CONTENTS.

No. 115.

1.—On the Natural Products about the Pundeelah River, H. H. the Nizam’s

territory. By Dr. Walker, Madras Army, eee esee cece = seve

II.—Report on the River Indus, (Sections 1 to 5.) By Lieut. Wood, Bombay

Marine, aletare = ibe satel aces ABBA 4555 aie ae

III.—A Sketch of the second Silver Plate found at Badakshan, By Alexander

Cunningham, Esq. cose cece cove cece oes, woes

IV.—Note by Capt. Hay, on a Bird Native of the Eastern Islands, undescrib-

ed (?) in a letter to the Editor, vce cece cocee Bieri

V.—-Examination of some decayed Oriental Works in the Library of the Asia-

tic Society. By H. Piddington, Esq. Officiating Curator, Museum Asiatic

Society, coe ie bis cece seve eoee eae

VI.—On Bos Gaurus. By W. Elliot, Esq. M. C. S., from Madras Journal of

Literature, Salels woue ecco eece seis o biel

VII.—Proceedings of a Special Meeting held at the Asiatic Society’s Rooms,

VIII.—Proceedings of the Asiatic Society, Seas wet 2 Sete goes

No. 116.

I.—Scheme of a Table for all Time. By Capt. R. Shortrede, Assistant Surveyor

General, ears ee eye | @elae Te Shee

II.—Notes on the Gems found at Beghram. By J. S. Chapman, Esq. Assistant

Surgeon, 16th Lancers, cove sece wees cece cece

III.—Letter to the Secretary of the Asiatic Society on the Cataclysm of the

Indus, from Dr. Falconer, Saharunpoor, .... cate ote's'e aie os

IV.—Note on the Fossil Jaw, sent from Jubbulpore by Dr. Spilsbury. By the

Acting Curator, Mr. Piddington, eeee seve eee eee

V.—Notes on Fossil Discoveries in the valley of the Nerbudda, By G. G. Spils-

bury, Esq. eee oeee eves aece Pry Det

VI.—Catalogue of the Birds in the Museum of the Asiatic Society. By J. T.

Pearson, Surgeon, formerly Curator of the Museum, awh oaen

Page.

909

o18

970

073

976

579

087

089

595

613

615

620

626

628

iv Contents.

VII.—Catalogue of Mammalia in the Museum of the Asiatic Society. By

J. T. Pearson, Surgeon, Bengal Establishment; formerly Curator of the

Museum, coon sister Sic Aor sate paws

VIII.—Inscription taken from a Baolee at Bussuntgurh, at the foot of the

Southern range of Hills running parallel to Mount Aboo. By T. S. Burt,

F.R.S. Captain, Bengal Engineers, oat =555 amie piatats

IX —Proceedings of the Asiatic Society, eve woe eee eves

No. 117.

I.—Account of Arakan. By Lieut. Phayre, Senior Assistant Commissioner,

Arakan, Sica Sate Sfefete aie weet wictave

11.—Table of proportional Logarithms. By Captain Robert Shortrede, cece

III.—Memorandum on Nurma Cotton. By H. Piddington, Esq. ee cove

IV.—Report on some articles of Trade sent by Lieut. Postans from Khorassan.

By H. Piddington, Esq. .... eoee eoce oe cose

V.—Note on the Cervus Elaphus (?) of the Sal Forest of Nepal Hodie, C.

Affinis, nob. By B. H. Hodgson, Esq. ee oa wae sees

VI.—Notes and Observations in continuation from Dr. Walker, Madras Medi-

cal Service, on a tour in H. H. the Nizam’s Territories, eit peinie

VII.—A general Review of the Species of True Stag, or Elaphoid form of

Cervus, comprising those more immediately related to the Red Deer of

Europe. By Edward Blyth, Curator of the Museum of the Bengal Asiatic

Society, Ser SA aa cee eece esee ose

VIII.—Proceedings of the Asiatic Society, cece eee eeee uate *

IX.—Special Meeting held on the 24th September 1841, of the Committee of

Papers, e@ere ee@e0 eoees eoce e@eooe8e8

No. 118.

I.—Description of a Persian Astrolabe, submitted to the Asiatic Society by

Major Pottinger. By J. Middleton, Esq. Principal of the Government

College at Agra, cece sees ooee cace soee eoee

Il.—Notice of the Marmot of the Himalaya and of Tibet, By B. H. Hodgson,

Esq. Resident at the Court of Nepal, .. cove eoee eee eves

I1I.—Memorandum on the Organization of a Museum of Economic Geology

for the North-Western Provinces of British India, to be established at Agra.

By Lieut. W. Baird Smith, Bengal Engineers.° ..- sees cose

1V.—On a New Organ in the Genus Moschus. By B..H. Hodgson, Esq.

Resident at the Court of Nepal, eels eoee cose cece cece

V.—Extracts from a Report on subjects connected with Affghanistan. By Dr.

Griffith, communicated to the Editor from the office of the Political Secre-

tariat of India,- ...- arate eta Sac wees eee cece

VI.—Description of another new species of Pika, (Lagomys) from the Hima-

laya. By Edward Blyth, Curator of the Asiatic Society. hades aes

Page.

660

664

674

679

713

716

718

721

729

736

751

795

759

777

779

799

797

816

Contents.

VII.—Literal Translation of the Vasanta-Gurh Inscription. By Pundit Suro-

daha Prasadh, Ate? Ou RAE aC Sag Sait eoce

VIII.—Observations on a second Inscription taken in fac-simile from the neigh-

_ bourhood of Mount Aboo. By Captain Burt, Bengal Establishment, F. R. S.

IX.—A letter to the Secretary, on the Nurma Cotton of Bundelcund, from J.

G. Bruce, Esq. eesee @ea2eee eeoeo @eee eees eeeos eeee

X.—Letter to the Editor, on Lichens in the Himalayas, from Henry Cope, Esq.

XI.—Proceedings of the Asiatic Society ese eee eves Joes

No. 119.

I.—Report on the Tin of the Province of Mergui. By Captain G. B. Tremen-

heere, Executive Engineer, Tenasserim Division. .... aang asia

II.—Report on the Manganese of the Mergui Province. By Captain G. B.

Tremenheere, een0 eooe eooe eeeo e@ose

III.—Of anew species of Lagomys inhabiting Nepal, (with Plate,) Lagomys

Nepalensis, Nob. By B. H. Hodgson, Esq. Resident at the Court of Nepal

1V.—Notice of a new form of the Glaucopine, or Rasorial Crows, inhabiting

the Northern region of Nepal, Conostoma A¢modius, (Nobis type.) By B.

H. Hodgson, Esq. Resident-at the Court of Nepal. obimye cies

V.—A Monograph of the species of Wild Sheep. By Edward Blyth, Curator

to the Asiatic Society of Bengal, cove cece asian

VI.—A connected view of the species of Lichens, with their Botanical relation-

ship existing between them and the Indian productions. By Henry

Cope, Esq. eos sfe'sie siatets wits dae eoce aaa

VII.—A Fourth Memoir on the Law of Storms in India, being remarks and do-

cuments relative to the loss of the ship Golconda, in the Tyfoons of 22nd to

24th September 1840, in the China Sea. By Henry Piddington, Esq.

VIII.—Classified Catalogue of Mammals of Nepal, (corrected to the end of 1841,

first printed in 1832). By B. H. Hodgson, Esq. Bengal Civil Service, ....

IX.—Proceedings of the Asiatic Society, for November, .... «eee Seats

X.—Proceedings of the Asiatic Society, for December, .... ates ie om

No. 120.

I.—Report to the Secretary of the Board of Customs, Salt and Opium, on the

Salts called Puckwah and Phool Kharee, with a process for detecting the

adulteration of Government Salt, estimates of the quantities of both Salts

annually produced, and of the amount of loss which the Revenue may sus-

tain through the production of these two articles. By Henry Piddington,

Esq. eave onde ciel’ aici s slaiee ogee amin iia

I].—Remarks by Capt. J. T. Boileau, Bengal Engineers F.R.S., F.R.H.S.,

on the Construction of Newman’s improved Portable Barometer, and on the

mode of renewing the Guage Point when lost, .... ence cides! ae

856

858

888

895

907 “

917

939

957

vi Contents.

I111.—Observations of Meteors, on the night between the 12th and 13th November

1841, made at the Magnetic Observatory at Simla. Communicated by Cap-

tain J. T. Boileau, Engineers, F.R.S. &c. &c. Superintendent, olde

1V.—On Porcelain Clay found at Mangalore. By A. T. Christie, Esq. Madras

Medical Service. Communicated by Government, .... da ee ado of

V.—Descriptions of three Indian Species of Bat, of the genus Taphozous. By

Edward Blyth, Curator to the Asiatic Society, cece see opine

VI.—Extracts from a Report on subjects connected with Affghanistan. By Dr.

Griffith. Communicated to the Editor, from the Political Secretariat of

India. coer coe ooes eves ao wees sees

V1I —Grammar and Vocabulary of the Cashmiri Language. By M. P. Edge-

worth, Esq., B.C.S. .. sacs cons esee nei eoee

Page.

964

967

971

977

1038

Lwoex.

Page

Arakan Account of, By Lieutenant

Phayre, Senior Assistant Commis-

sioner, Arakan,.. “s -. 679

Articles of Trade sent by Lieut.

Postans from Khorassan. Report

on some, By H. Piddington, Esq. 718

Bos Gaurus. On, By W. Elliot, Esq.

M. C.S., (from Madras Journal of

Literature, ) A oe O19

Cashmiri Language, Grammar and

Vocabulary of the, By M. P.

Edgeworth, Esq. B.C. S. _—_.... 1088

Catalogue of the Asiatic Society,

Birds in the Museum of the, By

J. T. Pearson, Surgeon, formerly

Curator of the Museum, esse 628

Cataclysm of the Indus. Letter to the

Secretary of the Asiatic Society,

On the, from Dr. Falconer, Saha-

TUNPOOT, eee cess sess

Cervus Elaphus (?) of the Sal Forest

of Nepal Hodie. Note on the,

By B. H. Hodgson, Esq... «... 721

Construction of Newman’s improved

Portable Barometer, and on the

mode of renewing the Gauge Point

when lost; with a drawing. Remarks

on the, By Captain J. ‘I’. Boileau,

BengalEngineers, F.R.S.,F.R.H.S. 957

Description of another New species

of Pika, (Lagomys) from the Hi-

malaya, By Edward Blyth, Curator

of the Asiatic Soceity, .. 816

Fossil Discoveries in the valley of

Nerbudda. Notes on the, G. G

Spilsbury, Esq. ee ee

Fossil Jaw, sent from Jubbulpore.

Note onthe, By the Acting Cura-

tor, Mr. Piddington. eos» 620

Gems found at Beghram_Notesonthe,

By J. S. Chapman, Esq. Assistant

Surgeon, 16th Lancers, -eee 613

Glaucopine, or Rasorial, Crows,

inhabiting the Northern region

of Nepal—Conostoma Amodius.

Notice of a new form of the, By B.

H. Hodgson Esq. Resident at the

Court of Nepal, a -. 896

Inscription taken from a Baolee at

Bussuntgurh, at the foot of the

Southern range of Hills running

Parallel to Mount Aboo, By T. S.

Burt, F. R. S. Captain, Bengal

Engineers, ore ose 6

Lagomys inhabiting Nepal, (with

late.) Of a new species of, By B.

H. Hodgson, Esq. Resident at the

Court of Nepal, ae coos S04

Law of Storms in India, being re-

marks and documents relative to

615

626

Page.

the loss of the Ship Golconda, in

the Tyfoons of 22d to 24th Sep-

tember 1840, in the China Sea. A

Fourth Memoir on the, By Henry

Piddington, Esq. cece eee

Lichens inthe Himalayas. Letter to

the Editor on, from Henry Cope,

i} e ee @e ee

Literal Translation of the Vasanta-

Gurh Inscription, By Pundit Suro-

daha Prasadh, oe -. 819

Mammalia in the Museum of the

Asiatic, Society. Catalogue of, By

J. T. Pearson, Surgeon, Bengal

Establishment ; formerly Curator

of the Museum, ae Si

Mammals of Nepal, Classified Cata-

logue of, (corrected to the end of

1841, first printed in 1832,) By B.

H. Hodgson, Bengal Civil Service, 907

Manganese of the Mergui Province,

Report on the, By Captain G.

B. Tremenheere, ae Se

Marmot of the Himalaya, and of Ti-

bet. Notice of, By B. H. Hodg-

son, Esq. Resident at the Court of

Nepal. ae He oe dd

Meteors on the night between the

12th and 13th November 1841,

made at the Magnetic Observatory

at Simla, Observations of, com-

municated, By Captain J. T. Boi-

leau, Engineers. F.R.S., &c. &c.

Superintendent, .... eoee 964

Natural Products about the Pundee-

lah River, H. H. the Nizam’s ter-

ritory. Onthe, By Dr. Walker,

Madras Army, es Ae

New Organ in the Genus Moschus.

On a, By B. H. Hodgson, Esq.

Resident at the Court of Ne-

= a @eeose @eeo @eee 195

Note and Observations in continua-

tion from Dr. Walker, Madras

Medical Service, on a tour in H.

H. the Nizam’s Territories, o. 129

Nurma Cotton, Memorandum on. By

H. Piddington, Esq. .... ecoee 716

Nurma Cotton of Bundelcund, a let-

ter to the Secretary, on the, from

J. G. Bruce, Esq. ae 2. 822

Organization of a Museum of Eco-

nomic Geology for the North-

Western Provinces of British In-

dia, to be established.at Agra, Me-

morandum on the, By Lieut. W.

Baird Smith, Bengal Engineers,

Oriental Works in the Library of the

Asiatic Society. Examination of

some decayed, By H. Pidding-

660

852

So)

Vili

Page.

ton, Esq. Officiating Curator, x

Museum Asiatic Society, a vO

Persian Astrolabe, Description of a,

submitted to the Asiatic Society,

By J. Middleton, Esq. Principal

of the Government College at Agra, 759

Porcelain Clay found at Mangalore.

On, By A. T. Christie, Madras

Medical Service, Communicated

by Government, ....

Proceedings of the Asiatic Socie-

ty, .. 987-589-674-751-755-833-917-935

Report on subjects connected with

Affghanistan. Extracts froma, By

Dr. Griffith, communicated to the

Editor from the office of the Poli-

tical Secretariat of India, 797-977

River Indus, (Sections ] to5.) Re-

port on the, By Lieutenant Wood,

Bombay Marine, ones aes

Salts, called Puchwah and Phool-

Kharee. Report on, By Henry

Piddington, Esq. .... cet oo

Scheme of a Table forall Time. By

Captain R. Shortrede, Assistant

Surveyor General, os -. 099

Second Inscription taken in facsi-

mile from the neighbourhood of

Mount Aboo. Observations on a,

By Captain Burt, Bengal Esta-

bilshment, F.R.S. om -. 821

518

Index.

Page.

Second Silver Plate found at Badak-

shan. A Sketch of the, By Alexan-

der Cunningham, Esq. sieias O70

Species of Lichens, with their Bota-

nical relationship existing between

them and the Indian productions.

A connected view of the, By Henry

Cope, Esq. Pete. Sees OSS

Species of True Stag or Elaphoid

form of Cervus. A general review

of the, comprising those more im-

mediately related to the Red Deer

of Europe, By Edward Blyth, Cu-

rator of the Museum of the Bengal

Asiatic Society, 736

Table of Proportional Logarithms,

By Captain Robert Shortrede, .. 713

Three Indian Species of Bat, of the

gous Taphozous. Descriptions of,

y Edward Blyth, Curator to the

Asiatic Society, see. ApS A |

Tin of the Province of Mergui. Re-

port on the, By Captain G. B. Tre-

menheere, Executive Engineer,

Tenasserim Division, .. 5k

Undescribed Bird, Native of the Eas-

tern Islands. Note ona, By Captain

Hay, (?) in a letter to the Editor, 973

Wild Sheep, a Monograph of the Spe-

cies of, By Edward Blyth, Curator

to the Asiatic Society of Bengal, 808

JOURNAL

OF THE

ASIATIC SOCIETY.

On the Natural Products about the Pundeelah River, H. H. the Nizam’s

territory.— By Dr. Waker, Madras Army.

I marched from Pakhall on the 7th instant in a North-westerly direc-

tion towards Madhapore, which I reached on the 13th. I remained

there for five days, when I proceeded to this place, deviating from

the direct route by going ten miles up the Pundeelah river.

At Dogundah, the first stage on the march from Pakhall, so deep

was the soil, that I experienced considerable difficulty in procuring

a specimen of the surface rock. Upon obtaining one, I found it to con-

sist of sienitic granite, with a considerable quantity of mica inter-

-spersed. One of those greenstone veins so commonly met with,

was found traversing the rock in the usual direction from East to

West to near the next stage, Korapack. Here, in some places of

the plain, the granite was observed to lose its hornblende and mica

altogether, and become the pegmatite of French writers. The great

proneness of the felspar to decompose in this form of granite, is

shewn by the brackish water of the neighbourhood; and here it may

be remarked that, within the tropics, where from the great heat and

other causes, there is a continual tendency to decomposition and

recomposition, it necessarily appears that wells sunk in rocks con-

taining alkali, particularly if lime is present in the soil, must ever

contain water more or less impure, and that the impurity will always

be found in a direct ratio to the facility with which the rock disinte-

grates. It must also follow as a consequence, that the older the -well

No. 115, New Series, No. 31. 3s

510 On the Natural Products about | [No. 115.

is, the worse the water; for the salts that occasion the brackishness

are by no means removed on their contents being drawn out, or

evaporated; but adhere to the sides of the well, or being extremely

soluble, as they all are, impregnate the bottom mud to some depth.

May not the proverbial unhealthiness of old deserted cities be in

a great measure attributable to the water reservoirs being all in the

same state ?

At the next stage, Gunpoora, the elevations to the right were ascer-

tained to be of the sandstone formation, similar to that of Pakhall.

The granite continued for some miles to be the surface rock ; but it

finally disappeared at Chintakaminah, the stage next to Madhapore,

where its place was taken by the sandstone.

Between Senapore and Madhapore, the country, particularly after

entering the Chinnore Sircar at Chumblepore, is exceedingly jungly.

The wood jungle, which commences at the last mentioned place, con-

sists of the trees formerly noticed in the description of Pakhall, with the

addition of two or three Gardenias. Two species of Bignoria, the

crispa and quadulocularis, the Schrebera Swietienoides, a species of

Cordia, the Strychnos Potatorum, the Randea dumetorum, the Termi-

nalia Chebula, two species of Casearia and Celastrus raniculata; the

last a climbing shrub. Of the grains and legumes cultivated in this

Sircar, there is little or no difference between them and those of Hu-

numkondah, mentioned in my first letter. The Linum usitatissimum

is grown here in small quantity, but a good deal is imported from

Chandah. Its oil is chiefly used by the sawyers.

A species of Capsicum, known in Western India by the name of

Nepal chilly, is grown here. _ Cotton is also raised, but in very small

quantity. The Goands who inhabit the hills and fastnesses of the north,

use the bamboo seeds, ground to a meal, and mixed with milk, as an

article of diet. Cattle, buffaloes included, present nothing remarkable.

The latter, as elsewhere in other parts of India, are used for draught.

There are flocks of sheep, with the brown wool, here; it is not

esteemed of much value, and is chiefly sent to Chandah in the Nagpore

_ territory. The Goands bring in hides of the Samber* and Nilgyet for

sale ; the price is from eight annas to twelve annas each.

* Samber or Samur. The Indian Elk.

+ Nilghye.

1841.] the Pundeelah River. oll

The principal manufacture throughout this district is the tusser

or jungle silk. The tusser breeders are a class quite distinct from the

weavers, and are either Telongoos of low caste or Goands; the former

reside principally at Chilpore, Madapore, and Chinnore. At Madapore,

which may be regarded as the centre and head quarters of the tusser-

breeders, there are at least seventy families.

The tusser-breeder never thinks of keeping up the breed of the

insect throughout the year. When the leaf is off the tree, about the

middle of March, he deems his occupation gone, and he leaves the

object of his former excessive care to shift for itself, thinking of

nothing but his present ease, which may be summed up in a few words,

—sloth, a bare subsistence, and an occasional debauch in his nectar,

palm toddy. But with the rains returns his toil, and some little difficulty

is experienced in procuring insects for a fresh campaign. If he

can gather a dozen of promising cocoons, which his experience tells

him are of females, he is quite satified. Carefully does he watch the

bursting of the cocoon, and much care does he take of its winged

inmate, having previously prepared for it a house of teak leaves dried.

The male is not tardy in approaching.

Impregnation takes place, the male dies, and in four days after

laying her eggs, the female also. The eggs are in number about sixty, of

these one-half prove abortive, while the others are hatched in ten

days. The small insect is fed on the tender leaves of the Careya spheerica,

and in six weeks spins its cocoon; the first brood are spared and

allowed to burst their cocoons to supply a sufficient quantity of ova for

the first tusser harvest; the same process as described is again gone

through, with this exception, that the young worms are this time

fed on the leaves of the pentaptera tomentosa, as those of the Careya

spherica are, by the period of the season, supposed to have acquired

some influence noxious to the insect. It is during the progress of

the worm, from the egg to the formation of the cocoon, that every

energy of the tusser-breeder is called into action for the preservation

of his charge. Every animal, footed, winged, and creeping, is said

to be the enemy of the tusser grub. Ants destroy them, kites and crows

prey on them, snakes devour them, and squirrels are said to make

a repast of them. To protect them first from their insect enemies, the

tusser-breeder ascends the Muddy tree, (Pentaptera tomentosa,) the

512 On the Natural Products about [No. 113.

leaves of which are the insect’s food ; every branch he carefully clears

of the different species of ants by which they may be infested, pre-

venting the-access of others, by surrounding the trunk of the tree at its

foot with ashes. The other enemies are kept off by shouting, throw-

ing stones, firing guns, &c. Their life at this time would appear,

by their own account, to be one of the most unremitting toil ; to devote

themselves to which they forswear not only every indulgence, but

every comfort; and it rouses the apathetic peasant of JTelengana to

eloquence, when he recounts what privations he undergoes, what

pleasure he derives himself, and what incessant labour he incurs while

watching the rearing of the worm, and the perfecting of its work.

The tusser butterfly is a species of Saturnia, probably the aphia

described by Dr. Helfer as the most common of the native species.

I send a specimen of a female moth.*

From four to five hundred of the cocoons are sold to the Bunnyas

and weavers for one rupee; the moth is killed by means of heat. There

are three tusser harvests, one at the end of the rains, the other two in

the cold season. The winding of the silk is accomplished by boiling

the cocoons, separating the floss of which no use is made, and twisting

eight or ten filatures from as many cocoons on the middle of the thigh

with the left hand to be wound on the instrument, of which a muster is

sent : this instrument the middle bar of the wood is held lightly in the

hand of the workman and made to move in a semicircle. An ounce

and a quarter of silk is the average daily winding of a single workman ;

his wages are, at the common rate of one pice for winding the silk

of fifty cocoons, about three pice a day, as he cannot wind more silk

than from a hundred and fifty cocoons. The pice, however, are large,

and go there by eight to the rupee.t The only dyes used for the tusser

silk, as far at least as my observation or inquiry has gone, are the

flowers of the palas and turmeric; by the former the usual familiar

colour is produced, by the latter a golden yellow is brought out after

the threads are for some time immersed in a solution of ashes. The

warp threads are stiffened with rice congee.

Wax.—A good deal of honeycomb is brought into Madhapore and

Chinnore by the hill people. It is quite impossible, under the present

* This has not reached us, but it would be very curious to know, if that of Assam,

described by Dr. Helfer and Mr. Hugon is the same as this of Hunumkonda. Ep.

+ Soin MSS.

1841. | the Pundeelah River. 5138

circumstances of limited demand, to say what further supply these jun-

gles might afford. The honey is sold for ten seers the rupee, and sent

to Hyderabad. After the rains, and during the cold season, six or seven

seers of wax can be purchased for a rupee.

It may here be mentioned, that the seer of both this and the Sircar

of Hunumkondah, consists of fourteen thousand two hundred and twen-

ty-seven grains, that is, about half an ounce more than two pounds.

The maund is equal to twelve seers.

Lac.—The jungles in the Sircar, by report, yield this substance in

abundance ; but the little demand comparatively speaking, induces few

traders to encourage the hill people to bring it in. It is thus impossible

to say what the actual supply of Lac really might be without traversing

the jungles at the proper season ; but there can be little doubt that it

would be ample. A specimen of it is sent.

Gums.—East India Gum has obtained the bad fame of almost every

East Indian production not under the direct superintendence of Eu-

ropeans. It is called a spurious inferior article ;—the cause is obvious—

the collectors mingle all sorts together, and there being no one to

select from the chaos they bring in, to check the admixture of good and

bad, or to fix a value on the article, they go in this state to the Euro-

pean market with the brand of East Indian. They are soon found, like

all mixtures, to be inferior, and the original prejudice acquires at once

the stamp of currency, the cause of their inferiority being wholly over-

looked. The value of gum depends on its whiteness and solubility. Who

has ever separately tested the solubility of the Gums now sent ? at least

three of them are not even mentioned in botanical works ?

Gum 1.—Conacarpus latifolia. This is used by the tusser weaver.

Gum 2.—Terminalia tomentosa.

Gum 3.—Terminalia bellerica.

Gum 4.—Buchanania latifolia.

Gum 5.—Garuga pinnata.

Gum 6.—Cochlospermum gossypium.

Gum 7.—Sterculia urens.

The two last are nearly similar in their properties to gum traga-

canth, and the gum of the Sterculia urens was actually used for some

time as atrue Astragalus gum; there can be little doubt but that both

are still constantly substituted for it.

514 On the Natural Products about [ No. 115.

It is difficult to say with any exactness, at what price these gums might

be procured from the collectors, as the Bunnyas are very partial to the

truck system, and rarely pay in money if they can avoid it; a state of

things almost natural in a country like this where money is scarce.

Gum Resin.—Frankincense of the Boswellia thurifera, the olibanum

of the ancients. Of this a specimen is sent. The tree is very common

in the jungles.

Resins Decamully.—This substance, formerly accounted a gum,

has been fully proved to be a resin. It is the produce of three

species of Gardenia, all exceedingly common.

I am not aware that this article is yet employed for any economical

purpose, but it is a substance that certainly deserves the notice of

the artisan. It is very much used in native medicine.

Oris.—Both varieties of the sesamum plant, black and white, are cul-

tivated, and from the seeds of the Bassia latifolia and Balbergia latifolia,

oils are expressed and used for common purposes. Two varieties of

the castor-oil are cultivated. I made a trial of the quantity of oil

that the kernel of the nuts of the Buchanania latifolia, ( Chirongy, )

would yield, and obtained an English pint from two seers of seed.

This is an oil seldom or ever used by the natives. If it possesses the

drying quality of nut oils in general, it may become a valuable article

of commerce. The kernels of the Chirongy nuts are purchased at

Madhapore, from six to eight seers the rupee.

The oil-press by which the oil was obtained, was of the simplest

construction. It consisted of two logs of teak, with a hole in the

extremity of each, through which passed a stake fixed in the ground,

the other two ends were left free, and rested on the bifurcation of

a strong piece of timber shaped like the letter Y. This was also fixed

in the ground; the kernels were placed in a small bag formed of the

liber of the Sterculia urens; they contained about half a pound, and |

were set one above another at the middle of the lower beam, pressure

was then made by means of rope tied round the free extremities ; this

was done four or five times, the position of the bags being altered

each time. The whole apparatus did not cost half a rupee; by it the

Mowah oil is always expressed in this part of the country. The

oil mill is used for most of the cultivated oil seeds, and castor-oil is

obtained in the usual mode, by pounding and boiling.

1841. } the Pundeelah River. 515

ArTICLES OF THE Materia Mepica.

Justicia Paniculata (Crryat).—This drug, which forms the active

ingredient of the celebrated French nostrum Drogue-amere, grows

in great abundance here. It is an excellent bitter and febrifuge.

Srrycunos Poratorum.—This tree is found in the jungles; the

peculiar property possessed by its seeds of rendering turbid water

clear, might perhaps be turned to some account in the arts. It possi-

bly depends on Bassorine, known to be an ingredient in the seed

of more than one of its congeners. The Nux vomica tree is very com-

mon, as is also the Celastris paniculata, the seeds of which yield the

celebrated black oil, (Oleum nigrum,) of Dr. Herklots. Two or three

mucilaginous roots were shown me; one of these was that of Asparagus

acerosus, another was most probably the root of the Curculigo orchi-

odes. The Asclepias procera was, as usual, very common, likewise the

Asclepias pseudosarsa, country Sarsaparilla. The tuberous roots of

two wild species of Dioscorea were brought; one of these, Dioscorea

oppositifolea, has been found to yield a good arrow-root.

Dyrs.—The Oldenlandia Umbelata (Cherwil) grows wild here, as

well as in the Hunumkondah Sircar. The bark of the Morinda ex-

erta, which grows in the jungle, is also employed to dye red. A sug-

gestion lately made by Mr. Solly of London, of making extracts of dye

woods and barks, would be applicable to a bulky material like the

present. The Crotum plicatum grows in great luxuriance on the allu-

vial soil on the banks of the rivers.

Timprer.—Madhapore is the great depot for timber, chiefly teak, that

is floated down by the rivers from the Nagpore country. Ebony trees are

found in the jungle to the south of this. The Schrebera Swietienoides, the

wood of which is said not to warp, grows to be a fine tree, and is abun-

dant. All the valuable timber trees mentioned in my last letter, are to

be met with. F

CorpaGE.—The common Sunn plant, the Crotolaria juncea, is cul-

tivated, and its fibres are made use of for many purposes as hemp. The

fibres of the inner bark of two species of Bauhinia are twisted and

used as rope, particularly by the Brinjarries; the inner bark of the

Butea superba is also employed for the same purpose. I send a spe-

cimen of the rope made from the last.

The Asclepias Tenacissima of Roxburgh is found here. It is well

known to yield very strong fibres, the strongest indeed of any plant

516 On the Natural Products about [No. 115.

known. ‘The fishermen in the rains collect it, beat out the fibres, and

twist them for their nets. I shall endeavour, although the plant is out of

season, to procure a specimen of this hemp, which I shall forward ; and I

have left directions at Chinnore, that a parcel be sent to Hyderabad,

towards the end of the rains ; at which time the plant is gathered, that a

comparison be instituted between its strength and that of the various

hemps, whether the produce of this country or of Europe. It is

also said to yield a species of caoutchouc. I propose starting from

Chinnore en route to Cummurret this evening.

Note on Timber.

Although valuable teak is not the produce of this part of the

Nizam’s dominions, (for the greater part growing here is adapted

solely for props and rafters,) yet as Madhapore is the great depdt

from which the wood is sent to Hyderabad, &c. a brief notice res-

pecting it may not be deemed out of place. The teak (Tectona

grandis) grows to a large size in the country to the north of Chinnore,

about eighty miles distant; chiefly in the territory of the Raja of

Nagpore, along the banks of the streams tributary to the Pundeelah.

Other valuable timber, particularly the Diospyrus melanoxylon, yielding

black ebony, and another species of Diospyrus yielding green, a Dal-

bergia called by the natives shesum; but which may not, however,

be the real sissoo, but rather its near ally the Dalbergia latifolia, for

from such observers accuracy the distinguishing species is not to be

expected—all these different woods were floated down some years

ago by the house of W. Palmer and Co., but at the present time teak,

and a very small quantity of shesum, are the only kinds cut: I have

merely native report as to the extent of the forests yielding these

woods, but they are described as of great extent. During the dry months

the teak-trees are felled—they are conveyed sometimes on carts, but

more frequently by bullocks yoked to them to Eeroo, or Agree, a village

fifty miles up the Pundeelah from its junction with the Godavery.

Nullahs in the rains are also taken advantage of for the same purpose.

It is well known, that the natives prefer the period when the moon is

on the wane for cutting timber, assigning as a reason, its liability

to be attacked by insects when cut at the period of the moon’s

increase. When we acknowledge, as is now usually done, lunar influence

1841. ] . the Pundeelah River. S17

on the animal kingdom, we must be slow to deny its power on the less

perfectly organized vegetable, and hence we must regard this practice

as not the mere result of ignorance or prejudice; but must class it

in the catalogue of facts to be investigated. With teak, however, it

is remarkable that no period of the moon is observed, being cut

without reference to any such time, as they allege that the oil contained

in it, is protection sufficient against the common casualties to which

other timber is subject.

At Teroo, the teak is barked, squared, and dried. From the beginning

of the rains until February it is floated down in rafts, and landed princi-

pally at Madhapore, although still a certain quantity passes on to Raja-

mundry and Masulipatam. The raft consists of three tiers of wood

placed across each other, and firmly bound together with ropes of the

liber of the Bauhinia parviflora and Butea superba. They are con-

ducted by persons of the bearer caste, and usually take six or eight days

to reach their destination to Madhapore from Eeroo, although sometimes

the voyage is accomplished in a couple of days. The timbers are

there classed according to their size :—

Ist.—The Mowhoont, twenty-four to thirty feet in a length, with

breadth and depth of eighteen inches. A log like this requires a bandy

(hackery) with from six to eight bullocks for its conveyance.

Znd.—Doolkahoont. This also is a large timber; but shorter than

the preceding, and not so thick.

érd.—Danpet. Common wood for beams and deals.

4th.—_ Sarmundum. A smaller timber than the last, used for the

same purposes.

All other kinds are classed under Dunta for the larger, and Kurry

for the smaller. The carts for conveying the wood are strong and

well built; their axle trees are of the wood of the Conocarpus latifolia,

and the wheels solid and without spokes of the Pentaptera tomentosa.

Considering the variety of soils they have to traverse before reaching

their destination, they are well adapted for their object ; they take fifty

days to reach Hyderabad, and it was stated to me, on what I consider

tolerable authority, that the price for conveying sixty square feet of teak

from Madhapore to Hyderabad, was not much under five rupees! From

eight hundred to a thousand carts are annually despatched with teak

from Madhapore: the Brinjarries convey the smaller kinds.

518

Report on the River Indus, (Sections 1 to 5.) By Lieut.

Woop, Bombay Marine.

I.—A General View of the Indus.

This report is confined to the navigable Indus, or that portion

of the river lying between the Sea and Attock.

Throughout the whole of this distance, the river is known as the

Sinde, sometimes indeed it is called the Attock, but this latter desig-

nation is local in its application. I have retained both, and apportioned

them as follows :—

The Lower Sinde, or Indus, extends from the Sea to Bukkur.

Upper Sinde, or Indus, extends from Bukkur to Kalabagh.

Attock from Kalabagh to Attock.

By dividing the river into these sections, each is made to mark

certain important alterations in the navigable character of the stream.

It may here be premised, that of the course of the river North

of Attock, our knowledge is confessedly superficial. A few miles

above that fortress the Indus ceases to be navigable; but not be-

fore it has received in the Cabool river a tributary, that further

extends the advantage of water carriage to the West,—the most im-

portant of all directions.

Source.—To what Lieutenants Burns and Macartney have written

on the subject I have nothing to add, unless Moorcroft’s travels settle

the question. The source of the Indus is still a problem to be solved.

In the plain above Attock, the Indus is divided into many branch-

es, but abreast of that fort they all unite. One deep, narrow, clear,

blue stream, shoots rapidly past, and at once entering the hills, disap-

pears from sight. Among hilly groups it winds to Kalabagh. At

Mukkud the channel widens, and the expanded river flows quietly

forwards with a lessened velocity, and a reduced depth. On escaping

from its rocky bed the river enters a level country, through which it

winds onward to the sea. Its boundaries are now those of the valley ;

the Soliman mountains are on one side, and the Indian desert on the

other.

Length of Course.—From the Sea to Attock, the distance in a

straight line is As At ee bles .. 648 miles.

By the River it is increased to .. od .. 942 miles.

1841. | Wood's Report on the River Indus. 519

Breadth of the Stream.—The width of the surface water in the dry

season, varies from 480 to 1600 yards; the usua! width is about

680 yards.

Depth.—When the river is in full freshes twenty-four feet ; but

in an opposite season of the year, nine, twelve, thirteen, and fifteen

feet are the usual maxima of its soundings. The greatest depth of

water in the Indus occurs between Kalabagh and Attock ; one hun-

dred and eighty-six feet has been here sounded.

Velocity.—-Seven knots an hour in the freshes, and three when the

river is low. It is scarcely necessary to remark, that the three last

items are very inconstant. At no two places are the measurements

exactly alike, nor do they continue the same at one place for a single

week. A more particular account of these will be found under the

next head.

Fall per mile.—From Attock to Kalabagh, .. .. 20 inches.

Ditto Kalabagh to Mittun, .. .. 8 ditto.

