northwards as far as the 24th parallel of north lati-

tude.

In the Burmese Empire we find primitive rocks in the chains above Ava, but

tertiary beds, with the characteristic shells, in the valley of the Irrawady, near

Prome ; also remains of the mastodon, &c. in the diluvial gravel. West of this

‘the whole chain of the Malayan peninsula is primitive, consisting principally of

stanniferous granite.

I believe that the above, condensed asit is, willbe found the fullest general

account of the progress as yetmade in Indian geology, hitherto presented to the

public.

[Nov. 1833.

Meteorological Register.

608

“SO

*azeyy

“reeyo

*S0J

oR C-) fe)

*uI’s‘snqed4s

*1ea[o

“qu stiq

“azey

*1evaIo

*ozey

spunqe ‘sur

*TTNWINI

*1v9[9

“wind

Pei) A)

*1TnuNd

*1@9]9

“T[TNuIND

*1SV019AO

‘spl JUST]

"nuns

*JSVITOAO

*Iynuns

*IOY}CI AA

aeou AO}S plty}? B JO LpURIOA YINOS dy} UI

‘aug Apesys

“11110 0

op ze)

op ‘O

op Ze)

op ‘0

op “AL UL

Pie) a

‘yuo =| “A

op 0

*1ea[o u

*snqviys Zo)

‘azey 0)

“19a ‘0

*azey uw

‘snyerjs | ‘MU

“11110 xe)

op 0)

“Ww

“mM

‘u

“a

“u

“a

“u

mie

"mM “S

‘Ss

‘dQ pue ‘wv fp AOZ asoyy £

-azaoiq Aep Jy sty

OD A AD mH OD OD <EESHOD GI 0 0D OD OD

sO I~

Ng sai sos ssoSssS

“u

SHASTA AS SSPHSISS

BRRRRRRRERERERS

SOO APMANSCANANAGHDS

COAMORDROOMANSCHANGOSAS

SRNANNASSSSSASNS AMISSNG

WHO AMD ODOMSID IDO ONDO AAO

Pe SO SO P19 HS 19 S19 19 HS HH OO HH re ADO tH

*10J9UIOUIOY,L,

eta -O1SAY Te HA Q[Nq-jstout Jo uotssatdaq

0%8

0S8

1‘F8

0'98

0°88

0°06

616

rL8

0°06

0°18

“dU L 39

“ITY OY} Ul JeJaUIOUIIOYL,

"EEQT ‘uaquaaoryT fo yzuow ayp wos ‘vZ3nIIny ‘a0fQ) Avssp ay] qo qday ‘sagsahaay 7091H0)0.402942 AT

Aq *xeiX

‘WV OLIV |

‘setouay I0ADAING VY} UY IOMOT PFO’ PULIS YO SIoJOUIOIeg oT,

Aroyexroqey| oy} JO ire 9a1z OY Ut popusdsns are

I‘0T|\ 69

oso‘

£606

890‘

180°

F80‘

geo.

9¢0°

180°

086°

Gl6*

890°

Bc0*

9600S

120‘

6006

$96°

000¢

“UIE T GE 0F

peonpel Jajawoieg

*[erpayyeo aya

*V OL 10 sjUsUINAYSUT OY

a68 10°6L [EOL 4 846° [926° |6e0‘0e|Es6'Ga ‘uve KW

MNO HINO ROS

*yquoUL

“WV fp WV |

ay} jo Avg

JOURNAL

THE ASIATIC SOCIETY.

No. 24.—December, 1833.

1.—A short Account of the Charak Puja Ceremonies, and a Description of

the Implements used. By Ram Comul Sén, Native Secretary, Asiatic

Society.

(Read before the Asiatic Society, in 1829.]

In describing the instruments used in the Charak Sanydsa presented

by me for the Museum of the Asiatic Society, a short notice of the origin

and practice of the ceremony appears to be necessary to illustrate

the subject.

The word Charak is derived from Chakra or Charaka, which means a

circle, and is used to signify moving or swinging in acircular direction ;

Charak Sanydsa implies leaving off worldly business, living abstemi-

ously, observing austerities, for the propitiation of Siva. Itis a festi-

val improperly termed by many Charak Puja, perhaps from the notion

that every ceremony observed by the Hindus of Bengal, is a puja or

religious worship; and whether it be performed by a muchi or

chandala, is considered as Hinduism, and the whole body of the Hin-

dus are charged with the absurdity of the act.

There are two kinds of Sanydsas, called Siva Sanydsa, and Dherma

Sanydsa ; the first is celebrated in the month of Chaitra, and the second

in Baisdkha ; the people who practise these Sanydsas are termed

Sanydsis, and the priest who presides in the ceremony is called a

Gajaneya brahman: the Charak festival is also called Gajana, (Gad or

Grama, village; jana, people,) being observed by the villagers. There

are several ranks amongst the Sanydsis, such as Mila or head;

Dhula, or subordinate ; Sain, or followers. 'The time occupied by the

Charak Sanydsa is a whole month, and that of the Dherma is a fort-

night; during this time the Sanydsis live abstemiously, and observe

various ceremonies to be noticed below.

610 A short Account of the Charak Pija Ceremonies, [Duc. 1833.

This act is performed by the Sudra class only, and generally by the

lowest castes and most dissipated characters ; some of them consider

it as an act of piety and religion, in commemoration of the austerities

performed by Vana Raja, a king and Daitya, who by acts of self-torture

and denial obtained the special favour of Maua’peva, and who first

introduced the festival; but the greatest number engage init asa

lucrative exhibition, or from a desire to acquire a character for courage

in the opinion of their friends. In some cases, the rite is compulsory :

the parents make a vow to Srva, when involved in trouble. and disas-

ters, that their children shall perform Sanydsas, for a certain number

of years, which the sons must fulfil.

The form and manner of Sanydsas varies : the original ceremonies

consisted of,

1. Phala Sanydsa, playing with fruits.

2. Phula Sanyasa, do. flowers.

3. Nila Sanydsa, worshipping Nivavatti, a goddess.

4, Jhula Sanyasa, hanging, and

5. Charak, swinging. These have been multiplied, and additions

have been introduced by the people according to their fancy.

The original rules have mostly fallen into disuse, and new ones

have been substituted, as convenience required. The time of Sanydsa

has been reduced from 30 days to 15, 8, 4, and 2, and in some cases

only one day is taken. The ceremony which was called an act of piety,

is converted into an occasion of dissipation, drinking, gambling, and

acts of immorality.

The following are the ceremonies at present in practice :

1. Phala Bhanga and Wdnta Sanydsa, or falling upon the branches

of prickly plants, spread on the ground, collecting them, as well as fruits,

and living solely upon fruits: the Sanydsis go in company, and

climb upon date and cocoanut trees, and collect fruits; when they

come back to the place of Stva, with the fruits so collected, they throw

and distribute the same; they also receive presents of fruits. Barren

women resort to the place, on the occasion, and spread cloths, on

which if by accident a fruit falls, they receive it with joy as an omen

of their becoming pregnant through the favour of Srva; at the same

season, the Mula Sanydsi with his deputy goes into a forest, a burial

place, or on the bank of river, &c. and there performs the worship of

Yama (king of death), and presents, as offerings to the evil spirits, boiled

rice and reasted fish,

Pata Sanydsa.—Falling from a scaffold erected before Siva, upon

a row of Batt or knives. It is called Hata Sandysa and Ghdti

Dec. 1833.] and a Description of the Implements used. 611

Sanydsa, because the scaffold is erected in a market place, and on the

bank of ariver; afterwards when the Sanydsis return to the temple

of Srva, they lie on their backs, upon the bare ground, in a row, close

to each other, and the Gajanaya Brahman passes over them, treading

upon their breasts.

Phila Sanydsa.—Collecting and playing with fuel ; which they often

procure by plundering gardens, and carrying off railings, loose doors,

window frames, &c. They then make a large bonfire in the evening,

and jump and walk over the flame, and play with the burnt charcoal,

throwing the same upon one another; this is also called Aguna San-

yasa.

Nila Sanydsa—is the worship of Ninava’ri, a wife of Siva: the

Sanyasis visit Kalighat or temples of Sacti and Siva, where they pierce

their sides, tongues, and the skins of their foreheads. This is called

Bana Phord, and on the occasion they collect presents and gifts from

the spectators, who far from encouraging these self-tortures, pay

them something to get rid of the sight of their bleeding limbs.

Jhula Sanydsa,—is climbing upon a scaffold, hanging with the

head downward, and making afire below. The fire is fed with the

powder of Indian pitch.

Charak.—Eating Chehatu or bran, and swinging on the Charak Gach

or post, erected for the purpose. Among these Sanydsis there are

several other ceremonies of note, some of which must be noticed here:

Khatunt, shaking and turning the head, rolling about the shrine of

Stva, beating the forehead, sitting up all night, and singing

Tarja, or songs addressed to Siva; sometimes, but not always, in his

praise. Phila kd dana, extracting or receiving the flowers laid upon the

Linga, which they think fall down at their solicitation ; and prayers to

the god, who is pleased to throw them down as a sign of affirmation or

negation to the question made to him by the Méla Sanydsi, or the

priest for himself or on behalf of his friends. If the flower does not

come down after a certain time, it is then supposed that the god is not

propitiated, and the Deyule, (proprietor,) Mandala, (agent,) the Mila,

(head,) and other Sanydsis, and sometimes the priest himself, are tied up

by the hands, and suspended to the verandah, all round the shrine of

Siva, while the Sanydsis redouble their Khatuéni before the idol, and

the drummer beats his drum with all strength; the Sanydsis and others

remain suspended from off the ground till the flowers fall. The

flowers are at first laid upon one another, and then placed upon the

top of the Linga, which is oiled, and is consequently slippery : water

is thrown upon it by drops, which assists to wash off the flowers, and

3K 2

612 A short Account of the Charak Péja Ceremonies, (Dac. 1833,

when it is obstinate, some person on the part of the priest, contrives to

knock it off with a stick unperceived.

Description of the Instruments used in the Charak, of which Specimens are deposited

in the Museum and numbered accordinglg.

The Vetrasana is an instrument made of ratan, No. 1: it means aseat of ratan,

it is the staff of the Sanydsi, a number of ratan folded in the middle and tied up

together, leaving a few inches open in the lower part, in an oval form, the upper

part is kept loose, Its use is various—it is a sacred ensign of authority, which

must be respected on particular occasions by the Sanydsis, who rattle it as their

musical instrument, in their procession ; it is made a broom for cleaning the place

of Siva, where the use of common broom is forbidden during the Charak. It

serves as a weapon, with which they fight, or beat down the bundle of thorns used

in the Kdnta Sanydsa upon which they fall; they use it in playing with the

burnt charcoal in Phula Sanydsa; it is used as ropes laid under the pot or

bag No. 2, inthe Pat Sanyasa. When any dispute or difference arises between

the priest and Sanydsis, or when the latter in their procession meet with another

party, they lay down the Veérasana across the road and the entrance to the house

of Siva, and the party against whom it is laid down must instantly stop; it is a

sacred bar which they must not pass over without violating the law of Charak, and

committing a sin which would disqualify them from becoming Sanyésis again.

They are finally allowed to pass only in compliance with certain conditions ; and

certain questions relative to Stva, delivered in verses, called Tarja, must be

likewise answered before the new comers are allowed to pass, and beat their drum,

or do any business.

Sutasana, or a cord of twisted thread, No.3; it is in two pieces, which they

pass beneath the skin of the sides, arms and thighs ; the ends are held by two

Sanydsis or assistants, whilst the man dances and passes to and fro. This

purpose is also answered by log-line, No. 4, ratan, No. 5, split bamb&, No. 6.

Dasnakhi, (No. 7,) two pieces of iron rod, about 2 feet long: one end is pointed,

which is passed into the sides, and the other is fork-shaped with prongs, each of

which is called nakha, or nails, or finger-nail ; the two pieces have often 10 nails,

hence it is called dasa-nakhi or ten-fingered, but it is has often three prongs :

the upper ends are flat, and laid upon one another, which serves as a bed for

fire, or a lamp, made of cotton dipped in ghee; which is lighted, and upon this

the powder of Indian pitch is from time to time thrown, so as to make a blaze,

while the Sanyasi dances as he goes.

Bati, or knife, No. 8.—Eight in number, fixed upon two pieces of boards, in a

leaning posture, placed upon a bag, No. 2, stuffed with straw. This bag is held

by four persons, aloft from the ground, and two Sanydsis join their Betdsana

No. 1, and lay the same across, to render to the bag additional strength, and the

Sanydsis fall upon it from the scaffold, No. 9.

Visesaya, No. 10, or nails to the number of 120; one end is flat, the other is

pointed and sharp, these are run into the skin of the forehead, upon both arms,

and breast, in an ornamental form, close to each other, usually like the front or

facing of a jacket. To the ends of the nails small beads or peas are attached or

suspended like garlands hanging upon the forehead, and small pieces of tale are

suspended by way of decoration.

hod omg ieee Yt es

*»*

‘*

‘

a |

Jour, AS. Fd

C. Vot IZ. PL. XX

wal b

He i eipilphe G

Bee Se e+

Sogl. % Lipstife q

‘eto ae Cee Se yas!

‘ox

A iingitem ay oa

‘ re

"fa Sig. 6. ie sho

AS) HS) ~ FOKK

Sig.t

YPM RPYD 0 thy hie

TB Lassin lth. .

Dec. 1833.] Specimens of Ornamental Forms of Persian Writing. 6)3

Banas, Nos. 11,12, 13, or arrows, iron rods of various sizes and thickness, used

according to the strength and courage of the Sanydsis, whose tongues and sides

are bored, and the rods are let in, which they often move about. When it

is perforated, the tongue and the rod rest upon the lower jaw, or are held between

his teeth ; if it be heavy, another person holds the ends.

Kupali, No. 14, is an iron rod or nail: the lower end is pointed, and is passed

through the skin of the forehead, the man holding it close to his nose, or a ban-

dage is tied round the head, to prevent it from falling ; a small lamp is attached to

its top, which he burns on the day of Nila.

Charak kanta, No. 15, or swinging hooks, }The Charaki, or one who swings,

is often of the bearer caste, and cther people, not Sanydsis, volunteer for this

act, through the effect of liquor.

The skin of the back being drawn out, a perforation is made with a lancet, No. 16,

on each side of the back-bone, and the hooks, No. 15, are let in; the twine attached

to the hooks is tied to the rope, suspended to the Charak Gécha, No. 17. If the skin

of the Sanyasi is thin, or he is weak, a bandage of cloth is tied round his chest, to

prevent the hooks from giving way, as when they break the Sanydési falls, and is

generally killed ; the standers by also are sometimes severely hurt.

No. 18, 19, 20 and 21, Belkars, or lancets of various sizes and thickness: with

these the skin is bored. These are not kept by the Sanydsis, but procured from cer-

tain kumdrs (blacksmiths), who attend the place where the Sanydsis meet, and

receive a certain fee, which varies from 2 annas to 2rupees for each subject. The

lancets are of various sizes, and a number is always brought by the operator.

Nagapasa, No. 22, two long pieces of iron, with a snake head, hooded top ; two of

these are run into the neck and back of the head, and brought down to the waist ;

each has two borings at least, one on the head skin and one on the back. The San-

yasi whé can submit to this torture is considered a great hero, and when two simi-

lar ones are put in, he cannot turn or bend his body without breaking the skin

through which they are bored.

There is also a head piece, No. 23, made of iron put upon the head ; it has3 to

5 pieces fixed to it like the hoods of serpents.

Charak Gach, No. 17, or a post, commonly of saul wood, for swinging : it is

from 29 to 30 feet long, fixed into the ground, the upper part has a notch, or

socket, called Mocha, B ; in which a movable pivot is let in, called Khakiyt. On

this, a cross piece made of bambas 5 to 10 in number is tied up together, and placed

across the Khakiyt ; to both ends of the cross thick ropes are suspended, one of which

is tied to the hook, No. 15, and on which the Charaki swings.

II.—Specimens of some Ornamental Forms of Persian Writing. By

Maha Rajé Kali Kishen Behadir, of Calcutta.

The accompanying: figures, representing some beautiful poetical

inventions of the latest authors, are extracted and translated from a

Persian book called ‘‘ Mujmua-us-sanayd,” (or Collection of Arts,) com.

piled by NizAm-up-Di’n Aumep, son of Munammep S&niu, in the

year 1060, Hejri.

614 Specimens of Ornamental Forms of Persian Writing. [Duc. 1833.

Pigile (Platecxxn) Logdasl | Ulmaaqib, or anagram that retains

the same meaning, even when it is read in various directions.

In this, the central , (m) is the first letter of every hemistich. The

reading will run equally well by beginning first from , towards B, thence

continuing towards A, and from A returning to,; then back again

from , to A; from A to C; and back again to ,; further, from , to

C; then from C to D; and finally from D back again to @- Trans-

lation.

“ T am dead on your separation and have no soul in my body,

For God’s sake hear my sorrowful lamentation.

I have no marrow in my bones, O love, be kind to me,

Happy if I instantly die when separated from you.”

Fig. 2. petted) Ulmoshojur ; the arborescent form.

In this the Arabic letter mis round, differing from the shape of

the Persian. ,, placed in the centre of the circle of which the branches

form radii, is the beginning of each word ; and the stars 1, 2,3, 4, mark

the end of as many hemistichs; the reading of the first begins semicir-

cularly from B to C.—Translation.

““ T am fond of the curled locks of beauties,

AndI am captivated by their moon-like faces.

I drink wine and am constantly a drunkard in the tavern,

And I give thanks to the God of the heavenly kingdom.”

Figs. 3 and 4. 38,5) Ulmoagqgad, or the representation of knots.

From the central , commencing along either side at the letter E or

F, and terminating where we set out, we shall arrive at the conclusion

of two hemistichs.

The reading of either hemistich should be directed alternately

from the right and the left hand, in order not to lose their respective

sense and metre.—Translation.

‘* Be not intoxicated, and do not go to the intoxicated ones,

O thou possessed of moon-like face ;

Do not display vanity like the brilliant moon.

Thou hast charmed hermits, kings, and angels,

Bewitched the beauties by thy moon-like face.’

Figs. 5,6, and 7. The beauty ofthe construction of these three figures

is, that the reading may follow any order of the compartments without

altering the sense.—Translation.

“* The world with its riches is under your subjection,

O Love, it is tyranny that thou hast not afflicted my heart:

Alas, there is no faith in the world; alas, there is no faith in the world.”

Fig. 8. 2),.)) Ulmorabaa, or a quadrilateral figure containing four

hemistichs, and these are read in both horizontal and perpendicular

Dec. 1833.] Abstract of Capt. Gerard's Meteorological Journal. 615

directions, beginning either from any of the four upper compartments

downwards, or from any of the four perpendicular compartments of

B, D, sideways, fron right to left; and the same verse will be found.

“‘Tam inconstant affliction owing to the absence of that ravisher of my heart ;

That ravisher of my heart whose love keeps me awake with afiliction.

Iam constantly in pain without a companion and without a friend ;

Tam sick, I am awake, and without a friend and without a sympathizer.”

Fig. oe | ka Shakl-i Arrah, or saw-like form. The ly) Abeati

distichs are read in the usual manner as follows:

My oo at <0 os Orr eo ra ai” we rs =

FSOTe Gr oA Aw AW Oy ieee Cyrate onatnd cary pas rss (eee AAA)

Ill.—Description of an Indian Balance, called Tula. By the same.

[Presented at the Meeting of the 31st July.]

This instrument is made out of common wood, but generally Sundri

(Herritiera minor) is used.

Itis employed by the Misulman Kdghazy, or paper-makers, for the

purpose of weighing old and useless papers; it is also used for weigh-

ing cotton, as well as thread, by native weavers of both sexes.

The marks of division around the beam are the indications of different

weights, as particularized in the accompanying drawing.

The larger string, named wazni-rassi (or the string for suspending

weights), is introduced through a perforation at the end of the beam ;

and the little one, termed neti, is for holding by the fingers to ascertain

the weight, by applying it on one or other of the marks above alluded to.

The accompanying plate (Plate xxii. fig 8) is one quarter the ordinary

size of the instrument, but some area little larger, and others smaller.

It is in principle similar to the Roman steel-yard, the fulcrum shifting

instead of the weight.

a NT

IV.— Abstract of a Meteorological Journal, kept at Kotgarh, (Lat. 31°

18’ 45" N. Long. 77° 27’ 49" E.) Subatht, and the intermediate

places in the Himalaya mountains, for 1819-20. By Captain Patrick

Gerard, 9th Regt. B. N. I.

The voluminous nature of these journals, which were presented

by Captain Grrarp to the Asiatic Society some years ago, has InttHerto

prevented their seeing the light. The very circumstance which consti-

tutes their value as a record,—the minute detail for every hour of the

day, continued with little interruption by an indefatigable observer, for

a period of two years,—having in the end thwarted his views and his

616 Abstract of a Meteorological Journal, (Dec. 1833.

reward, while they have deprived the scientific of a most valuable and

will digested register of meteorological data. It would be impossible

to devote space for their entire publication in the pages of this jour-

nal, but such an abstract as we have gleaned from many similar tables

‘on former occasions, and which will suffice for most purposes of a gene-

ral nature, especially for that we havehitherto kept in view,—the fixing

of the constants of diurnal and monthly range of heat and pressure for

as many points as possible on the continent of India,—we now with

permission present to our readers : prefixing Captain Grrarp’s account

of his instruments and of his method of observing.