Ditto Mittun, to. Sea,* 2.5 ..° ‘. | ‘G6 'ditto,

Discharge per second.—Cubic feet Maximum-—

in August, an sp at a Ss -- 446,080

Maximum in December, .. site ap -- 40.857

Annual Discharge.—5,383,600,934,400—or 150,212,079,642 tons

avoirdupois.

Power of Transport.—Rolled pebbles do not occur in the bed of

the Indus below Chandia-ke-kote, a village five miles South of Kala-

bagh. Above Kote, though not below it, the sand of the Indus is

searched for gold. The precious mineral is also found at Dera Ismail

Khan ; but not in the river.

It is washed down by the rains from the Soliman mountains.

Pebbles also occur at a certain spot in the river below Hyderabad,

in Lower Sinde; but they can be traced to hills in the neighbourhood.

Height of the River's Banks.—Assuming for the purpose of expla-

nation that the source and’the embochure of the Indus are upon

the same level, the river in its long course may be said to have

two maxima of rise. These are shewn in the following sketch, where

the measurements are those of the stream when in full flood.

* The fall of the river from Mittun to the Sea is from Captain Burnes’ Memoir of the

Indus.

520 Wood’s Report on the River Indus. [ No. 115.

Distance by the River.

~ O41 mile. =| 818 miles. | 872m] Unknown.

ee eee:

Sowree.

AZ SS :

SS ZEA ZA

Sea Rise at Hyderabad 15 f. Mittun 81 feet, Kalabagh and Attock 48 feet.

The rise between Kalabagh and Attock cannot be called natural ; it

is caused by the contracted bed, into which the stream is here thrown

among the mountains. The rise at Hyderabad is the result of a care-

fully kept register daily ; but at the other places, this item has been

reduced from an examination of the river’s banks, and the best infor-

mation I could procure.

Colour and Temperature.—To Dera Ismail Khan, the water of

the Indus is of a lead colour ; below that town it becomes of a dirty

whitish yellow, tinged with red. In the freshes the red ‘tint is

heightened ; but the general colour continues the same.

Between Attock and Mittun, all the streamlets that fall into the

Indus are of a bright red ; save the Hurroo and Toe, which have peb-

bly beds and clear water.

Temperature of the River.

Months. Airc). gatever. Remarks.

Febrigry 8. OP eee ea ee eae a

Marebiyssu: «2 is. eR eSDe. Os 7B? 7.0! = ae

April, 00's pucnsetit, = ishiie hoes Saath ae le ss

Way, ee os. set OORT te eee 35S

pie ee SP! Pe ee eas rn, eae

Silyswsion.sdoud ol atl or Shes ad eee AnO! 6°

PONE ys i ointn iA: lie leo mae 88° 0! Ss mu

eptember, .- 6s, 2.) Ode 10 Sieg NUL 7, f

IIl.— Navigable character of the Indus.

Between the Sea and Attock the facilities for navigation are not

everywhere equally great. They vary with the state of the river’s

bed. As an acquaintance with the one may contribute to a know-

1841.] Wood’s Report on the River Indus. 521

ledge of the other, I shall apportion the river into sections correspond-

ing to its capabilities, and afterwards indicate the character of the

present method of navigating the stream.

The Delta,—As high as the influence of the tide extends, there

will always be an ample depth of water for even vessels of a greater

draft than those elsewhere described as the best and only boats

suited to the river under all circumstances.

It reaches to Nooroo-kanand, a village on the left bank of the river

below Tatta. But above this navigation is intricate, nor does it ma-

terially improve till beyond the Deléa.

This is owing to the great expansion of the river’s bed, where among

the numerous channels that present themselves, it is not always

an easy matter to select the right one. No great inconvenience is

felt on this score by the vessels now upon the river, for whether

they ascend it laden, or in ballast, dragged by the track rope, or

propelled by the breeze, their progress is so slow that they may be

said to feel every inch of the way.*

From the Delia to Sehevan.—This is the best portion of the river,

and the Pulla fisherman as he floats down the centre of the stream,

proclaims the fact. The pole to the lower extremity of which his net

is fastened, measures from sixteen to twenty-two feet, and according

as this may be in March or August, either eight or fifteen feet of its

entire length is immersed in water. Two rocky ledges occur in

this section ; both project from the right bank of this river, and are

found, one under the village of Jeskh, and the other at the north end

of the Hilaya reach. Both are under water in the swell.

Sehewan to Roree, or Bukkur.—As the character of the last section

was determined by the avocations of the fisherman, so may be that of

this one. The fishing pole is no longer in general use ; but among the

shallows in the middle of the stream, men armed with creels, shaped

like inverted cones, may be seen busy at work ensnaring the pulla

fish. Here then it may be presumed, the depths are too irregular for

the employment of the former method. Such is the cause, and thus

does the practice of the fisheries on this river become an index to the

state of its navigation.

Bukkur to Mittun.—A great change here takes place in the charac-

ter of the river. The stream at Roree, though at some places it may

* See Appendix, Table V. for the soundings of this and other sectional divisions.

522 Wood's Report on the River Indus. [No. 115.

be found in a single bed, is more often divided into two or more

parallel branches, from 400 yards to four miles apart. Where the

former is the case, (at Mittun-kote and for some distance below it,

for example,) the channels are more mazy and intricate than where

its volume, as in the latter instance, is apportioned among a number

of branches. ‘These changes in the configuration of the river are met

by a corresponding alteration in the build of the boats. A new de-

scription of vessel, called a ¢ohruk, of a less draft than the doondah, is

now the common cargo boat. Where the other is retained, its size is

reduced. Doondahs, it will be afterwards shewn, requiring five feet

and half an inch to float them, are in use upon the river below Buk-

kur; but above that fort, I have not met a single boat of a draft ex-

ceeding three feet nine inches.

Mittun to Kalabagh.—The Indus in this section, as high as Dera

Ismail Khan, is equally well suited to navigation, though not better

than that last described. It also in some degree resembles that sec-

tion in its parallel branches and broad bed. Between Dera Ismail

Khan and Kalabagh, the difficulties of the navigation increase.

Kalabagh to Attock.—The downward voyage may be made through-

out the year; but from April to October the passage is hazardous, and

rarely attempted. Boats at all seasons may ascend as high as Sharkee,

a village on the right bank of the river, a few miles above Mukkud,

but between that and Attock the upward navigation is restricted to

the winter months, and even then a boat must have a double crew,

and be of a build that does not obtain below Kalabagh, called a dug-

gah. For a description of this vessel see the 7th article in this Report.

IIlI.—Of the Soundings in Indian Rivers.

After having sketched the greatest capabilities of the Indus from

the draft of its boats, it will not be necessary to enlarge in this place

on the nature of its soundings. South of Mittun-kote I have inserted,

under sectioned heads, specimens enough to shew the characters of the

Channels,* referred to. A table marked maximum, minimum, &c.

is quite the thing for a thermometrical register ; but such a formula

for soundings, when applied to an Indian river, mars its own object,

* See Appendix, Table V.

eS ee ee

1841. | Wood's Report on the River Indus. 523

unless indeed it be based on the accumulated experience of years. That

I do not therefore crowd these pages with figures, is from a firm con-

viction of their inutility. They are in fact positively injurious ; for

when a practical man at a distance casts his eyes over the contents

of a table, purporting to give the soundings in a river’s channel, and

finds the least depth to be two fathoms, he very naturally concludes

that a boat constructed to draw only nine feet, will navigate the said

river. No conclusion could be more erroneous, the reasoning is suited

to the equable streams of the new world; but not applicable to the

ever-changing channels of our Indian rivers. To what other causes

can we attribute that crude digest of a prospectus for introducing

steam upon the Indus for commercial purposes, that lately reached

this country from England, authenticated by names of the first rank

and respectability in the mercantile world ? One of the articles in the

proposed Joint Stock Company provided for stationing a ship of one

thousand tons, (an old East Indiaman,) as a depot inside the river.

Such a vessel could hardly come in sight of the Sindian coast.

Lieutenant Charles’ survey of the mouths of the river has made us

acquainted with their actual condition, and in another part of this

report, what should be the draft of the Indus Steamers ;* and this

decision is the result of a most careful examination of the river, both

in its dry season and during its freshes.

hetch of a Reach below Sehewan.

Lis

Rae TATA

‘

* See the 8th Article in this Report.

pass

Wood’s Report on the River Indus. [No. 115.

IV.—Of the mode of Navigating the Indus.

The diagram on the preceding page, represents a reach of the river

below Sehewan. The better to illustrate the figure, I shall suppose a

boat deeply laden at the village Y is about to start on the downward

voyage, and that her ‘‘mmeerbar,” or man in charge of the boat, is :

a stranger to the river. Leaving the village, he would doubtless take

the large channel indicated by the colored arrows, without regarding,

if indeed they had been seen, the numerous offsets on the right hand ;

when abreast of the shoal S, a decrease in the depth of water would

for the first time apprise him of his having lost the fair channel,

and shortly after this intimation had been received, the boat would

ground on the bar G. Now by inspecting the sketch, it will be seen that

between the villages X and Y, the deep channel has shifted from the

left to the right bank of the river. The alteration has been effected by

the silent drainage of the lateral channels O, P, E, and D, and

by the unperceived departure of a large body of water over the bar

extending from S toG into the back water F. E is the passage the

boat should have pursued ; but this knowledge could only have been

the result of a previous careful examination, appearances at starting

being decidedly in favour of channel D. The nature of these changes

will be rendered still more evident, by inspecting a section of the

river’s bed. ‘Take for example the following :—

Ist. Channel. 2nd. Channel.

= ric am mica =

3.4.44.41.31.91.2, 3321333].1.1. 14.13.2.23.22.23. L1.1.1.333353313

3rd. Channel.

at AS

col

17.13.13.2.2.1.4 fathoms. Such a line of soundings is not uncommon,

though this one differs from the usual section in having an additional

channel, two being the more usual number. The junction of these is

not effected at a particular spot, but is, on the contrary, the result

of a parallel course of many miles, during the whole of which distance

the change is gradually being effected. They thus imperceptibly

glide into each other; and should the channel selected by a boat

descending the river, be that which the stream is in the act of

abandoning, she must be moved into the new formed channel as soon

as a decrease of soundings gives warning of the fact. Now it is deserv-

ing of remark, that when the necessity of change first becomes apparent,

1841. | Wood’s Report on the River Indus. 525

there is seldom more than three-quarters of a fathom water on the

spot separating the channels. Whether alterations in the channels

of other large rivers are brought about in a similar manner, I am not

aware ; but this peculiarity, if it can be so termed, is familiar to

the boatmen on the Indus ; and with a description of the manner

of their meeting it, and of the precautionary measures to which

it gives rise, I shall conclude this notice of its navigation.

No vessel with cargo on board makes a downward voyage unaided.

by a pilot boat; it is called here sooee, or guide. These are small

cheap skiffs managed by a couple of men, one of whom standing on a

platform in the bows gives the depth of water, while the other, with

his scull over the stern, steers the boat. Cheap as the services of a

pilot may be had, the protracted length of the voyage makes it a

burden too weighty for a single cargo to bear, and the custom there-

fore is, for boats to drop down the river in fleets, or by divisions,

when sooees become so multiplied, that to every two or three large

boats a tender is attached. Grain being the only freight, all ship-

ments are made at a stated season of the year ; and as the quantity of

corn produced on the banks of the Indus in autumn far exceeds that

cut down in spring, the winter fleet outnumbers in an equal pro-

portion that which takes its departure about midsummer. In February

1837, when the river was at its lowest level, I counted forty-two grain

Jaden beats pass Sehewan on their way to Hyderabad, whither the

surplus of the Upper Provinces is yearly exported.

The largest of these boats drew five feet and half an inch of water,

and the manner of conducting the fleet was as follows:—When the

day’s stage has been fixed, a detachment of sooee went ahead to

sound, into each boat there being, besides her own small complement,

two or more of the doondah’s men. On their arrival all is bustle

and noise in the fleet. The fastenings of the boats are cast off, the

oars are plied, and the huge hulk, preceded by her guide, shears out

into the stream.

If the meerbars have confidence in the channels, and the wind be

fair, a large square sail is set, and the unwieldy doondah, deep though

she be, outstrips her tender, and seems to skim the surface of the water ;

—such a fleet in motion is worth seeing. First, the large white sail of

the headmost boat is discovered at the top of the reach, then another,

3 U

526 Wood’s Report on the River Indus. [ No. 115.

and another, until the surface of the river becomes studded with those

uncouth, yet really interesting objects. As may be supposed, this

mode of navigation is tedious, the daily stages not averaging more

than from ten to twenty miles. Delays too are not unfrequent in the

dry season; but never exceed fifteen days, and rarely extend to half

that number.

When there is a prospect of a long detention, it is customary for

large boats to transfer a portion of their cargo into smaller ones, and

take it on board again when the shoal water is past. In high wind,

the boats remain fast by the bank of the river. The two following

Tables are inserted in illustration of the above remarks :—

Tables, shewing the cargo draft of the largest boats upon the Indus,

with the least water in the continuous channel, during the dry

season of 1837.

Draft of Boats. Channel.

Class of Boats.| Cubic Draft ue ee Places Depth

: : water line. ; ey

Ft...” En. Ft. In.

Wat Class, <i -| O4 | 10 Inches. Gooloo; 3. cts) 30

2nd ditto, ..| 4 9 9 ditto. Lillong, 4 4

3rd ditto,....| 4 3 9 ditto. Mycotta,..| 4 8

4th ditto,.... 3 3 7 ditto. Bulalpoor, .| 4 1

Staite 00” us 0 54 ditto. Kaira, 2 alae

The places in the above Table are all situated between Sehewan and

Roree ; but they furnish a good example of the depth in other places.

Boats descending in the freshes, proceed as above described. In this

season the length of the voyage is much shortened, though attended

with considerably more risk. A pilot is still required; but a previous

examination of the channel is not always considered necessary.

The following Table gives a statement of the downward voyage at

opposite seasons of the year. It embraces the whole navigable extent

of the river, and includes Pilotage where such a custom prevails. The

voyages are such as are rarely performed even by Sinde boats, even

when the river is clear, and other circumstances favourable.

1841. ] Wood's Report on the River Indus. 527

The Domnward Voyage.

Stages. Dry Season. F'reshes. Pilotage.

Attock to Kalabagh, ... ...| 1} Days | 1 Days —___—

Kalabagh to Dera Ismail

Khan, a iN Li crmdiGegs li Duet doy 6 Rupees

Dera Ismail Khan to ‘Dera

Ghazee Khan,... ... 10 ditto. |}34 do. | 6 do.

Dera Ghazee Khan to Mit.

GUM ko y UP sinAeditto.r2uxudosity Sido:

Mittun to Roree, a ...| 6 ditto. | 34 do. | a boat 18 Rs.

Roree to Sehewan, she Mtn ALU COs Asi, iO. do. 16 do.

Sehewan to Hyderabad, ..; 3 ditto. |2 do do. 12 do

Hyderabad to Sea, ... ...| 23 ditto. |2 do do. 12 do

ee ee | - t

Total ....| 41 Days. | 20 Days.!

The upward voyage is performed by the aid of the wind and

track rope. This last mode of procedure is slow, but certain ; and

averages about eight koss, or thirteen miles, a day. With a strong

favourable breeze, the daily progress is increased to twelve and

eighteen koss. The prevailing winds during the year, and their

consequent influence on the navigation of the river, are given under

the next head, and it will there be seen that the freshes, far from

presenting any obstacle to the upward voyage, are more favourable

to it than otherwise. During their continuance, a south wind blows

from the sea to Kalabagh ; and though less steady on the Upper Indus

than in the lower part of the river, it is a great service to navigation,

since the time consumed by an up-river voyage, in the dry season,

may be stated as one-half in excess of that required to perform it

in the swell. Annexed is a Table, shewing the relative time occupied

by the voyage at opposite seasons of the year :—

The Upward Voyage.

Stages. Dry Season. Freshes.

Seaport to Hyderabad, “t, --| 15 Days. 7 Days.

Hyderabad to Sehewan, Ka alld eos CICLO: 4 ditto.

Sehewan to Roree, ate -.| 14 ditto. 7. ditto:

Roree to Mittun, : .-| 14 ditto. 64 ditto.

Mittun to Dera Ghazee Khan, --| 10 ditto. 4 ditto.

Dera Ghazee Khan to Dera Ismail

Khan, »-| 11 ditto. 10 ditto.

Dera Ismail Khan to Kalabagh, -.| 12 ditto. 7 ditto.

Kalabagh to Attock, .-| 15 ditto. |Impracticable.

Total, ..! 107 Days. A5k Days.

528 Wood's Report on the River Indus. [No. 115.

Of the foregoing Tables it may be remarked, that under a different

management, the number of days occupied in performing the voyages,

especially up-river in the dry season, will be much reduced. At

present, é2me is no object to the Sindian ; and besides, he loads his

boats so deep, that the ripple caused by only a moderate breeze, en-

dangers her safety.

V.—Of the Winds and Weather in the Valley of the Indus.

The prevailing winds of the Indus conform to the direction of

the river, blowing for six months up the stream, and as many down

it. From April to September the breeze is southerly, and during

the other months of the year it comes from the north. An east wind

of twelve hours’ continuance is rarely felt. When a change in the

prevailing direction takes place, the wind veers by the west from

10 p. m..till noon of the following day; the wind is usually fresh.

The evening and afternoon too often oppressive, for want of the usual

breeze. This last remark is, however, more especially applicable

to the weather on the Upper Indus.

In Lower Sinde it is often just the reverse, the breeze there freshen-

ing up about 3 p.m. However warm the day may have been, the

nights, with few exceptions, are cool. A more particular account

of the prevailing winds will be found in the annexed Table :—

Prevailing Winds.

Months. North.| South.| Calm and Variable.

January, -. ve Pach a 2 0

February,. . 7 ospin 22 6 0

March, .. “i 17 13 0

April, a Path geg, 15 8

May, es =i Pd 1 29 1

June, ae ed é. 0 28 2

July, 0 28 3

August, 6 27 4

September, es 0 24 0

October, .. sid

November, . . ae die

December,. .

1841. | Wood's Report on the River Indus. 029

The south wind.—It reaches Kalabagh at theentrance of the moun-

tains, and last year was as fresh and steady upon the Upper as on the

Lower Indus. This wind is believed by the boatmen of the latter to

cease at Sehewan, and in my report on the inundation in 1836 I men-

tioned the circumstance. Such, however, is not exactly the case.

South of Sehewan a spur from the Hala mountains comes down upon

the Indus, which intercepts the breeze, and turns it off from the river,

so that above the town for many miles calms and sultry weather are

characteristic of a season remarkable at other places for the steadiness

of the prevailing wind; yet though this peculiarity is thus shown to

be local, another circumstance leads me to think, (contrary tomy own

experience,) that the south wind is less fresh upon the Upper Indus

than lower down the river. Above Roree the boats have but a single

reef band in their sails, while at Hyderabad it is no uncommon thing

to see them scudding before the breeze with their sails double and

even triple reefed.

The north wind is not so steady as the south, but is oftener more

violent while it lasts; clouds of sand darken the air, and compel the

trackers to bring their boat to the bank. This wind is cold in

November, December, January, and February ; the thermometer at

sunrise is often but a few degrees above the freezing point. During

the season that northerly winds prevail, gales from the south are not

infrequent. ‘These are always scarce, and usually, last three days.

The change is marked by cloudy, rainy weather, lightning, and

thunder.

Variable Winds.—During those sultry breezes that follow the daily

lulling of the prevailing wind, the calm is often agreeably broken by

light breezes off the river.

These are seldom sufficiently strong or lasting to benefit navigation,

but in tempering the heat of the atmosphere, and conducing to the

health of the numerous tribes that dwell on the banks of this river,

they serve an important purpose.

Storms.—Plenty of warning is always given, and ample time

afforded to secure the boat, which should be done either under the

weather bank of the river, or the lee side of an island or sand bank.

An unsheltered position in deep water, with the open river to wind-

ward, generally settles the fate of an Indus boat. If loaded, she

530 Wood’s Report on the River Indus. [ No. 115.

at once fills and goes down, and if empty, the shaking produced by

a short chopping sea soon opens the seams of a vessel that has no beams

to hold her frame together.

In a river danger from this cause may appear slight; but when the

stream and wind are opposed to each other, a short breaking sea

is formed, that will swamp a six-oared cutter at a grapling. Most of

the boats that are lost on the Indus, are wrecked in the manner here

described. Gales of wind are experienced throughout the whole

line of the Indus. They are more frequent near the mountains,

than in the neighbourhood of the sea.

VI.—Of the Boats upon the Indus.

The boats upon the Indus are of simple construction, and their

figure is perhaps the best that could be given, considering the kind of

navigation in which they are employed. They are easily constructed,

not very expensive, and for stowage of cargo, no form could be better

devised. Their proportions though not elegant, are pleasing, and

tracking or under sail, their appearance is pretty.

The employment of the Indus craft is confined to harvesting the

crop, serving the ferries, and keeping large towns in fuel. For these

purposes, the supply is ample. Second, between the sea and Attock two

kinds of vessels are in use, the zohruk on the Upper, and the doondah

upon the Lower Indus. In boats belonging to the latter class, a slight

difference in the build gives rise to a further classification, and of this

description of vessel the moohanah, (boatman,) enumerates more than

one variety. But before particularizing each, a description of the doon-

dah is necessary. Her good and bad qualities are shared alike by them

all, and the following notice of this boat is therefore applicable to

every vessel on the river :—

Form and method of construction.—The hull or body of the boat

is formed by the junction of three detached pieces, namely, two sides

and a bottom—at variance with our ideas of naval architecture; the

three parts are first separately completed, and then brought together

as a cabinet-maker does the side of a box. The junction is thus

effected : when each of the three parts that are to form the whole is com-

pleted in itself, the sides are carried to the bottom of the boat, and at

1841. | Wood's Report on the River Indus. 531

once secured by crooked pieces of timber to the flat future bottom of

the doondah. To bring the bow and stern up to the corresponding

parts of the side is more difficult ; and to effect this, many days are

necessary. Where the bow and the stern are to rise, the planks are

lubricated with a certain composition, which gives them a tendency to

curve upwards, and this is further increased by the application of force,

The extremes thus risen, a tackle is stretched between them, and by

constant application of the heating mixture, and a daily pull upon the

purchase, they rise to the required angle, and are secured to the side,

while an advantageous curve is imparted by this process to the plank

in the boat’s bottom. The bow of the doondah is a broad inclined

plane, making an angle of about 20° with the surface of the water.

The stern is of the same figure, but subtends double the angle.

Advantages of this construction.—To the slight curve in her

bottom planks she is indebted for the following advantages :—In

descending a river, should she strike upon a sand bank the boat turns

like a top, and presents no stationary point for the stream to act

against. A merely flat-bottomed vessel would probably shew her

broadside, and the stronger the current was running, the greater

would be the difficulty in getting such a boat again into deep water.

Thus in a situation where the doondah experiences but a little incon-

venience, and occasionally it may be a few hours’ detention, a boat of

another and but a slightly altered form would be very awkwardly

placed, though her safety might not be actually endangered. In

passing through eddies, the common or wedged-shaped bow dips con-

siderably, while the form of the doondah’s prow has a tendency to

lighten her draft, and the more rapid the current or the greater her

velocity, the more buoyant she floats. When forced out or against

the river’s banks—an accident which the defective steerage of the

doondah renders of frequent occurrence in tracking—the form of her

bow, where the bank is not too high, parries the violence of the shock.

A greater defect in the common wedged-shaped bow for river navi-

gation, (at least in those of the Indus, where the current is very

irregular,) is the surface it presents for currents or cross-currents to

act against ; these force the boat from its course, and deprive the helm

of its power. In tracking this is often seen; and I can remember

rather a ludicrous instance which occurred to the Indus Steamer,

532 Wood’s Report on the River Indus. [ No. 115.

whilst coming up the river to Hyderabad in 1836. The day to which

I allude, it was necessary to second the power of the engine by a

tracking party on shore, and a number of Hindoo countrymen were

employed for the purpose. All went on well, till the bow of the boat got

inclined to the direction of the current, when out she shot like an

arrow into the stream, and with her dragged the trackers.

Casting off the drag rope prevented accident ; but the situation

in which it left the Hindoos, was not a little grotesque. Between

the firm ground and the river lay a strip of recently placed alluvium,

and in this the Sindees were planted at various depths, from the middle

downwards. |

The present great defect in the form of the doondah is bad steerage.

By rounding her quarter, and making other judicious alterations,

this could be improved. To fit them for conveying merchandize,

they require to be stronger built; and for the convenience of the

merchant, to have better accommodation ; in fact to be restored to

the state in which an early traveller, Captain Hamilton, described

them when trade flourished by the Indus, and its arrangements

were such as to attract the notice of an intelligent European.

Rig of the Boats.—The masts are poised upon strong beams resting

athwart the gunwales. Moving on this fulcrum their management

is easy, and the masts can be lowered down or placed upright at

pleasure.

The sail is hoisted behind in preference to before the mast for

several reasons, the principal of which is, that as the boat sails only

with a favourable wind, it is never necessary to brace or haul up

the yard, and fewer hands suffice to manage the boat.

The jumpiee is the state barge of the Sinde Ameers, and is used

by them and their principal officers on all occasions, whether of

business or pleasure. Perhaps the appearance of this boat, as she

approaches the capital, is more characterestic of the Indus and of

Sinde, than aught else to be seen in the country. On this day

her meerbar puts on clean clothes, and the national cap received

from the Ameers on a recent river excursion. The bright hues of

the cap, formed by the gaudiest coloured chintz, vie with those of

a Kilmarnock bonnet, or a Paisley tartan. The crew are dressed

becoming the occasion, and as they bend to the track rope, the breeze

1841. | Wood’s Report on the River Indus. 5338

distends their ample robes, and a further character of stateliness

is imparted to the juwmptee. Large red flags were over her stern, and

from the raking mast streams a long party-colored pendant that anon

skims the water, as the breeze lulls and freshens. In the bow of

the boat is a small crimson pavillion, in which royalty reclines, and

in the other extreme of the vessel, a roomy cabin of elaborately carved

work, for its numerous attendants.

The steersman on an elevated platform, stands in bold relief, and

while he guides the boat, encourages the trackers. The jumptee’s crew

are a noisy set; but for aged men, wonderfully good humoured. They

are divided into two gangs or watches, and are as partial to a cup of

good bang, as sailors are to grog. These boats are decked, and of consi-

derable tonnage. One which I saw at Hyderabad, measured one hundred

and twenty feet over all, with a beam of 184 feet; her draft of water

was two feet six inches, she pulled six* oars, and had a crew of thirty

men. They are built of Malabar teak, chiefly at the ports of Mughribee

and Curatchee. Jwmptees are seldom lost ; the only danger to which

they are liable is that of having their bottom pierced by sunken trees.

Their more substantial build keeps the frame of the boat together

in situations where the poor-pieced shell of a doondah would fall asun-

der. The doondah is the cargo boat of Sinde ; her principal and almost

her sole employment being, the transport of grain.

The Comwtell_—tThis again is the ferry boat of Sinde ; her construc-

tion adapts her for this service, and for conveying houses up and down

the river. From her great beam and high draft of water, she is a

faster boat than the doondah. In all their excursions on the river, the

Ameers are accompanied by many boats of this description. The class

is not numerous, and most of the boats are the property of govern-

ment.

The doondee is common from the sea to Mittun, and the boat most

generally used in the fisheries, both upon the river and its dunds,

(small lakes). It is the smallest description of vessel upon the Indus,

and at the same time one of the most useful. Two men are ample to

its management ; but a man and wife are its usual crew.

The Zohruk.—What the doondah is in Sinde, the zohruk is upon

the Upper Indus, namely, the common cargo boat of the country. The

* So in MS. ? 16 oars? (oy

o Xx

534 Wood's Report on the River Indus. [No. 115.

planks of this vessel are held together by clamps instead of nails, and

the junction is often neatly enough executed. This class of boats is not

so strong as the doondah, but they sail faster and draw less water.

They are more roomy than the doondah, and though less adapted for

the conveyance of goods, are much superior for transporting troops.

The Duggah.—This is the clumsiest, and at the same time, the

strongest built boat upon the Indus. She is confined to that rocky

and dangerous part of the coast, between Kalabagh and Attock. The

form of the boat differs but slightly from that of the doondah. The

duggah has neither mast nor sail. Her name is the Sindean word

for cow, and the awkward sluggish motion of this boat shews that

it has not been misapplied. If the duggahk drops down the river

to Mittun, there she must remain, and be sold for whatever sum she

will bring ; for to drag her up against the stream to Kalabagh, would

cost more money in the hire of men, than the boat is worth.

Management of the Boats.—Under sail the very best of them will

not be within eight or nine points of the wind. Dropping down the

river with a contrary wind, the mast is unshipped, as also the rudder,

and the latter is replaced by two sculls. Should the wind blow strong,

a boat without cargo can make no progress, and the safety of one

laden, is endangered by the chopping sea it raises. 4

Tracking is performed as follows :—the boat is provided with a

track rope at least a hundred fathoms long; it is rove through the

uppermost sheave-hole at the mast head, and the inner end fastened

to the rail or platform on which the steersman is standing. On the

hauling post before the mast, is a guy, called a “‘ dagh,” the lower end

of which passes through a ring bolt in the bow of the boat. This

guy is of as much utility as the helm itself. Before the boat starts

the track rope is middled, and the inner half coiled down under

the feet of the steersman: one man is stationed by the guy, and the

remainder of the crew toggle on to the shore part of the line. Thus

yoked they march at the rate of two miles an hour up to the knees,

often higher, in water or in mud. Whilst thus advancing the foremost

walker calls out “shoal water,” on which the inner end of the clog

rope is let go, the guy eased off, the helm put to one side or the other,

as the case may be, and the boat thus relieved, avoids taking the

ground by shooting out inte the stream. The shoal passed, the guy

1841. | Wood's Report on the River Indus. 535

is shortened, the line again middled, and the crew advance at the

same slow pace as before. Boats should have two track ropes, and

when turning the bends of the reaches, both should be on shore.

They should also be provided with a heavy grapnel to drop, in the

event of accident to the track ropes.

The steep banks in bends of the river should be avoided, for under

it circles a current in a contrary direction to that of the main stream,

the quick gyratory motion of which is constantly exerted to the

destruction of the bank, and that of such boats as frequent it.*

Boat Building, Materials, Suggestions.—Boats are constructed

according to established usage, which has fixed a proportion between the

beam and length of each boat. The tonnage is calculated on the boat’s

bottom, from the point where the stem and stern rise. The angle at

which it takes place is matter of taste, a high projecting stern improves

the steerage, and a low bow gives speed. The banks of the Indus are

deficient in almost every article used in constructing the boats on the

river. The Lower Sinde is supplied with plank and spars from the

Malabar coast, and with coir and cordage from the same quarter. The

Ameers of Hyderabad, are, however, the chief, almost the sole pur-

chasers. The Moohana, unable to give the high price asked by Cutch

boatmen for teak plank, exhibit both skill and ingenuity in building

boats of timber of their own country’s growth ; for this the orchard is

robbed, and the country for miles round laid under contribution. In

the bottom of a single boat, teak, baire, fir, babool, and the curreet

tree are sometimes seen together, and in the same extent of workman-

ship, six hundred and seventy three patches have been counted.

The Upper Indus is principally supplied from the banks of the

Chenaub, where the talee tree, the sissoo of Hindostan, is seen with a

trunk measuring twelve feet in circumference. Three such trees furnish

plank enough to build a large sized zohruk.

The Attock boats are built of good fir, brought down the Cabool

river, and from the forest of the Lower Himalaya.

Iron Work.—The Lower Indus is supplied from Bombay, and the

upper portion of the river from the mines of Bunnoo and Badjour.

* See an example of this in Table VI. of the Appendix, headed Irregularities in

the bed of the Indus.

536 Wood’s Report on the River Indus. [No. 115.

It is customary to purchase the latter in the matrix, and to allow

a per centage to the blacksmith who smelts the ore, and works it up

into nails.

Cordage.—Upon the Upper Indus the rope is either of hemp, or

formed from the culm of certain tall reedy grasses, very plentiful on

the banks of this river.

The tools of the Sinde carpenter are as little diversified in form as

those used by the same class of artificers in India. The absence of

good material to work upon sharpens his inventive powers, and gives

a manual dexterity that improves the execution of whatever he may

have to do, when really good timber comes before him. If a curve is to

be imparted to one or a dozen planks united, chaff moistened with

water is the Sinde carpenter’s store ; or what answers the purpose still

better, the dung of animals, and more especially that of sheep.

Teak-built boats are much prized by the Moohana, as are those of

cedar and fir construction, which come from Pind Dadun Khan, on the

Jalum. Such boats, when well put together, will run forty years ; but

from seven to ten is the duration of those patched up with the jungle

wood of the country; and if care has not been used to see that the

wood employed in her construction was originally well seasoned and

selected, a less number of years brings on the decrepitude of age, when

to delay a thorough repair, is to lose the boat.

Adaption of the Indus Boats, for the transport of military stores.

—They are not calculated to bear the weight of ordnance, such as a

battering train; and at the present moment there is not a boat upon

the river, which a Committee would declare efficient for the transport

of these heavy guns. For this purpose, the boat should have a per-

fectly flat bottom, that the weight of metal may be equally distribu-

ted over the immersed portion of the hull. The sides too require to be

fixed to the bottom in a more secure manner than is at present custom-

ary. The knees which connect them should be formed of iron, in

preference to wood. If shot is to be carried, the bottom of the boat

should be planked over the beams, as well as under them. The latter

is all that is done at present ; but if this is not guarded against, the

nails will draw, and the shot fall through.

Should it become desirable to increase the amount of tonnage upon

the Indus, boats could be built at Bombay, Hyderabad in Sinde, or

1841. | Wood's Report on the River Indus. Oot

Pind Dadun Khan in the Punjab. If at the former place, it would be

desirable there only to prepare the frame; but to build the boat, that

is, to put her together in the river, good artificers are to be had in the

country ; but the introduction of a few superior workmen from the

dockyard, with a clever native foreman or overseer would be necessary.

A smith is an indispensable accompaniment, and when steamers are

introduced, this establishment should, to be efficient, be possessed of

science, material, and skill. If Hyderabad were to be selected for build-

ing boats, still all the material must come from Bombay. If Pind

Dadun Khan had the preference, a small supply of cedar plank might

be there calculated upon, and the services of better workmen than are

to be procured in Sinde.

Boat Hire.—In this charge there is some incongruity ; yet it does

not appear to exceed the rate of hire that prevails upon the Ganges.*

VII.—Of Steam Vessels for the Indus.

Naturally solicitous to be acquainted with the present state of inter-

nal steam navigation upon the Ganges, on presenting Government

with the result of my experience on this river, I addressed a letter,

forwarding a list of queries on the subject, to Mr. C. B. Greenlaw of

Calcutta, and through the kindness of that gentleman, I have been

favoured with the accompanying valuable report from the pen of

Captain Johnston, controller of Government steam vessels,—an officer

more conversant with these matters than any man in India. In sub-

mitting this document to his Lordship the Governor General in Coun-

cil, I will only remark, that in every essential point the class of vessels

described by Captain Johnston, seems well suited to the Indus, and the

economy that pervades the steam establishment upon the Ganges,

is worthy of imitation here.

Towards the close of the year 1835, when the Zndus steamer arrived

off Hyderabad, one of the Sinde Ameers expressed a wish to be possessed

of a similar, but a more powerful vessel. Captain Burnes, who was then

at that court, requested-my opinion on the description of vessel best suited

* See Appendix, Tables 1V, VII, VIII, for the tonnage, price, and hire of Indus

ooats,

538 Wood's Report on the River Indus. [No. 115.

for the Indus, and from the reply to his communication, the following

paragraph is an extract, from which it will be observed, that I had then

fixed for the draft of an Indus steamer, the exact number of inches,

which boats upon the Ganges draw.

Paragraph \\th.—“ In a preceding paragraph, I stated that powerful

vessels were required on the Indus; the reason is this: In some parts

of the stream, the current has a velocity of five and six knots an hour.*

It will, therefore, be wise to possess a sufficient power, since steam is

now so under controul, that in the downward voyage, where accidents

are more liable to occur, it can be reduced at pleasure; but if the

engines be originally too weak, a new boat is a costly remedy. Two

feet six inches is a good draft of water, and ought not to be exceeded,

the boat to have great beam, not much length, and no keel.”

Remarks on the Steam Boats of the Ganges, furnished by their Control-

ler, Lieut. Johnston, R. N.

‘Four iron steam boats are now employed in inland communication ;

each steam boat is 125 feet long over all, 22 feet broad, and tows an

accommodation boat of the same length, and 20 feet broad, with a hold

of five feet deep, capable of towing 4000 feet of cargo, weighing 40

tons, the boat’s draft when so loaded, not exceeding 30 inches. The

iron sides of the boat are 5 feet deep, above that is a light superstruc-

tion of wood in the accommodation boat; between the deck, which

forms the hold and the deck on which the crew and passengers walk,

the height is nearly 7 feet, and the included space from one end of the

vessel to within 20 of the other, or fore end, is divided into cabins and

dining rooms, &c. Fourteen cabins are available to passengers; four

of 12 feet by 9; four of 9 by 81; and six of 81 by 61; a dining room

20 by 12; two bathing rooms; two pantry or store-rooms, a butler’s

room; guard room, and two cabins for officers. Each cabin has a

water closet ; the windows or venetians are 4 feet deep by 24 wide. In

the steam boat, the iron side is continued up in the centre to the height

of the beams, which carry the paddle shafts, and the light paddle boxes

* Thad not, when this was written, seen the Indus during its freshes.

1841. | Wood’s Report on the River Indus. 539

are of wood. The engines are double, of 60 horse power, oscillating ;

they consume of Burdwan coal about 10 pounds per horse power per

hour, and carry at a draft of 30 inches, about 450 maunds. In

the steamer there is a large cabin abaft the boiler, not habitable

by Europeans in the warm weather; but very comfortable in the

cold. Before the engines, there are two cabins on each side, 8

feet by 5, with a space between that forms a mess room. There is

also a very light cabin on the deck of 3? inch board 8 feet by 10; the

engines are before the boiler ; the steamers have one mast and top-mast,

on which they set square sails when the wind is fair. The boat,

(a good stout cutter,) is always towed close up to the stern of the

accommodation boat. The anchors are 4 and 5 ewt., besides stream

and kedge anchors, grapnels, &c. They are well furnished with

ground tackle; chain cables are alone used. The diameter of the

paddle wheel is 16 feet, the breadth 6, the board 6 feet long, 8 inches

deep, and 18 on each wheel : they are preferred of fir, and are 2 inches

thick. The centre board, when the vessel has her coal on board, is

3 inches below the water surface. The greatest speed of the steamer

when alone, is 9 statute miles an hour; with the accommodation boat

in tow, 7 miles.

«« The contractors have their coal in depots on shore, and send it in

boats to the steamers when they cannot lay along-side the bank. Coal

is taken by weight, and one hour allowed for the delivery of one

hundred maunds.

“In the bow of the accommodation boat and in the stern of the steam-

er, are fixed strong posts well secured, and at the same height a saddle

is bolted on each, and protected by an iron plate. An iron hoop 6

inches deep is on the post also above the saddle, in contact with it;

a beam of 18 feet long, 14 inches broad, and 5 inches thick, with

jaws at each end, connects the boats by resting with its two ends

on the saddles, and is secured round the posts with a chain with

a hook and lever, so as by letting go the end of the lever, to detach the

chain in an instant, and allow the boats to separate. There are also

hawsers from each bow of the accommodation boat to the paddle boxes

of the steamer, which serve to guide the boats, and assist the steering ;

the following boat acting as a powerful rudder to the preceding one.

540 Word's Report on the River Indus. [No. 115.

“Progress is more easy and safe up the Ganges during the dry

season. There is little danger at any time in ascending the streams,

but much in coming down; most during the dry season, when the

channels are all defined, and the commanders are instructed to come

with great caution, dropping through the difficult reaches with the head

of the boats up the stream. They are instructed to consider the pre-

servation of the boats the first consideration; speed a secondary one.

In the dry season, the voyage downwards frequently occupies sixteen

or seventeen days ; in the swell five, six, seven, and ten; the upward

voyage during the greatest strength of the current occupies from twen- .

ty-five to thirty days; at other times nineteen to twenty-three, and

twenty-five in the swell. The current of the Ganges is seven miles in

the dry season.

“ The boats in the swell can generally evade the strength of the cur-

rent by running over, or on the edge of sands ; in the dry season they

must generally encounter it in full force.

‘‘There is an establishment of Pilots, (native fishermen.) The dis-

tances vary from eighteen to twenty-six miles, through which they are

required to be acquainted with the channels ; nevertheless, a boat seldom

makes a voyage without grounding, and the principal injury the boats

sustain, is coming in contact; under these circumstances, it is nearly

confined to the superstructure. On one occasion only a pair of boats

suffered under water, being thrown against rocks by a strong eddy when

descending under steam; each boat had a hole forced through the

bottom ; they were easily stopped, the injury being confined to the por-'

_ tion of metal actually in contact with the rock. A wooden boat would

have been shattered by the concussion.

“It would not be possible to construct wooden boats to retain their

form as the light draft the iron boats do; and I can conceive no means

of improving on the boats we have, limited, as by the nature of the

rivers we are, to length and draft of water. I believe, that for the

Ganges above Allahabad it will be in my power to fix a steam boat

not to draw more than 22 inches, with 24 hours’ fuel, the economy of

weight will be confined to the superstructure, the iron hull being the

same in point of form and dimensions as those now plying, the metal

a little higher.” (Signed) James H. Jounsron.

1841. | Wood’s Report on the River Indus. 541

There is one point in the above report, where I conceive a different

arrangement must be made upon the Indus to what prevails on the

Ganges. Most of the fuel depdts on the Indus must be afloat. If

wood firing is used, there is no alternative, for otherwise the time lost

taking it on board will cancel all the other advantages of steam.

The banks of the Ganges are high, substantial, and compared to the

banks of this river—permanent. Towns overlook the river ghauts, or

landing places are constructed on the banks, and the steam boat at

most of the stations has only to shore alongside the ghaut and receive*

her fuel.

It is very different with the Indus. Towns stand within two miles of

the river, and the banks are ever varying their outline. I would there-

fore recommend that large manageable flats be used for this purpose, and

anchored at such distances apart as subsequent experience may suggest ;

their draft should be restricted to 3 feet 6 inches, and each should

have a small boat attached, by which means the crew of the flat

would be able to keep the floating well supplied from the shore store.

I am further of opinion, that were the zohauk’s defective steerage

overcome, steamers built upon her model will prove efficient boats.

VIII.— Of Fuel for Steam Boats.

The jungle on the banks of the Indus contains the following trees: —

1. Mangrove.—Found in the Delta, is plentiful, and burns well.

Though it attains no great height, it has sometimes a circumference

of 12 feet.

2. Kundie.—Rarely exceeds 9 feet in height, and is found, though

not confined to the locality under the Lukkee mountains, between Chand-

kote and Sehewan. In Lower Sinde, this wood is scarce ; but twelve

miles south of Mittun, on the west bank of the river, is an extensive

jungle, in which this is the most common tree ; the hardness of its fibre

and the crookedness of its grain, make it in great request among the

boat-builders. ;

3. Baun.—Little of this wood is seen below Hyderabad; but between

that capital and Sehewan the treeis common. As a fuel, it is useless.

4, Jall or Pello.—This tree is found in every part of the river’s course.

Between the river and Desert, two descriptions of trees prevail. Tama-

542 Wood’s Report on the River Indus. [ No. 115.

risk fringes the river, Jall or Pelloo the desert; the latter as a fuel is

not superior to Baun.

Tamarisk.—From the sea to Kalabagh, this wood is more or less

plentiful; almost any quantity of it is procurable; but the large wood is

distant from one to twelve miles from the Indus, and considerable

expence and delay must necessarily be incurred in transporting it to the

river. Tamarisk is the common firewood of this country.

6. Kurreel.—It is plentiful in Sinde ; but makes an indifferent fuel ;

‘it gives out volumes of smoke, but emits no flame. This wood is gene-

rally crooked, and its fibre being hard, it is advantageously used for

knees of boats, and wherever curved lines, strength, and durability

are sought to be combined.

7. Loohera.—Between lake Munchur and the mountains, grows

a tree of this name, of a dwarfish size, and very common ; as a fuel it is

even worse than the last described.

8. Tallee.—This tree is not common on the banks of the Indus, and

the few that do occur, are found near villages, in single trees. It

attains a large size, and is much in request amongst the boat-builders.

It burns well; but the tree is too valuable to be cut down solely for

firewood.

9. Babool or Bubber.—This tree is plentiful in Sinde; but becomes

less as we ascend the river. It makes an excellent fuel.

Shikargahs or Hunting Forests. —They are numerous below Sehe-

wan ; but above that town, they are not found. The trees they contain

are mostly Tamarisk and Babool. These forests at some places fringe the

river for three and four miles; but their medium width seldom exceeds

one. Ina few of them are trees of a large size; but far the greater

number are merely extensive thickets, containing saplings of sorts, tall

grass, and reeds, the spontaneous offspring of a rank inundated soil.

In December 1835, I made several experiments with the Indus

steamer to ascertain the relative strength of wood and coal fuel. The

result was as follows:—Tamarisk, when newly cut down, would not

generate enough steam to keep the engine, though working only one-

half power. If the billets were large and thoroughly dry, it answered

the purpose better; though I consider this wood at best but a very

indifferent fuel. Mangrove and the Babool trees are much superior ;

burning equal proportions of the two last, the furnaces were reple-

18-41. ] Wood's Report on the River Indus. 543

nished once in seven minutes: with coal, (not however of a very good

quality,) every fifteen. Coal has thus an advantage over wood fuel

in something more than the proportion of two to one, and when the

superior performance of machinery driven by the former is taken into

account, it is doubtful which is the more economical plan to navigate

the Indus, with coal from England, or the jungle now growing upon its

banks.* The question resolves itself simply into one of expence, for

there is wood enough on the banks of the Indus, to keep two or more

steamers constantly plying for years to come.

On this subject, Captain Johnston, the Controller of Government

Steam Vessels, has made several experiments with steam boats on the

Ganges. The result is already before Government ; but having obtained,

through the kindness of that officer, a copy of his report, the nature and

value of its contents is my apology for introducing it here.

Report on the relative value of Wood and Coal, by Captain Johnston,

the Controller of Government Steam Vessels.

On Friday the 27th instant, I ordered the steam to be got up on

board the Eaperiment Flat, and ran for two hours on the ebb. tide be-

tween Fort William and the Reach below Budgebudge, and consumed

nine and half maunds of coal, making on an average 29 revolutions. I

then returned with a flood tide, and in two hours consumed !14 maunds

of wood, making on an average 21 revolutions. I also noted the time

we were running the same distances under coal and wood steam; the

periods were 90 minutes with coal, and 112 with wood; great care

and persevering attention were required in the stocking with wood

to keep the steam up, and twice the engines were nearly at rest from

the steam failing. Admitting that the revolutions of the wheel on the

strokes of the piston in the cylinder measure the steam expanded in

any given time, the coal would have supplied the onan oi 6960 times.

The wood,. ae: aes Bad o, . 5040

Making a difference of ... pe Se Awl 218)

* Coal has been discovered on both banks of the Indus; the locality is the salt range,

in the parallel of 320 North, deposits extending in a longitudinal direction ; but not in

a North and South one. Ten specimens from the West bank procured by Captain

Burnes have been analized by Mr. Prinsep, and four of them pronounced to be the

purest form of mineral coal. Those forwarded by me, and discovered on the East bank,

have not yet been examined.

544 Wood's Report on the River Indus. [ No. 115.

measures, which at 42 per minute, would have required 454 minutes

longer of the consumption of wood to have completed, which at the

rate of 114 maunds in 240 minutes, would have required 44 maunds

nearly, which added to 114 would make 15} maunds of wood to pro-

duce the same quantity of steam as 94 maunds of coal; but it has been

seen, that owing to the weakness of the steam provided by the consump-

tion of wood to perform the same distance, required = or one-sixth

more time nearly, a detention most injurious to the interest of Internal

Steam Navigation.

30th October, 1837. (Signed) J. H. Jonnston, Controller.

1X.—Of the Inundation.

Like all other large rivers, the Indus is subject to a periodical in-

crease of its water; during the continuation of which, it inundates a

large tract of country. The river rises in March, and falls in September.

From Mittun upwards, I have delineated the flooded district upon

the chart; but in tracing their boundaries between that district and the

sea, I labour under the disadvantage of having to draw my material

as much from hearsay as personal observation.

It may in this place be observed, that the valley of the Lower Indus

owes its crops entirely to the yearly swell of its river.

The soil of Sinde is naturally poor, producing spontaneously the pro-

ducts of the desert; but save within the belt of inundation, neither grain

for man or grass for cattle. Even here grass is scanty and coarse; a

turf is a thing unknown on the banks of the Indus, and the Islands in

the stream below Bukkur are nothing more than naked sand banks. Two

consecutive crops exhaust the soil, unless manured. The natives it is

true liken it to gold; but the comparison would be more just if applied

to the river, the cause of all its fertility. On the banks of the Upper

Indus the soil improves, and were such subject not irrelevant to this re-

port, I might proceed to adduce the proof of this assertion, and to in-

vestigate the cause of so apparent an anomaly.

In some respects, the annual swelling of the Indus is attended with

peculiar phenomena. One year the country on its right bank is so

deluged, that towns and villages, though protected by strong dams,

1841.] Wood's Report on the Liver Indus. d45

are threatened with inundation; while on the opposite side of the

river, there may be found, during the same season, a difficulty of

irrigation. In thus distributing its favour, the stream exhibits more

of constancy than caprice, for when once it has taken to either of the

banks, it adheres for a series of years to the favoured side. Another

circumstance merits notice. The Missisippi when in flood, as we

learn from Audubon, the talented American ornithologist, inundates

the valley to a large extent ; at that season the Squatter and a Lumber

river canoe pierce the thickest depths of the forest, while flat boats

of great burden, and steamers of noble dimensions, are seen moored

to stately trees overhanging its banks. The Ganges in the lower part

of its course, overflows its banks in a similar manner to the Missisippi.

During the S. W., or rainy monsoon, when the former river is in flood,

the whole of its Sunderbunds, or Delta lands are, according to Rennel,

submerged. With the Indus it is different. Inundation here is more

often partial than general, and at the height of its freshes, the Persian

wheel may be seen watering fields on the verge of its banks. The

Kurreef and Rubbee (Autumn and Spring) harvest affords the most

conclusive evidence in this case. The crops of the first are produced

from an irrigated, and those of the latter from an inundated, soil; while

the weight of the Kurreef harvest is to that of the Rubbee nearly as

two to one.

On inspecting the accompanying chart of the Upper Indus, it will

be seen that the river has double banks, or inner and outer ones. The

first of these is as changeable as the navigable channels of the

Indus, the latter as permanent as the river’s course; the inner banks

from its bed in the cold season, when the water is low and perma-

nent, hem in the floods and freshes of an opposite season. The follow-

ing Table will further illustrate this interesting feature of the Indus,

though I believe it is one common to all rivers flowing through plains :—

Outer and inner Banks of the Indus.

fiver’s Bed.

eee el La Dry season a oa fie Surface Water in the

Surface Water. Y ; Sreshes.

26° 28' N. 1456 yards. 788 yards. 2244 yards.

26° 44’ 658 do 1560 do 2218 do

PAE wed 850 do | 3004 do 3854 do

546 Wood’s Report on the River Indus. [No. 115.

The double banks accompany the Indus after it has left the moun-

tains at Kalabagh for the remainder of its course. Were the perma_

nent continuous, the inundation would be restricted to narrow and

defined limits; but as this is not the case, I will endeavour to point

where this barrier is broken or wanting. |

From Attock to Kalabagh.—No inundation.

From Kalabagh to Mittun.—It may be generally remarked, that

in the northern part of the Upper Indus, there is no inundation, while

in the south, or lower part of its course, the flooded districts are of a

considerable extent, as a reference to the chart will shew.

Mittun to Bukkur.—Neither on the east or west banks of this division

is there an outer bank, and the consequence is, that the country here

is largely inundated. Inthe Mozarry districts, the floods of 1837

fell twenty miles back from the river ; but in ordinary seasons twelve is

the more usual measure of their width. On the opposite bank, the

inundation about Subzalkote reaches to the edge of the desert.

Bukkur to Sehewan.—Though the permanent banks may be traced

in this section, their outline is broken, and the low districts behind

them overflowed in the freshes. South of Sehewan inundation of the

west bank is general, though the quantity of uncovered land exceeds

that submerged. Chandkote, the most valuable province in Sinde, is

situated here, and its exuberant crops are to be attributed to its

great command of water. Upon the opposite bank, between the river

and the desert, is a strip of alluvium, the medial width of which is

four miles. This belt marks the extent of the flooded districts;

but for some years past, there has been scarce any inundation upon

this side of the river.

Sehewan to efflux of Fulailee—The Tela mountains for some

distance below Sehewan prevent the river from expending in a wes-

terly direction, and a creeping hilly ridge serves the same purpose

further South. On this side of the river, the inundation is confined

to a very narrow belt; on the opposite side the desert opposes any

outlet to the East, and here, though the inundated belt be wider

than that upon the West bank, its breadth cannot be estimated at

more than three miles.

Efflux of Fulailee to the Sea.—The Delta of the Indus may be

said to commence from the efflux of Fulailee. The lower portion

SE ee ee ee ——e—eEeEeeEEeeEeEeeEeeEeeEe———————— ee ae

a ee eee Se

1841.] Wood's Report on the River Indus. 547

of it only is under water, and the inundation here as in the upper

course of the river is partial; the submerged part is a belt fringing

the sea, measuring in width about twenty miles.*

X.—Fords of the Indus.

There are properly speaking no fords on the Indus below Attock,

that is, there is no spot in its course where their annual occurrence is

so certain as to warrant a dependence on their existence in any subse-

quent military operations, of which the banks of this river may become

the scene.

But that the Indus is at times fordable is certain, and in the course

of my inquiries on the subject, I have met with many individuals who

assured me of having done it. | What may be done once, may be per-

formed a second time, and when a solitary unassisted Moohaud can

cross, it is just as possible that a regiment of infantry may follow. A

ford open to a foot soldier, would prevent no difficulty to horse. The

practicability of fording the river being once admitted, becomes a subject

of importance, and viewing it in this light, I shall devote more space

than I otherwise should to its consideration.

The months in which the river is fordable, are December, January,

February, and March. No instance is on record of its having been

done either north of Mittun, or south of Hyderabad in Sinde. The

Indus does not within the excluded track run deeper than in that por-

tion of its course where the river is known to be fordable; but being

less frequented by the boatmen, its capabilities are not so generally

known.

The fords are discovered by the annual fleet of grain boats, which

descend in the cold weather froma the Upper Provinces to Lower Sinde.

Some boats in this fleet are of so large a draft, that their safe naviga-

tion calls for the most minute survey of the river’s channels, and it is

whilst so employed that the boatmen sometimes find they have crossed,

almost unknown to themselves, from one bank of the river to the oppo-

site, without once having had to swim.

* These observations on the inundation of the Indus south of Mittun are given with

much deference, as I have not had proper opportunity of inquiry. This does not

apply to any remarks on this subject above Mittun.

548 Wood’s Report on the River Indus. [No. 115.

During the dry season of 1836-37, I had frequent intimation of fords ;

but was not fortunate enough personally to discover one, for it so hap-

pened, that by the time I had got to the spot, they had always disap-

peared. The following sketch is taken from a trust-worthy person, whom

I had sent to report on a suspected locality :— |

The centre channel is here the continuous one; that on the east side

was however the deepest, and discharged the most water ; but its mouths

were closed up by shoais. Forty-two boats were lying above the ford,

waiting for the channel to open; this was on the 27th February. The

dotted line shews the ford. On this subject I am glad to have the

testimony of Dr. Gordon, the officer who went from Loodiana to Bom-

bay with the Maharajah’s (Runjeet Sing) mercantile speculation. He tells

me, that some distance north of Hyderabad, he came upon a shoal

stretching completely across the river, when many grain boats unable to

pass over it, were lightening their draft by transporting a portion of

their cargo into smaller boats. Dr. Gordon finding more water above

the shoal than the boats in his charge drew, held on his course.

The custom of bridging the Indus by boats at Attock, has prevailed

since the days of the Greek invasion, and it appears to me, that the

same might be used with equal success to cross an army much lower

down the river.

The place most adapted for this purpose, whether viewed merely

with reference to the river itself, or to the Afghan Passes that lead

down upon it, and which have not be unaptly termed the gates of

Khorassan, is Bukkur fort. | Here we have a permanent channel, both

1841.]_ Wood’s Report on the River Indus. 549

banks of the river being faced with hard flint hillocks, while in the

middle of the stream are some islets of the same material, on one of

which is the ford, and contiguous to it, or rather adjoining it, another,

containing the tomb of Peer Khaja Khizr. At no other spot below the

mountains, does the Indus present similar facilities for bridging. The

channel here is as follows :-—

Above the fortress the river widens to...... . ... 1244 yards.

Tn a line with the fort it is less, say ..... ...0+ +. 1000 do.

The channel between the fort and the west

bank of the river, is by measurement.........+0 98 do.

Ditto ditto on the opposite side of the fortress,

RBOMBVATC@N) daicle nels! develo ceiclewesissseclsias We d'tele« -- 400 do.

Width of fortress and Isle of Khaja Khizr, ....... 502 do.

1000 do.

Depth of the Channels.

West Channel 98 yards measurement. } East Channel 400 yards ; estimated

Current 2.9 knots. S Current 3.7 knots.

5,6,7,9,12,15,9,3 feet. > ae oat oar aos

A spit projects from the north-west end of the fortress, and extends

to within fifty yards of the west bank. In this gut the current is four

knots an hour, the depths were6 677 66665 5 feet ; at the time these

measurements were made, the river had 12 feet more to rise. In fact it

was when at its lowest level.

Last June I had an opportunity of examining this bridge of boats at

Attock, it contained thirty-six boats, and the river, when they were

moored, had a width of 540 feet, its depth by measurement taken the

preceding year was 10 fathoms, and the current about 6 knots an hour.

By comparing this account of the Attock bridge, with the details

of the river at Bukkur, it is evident that circumstances are greatly in

favour of the former; but surely, if a few untutored boatmen succeed

so well at one place, we ought not to despair of our success at Bukkur.

3 Z

550 Wood’s Report on the River Indus. [ No. 145.

The chief, in fact the only difficulty is, mooring the boats, and to

effect this, the Seiks use an anchor of a form the very worst that could

be imagined, and which has no other recommendation than its an-

tiquity, and perhaps the ease with which it can be dropped from the

boats. The figure is pyramidical, a skeleton of wood filled with stones.

These uncouth things, when once let go, cannot be recovered, and

as the strength of the bridge is not proof against that of the current

in June, July, August, and September, a new set has to be made as

often as the bridge is required to be constructed. Now were a line of

mooring anchors once laid down in place of these wooden baskets, and

beyond chain bridles attached to them, a bridge of boats could be put

together in about as many hours, as days and weeks are now consume

in preparations. ,

The number of boats required to form a bridge, would be built

of a form the best that science could propose, and always kept in

a state of readiness to haul out to their several berths, numbered

as the buoys would be, 1, 2, 3, &c. A bridge so formed, would be

a very solid construction, and able to brave, under proper superin-

tendence, the strongest freshes in the Indus, whether abreast of

Attock or under the fort at Bukkur. Should it become necessary

to destroy it, one end of the bridle chain has only to be slipped

and the mooring anchors are useless to an enemy. But little weight

is due to the opinion of men, who not conversant with military affairs,

cannot be expected to have clear ideas on such a subject. But still

I venture to hold the opinion, that bridging the Indus at Bukkur,

is a practicable question.*

The difficulty would be to moor boats in the eastern channel; but

this once accomplished, the bridge might be made permanent, as the

small western channel might serve for the navigation of the river.

XI.— Of a Site for a Fair.

While Government has it in contemplation to establish an enére-

pot for trade on the banks of the Indus, it will not be irrelative

* I need not observe that this was written before Capt. Thompson (Bengal Engi-

neers) threw his noble bridge across the river, by which the British army crossed in

1838, with their baggage and battering train. py

i, ee ee

1841.) Wood’s Report on the River Indus. 551

to the subject of this report, briefly to say a few words on the locality

of those towns where the mart is likely to be fixed.

This question will perhaps be ultimately decided more by the

existing foreign relations of the different towns, at the time when

this selection is made, than with reference to their geographical posi-

tion, or their local site. Shikarpoor has hitherto been excluded from

the list of places best adapted, to answer the purpose of Government *

but in the turn which current events may give to the political relations

of Afghanistan, that town may yet become one of the enérepdts for

the trade of Central Asia.*

Shikarpoor is not destitute of collateral advantages. The large money

transactions of its bankers; the extent and skilfully organized

agency which they have diffused, are known to all interested in these

matters ; though the advantages of such an establishment can be duly

appreciated by merchants themselves. With steamers upon the Indus,

the proximity of the town to Bombay, the market for Europe goods is

favourable to its site as a mart; and were Bukkur fort in our posses-

sions, the British flag upon that fortress would win confidence by

guaranteeing security.

The Zeearat of Khaja Khizr, a peer, alike worshipped by Maho-

medan and Hindoo, adjoins the fort of Bukkur, and on the anniver-

sary of a certain day in April, multitudes of both creeds flock to this

shrine. Opposite, in the town of Roree, is a place of pilgrimage of still

greater sanctity ; for here, say the faithful, is preserved a lock of the

prophet’s hair.

The distance of Shikarpoor from the river, operates unfavorably

to its becoming a commercial marty it lies eighteen koss inland of its

port of Shukur. From May to September inclusive, boats can come

up to the town by means of a fine canal, called the Sinde, and were

this work deepened and connected with the Larkhana canal or the

Noroab canal of the Indus, we should have an inland navigation

throughout the year, between Sehewan and Shikarpoor. It would

traverse the richest portion of the Sindian territories, and evade

an intricate passage of 100 coss upon the main river. So ad-

mirably is the country adapted for this means of transit, that

* It is a proof of Lieut. Wood’s judgment and sagacity, that his supposition is now

in course of fulfilment. aw

552 Wood’s Report on the River Indus. [No. 115.

throughout the entire line, not a single loch is necessary, save for

occasionally cleaning the canal. The returns would be great, and the

outlay very moderate compared to that of similar work in countries

where natural obstacles have to be surmounted, and labour is a more

valuable commodity than in Sinde.

The country around Shikarpoor is subject to inundation; but west

of the town, and contiguous to the suburbs, is a dry plain, where

buildings to any extent could be erected.

I do not believe there is a healthy spot on the banks of the Indus ;

in this respect there is little choice ; some towns have ailments peculiar

to themselves; but from the day the river begins to fall in September

to the end of November, asthma and fever are common, from the

mountains at Kalabagh to the sea.

Bukkur fort and Roree are built upon hillocks of flint, which though

not high, render both these places more healthy than towns in the

plains. The first is a fortified islet amid channel, and Roree overhangs the

left bank of the river, with a depth of four fathoms water under the

walls. As a depét for military purposes or an entrepdt for commerce,

much could be written in favour of both these places.

Mittun.—The. geographical position of Mittun is superior to that of

any town upon the Indus. In addition to ‘commanding of both the

Indus and Punjaub streams, it stands midway between the gates (as the

natives term them) of Khorassan, namely, the passes of Bolan and Sakhi

Surwar, while immediately behind it are the entrances of the former

pass by the auxiliary routes of Assui and Hunnund. The town is built

upon a small artificial mound, and when the freshes are in the river it

is surrounded on three sides by water; it is two miles distant from the

Indus, but from the middle of June to the 22d of September,

boats can discharge or take in cargo immediatly under the town, by

means of a fine natural water-course, navigable down the Bangalah and

Omerkote. South of Mittun, is a dry plain that fringes the above nullah ;

and should this town be preferred for the site of a fair,* it is on the

bank of this stream that booths and other buildings should be erected.

During the inundated months, camels cannot travel north or west of

Mittun. The inhabitants prefer well-water to that of the Indus. When

* Since selected for the purpose. ae

1841. Wood's Report on the River Indus. 553

the river has been falling for four or five successive days, to drink the nul

lah water is almost certain to bring on an attack of illness ; this the na-

tives attribute, and I think very properly, to the vegetable matter which

must be brought into the water-course, by the drainings of the inunda-

ted districts. Mittun, and the village of Chatchur upon the opposite

bank can, taken together, supply forty boats of from one hundred maunds

burden to one thousand.

I ought before to have said that cutaneous eruptions trouble the

inhabitants of Mittun ; the sores frequently become ulcered, but though

difficult to heal, the disease does not appear to affect the general

health.

Dera Ghazee Khan.—This town has been more than once en-

dangered by the inundation when Nawab Jubber Khan, the brother

of Dost Mahomed Khan of Cabool, was governor of the province ; a wall

that surrounded the town had to be thrown down to keep the water

out, nor is there within a circle of many miles a spot exempt from its

effects. Dera Ghazee Khan is situated about four miles from the

river; but in the swell, like most of the other towns upon the Indus,

it has a large navigable canal, by which it may be approached by boats

for some months. Dera Ghazee Khan has, however, advantages that

it will be difficult to set dside; the town lies at the foot of a pass in the

Soliman mountians, that leads both to Cabool and Candahar, while it is

equally central with respect to the Indian routes. It is the largest

town upon the Indus, and even under the Sikh rule, it wears an appear-

ance of increasing prosperity. Its merchants, though they do not specu-

late largely, have an extensive agency, and a considerable command

of money. The country around yields heavy crops of grain, and the

staples of cotton and indigo, while its home manufactures of silken

stuffs, such as gool buddens, timorees, &c. is only equalled by the

manufacturing marts of Bhawulpoor and Moultan. When to the

above recommendations are added, the fairs at Peer Adul and Sakhi

Surwar, I believe that every thing considered, Dera Ghazee Khan,

or rather some spot in its vicinity, will at once be considered the most

eligible place to lay the foundation-stone of an Indian St. Macrera.

By a reference to the map it will be seen, that Sakhi Surwar and Peer

Adul, are towns in the district of Dera Ghazee Khan; at each of these

places, a large Mela, or fair, is annually kept; that of Sakhi Surwar

554 Wood’s Report on the River Indus. [No. 115.

occurs in the Indian month Visukh, answering to our March. It is

held in honour of the peer, afer whom the place is named; the

fair lasts five days, and pilgrims from India’s furthest shores come to

prostrate themselves at the tomb of Sakhi Surwar. Few come from

the countries west of the Suliman range; and the followers of Brama

out-number those of Mahomed ; the aggregate of both cannot be much

under 100,000 souls. Though commerce is not neglected, there is

but little business done.

A Khorassan or Afghan horse-dealer may now and then exchange

an animal of his stud for the productions of India, or the manufacture

of Europe; but this Mela is essentially an assemblage for devotional

and pleasurable purposes; but with such a material, and the example

of the holy Mecca, it is easy to fortel that (when the fair is establish-

ed,) many individuals in this annual concourse of devotees will become

as enterprizing merchants as they are now zealous and bigotted

fakeers. Sakhi Surwar is twenty-four koss nearly direct west of

- Deera Ghazee Khan; it is a considerable town situated in the mouth

of the pass. Firewood is abundant, and a mountain rivulet supplies

the town with water. At Peer Adul Zeearat, seven koss in a N. W.

direction from Dera Ghazee Khan, a fair is held in February, similar

to that of Sakhi Surwar.

Dera Ismail Khan is never inundated from the river, but is yearly

flooded by mountain torrents. The present town lies about a mile

back from the river, and was built about eight years ago, when the

old Dera was washed into the Indus. Dera Ismail Khan is well planned,

and when its skeleton streets are filled with occupants, they, for width

and cleanness, will match with those of most eastern towns. The

houses are of mud or sun-dried brick, terrace roofed, and rise from

a ground platform of from one to two feet high. Few are of more

than one story. When I passed through it in the middle of summer,

the bazar was well frequented ; but in the winter months it is much more

thronged. The town is a sort of nucleus or rallying point for those

pastoral tribes of Affghanistan, who prefer a clement winter in the

valley of the Indus, to the security of that which characterizes that of

the mountain districts of their own land. Carriage is thus almost

unlimited, as some of the tribes rear camels for no other purpose than to

put them out to hire. The Zohanas, who from before the time of Baber

1841. ] Wood’s Report on the River Indus. 555

have been the great carriers and traffickers of these countries, still

frequent Dera Ismail Khan, The transit trade of India and Aff-

ghanistan is already fixed here, and if the routes radiating from the

town are considered merely in reference to Cabool, then is Dera

Ismail Khan better situated for a commercial mart than towns lower

down the river.

These are all the places that present themselves as eligible spots

for the establishment of commercial depdts west of the Indus; but

should it ever become an object to Government to have the mart

within their own frontier, then Leia, upon the Indian bank of the

river, lying between the two Deras, is its proper site.

But to give full effect to these fairs, it is desirable that two be

established, one for the lower Indus and one for the upper ; the latter

will supply, besides the markets of Affghanistan, those of Central Asia

beyond the Parapamisan chain. The other, by the roads of Kandahar*

and Kelat,* will draw from Beloochistan, the districts around Herat,

and the southern provinces of Persia, their staples of wool, assafcetida,

and madder; while in return, it can supply the whole of this extensive

region with the growth of India and manufactures of the British Isles,

at a cheaper rate than can be done by any other route. Thus, should a

general war in Europe exclude England from the Black Sea, an outlet

equally good for the staples of her trade is offered by the Indus, with

an entrepét at Bukkur and another in the Derajat.

XIL—Lndus and Punjaub Rivers.

Travelling over the Punjab, in a westerly direction, when its rivers

are in flood a little above the parallel of Kalabagh, no less than five

streams are crossed, each occupying a larger bed, and seeming to the

eye, a2 more important river than the Indus.

The Punjab rivers, as are well known, fall into the Indus in one

stream, and if we call our attention to the confluence of the united

volume with the latter, the result is strikingly at variance with ap-

pearances and pre-formed opinions.

* The port of Sommeeanee seems by recent accounts to be most favoured by impor-

ters, and I understand that merchants are only awaiting the pacification of the country,

to commence carrying thence, via Biela and Kelat. pry

556 Wood’s Report on the River Indus. [ No. 1i5.

About the middle of May, I examined both when the relative size of

the Indus and its Indian feeds stood as follows :—

Indus, or Sinde. Chenaub, or Punjaub.

Width 608 yards, max. current Width 1766 yards, current 1.8

4.8 knots, 3.1.1.1.1.1.4.19.13.13. | knots, 24.2.2.121413. 14.2.1323.1.

2.291.291 919191 94.91,9,92.2 | 14, 14.18,2.9.92.9.11.9.9.1.9.14.2.

11.1.3.4.4 fathoms. Discharge | 2}.24.14134221 fathoms. Dis-

per second 91.719 cubic feet. charge per second 68.955 cubic

feet.

Here the principal cause of the disproportionate size of the Indus

is the early commencement of its freshes. Indebted for its periodical

rise principally, if not solely, to snow-clad mountains, an increase is

first perceived in its stream when the sun comes into our northern

latitudes at the vernal equinox in March; but the Punjaub rivers de-

pending upon theirs upon another and less constant source, namely, the

rainy season of Hindostan, have their freshes later. At the time of my

examination in May, the Sutlej, the most eastern of the Punjab rivers,

was at its lowest level; while the Jalum, the most western of the five

rivers, and the one which has its source nearest to that of the Indus,

had already shewn signs of rising; from which I am inclined to think,

that measurements made in July would give, if not an entirely different,

a less disproportionate result in the amount of water discharged by the

Indus and its Punjaub auxiliaries.

But that the Indus is a superior river to the Punjaub, seems very

clear; and amongst the collateral proofs of this which may be urged,

is the direct nature of its course, compared with those of the Punjaub

streams. Also the dread in which the river is viewed by the Mohanas,

who, were the choice left to themselves, would prefer dragging their

boats twenty coss up the Chenaub, to half that distance upon the Sinde.

Another circumstance connected with these two rivers is worthy

of notice; in the Doab, or country lying between them, all canals are

cut from the Sinde, in the month of July, when both rivers are in the

flood, the surplus water of the Sinde pours down into the Chenaub,

proving that though their beds for a distance of sixty miles are not

more than ten miles asunder, yet that in their relative level, there is a

considerable difference.

ae SE a” ae

1841. ] Wood's Report on the River Indus. 557

It appears to me, that Captain Burnes must have erred in giving

so large a fall as twelve inches a mile to the Punjaub streams, and but

half that quantity to the Indus. In the dry weather, the latter river has

most decidedly a much stronger current, than any of these streams,

and even in the freshes, their current as far as I have been able to

observe the Punjaub rivers, is not so strong as that of the Indus. On

the 27th of June this year, the current of the Roree at Lahore was

not more than three knots an hour, and neither that of the Jalum

or Chenaub exceed four.

XIII.—Coneluding Remarks.

It has been matter of regret, that so noble a river as the Indus,

should have no port accessible to vessels of burden.