““With regard to the tables which I now transmit, I beg to state that, generally

speaking, the means of the observations, whether of the barometer or thermome-

ters, attached or inside, and detached or outside, in the air and shade, taken during

a march or halt or temporary intermediate place of encampment, are deduced from

the highest during the day, and lowest the following morning, which will furnish a

correct mean of the place for the day. The attached or inside thermometer at

Kotgarh was rather open to a westerly aspect, the observations being taken in a

room of the house to the westward, thereby shewing a somewhat higher temperature

than if taken ina room towards the north. This was merely done for the sake of

convenience. The detached or outside thermometer was suspended on a pole

fixed in the ground for this special purpose, apart from the house, from day-break

or early in the morning, to the north-west side for nearly half, and to the N.

N. E. side for the remainder of the day, inthe air and shade, to obviate as

much as possible the sudden effects arising from reflection from the earth and the

sun’srays in clear, settled, and hot weather; which would thereby indicate a high..

er, and consequently somewhat a more incorrect temperature of the air, than it

otherwise ought to do, had it been hung at a considerable distance from any build-

ing better situated and free from the influence of all or any degree of reflection, so

liable at all times to raise it above the true standard.

The barometer used duriug the two years, to insure accuracy as far as practica-

ble in the instrument, was unexceptionable in every respect, being filled with

pure mercury, carefully revived from cinnabar, by distillation in a retort, with the

filings of iron, and gradually boiled over a slow charcoal fire from the sealed end

upwards, which process is always tedious and difficult of accomplishment.

As not less than ten or twelve observations were taken and recorded daily with

nicety, the correctness of the following tables may be relied on.

I possessed no instruments for ascertaining the density and humidity of the at-

mosphere, evaporation, or the quantity of rain which has fallen during the years

under review. The winds stated as stormy, strong, brisk, steady, moderate, gentle,

little, and light, have been estimated by their supposed strength unaided by a guage,

to indicate their actual force. The same may be noticed in regard to the quality

and appearance of the clouds.

The sudden creation and increase of clouds, spontaneously rising from dells

and valleys, subsequent to rain and snow*, more especially during the periodical

* During the rainy months, the clouds, after rising, forming, and collecting, ascend to

a certain altitude, and generally remain stationary, and frequently day after day about

the same time come down again in rain.

1833.] kept at Kotgarh, Subatha, &c. 617

rainy and winter seasons, on the hither or Indian side of the Himalaya range (the

opposite or ultra side of the Himalaya being little subjected, and that only for a

short distance into the interior, from the loftiness of this grand and extensive bar-

rier of mountains separating India from other parts of Asia, to such a deluge), are

more astonishing to the beholder than I have words to describe, and their total dis-

appearance in a short space of time (sometimes indeed almost in a moment) is equal-

ly surprising. I have often remarked these without any apparent cause during calm

settled weather, moving in all directions in heavy loose masses; at other times with

incredible velocity, resembling spray, down a ridge or valley, till they reach a cer-

tain point, when they evaporate, and in an instant disappear. Sometimes they may

be seen in all shapes and curious forms, and frequently they accumulate and dis-

perse in a manner quite astonishing to the spectator. They will rest for days, and

even weeks, upon the top, and the slopes of the high surrounding ranges and moun-

tains, defining aclear outline around*, thereby condensing and confining the atmos-

phere within certain limits at an altitude of 8000 feet and upwards, (rarely at a less

elevation for any time,) above two or three days, and making it close and some-

times unpleasant to the feelings, although the thermometer may indicate alow tem-

perature at the time ; and often in clear, cloudless temperature and mild weather,

smnall patches may be seen stationary in some places, and suddenly gliding along

and up the declivity or slope towards the tops of the mountains, and dispersing

quickly in otherst.

The principal places at which any number of observations were taken are Ram-

par, Kotgarh and Subathfi. At intermediate places, during a march or tempo-

rary halt, the observations taken were recorded.

The latitude, longitude, and elevation above the level of the seat, together with

the name of each village, town, and encampment, on the journeys made each year;

the state in which comprised ; and to what authority now subject, will be found

detailed in a table or “‘ List of Places, &c.’’ at the end of the abridgement, and other

tables for each year.

The point of ebullition and the temperature of springs, rivers, and streams have

not been omitted at most places in the subsequent sheets, during a journey. The

utility of the former, when unaccompanied with a barometer, is too evident almost

to need illustration. It will give a tolerable idea of the elevation of different sta-

tions; while the second, which were only ascertained at a few places, will nearly

shew the mean temperature of the year at different altitudes ; and the latter will

certainly, from the diminution of temperature, indicate a tolerable estimate of the

distance of the source of the rivers in the water of which the thermometer may

have been dipped, and an observationtaken of its temperature. If rivers andstreams

indicate a high temperature, the source of them may reasonably be considered to be

remote ; but if a low temperature be evinced, the contrary may be supposed to be

the case. Certain local circumstances and influences may in some degree affect the

temperature of rivers.”’

* These remarks apply to Kofgarh and its neighbourhood, and indeed from Simla up-

wards, as I can affirm from my own long observation.

+ The sun’s rays after rising have in general this effect.

+ For these on the present as wellas on the former occasion [ am indebted to my

brother, Captain A.GERARD, late Surveyor in Rajputana and Malwa ; and for a few of

the latter, and partly some of the observations of the barometer and thermometer dur-

jing my occasional short visits to Snbathu, to my brother Mr. J. G. Gerarp, Surgeon to

the Ist Nassiri battalion, stationed in these mountains.

3 L

Abstract of Meteorological Journal {Dre

618

CE GGL 08 LST

omao |p | OL Zt

“‘spnold pure iva] T | g Zo 38

“AIYCOAM OU E | O G 06

“SULIVAID G | €L | 11 9

‘OWIG BG | 6 0

‘alel yon G@ | 8a} §& {0

‘op pue Apnoign g ; IL | 6 !OL

“sey pue SWI0}G G R 8 iCI

‘op pue uegig | Zt | b |PT

“SIOMOYS ONG )P | 6 G {Zl

‘mous IvajOAiLT ! 6 | 9 FT

“IWIDIS | Z| E (9B

ov 9GI 98 ‘6ST |

‘Apnoyo “req [| Z | ST IL

sou “BID L | & | SG Zz

“s9yjVaM eT 0) 9 | & OZ

OUI |V | Z| 9 @

‘uler yon, G | 16 | 6 |]

‘ater pue Apnojg G | GL | O1 %

“Aurea pue sre g | OL | OL 6

‘Sulmayjes spnoijgg PFL| SG Zr

‘sjjenbs yy wealg fp G | 0 GI

‘aug pueaesjg ge | ¢ | Z ist

*SW107}S YIM eT |] 6 | 8 {IE

"mous ‘ougdjjerauax) | | /4 4) fey HOE

— a CaN a

wn! Qa oe

ieee, bo

" -Tayjea AA

eZ 99 01 j9r

03}'p [ Ge |0

anaes | | 6 I

onip lel |G {Zl

Pa OUP Oe a Daren

op |g laseel

ws] Ip |G 0B

9} eIIpOUl ‘OL 9 EL

onip iIl 3 9

OTP — —_— —

Op igre gl-—= og

ajiuas FL G L

UR Gee idee Se

IZ |¢9 |s0l

wsy je (8 OL

OD Need NN)

SALES be feck) es es

; onp ej j—

op OL 0 \6L

Ws LZ ic itd

| 8u0.4s ZL Ol ji

ms ILE lb OL

| Apeoys il! iS |0

| ayerapow 10 1G 0

ci Tl Site. set

| eyu0s ¢T |r OL

pus amp | AA ais; a

jo aI10F

aSBIIAY U01}991Ip YoRa UL

2:06

£85

8:9¢

[BSS |

"ON | “wea

“Ulu

1 9G | £2b }is9 |

ato Sac

NR wo

n ©

lay eee

*xeul

‘apeys ayy ur

shep Jo ‘ou ‘sputAd ‘‘aptszno aanjusaduia yp |ay3 ut vinyesaduta 7,

699 Pee 98g f69 |Z9G ‘FagEs(-"°* — “GleBjoy ye aSer

hee eye Gl ee = jraae penday

V6p Str 1s ae aa — {1€9§ “92g)** “SAnduey

199 i€Zo\i8PZ |{Z89 |€19 |%99° |h FT ‘AON ‘anduey ‘qy,

Z6G |699/G%9 \6€9 |96S° |899° *9U1JUD "}9Q) "+ ++ £0731

ae pan: : - (089706 @ #.......

1299 \9P9|E69 1269 G6P 0S 2198 §> od

G02 |089 FIZ 1608" (Lob GES 1G ONL “Way sos s+ Song

'r69 |L99 VIZ ‘Scr \cEr |96P" ‘op Augits +++ foyyiq

869 |089:' Tes |I97 jek \68P7° ‘aajua aang, "8° “og

€69 (989 199 {669 (929 [009° 18 OO LE SEW es “Yresjoy

qzg joeqigs. | — | — | — ady|' ++ ‘yresuey

Vig |90G'@%S |989° [Sb9" SIZ |G FE “se “°° * SONI

9th Léh Tob [68S "9S 619 (6696 “Gaqi’***“qresjoy

90r (OOP LIh {229° |109 jgg9° |G [[ ‘eee: .‘sutyporesy,

, “0&8

bes |

Vor \9SP \9'99 TZ j089 «=|bPlZ «G69 [ “29d \°°°°* song

esp |V2ZbiS6r \§69 {199 jPeZ \0€ 99 OT “AON |? ** *Yy1e3}0y

06g (009 009 = = —_ tepusadit '79Q |‘sutejunoul UT

1609 10°49 0°S9 > —{— 1S eeR. "ydag) +++ <Sarpoue yy

889 |€99 SIZ if6r |IZF \SIG ; enue 390y enc O}}1 (iT

G69 |1Z9 VEL (Ges [809 j6gee% 169% Ajngy- ++ qwsj0y

062 |Z92'€18 |Z99° 909 |90Z logorg oung!-++-‘uyZequg

919 |o09 189 + — = — |T¢07rTT Aes “quesjoy

VoL j1z9 wee jose’ Vere pis’ log ov LL dy} +++-* ont

9 669'629 'cz8 998" 6066 8G} T “APB +++ “upeqng

Gap civ \|Zbr 1629 (089 [669° 186 L “qeajs*** +: ‘ong

S8& i696 por g9g | 299° |G8G'ET 1G OB cURL se: “Yresjoy

‘Wd p| ‘WV

‘uvow julm| “xeur | ‘ueom| ye | gL 3e

‘ara | *xeu

)

-asnoy

“61ST “40 TG!

"46g Jajauo1eg

"OS-6181 40f suagsihoy poorbopo..oajayy 8 panday “q urnjdog fo hiuwnumung

1833.] kept at Kotgarh, Subatha, &c. 619

With exception of the month of April, so inviting to a resident in the

hills tor expeditions into the higher and more remote parts of the vast

Himalayan range, we find in the foregoing abstract, besides three months

at Subathi, a nearly complete annual series of barometrical observations

for Kotgarh, a station more than 6000 feet elevated above the sea*, and

far enough within the first range of hills to obviate the effects of the cur-

rents of air from the plains,as observed in the Dehra Dain by Dr. Royuet.

It must not be expected that the regularity observed onthe level continent

of India will be found in the march of the barometer in a mountainous coun~

try, where fluctuations of temperature, moisture, and wind are much more

frequent and sudden than in the plains ; still the same general curve ob-

tains through the year, and the diurnal rise and fall is regular and of the

same nature as in the plains, not a negative oscillation as is observed at

great elevations on the Alps. The average diurnal oscillation or fall from

10 a. M. to4 Pp. m. is 0.063 inch : to which adding one-fourth (or, as 30

in. to 23 in.) to render it comparable with the oscillation under a pres-

sure of 30 inches, we have .079, which is only two-thirds of the daily

oscillation at Seharanpurt, as deduced from Dr. Royue’s registers ; we

may therefore conclude that at a greater elevation, we should observe

a still further decrease until, passing zero, the diurnal oscillation would

become negative; that is, the barometer would rise from 10 a. m. to

4 p. m.as observed at the convent of St. Brrnarp’s. The solution of this

curious question and the determination of the zero or no oscillation alti-

tude, may probably be obtainable from the journals of Captain Gzrarp

or his brother, Dr. J. G. Gerarp, who is known to have reached an alti-

tude of 17000 feet, barometer in hand ; and we may confidently trust to

their joint exertions in elucidation of it : for one fact of this nature esta-

bished on certain data will better repay their labours in the course of

meteorology than even a lengthened series of ordinary observations,

The thermometrical range out of doors is incomplete, the minimum

only being registered: there cannot however be a wide difference be-

tween the monthly mean, in-doors, and in the open air. The monthly va-

riations deduced from the latter column, (the monthly mean’s) or from

the column of exterior minima, give nearly the same annual curvature.

The following table (column a) takes it from the interior mean. April

and October are the two average months for temperature as well as for

pressure, but the months of January and February present an anomaly

in the barometer being lower than usual for those months in both the

years under review.

* 6915 feet, by Capt. Hersert, As. Res. xiv. 336 ; 6600 by subsequent correc-

tion, vol. xv. 413.

+ See his note on the hour of maximum temperature in the hills, Jour. As.

Soc. vol. i. p. 97.

t Journal, i. 30.

342

620 Abstract of a Meteorclogical Register [Dxc.

Table of the mean Monthly and Diurnal Range of the Barometer and Thermome-

ter at Kotgarh in 1819—20, (the month April being interpolated,) deduced from

Captain Gerard's journals.

} Barometer. | raES: Thermometer,

A. - = Ge D. | E. We “ G. 53 H.

eviati le,

Month. Wear from mean Fes) Mean of ; Mean of fenie: vom tea Mean

height. annual |). .j]}q- |Minimain|maximain} rature} annual diurnal

height. oie | the open doors. in tempera- | range

air. doors. ture. (e.—d.)

in in in | Co) 0 0 ta) o

January,.. | 23.592 —.001| 0.052| 33.4 40.9 39.5 —20.4 7.5

February, 632 +.039} .052| 35.3 45.0 43.5 —13.4 9.7

March, ... 686 +.093! .062| 43.5 52.2 51.4 — 5.5 8.7

April, ....] 623 +.040| .067| 47. 58. 57. + 0.1 | 11.0

May,..... 559 —.034| .074| 52.4 64.7 63 4 + 65 | 123

June,.... 461 —.132| .068) 60.5 72.1 69.8 | +12.9 | 11.6

Jtaliymtensse 495 —.098; .061 | 69.8 71.4 69.3. +12.4 | 10.6

August,... 501 —.092) .062! 60.6 71.4 69.6 +127 | 10.8

September,| 522 —.071} .058) 542 69.3 66.7 + 9.8 | 15.1

October,..| .639 +.046| .072} 48.9 625 | 597 | + 28 | 13.4

November, 693 +.100; .063; 37.2 49.5 48.3 — 8.6 | 123

December, 711 +.118} .064) 39.3 46.6 45.0 —I119 | 13.3

Mean, ....| 23.593 jrange .250 063) 47.7 58.6 56.9 |range 33.3] 11.3

In the column (c) of mean diurnal barometric oscillation, the ob-

servations at Subatha have been included, as producing a better average ;

the difference of altitude will in this case have but a trifling influence

on the result.

Appended to Captain P. Gerard’s tables are catalogues of the lati-

tude, longitude, and barometrical altitude of all the most important

‘ points visited in the course of the journeys, whose occurrence is mark-

ed by the blanks in the foregoing register. The journey of Septem-

ber, 1819, was made in company with the late Captain J. D. Hersurr,

to survey the course and level of the river Sat/ej, of which an interesting

account is published in the fifteenth volume of the Asiatic Researches.

The heights were partly taken trigonometrically, but the majority by the

boiling-point method, anda correction of two degrees and upwards was

forced to be applied to the instrument used by Captain Herserr, on

account of an error deduced experimentally from a comparison of its

boiling point with the height of a barometer filled with pure mercury,

and well boiled, by Captain Grrarp; Datron’s Table of Tensions

were used in calculating the volume of the thermometric indications.

The latter officer, in his remarks upon the tables before us, explains

that his own thermometrical heights were taken with a differ-

ent instrument, which did not require correction, and that they

were calculated by his brother, Captain A. Gzrarp, on the supposi-

tion of the sea level being represented by 30 inches, or 212°. A de-

duction of 200 feet may in some cases be necessary on this account,

but it will hardly affect the relative measurements, especially as the

1833.] kept at Kotgarh, Subathé, §&c. 621

trips were made in April, September, and October, the months, as be-

fore stated, of mean barometrical altitude.

The following table contains a selection of some of the principal re-

sults of this part of the journal, and if compared with that printed in the

Researches, it will be seen to afford the highest confirmation to Captain

Hersert’s statement; the altitudes and longitudes are from the latter.

In 1820, our author went alone by another route, and made some ad-

ditions to his list of altitudes. The whole ought to be published, but they

would require the elucidation of a route-map and notes of the journey.

On both occasions also, the temperature of rivers and springs was

carefully noted, and a sure indication was thence deduced of the distance,

direction, and source of the stream ; a few of these are inserted below :

Extract from Captain Gerard’s Table of Altitudes.

i Lati- | Longi-|Boil- Elevation

1819. PLace. STATE. tude. | tude. | ing jabove the

North.| East. |Point.; Sea

Rampur, capital, Bussahir, 31° 27/1779 38'|206,8 | 3398 ft.

Nirtnagar, village, Do. 31 22!77 33!206,6 | 3087

Kotgarh, cantonment, British, 31 19/77 30)\200,7 | 6634

Komharsén, capital, Komharsén, {31 19/77 27 ; 5500

Subatha, encampment, British, 30 58)76 59 | 4505

Manlig, encampnient, Patiala, ——— 4400

Semla, do. Keontinl, (a 6/77 11 | 7200

Wartt fort, Several, oA 77 ol 10656

Pabar, river near Raingarh, |British, 31 8/77. 46|202,7 | 5700

Rontan, village, Do. 31 7|77 48)198,5 ' 8900

Encampment in Klashél range, Bussahir, ———-| ———|194,1 |12900

Jako Peak, Do. ——— | -——!196,1 | 9100

Crest of Rapen Pass*, Do. 31 21/78 10 185,7 (15460

Murang, Do. 31 36)78 27,197,4 | 8503

Shipké, in Chinese Tartary, Tibet, 31 48/78 Ta or 10597

\194,0f1°°°

Hupshang, boundary between Busahir&Tibet 31 48/78 41 10989

Naku, village, Bussabir, 31 53/78 38191,7 |12005

SheAlkhar, village and fort, Do. 32 78 35/194 = |10403

K4nam village, Kunawar, DL 40°78) 27119752 | 9000

Wangto jhula, bridge over the Satlej, 31 3278 1/203,3 , 5200

Dalnagar, village, Bussahir, Va hid 36 3200

820.

Mandar Ghati Pass, boundary, Do. 31 16|77 38 9800

Sirard Pass, Do. 31 10\77 37| 8885

Purag, Kotgara, Si Fay oO 6900

Nagkanda Pass, 31 15/77 28) 9016

Dubalda range, Kuranglu, 31 17/77 35 7300

Top of Nankhar range, Bussahir, Seas 37) 7800

Bachkal, on ascent to ,Shatul, 31 22|77 56 11700

Crest of left peak towards Shatul or Rol Pass, 31 23)77 55 13300

Chandidhar range, Do. ol olds | 56 9200

Kujean, village, Jangleg, Bussahir. 31 18178 1 9250

Kepu, bridge over Satlej, British, [ole wel Wad 2 eo 2800

* This pass is called the Gunas Pass by Capt. Herpert, (As. Res. xv. 413,) by

mistake—the Gunas is another passage across the Himalaya, lying to the west-

ward of the Rupen River.—P. G.

622 Notes on the Specimens of the Kankar Formation, (Desc.

Temperature of Rivers, Springs, and Torrents observed.

—— ee

‘i Omer

Spring between Phagao and Theog, 8th May. 7 A. M. 45,2

Stream on Klashél Range, 24th Sept.} 11 a. M. 45,5

Rupen River, below Pass, 29th 9 A. M. 40,5

Satléj River, below Shipké, 15th Oct. 5 P. M. 51,3

Do. at Namghea jhala, 22nd QicAguiMe 44,0

1820.

Beru Naddi or Torrent, 4th Jan. 9 aA. M. Sool

Grassu and Badi Torrents, 5th Sia. M. 29,5

Chegaonti River, 9th 834. M. 33,6

Pabar River, near Mandlf, 23rd Mar.| 5 P. M. 5.7

Andri near Chirgaon, 24th 73a. M. 43,0

Gop and Chilu Torrents, 30th 9 a. M. 43,0

Sepon River, 30th 10 a. M. 40,1

Pabar River, near Raingarh, 7th Apr. 634. M. 51,8

Shillar Torrent, 20th 6 A. M. 47,0

Tons River at conflux with Pabar, 25th 7 A.M. 57,0

Shalwe River, 2nd May. 6 P. M. 69,9

Couflux of Shalwe and Kholte Rivers, 5th i Be NE 56,0

J. P.

V.—Notes on the Specimens of the Kankar Formation,and on Fossil Bones

collected on the Jamna. By Captain E. Smith, Bengal Engineers.