The disappointment is, however, more imaginary than real. If in-

deed the merchant is necessitated to employ ships of 4 and 500 tons

burden, such a class of vessels cannot enter the river, and he must

land his goods at Curachee, the only port in Sinde open to vessels of

this description ; but if, on the contrary, he prefer water carriage to land

portage, why not avail himself of tonnage? In the fair season, hundreds

of boats frequent the mouths of the Indus; they are the common coast-

ing vessels of Cutch, and none of them exceed, when laden, a draft of nine

feet. ‘The average draft is six and seven. I believe that the principal

mouth, namely, one that discharges the greatest body of water, will

even be found the least navigable, and that the port of the Indus,

though it may fluctuate between the Luckput creek and Curachee, will

always be situated in a secondary branch, discharging little or no fresh

water, but connected with the main stream by a creek or navigable

channel, open only to the flat boats of the river. But even admitting

that a vessel drawing seven feet water could get upon the main trunk,

nothing would be gained, as no other description of vessel but the light

drafted steamer already noticed, will be found to answer upon the

Indus, and such vessels will be able also to keep up the communication

between the sea-going craft and the main river. If then a portage is thus

shewn to be unnecessary merely to give free access to the river, it is

equally useless by way of avoiding the difficulties of navigation in any

558 Wood's Report on the River Indus. [No. 115.

particular part of its course. In my former report, I did indeed advocate

the plan, but I did so then from hearsay. Now I give the result

of my own observation. The navigation of the Delta is certainly

intricate; but the difficulties are not so insurmountable to render a

portage desirable, nor does the river improve so much above it, as I

was at the time given to understand.

In one respect, the authorities on the river have it in their power to

confer a considerable boon on the navigation of the Lower Indus. The

only obstacle in the river, from which danger is to be apprehended, and

which no attention can effectually guard against, is sunken trees. Now

the river brings down none of these from the mountains. All come

from the shikargah, or hunting preserves of the Sinde Ameers. The

supply might be cut off without material injury to these forests, or

interfering with their Highnesses’ amusements. Let the Ameers but

give an order, that between the shzkargah and the river, a clear belt of

twelve yards wide be left, and in a few weeks their numerous foresters

will have cut down a twelve months’ fuel for our steamers, and insure

a path for the trackers.

As these forests do not extend north of Sehewan, the operation

would not require to be carried above that town, the jungle wood there

being too small to affect the channels of the river.

1841. | Wood's Report on the River Indus. 0909

TABLE No. I.

Comparison of Chronometers.

Chronometers. Differences.

Date. No. 256. No. 257. Ist. 2nd.

1836.

Dec. 27th 4 18 00 4 31 05 137 705 2:0

28th 4 13 30 4 26 37 1o0 > (07 2°0

29th 4 26 50 4 39 58°5 137 08"5 1:5

30th 411 15 4 24 25°5 13 10:5 2:0

1837.

Jan. lst 4 12 35 4 25 49 138 14 a7

2nd 4 36 05 4 49 21 13 16 2:0

10th 4 45 35 4 58 06°5 lo" 3-5 1:9

11th 4 42 35 4 56 08:5 138 33°5 2:0

12th 4 48 20 5 O1 55°5 138 35°'5 2:0

Rep, loth |; 11-51 35 12 06 23:5 14 48:5 2:0

20th | 11 18 30 11 34 31°0 15 O1:0 DRS

26th | 10 49 15 11 04 28°5 15. 138°5 2:1

March. Ist | 10 48 00 | 11 03 19 15 19 1:8

Sth | 1109 50 =| 11 25 16 15 260 1-9

9th | 4 38 00 4 53 32:5 | 15 32°5 1:8

April 9th | 4 18 30 4 34 59 16 29 0

14th | 4 02 215 | 4 19 00 16 38-5 1:9

17th | 424 145 | 4 41 00 16 45:5 2:3

18th | 4 00 12 A700 16 48 2-5

19th | 8 49 10 4 06 00 16 50 2-0

20th | 8 54 87°5 | 4 11 30 16 52-5 2°5

27th | 3 34 49 3 52 00 17. 11-0 2-6

29th | 4 00 14 4 17 30 17; -46 2-5

May 19th | 3 35 56 3 54 00 18 04 2-4

- 20th | 2 51 53-5 | 3 10 00 18 06:5 2-5

1838.

July 16th | 9 59 00 BAT O7esa 4.41 2-6) || 3-5

17th | 8 03 00 3 51 05 411 55 2:5

18th | 9 56 58 5 45 00 4 11 58 3-0

19th | 9 43 00 5 30 59 4 12 01 3:0

20th | 74300 | 3 30 56 4 12 04 3-0

560 Wood’s Report on the River Indus. [No. 115.

TABLE No. 2.

From Mittun to Dera Ghazee Khan. The Time-keepers were exami-

ned at Mittun, and again at Dera Ghazee Khan. The following Table

~ shews the result of each rate, while for the Longitude it gives a Mean

of both.*

Diff. Longitude by

Stations.| Latitudes. |Mittunkote. |DeraGhazee, Mean. | Longitude.

Khan.

No. 1 |28°58-25 N.

2 |29:04:38 03°57 04°21 04:9 |70°30°34 EK.

3 |29-:04:49 10°45 11°10 10°37 37°22

4 )29°23:44 12°54 13°31 13°12 39°37

5 ;29°31°53 25°36 26:20 25.58 52°23

6 {29:42:00 25°15 26:01 25°38 52:3

7 |29°53.00 28°34 29:20 28°57 55227

8 |30:06:02 27°34 28°04 28°4 54:29

Dera Ghazee to Dera Ismail Khan. The Watches were examined

at these places, and the following Table gives the Longitude of the

intermediate stations, deduced from a Mean of the old and new

rates.

Diff. of Longitude by rates.

Stations.| Latitudes. | Old. New. Mean. Longitude.

Not 30°33'19 02:00 E.| 01°51 EF) 01°55 E.) 70°56:24 E.

2 30°56°49 01:00W.| 01:18W.| 01:09W.' 70°53:20

3 31:09:09 01:10 E.| 00°39 E.} 00°52 BE.) '70°55°24

4 31°24°55 04°42 04:24 04°33 70°59:02

5 31°37°16 09°57 09:21 09°39 71:04:08

6 | 31:42°30 05:03 04°24 04°43 70°59°12

7 | 31:47-54 06°30 05°50 | 06:10 71:00:39

* Mittun was fixed from Roree.

+ Indifferent.

1841.] Wood’s Report on the River Indus. 561

TABLES,

In which the Geographical position of points and places in the

line of the Indus, as they stand in the published Maps, are compared

with the Observations of the present Mission.

No. 3.

From the Sea to Mittun.

Latitude. Longitude.

Places. Map. Mission. Map. Mission.

im \ ee ae a a Sa ae Hh oc ae

Barree Gorah, ...|24°12:00 N.|24°13:20 N.|67°54°30 E.'67-36:00 E.

Efflux Hejamree,|24.08.42 (24:16:42 {67:57:00 (67-47-03

Tatta Bunder, ...|24'44:00 24°44°30 68°19:00 68-01-06

Hydrabad do. ...|25°22°00 25°22.04 68°41:00 —— (6823-03

Sehewan do. ..... 26:22:00 26.22°35 68:09:00 = (67°55°17

Roree do. ......... 27°43°29 27°41°59 68:56:00 = |68°55°39

Chatchur do. ......|28°53°29 28:52:07 70:31:00 10°27 °57

Mittun do. ...... 28°54:00 28°53°19 70°29:00 70°26°25

No. 4.

Mittun to Attock.

Latitude. Longitude.

Places. oe S| ——— —

Map Mission. Map Mission.

nn 2 fl Lie Yi. Wave cnulwon he OM > ue

INowshaira, . ...... 29:11:00 N.|29°12°19 N.|70°38°00 E./70°35°28 KE.

Raick, »--(29'21:00 |29°24-20 70°45°00 70°39°01

Sherroo, ...(29'42°00 29°42°00 = {7058-00 70°50°08

Dera Ghazee

Khan, ...|29°58°00 30°03°26 §|71°00°00 = |71°51-238

Dera Dean

Pemah,* »--[30°40'00 = |80°33°19 71-06-00 71°00°24

‘Ditto, ...[80°51°30 |80°89°20 ——|'70°57-30 sees:

Leia,.. .--(31:08°00 30°58°01 71-05-00 70°59°23

Rajun, .../31°14:00 31-08°39 71:06:00 = |70°57°42

Khahree, ...__ ...{31°30-00 31:24°25 71-01-00 70°54°0Z

Bukkur, ..._ .../31°44:00 31°37°16 = |71°14-00 71-06°28

Dera Ismail Khan,|31.57‘00 (31°48°39 (71:07:00 = |70°59-30

Kalabag, .. .. [83:07:00 32°57°36 = |71°49°00 71°385°23

Confluence of

Sehewan, _.../83°10:00 = '33:01°48 $$ ____| —_-_____—

Attock, .» 80°00'40 =: '8.3°5 3°53 72:27:00 12:16.27

* East bank. + West bank.

562 Wood's Report on the River Indus. [ No. lio.

TABLE No. 5.

Sectional or Cross River Soundings. st, in the Delta in the months

of December and January.

Parallel of

Latitude. Soundings. _ Widths.

24°17 N.| 5.6.7.6.54.5.41.4.4.3.2.2.2.12.11.1.12 fathoms...

19 | 4.9.82, 4.42, 6.54 51.6, 4.33.31.3.3.21.21.21.2.2.

De MAW p a Teictan eS Voie shenced cea eee Reeve

Phe dol bol 129-3. 32.82.14.11,92.3.21,91 91 1.9.21 2 ead

26 -| 14.14.1b.14.12.12.14.14. 1.14.14.14.14.18.14.13. |

etse2 1292.02, 455

O85 A: 1 ae 2.92.9:9:2.8 2 AL 2 5 seeded

34 | 3.2.3.8 11212. LEILA. 1h. 1.14. 2.2.2.2L01.

91.94.1.114.4. Ante

87° OV SET ts de ee eee

Ts 1S 1 or I a TD log mah 5)

44 -|1.1.1.4,8.3.8.44.32.3.2.14.1.1.1.1.2.3.4. ... | 691

47 | 4.4.4.1.1.4.1.2.1.0.2.3.35.34.323. Su 7 aa:

48 es 2.21.4, 1.1.1.3.3.3.8.32. 32.22,2.13,1.1.

1.2 2) tow dey, NelT Ad. C5. Lia.) een

50 12.24.9.91419. 1.2.2:13.2.9.2.18.14, 14.2.1.

11.2.3 jet

Between the Delta and Sehewan, in the months of January and

February.

Parallelof|* «

Latitude. Soundings. Widths.

5+ Ll. 14.13.2.14.1.1.1.14. 1.14.14. 1$.14.12.14.14.

iy OO i OO a AL! Eb SMe bis)

88. 120.14, 14. 2.2. 259, 19:12, 1.288 a8,

Oy i 2 i 2

4°

loo

—

leo

2%,

563

Wood's Report on the River Indus.

1841.)

Between the Delta and Sehewan, in the months of January and

February.—( continued. )

Belo

Fae lars

= lee Se ao

; +.) © oS nN

5 Ga Cy S&S a 2 SQ ©&

COQ* We) — Sse 1D Ht XX 1D OO

See Senne eee eee eee

= _

_ . cole

: ae N

he oot é iq ric

oat a (al aun .

= aN Ct ale |< riley

e e G inp) rin ale ia 4

. = “ iy N an = rin

al = oa ce oii eg - Te

Way oe a eo ee

SO. |b cet Ce oriole zl hmene taal pe

S ee ae re ee Bee “Ie 5

= Se abs) ay = & ne ral) le) all ae bo

(=| ain e A e % a = 2 5 e i

BS aici eh Gh che Se

OF kis ee ee ae St See

° °

| ee oe ae ae

N a a @ e Looe! * ‘ hy B

at at ay ot ci i py Ait

oe ae es a iy | “A rile

AV a of mt da da. — goat N

ol e 3 © — o 4 * °

= I = rin

ile or Se tenia ae

—|s4 NA e — e |< - Bs a2 of

= I 2 = IN amt GN

Ie Se casduen wee a ee ee aaa

ee : . aS on}. alte ba cals a — SE

— ne) ae ‘. els oa os cals Gnleae ie sit

eijcr IN % coe OS by Hin el ot NE

en eee See OS) ° ml nia SH

Je2ee S Se ae =

CO es OD OS SH et. Siete ee

(2) °

co)

— ~

Se ° FS

oso x pe) ao)

foreiere (ara EO nN

- 1000

Between Sehewan and Bukkur, in the months of February and

March.

Parallelof;

Latitude. |

—

iq}

2 |

, tot aie ih

| sie

oI 88% ist

m= 36 3 =

e e e

ain “ue min

ee! ein aes

aS mit Te

. w= oq

aS = m|N

eo sls eal

° | rin = =

DM = 5 ral

ae eee

ont ==! ° OS

"eS ec mitt 3 8

S Leal iS = s e

=) ome ° “eee

a io ey |

ae e real LO

= e

el Te = Rae

e al 2

| bal | tals

| ica mii tals

a ae bo|sH

| — ON in

Mit ini TIS

| bolsk = ain

tosh

Re ~

1684. yds

we)

ie)

—

bolt

Peal St!

Peal Ot

ally

als

min

Seal

els

ols

QR elt

FIN bo}st

Pe! °

e tls

ois ®

° —

oN calc

ral (|

nN mile

milGae “oe

2 rll

tolst oa

Laps teal}

(oo A |

564 Wood’s Report on the River Indus. [ No. 115.

Between Sehewan and Bukhur, in the months of February and

March.—( continued. )

Parallelof;

Latitude. Soundings. Width

42’ 1.4.4. aie 33.5. behet: 13.13.14. 1.3. 4.

i bbe gtlte, 1 1 1 e880, 1 1 1 1

eaten ® TASS 2° 4.3.4 ee 3.4.1 14.23.25

-1.... 11600 yds.

NS)

feet KO

NS)

Sen: pS)

oD wie

bole

NS)

DOG Bc ve etek Og st eS

45| 4.1.2.2.2.21,21.91,91 91.9.9, 91.9191, 91,91,

Q.15.12.12. 12.15.15. 15.14. (ib: gebleae?

970] (| 2.2.2.2.2.2. 14.14. 14. 14.12. 12. 12.14. 12.14.

Es arta i teoebe et Oe wel Come Ware een |< Wao

18, 3.3.72.14.14.12.12,15.2.21.21,91,9.91, 31.42,

An p54 i' TER EE AAI Melk let) Ck St)

29 13.23.34. 4.4.44, 4.3.3.3.22. 22.22.2012 12.14,

1314.12, > | ae grote oe)

AO| 13

O 13.2.25.13.9.91, 13.15.14.12, 1h.14. 1.8.4.4.

1.3.5.3. 1.14.12. 14.14. 15.28.25.21, 2.23.3,

age.13el. 1896

Between Bukhur and Mittun, in the month of April.

Parallelof

Latitude. Soundings. Widths.

270 58! | 234..44.4.33.34.32,3.22.2.13.14.14.14. 14.14. 14.12. 1.1.

ae Fos ae eas ad ee we» [O61 yds.

28003! | '2:2.22.35.02.93. 2.14.1. 18.4.8.209.0,9.03.12.20: 129.2.

ng Ee pe sg Bs a sd Deo | ee

qa}. =A sat ae Berne Bee «ss. MOG

08 sh 4-242.11 1.13.12. 14.12.2.22, 22.12.14.1.1.8

2.4.2.3. 4.9.1.14.13.14.1}. 13.12.14. 19.14.14.14.12.

13.2,2,2,2,2.21,.22.93.9.12,14.1.12,2,21.23,3.92.3. .., | 1128

1841. | Wood’s Report on the River Indus.

Between Bukkur and Mittun, in the month of April.

Parallel of;

Latitude.

Soundings.

ey i) 12,.12,13.13.2.

3.23.2.24,23.22.9.9.2.2.92.2,9.3.13.

ee al

213.15.9:9.43,13.13,12.13.13,12.

“lof o) Moles Ree Yar “100 yds.“ 3.3.3.3.3.9.8, 112.

VG 9) 4:3.5.4.2.2.2.4.4.3.3.2.2.2.8.3.3. 1.1.1, 1.1.1.1.L. 11.1.1.

4.4.42.4.44.33.3.22.13.3.33.4.4.1.

—

—_

—

HIco

leo

—

wie

ble

die

ble

iw)

et = Ie

ESS aie a ea

43 aay Dai

1.14. 12. 13. 13. 2.2.22.22,

14.2.22.1.13.1414.12.2.2.2.12.

Blea:

mle

ico

Nik

bole

565

Widths.

——=

1969 yds.

663

1685

1859

1323

995

Between Mittun and Kalabagh, in the months of May, June, & July.

Parallel of;

Latitude. Soundings. Widths.

58! 3.$-1.13.9. 3.2.3. 4.4. $.9.1.1.01,0.1.1.1 1.1.1,1,13.15.12,9.91, 9293.92,

2#.23. - {600 yds.

29° 04/ | 4.4.4.1.13.14.2.19.13.2.2,2,9.2.9.4.7.92. salea®

onttee, -

12 1,19.2.2.2.2,19-1.14.15.19.19.15.19-2 ab 290.189. $4 1.1.111.

(iT h)

1, 1.4.2.2,2.2,23.24.23.23.23.24.91.9,.9.13.14, 14.14.13.12.1.1.3 4.4.4.4.2.

1132

566 Wood’s Report on the River Indus. [No. 115.

Between Mittun and Kalabagh, in the months of May, June, & July.

(continued. )

Parallel of

Latitude. Soundings. Widths.

237 | 43.19.18.15.13.13.4.15.45S" Sag S1..1.1.4001. 1,19.2.2.23. 4.

a *egygt® “eeaas®

OPA CLUS Us brie: 2 OR by A a Sd

42 ss yt Wee Be ap a LLL. Laaddadiaaegaa’d 31.1.3.1.22,

13.23.3.3.22. 2.2.2,2,13.12.22.12.12.3. 0 ase wee, enews | A074 yds.

300 57 | 42 12.9, 13.13.2.2,2.9.18.13.13.13.19 19.15.45.13.13.15.1}.19-1,1.1.2.2.2,

2.13,14,14.1.13.14.13.1.13.13.1.3.1.12.13.12.12.13 92.92.92, 0. | 707

B10 47! | 43,9.43.44.1.1.3.3.2.2.1.13.1,3.2.9.2,9,13.13.13.12, 12.92 12.13.13, 13.9.2,

2.2.2 2,2.93.92.93,93 91 34.91.9912 13.9.2.9.9.92.942.42.12492.2. | 4554

320 10. | 23,03.23.92.9.9.9.13.13 12.13.12.12.1.1.1.1,1.3.3.3.3.12 2.12.1.13.11.1.1

SAARSS24149.49.45.5.111.13.14,13.2,92,92,92,92.92.43 313.1113

PEPeec rene See ey i aa oe

After advancing North of the Parallel of 290 the freshes were found strong and the river high,

soundings therefore it is needless to multiply, since the increased discharge does not affect the

depths so much as the current, and the general width of the river’s bed.

TABLE No. 6.

Irregularities in the bed of the Indus Soundings.

Between Attock and Kalabagh, there is at some places

a depth of (in the freshes,) ... oo 650 ... 31 fathoms.

Ditto Kalabagh and Dera Ismail Khan, under the moun-

tains on the west bank, do. ... dae fee --- 10 ditto.

Ditto Dera Ismail Khan and the Sea, influence of the

tide never had a greater cast than, .. Lo --. . 6 ditto,

The result of a register kept at Hyderabad gives the

mean depth in the freshes at about, ... $6 .«. 4 ditto.

But the common depth in the freshes, ... ce soot! Oe att.

1841. | Wood's Report on the River Indus. 567

Current. miles. yards.

The usual current in the freshes is, aa as fee, (Ore?

When the freshes are strong, ... ce Rete ww 6: 1272

The greatest measured velocity, S3u 236 een Os ae

Between Attock and Kalabagh, where the river is hem-

med in by mountains, it is estimated in the freshes, ... 10

In the dry season usual, Ms Mec sis Ber i erie)

Ditto ditto strong, mn ve a soe 1248

In achannel 1855 yards wide, the current in the middle of July has

been found to vary its strength in different depths as follows :—

F fathom ......secceecevees 2°7 knots.

eR Oerac armen tees 12 “eerste,

MOS aie, Wee bikald aco Paice 4°7 do

f Mee a stee Penk ck onthe test 2°9 do.

PMO lccick Mosales, 22 reicteterces 4°8 do

ee WO. sian seiclae sic sto seis’ tniaei 5°8 do.

By experiments with Massey’s patent Log Machine, the ground current

of the Indus has been found equal in velocity to that of its surface.

When the stream A encounters the bank at B, it is thrown off in the

direction C’; that part of the bed called D is thus cut off from a further

supply. An irregularity in the level is the immediate consequence, to

restore which, a surface stream rushes up, as represented by the coloured

arrow in the figure; but as the water at the bottom of the surface

D runs off by the declivity of the river’s bed, no equilibrium can take

place, while a rotatory motion, fatal to the bank, is given to a large

body of water in its immediate vicinity.

568 Wood’s Report on the River Indus. [No. 115.

TABLE No. 7.

Tonnage upon the Indus.

Kurwars from

80|70)60'50/40| 30 | 20 ;} 10 | No. of; Remarks.

ay Rey se | do |. A, Pa eee 88 oI

Boats, ...{100 |90/80/70\60/54;} 40 | 30 | 20

by, Between the

Doondahs} 7 |33]47\50/'70/70) 100 | 100|150| 627 |Seaand Buk-

kur.

Doondahs} O |0/0/0/0/0} O 11 | O 11 |Bukkur and

Tohruks, | O|0);0;0/;0/0| 60 | O 0 60 Mittun.

Tohruks,} O|010;0/0/0| O |107| O | 107 |Mittun and

Duggahs,| 0 /01/0/0/0/0/] 10] 0 | O 10 |Kalabagh.

a cee eS fee

Kalabagh

Duggahs,| 0 ae 0;0;0| O | 46; O 46 Pe OMe

ete | eee es | me | ee | ee | ee | eee ee

Total,| 7 '33'47/50'70'70l 170 | 264! 150! 861

Abstract.

Upon the Lower Indus are 627 boats carrying 25,530 Kurwars.

Do. Upper do. 188 do. do. 6,550 do.

Do. Attock, 46 do. do. 1,150 do.

Total, 861 33,230

Deduct for old and worn-out 161 0,635

Boats, 700 carrying 27,595 do.

Available between the Sea and Attock, in which neither fishing craft

nor the boats of the Punjab rivers are included.

ee ee a ae ee ee ee

1841. | Wood's Report on the River Indus. 569

TABLE No. 8.

Price of Boats at Pind Dadur Khan.

A Tohruk, cedar built, of 100 mds. costs 100 Nanukshakee Rupees.

do.

200 do. 200 225 do.

do. 300 do. 300 do.

do. 400 do. 350 do.

do. 500 do. 450 do.

do. 600 do. 475 do.

do. 700 do. 500 do.

do. 800 do. 500—600 do.

do. 900 do. 600—700 do.

do. 1,000 do. 700—800 do.

TABLE No. 9.

Hire of Boats.

On the Lower Indus Doondahs of 16 Kurwars |? Korah Rs. per diem.

do. do. 35 do. 34. do. do.

do. do. 40 do. 34 do. do.

do. do. 38 do. 34 do. do.

do. do. 60 do. 41 do. do.

On the Upper Indus, Tohruks of 100 mds. at 10 Rs. Goondah per month.

Ditto ditto 700 ditto 60 ditto ditto.

And in the same proportion for Boats of a greater or less burden.

Note.

The Nanukshakee and Bombay Rupee are all equal. Goonda is one

anna short of the Nanukshakee.

127 Korah—100 Rupees Bombay.

18 Mamads—1 Kurwar.

570

A Sketch of the Second Silver Plate found at Badakshan. By Aurx-

ANDER CUNNINGHAM, Esa.

In the seventh volume of the Journal of the Asiatic Society, at page

1047, was published a sketch of an ancient silver plate, obtained by the

late Dr. Lord in Badakshan. In a letter to me, enclosing a drawing of

a second silver plate, which he had fortunately obtained, he mentioned a

fact regarding the first plate which is worth preserving; namely, that

it “had been an heir-loom in the family of the Meers of Badakshan,

who claim to be the descendants of Alexander the Great; and it had

been sold by them in their distress, when they were conquered and

imprisoned by Meer Morad Beg of Kunduz, to Atma Ram, his Déwan

Beghi.”

Regarding the second plate, I cannot do better than quote Dr. Lord’s

own words: “ I was aware there was a second paéera, but I failed in all

my attempts to get it when I was before in the country. I have now

however succeeded ; but find, to my astonishment, that its subject is

not Grecian, but pure Persian; probably Shdpir killing a lion, as seen

in the Persepolitan figures. The patera is pure silver; weight 104

kaldar rupees, (312 drs.) the workmanship of unequal merit; the

heads of both man and horse, particularly the latter, appear to me far

superior to the other parts; you will notice the peculiar way in which

the horse’s tail is tied up.”

I can add nothing to Dr. Lord’s description, except that the original

silver plate is 11:2 inches in diameter; and that there is a short in-

scription of dotted letters on the back of the plates; which appear to

me to resemble very closely the Pehlvi characters of the Sassanian coins.

Dotted inscription on the back of Dr. Lord’s plate’ For the facstmile copy of this

: : it...» inscription, I am indebted to

2 e” & *oa*

e 6

Se wcneteent” * i aie ®

seasttavtee” *%, ia the kindness of Lady Sale.

In the four corners of the sketch, I have represented four coins, illus-

trative of the subject on the silver plate.

No. 2 is the obverse of a silver Sassanian coin, published in the

Journal of the Asiatic Society, vol. vi. 14, fig. 1, by Mr. Prinsep,

‘

1841. ] Silver Plate found at Badakshén. 571

from his own cabinet. The king’s crescent head-dress is the same as

that on the silver plate; and the position of the right arm seems to

indicate, that it must have pointed a spear towards the indistinct object

which is seen between the horse’s fore legs, and which is probably the

lion of the plate.

No. 3 is the reverse of an early Mahomedan copper coin, published

by Mr. James Prinsep, as fig. 2, pl. 14, vol. vi, of his Journal. The ob-

verse has a head and some illegible letters. I have lately procured a

similar copper coin, on which the horseman faces to the right; on the

obverse is an inscription in ornamental Cufic characters, ‘“‘ Us sultan ul

azem Ala-ud-dunya wa ud din ;” and above the horseman on the re-

verse are the remains of the letters of the name; and between the

horse’s legs is the word whack, Bamiadn, the place of coinage. I sup-

pose this coin to belong to Ala-ud-din Husén, Ghori, who was called

the Incendiary, after having mercilessly destroyed Ghazni, and put an

end to the Ghaznivide dynasty.* The horseman I believe to have

been copied from the coins of the Hindu kings of Lahore, of which

No. 5 in the lower corner to the right is a silver specimen of Syalapati

Deva.

No. 4, in the left lower corner, is a gold coin of one of the later

Guptas, on which the subject is the same as that represented on the

plate; the only difference being that on the coin the horseman is using

a sword instead of a lance. This coin may date about a.p. 500.

The earlier coins of the Gupta family also display the same subject ;

but on them the lion is attacked by a bowman on foot; and on the

reverse, the goddess Lakshmi is seen sitting upon the vanquished ani-

mal.

The subject represented on the plate, and on the coins of the Gup-

tas, is then substantially the same; namely, a hero-king overcoming a

* A large hoard of the Indian gold coins of his nephew, the celebrated Mahomed

Ghori, the first Mahomedan king of India, has lately been found in the Huzara country,

About one-fourth of the gold coins are of ‘ Sri-man Kumdra Pala Deva’’—the re-

maining three-fourths being of Mahomed Ghori. They are highly curious, as proving

that the Musulman conqueror was content to have his name only represented on the

coinage of the country, without changing the Brahmanical character of the coin. On

the obverse is the seated figure of Durga, and on the reverse, in Deva Nagari characters,

is the legend, ‘Sri Mahajdina Mahamada Séma,”’ for Sri Moaz-ad-din Mahummud

Sam.

572 Silver Plate found at Badakshan. LNo. 115.

lion. The Guptas besides, were contemporary with the most flourishing

period of the Sassanian monarchy, from a.p. 350 to 500, and even

an interchange of presents took place between them and the Sassanian

kings; but which however both parties mention as tribute.

But the coincidence of subject on the coins of the Guptas and Sas-

sanians becomes more striking, when we see that the sculptures, gems,

and coins of the latter represent the lion being attacked by a hero on

foot. A gem published by Ouseley in the Oriental Collections, repre-

sents the Sassanian king Balash, or Balasces, on horseback, exactly in

the same way in which the kings Chandra Gupta and Kumara Gupta

Mahendra are represented upon the Indian coins. But the most curi-

ous circumstance is, that we can trace this same horseman from his

first appearance on the coins of the Bactrian king Mayas,* (whom I con-

fidently hope to be able to identify with Demetrius, the son of Kuthy-

demus, ) through the coins of Azas and Azilisas, Undopherras, and Abal-

gasus, down to the Indo-Parthian king Arsaces; and then through the

Sassanian sculptures, gems, and coins, and through the coins of the Hin-

doo Guptas of Kanoj, and the Pala family of Lahdér, down through the

Mahomedan coinage of the Ghaznivides, and through the Pathan coin-

age of India, to the time of Mahmud, the cotemporary of Timur; or

from B.c. 200 to a.p. 1400, for a period of 1600 years. All this

I undertake to make good, when I shall publish my account of the na-

tive coinages of India.

ALEXANDER CUNNINGHAM.

Lucknow, 25th June, 1841.

* I beg to refer my readers to a paper in No. 96 of the Asiatic Society’s Journal, in

which the identification of Mayas with Demetrius was first maintained in opposition to

the theory of Mons. Raoul-Rochette, and others. My friend Lieut. Cunningham has, I

am gratified to find, adopted my views, as stated in the paper above noted; views how-

ever which he is infinitely better qualified than myself to maintain by sound historical

argument. py

(Se)

Note by Captain Hay, on a Bird, native of the Eastern Islands,

undescribed (?) in a Letter to the Editor.

Kurnaul, June 7, 1841.

My pear Srr,—lf the following account of an extraordinary bird

met with among the Eastern Islands may prove new and interesting,

you will probably insert the following in your Journal: if otherwise,

destroy the communication. It is as far as I can see a new genus,

but distant as I am from books, or the means of access to new dis-

coveries, and not being in communication with Mr. Swainson, what

I insert is with diffidence.

I can hardly describe the colours of this bird better than by saying,

it partakes of precisely the same met with in that well-known and

beautiful moth, the Bombyx Atlas, upon which insect it is supposed to

feed; and it is not improbable, for their localities are the same, and it

will be seen how admirably adapted for a trap is its mouth.

On first obtaining this very extraordinary bird, I commenced exa-

mining the generic distinction of “ Eurylaimus,” to which at first sight it

appeared to be most likely allied. The somdre colours, together with its

enormous bristles, seemed to point it out as a night-feeder, and sent me

to hunt amongst the ‘‘ Caprimulgide ;” but with the assistance of

Swainson’s Birds, 2 vols. in the Cabinet Cyclopedia, and of Vol. x. of

the Naturalist’s Library, 1 have not been able to discover any named

genus, to which this very extraordinary, and I imagine very rare, bird

belongs. .

I have apparently two species, if they be not male and female ; the

length of one however being 164 inches, whilst the other is not above

nine; and the larger coming from Sumatra, whilst the smaller was

procured from Malacca, lead me to believe them different species of the

same genus.

General colour of plumage, different shades of chestnut and rufous

brown, or ferruginous. Wing coverts dark chestnut, tipped with angu-

lar white spots, shaded at the edges with black: the larger wing coverts

are tipped with black spots, the white edging being scarcely visible ;

the neck has a collar (resembling a pendent crest from the back of the

head) of similarly marked feathers, though less distinct. Whole of the

Bitne hr ko Mun

Jk tes fA 4 lw,

574 Note by Capt. Hay on an undescribed (?) bird. {[No. 115.

belly, and beneath wing and tail, pale ferruginous ; throat and breast

somewhat darker, and speckled with white: wings and tail ferruginous

and barred.

Total length of bird 1634 inches. The bill measures 2? inches, is

wider than the head, and shaped much the same as in Eurylaimus ;

colour of bill dark red, edged with yellow: the upper mandible overlaps

the lower, and has a very sharp edge ; bill strong, but not thick in pro-

portion to that of Eurylaimus. Nares so small as to be scarcely visible,

and so flat that the point of a penknife cannot easily be introduced ;

not basal and round as in Eurylaimus, but longitudinal, and covered

by long bristled feathers lying along and over its extremely hooked

bill; similar feathers cover the bill to its base, and then recline;

width of bill at base 24 inches. The eyes are not furnished with

lashes above. Wings long and rounded, the sixth quill the longest

and tipped with black. Tail 6 inches. Tarsus feathered and long,

ventral feathers entirely hide the feet, which are moderately strong,

having the inner edge of the nails lengthened and somewhat flatten-

ed, middle toe the longest.

This is without exception one of the most extraordinary birds I have

ever seen, and I do not remember it to be noticed by Dr. Horsfield.

The nares being so different from the broad bills, and the supposition

being, that it rests upon branches to receive and devour that immense

moth, the ‘‘ Bombyx Atlas,” I would propose, should it be a new genus,

naming it ‘“‘ Bombycistoma ;” or should a more experienced naturalist

discover a genus already named, the specific name I would call

‘* Bombycivoras.” If however it is as I believe entirely new, I would

name it ‘“‘ Bombycistomas Fullertoni,” after the late Governor of

Prince of Wales’ Island, whose kindness first led me to visit the East-

ern Isles, and where I first imbibed my taste for Ornithology.

In describing this bird I have before me, specimens of the genera

“ Eurylaimus,” ‘‘ Cymbirynchus,” and “ Psarisomus.”

The second species which I have above mentioned, has a less brilli-

ant plumage, and length only 9 inches. Bill 14 inches in width,

similar to the former, but the bristles covering the nares are less pro-

minent ; wings not so lengthened ; belly of a much lighter colour ; and

the beautiful white and black spots so conspicuous on the larger bird ©

here scarcely attract the eye.

1841. | Note by Capt. Hay on an undescribed (2?) bird. 575

A third bird procured by me at Malacca would appear to unite the

bird first described with Eurylaimus ; the bill in shape and form is the

same, but wanting the stiff bristles ; the legs are also much stronger,

nails differently formed, and tarsus naked. As this is also a rare bird,

I will describe it as well as Iam able. Extreme length 11 inches.

Bill 14 inches in width ; culmen more arched than in the former, or

than in either of the genera above named ; eyes unprotected. Nares

basal and round, colour bluish black, throat and upper part of breast

dirty ochre. A white bar under both wings and tail. This possibly

may have been described, but I think not. These Broadbills are a

very interesting series of birds ; the most dull in colour is that last des-

cribed, and by far the most beautiful, the ‘‘ Psarisomus Dalhousie”

of Swainson, which rare bird I have been so fortunate as to procure.

My desire is to make, what I consider a new bird known ; not to

claim a name, which after all may be considered inappropriate, and

would then be passed over by Naturalists, ‘“‘ as if it never had existed.”

It appears to me, that this will be the typical character of the Broad-

bills instead of Eurylaimus, in which case its name will be changed by

Swainson, under whose observation I hope this bird may come.

The enclosed very rough sketch will serve to give some idea of

the appearance of the head or bill, and if it prove new, it may be in-

teresting to your Ornithological readers.

C Crs uw pr.

S LEA Sox Le tee

576

Hxamination of some decayed Oriental Works in the Library of the

Asiatic Society. By H.Pinpineton, Ese. Officiating Curator,

Museum Asiatic Society.

At the request of our Secretary, I have undertaken the chemica}

examination of the decaying Oriental MSS. Works in the Society’s

Library, of which the following is a description :—

It is found that,. principally in the Arabic books, at the end of a

certain time, a shade of black is observable about the letters. This

gradually appears to increase to a cloud round each word, such as

would be produced by a light shading of Indian ink. It increases to a

decided brown, and eventually a black colour, when the leaves become

wholly decomposed in the middle, where the black is most intense,

and fall to pieces like tinder, (the writing still remaining quite visible

upon them,) so that they crumble under the fingers; and in short re-

semble, in those parts, books which have been burnt in close vessels ;

reminding us of the descriptions we read of the MSS. of Herculaneum

and Pompeii. In some places, where the page is surrounded with an

ornamental border of red and black lines, the black line appears so

completely to have destroyed the paper, that the page may be almost

taken out, as if it had been cut round with a penknife. The Moulvees

said it was owing to the “ kuth,” (catechu,) but the effect seemed a

very unlikely one to be produced by an astringent. The disease, how-

ever, evidently arises from the ink; the paper where not written upon,

being in good preservation where it has not spread from the writing.

To discover what can have produced this very serious mischief, was

the problem to be solved.