[Read 26th December.]

Captain E. Smiru has been engaged for some years in removing the

obstructions to navigation in the river Jamna, between Allahabad and

Agra. These obstructions, as is well known, consist of sandstone rocks

and kankar banks, protruding from the bed of the river at several points,

leaving, at low water, dangerous bars but partially concealed, and caus-

ing rapids and whirlpools, which have proved in years past highly

destructive to boats. In the course of this important duty, of which

we hope hereafter to be able to give a full account, the peculiarities of

the kankar formation, which has been the subject of so much specula-

tion to Indian geologists, have been strongly impressed on his obser-

vation, and he has very laudably preserved sketches and remarks of their

most remarkable appearances in his note-book, which he has now sub-

mitted with the series of specimens to the Society. <‘‘ They are not

numerous’’—he writes, ‘‘ having been taken only where differences in

the kankar and rock were evident, but they forma regular series from

Agra to Allahabad, shewing the nature of the rocks occurring throughout

that distance. Having little knowledge of the subject myself, I have

not attempted descriptions of the specimens, which will be more cor-

rectly recognized by others, but have substituted what may be of use,

viz. sketches and notes of the exact situations whence the specimens

have been obtained. These even amount to little more than indica-

1833.] and on Fossil Bones collected on the Jamna. 623

tions of place, for almost the remarks that have offered themselves

have been reserved until I know whether they will be of ser-

vice.”

All geologists will agree that the graphic mode of illustration

adopted by Captain Smiru is the very best for communicating at once

an acquaintance with the nature of the country he has explored, and

though confined to the banks and bedof a river, it must be remembered,

that the section thus opened to him by the operations of nature, to a

depth in some places of 100 feet or more, is a section of the great allu-

vium of the Doab and of the Agra plains, and not, as it would be in the

lower course of the Ganges, a mere exhibition of the continually

shifting channel and sands of the comparatively recent delta.—

This remark extends particularly to the fossil bones discovered at

Karimkhtin and other places, which will be seen, as we proceed, to

belong to the genuine class of fossils, underlying the kankar stratum of

the clayey alluvium, and are not merely casual deposits in the present

river, as Captain Herpert was led to suspect when theirexistence was

first pointed out, in a situation of the same nature, near Calpf, by Doctor

Duncan, in 1828*.

Dr. Royue also brought away a fragment of bone in 1831, and

expressed his opinion that fossils would be found in the banks of the

Jamna, (Journal, vol. i. 457.)

Regarding the present collection of fossil bones, Captain E. Smrrn’s

private letter furnishes the following particulars : ‘‘ With the specimens

of rock there is a box of fossils ; I have done little more than indicate the

localities, with a few remarks on the state of the bones, originating in

* See GLEANINGS IN SCIENCE, i. 23.— Account of fossil elephant bones found in the

river near Calpi. As no further notice was taken, at the time, of Dr. DuNcan’s dis-

covery, I take this opportunity of publishing the extract from Mr. J. Lesi1e’s letter

which brought the subject to the notice of the Physical Class of the Asiatic Society.

“*T had the pleasure of sending you on the 6th, two portions of the fossil bones

of an elephant, for which I am indebted to my friend Dr. Duncan at Calpi;the

following is an extract from his letter which accompanied them: ‘ Thespot on

which these remains were found is nearly three miles up the river on the opposite.

side to Calpi ; at the time of visiting them there was not a long bone whole; proba-

bly a tooth might have been procured, but certainly not now, the remains being

scattered by the natives who accompanied us, inall directions. I however send you

what I preserved, part of a long bone (the femur) anda portion of a tusk, the la-

mellated structure of which is very distinct. The remains lay about 40 yards from

the edge of the water, then very low, but which during the rains must evidently over-

flow the spot to an equal or greater extent. They appeared but superficially im-

bedded in the slightly coherent earthy stratum, which has been deposited by the

waters on a bottom of kankar, of which the bed and banks of the river were here

composed.’ ”’

624 Notes on the Specimens of the Kankar Formation, [Dxc.

my acquaintance with the situations in which they are found. The

portion of the subjoined note in which the fossils are assigned to differ-

ent parts of the skeletons of various animals, has been derived from

better authority than I can pretend to in such questions. From what

has been obtained in the last year or two, it seems that fossils in great

abundance are lodged in the bed of the river. They have in previous

years of the works been procured in smaller quantities, from rocks or

shoals differing in nature from those of the last season, having been

removed in the first periods. One cause of so many having been of late

discovered has been the presence of intelligent European overseers,

whose curiosity has been excited by remains which were matter of in-

difference to the natives. It is to be regretted, however, that the atten-

tion of the men was not directed earlier to the preservation of these

fossils.

‘* T became acquainted with their discovery in such quantities, and of

such dimensions, only after an absence from the spot, during which

the excavation had been completed, and could then collect merely a

few of the fragments, which an interest in the subject on the part of

some of the sergeants had induced them to select. Much however has

been lost, and as seen in the list, a small piece only was kept of the

shoulder blade of an elephant, (No. 8,) described as very perfect, but

which unfortunately, with the rest of the mass removed from the shoal,

was thrown into the water of a deepchannel. I have lately got some

more fossils, and in the course of the cold season, I shall have an oppor-

tunity of visiting some, of the existence of which in the banks of the

river I have just had information, and which (if the account I have

received be correct) would seem to prove that the process of petrifaction

is still active.”

Captain Smiru has divided his notices under three heads, which we

here insert in the same order, adding the characters of the rocks, and in

some places their analysis, from the specimens presented to the Society.

I.—Notes with Explanatory Sketches on a Description of Kankar found

in Slabs in part of the bank of the Jamna. (Plate XXIII.)

A description of flag, composed of sand coarsely but strongly ce-

mented, in thin slabs, horizontally disposed, is found in considerable

quantities at a short distance from Karfmkhan, near Oreyah, on the

Jamna. The situations from which it is usually dug are shown dis-

tinctly in the accompanying sketches, with the references and notes;

but the flag is not confined to the banks of the river, (Sketches | st and

5th,) being raised as well from sand-banks far out towards the centre

of the bed of the stratum.

Jour. as. foc. ot Uf. PU XXM.

— wr!tllh !

MAAS

Method of extiacting lhe Kankar

near the centre Of the TWEET:

Cap: E. Smite. Erg. ae. JB. Tassin lithe

pe ah Ng pears 5 ‘

ie Si Ye

a tie wybe: Win

} Ss yo

| ey tees J ;

LP MTS WOW

ep er ber esdeeyy ithe, oy de

bp iar sedi boast

L q i nnn x

abe if

i —ttea ‘at

v ot es, - ait ‘

Past TRI

aoe

1833.] and on the Fossil Bones collected on the Jamna. 625

It is excavated principally by the boat and ghat men, or the villa-

gers of the Mallah class, on the immediate spot ; and the search for it,

and the mode of raising it, is simple.

In the hot months, when the river is low, these men observe what

parts of the bank have been left by the river (Sketch Ist) so bare of

sand, or deposits of mud, as to allow of a probability of the flags being

reached without much labour in the removal of the superincumbent

body. Theyare, from theexcavations in former years, acquainted with

the spots in which they may expect to find the flags, and the upper

mass being cleared away, if the flags are reached, the excavation is

carried on as long as the easy slope of the bank allows of its being pro-

fitable. It is generally from about the bottom of the bank, at the le-

vel of the lowest fall of the river in the dry months, that the flags are

taken, and they are traced at all heights from this level up to 20 or 25

feet above it, but rarely or never higher. Below this lowest level, they

are found in depths as great as the water has allowed of the excava-

tion being prosecuted in, but that is not more than 4 or 5 feet. To-

wards the centre of the river they are raised from similar depths be-

low the surface (Sketch 4th) from a spaee on which sand settles annu-

ally over a greater or less extent. Whenever any part is perceived

free of sand, and the flags felt at the bottom of the water clear of that

obstruction, they are detached by common iron implements, and raised.

As is the case near the shore, the depths from which they are

lifted do not exceed 4 or 5 feet. In raising the flags, it is usual to cut

them across, (Sketch 2nd,) to reduce them to manageable dimensions,

and as they are sometimes connected with each other at the edges, they

are there too cut asunder. They are generally taken out in lengths of

from 2 to 4 feet, the breadth varying from 1 to 2 feet.

Long round pieces are sometimes found between the flat slabs,

(Sketch 3,) that is of course when the latter are not so close as to be

connected. These round pieces are always smooth, never knotted, at:

least as those common on the surface of the kankar banks and shoals

usually are. The round are always met within the horizontal line be-

tween the flat pieces, never above or below them, not even when there are

double or treble strata of slabs. The directions of the lateral divi-

sions of the slabs, as also of the grooves which channel the surfaces of

both the flat and round pieces, is stated to correspond nearly with that

of the present course of the river. These flags are said to harden on

exposure to the air. It is unusual to find, in other parts of the bank,

fine sand, similar to that of the sand strata immediately adjoining the

626. Notes on the Specimens of the Kankar Formation, (Dae.

flags, and to that of flags themselves*. It seems to be of a kind pe-

culiar to this bank of the river, about the lowestlevel. Cursory ob-

servation at least does not discover it elsewhere. It is darker and greyer,

but otherwise not unlike the fine sand of the superficial beds. Flags, it

is asserted by the people, are never found on the sites of former excava-

tions, that is, they believe them to be old deposits, and have no expec-

tation of discovering fresh formations in the spots from which they have

once before raised the layers. Projecting eaves from the roofs and win-

dows of the native pakka houses are in this neighbourhood very general-

ly constructed with these flags. It seems to be the use to which exclu-

sively they are applied, and they are conveyed for it to Calpé and other

towns in the vicinity, where they are sold at a few rupees a hundred.

Similar flags to these may very possibly exist on other parts of the

bank of the river, but they have never been observed or heard of ex-

cept at this place, and here but in one bank of about half mile in length,

and in the bed of the river opposite to it. Although, as shewn in Sketch

5, this is now the main bank of the river, it has not always been so.

At some very remote period, the Jamna must have ran along the foot

of the higher plain on which Kentra stands, and which line, with the

relative distances and elevations, is seen on the small sketch.

References to the Sketches.

Sketch 1. a. Sand in strata, alternating in thicknesses of the flags.

b. Lowest level of the river.

k. Cess-pool for baling out the water.

c. First stratum of flags.

d. Intervening layer of sand, fine, of the same color and description apparently as

that in the composition of the flags, varying in thickness from 6 in. to 1 feet.

e. Second stratum of flags.

f. Second intervening layer of sand.

g. Third stratum of flags.

From 1 to 5, strata of flags and intervening sand are found.

Sketch 2. The slabs in their natural position, in the sand ortheriver. - - -- Cuts

made by the people to detach them.

Sketch 3. Plan and section shewing the round pieces of kankar (a) found lying

between the flat slabs (0 0).

Sketch 4. The method of obtaining the kankar from the sand-beds towards the

centre of the river.

A. One of the men separating the pieces by a sharpened crow-bar.

B. Another lifting up the detached pieces from the bottom.

* The composition of the flag kankar analysed by me wasas follows :

Carbonate of lime, .......... 42.2

Bite sandy ic aeiva aces a OLS

100 Ep.

i wae Pe wf Ea? ae VL! S| hi

wha

ms ~

. vt

— e

al be A ,

, ! A ' i

1 i os et

f , a

¥, 4

‘

. ’ 4 A

p *

j - ‘

> ' i

\ ‘ "

° 4-

ond ‘ } A a) iat

Ll i ‘ i

; ir] a ys

)

valet

r,s

ia rT» 7

? Lal . \ *

hte} we

“ef * * ™\ p>

. t ‘ bed , \

“ $ i " d

. ne

bah . Ms

» Ps

’

* -

i | ‘

4 "SOD

ie. rd

)

\ aM

‘

ninth qin ie: .

eet ‘

“4 , iw ’ £

ihe vas Xi ~ ai

‘

oe rh Mi ‘

' Tr es

~ ‘ , 2 « ;

ae, By ‘oabi le WC bapa ae

j j ait ay

‘

Sain '

ait a

a f | ,

Jeur. as. Soc Vet U PUXXIV.

Varielies of Kankar inv the Banks of the Jumna

(| Ge numbers référ lo lhe Spectinene)

i Level of water =a SS SS SOD -=

Peas Swe aaa ; cae 6 oie ee

Vig ae.

Gi hea se EN Y WW) TTT TTT

si oS YD Uy TG ZH }} Le

= een 7 Mj Ws y; UY, YY

a 8

re of ei eae

3 6 ft

Bock kanhar

VTL I} f7tn Uy)

water : dat

Sug. 42

TREE REM Ma es

very firm Cay nm re DTD

WILL WUT} [77 7 77, |

17 S0 Co level Gennes

Cay and kankar - :

Gravh &

kankar } ¢

Cap. ESmitte. Eng, del ; SB tassis. lilk.

1833.] and on the Fossil Bones collected on the Jamna. 627

Sketch 5. Plan of the locality.

a. Present bank of the river, 40 to 60 feet above the lowest level of the dry

season,

4. former bank, 100 to 140 feet above ditto.

ce. Bank, in, or near which the slabs are found.

2.—Notes on Specimens of Kankar and Rock taken from the Bed of the

Jamna, between Agra and Allahabad. (Plate XXIV.)

Fig. 6—represents a section of the river bank at Sinjaity, above

Etdwa, with the kankar jutting under water.

No. 1. Loose kankar gravel, cemented with clay and lime.

2. Ditto, with kankar cement: micaceous sand.

3. Botryoidal kankar.

4. Resembles 2, but more solid.

Fig. 7.—Kaldysar, at the junction of the Sinde, 20th April:

No. 5. Hard sandy kankar.

6. Stalactitic kankar, rich in lime.

Fig. 8—isa plan of the surface of stratum A in the last sketch,

which much resembles the filling up of the natural cracks, formed on

the drying of a clayey soil, with a carbonaceous and sandy infiltration.

Fig. 9—shews the general elevation of the specimens from Ka-

laysar. The main bank immediately above rises to the height of about

70 feet, and at a furlong further back, to a total height of 130 feet ;

above the kankar the bank is of fine clay.

No. 7. A concretion of rolled fragments of kankar. .

Fig. 10—is a section taken at Kanjosa, at the junction of the

Sinde. Were the nodular kankar lies in inclined strata in a hard clay,

upon the horizontal surface of which rests a flat plate of kankar, (simi-

lar to that extracted from the bed of the Jamna ?)

Fig. 11.—Himatpir, 20th April. A mass of nodules in close

contact, but disposed in strata nearly horizontal; some at 12 feet above

the level of the water, some at less. The kankar which has acted as

a cement to the mass is seen in veins,

No. 8. Hard ramified kankar.

9. Smaller, of various forms.

At Burlét, below the junction of the Chambal, 20th April.

No.10. White kankar in sandy clay ; of this there are extensive shoals,

which offered obstructions to the navigation.

No.11. Rock kankar, a granular concrete, with marks of shells ? Stra-

tum, two feet thick, sixty feet above the lowest level of the river: total height of

the precipitous bank about 100 feet.

Fig. 12.—At Nant, between Calpi and Hamirpir, the measure-

ment and nature of the strata are shewn in the sketch.

No.12. Is a firm clay,

13. A sandy marl, effervesces with acids.

3M 2

628 Notes on the Specimens of the Kankar Formation, [Dzc.

14. Rock kankar, a calcareous sandstone, containing angular frag-

ments of silex, felspar, and yellow clay. A few strata, about one foot thick each,

with strata of the usual description between, form together masses of 12 feet thick

rising to 17 feet above the surface of the water.

Fig. 13.—Section of the clay bank above Hamirpur and below

Secrort Ghat. The kankar (15) here appears in vertical seams in the

scarped front of the bank, which is itself of a firm clay.

No.16. Sandy clay, with perforations—and an imbedded wnio shell,

open.

Py: 17. Ramified kankar from the bank at the level of the water, Ha-

mirpur.

Fig. 14.—Section of part of the bank at Arroel, below Hamirpur.

No.18. Kankar conglomerate (large rolled fragments, reunited with

Kankar cement).

19. Plate kankar, of botryoidal form—micaceous sand adhering :

from Takouri near Chiladéra Ghat, it appears combined in large rocks and reefs.

Note.—To this part of the Jamna the clay and kankar formation

prevails. Below, fresh descriptions of rock supersede the kankar,

except in the specimens distinguished as such.

20. Red vitrified clay, or khangar, of variegated color, from

Marka. The mass is about 200 feet in dimensions, rising 20 feet above the level

of the water.

21. Ditto, partially heated, found in detached lumps near the base

of ditto.

Figs. 15,16, 17.—At Agrye, Ist May, above Mhow. Veins of

kankar (No. 22, clayey kankar), here run in veins through red clay,

containing nodules of kankar : from the unequal wear of such materials

by atmospheric influence, the veins are sometimes seen to protrude

like dykes above the clay, as represented in Fig. 15, to the height of

half a foot or more : the superficial appearance is reticulated, as shewn

in Fig. 17.

No, 23. Plate kankar from Kankota;—of this kind extensive beds

and reefs occur, it is much the same as that at Pachkourz.

The other specimens forwarded with the kankar series, are as fol-

lows :

No. 24. A caleedonic conglomerate of fused lithomarge, forming

the substance of a rocky island above the Taboda hill , taken from the mass 25 to

40 feet above the water-level.

Specimens from Mhow, 40 miles above Allahabad.

No. 25. Sandstone from the rock about the centre of the river, at

six feet above the level of the water.

26. Lithomarge, in masses, 10 feet above the water.

27. Sandstone flag, from the Bundelkhand bank of the river.

28. Red clay and gravel (ferruginous kankar), running in veins 30

to 40 feet in length, 3 or 4 inches thick, taken from the same spot as No. 27.

1833.] and on the Fossil Bones collected on the Jamna. 629

29. Friable white sandstone, from about the centre of the river,

near the lower part of the pass, forming large reefs and masses, 3 or 4 feet above

the water-level.

30. Sandstone, fine grained, from a large mass about the centre of

the river, in the higher part of the pass, takea from 3 or 4 feet above the level of

the water.

Specimens from the great reef at Bamiart.

31. Hard sandstone, 6 to 10 feet above the level.

32. Kankar, in very small quantities, found near the above.

Unless specified otherwise, it should be understood, that by the

** level of the water,” in the preceding notes, is meant every where

the lowest annual level of the river.

Small springs, flowing in free through scanty streams, run from un-

cer many of the ledges of kankar on the banks of the river. They

are rarely met with except in these situations, and in the possibility of

their being still impregnated with the calcareous matter which seems

to have been the principal agent in the formation of the kankar, some

of the water has been brought off in bottles,—a rude attempt made

here to discover the presence of lime was not successful in detecting

—

3.—List of Fossil bones found in various situations in the prosecution

of the Jumna works at Karimkhan, 1833.

The numbers refer to the specimens presented to the Society, and

to the figures in plate XXV.

1. A tooth supposed to have belonged to an elephant, 14 or 15

years old.

2. The bony or inner part of an elephant’s tusk.

3. The extreme point of an elephant’s shoulder-blade; the remain-

ing part of the bone weighed about 14 maunds.

4. A portion of an elephant’s shin-bone.

5. Portions of the back-bone of a camel, (?) or one of the vertebrz

of the lower part of the neck.

6. Knuckle bone of the knee-joint of ditto.

7. That part of the shin-bone nearest the fetlock joint of ditto, or

end of the shank-bone next the knee.

8. Portion ofa rib of ditto.

* Both of these waters were found to be nearly pure, their specific gravity

being sensibly the same as that of distilled water, On applying the proper tests, the

only salt discovered in the water from Nant was carbonate of lime; that from

Arroel contained the same, with a very slight admixture of muriate of soda. The

slight solution of carbonate of lime may have been rather derived from the kankar,

than have aided in producing it,—Ep.

630 Notes on the Specimens of the Kankar Formation, [Dec.

9. Portions of human bones, (?) the two black ones being the head

of the thigh-bone and head of the arm-bone.

10. Two pieces supposed to have been parts of alligators.

11. Portions of bones belonging to the skeletons of horses, buffa-

loes, &c.

12. The upper part of the leg-bone nearest the shoulder of a young

elephant, or the lower part of the thigh-bone of the same animal.

1 and 2 were taken out of a mixture of sand and kankar, partially

exposed to the atmosphere.

3, 4, 8,9, 10 and 11, were all procured on sloping the banks of a

channel, the sides of which are from | to 5 feet above the lowest level

of the river (the bank being 50 feet high.) They were dug from depths

of from 6 to 18 inches in the firm shoal, which is composed of sub-

stances, kankar stone, gravel, rounded bricks (vitrified clay ?) more

or less rolled and cemented by mud and clay.

5. Were dug out of a cleft in hard yellow clay about 9 inches deep,

filled with black mud, about 3 feet from the surface of the water.

6. Were found in the bed of the river about 18 inches deep, and 4

feet from the surface of the water, during the excavation of a bund.

12—was found on the left shore of the Jamna, at Choura, above Cal-

pt, partially imbedded in a clay and kanker bank: all the rest were dug

up at Karimkhan.

Of the fossil bones those found in the shoals of kankar were the

Jeast perfect, the petrifaction being less complete, or the fossil in in-

ferior preservation. In the stiff clay, which composes a considerable

portion of the bed of the river here, the fossils were in better order.

This difference may be accounted for on various suppositions. The

fossils, after being washed from the spots where they became such,

might have been better preserved in the stiff clay than in the loose

shoals ; or the change into the fossil state may have taken place in

the immediate neighbourhood of the clay, and those found in the loose

shoals have been carried by the water from the original place of for-

mation, having suffered injury in their progress from their first to the

new situation in which they are found.

It is difficult to assign to these remains the dates of their passing in-

to the fossil state. The greater number have been found in an exten-

sive shoal, of partially rolled kankar, cemented by mud, and which from

known changes in the river might be of very recent accumulation. <A

large proportion of the fossils seem to have had a former situation in

the hard clay of the bed of the river, however carried thence to the

1833.] and on the Fossil Bones collected on the Jamna. 631

kankar shoal. But whether they become fossils in the clay, or whether,

after becoming so in other spots, they were swept on, till lodged in the

clefts of the clay, still remains a point to be ascertained.

There is a probability in the former supposition, from the fossils

found in clay being coloured throughout with its yellow tinge, whilst

those dug up from gravel or kankar are of the greyish hue of these

latter substances. If then the fossils are of the dates of the masses in

which they were discovered, their age must be considerable, for the

clay spoken of lies at great depth in the plain of the Doab, and must

be a very early deposit.

In regard to fossils—will substances, after having completed their

change to that state in some other spot, acquire throughout their in-

ternal structure the color of clays, in the clefts of which, after travel-

ling from a distance, they may have found a fresh resting place? If

they will, the difference of color in the fossils leads to no evident con-

clusion on the preceding surmises, One curious particular seems

established after repeated inquiries. The fossils marked 5 were taken

out of clefts in clay which lay below a thick stratum of rock kankar.

Still it is far from certain that the rock kankar was so entire, so free

from fissures, as to permit of no other explanation than that of the

fossils having been deposited or changed in the clay, before the forma-

tion of the kankar which rested init. That clay is itself of great age,

it is at the bottom of the river, 40 feet from the extreme height of the

rise of the river in the rains, and from 100 to 150 below the plain of

the Doab and Bundelkhand.”

To these guarded remarks of Captain E. Smiru, every attention is

due, and he deserves our best thanks for so impartially laying the

circumstances of the Jamna fossils before us. It would seem to be

pretty well established from his local observations, that many if

not all of the fossils were first deposited in the clay stratum from

100 to 150 feet below the plain of the Dodd, and under the general

line of the kankar formation ; that upon the excavation of the present

bed of the Jamna, many have been washed out of their original seats

and removed to clefts in the ledges of rock in the bed of the river, and

have been there mixed up with a fresher muddy deposit, and in some

cases impregnated witha tint therefrom. That they belong to the

former period, and that the kankar attached to them is also much more

ancient than the present sands of the river, is rendered sufficiently evi-

dent in some of the specimens by the large angular quartz and felspar

gravel, cemented on to many of the bones. Some angular pebbles of

632 Notes on the Specimens of the Kankar Formation, ‘[Dec.

quartz are here and there perceived also in the concretions of rolled

kankar ; and it is a curious fact, that the size and description of the

granitic gravel adhering to the bones, exactly resemble the characters

of those attached to the Jabalpur fossils.

With regard to the human bones (No. 9), much doubt: may fairly

be entertained, on account both of the imperfect preservation of the

fragments and the rarity of their occurrence in a fossil state: indeed,

it is well known to be a'much contested point whether the bones of

man, or those of the monkey tribe; have ever been so discovered ; al-

though the careful examination of the human remains lately found in

the caves of the south of France seem to have set the point at rest with

most of the French geologists.

. As the Annales de Chimie*, in which M. Tournat sets forth his

Opinions, is rarely to be met with in India, and as the animal remains in-

humed inthe mud and gravel of caves may prove hereafter to be contem-

poraneous, geologically speaking, with our newly-discovered deposits

under the clays of the Dodd, we shall make no apology for concluding

our present notice with a brief sketch of M. Tournat’s view on this

interesting subject.

i» Occurrence of the Bones of Man in the Fossil State.

-The phenomena, of caves is much more complicated than was at first

supposed, when the simple theory of a diluvial wave washing into them

the debris of animals-on the instant of their sudden destruction was

proposed as sufficient to account. for the quantity of-bones found im-

bedded in the mud, gravel, and stalagmite of these truly valuable geo-

logical depositories. are

Of the vast number of caves lately iikoacht to light on the continent

of Europe, some have been found to contain no fossils ; others merely

gravel and mud ;—some, ancient bones and coprolite ; and others only

a prodigious quantity of the recent dung of bats and birds of prey.

No. general law pertains to them. They occur at all heights ;—in cal-

careous rocks of every different age, and. at various elevations: above

the present contiguous valleys. .Such.as are found in inaccessible si-

tuations, and at a distance from running water, are generally empty ;

those of which the apertures have been but:recently disclosed by gra-

dual wear of the rock in front, contain only modern deposits ; the na-

ture.of the organic remains varying according to the locality and the

antiquity of the aperture. _In some cases we meet exclusively with the

bones of a species of large bear (ursus:speleus), the skeletons of which

are still in connection, and appear to have been gradually imbed-

* Annales de Chimie, Fevrier, 1833.

_JSour.As. Soe. Li's wih Pheoni Vol Pl. XEV- 3

Lops bones from the bed of the Jumna River

collected by Cap’ E, Smitty, Lng.

Mah. M4.

LVos 18.1414 ftom Lieut Burts Cotlectron,

i Br

sults

ns iis ny Mewar:

bh a

fi “

‘ 7 on e p% a i

Ube 7

a aloes mg

# } eng ie Sy /

icin th

ett

. an ey i “ \ Rei witats

; pide A ay ee ayo: tee x

the a. orate eam may RY ‘pa

Me A et ot Rang ra

al nee iit ‘aka

F . a, { ey hee eo Pt

‘ati oe Sp cange | Crone ea

ai “a a aa d rf

oak ’ ie : : ;

. Sees ‘

| mere na ta t

Tah | ve oP AR RPS i

+4 pit 3 vagy

bas, 2 i ae Eg

A Ph f y |

Hr y ’ ae, : i 4 } rea ii

1833.] Note on Fossil Human Bones. 633

ded and thus perfectly preserved. In others, like Kirkdale, the mass

consists of a multitude of bones, half gnawed and rounded, among

which is remarked a quantity of hyenas’ dung (coprolite); in

others a narrow crevice is filled with skeletons of the smaller car-

nivorous animals and birds. The formation in all these cases is

natural and evident: the habits of bears and hyenas of the pre-

sent day accord exactly with what we see to have been their practice in

ages past : the caves were the residence of these animals for genera-

tions, and were by no means filled by any brisk transient or universal

wave of transport ; and there is no ground deducible from them for the

separation of organic remains into the two classes of ante and post-

diluvian.

The soil of these caverns generally has a strictly local origin, and

may be identified with the debris of the neighbouring mountains. In

most cases it can be proved to have been gradually introduced from

some opening above, and not from apertures fronting the present val-

leys, which have in most cases been laid bare by the subsequent denu-

dation of the channel of the present rivers, when the level of the ocean

subsided : the strata of soil can be divided into the finest lamin, and

very often thick strata of stalagmite separate one bed of soil, and its

contents, from the next.

Having proved that the fossil caves vary in their contents from local

circumstances, and that they have been filled in very long periods, M.

TourNAL comes to the important question, whether the cave deposit

ever contains human bones, or pottery and works of human art; and, if

so, whether these objects appear to be coeval with the other matter of

the caves ; in fact, whether man was or was not contemporaneous with

animals now considered to be extinct, and, as it were, belonging to a

former creation.

Human remains had been long since observed both in what was

called diluvial clay, and in the soil of caves; but their presence was

deemed accidental, and it became a dogma of the science that man

existed not in a fossil state. The recent discovery however of the caverns

of Aude, Herault, and Gard exposed a vast magazine of human bones

and antique pottery inclosed in the self-same matrix with the hyzna, lion,

tiger, stag, and numerous other animals, ali of extinct species. Atten-

tion was thus once more awakened to the subject, and MM. De Srrrzs,

Curistou, and Tournat, after an attentive and conscientious examina-

tion, have come to the conclusion that all these objects, are of the

same date; whence it results that man was the companion of animals

now considered extinct and fossil. The grounds of their opinion are ;—

3.N

634 Note on the Fossil Human Bones, (Dec.

the equal change which the bones have undergone : their mode of

deposit: the variety of species in some of the animals, which denotes

domesticity ; and the occurrence of extinct species bearing the marks

of cutting instruments. The problem being thus resolved, it follows

that man must also be included among the fossil species, or rather that

the sudden transition from one condition of being to another must be

disallowed, and that the same gradual alteration of species, already so

fully developed by M. Desnayes in his comparison of the fossil shells

of the different periods of the tertiary formations, must be extended to

animals, and perchance to man himself: that, in fact, the batrier of fossil

and non-fossil must henceforth be a distinction of convenience only, to

separate such remains as may be found buried in the regular geological

strata, from those of more modern or accidental inhumation.

M. Dzesnorers however suggests that these bones may be compara-

tively modern, and that they may belong to the primitive Gauls, who

lived in caverns. This opinion accords well enough with the circumstances

of the cavern at Miallet, in which M. Terssier found little figures,

fragments of jars, bracelets, &c. but it will not at all apply to the other

localities described, and in which the mixture of bones is so decided.

Great light is thrown by these discoveries on the before ill-explain-

ed fact of the occurrence of human bones in the breccias of Cagliari,

Nice, Gibraltar, and Tripoli, which contain marine shells, and seem to

prove that the level of the sea was once 150 feet higher than at present :

the caves generally betoken an equal height of the running streams

which are supposed to have gradually silted up the caverns.

The shell deposit of Cape St. Hospice, near Nice, also contains bro-

ken pottery, and the same has been observed in the bone-breccias of

Dalmatia and Syria, which contain human bones, as does the ossiferous

sand of Bades near Vienna.

M. Bour’ rightly observes that such facts are of too frequent occur-

rence to allow of explanation on the ground of any accidental intro-

duction during the period to which history extends. They all testify

a lowering of the ocean level with respect to the land, caused by the

upheavement of the latter, and thus render it evident, that these changes

have been in action subsequent to the existence of man on the globe.

M. Tournat and other French naturalists, further suppose that

several races of men have successively had possession of our continents.

The form of the skulls found at Vienna is stated to approach to the

African or Negro type. Those discovered in the fluviatile marl of the

valley of the Rhine and Danube exhibit a close resemblance to the heads

of the Karaibs or those of the ancient inhabitants of Peru and Chili. It

1833.] Found in the south of France. 635

is of course in vain to seek in the most ancient histories of these coun-

tries for any tradition of the violent commotions which the crust of

the earth has endured (as is now proved), since man became its tenant.

Geology alone can seek to unravel the general facts in an uncertain thread of

events, through the gradual development of the records carefully treasured

in caves and strata, and written in actual symbols of life of less equivocal

interpretation than Egyptian hieroglyphics. But the subject is yet new,

the facts limited, and we must be cautioned against coming to any con-

clusions without the most mature and impartial examination. It is to

this philosophic caution perhaps that we must attribute the silence of

Mr. Conyseare on so interesting atopic, in his report on geology to the

British Association in 1832. After alluding to Professor BuckLann’s

acute observatioms on the numerous bone caverns of England and Ger-

many, ‘‘ which have thrown so much light on the particulars of the his-

tory of so many long-extinct races of animals, and proved beyonda

doubt that they were originally the inhabitants of the districts where

their remains are now found ;’” he briefly adds, ‘‘but still on many

questions connected with this curious and interesting subject, especially

the relative age of the human bones occasionally found inthe same

cavern (as at Bize in the South of France), we are bound to compare the

opposite views of Dz Serres, Curistot, and Tournat, with those of

Bucxuanp, with whom however DesNnoyers appears entirely to agree.”

The last edition of Dena Becuu’s manual also barely alludes to the

fact of human bones having been lately found in the same mass

with the remains of the extinct rhinoceros and other animals usually

discovered in caverns.

We have dwelt at some !ength on this novel subject, in hopes of draw-

ing the attention of our Indian geologists more zealously to prosecute

their investigation of the new field of organic remains now opened to

their labours in the clay of the Dodd and the banks of the Jamna. Should

it be proved that the bones of man are there really imbedded, and that

the animals found with him are (like the elephant of Jadalpur) of the

existing Asiatic ~pecies, it will form a strong and very important link

of connection between the state of things at two distant epochs of our

globe, now distinguished as the recent and the fossil periods.

In digging wells in the Dodb, or in any part of the upper Gangetic

plain, the search for fossil bones at considerable depths should not be

neglected, even under the strata of kankar, which occur almost every

where in the yellow clay. We might not despair even of finding bones

at the lowermost depth to which we have bored in Calcutta, for the

yellow clay under the blue alluvial beds contains kankar, and is of the

caiie apparent age as that of the Doabd. debs

636 Further particulars of the Earthquake in Nepal. [Dec.

VI.—Further particulars of the Earthquake in Nepal. By A. Campbell,

Esq. Assistant Surgeon attached to the Residency. |

In pursuance of the attempt made before to note the destructive

effects of the earthquake of the 26th August last, throughout the valley

of Nepal, and its immediate neighbourhood, and with the hope of shew -

ing, as correctly as my information will permit, the probable seat or

central point of the commotion, I beg to offer the following memo-

randa of other places at which the shock was experienced, as well as

its comparative degree of intensity at each.

The means of estimating the violence of this phenomenon are of

course most defective, if not wholly inadequate to the purpose; but in

absence of better data, the ascertained amount of damage done to the

frail and perishable works of man, may be received as an index of its

intensity at one place, compared with that of another, and in conformity

to this mode, it would appear, that the most extreme violence of the

shock, as far as its occurrence is as yet known, was expended withina

tract of country extending from this side of the great Himalayan range

on the north, to the course of the Ganges on the south, and from the

Arvin river (in the Nepal hills) on the east, to the western branches

of the Trisuil Ganga on the west, comprising a space of about 200

miles from north to south, and 150 from east to west. In this space,

the valley of Nepal, though not geographically the centre point, is most

assuredly the portion that has suffered the greatest violence of the

calamity ; and, unless the inexplicable producing causes have been

expended in the frequent and severe shocks that have to this day con-

tinued to recur, we may from our experience of the progress of earth-

quakes in other parts of the world, with reason, as we ought with

resignation, look forward to further and more violent exhibitions of

the same terrible nature.

In the notice of the earthquake by the Secretary of the Asi-

atic Society, in his Journal for August, he expressed a belief,

that the greatest intensity of the shock would be found to have occur-

ed beyond the Himalaya, in the direction of Lassa; and judging by

the direction from which the shock was felt to have proceeded, and its

intensity in the valley of Nepal, such was the probability, though

other has turned out to be the fact, and that upon good authority,

The recentreturn from Pekin of an Embassy from Nepal, to the court

of the Celestial Emperor, has furnished authentic information on this

subject, which otherwise might have been long wanting ; and the whole

tenor of it shews that the great Himalayan range itself, and the country

1§33.] Further particulars of the Earthquake in Nepal. 637

on this side of it, was alone the theatre of the earthquake’s presence,

and that it was not even in the slightest degree felt beyond a very

short distance on the Tibetan side of those huge mountains. The

Embassy was at Lassa, on the 26th of August, when and where the

shock was not experienced. At Digarchi, in the following month, it first

received accounts of its occurrence from Nepal; to the inhabitants of

that place the circumstance was known only from reports brought from

this side of the mountains ; along the road from Digarchi, the answer to

all inquiries was the same, ‘‘ No earthquake on the 26th of August,”

and not until its arrival at Tingri was it found that the shock had

been felt. Tingrz is a small Chinese post, immediately beyond the

great Himalaya, and the first stage on the table land (as it is called)

of Tibet, going from hence to Lassa, (by the Kéti or eastern pass

from the valley of Nepal.) From Tingrz to Kirung, a distance of

8 or 10 marches, the route is nearly due west, running along; and

through the northern side of the Himalaya, and throughout this tract,

though but thinly inhabited, authentic reports of the occurrence of the

shock were received. By Kirung (the eastern pass from the valley

into Bhote), the Mission penetrated the great range, and at each stage

(four in number through the pass), intelligence of the occurrence was

communicated by the few individuals who inhabit that wild and sterile

region. But such information was not required, asits effects were

sufficiently manifest : in the village of Kirung itself, supposed to con-

tain 400 houses, 60 were fairly demolished, and many more seriously

injured : two men had been killed under the ruins of their houses, and

about a dozen wounded. From the exit of the pass to Kathmandé

there are no towns along the route, and scarcely any villages ; but at

many places, insulated houses of the mountaineers had been thrown

down, and the precipitous banks of hills and mountains had been

hurled into the subjacent valleys.

This shews the extent of damage done towards the north, and ena-

bles us to fix upon the line of Tingré (Lat. 28°) as the northern

limit, of the earthquake’s presence, and reports would shew that of

Jabalpir and Calcutta to have been the southern one. Rangpir*

defines the east and Dehli the west.

North-east from Kathmandt, as far as Dilka and Kuti, the violence

of the shock would seem to have been greater than in the valley. West

from Kathmandu it diminished at every step. At Gorkha, ‘only two

houses were destroyed ; at Palpa, none; and at Dot/, on the borders of

Kemaon, the shock was felt, but not by any means severely. It will

* Mr. Wa TERs informs me that it was also felt at Chittagong.—Epb.

638 Further particulars of the Earthquake in Nepal. [Dac.

strike every one as remarkable, that while here, the shock was more

violent than elsewhere, its effects should not have been felt equally at

as great a distance from hence to the north as to the south. Why this ?

is the natural question, but who can answer where all are in darkness.

Other explosive forces spread equally in all directions, this did not;

granting that the centre was where the violence was greatest. To

the south, the country is a level, uninterrupted plain, calculated to faci-

litate the rapid transmission of the agitating force, while to the north

are the mightiest mountains of the world ; it may therefore be supposed,

that the quantity of force expended in reaching to the summits of the

Himalayan peaks, and in shaking like molehills the whole of the

mountain region around, could not be far short in intensity of that

required to agitate slightly the plains to the southward, even to the

distance above recorded. In this light, it may be imagined, that the

explosive force may have spread itself equally on all sides, the greater

surface distance to which it reached towards the south being balanced

by the immense vertical spaces it traversed in shaking from their bases

to their summits the innumerable hills and mountains of the extensive

region lying between the plains of Hindustan and those of Tibet.

I subjoin an accurate register of the shocks which have occurred

up to this date, given me by Captain Roprnson. Many of them have

been severe, and throughout the whole course of these visitations,

there have been two distinct varieties observed in the character of the

shocks: all those at the commencement were of undulatory or swing-

ing kind ; the others wanted this swell, and were a violent up and

down shaking, with little lateral, motion. The first may be called the

horizontal, the latter the vertical, variety. The former alone have been

destructive to property, while the latter, from the greater noise by

which they are accompanied, and the more rapid oscillations of the

ground, are perhaps the more terrifying.

November, 1833, inclusive.

—__ ES

Date. Time. Remarks.

August 26th,} One at5h.55m. p.m. another at; All of the undulating kind, as

10h. 50m. p. M, 10-58 ep. M. was the] well as nine others that occurred

timethe greatone commenced,and|during the same night.

|its duration was three minutes.

27th,|4-53 a.m. 5-20 a.m. 5-26.4.M.} Also undulatory.

28th,|7-15 a. M.4-55 P. M. Also undulatory.

30th,;4 shocks, one at 9 a. M.

31st, |2 during the night, Slight.

Sept. 1, to] 1th,|10 shocks, Slight.

October 4th,|7-30 a.mM.asmartone, 1 minute’s| This was a severe one, and of

duration. the vertical kind; it was felt at

Gorakhpur and Allahabad.

1833.] Note on the Fossil Palms and Shells of Sdgar. 639

—_—_ —-—_——— Se

Date. Time. Remarks.

October 18th,

4-55, p. M. severe, andushered in! Samecharacter as last one; was

witha loud noise. felt slightly at Allahabad, lasted

here at least a minute.

26th,} 10-37, a. m. slight.

November 8th,}3-35 a. M. slight.

16th,| At midnight, slight.

26th,}11-45 pv. M. severe. This was of the up and down

In all, 39 shocks have been not-|kind, lasted a minute, and occur-

ed : many slight ones have occur-|ring at the fall moon, when the

red besides. whole people of Nepal were pray-

ing at Pasputnath, exciteda great

commotion, and was the only in-

stance where the prophecies of the

Brahmins were realized, although

a hundred lucky moments had for

the last three months been deter-

mined on for the occurrence of

violent shocks.

VII.—Note on the Fossil Palms and Shells lately discovered on the Table-

land of Sdgar, in Central India. By H. H. Spry, Esq. Bengal Medical

Service.

——

[Read at the Meeting of the 26th December. |

Some months since, when I forwarded a specimen of the silicified palm

trees, I stated that the trap hills about Sagar, which are at an eleva-

tion of upwards of 2000 feet above the sea, formed an amphitheatre,

not however in one continuous circle, but with here and there a break.

Within this circle of trap hills, I ought to have stated that a second jutted

out of compact red sandstone, but of a less elevated extent, being por-

tions of the great Vindya range.