1. The smell of the carbonised parts was something approaching to

that of caramel; the taste sharp, saline, and acid, but not caustic.

2. A quantity of the tinder-like matter from the centre of a book, equal

to about half an octavo page, was boiled in distilled water. The solu-

tion was of a dark clear red-brown colour, it reddened litmus paper

very sensibly ; there was therefore free acid, and no free alkali present.

3. The presence or absence of the following substances were shewn

by their corresponding tests as follows :—

{Sulphuric acid... ... Acet. Barytes.

Piedomnd ye } Muriatic acid, (trace,) ... Nit. eines

Hotass), 2°... Fs ... Mur. Platina.

| Lime, (minute quantity,).... Oxal. Ammonia.

1841. | Examination of some decayed Oriental Works. O77

Tron, “ ae

Tinct. Galls.

**" ) Prussiate Potass.

oe) Ammonia.

| Nitric acid, Be .»» Mur. Acid and Gold leaf.

4, The solution being evaporated, a portion of the carbonaceous

Absence of 4 brace

matter became insoluble. Cold alcohol did not act on the gummy mass

left, nor was any soluble salt obtained by it.

5. Acetate of barytes was added to the clear solution, and the pre-

cipitate dried at a low red heat, weighed 2.25 grs. which would give

0.75 grs. of sulphuric acid for each half, leaf or 450 grs. (by weight)

for a volume of 300 pages. This is of course but an approximative

calculation ; but we may be fully satisfied by it, that the quantity of free

sulphuric acid in the book, is quite sufficient to produce the mischief.

6. This decomposition of paper, so as to crumble to pieces between

the fingers, (though without being much discoloured, ) is familiar to every

chemist, as happening daily to the edges of his filters with acid and

alkaline solutions of but moderate strength. The discolouration may

arise from the ink and iron carried by capillary attraction through the

fibres of the paper with the acid, or finally, since the ink remains

unaltered in most parts, from the carbonisation of the paper.

7. I suppose the excess of acid to have arisen from the use of an

excess of crude sulphate of iron (heerakosh) in the ink, which, either

ignorantly or by design,* is added in too large quantities, and thus an

extra portion of sulphate of iron, in addition to the sulphuric acid set

free in the composition of ordinary inks, remains in it. Sulphate of

iron is a sulphate of the protoxide of iron, and the vegetable matter

of the paper being particularly prone to combine with both the acid

and the iron, of which last the common iron-mould spots are such

familiar examples ; it may easily be supposed, that in our humid climate,

with its high temperature, new chemical combinations must soon take

place amongst the varied principles of paper and ink-starch : gum,

vegetable fibre, gallic and sulphuric acids, iron, lime, and potass ; of

which, as we see, the result is, that the carbonaceous matter of the paper

alone remains. An analogous effect is observed by mineralogists upon

labels or wrapping papers, when, by the decomposition of pyrites, sul-

* Bydesign. There are secrets in all trades, andour Moulvee informs me, that the

copyists of ‘* Arabisthan’’ well know that their books will not last too long, and so spoil

trade,

578 Examination of some decayed Oriental Works. _[No. 115.

phate of iron is formed in specimens. The specimen upon the table is an

instance where this has gone on, and at the contact of the decomposed

pyrites, the label is exactly reduced to the state of our books. Another

effect, perhaps of this kind, is the discolouration of the leaves of books

printed upon ordinary paper, in the making of which, it is said,

gypsum is used in considerable quantities to increase the weight. In

this case, as gypsum has a tendency to decomposition when in contact

with vegetable matter, the sulphuric acid may also be set free? The

paper of these books becomes brownish, brittle, and finally crumbles to

pieces, so that it is called “ the dry rot.”

The practical inference to be drawn from all this, for our use and

that of other Societies and collectors, is, 1 think, this; that in copying

MSS. we must prohibit the use of mineral inks—being never certain of

their composition—and employ only China ink, which with a little

trouble, is well adapted for fine Oriental writing. This being pure

sepia or carbonaceous matter, will probably be as lasting as the

best paper. I have moreover recommended, that all paper used for

copying in the Library, should be well soaked in a solution of alum,

which will take off the excess of starchy and gummy matter in the size,

and perfectly secure it against damp; for paper so prepared is crisp

in the dampest weather, and no insect will touch it. I should thus

hope our MSS. will be placed in safety for a long period; but I should

urge on the Society the prudence of securing copies of all the rare

works, in which this discolouration has begun. There is another prac-

tical inference, which I also take leave to suggest, and it is the follow-

ing: May there not be a great mass of Government records, subject to

this cause of decay, through the use of ill-made ink ?

Museum, 26th June, 1841. H. PippineTon.

Norse.—This valuable memorandum was prepared by Mr. Piddington, on

my shewing him a copy of the “ Murrat ool Jinan,” which had been com-

pletely destroyed by the process above remarked on. The MS. is from

Egypt, and copies of it very rare. Alarmed at the destructive process to which

other valuable MSS. in the Library of the Asiatic Society were subjected by

similar decomposition, I at once set copyists to work to make duplicates of

all which shewed signs of decay, profiting by the suggestions offered in

this paper, for prevention of the injurious effects of bad ink and paper. [

may add, that I have procured from Lucnow a copy of the lost MS. which is

in course of transcription.

ee =

o79

On Bos Gaurus. By W. Exuiot, Esa. M. C. S. (from the Madras

Journal of Literature and Science. )

The notice of the Bovine Genera by Mr. Hodgson of Nepal, published

in No. 114, and the observations on Bos Gaurus by that able naturalist

and by Dr. Spilsbury, which have already appeared in this Journal,

may be well followed up by an extract from Mr. Walter Elliot’s (Madras

Civil Service) ‘ Catalogue of the Mammalia in the southern Mahratta

country,” describing the animal above named, with reference to an article

by Mr. Hodgson on the same subject in the 6th vol. of this Journal. One

or two short notes have been appended by Mr. Hodgson to Mr. Elliot’s

paper, which appear with this reprint of it. By thus borrowing Mr.

Elliot’s excellent paper from the Madras Journal of Literature and Science,

I shall have been enabled to unite with and submit to my readers all that

intelligent naturalists in various parts of India have observed and re-

corded regarding one of the most remarkable of Indian quadrupeds

“indicated distinctly,’ says Mr. Elliot, writing in 1840, “only within

the last two years,’ and doubly remarkable from its apparent identity

with the extinct species, fossil remains of which have been exhumed in

Europe.

It may be worth while to quote a curious notice, one of the earliest,

if not the earliest, by any English writer, of the Bos Gaurus, from the

narrative of his captivity in Candy by Capt. Knox, (a. pv. 1673,) who re-

sided 19 years in the country: I met casually with it, and do not know

but that it may have been quoted before. The writer is however so

correct, and sagacious an observer, that I venture to incur the risk of re-

petition in order to supply testimony to the existence of the Bos Gaurus

in Ceylon at the time of his confinement there.

(Knox’s Historical relation of Ceylon, Chapter VI.) ‘ Here are also wild

buffaloes; also a sort of beast they call gawvera, so much resembling a

bull, that I think it one of that kind: his back stands up with a sharp

ridge; all his four feet white up half his legs. I never saw but one, which

was kept among the King’s creatures.” poy

58.—Bos (Bibos) Cavifrons, Hodgson—Journal Asiatic Society

Bengal, vol. vi. (1837) pp. 223, 499, 745.

Bos Gaurus, Griffiiths.— Gour, Geoff.

Kar kona, Canarese.

Jungli khoolga, Dekhani.

Gaviya, Mahratta.

It is somewhat remarkable that one of the largest animals of the In-

dian Fauna, frequenting all the extensive forest tracts from Cape Co-

580 On Bos Gaurus. [No. 115.

morin to the Himalayas, should only have been indicated distinctly,

within the last two years. I have seen specimens from Tinnevelly,

and likewise from the whole range of the Syhadree mountains up to

Mahableshwar, and I know that the animal has been killed near Vel-

lore, in the Sherwaroyah hills near Salem, at Aseergurh, in Kandes,

Rajamundry, and I doubt not that it will likewise be found in all the

deeper recesses of the eastern Ghauts, and on the banks of all the great

rivers passing through them. An imperfect cranium, which seems to

belong to a female of this species, in the United Service Museum, is

labelled thus ‘“‘ Head of a Bison from Kuddah, Straits of Malacca,

presented by Lieutenant-Colonel Frith, Madras Artillery.”

The following memoranda were made in 1833 in the southern Mah-

ratta country, at a time when I had frequent opportunities of seeing

the animal. ‘It is called Gaviya by the Mahrattas, Jungli khoolga

and Urna by the Mahommedans, (though it has not the slightest affi-

nity with the buffalo, to which both of these names apply), and Karkona

by the Canarese, which is of similar import, from Aadu, a forest, and

Kona, a buffalo.

It differs also very remarkably from the common ox, and though it

approaches considerably more to the descriptions of the bison, the name

generally applied to it by English sportsmen, it exhibits marked

structural differences, excluding it from the Bisontine group as defined

by Cuvier. These consist in the plane of the fore-head being ‘“ flat

and even slightly concave,” and in the possession of only 13 pair of

ribs. It is not improbable that it will be found to constitute a con-

necting link between the Bisontine* and Taurine groups. The most

remarkable characters in the animal are an arched coronal, or convex

bony ridge, surmounting the frontal bone, and projecting beyond it so as

to make the line from the vertex to the orbit a concave sweep; the

continuation of which from the orbit to the muzzle is slightly convex.

The other distinctive mark is the prolongation of the spinous proces-

ses of the vertebre of the back, from the withers to the loins where

they cease abruptly. These processes are 12} in number, and their pro-

longation gives the animal a very extraordinary appearance.

* One prime character of scull is enormous massiveness, three time that of the Ox’s

scull.—B, H. H.

+ 13, or same as the ribs.\—B. H. H.

Re ae Pe a a Oe

a a se, Se

1841. | On Bos Gaurus. 581

The largest individual I met with, was killed in an island of the

Kala Nuddee in the district of Soonda, in 1827. A noted shikaree,

the Potel or headman of Alloor (a Hubshee or negro descendant of some

of the numerous African slaves imported in the 15th century by the

Mahommedan kings of Beejapoor, and who still exist as a distinct

race, in this district,) called us at day-light, and promised to shew us

one of the animals described by him as a wild buffalo. Crossing the

river in a canoe, we struck into the forest and soon came upon a track

which he pronounced to be that of a large bull. On this he proceeded

with the steadiness and sagacity of a blood-hound, though it was often

imperceptible to our eyes. At times when a doubt caused us to stop,

he made a cast round, and on recovering the track summoned us to

proceed by a loud whistle, or by imitating the cry of the spotted deer,

for not a word was spoken, and the most perfect silence was enjoined.

As we advanced he pointed silently to the broken boughs or other

marks of the passage of a large animal, and occasionally thrust his

foot into the recent dung, judging by its warmth of the vicinity of the

game. We followed his steps for three miles to the river, then along

the banks towards Dandelly, where the animal appeared to have passed

to the other side. Wading across, we ascended the bank of a small

island covered with thick underwood, and some large trees, amongst

which it had lain down, about fifteen yards from where we stood. The

jungle was so thick that we found it difficult to distinguish more than

a great black mass among the underwood. On firing the animal got

on his legs, received two balls more, and rushed into the jungle where

he became very furious, and we were obliged to shelter ourselves be-

hind the trees, to avoid the repeated charges he made, though one

ball through the shoulder which had broken the bone above the elbow,

prevented his moving with facility. He then became exhausted and

lay down, snorting loudly and rising to charge when any one approach-

ed. A ballin the forehead caused him to roll over the precipitous

bank into the river. Still however he was not dead, and several balls

were fired into his forehead behind his ear and the junction of the

head and neck without life becoming extinct; one ball which had

struck the vertebrze of the neck was taken out almost pulverized.

When drawn ashore and examined more minutely, the first sentiment

produced in all present, was astonishment at his immense bulk and

582 On Bos Gaurus. [ No. 115.

size; but on measuring his height we found him much taller than his

breadth at first led us to imagine.

The head is very square, and shorter than in the common ox, the

forehead ample, the bony ridge rising about five inches in height from

the plane of the frontal bone over which it inclines. When viewed be-

hind it rises suddenly and abruptly from the nape of the neck, from

whence to the vertex it measures seven inches, the horns make a wide

sweep, in continuation of the arched bony ridge, and turn slightly back-

wards and upwards, forming an angle of about 35° with the frontal

bone, the whole of the head in front, above the eyes, is covered with a

coat of close short hair of a light greyish brown colour which below the

eyes is darker, approaching almost to black. The muzzle is large and

full,* of a greyish colour, the eyes are smaller than in the ox, with a

fuller pupil of a pale blue colour, the ears are smaller in proportion

than in the ox, the tongue is very rough and covered with prickles,

the neck is short, thick, and heavy, the chest broad, the shoulder very

deep and muscular, the forelegs short, the joints very short and strong,

the arm exceedingly large and muscular. Behind the neck and im-

mediately above the shoulder rises a fleshy gibbosity (?) or hump, the

same height as the dorsal ridge, which is thinner and firmer, rising

gradually as it goes backwards,} and terminates suddenly about the

middle of the back. The hind quarters are lighter and lower than the

fore, falling suddenly from the termination of the ridge, the tail very

short, the tuft only reaching down to the hocks.

The dimensions of this individual were carefully noted as follows :—

feet inches.

Height at the shoulder........sssssssseecceceeeeece wislaehleisbeleeiatol 6 12

Do. at the rump (taken from hoof to insertion of tail). 5 5

Length from the nose to the insertion of the tail. ......... 9 64

Do. do. to the end of the tail which was 2 ft. 10 in. 12 44

Do. of dorsal ridge including the hump. ..........seeeeeee 3 4

Height of do. GO. UE IOUNET tae se oelnine te 0 41

Girth (taken behind the forelegs) ........scscccessccesseeers 8 0

Bycadthof'the forehead: 31/103 .ca vans adewasise Mivcte hee 1 3h

* Less than in Bos or Bubalus.—B. H. H.

+ Quere forwards? The height of the true dorsal ridge declines from the third pro-

cess of the vertebre, and the general appearance of the ridge therefore is a declination,

not a rise, towards the croup from the withers.—B. H. H.

1841. ] On Bos Gaurus. 083

From the muzzle to the top of the arched bony ridge... 2 13

Distance between the points of the horns ..... ....sseeeee- 2 1

Circumference of horn at base ....00... cose sesccesee ouvee 1 74

Between rene roots: Of Hornss..\ iscsi csueccieascicieoadesisvedss nice O 134

BiGreth GF tHe CAL... ce. vc csnnsecslsiestinsnssveeenaneseusisess O 104

Cireumference.of the neck 25. s20 0c. ssseceesneseseedeveees’ vee 4 4

Depth of the shoulder (from the elbow to the end of the

BAM MBELEE )) 701) sis vinisiciesiv'o eolcoe meelew i oe sieces coelewieleni one coral 24

From the elbow to the knee (i. e. the fore-arm) .. ...... 4 52

From the elbow to the heel .......cccccdeescceecose coscrces 2 7

Ciremmference Of the ATM, .......esacraersteccences covcssess 2 6

The skin on the neck and shoulders and on the thighs is very thick,

being about two inches in this one, which has already shrunk from

lying in the sun. It is used for making shields, which are much prized.

On examining the skeleton picked clean by the vultures, we could only

distinguish thirteen pair of ribs.

The cows differ from the male in having a slighter and more grace-

ful head, slender neck, no hump, a less defined dew-lap, and the

points of the horns do not turn towards each other at the points, but

bend slightly backwards; the horns are smaller too, and the frontal

bone narrower, but the coronal or ridge is distinctly marked. The

bulls have the forehead broader in proportion to their age. In the

young bull it is narrower than in the cow, and the bony ridge scarcely

perceptible. The horns too in the young specimen turn more up-

wards.

The general colour is dark brown, the hair thick and short, but in old

individuals the upper parts are often rather bare. That on the neck

and breast and beneath is longer, the skin of the throat is somewhat

loose, giving the appearance of a slight dew-lap. The legs are white,

with a rufous tint on the back and side of the forelegs. The skin of

the under parts when uncovered, is a deep ochry yellow. The cow has

the legs of a purer white.

The breeding season is said to be early in the year, and the calves

are born after the rains. The bulls are often found separate from the

herd, which consists generally of from ten to fifteen cows and a bull.

They generally feed during the night, browzing on the young grass and

the tender shoots of the bamboos, of which they are very fond. In the

584 On Bos Gaurus. [ No. 115.

morning they retire to some thicket of long grass, or young bamboos,

where they lie down to ruminate. When disturbed the first that per-

ceives the intruder stamps loudly with its foot to alarm the rest, and

the whole rush through the forest, breaking down every obstacle, and

forcing their way with a terrific crash,

dat euntibus ingens

Silva locum, et magno cedunt virgulta fragore.

£En. vii. 676.

When suddenly approached in the night, they start off with a loud

hissing snort.

In 1831, I saw a young Bison calf in the possession of some Gowlees,

the owners of large herds of buffaloes in the Hangul talook. It was

caught when just dropt, in the month of May, and when I saw it, was

seven months old, very tame and gentle, though timid, licking the

hands of the Gowlees, and frisking about with the buffalo calves. It

was the same colour as the old animal, very dark brown with white

legs. The head small, the forehead wanting the breadth so remark-

able in the adult, and the bony ridge of the crown was hardly percep-

tible. The horns were just beginning to sprout, the ears larger and

rounder than those of the buffalo, the eyes a pale grey or cerulean colour.

The hair on the throat was long, and the dew-lap slightly indicated.

No hump was perceptible, but the dorsal ridge was distinctly marked.

The Gowlees say, they see great numbers of Bison when pasturing

their herds in the neighbouring forest. They describe them as very

timid and watchful, more so than any other wild animal, always repos-

ing in a circle with their heads turned outside, ready to take alarm.

They add, that they see most calves from June to October, but the

greatest number about August. They do not know how long the cow

goes with calf, but suppose the period of gestation to be the same as

that of the buffalo, or ten months and ten days. The old male drives

the others from the herd at the breeding season, and the single ones

seen in the jungle are young males of this description, and it is proba-

ble the very old bulls are sometimes expelled also by younger and

stronger males.” | |

For the following particulars derived from the observation of the animal

in the Shervaroyah hills, 1 am indebted to Mr. Fischer, of Salem : “ The

Bison ordinarily frequents the hills, seeking the highest and coolest

parts, but during the hottest weather, and when the hills are parched

1841. | On Bos Gaurus. 385

by the heat, or the grass consumed by fire, the single families, in

which they commonly range the hills, congregate into large herds, and

strike deep into the great woods and valleys ; but after the first show-

ers, and when verdure begins to re-appear, they again disperse, and

range about freely. In wet and windy weather, they again resort to

the valleys, to escape its inclemency, and also to avoid a species of fly

or gnat, which harasses them greatly. In the months of July and

August, they regularly descend to the plains, for the purpose of licking

the earth impregnated with natron or soda, which seems as essential to

their well-doing, as common salt is to the domestic animal when kept

in hilly tracts.

The chief food of the Bison seems to be the following grasses and

plants :-—

Yadanyjan cody

Vallaum pilloo ..sccoveseeceee A species of Sacharum, used for thatch.

Odeserengan pilloo

The cottay woottoo leaf... .. Ricinus Communis, Castor oil Plant.

Mullum pilloo .....cccoveeeee Anthystiria polystachia, Roxb.

Canavum pilloo ........ . ...Sorghum muticum. Wild Cholum.

Cheevum pilloo .. s+... a aney Broom grass. ( Aristida).

Cattoo Corangan leaf ...... A species of Convolvulus. Ipomea

Staphylina ?

but they will eat with avidity every species of grain commonly culti-

vated on the hills or plains, as the ryots find to their cost. The Bison

particularly is so fond of the avaray cottay (Dolichos Lablab, Ainslie),*

when in blossom, that they will invade, and destroy fields of it, in

open daylight, in despite of any resistance the villagers can offer. In

other respects it is a very inoffensive animal, very rarely attacking any

one it encounters, except in the case of a single bull driven from the

herd. Such a one has occasionally been known to take up his location

in some deep bowery jungle, and deliberately quarter himself on the

cultivation of the adjacent villages. The villagers though ready to

assist Europeans in the slaughter of Bison, will not themselves destroy

them (the inviolability of the cow extending to the Bison); and so bold

does this freebooting animal become in consequence, that he has been

known to drive the ryots from the fields, and deliberately devour the

* Country bean.

586 On Bos Gaurus. [No. 115.

produce. But in general it is a timid animal, and it is often difficult

to get. within gun-shot of them.

The period of gestation is with the Bison the same as with the do-

mesticated animal; they drop their young in the months of September

‘and October. I once had one brought to me so young, the navel string

was still unseparated. I should think it was then about the size of a

common country cow’s calf of four months old. It seems a slow grow-

ing animal. A calf I had for three years was evidently in every res-

pect still a mere calf. They seem very difficult to rear. [ have known

it attempted at different ages, but never knew the animal to live beyond

the third year. Mr. Cockburn has tried it in vain, in its native cli-

mate, the Sherwaroyah hills, and 1 have made the attempt at Salem

repeatedly. At one time I had five in my farm-yard; one lived for

three years: but this one, with all the others, died suddenly in the

same week from some disease, marked by refusal of food, running from

the nose, and an abominable stench from the mouth. A similar disease,

it may be noted, prevailed, I was informed, at the same time, among

the Bison of the Sherwaroyah, Shandamungalum and Neilgherry hills.

The calves I had, never became in any degree domesticated: the do-

mesticated cow could never be induced to suckle them.”

I may add, that the persevering ferocity of the Bison of the Sub-

Himalayan range, described by Mr. Hodgson, is quite foreign to the

character of the animal in the southern forests. When wounded, it is

true, it charges its assailant with determined courage, and many in-

stances have come to my knowledge of its doing so with fatal effect,

among which I may cite those of two officers within the last few years,

both of whom were killed at the Mahabaleshwar hills; but in general

it will always seek its safety by flight, if permitted.

inches.

Height from the end of the maxillary bone to the vertex... 22

Breadth of front between the edges of the horns.......+. .+ 13 tol4

Length of horn from base to point in a straight line ...... 21

Do. do:talone the eurve’.2. 7c tae ee cescsesseseueasebes 30

Diameter (longest section) inside diag std do, pa elie yak 64

Be. 0l\ Ciroadest do ji P TO, A ey en 43

CHemmereneé at:the Bases. 2) el eA a ol ae 182

587

Proceedings of a Special Meeting held at the Asiatic Society's Rooms.

(Friday, 14th May, 1844. )

The Hon’ble W, W. Bird, Esq. in the Chair.

Read the following letters ; viz.

From Mr. A. Csoma de Korosi of the ist May 1841, tendering to resign the office

of Librarian to the Asiatic Society of Bengal, and requesting permission to occupy

his present quarters in the Asiatic Society’s premises till the period of his departure

from Calcutta. Also offering for the acceptance of ‘the Society ‘‘ the half of his

salary’ received by him during the three years of his employment as the

Society’s Librarian.

From Mr. Secretary Bushby, No. 309, dated the 7th April 1841, communicating

copy of a letter from the Hon’ble the Court of Directors, advising that they had

sanctioned the payment of an advance of £150 to Mr. E. Blythe, selected by

Professor Wilson as Curator of the Museum of the Society, for his outfit and

passage, and requesting information as to the mode most agreeable to the Society

to refund the advance made to Mr. Blythe by the Court.

On the foregoing, it was resolved—

That the Committee recommend that the resignation of Mr. Csoma de Korosi be

accepted, with the expression of the acknowledgments of the Society ;—That the So-

ciety do not accept the refund of the half salary for three years ;—That the Society

with reference to the continued connection with Mr. C. de Korosi accede to placing

him on the same footing as he was before he became Librarian, and permit him to

remain in the rooms he now occupies till his departure.

_ That the Committee recommend the Society to employ a Librarian on 100 Rupees

per mensem, and suggest that candidates be invited to submit their application,—the

Secretary in the mean time, taking on himself the charge of the Library.

That the invitation be conceived in the following terms:—‘‘ The Society beg

to state that no candidate need apply who is not a man of education and of literary

habits, more or less acquainted with Oriental languages, and who is not prepared to

attend in the Library for not less than four hours a day.”’

The question of re-payment of the advance to Mr. Blythe for outfit made by the

Court of Directors being laid before the Committee, it was resolved—That the sub-

ject be left in abeyence till his arrival.

With reference to the foregoing Resolutions, the following letters to Mr. Csoma

de Korosi and to Mr. Secretary Bushby were addressed, and a ‘‘ Notice’’ published

in the daily papers under this date.

‘To Mr. A. Csoma pE Korost,’

Librarian.

“Str,—Having submitted to the Committee of Papers of the Asiatic Society your

letter dated the ist instant, tendering your resignation as its Librarian, with

588 Asiatic Society. [ No. 113.

liberty to retain your present quarters till the period of your departure from

Calcutta, as also the offer of half the salary received by you during the three years

- of your employment, I am desired to state that, although the Society accepts your

resignation, with the expression of its acknowledgments for your valuable services,

yet it cannot accept your offer of the refund of ‘* the half salary for three years ;”

but your motives for making it are duly appreciated.

2. With reference to the continued connection with yourself and the Society, the

Committee of Papers accedes to placing you on the same footing as you were before

you became Librarian, 7. e. to receive an allowance from the Societyof Rupees 50

per month, with permission to retain, till your departure from Calcutta, the rooms

now occupied by you.

3. The foregoing arrangements to have effect from the 15th instant.

Tam &c.

(Signed) H. Torrens,

Secretary Asiatic Societys

‘To G. A. Busnsy, Esa.

‘ Secretary to the Government of India.

‘Srtr,—I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your letter, No. 309, dated

the 7th ultimo with its enclosure, and in reply to state for the information of the

Right Hon’ble the Governor General of India in Council, that the Asiatic Society

would prefer that the consideration by them of the suggestion of the mode of re-

funding the advance of £150, for outfit and passage made to Mr. E. Blythe, who has

been selected as the Curator of the Society by the Hon’ble the Court of Directors,

be left in abeyance till the arrival of that individual.

I have, &c.

(Signed) H. Torrens,

Secretary Asiatic Society.

NOTICE.

Wanted, a Librarian for the Asiatic Society of Bengal, at a Salary of Rs. 100 per

month. No candidate need apply who is not a man of education and of literary

habits, more or less acquainted with Oriental languages, and who is not prepared

to attend in the Library for not less than four hours a day.

Applications to be submitted addressed to H. Torrens, Secretary Asiatic Society.

589

Proceedings of the Asiatic Society.

( Wednesday Evening, 7th July, 1841.)

Dr. J. J. H#BERLIN, Senior Member present, in the Chair.

Mr. S. G. T. HEatTLy proposed at the Meeting of the 2d June last, was ballotted for and

duly elected.

Ordered, that the usual communication of his election be made to Mr. HEATLY, and that he

be furnished with a copy of the rules of the Society for his guidance.

Library and Museum.

Books received for the Library of the Asiatic Society, for the Meeting of the 7th July, 1841.

Mantell’s Wonders of Geology, London, 1838, 8vo. 2 vols.

The Calcutta Christian Observer,. for June and July 1841, New Series, vol. 2d, Nos. 18

and 19.

Lardner’s Cabinet Cyclopedia—Swainson and Shuckard’s Histery and Natural arrange-

ment of Insects.

Transactions of the Linnean Society, vol. 16th, part ist, vol. 17th, part 1, 2, 3, and vol. 18,

parts 1, 2, 3, 7 vols.

Caleutta Monthly Journal, &e. for May 1841, 1 vol.

Yarrell’s History of British Birds, part 23d.

Annuals and Magazine of Natural History, No. 41, March 1841.

Oriental Christian Spectator, Second Series for March, April, and May 1841, Nos. 3, 4, 5,

Bombay.

Maha-Nataka, a Dramatic History of King Rama, by Hanumat, translated by Kali Krishna

Bahadur, Calcutta, 1840, 1 vol.

Genealogical and other accounts of Maha-Raja Kali Krishna Bahadur, Calcutta, 1841.

Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, vol. Ist, Nos. 12 and 13 for 1840.

Proceedings of the Linnean Society of London.

Catalogue des Livres composant la Bibliotheque de feu M. Klaproth, Paris, 1839. 1 vol.

Read the following report from Dr. E. Rorr, appointed Librarian to the Asiatic Society of

Bengal in the room of Mr. Csomo DE Korost, resigned.

H. TorREws, Esa.

Secretary, Asiatic Society.

«Sir,—I have the honor to submit to you the following report :—

Having taken charge of the Library on Monday the 21st of June, I thought it my duty to ascer-

fain the number of the European Books; the number not being specified in the Manuscript

Catalogue, and I found it to be the following :—

English Books, cc ond ae ae seul 2,202

Ditto Pamphlets, ... “0 aoe ae eas 2112, 503

French Books, ate nee ono a9 sow 1,140

Ditto Pamphlets, ... ae eee eee eas 209——1,349

Latin Books, “CC, wae he awe ase 537

Ditto Pamphlets, ... a aes Ms ate 27—— 564

Miscellaneous Books, ate Ba aE ace 331 2

Ditto Pamphlets, ... ace aes aa eae 39—— 370

Books lent out, Sor ae ves ae 205

Ditto Pamphlets ditto, Bes oy “cc ava 14—— 219——5005

590 Asiatic Society. [ No. 115.

It is highly satisfactory to me, as it will no doubt be to the Committee, to know that most of the

Books belonging to the Society are in good condition. I am, however, sorry to say, that some

of the Manuscripts of the Sanscrit and Persian Library are in a state which threatens irreparable

loss, if not immediately transcribed.

Of these I forward a list.

The key of the Medal Cabinet having been delivered to me by Mr. Prppineron, I counted the

medals in the presence of Mr. DE Koros and Mr. Boucnez, and found their number exactly

corresponding to that stated in the list, excepting two impressions which were not mentioned

in it.

My attention has been directed to the arrangement of the Books and of the Catalogue, and I

avail myself of the present opportunity to make a few remarks.

The arrangement of the books is made, I perceive, according to the languages in which they

are written, and in each division they are placed according to their size; the same plan is

adopted in the Catalogue, with the exception, that the Books instead of being placed according to

their size, are arranged after the alphabetical order.

I need not stay to inquire how this arrangement is at variance with a proper classification,

as I think this is clearly apparent, I shall merely offer a few remarks concerning it.

As the proper and principal design of the arrangement of a Library is to promote the most exten-

sive and the most beneficial use of the books, no classification which does not approach as

near as possible to the natural division of literature in general, can be satisfactory.

An arrangement opposite to the classification of sciences, isolates the use of the books, while

a Library, arranged as strictly as possible according to the subjects, suggests at once all that is, and

all that is not contained in the collection relating to the different branches of science, and at

the same time invites and introduces the inquiring mind into the outer halls of science.

All the large libraries which I have seen are arranged according to this plan, for instance those of

Berlin, Goettingen, and Wolffenbuttel.

It is desirable, that this principle should be followed in the arrangement of every library; yet it

must be allowed, that it can strictly be adhered to only in large collections which contain the lead-

ing works of every branch of learning; it must, however, be borne in mind, that an arrangement

according to a well-concerted plan, though not followed out in the minor niceties, is infinitely pre-

ferable to an arrangement, based upon a contrary principle. ;

For a Catalogue there is not, however, the same necessity for such an arrangement. A Catalogue

has to state only what books are in a library, and to point them out, so as to be easily and

immediately found; the alphabetical order seems to be a sufficient provision.

This arrangement is adopted in the Catalogues of many libraries. There is, however, another

purpose in the framing of a Catalogue which should not be forgotten, and that is to inform the man

of reading and science, what advantages he may derive from consulting the library. It can scarcely

be expected, that such information can be obtained by an alphabetical order. To peruse a Cata-

logue of a large library to ascertain what works it contains, relating to particular branches of learn-

ing, is a waste of time to which few people will submit, and consequently a library may contain

many excellent works which have escaped the notice even of literary men, and the Catalogue

therefore fails in accomplishing the most important purposes for which it was made.

If the foregoing remarks be correct, a new arrangement of the Library and Catalogue is desirable.

The number of books being 5,000 and upwards, is, I think, sufficiently large to sanction such

an arrangement, and as a new Catalogue is now about to be printed, this is perhaps the most

favorable time to make it, should the Committee deem it necessary.

Under this impressidn, I have directed my attention to a proper arrangement of the Library and

Catalogue, which might afford the members of the Society the greatest facility in using the books.

I have now the honor to lay the arrangement which I think it desirable to make before the

Committee; but I would, however, beg to say the arrangement is based on a Classification of the

1841.] Asiatie Society. 59)

subjects, only as far as the deficiencies of the Library will admit, and will afford, if not all, most of

the advantages of the above plan.

A. B. (oH

Classical Literature. Oriental Literature. European (modern) Literature.

A Classic Literature.

I. Philosophy. II. History, &c. III. General Literature.

Thus also the Oriental Literature.

European (modern) Literature.

I.—Theology,

I1.—Jurisprudence,

TII.—Medicine,

IV.—Philosophy,

V.—Mathematics,

Vi.—Natural Sciences,

VII.—History (including Diplomacy, Numismatology, Biography, Memoirs, &c.)

VIII.—Geography, Topography, Statistics, &c.

IX.—Travels and Voyages,

X.—General Literature,

XI.—Linguistics, (Dictionaries, Grammars, &c.)

XII.—Proceedings, Records, &c. of Societies, Journals, &c.

XIII.—Encyclopzdia Works.

XIV.—Maps.

T have not stated the sub-divisions in the arrangement of the Library, as they must depend upon

the number of works in each division.

In the Catalogue each division will be arranged alphabetically, according to the titles; but no

sub-divisions will be made; still however, it will be desirable to annex an alphabetical Index of the

names of the authors, with reference to the page of the Catalogue in which their works are to be

found.

In concluding this Report, I would remark, that Ihave already completed in Manuscript, the

Classical and Oriental sections, and the division of History also in the third section.

Should the Committee approve of the arrangement I recommend, I shall endeavour to complete

it as soon as possible.

T have the honor to be, Sir,

Your obedient servant,

E. RoEr.

July 1841.

Ordered that the Report be referred to the Committee of Papers for consideration, as regards the

adoption of the plan of arrangement and classification of the Books recommended by Dr. RoER.

Read the following Report of the Officiating Curator for the month of June last :—

H. TorrReEns, Esa.

Secretary Asiatic Society.

Sir,—For the month of June I have the honor to report as follows :—

“Geological, Paleontological and Mineralogical Depariments.—Our catalogues and arrange-

ments are continuing. In the Geological department we have obtained a very interesting addition

to our collections. In my report to Government on the soils brought from China by Captain

HALstED, and sent to the Museum of Economie Geology, I pointed out that it was matter of

much regret that no rocks accompanied the soils, from a place where so many curious phenomena

had evidently taken place, and were yet going on. The Right Honorable the Governor General has

been pleased to interest himself in this matter, and to request Captain HatsTEp to favour us with

any specimen of the rocks which he might possess, and the result is the very curious series now on

592 Asiatic Society. [No. 115

the table; being basaltic hornblende from the central peak, calcareous sandstones and concretions

from the raised coasts and adjacent islands, with one or two specimens of indurated clays, and a

specimen of what I should almost venture to term a lias limestone! found in boulders about the

mouths of the voleanoes. When to this we add the fact that of sixteen specimens of the soils of the

island, only two are in any degree calcareous, and these probably from the admixture of shells, we

have evidence that the voleanoes have formed the soils by eruptions of mud, either before or since

the upheavement of the island, since from the absence of the calcareous matter the soils cannot have

been formed like the coast rocks. It would moreover appear, that the eruptions have been from

different strata, amongst which one much resembles the lias, so great a novelty in Indian Geology ;

but which according to FRANKLIN, is found {in the basaltic district of Bundlecund, in the direct

line between the mud volcanoes of Cheduba and those of Sommeanee.

Osteological.—We are beginning to mount the skeleton of the Neelghye.

Ornithological and Mammalogical.—Nothing new to report.

Conchological.—Captain HaLstED has obliged us by a small collection of shells from Cheduba

and the neighbouring islands, of which some will be additions to our cabinet.

Botanical.—We have also in this department to announce an addition to the development of

our knowledge of Indian Natural History. My report for the month of May, and the Paper on

the Society’s Himalaya Lichens, published in the Journal, anticipated the probability, that we

should discover valuable ones in our vast extent of territory ; and I have nowthe pleasure to an-

nounce, that one of our own specimens No. 17, which at first gave a brilliant crimson, has now

changed to a rich purple, shewing that it is of considerable value as a dying Lichen. The bottle

containing the liquid has been placed at the disposal of the Right Honorable the Governor Ge-

neral for transmission to England; and we shall endeavour to procure such a supply of the Lichen,

as may enable proper experiments to be made.