I took occasion to advert to the former of these two formations,

because it was at the foot of the portion that ranges along the Jabal-

pur road: the limestone bed (travertine and crystallized calcareous

spar) projects ; on which, mixed with the ¢rap debris, the silicified fossil

trees are found. I lay stress on the word silicified, for it seems singular

that silex should be the fossilizing mineral of remains found ona calca-

reous bed. It would seem to indicate that the bed these remains now

repose on could not have been the place of their growth*, but that they

must have been projected from a distance; and yet the distance could

not have been great, for although the splintered condition of the trunks

would indicate that a powerful force had been applied, the attachment

still of all the tender tendrils, so peculiar to the palmata species, to the

thicker parts of the roots, and which, though perfectly fossilized, may

* The constant occurrence of flints in chalk is sufficient to outweigh this objec-

tion.—Eb.

640 Note on the Fossil Palms, [ Dec.

be easily broken off, clearly shews how little the abrasion must

have been. That however their present site is not their original one,

seems now to be further confirmed by the discovery of a bed of fossil

shells (univalves reversed), only distant about half a mile, and ap-

parently in a continuation of the same limestone bed as that on which

these palm-trees lie*. In the one case, however, the calcareous for-

mation forms the surface soil, whereas in the latter it is covered by 17

feet of hard and soft basalt.

The discovery of these shells was made, as discoveries of the kind

usually are, by accident, at the foot of the trap hills beside which the

Jabalpér road runs ; a well had been dug some 14 years ago, and with

the stones turned out of it a small hut had been erected. It was in a

lump of the out-turned limestone deposit (travertine), a large shell was

observed, and inquiry discovered the original locale of it to have been

the centre of the well; the sides of the well had been built up with red.

sandstone, and it was necessary to sink a shaft beside it to get at an

accurate knowledge of the site. I caused specimens of the different

strata to be preserved, at the same time noting their depth respectively :

a sample of each stratum, as well as specimens of the fossils, I have had

the pleasure of forwarding for the museum of the Society. I am unable

satisfactorily to determine whether the shells are of marine or terrestrial

origin. The opinion here is that they are marine: a striking peculiarity

in them is that they are all reversed, and some are much more flattened

than others.

The surface soil, (No. 1) as wellas Nos. 2, 3 and 4, are well marked,

and the transition from one to the other is as abrupt and sudden as the

specimens furnished. No. 5 is not so well marked. I have called it

wacke. It pervades as a sub-soil a large portion of the trap soil about

Sdgar. A coarse analysis which I made of some from a well about a

mile from the fossil well, gave me

Specific Gravity, 3,600.

{Loss by drying,........ 34

Magnesia,.....0.sceeee 18

200 parts, < Alumina,.. BoMet 28 AVIS se

1 Peroxyde irOn,......++0- 30

Siliceous sand,........++ 100

LLasehce asia: asic shack

200

* The annexed topographical sketch (Plate XX VI), which I am enabled to furnish

through the kindness of Capt. Macponaup, of the trigonometrical survey, will

convey a better idea of the locale of the two sites than any written description.

VoLU. PU. XXV1,

oy)

Shy Fossil

TOPOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OTA

/%,

of the Ground

about lhe Fossil Remains near Sagar

SCALE

MW Je 1 3 Arar

\\y

ae re cae

Aid

VON

age.

Syl!

= “SN

; ye

Siri

Seber fy

fl ' i!

Sh lf

SN]

ESS Oy

HRS

: ie)

SSS S7 UTAT Pe Se

SN loss

Cin OED SSS SS dens}

AN OU MIRSS SALA

. “6, Mh BAPE E RS LTE! Ss

x a AA it int a7 a aes

x 2 itty Wylie! ae ZU

_ oy mw ay |

yr? Sait i Ut ZU

~ ,

hl * rilty hs (M2

Wy, Cpls Se. va L

ELTA NONE

= ti Tint

ay)

petty R

in SANS A hes oe A

amine Ge

Vis Mi [i if A= Za, Ui) \" s\

“FS 1 1/) nie WN [ : Cy SHTINR

/ Wok Sr, 24i0""N\| "1 WS3Z Wp) ISS

i! Suey ARMIN:

=i any IN I\

\\("! al

) | i=

HO WG

“4

Bo Zea WWE 2 FBG, BEER

PEs” } SS LL 2 AW

> : = SS WYN Oy HG Gits / jon

WSS SS STN NS

Nis

1833.] Meteorological Register at Bareilly, in 1831. 641

When first dug out it is friable and has a very gritty feel, falling

abroad on being thrown into water like lime when it is slaking. In

the sample I have sent I find several minute nodules of carbonate of

lime, which will of course alter the results as given above. No.7 isa

coarse silicious grit, and No. 8 is basalt again. Beyond which I did not

consider it necessary to extend my search.

I do not venture to offer any hypothesis on the discovery of the

above interesting facts, but content myself by bringing to the notice of

the members of the Asiatic Society of Calcutta the singular circum-

stance of shells in a high state of preservation lodged in a calcareous

bed, being found in the midst of volcanic matter. I hope some day to

be able to ascertain the limits of the fossil beds.

The following is a section of the shaft :

. Surface soil, black, 3 feet.

. Soft basalt, 24 do.

. Hard basalt, 7 do.

Soft basalt, 14 do.

. Wacke with nodules of limestone, 3 do.

. Travertine with imbedded shells, 14 do.

. Coarse silicious grit, 2 do.

Hard basalt.

OTD > ow WO

VIIIl.—Meteorological Reyister at Barelly, in 1831. By H.S. Boul-

derson, Esq.

May. Bar.32° T. A. M. B.| May. Bar. 32° T. A. M.B.

8 3 P.M. . 28.914 102 Me nl se NOON ¢ cuscess 28.930 100 76

11 og) am es 739 «106 73 Sunset..... 815 100 75

12 7+ A.M... 836 $81 66 162. MS 850 94 73

3 50 P. M. 2e0a> Os 74 118 GA. ME. 833 78 63

ES Noon. ..“=. 908 98 75 Gea Nie} 847 91 73

240 P.M. 1857 99 75 ae ob» Mev. 791 103 72

me 6A. M. 844 83 70 420 P.M. 756 104 74.

95 A. M.. 889 92 TEAUIG* (75K. Me 814 92 71

53 P.M.. .820 102 75 93 A.M... 848 98 76

10='P. Me: 851 92 75 INeont :. 4%. 814 102 77

15 63 A. M.. 893 84 694 SOP Me. 752 104 76

Owy.. Ms -935 91 73 120. 9s A. Me 894 95 75

Noon ..% 5% 9298 75 ess es 834 103 75

33 P.M... 858 1034 76 Sunset .... 815 101 75

53 P. M.. 830 102 76 | 21 Ga a> Nine 846 81 65

16 7$A.M.. 972 89 73 Oe. Wie. 880 93 7a

10° A. Me .965 96 77 4Pi Wier 823 104 75

Woon... 255 -965 100 77 Sunset .... 838 100 744

Ae? > s -905 102 ive L2sPx Mies 853 ~=90 68

Sunset .... -886 100 FO TZ A. MS 878 88 70

760 GEA. M.; 914 86 72 = Naeay : lY Ra 921 - 92 73

642

May.

22° Noon .

June, 1831.

—_

NRPONFHDAWOD KS

Pi Pit >

eae eseees Ss:

Wb rd > eB bb roto!

wee

(ge! geeeees Seeee' Be

—

NmNNONON

oct

aSeeee: 2e eg:

ret

CAGAW

PPM bb

rg B

SS: ESSERE

OG bt

28.903

821

913

961

-886

851

882

924

968

876

-960

-978

.880

961

-996

894

971

.976

-940

898

858

-860

-900

928

898

-852

.855

.888

828

847

806

-759

-844

-845

745

666

-680

28.736

851

742

-667

.634

081

2097

615

-758

-660

-612

343

-769

-808

807

751

-/09

103

102

100

102

100

101

100

102

104

763

753

a SR

Bar. 32° T. A. M. B.\ June, 1831.

“oe.

10z P.

10 P.

won co

ppm

Zeeeeeeee: Beeeees: BS: SSSES! BSS:

ae}

Taek,

Bie ine

@ Op oh

DIDI SIH BIH DIK

— cod

ere STO NM ON

BIR OH

rd Do hy be be

Sees. See

Brow Zoe

mip we pp S

2a223

eez2: Zee

o 8 e@ a2 @ ©

Meteorological Register ‘at Barelly, in 1831.

28.652

.673

179

797

177

677

839

725

823

841

007

743

805

857

157

773

835

899

904

768

829

926

-935

.865

884

891

858

-804

-800

802

803

819

.707

132

759

-692

-647

725

-766

768

724

-709

729

139

705

-675

657

713

787

822

801

721

805

UE |

782

Bar. 32° T. A. M. B.

[Dec.

98 814

96 82

92 82

94 82

100 84

100 82

92 82

100 83

97 82

90 80

94 82

100 834

99 82

94 814

91 80

90 80E

97 82

91 82

87 78

87 79

93 804

94 83

92 81

81 75

813 76

90 80

89 81

91 82

90% 81

90 804

88 82

86 824

885 82%

95 81

91 814

90 82

98 825

97 83

92 82

91 81

935 82

98 83

94 82

92 83

96 83

100 82

101 82

98 82

95 82

89 81

89 82

94 83

96 83

87 82

90 825

87 82

1833-] Meteorological Register at Barelly, in 1831. 643

June, 1851. Bar. 32° T. A. M. B. | June, 1831. Bar. 320 T. A. M.B.

21 73A.M.. 28.805 86$ 813,25 23 P.M.. 28.684 987 84

10 A.M.. 843 88 823 103 P. M.. 713 854 «83

Sunset .... 734 88 81 i) 26' ~7 GA. Mi: shod ead 79

VT VP. Mies 819 86% 823 93 A. M.. .825 80 80

22 63 A. M. ; 833) 86% 82 Noon .. .. 825 82 80

Noon tT... 5-44 819 95 823 Sunset .... 813) .822 "80

Sunset .... 761 94 825 | 9§ P. M.. 812 82 81

VO WPEc Mes : 810 91 82 Near 53 A. M.. 813 81 80

23 7Z A. M.. .817 87 814 95 A. M.. .844 84 814

A... Ms 834 90% 82 Sunset .... 758 86 82

2 APM: 791 95 824 IPS Mee 794 82 80

103 P. M.. -830 855 814] 28 73 A.M... .806 82 805

24 540 A. M. .765 84 804 Sunset .... -683 89 84

+ 9 ALM.. 778 85 82 |; 29 SRiAU MS. 799 84 815

Sunset .... £673), 1.88 834 Sunset .... “dO. wads 77

Loe PS Me. oe 86 84 Ome. Me: 794 82 815

25 ieA. Mi. .707 864 84 | 30 7 ASM. .839 82 80

93 A. M.. fs 87 84 9 A.M.. .859 81 80

The detached thermometer was in an open northern verandah, the

moistened bulb thermometer was inside the house. The barometer

was a plain tube with brass scale. The barometer tube was filled with

unboiled mercury, and the air gathered and extracted by repeatedly

reversing it. In the ‘‘ Gteanines,” for October, 1831, I mentioned the

altitude of Barelly, gained from a few observations, asabout 1080 feet. I

was surprised at the result myself, but could not account for it. 1 think

I must have made some mistake in recording the observations, or per-

haps in adjusting the scale to the tube. The barometer with which

the above observations were made was precisely similar to the former

one, but not the same. A set* of 10 observations in May, compared

with those of the corresponding times in Calcutta, gives altitude of Ba-

relly, feet 742.29. Another set of 10 observations in the same month,

feet 745.58 ; a 3rd set of 10 in the same month, feet 730.32, and a 4th

set of 10 gives feet 755.4, and a set of 31 observations in June gives,

feet 753.35. With the former tube and scale, a set of eight observations

in May, 1830, gave the altitude of the ‘‘ oaks” at Masuri, 6796

feet above Calcutta; with the same barometer in November, the same

* Ist set of 10 Calcutta Barometer 29.617 Thermometer 92.94

Bareilly 28.891 98.15

2nd ditto Calcutta 29.560 92.49

Bareilly 28.833 99.7

3rd ditto Calcutta 29.599 93.67

Bareilly 28.885 97.5

4th ditto Calcutta 29.663 93.7

Bareilly 28.924 98.7

5th ditto Calcutta 29.487 89.9

Bareilly 28.746 92.5

644 Meteorological Register at Barelly, in 1831. [Dxc.

year, 15 observations gave the altitude, feet 6777.7, and another set of

10 made it, feet 6775.1, and then the latter were taken after a long

‘march in the hills, during which the barometer had been repeatedly

refilled. I have a barometer made by Bate, on the principle of

Guy Sussac’s syphon barometer, with Captain Kater’s improvements,

(that is the description given of it,) and it seems in excellent order.

This stands about .05 higher than a barometer of the above simple

make, and filled in the same easy manner as above mentioned. (I should

mention that the tubes used have all been of large bore.) But I have

no means of discovering the error of either.

The following observations were made at Hardwar, near the centre

of the pass, in a house about 150 feet above the bed of the Ganges :

Bar. 32°. Wher.

1833, May 24, 77 A.M. 28.216 84 at 10 P.M. suddenly came a cool

920 A.M. .236 96 breeze and reduced the Ther. to 91.

Noon .. -224 100

2, PAA 182 106

As Pee 103 104

Sunset .. -107 99

95 P. M. -119 = =98

» 25, Sunrise.. S300 75

7 A.M. -220 =83

9 A.M. AH ees

Noon .. SCALP

2. Pa VE, .187 106

The height deduced from comparison with corresponding altitudes in

Calcutta is, from those in the Journal*, 1214 feet above Calcutta, and

from those at the Surveyor General’s Office, 1276 do.

The latter are more numerous. The mean of these would be about

1245 feet, and if the estimated altitude above the river be deducted,

it would leave the height of the Ganges at Hardwar above Calcutta

about 1095 feet. The barometer used was, as before, a plain tube,

freshly filled with mercury. Though not tried, I suppose the depression

of the moist bulb thermometer must have been near 3 0.

In elucidation of the remarks on filling barometers when the air is

damp, (vide Journal of the As. Soc. ii. 260.) I may record the following

experiments made by myself:

On the 12th July last, when the depression of the moist bulb ther-

mometer was 93°, I filled a tube which stood exactly the same as one

filled on the 3rd June, when the air was very dry ;-in both these tubes

* My barometer stands on an average .044 lower than the Surveyor General’s,

which will make an addition of 50 feet necessary to the altitude calculated.—Ep.

1833.] Asiatic Society. 645

the mercury stood about inch .05 lower than that in the English baro-

meter above mentioned. L

On the 1st August, I emptied the tube which had been filled on the

3rd June; and refilled it: the results of this and a few more experi-

ments I give below:

1833. THERMOMETERS.

lst Aug. Eng. Bar. Altd. Detd. M. B. Plain tube.

4 P.M. 28.684 865 87 835 28.594 tube fresh filled.

aie, NT, -666 do. do. do. .412 tube again filled after re-

maining empty an hour.

.374 tube again filled.

.064 tube wiped out and filled.

& P.M. -672 864 85 833 092 ditto ditto.

-626 tube wiped out very care-

fully.

The tube was wiped with an iron wire, round which silk was bound

for about six inches, and on the last occasion, I heated the silk over a

fire, and kept up a smart friction in the tube, till I felt a sensible heat

from it. I should think that similar results might always be gained.

The height at which the mercury stood, after this method of drying the

tube, being the same as regards the English barometer as what it was

when it was filled in very dry weather on the 3rd June.

1X.—Proceedings of the Asiatic Society.

Wednesday Evening, the 26th December, 1833.

Captain W. N. Forszs, Engineers, in the Chair.

The Proceedings of the last Meeting were read.—G. A. Bususy, Esq.

proposed at the last Meeting, was elected a Member.

A. Hamunton, M. D. Surgeon of H. M. 41st Regiment of Foot, at Moul-

mein, was proposed as a Member by Mr. Twrntne, seconded by Mr. Prinser.

Messrs. Macxernzin, J. S. Sroprorp, and Mr. A. Bearrix, proposed by Mr.

Baesuaw, seconded by Dr. Tyrer.

A letter was read from M. J. J. Marcer, Ancien Directeur de I’Impri-

merie Royale, Membre de la Commission d’Egypte, &c. requesting to know

the result of his application of the 14th July, 1830, and presenting copies

of his Translations from the Arabic.

Mr. Marcet was elected an Honorary Member on the 4th January, 1832,

but the announcement had unfortunately miscarried.

A letter from G. A. Busnpy, Esq. Officiating Secretary to Government,

General Department, intimating the resolution of the Right Hon’ble the

Governor General in Council, that the privilege of franking accorded to

646 Asiatic Society. , ‘[Dae.

the Secretary of the Asiatic Society, and extending to the Journal of the

Asiatic Society, should cease from the 4th June, 1834.

After some discussion, the Secretary was empowered, in any representa-

tion he might think fit to make to the Government, on the plea of his en.

gagement to print official documents of a scientific nature, to express the

earnest desire of the Society for the continuance of a privilege which has

already proved so highly beneficial to the interests and extension of Science

in India.

Library.

The following Books were presented :

Marcev’s Contes Arabes du Cotyxu Ext-moupy, for July, August, September,

October, and November, 1832, and February, March, April, and May, 1833—éy

the Author.

Journal Asiatique, 64, 65—dy the Asiatic Society of Paris.

Asput Mvuseep’s edition of the Seyr-ul Mutakhereen, 1 vol.—by the Editor.

Sixth volume of the Transactions of the Medical and Physical Society—dy the

Society.

Select Speeches of John Serjeant of Pennsylvania—by Herambanath Thakoor.

The following works, published under the auspices of the General Com-

mittee of Public Instructions, were forwarded by the Secretary, Mr. J. C.

C. Sutherland.

Inaya, vol. 4. Fatawa Alemgiri, vol. 4.

Kefaya, vols. 3 and 4. Raghuvansa.

Aphorisms of Hippocrates. Retnavali.

Sudeedee. Witson’s Sanscrit Dictionary.

Meteorological Registers from July to November, 1833—éy the Surveyor Gene-

ral. :

MS. Register of the Weather at Jorhat, Assam, for the months of August and

September, 1833—by Mr. H. Bigge.

The following books were received from the book-sellers :

Lardner’s Cabinet Cyclopedia, Herschel’s Astronomy.

——— Chronology of History.

Read an extract of a letter from Captain J. B. Jervis, Bombay Engineers.

The letter announces, that the writer is engaged in the publication of a systematic

account of the weights and measures of India, to which is annexed an account of

Indian Chronology, gleaned from the Vedas, Siddhantas, Purdnas, &c. and brought

into one view with the systems that have prevailed in all ages over the world.

Whence he has deduced that all have a common origin, and that the measures of

time in use among the Hindus were introduced so late as A. D. 607-8. The work

is in octavo, 700 pages, and is now nearly through the press. It is to be published

by subscription.

Resolved, that the prospectus be circulated among the members, and a

list of subscribers returned to Captain Jervis.

Antiquities.

A large Lingam, from the Jangtra rock—presented by Lieut. T. S. Burr,

Engineers.

1833.] Asiatic Society. 647

An ancient Hindu gold coin (corresponding with No. 17 of Wutson’s plates,

As. Res. xvii.) was exhibited to the meeting—by the same.

Accurate drawings of the stone /ath or column now lying in the Fort at

Allahabad, and fac similes of all the inscriptions on it; and a small fragment

of the stone—by the same.

A paper on the subject, by Lieut. Burr, was read.

A talwar, or native sword of iron, dug up from six feet under the bed of

the Jamna river, was also presented by the same.

The weapon is of the modern form, and was probably lost with some wreck ; it

was corroded nearly through its substance.

A manuscript table exhibiting the particulars of the twenty-four Jinas of

the Budh religion, drawn up by a Pundit at Hyderabad—presented by Mr.

E. C. Ravensnaw.

Museum.

A piece of planking and copper sheathing, from the bottom of the

Barque Adele, pierced by the horn of an unicorn fish, on her voyage from

Penang to Akyab, on the 24th January, 1833—presented by Dr. Twrnine,

on the part of Dr. Baxrr, Civil Surgeon of Noacolly.

The following extract from the log of the vessel was read :

Lat. 9° 23’ 53” north, Long. 96° 31’ 45” east, at 8h. 3m. Pp. M. of the 24th Jan.,

felt a sudden very severe shock aft, which made the vessel shake: could not ac-

count for it.

26th January. Found the vessel leak slightly, in consequence as supposed of the

shock.

12th February. Lying at Akyab; cleared away sand-ballast, to examine the

cause of the leak. Founda rent in the ship’s bottom, caused by the horn of an

unicorn fish thrust through the copper sheathing, and four inches of planking ; the

horn protruded seven inches on the interior, and had been snapped off close to

the copper on the outside by the struggles doubtless of the animal to disengage

itself.

Epwarp Mareuarp, Commander.’”’

A stuffed Pangolin, or five-toed Manis—presented by Dr. Bururnt.

Two tigers’ heads ; the skin of a Boa Constrictor, 14 feet long ; two stuffed

birds ; two triangles, ornamented with peacock’s feathers ; an Assamese hat,

and other Curiosities from Assam, were presented by Dr. Burt, in the

name of M. B. Brancat.

Further specimens of the Hoshungabad coal were received, from Captain

J. R. Ouseney.

Although of a better quality than the former specimen, (see page 485,) this

slaty coal is still very inferior, being in fact little better than a bituminous

shale; its composition agrees nearly with that of the specimen inserted in the

table of India coals, page 283 of the GLEANINGS, VOI. iii.

Specificignavityl si osifs atsdiote 1.510

Composition :—volatile matter... .. 34.0

Canhondeay detain 39.7 > 100.0

Red earthy ash.. .. 26.3

It burns with a good flame, and leaves a slaty ash.

648 Miscellaneous. [Dec.

Specimens of the fossil bones, kankar, and rocks extracted from the bed

of the Jamna—by Lieut. T. S. Burr, Engineers.

These form a valuable addition to the fossils presented in the name of Captain

E. Smirn at the last Meeting, and they contain the following bones not found in

that series :

14, Fragments of the tusk of an elephant : one piece of very large size.

The patella or kneepan of ditto.

13. Teeth of the camel ?

15. Tooth of a horse.

Part of the jaw of a human skull, and one other bone, were evidently recent,

burning before the blowpipe, &c. whereas those in the fossil state did not contain the

slightest trace of animal matter, and were of much higher specific gravity than or-

dinary bones: the animal matter seemed principally replaced by carbonate of lime

and clay-iron. Drawings of the three teeth, marked as above, 13, 14, 15, have been

inserted in the Plate of Captain Smrrn’s collection, (Pl. xxv. of the present number.)

Lieut. Burr also presented a collection of nine species of shells found in

the bed cf the Jamna at Karim Khan.

Captain E. Surru’s notes on the kankar formation, and on the fossil bones,

collected in the Jumna river, were then read.

Also a letter from Dr. H. H. Spry, on the subject of the fossil shells,

presented by him at a former Meeting.

[Both of these are printed in the present number. |

A map of a route from Hoshangabad to the Fort of Makrai, in the Kali-

bhit hills, was presented in the name of Lieut. R. H. Mixes, with remarks

on the Goand inhabitants, and on the features of the country, by the same

officer.

A note on the climate of the fossil elephant, by the Rev. R. Everesr, was

read.

[These will be printed in an early number.]

Thanks were voted for the several contributions of the evening.

X.—Miscellaneous.

[ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS. ]

1.—Note on the Tailor Bird’s Nest. By Lieut. Gifford.

“I send you a tailor bird’s nest along with the Journal of the Asiatic Society, in

which I seea description is given of it. This is the third nest I have found ; the first

one was built in a banghen bush ; the two last ina low thick shrub (name I know not, )

but the natives make a reddish dye from the flower, which is a very light yellow

colour, with pretty large leaves.

The specimen I send you was constructed of three green living leaves, with two

small old (dry) ones, to fill up a space where the living ones would not meet. The

leaves were sewn together with raw and spun cotton; the bird is a light brown

above, and a dirty white below, about four inches in length from tip of bill to end

of tail: the mdlis call the bird Phutkt.’’ :

1833.] Miscellaneous. .- 649

2.— Note on the Inscription on the Hindu Coin. (Pl. VII. Fig. 15.)

At page 415 of the present volume I stated, that the characters of the inscription

on the reverse of the ancient gold coins of Hindu fabrication from Kanouj, repre-

sented in fig. 15, and in several coins of Plate I. vol. xvii. Asiatic Researches, was

not legible. Myr. Witson had however suggested, that the three first letters

agreed with the ancient Nagari characters yray: and I find on referring to Dr.

BaBINGTON’s Account of the Inscriptions and Sculptures at Mahdmalaipér, that all

of the letters may be unquestionably identified with the ancient Sanskrit characters

of the Ratha sculpture, so ably decyphered by that gentleman, and of which he

has given a complete alphabet in the same volume.

The first letter is probably @ rather than @ or ¥ although as observed by Dr.

BaBIneron, these letters are very similar in form ; the fourth letter is @ and the

whole word tkus restored becomes clearly @fayH: but the meaning is still as

hidden asever; and if it be a proper name, none such is to be found in the cata-

logues of Hindu princes.—Ep.

3.—Radiation in Valleys.

Mr. W. Cracroft, in 1832, made the following observations for several mornings

at sun-rise, in passing over the Kasya hills, on the radiation of heat to the sky.

Date. Place. Therm. Therm. on Remarks,

Jan. suspended. straw.

13 Suraérim, 38°

14 Mouflong, 9 a.m.30 27-5 ice formed in a tumbler in the house.

15 Myrong, 27 24

16 Nanklao, 39 34 at top of hill, brisk wind,

31 30 at bridge, in valley, 130 feet lower.

17 ‘Ditto, 33 30 at top of hill, little wind.

30 27 at bridge below.

18 Ditto, 42* 30 at top*, six inches above the ground.

28.5 25.5 at bridge, ditto

19 Ditto, 49 on top of hill on a mat, ice within six

inches of bulb, out all night !(?)

27 26 at bridge.

20 Mopea, 43* 39 at top of hill*, two feet raised.

33 32 at bottom of valley, 80 feet below.

21 Ongshye, 37.5 37.5 heavy dew, same on straw.

22 Rénigaon, 50t 46+ {4 ft. from ground. tIna ditch 2 ft. dp,

From the above, it may generally be remarked, that the bottom ofa valley is

much colder than the top of a hill at night ; although the latter must be much more

open to radiation : aérial currents may be the cause of this apparent anomaly.

4.—Bones in the Delta Alluvium.

In the Report of the Asiatic Society’s Committee on the boring experiment an

observation occurs, that some bones were discovered in the strata of blue clay allu-

VYium of the circular canal, at a depth of about 20 feet below the surface: on refer-

ence to some old papers in Mr. Wilson’s possession, a memorandum has been met

with of a similar fact obseryed on digging a tank at Dumdum, in the year 1813-

Lieut. J. Cotvin, Engineers, describes the circumstance as follows :—“‘ The soil is

throughout a fine garden mould, from two to three feet thick :— there are no n4las

visible, but Dumdum is nearly surrounded by jhils and salt-water lakes. The

bones form a kind of regular line with some intervals ofa foot or two between

them ; they lie pretty close together, their interstices filled with earth. They are

650 Miscellaneous. [Drc.

so soft that all but the thickest bones break on endeavouring to separate them

from the earth. I cannot say to what animal they belong, but I am very sure there

are now no animals at Dumdum to which such large bones could have belonged,

and I have never heard of any kind of deer near the place. The tree was found at

a depth of 18 feet below the ground ; it seems to be Soondry, (as is the case with

most of the wood feund in similar situations elsewhere.)’’

We hope when a deposit of bones is again found, either at Dumdum or in any

other parts of the Delta, some pains will be taken to extract them carefully, for

comparison with existing species of the inhabitants of the present Sunderban swamps

and forests ; for, although, geologically speaking, they are of very modern origin, and

we trace in the names of villages considerably higher up the Delta the fact of the pre-

sent continent having at one period been divided into islands; such as Agardwip,

Sukhsagar, &c. Still at the present observed rate of recovery of flooded Sunderband

land, it appears to require a very lengthened process to fill up from 18 to 25 feet of

alluvium over the peat stratum, which was evidently the Sunderban vegetation of the

time. History lends no aid in defining the sea boundary at different epochs. We

must therefore seek the aid of physical research to solve the interesting question of

the growth of the Delta. J. P.

5.—Fall of Fish from the Sky.

The phenomenon of fish falling from the sky in the rainy season, however in-

credible it may appear, has been attested by such circumstantial evidence, that no

reasonable doubt can be entertained of the fact. I was as incredulous as my neigh-

bours, until once found a small fish, which had apparently been alive when it fell,

in the brass funnel of my pluviometer at Benares, which stood on an insulated stone

pillar, raised five feet above the ground in my garden. I have now before me a note

of a similar phenomenon, ona considerable scale, which happened at the Nokul-

hatty factory, zillah Dacca Jelalpur, in 1830.

Mr. Cameron, who communicated the fact, took the precaution of having a regular

deposition of the evidence of several natives who had witnessed the fall, made in

Bengalee, and attested before the magistrate: the statement is well worthy of pre~

servation in a journal of science; 1 therefore make no apology for introducing a

translation at length. The shower of fish took place on the 19th February, 1830,

in the neighbourhood of the Surbundy factory, Feridpoor. J.P.

Deposition of the Witnesses to the Fall of Fish from Heaven, on the 9th of Phalgun,

1236, B. E. at Haveilli, zillah Dacca Jelalpur.

1. Shekh Kitabuddin, son of Shabdi, and Shekh Shumsuddin, son of Bakshu,

were called, and declared in their deposition, saying, ‘‘ That on Friday, in the month

of Phalgun, we do not recollect the date, at 12 o’clock p. M., the sky being cloudy,

there was slight rain, and a number of fish of different kinds and sizes fell from

heaven; we took some of these fish and retired home. This is the account which

we know.”

2. Shekh Sulimuddin, son of Ibadullah, inhabitant of Bibhagdi, declared in

answer, saying, ‘‘On a Friday, in the month of Phalgun, the date of which I do not

recollect, at 12 o’clock evening, while I was coming from a village named Nukod-

batt, I perceived a badali fish, large about one cubit, fall before me from the sky ;

after which, I went further, and found another fish of the same size, lying

upon the ground. I picked up these two fish and proceeded forward; and as soon

as I arrived at home, I found, to my great surprize, that many persons had likewise

collected fish, and carried along with them. This is all, and I know no more.’ ,

1833.] Miscellaneous. 651

3. Shekh Muniruddin, son of Mydi, inhabitant of Umerbati, expressed in his

deposition,—“‘ About 12 o’clock Pp. Mm. on Friday of Phalgun, the date of which I have

forgot, the clouds being gathered together, began to rain, and a little after, many fish,

large and small, began to fall from the sky. I picked up some of them and carried

to my house, but I did not like to taste any of them. I know no more of this

account,”’

4, Fakirchand Chang, inhabitant of Nagdi, was called in, and declared in his

deposition, ‘‘ That in the month of Phalgun, the date and day of which have escaped

my memory, at 12 o’clock Pp. m, the sky began to be cloudy, and to rain little ; while

I was sitting in the front part of my cottage, I observed a mirgal, and some other

fish, odulis, &e. of different size, fall from the sky. [picked up about five or six of

these fish to satisfy my curiosity, but afterwards threw them away, and did not eat

them at all. This is my account.”

5. Shekh Chaudhari Ahmed, son of Mutiullah, inhabitant of Nagdi, relates

in his deposition, ‘‘That I had been doing my work at a meadow, where I per-

ceived at the hour of 12 o’clock, the sky gather clouds, and began to rain slightly,

then a large fish touching my back by its head fellon the ground. Being surprised,

I looked about, and behold a number of fish likewise fell from heaven! they

were saul, sale, guzal, mirgal, and bodul. I took 10 or 11 fish in number, and I

saw many other persons take many—then I returned home, I looked at heaven,

and I saw like a flock of birds flying up, but these my perceptions was not clear

enough. Amongst these fish, many were found rotten, without heads, and others

fresh and perfect ; and amongst the number which I had got, five were fresh, and

the rest stinking and headless.

6. Shekh Turikullah, inhabitant of Nagdi, 12 years of age, declared in his

deposition, ‘‘ That in the month of Phalgun, on a certain Friday, I do not recollect

the date, while I was sitting in my own house, I perceived a number of fish fall

from the sky, some of them on the roof of my cottage ; one of them was large,

about one cubit, and three seers in weight. I know no more.”

7. Shekh Suduruddin, inhabitant of Nagdi, was called in, and declared in his

deposition, saying, ‘‘ On Friday, at 12 o’clock p, m. in the month of Phalgun, I

do not recollect the date, when I was at work in a field, I perceived the sky darkened

by clouds, began to rain a little, and a large fish fell from the sky. I was confounded

at the sight, and soon entered my small cottage, which I had there, but I came out

again as soon as the rain had ceased, and found every part of my hut scattered

with fish, they were doduli, mirgal, and nouchi, and amounted to 25 in num-

ber.—I know no more.”’

8. Shekh Katbuddin, inhabitant of Nagdi, relates in his deposition, saying, “‘ At

12 o’clock vp. Mm. of Friday of Phalgun, the date I forget; as I was coming

from the fields, 1saw a number of fish spread on the bank of a nla. I picked

up six of them, viz. two boduli, two mirgal, and two nouchi , besides these, there

were many other fish of numerous kinds, and they were witnessed by many persons

who were there. Some of these fish were fresh, but others rotten and without

heads. I know no more.”’

9. Sree Dipchundru Bundopadhya, son of Puncharam Bundopadhya, inhabitant of

Sobindi, aged 45 years, declared in hisdeposition, ‘‘ That in the month of Phalgun,

I cannot recollect the date, seeing the sky commenced to gather clouds, I sat

down near the door of a workman’s cottage ; it was then precisely 12 o’clock,

when a drizzling rain began to fall; andat the same time, two doduii fish fell

down from heaven. I soon got up nd marched on, and in the midst of the road,

652 Miscellaneous. [Dsc.

saw several other fish fallen before me. I picked up some of these fish—but one

named Banchha Ram Chung forbade me, saying, ‘ Do not touch these fish ; you do.

not know what fish they are, and how they have fallen here.’ Listening to him, I*

threw away all the fish, and went away.. This is my account of the fish.”’

[Several other depositions of those who were not immediately eye-witnesses

are omitted. ]

6.—Fossil h ells near Herat.

[Extracts of a letter from Dr. J. G. Gerard, dated Herat, 21st June, 1833.]

“‘T have discovered the locality of a large deposit of organic exuvie within

thirty miles of this place (Herat), but have not thought it prudent to visit the spot,

lest I sbould find myself unexpectedly in the hands of the Tarkomans.

“* The fossils correspond to the species represented as Pecten,—they abound in the

Side ofa mountain, which is evidently calcareous, but are especially found in a

water-course, being rolled from their situs by that agency. Judging from the eleva-

tion of this city, which by the ebullition of water (2074) approaches to 2,800 feet, if the

barometer stood then at 30,000* the locality of the fossils may be deduced at a height

of between 3 and 4000 feet. Elevation in such objects has ceased to be interest-

ing, since the new theory of subterranean projection has deprived it of a miraculous

aspect. Monsieur JA@uemMoNT when at Simla, read to me (explained) a letter he

had received from another traveller, Mons, Er1r pp BEAuMONT in South America,

I think, wherein it was mentioned, that there was a subterranean connexion betwixt

the most distant mountain ranges, and that a simultaneous movement was actually

going on (traceable) by which their masses were gradually elevated.”

7.—Cochineal.

“‘T hear the Cochineal insect is here, but not appreciable, that is, it cannot be

turned to account, from the inability of the people to dry it properly ; this is at

least one cause, I have been asked the method of its preparation, but all my know-

ledge extends toa faint recollection of the process adopted by the South Americans,

treated of in HumxBotprt’s published Account of New Spain, Artificial heat is there

used to kill the insect. Query, may not the very mode of extinguishing life affect

the properties of the colouring matter ? Certain it is, that in preparations of

insects, this isso much a necessary precaution that various gases, the air-pump, &c.

have been resorted to for the better preservation of the hues and form of the

specimens. Do we not know that there is virtue in the manner of killing animals

for our daily aliment ?>—that the anatomist can readily discover the effects of disoxy-

genation (ia suffocation) upon the blood and even the muscular fibre, that electri-

city (lightning) and the Simoom not only change the color, but produce decompo-

sition of animal matter when their effects are fatal. I don’t remember what HumBoLprT

says on the subject, but the complaint here is, that the insect cannot be killed

without adegradation of its virtues. It is found in the root of a plant that flourishes

in a marsh, and many people here have exhausted their skill in endeavours to

appreciate its value : most of what reaches Herat is imported from Bokhara where

it is received from Russia, and | believe from Yarkhund ; the latter need not surprise

us if indeed the insect is an inhabitant of that country; the industry and artificial

expertness of the Chinese almost lead us to the conclusion.

A species of Cochineal, or at least a substitute, is found in India, but I suspect

that the mercantile article is an import from South America. As climate has such

* As the observation was made in June, when the sea barometer would stand at

29.5, the altitude may be more correctly assumed to be 2,000 feet. See page 199.—Ep.

1833.] Miscellaneous. 653

an effect upon the productions of animal and vegetable existence, and an arid one

towards the improvement of a great many of them, especially Horticultural, while

the softness of the goats’ fleece seems to owe its existence to that cause,—the silk-

worm its superior procreative powers, and even the silk its finer structure ;—the

cats of those regions, Cabul especially, are well known ;—when these and thousands

of others are the effects of those bright and eternally blue skies, we may infer that

the kirmes (Keerm, worm), or cochineal of Herdt, Bokhara, and other places

requires only the application of skill to render it an appreciable commodity, and

even superior to the American species, except indeed that comes from the dry

regions of Chili and Peru. The bazar (retail) price of Cochineal at Her&t is now six

Rs. per seer, country measures, or 32 St. Rs. per Indian seer. The moist opium of

the place sells at 44 Rs, per seer of India, and after one year whea it is pretty dry,

at 70 Rs.! while a species that comes from Yezd and Kain in Persia, in sticks like

sealing-wax and as brittle as a dried reed, sells at the enormous price of 80 to 100

Rs. per Indian seer. At Bokhara [ procured some at 90 Rs. methinks the Hon’ble

Company’s opium from Malwa ata productive cost of three Rs. per seer, would

realize remunerating profit in this country, where every production of nature or

art is so exorbitantly high-priced, (valuable.)’”’

8.—Reply to the Questions of the Burmese Philosopher-Prince.

Sir,

‘Having not yet seen, in your interesting Journal, any replies to the questions

proposed by the Burmese Prince, in vol. ii. p. 47, I venture to send you the follow-

ing for insertion, and hope they may be found satisfactory.

Investigation of Sir Isaac Newton's statement, that some Comets have been raised,

by the effect of the sun’s rays, to a heat, 900 times greater than that of red hotiron.

Reply to 2nd Question.

It is a well known fact*, that the force of heat varies, inversely, as the square

of the distance of the direct cause of that heat, from the object affected by it; so

that in order to determine the above point, it is only necessary to refer to the

distance of the sun from the earth (95 millions of miles), where the measure of

force of his rays is known, and having the distance of a Comet from the sun, to

ascertain by the above rule, the degrees of heat to which the Comet has been raised,

and thén with the aid of WEDGwoop’s, or any other pyrometer, shew, by calcula-

tion, the excess of heat of the Comet over that of red hot iron for the answer.

In Newron’s Philosophy by Maclaurin of the year 1748, page 373, it appears,

that the Comet of 1680 approached 166 times nearer to the sun, than our earth is ;

let this Comet therefore be taken for the investigation.

Now the distance of the earth from the sun, 95,000,000 miles divided by 166

times is = 572,300 miles, or distance of the Comet from the sun; consequently,

by the above rule inverse, as the square of 572,300 viz. 327,527,290,000 miles to

100 degrees of heat here, so is the square of 95,000,000, or 9,025,000,000,000,000

miles, to 2,755,500 degrees of heat of the Comet.

The degrees in WepGwoon’s Pyrometer, are reduced to their equivalent in

Farenheit’s thermometer by multiplying them by 130, and adding 1,077 ; because

each degree of the former, is equal to 130 of the latter, and WepGwoop’s first

degree commences at Fahrenheit’s 1077th, (vide Fyre’s Elements of Chemistry of

* Vide Ferguson’s Astronomy, of 1790, p. 88.

654 Miscellaneous. [Dec.

1827, vol. I. p.19.) Assume 100° of Farenheit, for the measure of the heat ex-

perienced on the surface of the earth, by the direct influence of the sun’s rays.

It is stated in the work above quoted, that silver melts at 22 degrees of Wrpe-

woop, and as Tam not at present exactly aware, at what degree of heat iron

becomes red hot, I will assume that of silver, just going into a state of fusion,

instead of it*.

Silver melts at 22° of WEpGwoop, and 22 multiplied by 130 plus 1077, equal

3,937° of Farenheit*, therefore, the degrees of heat of the Comet, 2,755,500°

divided by 3,937°, or heat of melting silver, will make the heat of the former, 700

times greater than that of silver going into a state of fusion.

(MAcLAURIN, without investigating the truth of the remark, says, the Comet con-

ceived a heat, 2,000 times greater than that of iron almost going into fusion. This

must be a mistake, for I find that iron fuses at 1589 WepGwoop, = 21,617° Faren-

heit, so that, using this as a divisor, instead of 3,937°, we obtain only 1274 for the

number of times excess of the Comet’s heat, over that of iron in a state of

fusion).

For gold under the same circumstances, 32° W. = 5,237° F., at which it melts -

therefore 2,755,500° —- 5,237 = 526 times excess of the Comet’s heat over that

of gold in a state of fusion.

Tin melts at 442° F. (Fyre, vol. II. p. 35,) therefore 2,755,500 — 442 — 6,234

times excess of do. over tin. (But at page 21, vol. I. Fyre says tin melts at 644

F., therefore 2,755.500 —- 644 = 4,278 times do. do).

Copper melts at 30° WepGwoop = 4,977°F., therefore 2,755,500 — 4,977 = 554

times for the excess over copper, in a Similar state.

Lead at 612° F.; therefore 2,755,500 —- 612 = 4,502 times of same over lead

in fusion.

I believe Sir Issac NewrTon’s mode of measuring the quantity of caloric, in

heated bodies, was, by their rate or time of cooling, to a degree equal to that of

the surrounding medium.