Museum of Economic Geology.—Dr. Aneus has been kind enough to procure for us from DR.

Hunter of Futtyghur, specimens of the green glass bottles, and of the mixture used for manu-

facturing them there, as also of the clay from which the fire bricks are made.

He has also been good enough to promise us larger specimens of the materials from which the

frit of the glass bottles is made, the scum and the melted material, we shall then possess in a second

instance, (Mr. W. PRINnsEP’s contribution from the iron mines of Burdwan being the first) spe~

cimens of a complete Indian mineral manufacture, from the raw material up to the finished produc-

tion for the use of man.

Additions to the Museum have been as above stated.

Captain Halsted, H. M. S. Childers.—Geological specimens from Cheduba.

A collection of Shells, principally from Cheduba.

Dr. Hunter from Fuityghur through Dr. Angus.—Three green glass bottles from the Futtyghur

manufacture, with sample of the mixture from which they are made.

Specimen of the earth from which the Futtyghur fire bricks are made.

H. PrppineTon,

Vth July, 1841. Acting Curator, Museum Asiatic Society.

Read letter No. 685, dated 18th June last, from the Secretary to the Government North West Pro-

vinces, forwarding Lieut. R. B. SmirH’s communication, submitting outline of a project for the

elucidation of the Economic Geology of the North West Provinces.

Read also a letter from Lieut. R. B. Smiru, of the 12th June last, received simultaneously with

the foregoing, intimating the submission of his project.

Ordered, that the papers be referred to the Committee of Papers for consideration: meanwhile

Lieut. SmirH be addressed to send the Tabular Forms prepared by him, said to embrace all points

essential to the formation of an estimate of the Economic value of the materials specified and re-

ferred to in his letter to Mr. Secretary THomason, of 3d June 1841, paragraph 4.

——-

1841. | Asiatic Society. 598

Read a report from the Officiating Curator, of the ist April 1841, on the Cabinet of Coins belong-

ing to the Asiatic Society.

Read also a letter from Mr. Csoma Dr Korost, of 31st March 1841, with a list on the same

subject.

Ordered that the papers be referred to a Committee specially selected, for investigation and

report upon the subject, with a view to the adoption of measures for preventing the cause of

complaint connected with this particular branch of the Society’s Museum; and in pursuance of the

foregoing resolution, the Officiating Curator, Messrs. HUFFNAGLE and STIRLING, and Dr. Ha@Ber-

LIN were selected to form a Committee for the purpose.

Read a letter from Capt. Geo. TwEmMLow, Bengal Artillery, of 18th June 1841, forwarding speci-

mens of black shining ore-like particles, which form on the ground of the table land near the

fortress of Gawilghur near Ellichpore after rain, wherever water has run, the ground being of

reddish soil, formed apparently from Basalt under decomposition. On inspection of the specimens,

they were pronounced by the Officiating Curator to be the common granular Magnetic Iron Ore,

Ordered, that Capt. TwEmMLow be informed accordingly.

Read a letter from Capt. W. E. Hay, of the 7th June 1841, descriptive of an extraordinary Bird

he met with among the Eastern Islands.

Read a letter from Lieut. A. CUNNINGHAM, of the 25th June last, on the Inscriptions from the

Girnar Rock.

Read a letter from Capt. Jacos, of 15th June 1841, forwarding a Transcript in Nagree characters

of the Ancient Inscriptions on the Girnar Rock near Joonaghur, in Kattywar, comprising the

Eastern portion of the Rock.

Read also two letters from Lieut. Postawns, on the products of Khorassan.

The Secretary informed the Meeting, that the subjects treated of in the foregoing papers, would

be published in early numbers of the Asiatic Journal.

Read a letter from Mons. E. Burnovur, of 12th April 1841, acknowledging Moorcroft’s Travels,

and regretting the interruptions of intercourse between the two Societies, &c.

Read also a letter from the Secretary Linnean Society, London, 10th November 1840, forwarding

3 vols, of the Transactions of the Linnean Society, and noticing the irregularity with which the

Asiatic Researches have been received by the Linnean Society, with Memo. of what portions of the

publication have been received,

Ordered, that the publications required as presentations be forwarded, and occasion taken to

improve the connections of the Society with scientific bodies in England, and on the Continent of

Europe.

As connected with the subject, the question for printing the Transactions of the Society was dis-

cussed, the printing of which had been neglected for several years from the want of subjects, the

magnitude of the expence of printing, &c. In removal of the first objection, the Secretary propos-

ed to place at the disposal of the Committee of Papers such papers as were received by him from

594 Asiatic Society. [ No. 115.

contributors to the Journal for consideration, whether they should be omitted in the Journal to be

printed in the Transactions.

Referred to the Committee of Papers for consideration and report.

Read letter from Moulvie ABDOOLLAH, of 11th June 1841, soliciting the patronage of the Asiatic

Society by subscription of his undertaking in reprinting the three volumes of the Futwa Alumgeri,

a work of great merit and of extensive use in Mahomedan Law.

Also referred to the Committee of Papers for consideration and report.

Read a note drawn up by the officiating Curator, on the examination of some decayed Oriental

works in the Library of the Asiatic Society.

A carved Slab, dug up at Gurgoon, was presented by the Assam Tea Company, In forwarding

it, the Secretary, Mr. Hampton, writes: ‘‘ By desire of the Directors of the Assam Company, I have

‘* the pleasure to forward for the acceptance of the Asiatic Society, the accompanying carved Stone,

‘received recently from Assam.”

Read letter from Rajah KALLEEKRISHNA Bahadoor, of 23rd June 1841, forwarding for the ac-

ceptance of the Society, a copy of his English version of Maha-Nataka, a dramatic Hindu work,

originally written in Sanscrit, together with the original, and a short account of himself.

Read letter from Mr. Secretary Mappock, of the 28th June last, regarding the furnishing of

certain instruments required for the Magnetic and Meteorological Observatory, proposed to be

established at Lucknow.

Referred to the Officiating Curator for report.

An iron Bar of exact linear measurement for surveying purposes, constructed by the late Mr.

James PRINSEP, presented by his brother and executor W. PRINSEP, Esq. was submitted for the

inspection of the Meeting.

For all these presentations and contributions, the thanks of the Society were accorded.

a ee

—

sao ee ee en eee eee ee

Le ee ee

Oe ees

JOURNAL

OF THE

ASIATIC SOCIETY.

Scheme of a Table for all Time. By Capt. R. SHortrepe, Assistant

Surveyor General.

I enclose for publication, if you approve, in your Journal, a Per-

petual Time Table, which I constructed sometime ago; by the help of

which may be found in less than half a minute, the week-day of any

date for thousands of years, past or future.

Besides the directions given on the back, little more seems necessary

to render intelligible the method of using it. The Table consists of

three concentric circular cards, each having seven divisions corres-

ponding to the days of the week. On the outer are written, from left

to right, on three circles, the odd years of a century. On the second

card are written the full centuries, of New Style on the outer, and of

Old Style on the middle circle ; the order of these being from right to

left. Within are the days of the week from left to right. The third

card has the days of the month from left to right, and within

these, the twelve months in a peculiar order, each following month being

as many divisions to the left as the days in the preceding month

exceed 28. ‘

In using the Table, the first thing is to adjust the second card with

its proper century to the zero on the outer card; thus for 1841 New

Style, the full century being 18, the division containing the N. 8. 18

on the second card, is to be brought opposite that division on the outer

card which contains the double zero (00). This being done, the middle

card will require no change till the year 1900, when the centurial divi-

sion containing 19 (N. 8.) is to be brought opposite the (00) division.

No. 116. New Serizs, No. 32. 4k

596 Scheme of a Table for all Time. [No. 116.

The odd year 41 of the century being found on the outer card, the

division containing it is that by which the months are to be adjusted

throughout the year: the division containing the given month being

brought opposite that of the 41, the days of the month will be opposite

their proper week-days. For example, to find the week-days of the 8th

and 18th of June—June being brought opposite the 41, opposite the 8th

will stand Tuesday, and opposite the 18th stands Friday. In like man-

ner December being brought opposite the 41, opposite the 23rd stands

Thursday. For the 18th June 1815, the centurial adjustment re-

maining unchanged, June being brought opposite the year 15 on the

outer card, the 18th is seen opposite Sunday. The battle of Preston

happened on the 21st September 1745, Old Style, required the week-

day. The Old Style century 17th being brought to the 00, and Sep-

tember to the year 45, opposite the 21st stands Saturday.

The battle of Culloden was fought on the 16th April 1746, O. S.

required the week-day. The centurial adjustment remaining as before,

April being brought opposite the year 46, opposite the 16th stands

Wednesday.

Thus the Table is used with equal facility for N. S. or O. S. dates.

The second card having the full centuries of both styles, (which may

be continued at pleasure), shews at once those which have the same

week-days. The O. S. centuries are continued by successive additions

of 7, and those of N.S. by additions of 4. The reason of which is,

that a Julian or O. S. century having 25 leap years, consists of 5200

weeks and 125 days. Now 125 days are short of 18 weeks by one

day, hence each Julian century commences on a week-day earlier by

one than did the preceding century ; so that the same week-days must

recur after a period of seven centuries. But in the New Style there are

three Gregorian centuries and one Julian ; and as a Gregorian century

has only 2% leap years, it consists of 5200 weeks and 124 days, being

two days short of 18 weeks. The loss of two days on each of the three

Gregorian, and one day on the Julian century, amounts to a week every

400 years, and hence the recurrence of the same week-days in the order

above mentioned. :

When Pope Gregory XIII. in 1582 introduced the New Style, the

object was to adjust the festivals in the Calendar to the same time of

the year as they held at the time of the Council of Nice in 325 ; ten

anaes:

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Perfretual

Time Table

designed §inade by

Robert Shortrede

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1841.] Scheme of a Table for all Time. 597

days were added to the reckoning by ccunting the 14th instead of the

4th of October, as it was estimated that so much had been lost during

the interval. It would, however, have been correct had only 9 days

been added, because from 325 to 1582 there are 1257 years, during

which 3 days having been lost every 4 centuries, it is clear that 9 days

must have been lost in 1200 years, and the reckoning of the odd 57

years being the same according to both styles.

By adding ten days to the Calendar, the festivals have in fact been

adjusted to what they were in the century before the Council of Nice.

This mistake may be shewn by the Table, where it is seen that the

same week-day is common to the full century 30 according to both

styles, and as the coincidences occur at intervals of 28 centuries, the

same week-day is common to both styles in the full century 2, whereas

the week-days of the full century 3 differ in Old and-New Style. The

agreement would be perfect in the year 225, but wrong by a day

in the year 325.

This mistake in adjusting the New and Old Styles, is similar to that

committed in settling the Epoch of the Christian Era, the true time, as

is now generally admitted, being 4 years before the common reckoning.*

As it is often convenient to reckon dates before the Christian Era

in Julian years, I have given a rule for finding the week-days of such

dates with facility, by observing that they recur in the same order

every 700 years. The rule is this: subtract the given year diminished

by one from any convenient multiple of 700, and use the remainder as

if it were a common Old Style date.

As the Gregorian adjustment of the Calendar causes an error in

excess of about one day in every 40 centuries, this may be allowed for

by adjusting the full century-division not to the 00, but one division

to the right of it for every 40 centuries. This adjustment renders

the Calendar perpetual, so far as depends upon our present knowledge

of the length of the year; but the adoption of this, or the correction of

any error which may be found to be involved in it, will remain for

future generations.

22nd March, 1841.

bay T'he proper method of manipulating the Perpetual Time Tables,

is the following :—In adjusting the full century to the zero, put the two

* See Barlow’s Mathematical Dictionary, art. Epoch; or the Essay in Fergusson’s

Astronomy.

598 Scheme of a Table for all Time. [No. 116.

first fingers of each hand to the back of the card, (the zero being to-

ward the front,) then with the thumbs move about the second card to

the required position.

In making the monthly adjustment, hold the outer card between the

fore-finger and thumb, the division containing the odd year of the

century being to the front, then putting the thumb of the other hand

over the centre on the face and the forefinger at the back, turn

about the central card till the proper month division comes opposite

that of the odd year.

Notes on Capt. SHorTREDE’s Scheme. By W. Masters, Esa.

1. Let the lst of January begin with any day of the week A, and

write down in succession all the months, with their days under corres-

ponding days of the week thus :—

A. B. C. i). E. FB; G.

January ] 2 3 4 5 6 7

February 1 2 3 4

3 &e. =&e.

2. The following peculiarities will present themselves :—

First. The arrangement of dates and days of the week, correspond in

these months: January and October ; February, March, and November ;

April and July ; September and December; the other three months

May, June, and August, are isolated months, having no correspondence

of arrangement with any other.

Second. In leap years, the dates from Ist March to 3lst December

inclusive, will arrive a day later in the week. As the additional day of

leap year comes at the end of February, it does not affect the cor-

respondence of dates and days for January and February.

Third. The vertical dates of January and October fall on the same

days.

1841. ] Notes on Capt. Shortrede’s Scheme. 599

Fourth. The vertical columns of dates are found in the same order

and succession in all the months, but under different days of the

week : the agreements noticed in Obs. first excepted.

| Fifth. The dates of the first column of January, and similarly the

other columns, fall in May, one day of the week later ; in April and

July one day earlier than they do in January.

Sixth. The dates of the 1st column of January (and similarly all the

others) will in August fall later in the week by one day than they do in

May ; and in September and December one day earlier than they do in

April and July.

Seventh. The same dates in June fall earlier in the week by one day

than they do in September and December ; and in February, March and

November one day earlier than in June, or one day later than in August.

Eighth. If the 1st of January fall on any day of the week A, the fol-

lowing dates will fall on the same day :—

1 8. 15. 22. 29th of January and October.

5. 12. 19. 26. —_ of February, March and November.

2. 9. 16. 23. 30th of April and July.

7. 14. 21. 28. — = of May.

: 4, I]. 18. 25. — _ of June.

6. 13. 20. 27. — _ of August.

3. 10. 17. 24. 31st of September and December.

3. The dates and months, exhibited in Observation 8th of Article 2,

are grouped together in Capt. Shortrede’s scheme on the inner or

smallest card, and arranged in a peculiar order, as the author expresses

himself, having reference to the eight Observations of Article 2.

4, Some years have 365 days and some 366: three years in succes-

sion have 365 days each, and the fourth year (with exceptions to be

noticed) has 366 days. The year that has 365 days has 52 weeks and

one day over ; therefore, whatever day of the week begins such a year,

also ends it. During three such years three days of the week in succession

begin and end those years; the 4th day begins the 4th year; but as

this year has 366 days, which are equal to 52 weeks and 2 days, the

day after the 4th day, that is, the 5th day, will end the year. Calling

these four years a series, we may say that whatever day of the week begins

the series, the 5th day in succession ends it. The 6th day in succession

begins and ends the Ist year of the next series; the 7th day begins

600 Notes on Capt. Shortrede’s Scheme. [No. 116.

and ends the 2d year of that series; the 8th day (i. e. the lst week-

day with which we commenced) begins and ends the 3d year; and the

9th (or 2d day) begins the 4th year; but does not end it, because it has

366 days; the 10th (or 3d day of the week) ends it: and so on.

5. Let the days of the week be called a, 6, ¢, d, e, f, g, without, at

present, particularising which day of the week is called a, or 6, orc,

&c. The following Table is constructed on the principle explained in

4, It consists of series of 4 years each which are marked Ist, 2nd, drd

and 4th; the days of the week that commence these years are placed

vertically underneath; the fourth year has always two letters; the

first indicating the day of the week on which that year begins, the

second letter, the day on which it ends. The arrangement commences

with the Ist day of the Ist year of any century; with the year I, or

101, or 1601, or 1801 ; and the Ist of January is supposed to fall on a

day of the week called a.

Series. Ist year. 2nd year. 3rd year. 4th year.

le a b c d ande

2 f g a b and ¢

3 d e f ganda

A b c d e and f (Table 1.)

i) g a b ec and d

6 e ii g a and b

7 c d e fand g

8 b c d ande

6. After 7 series of 4 years each—28 years, the same succession

commences.

7. From Table (1) may be formed another (which will be given here-

after) exhibiting all the years of a century that begin with the same

day ; but it will be more convenient to shew first, how the centuries

commence ; and of centuries, the centuries of Old Style first ; reminding

readers that, according to Old Style, every 4th year, without exception,

is a leap year, and consists of 366 days.

8. By attending to Table (1) it will be seen, that the series consist

of lines of years and days of the week in succession ; each series has 4

years and 5 days of the week. If we fancy weeks lengthened out into

one uninterrupted line of days, the first day a of the second week

will be called the 8th day; 4 weeks will be called 28 days ; and Table

1841. ] Notes on Capt. Shortrede's Scheme. 601

1, or rather the succession which it shews, may be represented by

the following progression :—

Series, .. ee sigh Bick g (ion Onin: (ep te fod Oatey 2D sie DOs OER

Years ending these series,. 4 8 12 16 20...100 ...

Days beginning theseyears, 4 9 14 19 24...

The common difference of the years is 4, of the days 5: the 25th

term will therefore be year 100 and day 124: 124 days equal 17

weeks and 5 days; therefore the 100dth year will begin with the day e.

9. According to Old Style this progression may be extended to series

50. The fiftieth term of the progression will be, year 200 and day

249; 249 days equal 35 weeks and 4 days; therefore the 200dth year

begins withthe 4th day d. Inthe same manner it may be found that

the year 300 begins with the third day c; the 400dth with the 2d

day 6; the 500dth on the first day a; the 600dth on the 7th day g ;

and the 700dth on the 6th day f-

10. Hence every 100dth year commences on a week-day, one day

earlier than the preceding 100dth year: consequently if the year 1 of

any century begins on any week-day a, the year 1 of the next century

will begin on the week-day g,—~. e. a day earlier.

11. In Old Style all the days of the week in their turn commence a

century and a 100dth year.

12. The following Tables are formed according to Articles 8—10.

The Table marked (2) shews how each hundredth year begins. Table

(3) shews how each century or first year of each 100 begins :-—

Days of the week} e Gc billy gate f

Sameliundredth) 1) 2)..-3). 4)...6)..6) 7

Mears, 2. €. years; 8] 9) 10) .11) 12, 138) 14) (Table 2.)

100, 200, 300, &.| 15; 16 17; 18) 19; 20) 21

Days of the week| a| g f eld e| b

begin centuries or Ne eS Alo) a (Table: 3.)

years 1 of 100; 1 BOO) 11) al Te). Te

of 200, &e. 16, 17| 18) 19} 20° 21

98| 24) 25! 26) 27, 28!

602 Notes on Capt. Shortrede’s Scheme. [ No. 116.

13. Now follows the Table (marked 4), exhibiting all the current years

of a century that begin with the same day of the week. The primary

arrangement is for the current years of the Ist century beginning with

year 1. Underneath this, the letters denoting the days of the week are

so arranged as to shew how the superincumbent columns of years begin

in the other centuries in succession; an arrangement which will be

quite intelligible by attending to Art. 10.

ee Bie el e ee, ig

Was Qiies 20 Vid Uae

jE RE TAR Ma

na hed 1S et eee Te

1s yo) cote. Papigg egg

DAY Ap DG) OG 0 ae IR yes

JS) sl. ae eer sey BF

35) 86 2g RB AgOK4O

— Al 42 48 44 — 45 (Table 4)

AG AT AG io tera. Jl

So en ho oda ea

57 58 59 60 = 61 62

63 64 — 65 66 67 68

CT avi eee ay

74°75 76 — 78°79

80 98)" 82. /Sesig4

{5 86) O77 ue = 89 90

91 92 — 93 94 95 96

nS ES en NT

rh Pa Dae, d e -f for odd years of 2d century.

f io? aged en ds e b= 3d

Creat 8 a b c¢c d ——— 4th ——

do ep ab. ¢ the —

Ghd. Mey ' gs ab ‘'——_— 6th ——

Dee Bagere f g a ——— 7th —

14. It will be seen that the above columns of years begin with fixed

days for fixed centuries. If the century begins with any day, the

first column of years will begin with that day, the other columns with the

next day in succession. Table (3) shews how the centuries com-

mence ; and when this is known, Table (4) will readily shew how the

years commence.

15. These columns of years are arranged in Capt. Shortrede’s scheme

in a circular order, and occupy the seven divisions of the outer card, in

;

ips

1841. ] Notes on Capt. Shortrede’s Scheme. 603

the same succession in which they stand above, with a few excep-

tions.

16. The exceptions are the leap years, which are advanced one divi-

sion to the right of their proper division, for the reason given in Obser-

vation 2 of Article 2: this occasions error in week-days corresponding to

January and February, but the scheme says, “in leap years for January

and February use the half blank space to the left, then opposite the

given date is the day of the week.” This is obscure; and, if I un-

derstand the author aright, incorrect. The meaning of the author ap-

pears to be, “use the division containing May as if January had

been there, and fancy February to be where June is.” This will lead to

error. The direction should be—for January and February in leap years

take that day which is one division to the left of the day opposite to

the date. The week-day for January and February is one day earlier

than the day opposite to the date.

17. Although the leap years are thus advanced, the author of the

scheme appears to have left half the digits of the numbers expressing

those years in their proper divisions; for there are four 4s, 2s, and 6s

and five 8s in different divisions. This is objectionable, because these

numbers may bewilder those who are reckoning for the current years

2, 4, 6, 8; and, if the scheme be printed for general use, should be

omitted.

18. The middle card of the scheme contains not the centuries

of (3) but the full centuries or hundreds of (2) for the convenience of

reading. In Table (3) the days of the week for the current years of

centuries are shewn in 7 lines: but in the scheme the full centuries

and their fixed days revolve in a circle; and the days are readily made

to assume their positions relative to the current years.

19. If the scheme had a century division, then by adjusting the

century division, bearing the name of the week-day commencing the

centuries which it contains, with the year division containing the years

1, 7, 18, 29, all those years would be shewn to commence with that

day; and the years in the other divisions, with the days standing below

them, for those centuries.

20. But the hundred years or full centuries are more convenient for

reading, as years 101, 1801, 1841, &c.; then the 100dth year must be

so adjusted to a year division that the day on which the following cen-

604 Notes on Capt. Shortrede’s Scheme. [No. 116.

tury commences, shall fall exactly under the division containing years

1, 7, 18, 29, &c.

21. The scheme has been regulated according to the hundreds or

full centuries ; and therefore, when it is to be used, the full-century-divi-

sion must be adjusted with a current-year-division in accordance

with Art. 20.

22. By comparing Tables (2) and (3) it will be observed, that each

hundredth year commences two days earlier than the succeeding cen-

tury. The 2 hundredth year of (2) commences with d; the 3d cen-

tury of (3) begins with f; the 3 hundredth of (2) begins with c; the

4th century begins with e; in each case the hundredth year begins 2

days earlier; therefore, in using the scheme the full-century-division

is to be adjusted with the current-year-division 2 remove to the left

from the division containing years 1, 7, 18, 29, &c; that is, with the

division containing the years 5, 11, 22, 33, &c.

23. But, because the hundredths or full centuries of Old Style are all

leap years, they are thrown one division to the right according to Art.

16, and are in consequence to be adjusted with the year-division con-

taining the years 6, 17, 23, 34, &c. The hundreds or “ full centuries,”

do not commence with the day of the week over which they stand, but

with the day to the left; consequently, although the full-century-divi-

sion is shifted, the week-day commencing the next century or the year

1, falls in the right place under the division containing year 1.

Z4. The division containing the years 6, 17, 23, 34, &c., have two

cyphers 00 for reference. If the scheme be published for general use,

it would be an improvement to substitute a black dot, such as is used

in the Nautical Almanac to represent the New Moon.

25. Let us now turn our attention to the New Style. In the year

1752, it was “enacted by 24 Geo. II. c. 23, that instead of cancelling

ten days as Gregory XIII. had done, eleven days should be left out of

the month of September; accordingly, on the second day of that

month, the Old Style ceased, and the next day, instead of being the

third, was called the fourteenth, and by the same act, the beginning of

the year was changed from the 25th of March to the Ist of January.” —

Eincy. Met. Mis. and Lex. vol. iii. art. Calendar, p. 155.

26. It was likewise enacted, that the Gregorian correction should be

applied to certain years specified. According to the Gregorian rule,

oe ee ee ee oe —

1841.] Notes on Capt. Shortrede’s Scheme. 605

every year divisible by 4 receives a day, or has 3866 days. But every

year divisible by 100 and not divisible by 400 has 365 days. The

year that is divisible by 100 is also divisible by 4, since 100 is a mul-

tiple of 4: this part of the rule is therefore an exception to the first

part, since there are years divisible by 4, which instead of having 366

days, have only 365. These years may be considered as losing a day

to which they are entitled by the first part of the rule. The follow-

ing are the years that lose a day. (It is to be remembered that those

years which are divisible by 400 have 366 days: this is a part of the

Gregorian rule. ) ;

1700, 1800, 1900 —— 2100, 2200, 2300,

2500, 2600, 2700 2900, 3000, 3100, &c.

27. Consequently, the correspondence of dates and days in Table (1)

will not answer continuously for the New Style: it will be interrupted

in the New Style at the 100dth. year, corresponding with the 4th year

of series 4 and marked (a) in the Table. The 100dth year begins and

ends with e, because it is not a leap year; the next century, that is,

the year 1 of the next century consequently begins with f; and the

succession given in (1) will be again interrupted at the next hundredth

in the same place at (a), which place will now be occupied with c

and d, because the first year begins with f and not witha. Although

Table (1) is referred to in this place, it is not to be understood that the’

letters a, b and c, have the same signification in New Style that they have

in Old Style: ain Old Style may be one day of the week, and in New

Style another. But proceeding as above, the days beginning the hun-

dreds of New Style may be found out, and the following Table formed,

marked (5): in which the letters are slightly altered in character for

the sake of distinction, but retain the same relation of time or succes-

sion.

Week Days. @: | ei a. ifs

es | |

Hundreds of New! 100 200 300 400

Style. pail. illinois fot eh ah

91 | 22| 231 24 |(Table 5)

606 Notes on Capt. Shortrede’s Scheme. [ No. 116.

28. Observe here that only four days of the week begin the hundreds

of New Style; and three days of the week never have that privilege,

not for 40 centuries. The years in column f, are all leap years in New

Style. This accounts for that arrangement of Capt. Shortrede’s scheme,

which occupies only 4 of the 7 divisions with N. S. centuries.

29. About the time of the 40th century, the Vernal Equinox will be

] day nearly in advance of the 20th of March; in which case if the

British Calendar and British Parliament be in existence, it may be

found necessary to throw out a day from the Calendar. If the mea-

sure be adopted in the year 4000 a. p. then this year will not be a leap

year, and as 4000 is a multiple of 400, and consequently falls in column

f, the year 4000 will begin and end with f Art. 4; the week-days a and ¢

will go out and 6 and g will occupy their place for the next 40 centuries,

during which period the hundreds will begin thus :—

d b g e

100 200 300 400 &e.

Centuries and years and hundredth years will begin a day earlier.

By adjusting the “full-century-division one place to the right of 0 0

for every 40 centuries,” according to the directions given in the scheme,

a correction will be effected for the current years; but as the centuries

and week-days are in fixed position on the same card, the prescribed

adjustment is not effective for the hundredth years or full centuries on

the middle card.

30. It is now timeto shew the relation between the week-days of Old

and New Style. On the 3d of September 1752, New Style was intro-

duced in England, when the 3rd of September was called the 14th (25).

Consequently the 14th of September N. S. fell on a certain day in the

first week, but the 14th September O. S. fell 11 days after in the

second week: therefore the New Style dates may be said to occur 11

week-days, that is, 1 week and 4 days, that is 4 week-days earlier than

O. S. dates.

31. If it should ever happen that a day is rejected from any year

by New Style and not by Old Style, then that year in New Style will

end 1 day sooner than in Old Style; and consequently the next year of

New Style will be another day earlier than Old Style ; that is 12 days

of date or 5 week-days ; and as often as this happens, New Style will be

an additional day earlier than Old Style.

1841. ] Notes on Capt. Shortrede’s Scheme. 607

32. This happens in those years of N.S. which are divisible by 100, but

not by 400; that is in the years contained in the columns e, c, a, of Table

(5). The following centuries begin as many days earlier in New Style

than they do in Old Style, as are indicated by the numbers below them.

It is necessary to keep in mind that, as the intercalary day is

thrown out in these years, at the end of February, this suppression of

a day does not affect the calculations for the dates and days preceding

the 28th of February: it makes those years end sooner, but not begin

sooner or later in the week.*

Centuries, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30.

Daye) 211,12, 13, 13, 14,15, 16, 16,.17,.18,:19, 19, 20, 21, &e.

Consequently the years from 1801 to 1900 inclusive begin 12 days

earlier than they do in Old Style.

The hundreds of New Style advance as below :—

Hundredth Years, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29.

eee ee) 10,115.42, 235.13, Pe 15, 26;16,1%, 18, 19, 19.

Peek Dams, ... -3,. 14,) 5,4 6, GO, «1, 2, 2, 3, 4, 5; ) 5,

33. If New Style be carried back in theory, the preceding arrange-

ment will shew that New and Old Style agree in the following hun-

dredth years or full centuries.

Years a.p. 300, 1200, 1300, 2200, 3100, 4000, 4100.

34. The year 1841 N.S. began on Friday, therefore the year 1841

O. S. began 12 days or 5 week-days later; viz. on Wednesday. The

year 1800 N. S. began on Wednesday ; the year 1800 O. S. began 4

days later on Sunday. But 1800 O. S. stands in column b of Table (2),

consequently bis Sunday, and 1800 N.S. stands in column ec. of Table

(5) therefore c is Wednesday. Therefore the letters indicating the

days of the week have the significations attached below :—

O. S. Table (2) e Wednesday. N.S. Table (5) e Friday.

Tuesday. c Wednesday.

ec Monday. a Monday.

b Sunday. | f Saturday.

a Saturday,

g Friday. |

f Thursday. |

* The note at the foot of p. 35 Cab. Cyc. Chronology of History, ‘‘ The Style’’ is

partly erroneous.

¢ The agreement of 1200 commences on the 28th N. S. 29th O. S. of February of the

year 1100, and terminates on the 28th N. S., 29th O. S. of February of the year 1300.

608 Notes on Capt. Shortrede’s Scheme. [No. 116.

35. In Captain Shortrede’s scheme, the days will be found one divi-

sion to the left of the hundreds of O. S. which they begin, according

to Art. 23 and 16. The N. S. hundreds will be found over their proper

days, except the leap years of column f, which stand over Sunday in-

stead of Saturday, Art. 23, 16.

36. It is essential to observe, that the scheme supposes the

both of Old and New Style to begin on the Ist of January.

I tested it with about a hundred dates taken from the “Cabinet Cyc.”

“ Chronology of History ;” “‘ Hume’s History of England;” “ Bacon’s

Letters,” and some anticipated dates carried forward by myself, and

found the scheme to agree with all, except two. These were two from

Bacon, as follows :—

1617. February 6th, Friday, Bacon, vol. 3d (Letters) page 361.

1620. March 8th, Thursday, do. do. 599.

It subsequently occurred to me, that before the year 1752, the Ecclesi-

astical year began on the 25th of March, and consequently these years

1617 and 1620 should be read 1617-18 and 1620-21 ; because 6th Fe-

bruary and 8th March fall near the end of years 17 and 20 of the

old reckoning, and in the early parts of the years 18 and 21 of the

new reckoning. ‘The scheme (O. S.) agrees with this reading.

37. The dates from 3d to 13th September inclusive 1752, never

existed in the British Calendar, Art. 25th; September the 2d was the day

immediately preceding the 14th. By reckoning backwards from 1814

I find that the 14th fell on Thursday, consequently the 2d fell on

Wednesday. Old Style in the scheme points to Wednesday, but Sept.

2d, 1752, N. S. points to Saturday. This disagreement was expected.

Old Style is continuous, New Style carried back, is at fault between

the 2d and 14th September 1752. A paper in the Rambler, is dated

Saturday, March 14, 1752; therefore the 2d of September following

fell on Wednesday. A paper in the Adventurer is dated Tuesday, No-

vember 7, 1752; therefore the 14th of September preceding was Thurs-

day. The following dates agree with Old Style of the scheme, but not

with New Style.

Tatler, Saturday, March 11, 1709-10

y Tuesday, February 28, 1709-10

- Thursday, March 2, 1709-10

Guardian, Tuesday, March 24, 1712-13

nb: Yy te accordfuainy We ge Ve Doty

1841. ] Notes on Capt. Shortrede’s Scheme. 609

Guardian, Wednesday, 95) 1718

is Friday, July 13, 1713

Spectator, Monday, October 20, 1712

Where the two years are given, the ecclesiastical and the historical,

the scheme agrees with the second or historical.

The inference is that the scheme, as matter of fact, is unservicable

for dates in New Style earlier than the 14th September 1752; and si-

milarly for Old Style as far in the “dark backward and abysm of

time” as the first fault occurs ; the year of confusion for instance.

38. In the author’s directions for dates before the Christian era, it

would, perhaps, be better to substitute the word year for date in the

words ‘subtract the given date.”

39. After the foregoing observations, the reason of the prescribed

manipulation of the scheme will be understood.

By adjusting the century division to the division 00, the days

commencing the current years fall under the right divisions by Articles

22; 23; 138; 14.

The day on which a year begins is the day on which these dates of

January fall ;—1 (of course) and 8, 15, 22, 29 by Obs. 8 of Art. 2.

The day on which these dates fall is the day on which certain dates

of other months fall; vide Observations 8. of Art 2; and which are -

arranged on the smallest card of the scheme.

Therefore by bringing a month to the division of a current year,

the week-day above shews on what day the subjacent dates of that

month fall (with slight variation for leap years.)

The other dates of that month lie under their proper week-days

by Art. 1.

There are no directions given how the scheme is to be used for

years of the first century ; viz. the years 1, 25, 60, 99, and the like,

which have no hundred before them. It is therefore necessary to

insert a cypher or zero among the hundreds of 7, 14, 21 of Old Style,

thus 0, 7, 14, 21, 28, 35.

40. In the course of this investigation, my attention fell upon the

Tables that relate to the Dominical Letters. The numbers are the same

both in the Tables and in the scheme. It may therefore be anticipated,

‘that the scheme will soon supplant the Tables.

610 Notes on Capt. Shortrede’s Scheme. [No. 116.

41. The scheme given here will do for years before Christ without the

trouble of calculation. It is however more curious than useful.

In the smallest card, use the black characters for years a. D. and

the red characters for years B. c.

The same in the middle card. The centuries of Old Style will do for

centuries before Christ; reading thus, O hundred, 7 hundred, 14

hundred, &c. B. c.

In the year-divisions, leap years a. D. are marked with black ; leap

years B. C. are marked with red.

In the use of the scheme, for years a. D. adjust the centuries with

the year-division having the black characters 0 0, and read as directed

in Capt. S.’s scheme, with this exception ; in leap years for dates from

the lst of March to the 31st December inclusive, take the week-day

that is in the next division to the right of the week-day opposite to

the given date.

For years B. c. adjust the centuries with the year-division, containing

the two red characters 00; and read as directed for a. p. years using

the red characters. In leap years for dates between the Ist of March

and 3lst of December inclusive, take the week-day that is in the

next division to the left of the week-day opposite to the given date.

La Martiniere, 5th May, 1841. W. Masters.

Remarks by Capt. SHorTREDE.

§ 16. The only naxr blank spaces in the whole Table occur in

the outer card, and are those of the odd centurial years divisible by

4, 7. e. leap years. These are denoted by writing only the final

digit ; the space for the other digit (easily supplied from those before or

after) being blank. These spaces are therefore half blank.

The way in which Mr. Masters interprets the direction, certainly leads

to error; but how such an interpretation can fairly be drawn from

the wording, does not readily appear. I am directing how to use the

Table for any current year of a century, and as an exception to the

general rule occurs in January and February of leap years, I provide

for it by the direction within the parenthesis, which of course I mean

to be taken as referring to the subject then treated of ; viz. the particu-

= Sant be . —— = re 7 ~~ ¥

1841. ] Remarks by Capt. Shortrede. 611

lar division of the outer card opposite which the given month is to

be brought. The meaning is this—instead of the current year

division on the outer card marked like the others with two digits,

use the division on the left, which being for distinction marked with

only the final digit is half blank—opposite this half blank space on

the outer card in leap years adjust the January and February months—

but never fancy the months to be in any other division than that

in which they are written on the inner card.—R. 8S.

§ 17. No confusion can arise if it be considered that a single digit

never represents the current year of a century. For example, the 4th

year of the full century 18 is 1804, represented by 04, and not by

4 merely. The whole date being expressed by the current year

preceded by its full century, if the odd year be written 4 this preceded

by 18 becomes 184, being the year 84 of the full century 1. Moreover

the outer card has the odd years of a century in their order, i. e.

increasing uniformly from left to right, and not at random.—R. S.

§ 21. The only adjustment required is to bring the division of the

middle card containing the full century opposite the division contain-

ing OO on the outer card, and when this is done, no farther adjust-

ment of the middle and outer cards to each other can have place

throughout ¢haé century.—R. S.

§ 23. These being leap years require according to the direction for

January and February (and therefore on January Ist) to have the

month division brought opposite the single 0 to the left of the 00, being

in that case the half blank to the left.—R. S.

§ 24. The black dot would require a special explanation, for which

there is not room on the back of the card, without confusion or omis-

sion of something more important. A total blank would be preferable

to a black dot, but to this there would be much the same objection.

Either of these would derange the principle on which the outer and

middle cards are adapted to each other. This principle is, that when

the full century for the time being is opposite the OO or point of ad-

justment, every odd year on the outer card is to be read as if it had its

proper full century digits before it. The OO is to be read in the

same way as any other year of the century.

The able might have been made adjustable by any other zero as

well as by 00; and by any other date as by the Ist of January, but

612 Remarks by Capt. Shortrede. [No. 116.

these on the whole are considered to be the most convenient. Had

the Table been adjusted by Ist March, we should have got rid of all

trouble about the 29th of February in leap year, but should have

incurred the inconvenience with our present Calendar of reckoning two

months of each year as part of the year preceding.—R. S.

§ 29. Quite true. The adjustment referred to is that by which the

full centuries are brought opposite the proper division on the outer

card. After 4000 and till 8000, the full century-division is to be ad-

justed by the division on the outer card containing 01 instead of that

containing 00 as formerly. The current year is then to be read on

the outer card as usual. The full century being opposite the 01 divi-

sion, that of the 00 will be one place to the left. Hence the full

century will commence on a week-day earlier by one than that over

the full century on the middle card. This arrangement was preferred

to that of shifting the places of the full centuries on the middle card,

as hereby the series of full centuries may be continued indefinitely

backwards or forwards by uniform commen differences.—R. S.

§ 37. This inference is unwarranted. New Style commenced in 1582,

and from that time was used generally in Catholic countries. It was

adopted by the Protestants of Germany in 1700,and in England 1752. For

dates previous to these epochs in the respective countries, this Table

or any other as a matter of fact must be unserviceable for New Style

dates ; because such dates did not exist. It is serviceable throughout

the whole range of Old Style dates, which still are used in Russia and

by the Greek Christians. The year of confusion having occurred

before the Christian Era, is owt of date. All such cases are provided for

generally by the directions for dates before the Christian Era, and for

all such, Old Style reckoning, even when fictitious, is perhaps the most

convenient. In such cases, however, there is but little occasion to

know week-days as a matter of historical reference.—R. S.

§ 39. No particular directions are needed. The full century in that

case is O, and at first this digit was inserted in the place now occu-

pied by the letters O. S. The difficulty is sufficiently provided for by the

remark, that the series of full-centuries may be continued indefinitely.

—R. 8.

cet i) hee —

‘4

613

Notes on the Gems found at Beghram. By J.S. Cusrman, Esq.

Assistant Surgeon, 16th Lancers.

My pear Sr1r,—Having observed in the last number of the Journal

of the Asiatic Society, the great interest you have taken in the Gems

found in various parts of Afghanistan, and as you there make an

earnest entreaty to be furnished with casts or impressions of all Gems,

and particularly of those with inscriptions, I have the pleasure to send

you a series of these singular relics discovered at Beghram, the locality

of which spot has been so fully and ably described by Mr. Masson.

For this purpose, my friend Colonel Cureton most kindly gave me

free access to his cabinet, and all the Gems which | have selected for

your notice are his, with the exception of the four last. Some of the

specimens from Colonel Cureton’s collection are of a superior order,

equalling many of the antiquities of this nature found in Greece and

Italy. One gem cannot fail in attracting much notice; viz. that of

Abraham offering up his son Isaac; and there are others which will

afford scope for speculation. Any other relics of this nature I may

chance to meet with, I will send casts of the same to you.

I am, dear Sir,

Yours faithfully,

Meerut, August 22, 1840. J. S. CHapMan.

No. 1. Garnets. A figure apparently intended for Apollo, as neatly

and spiritedly executed as many of the ancient Gems of Greece and

Italy.

No. 2. Cornelian. An historical gem of singular interest and value ; the

subject, Abraham offering up his son Isaac, is too clear to be mistaken,

Genesis, chapter xxii—‘‘ And Abraham stretched forth his hand, and

took the knife to slay his son. And Abraham lifted up his eyes, and

behold behind him a ram caught in a thicket by his horns: and Abra-

ham went and took the ram, and offered him up for a burnt-offering,

instead of his son.” The cast does not represent the knife and the

figure on the altar so well as T could wish.

No. 3. Cornelian. A figure of Ceres, the style of execution almost

equals the Apollo (No. 1.)

No. +. White Cornelian. A well-cut head, Buddhist or Sassanian ?

No. 5. Garnets. A head ornamented with earrings, and an inscription

614 Notes on the Gems found at Beghram. [No. 116.

round it. I imagine it to be Sassanian, for the peculiar character

seems to resemble that found on some of the Sassanian coins, of which

I send impressions ; it is evidently not Bactro-Pehlevi.

No. 6. Cornelian. A head coarsely engraved.

No. 7. Cornelian. A head apparently Sassanian, from the peculiar

stile of head-dress, large pendant earrings, and moustache. The execu-

tion of this gem is particularly good.

No. 8. Garnet. A head of the same character as the last, and

equally well executed.

No. 9. Cornelian. A bust, neatly and well engraved.

No. 10. Cornelian. A head, injured and coarsely cut.

No. 11. Cornelian. An animal with long ears or horns, from its

hoofs probably intended for a stag.

No. 12. A Bronze Seal. I cannot make out the subject ; surely it is

not intended for Apollo destroying the Python? The figure is repre-

sented as trampling on the monster ; he holds the tail with his right

hand, and there is something in his left, but whether an instrument of

destruction is not evident.

No. 13. An Agate Seal, the figure of an Indian bull.

No. 14. A Bronze Ring. This is a very common device on the rings

found at Beghram. I have seen at least thirty with the same, and

better finished than this.

No. 15. An Agate Seal. A coarsely executed bird of the genus

Anas.

No. 16. A Copper Seal nearly effaced ; it appears to be Sassanian,

and to represent a fire altar, with the two supporters.

No. 17. A Bronze Ring, affording some matter for speculation. A

large bag of relics was brought to me from Beghram, consisting of coins,

pieces of brass ornaments, rings, &c. &c. I found amongst the lot at

least fifty rings of various sizes and shapes, having on them this

particular emblem or device. |

No. 18. Cornelian. A horseman.

No. 19. A Bronze Ring which I found in the bag above mentioned ;

the figure of Victory is in high relief; it is purely Grecian, and is spi-

ritedly and gracefully executed ; the impression does not do it justice.

No. 20. Another Bronze Ring from the bag, with the same device as

No. 14.

—-

eee

2 re

, ASP dh oS vag Me tat

é ¥ . a

j Pr rae — pil aS etre |

ct aantine Soe ET“ HAT Liat

, by nad het

Oe 7 - 4

P i - Ro jj

re Le } odes

Sacachs % . Bs 1

tat FI

615

Letter to the Secretary of the Asiatic Society, on the recent Cataclysm of

the Indus, from Dr. Farconrr, Saharunpoor, July 6, 1841.

My prar Sir,—I have just perused in a letter from the frontier

a brief and hurried account of some of the particulars of a grand

Cataclysm of the Indus! certainly one of the most remarkable natural

catastrophes hitherto recorded as having occurred on the continent of

India, or any where else, in the deluge way. The details as yet are

very imperfectly given, but they are of so intensely interesting a

character, that I do not hesitate a moment to communicate them to

you, in the hopes that the Government may do its best towards col-

lecting authentic information, regarding the cause, extent, and effects

of this flood. We all know how little impressed uncivilized nations

are in the events of this kind: after the lapse of a few years, when the

immediate effects have gone by, they are generally remembered only as

imperfect traditions. The Government could with little trouble collect

most of the desired information, through the political officers on the

North-Western frontier ; but much will be lost in the authenticity and

fullness of the particulars if any considerable delay occurs in making

the inquiry. I am especially interested in the event, from being

well acquainted from personal observation with the remote and little

known tract in Thibet, which I believe to have been the great scene

of operations on the occasion ; and I fancy I am the only person now

in the country who has been there. Should the Government take the

inquiry in hand, I will be most happy to give my humble aid in point-

ing out the kind of information desired, the situations where inquiry

ought to be made, &c. and to work up the whole into a connected ac-

count, if desired.

You are well aware, from the descriptions of Burnes and other

travellers, what a formidable river the Indus is near Attock. The depth

was ascertained by Lieut. Wood, from actual measurement, to exceed

many fathoms (I cannot at this moment quote the exact amount, ) at the

ferry between Attock and Khyrabad, notwithstanding that the velocity of

the stream at this point is 9 knots an hour. It would appear that the

river had been observed during several months past to be most unusually

low, and to such an extent had the body of water lately diminished,

that the deep bed at Attock was converted into an easy ford / (I quote

616 On the recent Cataclysm of the Indus. [No. 116,

the words used.) All at once this state of things changed, the river

burst in an awful débacle through the obstacles which had held up

its water somewhere along the upper part of its course, and rushed

down the valley in a mighty flood. The particulars regarding the effects,

are probably derived from native accounts. The words of the letter

are nearly thus: “ Hundreds of vitLaceEs and Towns, including Khy-

rabad and Attock, were swept away, with thousands of human beings

and cattle. The Lundaye, (or Cabul river, which joins the Indus,

close above the fort of Attock,) had its water held up, and forced back

so as to inundate the towns of Monshera and Akora (situated a long

way up its course in the plain of Peshawur.) ‘“ In the Huzara country,”

probably between Durbund and Attock,) ‘the flood swept away artillery

guns, with many hundreds of infantry ard sowars ; and old Sham Sing

Atarewallah, a seik sirdar, had all his camp and followers carried down the

stream, while he was himself, with a few troops, aloft pursuing the rebel,

Paeouda Khan, (chief of Tuhaolee) through the hills. I have as yet

only heard of the course of the inundation as far as Dera Ismail Khan,

whence also the accounts are very distressing, and so they will conti-

nue to be I suppose, till it reaches the sea, for nothing else can contain

it. But what must have been the condition of the unknown country

flooded above the avalanche, since rumours of its fall have been pre-

valent for four months back? I conclude it must be the plains of

Ghilgeet. The authorities on the Indus report the very foreign ap-

pearance of many bodies washing down.”

So much for the particulars already received, which are only suffici-

ent to excite our interest about what remains to be known. Now so far

as I am aware, there is no flood on record at all approaching this grand

débacle of the Indus; that of the Val de Bagnes, of which so graphic an

account has been given by Basil Hall, was confined to one of the subordi-

nate lateral valleys of the Rhone, while the flood of the Indus has in

all probability washed its desolating career across the continent of India.

The gigantic scale of its operations can be guessed from the facts above

given. The town and fort of Attock are situated on a rock, well raised

above the river. Yet the place is here described as having been swept

away, with hundreds of the towns and villages! The inundation of Akora

and Noushera, situated so high up the Cabul river, speaks volumes to the

same effect ; while the suddenness and unexpected nature of the catas-

1841. | On the recent Cataclysm of the Indus. 617

trophe are emphatically told in the fate of Sham Sing’s followers! The

drifting of artillery guns is quite a novel fact in geological operations

of this sort: one would fancy, that it would require a good stiff current

to walk away with a 24-pounder.

As to the cause, there can be little doubt but that it was occasioned

by some unusual barrier temporarily established in the bed of the river

somewhere high up its course, daming up its waters till they attained

a volume too great for the strength of the obstruction. This may be

fairly concluded, from what is said of the previous state of the ferry at

Attock, which was in a great measure dried up. It is, you will observe,

inferred that the stoppage occurred near the plains of Ghilgeet; I suspect

however, that it must have taken place much higher up, either on the

“‘R-gem-tsoh,” or united body of the Indus above Iskardoh; or what

is still more probable, on the “ Noobra-tsoh” river, or Shayook above

its junction with the Ludakh or great branch. During my stay in

little Thibet, I, as well as Vigne, was able to settle the disputed geogra-

phical point, regarding which the statements and opinions of Elphinstone,

Moorcroft, and Burnes, about the existence and point of confluence of

two great branches of the Indus, are so conflicting. There are two

great branches, the Southern or Ludakh river, along which Moorcroft

descended ; and the Northern or “ Noobra-tsoh” branch (Shayook of

Burnes, &c.) the confluence of which, (seen by Vigne and myself,)

takes place at Chundon, close to the castle of Kirrus, about a day’s

journey above Iskardoh, and a long way below “ Duroz.” During my

stay at Iskardoh, I learnt from the Rajah Ahmed Shah, that great

floods occasionally take place at irregular intervals, in consequence of

the Noobra-tsoh river, (so called from the purgunna of Noobra through

which it flows,) getting blocked up by avalanches and masses of ice.

This river has one of its principal origins in a great lake, as yet unvi-

sited by Europeans, in the Kara Korum mountains. After winter

seasons of unusual severity the lake gets sheeted over with an enor-

mous mass of ice, and the valley of the river below the lake is

liable to be filled up with great avalanches of ice and snow. When

events of this kind go together, the disrupted masses of ice from the

lake, added to the avalanches, go on accumulating till a huge barrier

is formed, which dams up the river, leading to tremendous floods when

the water bursts through the obstacle. A case of this kind was des-

618 On the recent Cataclysm of the Indus. [No. 116.

cribed to me by the Rajah, as having occurred within his recollection,

attended with desolating effects along the valley of the Indus in little

Thibet. The river rushes down in a mighty torrent, sweeping every

thing before it. Further I learnt at Attock, when going over the

fort in 1837 with Burnes, that such heavy floods have been known

in the river there, that the water has risen over the top of the

‘* Ab-doord” bastion, perhaps 30 feet high, which insures the supply

of water for the fort if besieged, and the base of which is usually almost

on a level with the surface of the current. But I was not above to

connect the two events as coincident in time of occurrence.

I do not think it at all likely that the obstacle occurred any where

below Iskardoh, both from the configuration of the valley of the river,

and from the difficulty of conceiving a barrier of snow or ice to be

formed so low down; whereas higher up, on the Noobra river,

avalanches are so common, and on so grand a scale, that it is easy to

conceive the river being blocked up: and the temperature of the water

is so low, that its action in the way of melting the ice would be very

slow and partial. This objection appears to me to apply to the whole of

the united river, as far up as the junction of the Ludakh branch. The

“very foreign appearance of the bodies washed down,” would indicate

them to be at least from as high up as little Thibet, for the people of

Ghilgeet and the “ Dardohs” of that neighbourhood, are very much like

the Pathans above Attock. The Chinese style of features first com-

mences in and above little Thibet.

But these ideas at the best are merely conjectural, and I only ad-

vance them, with the object of guiding the direction of the inquiries.

If the river really was so low at Attock as to be in the state of a

practicable ford, it would seem to follow that the obstruction must

have affected both branches of the Indus: for otherwise, the Ludakh

river is large enough to supply of itself a large volume of water.

The cause in that case would probably be found in a land-slip, or

something of that kind, or mountain masses precipitated by an earth-

quake. An event of this sort is not improbable, for we know that in

1809 an earthquake of such force took place in Gurwah, that the

Bishnoo Gunga river, one of the great branches of the Ganges, was

blocked up below Goseenauth by a land slip, and the water rose to 40

feet above its usual level.

1841. ] On the recent Cataclysm of the Indus. 619

The points from which the best information may be expected, are

Iskardoh in little Thibet; from Rajah Jubbar Khan, of Astore or

Hussorah, in the Dardoh country, opposite Ghilgeet, where the Indus

makes its great bend to the south; then from Jalkot in the Dardoh

country, Durbund, Torbeila, Attock, Calabaugh, and the Derajats.

The greatest effect of the flood will probably have been felt in the

neighbourhood of Iskardoh ; then near the low plains of Huramosh, Gor

and Poorijee near Ghilgeet, where the river bends to the south ; next at

Durbund and Torbeila, where the effects must have been very great ;

then at the point where the Indus escapes from the hills into the

plain of Chuch; then at Attock, and then at Calabaugh, where the

river escapes from the salt range.

A few days more will likely put us in possession of many more

authentic particulars derived from the whole line of the Indus, and

should the flood turn out to have been really as grand and important

an affair as appears from what we know at present, some inquiry re-

garding it should be instituted by those who have the power. The

following occur to me as some of the most prominent points to be

inquired into—the nature, cause, situation, amount, and date of the

obstruction ; length, breadth, and depth of the lake formed : and length

of time occupied in its collection; date of the first perceptible subsi-

dence of the river at Attock; and greatest amount of reduction

estimated in decrease of depth, and if possible, in cubic feet of discharge

per second, contrasted with average discharge ; cause, period of, and

“‘ modus operandi,” of the yielding of the barrier.

Date of the débacle arriving at different points along the river, and

period of its continuance ; volume of water discharged in cubic feet per

second ; velocity and depth of the current; greatest rise of water at

different points ; appearance, colour, consistence, and temperature of

the water; extent of the inundation; amount and nature of the effects

produced, in the destruction of land and loss of human and

animal life; number and names of towns and villages destroyed ;

with particulars of any remarkable changes in the physical configura-

tion of the tract through which the flood passed ; date of subsidence

at different points; appearances observed, and effects produced in

the Delta of the Indus, during and after the flood; in the stranding

of carcases, animal or human; timbers; boats; amount of deposit ;

620 On the recent Cataclysm of the Indus. [No. 116.

silting up or clearing out any channels of the river previously naviga-

ble, or the reverse, &c. &c.

Henry Torrens, Esq. &e. &e. Caleutia.

This letter was laid before the Governor General, when, with the

usual kindly interest evinced by His Lordship on all scientific subjects,

assurances were given, that occasion would not be lost sight of, for the

purpose of making due inquiry into the causes of the phenomena

described. Lord Auckland indeed addressed Mr. Clerk, (Gov. General’s

Agent, N. W. frontier), at length on the subject ; but before the letter

reached its destination, Mr. Clerk had already deputed Dr. Jameson,

Civil Surgeon at Umbala, and for sometime our officiating Curator, for

the purpose of inquiry. The results of this interesting mission will be

anxiously looked for.

Note on the Fossil Jaw, sent from Jubbulpore by Dr. Srrrspury. By the

Acting Curator, Mr. PipprineTon.

At the request of our Secretary, I add the following remarks to

those of Dr. Spilsbury on this fossil. I could wish the task had

fallen into the hands of one qualified to draw inferences, which I can-

not venture upon doing, but must content myself with stating facts as

I observe them.

Since Dr. Spilsbury’s note was written I find that the matrix

(which is unfortunately a very hard conglomerate of rolled pebbles

in a paste of coarse calcareous sandstone) has been chiselled off, so as

to clear the side faces of the molar plates more than is seen in Dr.

Spilsbury’s drawing. I proceed to remark on the peculiarities which

the fossil in its present state presents to an inexperienced eye, and

on comparing it with both recent and fossil crania in the Museum.

In its general appearance the remarkable differences are,

(1) The narrowness of the teeth ; (2) the deep sulcus formed by their

great protrusion below the palatal bone; (3) the closeness of the

plates of the teeth, and the angle formed by the molars and incisors,

which cannot be distinguished as separate with the posterior part

of the jaw; (4) the transverse breadth of the jaw at the point where

TF. quoLtnanr POLE

At B. eotent of Lecth ahout Volnches

Gx Madre vx chisellid Gineees the faregs or roots SOT Tes ED

AioD. Tee, rather myured not sopuerfect as Dte B

Etok. Matrix entirely heared of :

6 about thes sore aftfiearance of tic Foramer Magra but could rot

make out the @ndyles.

NB. Bradth of the Teeth about those of a/Messil Bleyharct: aatcl ofthe’

sae str ucture.

sawirdhees Min

1841. ] Note on the Fossil Jaw sent from Jubbulpore. 621

the arch above the teeth rises to the side of the curved alveola of

the tusks and the suborbital part of the malar bones; (5) the length

of the jaw. I take these peculiarities in the order in which I have

mentioned them.

1. The narrowness of the teeth.—Upon comparing our fossil with

two fossil sculls, both I believe from the valley of the Nerbudda, and

three recent ones in the Museum, I find the following dimensions as to

breadth of the teeth :—

oe Molar at the ridges.

TueE Fossin, se oss <b ws | 24

A. First Fossil Scull cr 3.1 35

Mastodon Elephantoides,

B. Second,. ... “oe So Ben (ir

Sa Saat ordinary sa size, va 31 29

20) ais ene a Same Pe. ae Ae a |

Large one, oe aa ios: 3.9

It will be seen that Cuvier, whose note I copy at pp. “624, 625, says

that the breadth of the teeth of the fossil elephant (speaking of that of

Siberia) is greater than that of the teeth of the* modern Indian ele-

phant, the fossil ones being from 0.08. (3.3 Ins. Eng.) to 0.09 (3.7

Ins. Eng.) while the recent ones are from 0.06. (2.7 Ins. Eng.) to

0.07 (3 Ins. Eng.) In connection with other measurements of length

and breadth, this variation in our fossil seems of much import.

2. Depth of the sulcus formed by the teeth and palate at its deepest

part.—I cannot distinguish that any part of the palatal bone has been

chiselled away, and thus I assume this remarkable difference to exist.

I measure it at the deepest part I can find, which is generally near the

angle.

Depth from face of teeth to palate.

Inches.

Tuer Fossit, ole 4.0 ... and some matrix appa-

rently remaining.

perhaps Mast. Ele-

phantoides?... ...

B. Second: © 1... °.:. 2.4 ..» palate perfect.

A. First Fossil Scull,

1.0 palate perfect.

* Taking, as will be serelaiedl (§ 3), the posterior plates or part of them to have

been used as molars.

622 Note on the Fossil Jaw sent from Jubbulpore. |No. 116.

Depth from face of teeth to palate.

Inches,

Recent ef Ist. 28

ordinary size,§ 2nd. 3.8 palate perfect.

EAT Be, 40 = yee 5.8

The breadth of this sulcus may also be of importance in the few

dimensions we have for comparison: they are as below :—

Greatest breadth of Breadth at front of

sulcus. the incisors.

Inches. Inches.

Tax Fossin, io share Ad. or. ee

A.. First Fossil Seull,. .dHO0 0") 1.08.2. 9 eee

B. Second, Po) |: aT

Recent. Sculls, lst. 4/90...) 0. awn. - SR eee

ordinary, size, 2nd. 3.3... se. 201 see 2.8

Large one, ... 3rd. 3.2 : Meise. Poa

3. The closeness of the plates of the pe and the angle formed by

the molars and incisors.—A space of two inches measured on the per-

fect part of the incisor included on :—

Tue-Fossi,, ... S8ridgesor ... ... plates.

AL First (Fossil Seat 5.. on. 4 ceactits<.) pao eee

Bo OCCONG, | ies): Mann sala | Rectal een t 7 nn

Recent Seulls,5 1st. 65. vcs cass sat — sgn

OFCINAEY SIZG VAM. oS anise, Sse pete one e ie

Large one, ... ... Digcae> taite dans Janke eee

4. The angle formed by the molars and incisors.—I have called this so,

because in our fossil, to all appearance the incisors occupy what may be

termed the horizontal plane of the jaw, and the series of plates, which in

the recent elephant form the posterior part of the molars, called by

Cuvier Os. Fossils, pl. 9. fig. 2, dames osseuses dont Vensemble doit

former la dent, seem to have partly constituted the molars; for they

are perfectly ossified, and though in the chiselling the top has been

taken off, it is difficult from the texture (which by the way is not at all

mineralized but truly ossified) to suppose that they cannot have been

in use, or that the animal could have managed with only the 4 or 5

inches of narrow incisor or molar, which now present a flat surface.*

* Supposing always that the length and the breadth of the jaw at the rise of the

facial arch, as hereafter noted, does not allow us to consider it as that of a young animal.

é, 2

r ns! i a ;: r -

t ; 4 cS i, i .

Fase ai a ‘all eh per ee EBM

ae. “4 .

a ehéselted iy ie ‘

AW y Bd ak } f

‘ Sn

; Rita? :

‘i eae

ee 2. Pos ob

Ae be ey st Pad U :

‘% Aa debits, peas Soe 4

sy A . , i shee ek =) "7 ;

Pie is Eg sha i

sr ae, hae fe is 4 ets F

"ve ee; s \ P ‘ iE 7 ua

a ae’

oe 4 if ;

gee ee

ut et

be once

4 aonb of thie ee ie ipabane

1 sible. Huietioy tat’ “ts

ae ne vt aly gaat y: i ‘ “He

- ccintadoad ke ne

ieee Aecatioss: isi ere ie ene gel ;

oe ite “spome “OF, amy Labia ie 3 |

at A ait Et watek in: * S. vita et? ‘fat

cayohie, gid akioy ft we Poe,

ti ay bay MOYO; ire A 4

(tbat ‘ee net ag Herston ae Kg A

rp.

god Hitaesisibbe is fort:

iS Sint ig Fi, ha res Ry la

ive: se berks wis

Set 0

ee owe = ¥

be Shy i,

PY BA ncoforaggmoff « weal eZ <

ee Oe ing

wy fee IO rE

He a cE eae

eee

3 i ae Pe

phinpipritpy ae,

: PUIG S"

: See gti

A wee as PS

pe Oe POY)

ye Lagu

POr4

————

a a em

ve ee

1841. | Note on the Fossil Jaw sent from Jubbulpore. 623

What I mean, however, will be best shewn by the sketches in the

plate, where—

A, is the Fossil: the angle at a being 110°.

B, Fossil head from Siberia (Cuvier Ossemens, F. pl. viii. fig. 1.) an-

gle at a, 122°.

C, first Fossil Scull, Mus. As. Soc. perhaps Mastodon Elephantoides,

angle a, of which one branch is the chord of the are formed by the

molars, 136°.

D, First recent Scull, No. 1 of the foregoing measurements angle a,

100°.

EK, Large recent scull, No. 3 of foregoing measurements angle a, 95°.

In the plate the fossil A, with C D and E are drawn to the same

scale, in B. from Cuvier there is no scale mentioned.

I have already alluded to the number of the plates in the incisor or

horizontal part ; in the posterior part of the jaw I should mention that

they are separated by a soft, white, powdery mass, which easily gives

way (much like chalk) to the knife; the plates themselves are hard,

bony-like, and brittle, their length is about six inches, and on the

most perfect side there are 21 plates in a space of 123 inches, all

perfectly defined. In arecent scull I find 13 plates in a distance of 9

inches, which would give but 18 for 123 inches, and they are all loose,

and so soft, as to yield to a slight touch of the tool. Ina word, our fossil

seems to have had these as true teeth, and not as germs, as in the

modern elephant.

4. The transverse breadth of the jaw.—As this dimension is fortu-

nately obtainable, I have thought it should not be neglected, as tending

to throw light upon the question of the animal’s age. As before men-

tioned, it is measured at that part of the incisive bone, where the arch

rises. It should be remarked, that not being taken from a fixed point,

it is, in so far, an approximative measurement depending on the accu-

racy of the eye in fixing upon nearly the same part of the arch as that

which is taken in the fossil. The comparative dimensions are as

follow :—

Breadth of the jaw.

Inches.

Tue Fossin, ... a, aes 10.4

A. First Fossil Scull as before, ... «+ 11.1

BGecouds my tit: ve huts sis eeu perfect.

624 Note on the Fossil Jaw sent from Jubbulpore. _ [_No. 116.

Breadth of the jaw.

Inches.

Recent Sculls, Ist. by: ate 10.8

ordinary size, 2nd. “se we ~ Pi

Large size, — T2.5

5. The length of the jaw. _This naan should perhaps be called

its depth. I mean by it a direct line from the centre of the foramen

magnum to the front of the incisors (B. plate 1.) In our fossil we

have not been able to find the trace of the foramen magnum; but we

have cleared away enough, I think, to warrant our saying, that if perfect,

the depth of the jaw (or length as expressed above) would be quite

what the fossil now is. The following are the measurements :—

Feet. Inches.

Tue Fossit, about,

Fossil Sculls, ... =a: = .-» imperfect.

Recent Sculls, Ist.... ... vets Sante Ha

Ordinary size, 2d. sg oF sen Ve be

Large size, dd. ... = “ee doo? Beta

From the foregoing measurements, the peculiarities of this fossil

may I trust be elucidated. I cannot venture, with my limited know-

ledge of the subject, upon drawing inferences. The following passages

from Cuvier may perhaps be of use, to those who have not the work

at hand; and apart from the earnest desire both of Mr. Torrens and

myself, and I am sure of every member of the Society, to see justice done

to so steady and active a contributor as Doctor Spilsbury, to whom the

Geology and Paleontology of India is so greatly indebted; the last one

may serve in some degree to explain why we have thought it just to him

that every thing relative to this fossil, should it prove new, should be

placed upon record. It is no small encouragement to the pioneers in

every walk of Natural History, to learn, from the hand of Cuvier himself,

that it is to a single memoir and plate, which had been neglected for

seventy years in the Philosophical Transactions, that we owe the most

magnificent series of discoveries, which have yet illustrated the former

state of our globe!

Museum, 3\st July, 1841. H. Pipprneron.

Notes from Cuvier.

Os. Foss. vol. i. p. 522.—I. “On a disputé sur le nombre des dents

des élephans: la Société Royale de Londres s’appercut en 1715 qu’il

1841. | Note on the Fossil Jaw sent from Jubbulpore. 625

varie d’une a deux de chaque coté, et que la place de la division varie

aussi; c’est 4 dire que la premiere dent est plus ou moins longue, a

proportion de Ja seconde, suivant les individus.—Trans. Phil. Tome

xxix, No. 349, p. 370.”

Vol. ii. p. 177.—II “ Mais le nombre (des lames des dants) pris sur

des dents de longueur égale ne donnerait-il point de bons caractéres ?

c’est ce que j’ai examiné sur un grand nombre de dents des Indes

et fossiles et j'ai presque toujours trouvé les lames de ces dernieres

plus minces, et par consequent plus nombreuses dans une méme

espace.”

Vol. iii. p. 178.—*“ Un troisiéme caractére est pris de la largeur, tant

absolue que proportionelle, des dents ; beaucoup plus considerable dans

léléphant fossile que dans celui des Indes. On peut s’en assurer par la

cinquiéme colonne de ma table : ot l’on voit que les fossiles ont presque

toutes de 8.08 a 9.09, de largeur; et les dents du vivant de 0.06.

a 0.07.”

Vol. iv. p. 180.—“ Ainsi on ne peut pas considerer la minceur des

lames comme un caractére de l’éléphant fossile aussi général que la

largeur de ses dents, et que les formes de ses machoires et de son crane;

cependant la largeur seule de ses macheliéres suffit pour les reconnai-

tre, parcequ’elle est beaucoup plus constante.”

P. 199.—Speaking of three fossil sculls, brought from Siberia, from

the banks of the Indighirska, by the intrepid Danish traveller Messer-

schmidt, who gave a drawing of the best of them to Breynius, who

engraved it to accompany a memoir inserted in the Philosophical

Transactions. (It is that from which the outline B. in our plate is taken, )

626 Note on the Fossil Jaw sent from Jubbulpore. |No. 116.

he says, p. 201: ‘“ Dés que je connus ce dessin de Messerschmidt, et

que je joignis aux differences qu'il m/offrait celles que j’avais obser-

vées moi-méme sur les machoires inferieures, et sur les molaires isolées

je ne doutai plus que les é/éphans fossiles n’efissent été d’une espéce

differente des éléphans des Indes. Cette idée que j’annongai a l’institut

dés le mois de Janvier 1796 m’ouvrit des vues, toutes nouvelles sur la

théorie de la terre; un coup d’ceil rapide jeté sur d’autres os fossiles

me fit presumer tout ce que j’ai découvert depuis, et me determina &

me consacrer aux longues recherches et aux travaux assidus qui m’ont

occupe depuis vingt cing ans.

Je dois donc reconnaitre ici, que c’est a ce dessein, resté pour ainsi dire

oublié, dans les Transactions Philosophiques depuis soixante dix ans

que je devrai celui de tous mes ouvrages auquel j’attache le plus de

prix.”

P. S.—Since this paper was written, I find in the Society’s col-

lection a strong corroboration of the surmise, that our fossil was an

adult animal. A lower fossil-elephant’s jaw, sent down by Mr. Con-

ductor Dawe from Nahun, has the teeth, (or tooth, for there seems

only one,) of exactly the same breadth as our fossil. The whole

length of it is 6.9 inches, of which only 4.5 inches are worn down,

the remainder standing up 0.8 inches above the rest, as if it had

not been brought into use. In 2 inches, there are 7 ridges of enamel ;

our fossil having as will be recollected 8 ridges.

The dimensions of this lower jaw, compared with those of the

lower jaw of our largest recent elephant (E of the plate,) are as

follow :—

1841. | Note on the Fossil Jaw sent from Jubbulpore.

Large recent Elephant, E.

of the plate.

Inches.

Depth of lower jaw from the )

crown of the worn teeth to the |

lowest part of the arch of the |

i EE ae eteteialele eis alo vis oi cine vies J

Thickness of the jaw at “

WERE IMATE vc asseasivionsesniat

TEETH.

Entire length, (2 teeth,) ... .. Sr peecoinss tatssectertera ciaeiiais.os

Worn surface, (1 tooth,) ...... DIL OM cae orgie seteinetacs sere

BREPCEIMIAEE, oi desec oes uens cess avin COM ected rasateeienen ceties

eseeeeneceeoeseeeeeeesee

625*

Jaw from

Nahun.

Inches.

From hence it will be seen, that we have, from two spots at

least 600 miles apart,—our fossil being from the banks of the Nerbudda,

and Mr. Dawe’s from Nahun, on the banks of the Delhi Canal,—the

remains of a race of narrow-toothed fossil elephants.

* All more or less worn.

626*

Notes on Fossil Discoveries in the valley of the Nerbudda. By G.G.

Spitspury, Esa.

In continuation of my notes on the fossils of the Nerbudda valley,

I beg to forward for presentation to the Society another series of

drawings from the same able friend’s pencil, and without whose cheer-

fully accorded aid, I should have little chance of being either intelligi-

ble or interesting.

A. is a set of six specimens drawn to the same scale.

No. 1. I had set down as that of the humerus of a buffalo, but

am doubtful, from its answering almost completely in dimensions to a

similar bone delineated in Captain Beechey’s voyage as that of the

Musk Ox; and to shew the great resemblance, G is the reverse drawing

of No. 1 for comparison with Captain Beechey’s, made to his scale and

delineation.

No. 2. Is a portion of the femur of a similar animal.

No. 3. Portion of femur of elephant.

No. 4. Tooth of hippopotamus.

No. 5. Part of lower jaw of an elephant.

No. 6. Sacrum with last lumbar vertebra of some bovine animal.

B. No. 7. Lower jaw of a wild hog, and C. No. 7. in the next plate,

is 2 somewhat different view of the same specimen.

No. 8. Part of the lower jaw, tusks, and teeth, imperfect, of the hip-

popotamus.

D. No. 9. Dexter half of the lower jaw of an animal of the deer kind.

No. 10. Portion of upper jaw and teeth of a deer.

I. Posterior molars of a hippopotamus.

F. Two drawings, frontal a, and occipital 6, of a horned animal re-

markable for the little depth of the skull, from the point at b to the

condyles of the occiput being scarcely two inches; ed are reversed

views of the chin of the hippopotamus; the original of which has been

forwarded for presentation to the Museum, accompanied by seventeen

other specimens.

Of the various sites and localities from which the foregoing have

been derived, a few remarks may be necessary. They occupy a space

(generally on the banks of the Nerbudda) from some miles above

Jubbulpore down to Brimhan-ghat, a distance of at least eighty miles by

SUED Suan ore

Want

BA Bey lol.

Z i :

is 2 3 + £ s Rn - it SS

Scale of Inches

Ballin Ke ati

aie

Cae Neonat

OA eh cao

SOON STATE

Sioa eaten dy

‘ ea

A bes

Scale of One Foct-

2 3 ~ ca a

Ballin ValiZe,

J 4 a F

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scale of Tielies

_ Seale of inches

i. 2 4 x iz

Seale of are Foor

1841.] Notes on Fossil Discoveries in the valley of the Nerbudda. 627

the course of the river. The specimens of hippopotamus have chiefly

been from the vicinity of Deo Pachur, from whence the huge specimens

of the elephant, now inthe Museum, were sent in November 18338, and

an account published in the Journal of the Society, for August 1834.

In addition to these, some few traces of turtle have been brought in,

but no specimen of any carnivorous animal has as yet been found

among the numerous graminiferous classes.

Camp, Gov. Genl. Agent at Rewah,

14th February, 1840.