It does not, however, so far as I can see, follow, that the interior, to the very

centre of the comet, becomes heated by the sun to so great a degree, as is here

indicated, and which affection applies to the surface particularly, for, the time that

the Comet is exposed to the sun’s rays, its rate of motion being increased in pro-

portion to its proximity to the sun, (so as always to describe equal areas in equal

times,) would probably be of insufficient duration, for so large a body to conceive,

to its centre, this immense degree of heat ; for, the comet has, no doubt, its sea-

sons, and days and nights, as well as the earth, and much free space, almost void

of the sun’s heat, or even his light, in which to lose its caloric.

Since writing the above, I see by Mr. JamEs PRrinsEp’s experiments in the Asia-

tic Journal, vol. ii. page 140), that iron heated “ uniformly to a glowing red,’”’

measured 1609° of temperature, Fahrenheit ; if this be used as a divisor, instead

of the former denominator, for the melting silver, we shall obtain as follows:

2,755,500 —- 1609 = 1712.554 times excess of the Comet’s heat over that of red

hot iron.

It is evident, that this amount must fluctuate, in exact proportion to the number

of degrees, assumed for the measure of the sun’s heat, as felt u is o

which I have taken at 100°; but it appears that the dune heat ‘Mannie oe

Amonton’s thermometer, on one occasion, to the height of boiling water, or 212°

Fahrenheit, (see Hurron’s Math. Dict. of 1815, p, 640). This would increase the

* Vide Ferguson’s Astronomy, of 1790, p. 88.

1833.3 Miscellaneous. 655

above amount (by 2. 12 times) to 3,630 times, but taking the general average heat

of the air, in the shade, in hot countries, at 70° only, the amount would be 7-10ths

of the above, ==1200 times nearly; while for England, assuming 50° as a mean,

we have one half of the 1712=856 times excess of heat of the comet of 1680, over

that of iron raised to a glowing red : this is tolerably near the 900 times mentioned

by the Burmese prince ; but the medium heat of air, out of doors in the shade in

England, is about 51, 4°, so that, multiplying 1,712. 554 above mentioned, by

51,4 = 514 we get 8804 for the excess of heat, differing only by 193 from the

answer sought: but we get it nearer, by using the 100dth. part of the mean heat

of the thermometer, out of doors, = 51,4 and of that within doors, 52.9 mean =

52-15 instead of the last mentioned .514dth., for we have 52.15 for the multiplier

of 1,712,554, and the product is 893 times, instead of 900 as desired, and lastly, it

becomes still nearer, viz. 905.9 times, by using the mean heat within doors or 52°.9

as above. This will, I trust, be considered sufficiently near and satisfactory. (N.B.

It is equal to the quotient ef (95.000000),? x (572,360)? x by 753%).

Afer the above was written, I found in the lst volume of the Gleanings of

Science, page 96, that Mr. Prrnsep has noticed the little reliance which is to be

placed on WepGwoop’s Pyrometer, the degrees of which I have used in the former

calculations: this will not, however, affect the answer last given, viz. 905.9 where

Ihave quoted that gentleman’s own experiment, so that the statement is left

nearly as I had at first written it; but as the measure of temperature, of some of

the metals there shewn, differs considerably from the corresponding ones here

noted, it is right to state, that in that work the metals are represented to melt,

at the undermentioned degrees of heat :

47779 F. or its equivalent of WrpGwoop.

Sil t DOSS. sms ae 0: DANIEL.

so iallge TSSOO Fo. Soe cc endo: PRINSEP.

TS22R7 Bs elses wer Oe

G@eld’at 11° 2822.6. 01.3... do. } Monveav.

The degree of heat of the comet above fusing silver, &c. will therefore be as

follows, taking 100° for owr temperature :

2,755,500 + 4,777 = 576 times using WEeDG-)]

For melting Sil- woop’s | atalie

ver, 2,755,500 — 2,233 1,234 .. do. Dantex’s > euate.

2,755,500 —~ 1,380 = 1,595... do. Prrnsep’s |

[2,755,500 — 1,822. 611 do. UMonveav's

: : rature.

For Gold. 1 2,755,500 = 2,517.6 1,094 do.

Correction.

Instead of 2,755,500 as a numerator, on the assumption of 100° being the heat

on the earth, take the medium heat, as before, 52°.15, and the quotient of

95,000,000? — 572,300? ==or 1,436.990, and divide it by the degrees of the metal,

thus ;

Than silver fusing, the comet is 308 times hotter, by using WEDGwoop's degrees

4,777,

Do. 1.436,990+2,233 = 6434 times by DanreL’s Do.

Do. 1,436,990+1,830 = 785°-———— Prinser’s Do.

Do. 1,436,990—1,822.7 — 788°

Gold...... .- 1,436,990—2,517.6 == 570°

} Monveav’s Do.

656 Miscellaneous. [Dec.

For iron raised to a full red heat, (1,200°, according to Prinsep,) 1,436,990°—

1,200° = 1,197.5 times, by using Prinsep’s degrees.

For do. raised to an orange heat, 1650° P. 1,436,990—1,650—870 times by ditto.

Reply to 3rd Question.

IT almost fear to venture an opinion on the next question, but I should say, that

the atmosphere is certainly, as the querist supposes, attracted, by the sun and

moon, when in conjunction, or opposition, in the same manner, as are the tides of

the ocean, or as any other light fluid, would be; but why the barometer is not

sensibly affected, at these periods, I can only ask, whether he is sure that it is not

so affected, or so much, at least, that a fair conjecture may be hazarded, that its

rise is proportional to the increased height of the atmosphere, (if such indeed

occur, at the time of high tides,) : our purpose will, therefore, be to see, whether the

barometer can indicate this rise, or not, and if it do, to determine, what the

amount of that difference is.

May not one objection however be made, that will have a tendency to controvert

this opinion, which is, that the force, exerted by the moon or sun, or both, to

elevate the atmosphere, above its usual level, might, on account of the elasticity,

or buoyancy of this body, destroy the additional weight, that would, otherwise, be

added to it? In other words, would not the force of attraction, here supposed to

cause the additional height, by the hold, (if I may say so,) that it has on the fluid,

keep it in equilibrio, without adding any thing to the weight, by the increase of

the part so added?

This remark will not, of course, apply to water, but will it not to air, which is

an elastic body ? If not, then I must resort to the first supposition, that there is a

rise of the barometer, and that it is proportional to the increased height of the

atmosphere, caused by the attraction of the sun and moon.

If the height of the atmosphere were uniform, and of the same weight, as it is at

the earth’s surface, pressing about 14#lbs. on the square inch, it would extend no

farther than to the height of 5% miles, or thereabouts, (see Hurron’s Course, p.

244, vol. ii.) whereas it reaches to between 40 and 50 miles, (the boundaries of

twilight only included, the air being so thin and attenuated, beyond that distance,

that its comparative weight amounts to almost nothing).

Now, if the height of the atmosphere be increased, by any cause, (excluding

heat, which would, however, have something to do with that increase, but has or

has not to do with this investigation,) beyond the height of 45 miles, a propor-

tional part must be reduced, in height, on the sides of the earth, which are at

right angles to the horizon, acted upon by the sun and moon, to make up for

this quantity, unless it be rarefied and of itself kept in equilibrio by attraction, as

above supposed : it cannot be very great, but supposing it to be proportionally

raised, as much as the sea, what will be the pressure gained, in this, upon one

square inch, at the surface of the earth, and also, at what height will the baro-

meter stand, in this case?

Taking 122 feet, which is about the height of the tides, or what is added to the

ocean, by the attraction of the sun and moon, either when in conjunction or oppo-

sition, and assuming $ of a mile, or 1760 feet, as the average depth of the

ocean, of which 123 feet is near the 138th part; by taking the 138th part of the

atmosphere’s height of 45 miles, as above, we get .326087 parts of a mile for the ad-

ditional height of the atmosphere, gained by the force of attraction, consequently, if

45 miles press upon the surface, with a weight of 143 lbs. per square inch, 45.326,087

1833.] Miscellaneous. 657

miles will press with a weight of 14.856,884,072 lbs. on every square inch, and then

to get the height in inches, gained by the barometer, we have 14# lbs. to 30 inches,

(or general height of the barometer at the level of the sea nearly,) as 14.856,884,072

Ibs. to 30.217,4 inches nearly, or .217,4 decimal parts, rather more than $th of an

inch only for the measure of height, gained in the barometer, by the additional

weight of the 138th part of the total height of the atmosphere, caused by the

attraction of the sun and moon, ina similar manner, and in the same proportion,

as the tides are raised above the level of the sea,

Very nearly the same answer is obtained, by considering the atmosphere so con-

densed, as to have its specific gravity equal to that of water; for, instead of the

former height in miles, use 343 feet height of water, which is equal to the pressure

of the atmosphere, and higher than which a common atmosphere pump will not

raise that fluid. Then 343 feetdivided by 138 as before is = .25 of a foot, therefore

34.5 feet height of water : 14.75 lbs, pressure on the square inch }? 34.5-+.25, (or

height of water plus its 138th part = 34.75 lbs.) : 14,856,876 lbs. pressure on a

square inch, only exceeding the former 14.856,884,072 by the .000,008,072nd part

of a Ib. and proving the result of the former calculation to be correct.

In the above investigation, the specific gravities of air and water are taken as

equal, but as they differ much*, and as [ have no other data, let the height of the

atmosphere be considered uniform, for 5% miles only, as before explained; the

calculations will, on the foregoing principle, make the height, gained by the baro-

meter, equal to only 25th part of an inch, which is almost an inperceptible quan-

tity, and shews, that that instrument cannot sensibly indicate the difference of

altitude of the atmosphere, due to the attraction of the sun and moon, as sup-

posed by the Burmese Prince ; for 5 +138 miles=.003,804,347,8th part of a mile,

when the atmosphere is uniform, and 5 miles high, therefore, as 5.25 miles :

14.75 lbs. 1 2 5.25-+-.003,804,347,8 miles ! } 14.760,688,405,7 lbs; and again, 143lbs.

:30 inches :: 14.760,688,405,7 Ibs. : 30.021,739,125 inches, or .021,739,125=3,th

part only of an inch gained in height by the barometer as above stated.

I subjoin a table of the heights of the barometer, in order that the differences,

which I have shewn, for every month, may be observed, at the times of spring’

and neap tides, in Calcutta, for the satisfaction of the Burmese philosopher, should

he think it necessary, to prosecute his inquiries any further into this subject.

Barometer at Sunrise, (reduced to 32° F.), at the Surveyor General’s Office, Cal-

cutta, taken from the As. Soc. Journal, vol. 1, for the year 1832.

ES ES A A

Monthly |Lemperature Monthly

1832. Means, In. Diff. of Air. Difference.

J 30.0517) F468 Al ang

PRCRIERIOALAS 51 sa:eH lln,ole01s: we 0s 05 te 4. x

Debiaavy, 5 5, peeps | 29.943 fF 108 61.2 ea 3

MMEAEE ON. das Ueto oo): lavas] 2eenOo 3 | 078 66.3 86 2

April, «valentine (re 29,260 hubs 9105 74.9 Pepe

LEU Op SE a a ae 29.664 | 5 096 79.5 13 <a

June, .. eisatk ihe 29.515 +18 | 149 80.8 ae

Me 1, voupeg eal 2Ov489 | 026 80.1 fabs -

PRIS rR, caste oice olde ett) 2IOO L 021 80.0 | 0.7 a

September, ..........0... 29.650 | 15 fF 182 79.3 Of ?3

October, ......2..0-2 seen} 29.837 |] 2 J 187 74.7 | on | 3

November, ...........-- .| 29.997 1|5) 160 64.9 rel

December, ........ «-....| 30.998 J | {| 001 Ba” lJ

* Viz. a 22 to 1000.

658 Miscellaneous. . (Dic.

Reply to 1st Question.

Having attempted, as well as I am able, to satisfy the curiosity of the Burmese

philosopher, on the above mentioned points, [ trust I may, in return, be allowed to

put a query or two to him, relating to the moon, as: well as to Comets, [which I

should, with reference to his question, suppose to have little connection with one

another, because, the former is a planet, secondary to, or dependent on, the earth,

around which, she describes her epicycloidal course; the earth, again, being de-

“pendent on the sun, and the sun appearing to govern the Comets, as they are all

believed, or found, to pass round him ]: if his highness cannot answer these ques -

tions, I hope that some other person, equally anxious for such investigations, will

favour me by doing so.

Question 1st.

Why may not such comets as we know of, especially those, which have extremely

elongated elliptical orbits, be considered, to possess two centres or foci within

their orbits, one of them being our sun, and the other, any other sun, or star.

Would not this disposition, supposing it to have been adopted all over the universe,

have the effect of keeping the numerous systems in equilibrio, the comet incessant-

ly acting as a link, or chain, connecting any two [or more ?] of these systems, with

the neighbouring ones ?

Question 2nd.

If the moon have no atmosphere, [as is asserted by astronomers,] how is it

possible to account for the distinct view, we sometimes obtain, of the circular dark

part, which she presents at night ; I mean, that part which is involved in shadow

when the moon is in either her first or her last quarter ?

Question 3rd.

Has it ever been ascertained, in what proportion, fluids are attracted, by the sun

and moon, [or by any other bodies,] in terms of their specific gravities?

Are they, or are they not, attracted, inversely as the cube roots of their specific

gravities ; the distances of each fluid, from the centre of attraction, being equal?

Camp near Calpie, June, 1833.

I am, your obedient servant,

W. BURT, Engs.

To the Secretary, Phi. Class, Asiatic Society, Calcutta.

[EUROPRAN EXTRACTS. }

9.—Cave of Secanderiah, near Tabriz.

As the celebrated Cave of Secanderiah, resembling the Grotto del Cane in Italy,

was only distant six miles, I proceeded to the village of Secanderiah, situated at

the mouth of avery strong defile, formed by the river of Sied-abad ; and having

procured a numerous party of villagers with tools, combustibles, &c., set out

determined fully to examine the cave, or at least to ascertain to what extent the

1833.) ; Miscellaneous. 659

noxious vapour existed; we also took some fowls to see the effect procured on

them. After a fatiguing walk of three miles, up rocky steep ravines, we arrived

at the entrance of this singular cavern, the mouth of which was fifty feet wide and

thirty feet high, descending very rapidly to a depth of thirty feet.

The guides set fire to some brushwood, and found the air much less noxious

than usual; and it was only after a descent of 10 feet that we felt any inconveni-

ence. We were absolutely standing on the bones of some animals which had

perished there upona former occasion; we remarked a dog, a deer, and two

foxes; the head of a wolf lay at some distance. We, at the same time, put to

flight a great number of pigeons, who build in the roof of the cave. We found

that fire was extinguished at afew feet below where we stood, and the fowls died

in half a minute. The sides of the cave had many marks of sulphur in powder

amongst the soft sand and limestone, which were also strongly coloured with iron.

Though the fire made with dry brush-wood and thorns, even when sprinkled with

naphtha, was instantly extinguished, port fires and fuses burnt nearly the same

time as in the open air. I was, therefore, enabled to fire a quantity of gunpowder

at the very bottom. The quantity amounted to several pounds at the time, and

that repeated often, had the effect of so entirely filling the cave with smoke, that

we could no longer see any thing at the bottom. On again throwing in some

fowls, they soon made their escape, and fire burnt at the bottom. I would not,

however, allow any of the people to descend, which they appeared willing to do;

a dog also ran in and returned ina few minutes. Ona former occasion, when

this cave was visited by a party of the Mission, accompanied by Mr. Brownz, the

celebrated African traveller, fire would not burn two feet below the entrance, and

' oppression was felt close at the mouth of the cave. Mr. Browve entered some

paces by holding his breath, but an English officer attached to the Mission had

nearly perished in attempting to follow him, He was instantly dragged out, and

recovered with some difficulty. In the winter (subsequently to my second visit),

- after a strong gale, the wind from the N. W. had blown for some days directly in-

to the mouth of the cave : we were enabled to walk all over it, and only in a deep

hole, at the bottom, did there exist any noxious air. There a fowl died in two

minutes, and from its cries appeared to suffer much. After sixty feet, we found

the cave again ascended, and curyed a little to the right: it then became exceed-

ingly narrow and very low, forming a kind of passage, which did not allow of

standing up; we could not see to the end of this even witha reflecting lamp,

and none of us felt inclined to prosecute the discovery. I have only mentioned

these circumstances to prove how much the extent and force of the vapour are

affected by the state of the atmosphere, and by particular circumstances. As the

ground slopes rapidiy from the mouth of the cavern, both to the ravine and

inwards, it might be cleared away with little difficulty, and the heavy noxious

gas thus allowed to pass off; but with the exception of forming a large winter

stable for sheep, no other good purpose could be answered by it; there was

formerly a human skeleton, which has been removed ; it was that of an old man

in the village, who, tired of life, took this way of ending his misery; the peasants

considered the circumstances of the cave being accessible little short of a mira-

cle, but were much disappointed at not finding the treasure said to have been

deposited there by ALEXANDER, from whom it derives its name.—Monteith’s Tour.

, Jour. Geog. Soc. iii. 6.

(Dec. 1833.

Meteorological Register.

660

*Joyyeam pyjoo daeys

teau AIO}S pi1y} @ JO epuesIeA YyNOs ay) Ut

it) A) op “yea [D “ul “N “ul

“snjeus op ‘{pnop |*2'u “A‘*N °O

op op op "O05 > SS AAG Niza =

‘sniid ‘uind op op ‘mo "MIN “O

op op *1va]9 70 CO M'N U

bb Sci) (0) “rea[o *uInd *119} “UU “MU ‘Oo

“TTHwWnsd ‘nuns = *snquutu | “AA ‘S ss

“SOF op op “0 “u ‘u

op “Ieayo op “u “ul ‘Oo

op *IquIU Rit) @) ‘u ‘u ‘Oo

“1Ra]o ‘ysvolgAo *Apnop | ‘u “ul “a

sured “EA prey *AYsTUL “u mc | ‘a *U

“1ea[o “Tee]o ‘Ieap>) |" oN “U ‘oO

‘MO] ‘SOF “TUIMo ‘ur “Apnop | *o ‘a ‘u “a

*yerjs "UIND ‘ysvo1dA0 *1ReTo ‘u ‘u ‘u

op op “T1110 u “a 0

op bp 4goteceuts) op Se ee “ul

op op op ‘N wes a! ju

op bp a=) fa) ‘Ireja | "a "ul u ‘oO

op op “SNJVI4S*119| *8 “UL “a “7

op *4SB0.12A0 op ace ‘a 0

op op op ‘Oo *N io

op op op "S “N “ul

op op * op *M UW “N oF)

“rea]o *rea[o op i) °S ‘oO

ySUQ = +148 ‘UID “Ut “reo ‘S S "a's

*ySB0I2AO = *.148 “]9 “SOF S ‘u a)

“read op “II wd | *s 2 ‘U ul

*SOJ op *dOF 2S 2 "UO 0

“SOF is) A) “SOF se) aI7 “mM 'S

bp >) fa) aqetertite) *1eaya U ul me)

i Zz Z B= Sie

g S g g 8 g

z. 5 E. =. B ee

® e | i

*I9Y CAMA *pUuIM.

*s[eIeuley) IOAVAING 9Y} ULY} JOMOT FPN" PULIS YO stajouIOAeg atJ,

F4c% |d‘c8 [+68 poe | aL | Bf | €%%

8 o8 4c | 9% | 8-9 | 6%

€8 88 19% | SZ | 89 | 3s

18 98 JZ | 08 | sto | 6%

08 8 T6T | 9% | 19 | 1%

6L | 98 |e les loo lae

08 68 Ly 68 | 99 | LS

G00 | 6 G LPS | oh | off | OF

88 GG Oe | 69 | eh | SE

2 06 FOS | Gil | ro | BE

06 €6 Sb | 7S 1ov | 80

+6 96 FOL | LY | cfe | OT

OLS | 96 16 4€0O | OF | OG | PE

16 G6 [9'P | 8S | oH | HT

0g.0 | +6 v6 HIS | 0S | GH | BO

G8 68 ism | 74 | 09 | Of¢

S8 G FOOD | BSL | Oe | 6%

06 16 §r'E 13659 | efe | PT

68 06 Fo | &9 | Ofc | FO

08 06 FIT 96 | cfc | 80

06 96. 748'0 “109 | ste | ZO

66 16 f0'% | ¥¢ GE | BS

18 G8 GSS | 98 | 899 | OE

gL 1s }Z‘e | 96 | 1% | 8%

18 18 Foe 1 O'S | GZ 1 1S

18 06 Fao | £8 | Lig | LO

GZ‘0 | 6 96 4,80 |} Sh | em | ZZ

18 06 {oO | v2 | Lie | sit

€8 16 fst | 06 | 09 | 6%

£8 48 1s% |9'8 | L9 | 6%

(at) 98 16% | 6 | S99 | ST

LL 68 fP9 | O11] BB | Of¢

r= > > > > > >

o eo eo ow oe co co

er = Soles se iS ia

Srl eae hee fe ape |

2 Z z 3 2 Fo

“Urey 19}9UL 1s} OUIOUIIOY, J,

-O1DAY Ae F} | NgQ-qstout jo uorssardaq

‘Wd OT pue wv fp 10x ssoyy ¢ A107;e10qGR{ oY} JO IIe 9eIJ OY} UT papuadsns are “IN ‘dA P pur *W

*sazaoiq Avp

1°99 | spl \e*e8 {LIL |0%e9 4 Lee. | 906° | P10‘

0%e9 | FOL 10°68 | 0°L9

89 | BOL 9°68 | 2°99

1°69 | Of0L 18°92 |F°99

E49 | 9°69 16°98 13°99

8°19 | 8°89 I 1°98 19°29

B19 | OCOL |Z°18 | 1°69

8°69 | BTL |E°Z8 |8°89

0°89 | STL }0'8Z | 9°89

0‘F9 | SOL |0°9L |9°89

L°g9 | otZ \S8L 1P°0L

Be9 | LTL 9'8L [OL

OO | BTL OL | TEL

glo | LL [8°98 |9°1L

689 | HPL |o°PL Lh

£°89 | Ld |L‘ek {2°12

B69 | Ops [O'S | LCL

L°99 ; O%GL |P°8L (0°E2

8°49 | Bgl {0% | Pics

BL9 | BZ) |0°Le |0'Ps

869 | L'gL |0%€8 | 992

BOL | 994 |P'18 |8°SL

BL9 | Ted \2‘e8 |E°TL

Leg | Lh \1¥8 \6'1L

8°49 | OGL 19°18 1 8°BL

689 | PLZZ |O'F8 16°C

OL | aeL |1'18 |Z°ZL

GGL | 0508 \9°@8 | 9°9L

BTL | 7608 \0'F8 | 0°92

8°69 | BBL |05L8 |8°SL

“69 | S@Z \L°C8 | P FL

269 | BZ (8°E8 18°EL

“ITY OY} UL JeJOUIOMIAOY,T,

= Pr jks

Be ie eae | eS

= > oS = ee

) “% Sys et

y ANS > ae

* ro . is

Baal Blinc IER | ee

eS) | ee

Osos | OO0S | BITS

BGS ae e806

€66° | 146° | 980

Z10* | 0465 | 60S

Ge0* | F665 | SITS

9Z0* | 66S | OVOS

768° Br8" 000°

026 | 018° | Sros

or 096% | B60‘

8F0* | O46 | F905

696‘ | 006 | 86°

656° | 628° | 1F6S

Lg6‘ SI6* POO

P| te: |i

916° | F6G6* | 900‘

800 | Lees | Geos

€86° | 806‘ } 0a0‘

6e6* | 088s | O46.

616° | 648° | 826‘

626° | 6g8° | Pos

618° | 98° | 086°

6F6* | peer 000'

€ 1o € ld €

che ele | 7e8!

cogs | S18‘ | 926°

G88‘ | 098° | oes

105‘ | 148° | 000*

GZ6* | 088° | 0865

816° | 848° | 910s

696° | GIGS | Osos

> > >

co co co

_ > _

= fone)

% > >

2 2 B

“UCT GE 0}

*[eApayyeo ayy

*V OL 1OJ s}UIUINAASUI OY,

L26°6% “ueayy

G10S

+66°

916°

986°

666°

988°

GOs

116‘

IL0S

GF6S

098°

168°

026‘

9665

LI6‘

686°

lores

916°

FIGS

Geb‘

968°

L066

£668

peonpar Jajauloieg

MOOD HAD ONO

‘yyuoul yo keq

INDEX.

‘ Page.

Abbas Mirza, Prince of Persia, .... 147

Abfi, Jain Temples of, ............ 161

Adi Budha System, .:............ 59

A. K.’s Note on Trisection,........ 159

Ali Mardan Khan’s Canal, ........ 109

Alluvium, Calcutta, Section of, .... 371

Alum, Native, of Nipal, .......... 482

Analysis ot Books,....380, 417, 551, 597

Analyses, Chemical, ........ ....-- 434

Analysis of Coal, 263, 264, 368, 549,

oot i eerste 647

OL PMESLONE,|.”.'s'07.'. 5 oe a!e 402

Bipsdlalityer. < o- + tole viajes oe 482

of Sulphate of Iron, ...... 321

— —— of Ashes of Plants,........ 322

Ancient Canals in Delhi, .......... 105

Annealing, Effects of, on Metals, .. 141

Arts, Indian, Notices of, .. 158, 299, 249

‘Asiatic Society, (See Society.)

Asironemy, Report on, .. 3:05. 0').%s

Astronomical Observations, Madras, 380

-, at Barelly, 318

Attraction, on the Laws of, ........ 441

PCH MV EINES) Of 3." (0%. = 3)5,8,5 Sab ait ib eset ers 75

Richardson’s Route from,...... 59

Ayoon-ool Hiséb, Extract from,.... 552

Bactrian Coins, Note on, .. 37, 312, 405

Balkh, Description of,............-. 15

Bamidn Idols, Account of the,...... 561

Bancoora, Climate of, ..........-- 383

Banyan Tree in Mysore, ........-- 47

Barometer, Extraordinary Fall of, .. 427

, on Compensation,...... 258

, Thermometrical, ...... 194

, Wet, Theory of,....260, 644

Barometrical Elevations, ...... 621, 643

Batavian Researches, Analysis of, .. 597

Bees’ Love for Mango,..........-- 355

Bhdratpar, Marriage at, ........-- 273

Bhirja, Mountain Birch,.......... 337

Birds, Catalogue of, in Dholbhim, . 597

Boileau’s (Capt.) Description of Agra

ReMteEIHt oc vices re actc oso aldlers 251

Bokhara, Gerard’s Account of, .... 21

, Burnes’ Description of,.... 224

, to Meshid, Gerard’s Route

LE RIS OOO OE EMI RAIONT BIR CS 143

Bombay Harbour, Rise of Spring-

AMES AS oid Sige ae se eee aS 24

Bones in Hyderabad Caves,........ ae

--, Fossil, of Jabalpar, 151, 205, 586

——.-, of the Jamna, ............ 629

—--, Human, in France, ........ 632

, in Delta alluvium, wae. 'G49

Worabiram: BiTrds'Of, PF... ee 569

Boring Experiment, Report on,.... 369

Page.

Boston, Fee*Drade of;2 0... eee ee 491

Botany, Indian, Notice of,.......... 156

Boulderson, (H. S.) on Barometer at

Barellys G:0.:77.1.0.ceteck eoseree a. 644

Bramley, (M. J.) Nipal Articles pre-

SENtEGMDY, oe hated Cone BETES, 367

Brewster, (Dr.) on coloured lights, . 494

Bridge Shusties .: s.cmare. ns bee 267

, Suspension, near Sdgar,.... 538

Budhist. Sect of Sakya,.... ....... 385

Burt, (Lieut.) Replies to the Ques-

tions of the Burmese Prince, = HOSS

Burnes’ (Lieut. A.) Account of Tem-

ples on Mount Ab@, ............ 161

Description of Bokhara,.... 224

Route to Bokhara, .... ...: 1

on the Bamidn Idols, .... .. 661

on Salt Works of Panchpad-

OE s.cctantomte aA de 8 roe ate oedema 365

Bits of Bamian, Description of,.. 7, 561

Calidésa’s Poem, Uma,,.........3. 329

Campbell, (Dr. A.) on Earthquake of

INI Pak 2 oo toe oe tte 8 ontaeen ee 564, 636

———_, (A.) on Salajit, ......... 482

Canal, Delhi, Description of, ...... 105

7 Doaby Dittos 4:77... fae 111

7Of Peroz Shab; -.%.+acteecte 114

Capila vastu, a Town in Rohilkhund, 385

Catalogue of Indian Woods,........ 168

———-- of Nebule, Herschell’s, &c. 252

- of the As. Soc. Museum, 97

Caves, at Secanderiah, ............ 658

Wedar Eres crc ss caaicts alten e oe e343

Census of Miarshedabad, .......... 567

Charak-=pija;-.rsicscscccems ees 609

CoalfromArracans...\..c'ccles oe cae 263

from Hoshungabad,...... 435, 647

from Moradabad, ............ 264

—— from Peshdwar,.............. 267

—,, Khyook Phyoo,.......... 549, 596

——,, Syneg Kyong, 369 ; Oogadong, 368

— Mines of Sylhet, Discovery

Of et oc aleicis aeaten wee cide ene 47

Gochineal"of Herat, 0a. 2.01 te tes 652

Coins in Asiatic Society’s Cabinet,.. 27

=. gle Gi OI isa paGbe 37, 312, 405

ens Pindie Pe Ae 316, 412, 649

——-, Mahomedan, ............6- 39

——-, Roman, from Buxar,........ 368

- dug up in the Sunderbans,.... 204

Collection for the Museum,........ 588

Colvin, (Major) on Delhi Canals, .. 105

Conybeare, (Rev.) onIndian Geology, 606

Copper Mines of Nellore,.......... 95

Cracroft, (W.) Experiments in Radi-

AULOM ec aac cima einie’s ste Wielers.s t's 649

662 INDEX,

Page. Page.

Csoma, A. de K6rés’s MSS. of Kah- Hyde, (Dr.) Extract from, ........ 202

PvMinerhp Bo oOno ans ducmhdcan os oDe 367 Hyderabad, Geology of, ...... 298, 392

ov Sakya Race, 385 Ice, Manufacture of,.............. 80

on the Kala UM DOTEA OMIOL, | 21s iano 491

Chakra, or Adi Budha System, .. 57 Indian States, Area of, .......... 488

———__-—_____—_’s Translation of Indo-scythic Coins, ........ .... -. 405

a Tibetan Passport, ............ 202 Inscription, Ancient, of Ceylon, .. 548

D’Amato Guiseppe’s Description of —————, Arabic, at ‘Chandéri, .. 548

Ava IMEIMES os ah. cittsterete ous feleralelersvee 7o @ Tron Mines, «:..\\.. gases Hates 402

Delhi Student’s Journal, .......... 19 — Suspension Bridge,.... .. Sade) ale

Dholbhim, Birds of,.....-.....+-- 597, Jain Temples on Mount Ab@,....... 161

Diamond Mines).......:..22-+2++. 403 Japanese Mirror, Dr. Brewster’s Ex-

Doab Canal, Water Mills of, ...... 360 planation GL... -.. «/<\o-me gaeeec eee 214

Dost Mahomed Khan, .........,.. 3 Jeifreys (J.) on Laws of Attraction

Dugong, Notice of the,............ 100 and Repulsion,.............. 441, 506

Dum Dum, Bones discovered at, 649 Journal, Madras Literary, ........ 557

Dyeing of Khurwa Cloth, &c....... 151 Journey from Ava to Kendat,...... 59

Earthquake in Nipal,...... 438, 564, 636 Kabidl, Description of, ............ 3

Eclipses of Jupiter’s Satellites, at Kala Chakra System, ‘Origin of,. 57

Chupralas oie. sweets si fererd Sets 41 kKdli Kishen, Raja, on the Tala,.. 615

Everest’s (Rey. R.) Geological Re- ——_—_—_———_, on Persian

GALES, c,d ePet ls ayer rezecuilt nerd Meyerels 547 Wirltin ee. o.5:-55\< one eung e eae OLS

——-— on Temperature of Kemaon, Report on the Bhotia Me-

Ghaziptr 7-0. fees oe peekee ee ae 602 hals*Ofys : dopeke sis ada eee 551

Evaporation at Bokhara, .......... 17._—‘Kerr, Copper Specimens sent by Mr. 94

Ewer’s,(W.) Observations of Jupiter’s Kaktimb-ka Tél, ec rr. cise aac 592

Satellites, clef <ivfers alte crclefers cia 41 Light, Effect of Coloured, ........ 494

Fish, Fall of, from the Sky,........ 650 Linnean Soc., Extracts from Proceed-

Flowers, Celestial, Fall of, ........ 351 INS! Of 5. ¢., toy yageieh spine oasheiee ease 156

Fossil Bones, 151, 205, 586, 629, 632, 649 Lloyd, (Lieut. ) Catalogue of his Spe-

- Shells, ....94, 205, 270, 583, 639 CHMEDS Ses geqases yor a nlnok ener s 157

e-EAOOLOB Ys F561. 8. wis s= tlajele ye 465 LL. D.’s Remarks on Hutton, ...... “374

Gale, 2ist May, 1833, ............ 427 ee (Capt.) Temperature of Nag-

me Eh OCU MUGS tas ciale, f)n\niionenn FA ett, (LED sal outisvceirosvel she isicnce oleae enter 543

Garjan Oil) t+ sactiasecis-iebioth 26 93 TRAE Ss (G. T.) on the Jats,.... 273

Geddes (Dr. W.) on the Climate of McRitchie’s Meteorological Register

INI NUS bodrige bn o eonessrUdeoe 239 BtODANCOOLA, ony acts eee eiieie 383

Geological Society’ s Instructions, .. 557 Madras, Lit.Soc. Proceedings of. 154, 550

Geology, Mirzaptr to Sagar, .. -.. 475 Malcolmson (Dr.) on Caves near Hy-

——— of Hyderabad, ...... 298, 392 derabady fo... 5. SoS! iecaeen reper 77

of India, Sketch of, ...... 605 , on Fossil Bones, ...... 94

——— of Tenasserim Archipelago, 157 , on Saline Deposits,.... 77

Gerard’s (Capt. P.) Met. Obs... .. 615 | Manufacture, Native, of Turpentine, 249

(Dr. J.) Route from Bokhara

to Ta aioe als SU) wus Bia ge eee esrcemes 143

- Note from Herat, ........ 652

Ghaghar, Sandy bed of the, .. .. .. 108

Ghazipair, Temperature of, ........ 602

Gold, Dilatation of, by Heat, ...... 142

-———- Mines, of Mount Ophir,...... 497

- Sandin Moradabad Bighoele 55. AGS

Greek Coins, Account of, .. ...... 27

Hanuman’s Exploits, . . 348

Heights, Measurement of,. 194, 621, 645

Herbert, (Capt. J. D.) Death of... 495

Herschell’s (Sir J. S. W.) Catalogue

of Remarkable Stars, .......... 253

Himalaya, Legend of, ............ 329

1S TheVohoem Coyne wots aces OMe te oe 412, 649

LCT p lonemoce aco on 5

Hodgson’s Nipal Zoology, .......- 418

——_—_—— (B.H.) on Nipal Military

"Pra DOSS wkar dbs oy tage bP ose es lakeieursoiei 217

Hot Spring of Pachete, .......... 46

Hutton (T.) on Tailor Bird’s Nest,.. 502

———-, Strictures on, .......... ». 374

Marriage of the Jats,........-. 154, 273

Mauritius, Contributions from,.... 95

Metals, Expansion of,...... .....- 130

Meteorological Register, Bijnore, .. 206

—_—_____—__—_—_, Bankura, 383

, Chinsurah, 86

, Gaziptr,.. 604

, Kotgarh, . 615

;Mozuferpar, 208

,Nagpar, 239,542

: Singapar,. 429

———______—_, for Calcutta

at the end of each month.

Metre of Hinda Poetry, .......... 330

Military Tribes of Nipal,.......... 217

Milking of the Barth, .. 2.2... sn. 332

Mill, (Rey. Principai’s) Translation

OLGUMAS .acstacek Sey tease oe 329

Mirror, Japanese, explained, ...... 214

Mirrors, of Fusible Alloy, ....... » 559

Mines of Jewels in Ava, ....\...... 75

Monteith’s Description of Persia, .. 658

Moorcroft, Grave of, .... .«». »... 18

INDEX. 663

Page. Page.

Morda ERG gh SS ROR HERG, dr Watate S-% 11 Royle, (Dr.) Collections of,........ 156

Morrieson’s, Tr isection of an Angle, 71 Ruszian Slaves in Bokhara,........ 237

Mozufferpir, Climate of,........-. 208 Sdgur, Fossil Shells of, ........ 376, 542

Murshedaébad, Census of, ih atest o- SOV GC OLORG: Of a oiaieys1<)s\c:ers,0cee ca 478

Museum, Catalogue of, LG er 97 Salajitiof Nipalicn cata.) -setdawl eats 482

Nagpar, Climate of, Tae 239, 542 Saline Deposits in Hyderabad, 77

Nash, (D. W.) On Progressive Deve- Saltpetre, Manufacture of .... .... 23

lopment of the Vertebrata, ...... 465 Salt-works of Panchpadder, . 365

Newbold, (Lt. J. T.) Journal of, ... 491 Sanskrit Poem, Uma,cckir. canoe 357

_ Nipal, Military Tribes of, .......... 217. ~+Satellites of Jupiters, Eclipses, .... 41

Paperistidf, .. .... 93, 101, 417. Schlegel, Prof. on Bactrian Coins, .. 407

AIO ONT eae orc eOOdum 101,273 Shakya Race, Origin of, .......... 385

Observations of Lunar transits, .. 432 Shells, Recent and Fossil, .... .... 270

Oliver, (Col. T.) Astr. Obs., ...... 432 ‘Singapir, Climate of, .... ........ 428

Onslow, (W.) Coins presented by,.. 94 Silver, Dilatation of, by heat, 342

Ophir, Visit to Mount, ............ 497° eS on Trisection, 2.2... s.es ves 485

Opium, Substances in, ............ 495 Society, Asiatic, Proceedings of, 43,

Ornithology of Dholbhim, ........ 597 91, 149, 213, 262, 323, 367, 546,.. 645

Panchaki, Description of,.......... 359 Society, Royal, Anniversary, ... 375

Panchpadder Salt works, .......... 365 Spilsbury, On Fossil Elephant, . 586

PeshAwar to Bokhara, Route from,. . 1 -— On Fossil Bones, ... 151, 205

Pearson, (J. F.) on Coll. Nat. Hist. 588 Spry, (Dr. H. H.) Fossil Shell dis-

-————— on Strychnia, .... 42 EOVELCOID Yel. eiasersie1e) «i sinranale Bieieieleve 376

—___... on Zoological paper Moesil:Sheliss ss sta -icamorienae 639

of Asiatic Researches, .......... 17. +Standard Bar, Expansion of, ...... 138.

-———— on Spiraculum,.. 590 Stephenson on Salajit,............ 605

Pottery Glazed, account of......... 209 ———— on Saltpetre manufac-

a S (Major D.) Bridge at CULO AS ses Vorctaials «ayes ina wre ieee pers 23

Pri ee, a ) Account of Greek Coins, 27 Swndial ate onan. ice « eveseysis s-visisne 251

——_—_—________— Persiando.36, 40 Sutherland, (Capt. J.) on Indian

- Bactrian ditto, 37, 405 EAEGS mie arajo. as) cis, sve ajehmpete oua)'h) oforersune 480

- Hindi ditto, 472, 649 Swiney’s, (Dr.) Ancient Coins, 405

--—— Chemical Analyses, .. 434 Swinton, (G.) Farewell Address ‘to, 94

ae Description of a Com- Table of Boiling Points, ......... 199

pensation Barometer,.........--. 258 - of Multipliers for the tempera-

a= Experiments on the Expan- ture of Air, CAO I CICMOOIMADVEI en PACED 206

MIOMOL WEtAIS,. 4 ocaesssccseccces 130 ROL SHES) wc steicieyslate asin's. 6, ealee 270

-- Note on Nadgpir Climate, 532 - of Meridional Lengths, 271

on Boiling Point, .... 194 - of Nipal Military Tribes, .... 216

see = Tey COM edeebaGoae 405 £Tailor-Bird, Nest of the,...... 502, 648

2 on Jabalpir Fossils,.. 583 _Taylor’s Ast. Obs. Madr as, 380

--—— on Jamna Fossils,.... 622 Thermometer, measurement of heights

Proceedings, see Society. with, Dens teens seen ee tenes 194

Progress of European Science, .... 48 Thor, Hindi parallel to, .......... 349

Protraction, mode of correcting,.... 79 Tibetan Passport, Translation of a.. 201

Questions of Burmese Prince, ..47, 653 Tickel, (Lt. J.) Description of Birds, 597

Radiation, Experiments on,........ 649 ‘Tides in Bombay Harbour, ........ 247

Railway, Liverpool, .............. 559 ‘Tides, Desiderata regarding, ...... 151

Ramcomul Sen, on the Chardk-pija, 689 Traill’s Report on a aeigas a¥o.eisva' Sieia 551

_Ravenshaw’s (E. J.) Meteorological Trebeck, Grave of,. 14

on Coal of Mo- -, Problem of, 71

2 A eer eee 264 Turpentine, Manufacture Ol atta 249

Reply to Burmese Prince,.......... 653 ‘Tytler (J.) on Arabic Extraction of

Report on Bering, .-......2.:..... 369 ROOts, ..- ++. ee ee ee eee eee eens 552

on Publication, ............ 323 Vertebrata, Progressive Develop-

on Sylhet Collection,........ 588 FET ty Osh « sreie ccshohatenisie ectae ar areas 465

Repulsion, Laws of, ........-. 456, 506 Voysey’s Geological Reports,.. 298, 392

Revenue from Delhi Canals. ...... 125 Uma, Legend of, .......... s.cree 329

Richardson’s March from Ava to Unicorn Fish, Accident from,...... 647

Wendatj.ccds ase tie oes sac 59 Wallich’s (Dr. N.) Catalogue of In-

Robinson’s Anatomy of the Dugong, 100 KLIN VOOOS yoy: 55 0 casa 'as? ae elathota tacciets 167

Route, Mode of Protracting correct- Warlow’s Catalogue of Mammalia

a Ae a binned (co oocoodOneoE 9M and Birds) oc.cicac Serine ees 97