Remarks by Dr. T. R. Ror.

Calcutta, January 18, 1841.

Returning to you with many thanks the drawings of fossil bones

which you had the kindness to communicate to me, 1 embrace

this opportunity to draw your attention on that figure which is marked

B. No. 8, and by the learned gentleman who did send it, supposed to

be the lower jaw of an hippopotamus. I own I was myself in the

first time led to the same opinion by the very singular shape and

breadth of the whole, and the situation of the tusks; but when I

counted the teeth, and found 3. 1.7, and much more, when I observed

the small distance of the first molar from the tusk, and the shape of the

last molar, I was not more at a loss; for all that shews me, that

I have before me the jaw of a species of Paleotherium, which will

very likely prove to be a new one, because it differs from all spe-

cies known till now, by the obtuseness and breadth from one tusk

to the other. I would suggest that you should induce your correspon-

dent to send either more detailed drawings, or the specimen itself

if possible, for further examination.

Fig. a and 6 I consider myself as a most extraordinary skull. The

proportion of the margo orbitalis externus (posterior) to the tuber

frontalis of the horn is like that of the Bos Grunniens; but the

small height of the skull is very singular, and worth a full and accurate

description.

d g and n I suppose are remains of two different species of Antelope.

B7 and C of Sus. E surely of hippopotamus; but whether A 4

belonged to an individual of the same kind I cannot tell at present.

628 Remarks by Dr. T. R. Roth. [No. 116.

Let me entreat you, Sir, to prevail with the gentleman, your corres-

pondent, to submit rather the specimen, than drawings; for although,

these now before us are beautifully executed, yet they want very much

as to supply the specimens themselves.

I am directed by Herrmann de Meyer, Esq. of Frankfort on the Main,

author of the “ Paleologica,” and other valuable geological works to

distribute among the geologists of the Honorable Asiatic Society of

Bengal, the prospectus of a new intended work, “ Fauna der Vor-

welt” (Faune of the former age.) The name of the author will be suf-

ficient to shew what is to be expected by his genius and able pencil.

Nore.—This prospectus is printed withthis No. as an advertisement, and

will continue so to appear till further notice. | (Ty

Catalogue of the Birds in the Museum of the Asiatic Society. By

J. T. Pearson, Surgeon, formerly Curator of the Museum.

Notz.—I cannot omit this opportunity of thanking Mr. C. W. Smith,

for the kindness with which he has lent me his Notes, to which I am so

largely indebted in the following Catalogue.

| Sr eP:

No. 1.

Class AvEs.

Order RArrTorEs.

Fam. FaLconipz&.

Genus HaLimerTUus.

Sp. H. Leucogaster.

White bellied Eagle.

A specimen sent from the Chinese collection lately broken up at

Macao: a portion of which, consisting of the animals mentioned in this

and other branches of the Catalogue, was sent to the Museum of the

Asiatic Society by Mr. Inglis.

2. Halieétus Ponticerianus.—Pondicherry Eagle.

Shot by the Curator, near Calcutta, and mounted in the Museum.

Falco Ponticerianus.—Gmelin’s Lin. I. 263 Turton’s Lin. I.

150.

1841. | Birds in the Museum of the Asiatic Society. 629

Pondicherry Eagle. Latham’s Gen. Hist. I. 147. Shaw’s Gen.

Zool. VII. 91.

Halizétus Ponticerianus. Stephens’ continuation of Shaw’s Zool.

XIII. Part II. 13.

«‘ Europeans have given this bird the appellation of Brahminy Kite,

which originates probably in having observed that the Hindoos attach

superstitious ideas to it. Among the Mahommedans there is a pre-

valent notion, that when two armies are about to engage, the appear-

ance of one of these birds over either party, prognosticates victory to

that side; thence its Arabic name of [hy _,

“‘ These birds are among the first objects which attract the eye of a

stranger, for they swarm about the shipping at Calcutta, and are useful

in removing any offal which may be thrown overboard; but though

their usual food is carrion, yet they kill fish, and not unfrequently carry

off a snipe which the sportsman has levelled.”,—-C. W. Smith’s MS.

Notes.

The Brahminy Kite is a handsome bird, of an elegant form, and

striking plumage; the rich red-brown of the back contrasting well

with the white of the head, neck, and breast, the black of the quill

feathers, and the yellow beak and legs. As Mr. Smith has stated, it

is common at Calcutta; it is met with in the interior of the country,

but not so often as at that place. At Garden Reach, the species is

often observed in pairs, perching on the stump, or branch of a decayed

tree; and numbers of them are to be seen flying over the Hoogly.

It is perhaps possible, that there may be something like migration in

the habits of this bird. I have thought that at some periods of the-

year it is more common than at others: in the cold season it abounds,

while in the rains, it is rarely met with. Lieut, Montriou, of the Indian

Navy, to whom I am indebted for much information on Indian Zoology,

informs me, that it is rarely seen at Saugor in the cold season.

4. Genus ACCIPITER.

Sp. A. Fringillarius.—Sparrow Hawk.

Shot at Garden Reach, and mounted in the Museum.

5. Accipiter—? Chippuck Hawk.

Shot by the Curator at Garden Reach, and mounted in the Museum.

This bird is called Chippuck by the natives.

630 Birds in the Museum of the Asiatic Society. — [ No. 116.

6. Gen. Ierax.

Sp. Lerax.—Cohy Falcon.

Chinese collection Cohy Falcon, Lath. Gen. Hist.

“This is a scarce bird, it was sent to me by a native gentleman

residing at Thekaree in the Gya district, who accompanied it by a

note, in which he acquainted me, that a bird of the species had not

been procured more than once in the memory of the oldest shikaree ;

and that it was thought to be a most auspicious circumstance to find

one on the estate. This is the Cohy Falcon of Latham, whose figure

of it is execrable, andit there appears any thing but a beautiful spe-

cies. I observe that the chesnut plumage on the wings and scapulars

of his bird, is not to be found in the present subject.” —C. W. Smith's

MS. Notes.

The Cohy Falcon is one of the most beautiful of the Falcon race ;

and you perceive at once that it is a high caste bird. Its posture is

erect, its plumage glossy, form compact, and manner dauntless: while

the crest on the head adds much to its grace and beauty. One was

brought to me while at Midnapore, by a shikaree, or bird

fowler ; but I had not the heart to kill it, and after having kept it for

some weeks, it broke from its perch and flew away. All my endea-

vours to procure another specimen were vain. Dr. Evans has one

stuffed, and in good plumage, (which that belonging to the Society is

not,) and in both these, the chesnut plumage mentioned by Mr. Smith

as wanting in his specimen, is present: it may depend upon the sex

_ or age of the specimen. The figure in Latham is certainly a very

bad one; and gives no idea of the beautiful bird the Cohy Falcon

really is.

7. Fam. Striciwz.

Genus Srrrix.

Sp. Flammea.—Barn Owl.

Presented by P. Homfray, Esq. and mounted in the Museum.

Strix Flammea, Lin. Syst. Nat. I. 133. Turton’s Lin. I. 171. Gme-

lin Lin. I. 293. Shaw’s Gen. Zool. VII. 258. Stephens. XIII. 60.

Barn white Owl. Latham’s Gen. Hist. I. 355.

Chouette effraie. Dict. Classique D’Hist. Nat. IV. 80.

1841. ] Birds in the Museum of the Asiatic Society. 631

«‘T found this bird in the dilapidated ruins about Boodh Gyah, and

subsequently other specimens near Hadjipur, Tirhoot. It does not

appear to differ from the white Owl of England.”—C. W. Smith’s

MS. Notes.

Mr. Homfray’s specimen was*procured at Howrah.

Dr. Horsfield has named this bird Strix Javanica, thinking it differ-

ent from the European species. And the compiler of the Catalogue of

Col. Sykes’ collection from the Duckhan, published in the proceedings

of the Zoological Society for 1832, page 82, states, that ‘a comparison

of several specimens with the European bird satisfies Col. Sykes, that

Dr. Horsfield was right in separating it. Neither sex is unspotted

beneath, nor has the Indian species a white disc.” 4

8. Order INSESSORES.

Tribus. FissIROSTRES.

Fam. MERopIpD4é.

Genus. MEROPS.

Sp. M. Viridis. The green Bee-eater.

Presented and mounted by M. Bouchez. Merops Viridis. Syst. Nat,

I. 182. Turton’s Lin. I. 284. Gmelin Lin. I. 460. Shaw’s Gen. Zool.

VIII. 156. Stephen’s XIII. 73. Latham. Gen. Hist. III. 122.

‘“‘ These birds are very numerous throughout India, their time of

incubation is the month of June, and for months after they are hatched,

the whole brood congregate, and swim about with the swiftest and

most entire movements through the air, making short dips and return-

ing to the topmost twig, from which they took flight: during these

evolutions they are busily employed in snapping up the insects.” —

C. W. Smith's MS. Notes.

The green Bee-eater has the power of gliding along for some dis-

tance without closing its wings ; so that its flight consists of two parts,

—a rapid commencement, in which the wings flap rapidly, and a quick

glide, with the wings and tail fully expanded. Its motion, especially in

this latter position, is extremely elegant; and its bright, almost metallic

plumage, shining in the evening sun, gives one the idea of a very

beautiful butterfly rather than of a bird.

632 Birds in the Museum of the Asiatic Society. | No. 116.

9. Merops Castaneus. Chesnut Bee-eater.

From the Chinese collection. Chesnut Bee-eater, Latham Gen. Hist.

4,144, Senegal Bee-eater. Shaw. Gen. Zool. VIII. 163.

Guepier D’ Adanson, Dict. Class. D’Hist. Nat. VII. 579.

10. Merops ? Bee-eater.

From the Chinese collection, perhaps the female of the last specimen.

| 11. Fam. Hirunpinip2.

Genus CYPSELUS.

Sp. C. Palmarum, the Balearic Swift.

Shot by the Curator, and mounted in the Museum.

ri Figured in Hardwicke and Gray.

12. Fam. CarRIMULGID2.

Sp. C. Asiaticus.

Bombay Goat-sucker.

From the Chinese collection. Caprimulgus Asiaticus, Turton’s Lin.

I. 636. Shaw. Gen. Zool. X. 156.

Bombay Goat-sucker, Latham. Gen. Hist. VII, 337.

Engoulevent de Bombay, Dict. Class. D’Hist. Nat, VI. 167.

13. Fam. Topip2.

Genus EuryYsTomus.

Sp. Hur. Orientalis. Oriental Kurystomus.

From the Chinese collection. Coracias Orientalis, Shaw. Gen.

Zool. VII. 403, Latham. Gen. Hist. III. 77.

Colaris Orientalis, Lin. Trans. XIII. 162.

15. Fam. Haucyonip2.

Genus Hatcyon.

Sp. H. Atricapilla. Black-capped Kingfisher.

From the Chinese collection. Alcedo Atricapilla. Gmelin. Syst.

Nat. I. 453. Turton. Lin. I. 279. Latham. Gen. Hist. IV. 30. Shaw.

Gen. Zool. VIII. 70.

Martin Pécheur dela Chine. Dict. Class. D’Hist. Nat. X. 227.

Halcyon Atricapillus. Stephens, XIII. 99.

15. 6. Another specimen from the Chinese collection.

1841. ] Birds in the Museum of the Asiatic Society. 633

16. Halcyon Smyrnensis. Smyrna Kingfisher.

From the Chinese collection.

17. Another specimen presented and mounted by M. Bouchez.

18. Another specimen, shot by the Curator, and mounted in the

Museum,

Alcedo Smyrnensis. Lin. Hist. Nat. I. 181. Gmelin. Lin. I. 459.

Turton’s Lin. I. 282. Shaw’s Gen. Zool. VIII. 68. Latham’s Gen.

Hist. IV. 18. Griffiths’ Cuvier, VII. 410.

Martin Pécheur bleu et roux. Dict. Class. D’Hist. Nat. X. 227.

' Haleyon Smyrnensis. Stephens’ Shaw’s Gen. Zool. XIII. 99.

“This bird is common throughout India, it is likewise possessed of

great power, and I recollect a similar feat of courage* displayed by it,

which in fact I made the subject of an oil painting. It has a sharp

bustling note like the generality of the tribe when taking wing ; pur-

sues its finny prey below the surface, and is altogether a brisk lively

bird.”,—C. W. Smith's MS. Notes.

The Smyrna King-fisher has been observed by the Curator in Ben-

gal, Behar and Orissa; it is very common at Garden Reach, and in-

deed in all the neighbourhood of Calcutta.

19. Haleyon Gurial. The Gurial King-fisher. Presented by Mr. J.

T. Pearson.

20. Another specimen, shot by the Curator, and mounted in the

Museum.

Alcedo Gurial. Latham. Gen. Hist. IV. 12.

‘This bird is not very common, but is more frequently met with in

Bengal than in the other Provinces. It is very strong and powerful,

as an instance of which I once observed a contest between one of them

and a Hawk of considerable size, in which the Hawk was worsted, and

obliged to leave his hold from the effects of a severe blow which the

other administered to him on the breast. When wounded, consider-

able caution is required in handling, for a single blow would disable a

person’s hand.”—C. W. Smith’s MS. Notes.

As the published descriptions of the Gurial King-fisher are meagre,

the following is here inserted. It was drawn up immediately after

the death of the only specimen the Curator met with at Midnapore,

during a four years’ residence there. It is common near Calcutta.

* See Note to No. 20.

634 Birds in the Museum of the Asiatic Society. (No. 116.

Olive brown and green King-fisher with red bill.

Weight 74 ounces.

Size that of a common pigeon.

Length, from the tip of the bill to the rump 114 inches, ditto from

the tip of the bill to the tip of the tail 16 inches, ditto from ditto to the

mid-claw 134 inches.

Ditto from the base of the bill to the rump 84 inches, breadth from

tip to tip of the wings 22 inches.

Bill long and pointed; flat, like all the Halcyons, at the top, from

the tip to the insertion of the fore-head 3 inches long, to the gape 35

e e 6 e e 6 e

inches ; circumference at the base 3 ;, inches, do.in the centre 1 ;; inches,

colour bright red with black tip. Margin of the eye-lids bare, red under

eye-lid, furnished with a row of dingy olive brown feathers near the

margin, and below buff coloured; iris dark red. Legs and feet bright

scarlet. Head, cheeks, and upper two-thirds of the back of the neck

dark olive brown; throat pale straw colour, almost white; breast, neck,

and lower third of the back of the neck buff, with the tip of each fea-

ther bounded by a narrow margin of the same olive brown colour as

the head, forming dotted crescent-like lines ; breast, belly, inner wing

coverts, thighs, and vent of a bright orange buff, upon a lighter

ground; upper part of the neck, scapular, and lesser wing coverts

dark brownish green; greater wing coverts, quills, sides of the lower

part of the back, upper tail coverts, and tail, dark greenish blue; back

from the shoulders to the rump bright azure with silky feathers, shin-

ing like satin; false wing of three feathers ; quills blue on the outer

side, and in the secondary a little blue towards the tips in the inner

side, with black shafts, and inner web of the latter edged for two-thirds

from the base with dirty white.

The Gurial King-fisher has a laughing screaming note. It is the

largest Indian species known to the Curator. In the neighbourhood

of Calcutta it is common, and probably in the whole Delta of the ©

Ganges, or Sunderbunds, and Dr. M‘Clelland brought specimens from

Assam. Its flight consists of short quick jerks, very vigorous, and

long continued. In fishing it does not hover ; but perches upon the high

bamboo bush, or on a middle-sized tree over a pool, waiting for its

prey, where its blood-red bill shines brightly in the sun, and its great

size, and violent plunge into the water, give one the idea of a noble bird.

1841. ] Birds in the Museum of the Asiatic Society. 635

21. Halcyon Amauropterus. Mihi. Brown winged King-fisher.

This bird appears to be undescribed, and indeed hitherto unknown.

It has been named as above by the Curator ; and the following is its

description :—

Large fawn coloured King-fisher, with brown wings and tail. Length

from tip of bill to the end of the tail 14 inches, breadth from tip

to tip of the wings 16 inches, length of bill 34 inches. _ Bill and feet

scarlet. Head, neck, belly and neck fawn coloured or buff, each feather

tipped with brown. Wings and tail smoke coloured. Back cerulean

blue. Iris dark brown.

Found near Calcutta.

22. Halcyon Collaris——Collared King-fisher.

From the Chinese collection.

Alcedo Collaris. Turton’s Lin. I. 280. Shaw. Gen. Zool. VIII. 80.

Collared King-fisher. Latham Gen. Hist. IV. 27.

Martin-Pécheur a collier blanc. Dict. Class. D’Hist. Nat. X. 227.

23. Genus ALCEDO.

Sp. A. Rudis.—Pied King-fisher.

Shot by the Curator, and mounted in the Museum.

Alcedo Rudis. Lin. Syst. Nat. I. 181. Gmelin Lin. I. 454. Turton’s

Lin. I. 283. Shaw. Gen. Zool. VIII. 63.

Black and white King-fisher. Latham. Gen. Hist. IV. 15.

Martin Pécheur Pie. Dict. Class. D’Hist. Nat. X. 231.

‘“¢ This species is very numerous; there is not a river, stream or pool

without its complement of these birds, where they may be seen con-

stantly on the look-out, hovering like this tribe, and anon plunging

beneath the water in pursuit of their prey..—C. W. Smith's MS. Notes.

The Pied King-fisher is not so common in the neighbourhood of Cal-

cutta as in Behar and Orissa. At Midnapore it is very common, and

forms a striking feature in the picture of nature, as it hovers in the

beauty of its glossy black and white, satin-like plumage, over the

streams. From a height of 20 or 30 feet it plunges down dead as a

stone into the water, and remains below it so long, that the ripple over

the surface clears away sometimes before it comes up again.

The Pied King-fisher is a very beautiful bird; its plumage being

smooth, snowy white, and jet black, in patches of irregular size and

636 Birds in the Museum of the Asiatic Society. [No. 116.

shape, shining like satin, and lying very close. On the top and back

of the head the feathers are loose, and somewhat lengthened into

a plume.

24. Another specimen from the Chinese collection.

25. Alcedo Bengalensis.—Indian King-fisher.

Shot by the Curator, mounted in the Museum.

Alcedo Bengalensis, Gmelin. Syst. Nat. I. 450. Turton Lin. I. 277.

Shaw. Gen. Zool. VIII. 102.

Indian King-fisher, Latham. Gen. Hist. 1V. 48. Griffith’s Cuvier,

VIT. 409.

Martin Pecheur du Bengale, Dict. Class. D’Hist. Nat. VII. 409.

‘‘ This species is pretty common, and much resembles the British

King-fisher in its motions, rapidity of flight, and note."—C. W. Smith’s

MS. Notes.

The Bengal King-fisher is very common in the neighbourhood of

Calcutta. It is frequently seen seated on a stick standing upright in

a paddy field, watching for small fishes in the shallow water, when its

red breast shining in the morning sun seems like a living ruby.

26. Genus CErYx.

Sp. C. Azurea.—The Azure King-fisher.

From the Chinese collection.

Alcedo Tribrachys. Shaw. Gen. Zool. VIII. 105.

Azure King-fisher. Latham. Gen. Hist. 1V. 61.

Ceyx Azurea. Stephens’ Shaw’s Gen. Zool. XIII. 106.

27. Trib. DenTirosTREs.

Fam. Musicicaripm.

Genus Muscireta.

Sp. M. Flaviventris.—Yellow bellied Fly-catcher.

Museipeta Flaviventris, Griffith’s Cuvier, VI. 334.

28. Genus MuscicapPa.

Sp. MM. Azurea.—Azure Fly-catcher.

Celestial Fly-catcher. Latham Gen. Hist. VI. 201.

Muscicapa Azurea. Stephens’ Shaw’s Zool. XIII. 116. Griffith’s

Cuvier, VI. 341.

1841.] Birds in the Museum of the Asiatic Society. 637

29. Muscicapa Flammea.—Flameous Fly-catcher.

Shot by the Curator, and mounted in the Museum.

Muscicapa Flammea. Shaw. Gen. Zool. X. 372.

Flammeous Fly-catcher. Latham Gen. Hist. VI. 173.

Muscipeta Flammea. Zool. Proceedings, 1832, p. 85.

‘‘ I met with this bird in a grove of trees near Gyah, there were a

pair of them, the female merely differing in the plumage being less

bright."—_C. W.. Smith’s MS. Notes.

The specimens in the Museum were shot at Garden Reach in the

beginning of the year 1836, when a flight of them settled in some

lofty larch trees. The morning was foggy, and none were seen during

a space of two months afterwards. A specimen was brought to the

Curator at Midnapore. He has also seen them at Juanpore, and they

are not uncommon at Darjeeling. The female is yellow where the

male is red.

29. Another specimen of the Flammeous Fly-catcher. See Note

above.

30. Muscicapa Cerulea.—The Cerulean Fly-catcher.

Shot by the Curator, and mounted in the Museum.

Muscicapa Cerulea. Gmelin. Lin, Syst. Nat. I. 943. Turton’s Lin.

I. 579. Stephens’ Shaws’ Gen. Zool. X. 383 Griffith’s Cuvier, VI.

341.

Azure Fly-catcher. Latham Gen. Hist. VI. 180.

Gobe-mouche Azur. Dict. Class. D’Hist. Nat. VII. 401.

The Cerulean Fly-catcher is a native of Bengal. It is common at

Garden Reach and its vicinity, where it is to be seen in the lower

branches of the mangoe trees, from whence it now and then takes a

short flight in pursuit of insects, returning again immediately to the

same tree.

31. Muscicapa —— . Broad-tailed Fly-catcher.

Shot by the Curator, and mounted in the Museum.

Broad-tailed Fly-catcher. Uatham. Gen. Hist. VI. 178.

The broad-tailed Fly-catcher is met with at Garden Reach, near

Calcutta. Its habits are much the same as those of the Cerulean

Fly-catcher.

638 Birds in the Museum of the Asiatic Society. [No. 1lo.

31. Muscicapa Verditer. Verditer Fly-catcher.

Shot by the Curator, and mounted in the Museum.

Verditer Fly-catcher. Latham. Gen. Hist. VI. 182.

The Verditer Fly-catcher is found in the neighbourhood of Calcutta,

but it is not very common. The Curator has not seen it any where

else.

32. Muscicapa ——. Fly-catcher.

Chinese collection

30. Fam. LAaniapzZ.

Genus TYRANNUS.

Sp. Zyr. Leucogaster. Tyrant Shrike.

Lanius Tyrannus. Lin. Syst. Nat. 1. 136. Gmelin. Lin. I. 302.

Turton’s Lin. I. 176. Shaw’s Gen. Zool. VII. 304.

34. Genus OcyPTERUS.

Sp. Ocy. Rufiventer. Red-bellied Ocypterus.

Presented and mounted by M. Bouchez.

Langrayen a ventre roux. Dict. Class. D’Hist. Nat. 1X. 209.

Ocypterus Rufiventer. Griffith’s Cuv. VI. 288.

35. Ocypterus Leucogaster. White-bellied ays

Chinese collection.

Lanius Leucorhynchus. Gmelin’s Lin. I. 805. Turton’s Lin. I. 178.

Shaw’s Gen. Zool. VII. 323.

_ Artamus Leucorhynchus. Steph. Shaw. Gen. Zool. xii. 137.

Artamus Leucogaster. Griffith’s Cuv. VI. 287.

Langrayer a ventre blane. Dict. Class. D’Hist. Nat. TX. 290.

36. Genus DicrurRus.

Sp. D . Shrike.

37. Dicrurus Indicus.—Long-tailed Shrike.

Shot by the Curator, and mounted in the Museum.

Drongo Drongolon. Dict. Class. D’Hist. V. 621.

“This species is common throughout India; it is to be seen in

every field, is restless, and constantly in motion ; and frequently to be

seen on the backs of cattle extracting the vermin. It feeds upon

insects, is a ferocious and most pugnacious bird, will occasionally kill

small birds, with the utmost nonchalance will attack the crow and

1841. | Birds in the Museum of the Asiatic Society. 639

kite, which it drives before it as if defeat was a stranger to ‘it. We

have therefore no difficulty in the derivation of its vulgar name of the

King-crow”.—C. W. Smith's MS. Notes.

The Dicrurus Indicus is one of the most common birds in Bengal.

It is to be seen at all seasons mounted on walls, hedges, and the tops

of palings, and elevated things of the kind, watching for insects, which

it darts upon by ashort quick flight, and returns again to its place.

In form the King-crow, as it is termed, is very elegant. It is compact

and well proportioned, and greatly ornamented by the rich glossy

black of its plumage, and the graceful outward curve of either side

of its long forked tail. In manner it is lively and bold, but not

familiar. And altogether, the King-crow is one of the most striking,

and most pleasing objects of Indian animated nature.

38 Chinese collection.

39. Genus Lantus.

Sp. Z. Ltalicus.—Italian Shrike.

40, Lanius Rufescens.

41. Lanius Curcutti. Corcutti Shrike.

Shot by the Curator, and mounted in the Museum.

42, Lantus

Chinese collection.

43. Lanius

Chinese collection.

44, Fam. Mervuiipa.

Genus Pirra.

Sp P. Bengalensis.—Bengal Pitta.

Presented by Lieut. Vickery, and mounted in the Museum.

45. Pitta Eurythrogastra.—Red-bellied Pitta.

Chinese collection.

Pitta Erythrogastra.—Stephens’ Shaw’s Gen. Zool. XIII. 185.

46. Pitta

Presented by Dr. McCosh, and mounted in the Museum.

. Chesnut-crowned Pitta.

This specimen was procured by Dr. McCosh in Assam. It ap-

parently differs from any hitherto described species.

640 Birds in the Museum of the Asiatic Society. [No. 116.

47. Genus Ixos.

Sp. I. Jocosus.

Pink-eared Bulbul.—Jocose Shrike.

Lanius Jocosus. Lin. Syst. Nat. I. 188. Gmelin. Lin. I. 310. Turton’s

Lin. I. 181.

Jocose Shrike. Lath. Gen. Hist. II. 41.

Lanius Eimeria. Shaw Gen. Zool. VII. 332.

Brachypus (?) Jocosus. Steph. Shaw, XII. 191.

“These birds are in great request among the natives, being of

a fearless disposition, and easily reclaimed. They are taught to sit on

the fist, and numbers may thus be seen in any Indian bazar. They

have a pretty smart appearance, and the head has an uncommon

and handsome plume ; but the song, though the few notes of which it is

composed are sweet, has neither much strength nor any variety.” —C.

W. Smith’s MS. Notes. |

The ear of this bird is clothed with pink feathers, from which cha-

racter the Curator has ventured to add the English name given above,

as, at least, quite as expressive as those it has before. The species

is found in great numbers near Calcutta, congregating together on the

tops of high bushes, and in middle sized trees. It is also to be

met with in Behar and Orissa, and Col. Sykes found it in the Deccan

only in the lofty woods of the Ghauts. It is called Bulbul by

the natives of India. A good account of its habits is given in La-

tham’s General History of Birds, vol. ii, page 41.

The plumage of the pink-eared Bulbul is glossy in the black and

white parts, and the long narrow feathers of the plume are very soft

and beautiful, though not silky.

48. Ixos

Shot by the Curator, and mounted in the Museum.

. Common Bulbul.

This is the largest of the two Bengal Bulbuls, and is the variety

of Latham’s Jocose Shrikes. It is found in great numbers congregat-

ing together upon trees and bushes throughout all the parts of the

provinces of Bengal, Behar, and Orissa; and I believe in all parts

of India. It is a noisy chattering bird, with a whistle like one of the

lower notes of the English Blackbird.

1841. | Birds in the Museum of the Asiatic Society. 641

“In a state of nature the song of this bird is rather contemptible,

but when reclaimed and placed near to better songsters, it greatly im-

proves. This species is very common, and there are several varieties,

one of which has a small patch of scarlet on the lesser coverts. It is,

however, the Cashmere Bulbul, which is so highly prized, and is gene-

rally esteemed the most melodious songster in India.” —C. W. Smith’s

MS. Notes.

49. Ivos

Chinese collection.

50. Genus OrIoLUs.

Sp. Oriolus Chinensis.—Chinese Oriole.

Chinese collection.

Oriolus Chinensis. Lin. Syst. Nat. I. 160. Gmelin I. 383.

Cochin China Oriole. Lath. Gen Hist. IIT. 139.

Chinese Oriole. Shaw. Gen. Zool. VII. 412.

Oriolus Sinensis, Synop. Griffith's Cuv. V1. 397.

51. Oriolus Melanocephalus.—Black-headed Oriole.

Shot by the Curator, and mounted in the Museum.

Oriolus Melanocephalus. Lin. Syst. Nat. I. 160. Gmelin I. 383.

Black-headed Oriole. Lath. Gen. Hist. IIT. 140. Shaw’s Gen. Zool.

VIL 411.

“This bird is dispersed throughout India, it frequents groves, and

is constantly flying from tree to tree. In the spring its plaintive

note resembles one lengthened full toned note on the flute; ushers in

the dawn; and resounds from every side. It feeds upon the berries of

the Bhur and Pepul trees and on insects.”"—C. W. Smith’s MS.

Notes.

The black-headed Oriole is a very common bird in all parts of

Bengal, and Mr. Smith mentions it above as dispersed throughout

India; but Col. Sykes saw it only in the neighbourhood of the Ghauts

in the Deccan, where its place seems to be filled by the Oriolus

Galbulus, the golden Oriole of Latham, which is said to be very abun-

dant there. Its monotonous, low-toned, constantly repeated note is a

positive pest, excelled only by that of the Koel, (Hudynamys Orien-

talis,) or Indian Cuckow.

642 Birds in the Museum of the Asiatic Society. [.No. 116.

Bae

53. Genus Turpws.

Sp. 7. Migratorius.—American Robin.

Presented by Dr. Lea.

Turdus Migratorius. Lin. Syst. Nat. I. 292. Gmelin I. 811. Tur-

ton’s Lin. I. 492. Shaw’s Gen. Zool. X. 276.

Red-breasted Thrush. Lath. Gen. Hist. V. 144.

American Robin. Griff. Synop. Cuv. VI. 383.

The Robin. Wilson’s American Ornithol. Edit. 1831, Edin. II 112.

54, Turdus Saularis.—Little Indian Pie.

Presented and mounted by M. Bouchez.

Gracula Saularis. Lin. Syst. Nat. I. 165. Gmelin Lin. I. 397.

Turton’s Lin. I. 240. Shaw’s Gen. Zool. VII. 474.

Dial Grakle. Lath. Gen. Hist. III. 165.

Turdus Saularis. Sykes’ Catalogue, Zool. Proc. pt. 2. 1832. p. 87.

“This familiar and sociable bird often reminds me of its more

beautiful brother the British Red-breast; like to that pretty and ami-

able visitor, it is seen much about the habitation of man, and has all its

smart and quick motions. Its song is also similar, and when domesti-

cated it may be taught to speak.”—-C. W. Smith’s MS. Notes.

The Dial is a lively, active little bird, rather like a little magpie,

having a bright glossy-like black plumage, with snow-white band on

the wings, and under parts of the same. It hops about like a Robin,

pertly cocking its tail, and whistling a somewhat similar melody. It is

very common in Bengal, in the neighbourhood of Calcutta; but less

so in the Mofussil, though I have frequently seen it in the provinces of

Behar, Orissa, and Allahabad. The plumage of the female is similarly

marked to that of the male; but not so glossy.

55. Turdus

American collection.

56. Turdus Surpowee.—Milh. Surpowee Thrush.

Shot by the Curator, and mounted in the Museum.

I have found this bird only in the neighbourhood of Calcutta, where

it is not uncommon. It is generally met with near jheels, hopping

about the lower branches of overhanging bushes, or upon the ground.

1841.] Birds in the Museum of the Asiatic Society. 643

at the brink of the water. JI have named it, as M. Bouchez told me

it is called by the natives ; and I should have described it had I not

been obliged to leave Calcutta ; and I have now no specimen to refer to.

57. Genus Srpra, Hodgson.

Sp. S. Migriceps Hopason.—Black-headed Sibia.

Presented by Mr. Hodgson from Nepaul; and another by Mr. Bruce,

who received it from Almorah, whence it was sent to him by Lieut.

H. Huddleston, 7th Regt. N. I. It is very common at Darjeeling.

Mounted in the Museum.

58. Sibia Picaoides.—Hodgson’s Picaoid Sibia.

Presented by Mr. Hodgson, from Nepaul. Mounted in the

Museum.

59. Sibia ?

Presented by Mr. Bruce, who received it from Lieut. Huddleston at

Almorah. Mounted in the Museum.

60.

Presented by Mr. Bruce. Also from Almorah. Mounted in the

Museum.

61. Turdus :

62. Fam. Syiviap@, Vigors.

Genus Syxtvia, Auct.

Sp. S. Rubetra.—Whin Chat.

Chinese collection.

63. Sylvia ?

Chinese collection.

This specimen appears to be allied to, if not a variety of 62.

64. Sylvia f

Shot by the Curator, and mounted in the Museum. Probably a va-

riety of the above.

65. Sylvia ?

Shot by the Curator at Garden Reach, and mounted in the Museum.

This bird is called Chick-chickee by the natives.

644 Birds in the Museum of the Asiatic Society. (No. 116.

66. Sylvia ?

Chinese collection.

67. Sylvia ?

Presented by Captain Pemberton.

68. Sylvia ?

Chinese collection.

69 Sylvia

?—The Saumer.

70.

71. Genus Mauurus, Vieillot.

Sp. M. Longicaudus. :

Motacilla Longicauda. Gm. Lin. I. 954. Turton Lin. I. 586.

Sylvia Longicauda. Shaw Gen. Zool. X. 756.

Long-tailed Warbler. Lath. Gen. Hist. VII. 119. Griffith’s Cuv.

VII. 467.

Shot by the Curator, and mounted in the Museum.

Common in the neighbourhood of Calcutta, and where, according to

Latham, it is called Toon-toonee. He says, .“‘ the nest found among

mangoe trees, most commonly in shape of a purse, generally composed

of two living leaves attached together by fibres, somewhat in the manner

expressed in the Indian Zoology as belonging to the Tailor War-

bler, though not with so wonderful a construetion ; the hollow space

between the two leaves is lined with cotton by way of nest, and the

eggs are three in number, whitish, marked with flesh-coloured spots,

in length three-fifths of an inch.”

72.

73.

74. Genus Jora, Horsfield.

Sp. J. Scapularis. Horsf.

Jora Scapularis. Horsf. Lin. Trans. XIII. 152. Stephens’ Shaw

Zool. XIII. 217.

Shot by the Curator, and mounted in the Museum.

The Jora Scapularis is very common in the neighbourhood of

Caleutta. It is also to be met with in Orissa.

‘.

1841.] Birds in the Museum of the Asiatic Society. 645

75.

76. Genus Mawurvus.

Sp. ——__———

Chinese collection.

77. Malurus Cyaneus.—Superb Warbler.

Presented by Captain Pemberton.

Motacilla Cyanea. Gm. Lin. I. 991. Turton’s Lin. I. 611.

Sylvia Cyanea. Shaw Zool. X. 754.

Superb Warbler. Lath. Gen. Hist. III. 117. Griffith’s Cuv. VI. 468.

Malurus Cyaneus.—Stephens’ Shaw’s Zool. XIII. 223.

Inhabits the southern parts of New Holland.

78. Malurus Cyaneus. Superb Warbler.

Another specimen from the Chinese collection.

79. Genus AntTuus, Beckstein.

Sp. A. Agilis. Sykes, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1832..p. 91.

Shot by the Curator at Garden Reach, and mounted in the Museum.

80. Anthus Trivialis.—Pipit Lark.

Shot by the Curator at Garden Reach, and mounted in the Museum.

Alauda Trivialis. Lin. Syst. Nat. I. 288. Gm. Lin. I. 796. Turt.

Lin. J. 483. Stephens’ Shaw’s Zool. XIII. 238. ;

Alauda Sepiaria. Shaw’s Zool. X. 542.

Pipit Lark. Latham. Gen. Hist. VI. 278.

Field Lark. Griffith’s Cuv. VI. 477.

The present specimen was shot in the cold weather. I have not seen

it but at that season; and so far it agrees with Latham’s remark of

its habits in England, that it is rarely seen, except in the winter-

- months.

81. Fam. Prpripz.

Genus Parus. Lin.

SP. P. Cristatus.—Crested Titmouse.

Parus Cristatus. Lin. Syst. Nat. I. 340. Gm. Lin. I. 1005. Tur-

ton’s Lin. I. 622. Shaw’s Zool. X. 64 and XIII. 246.

Crested Titmouse. Lath. Gen. Hist. VII. 249. Griffith’s Cuv. VII.

121.

646 Birds in the Museum of the Asiatic Society. [No. 116.

82. Genus Parpauorus, Vieillot.

Sp. P. Australis.—New Holland Manakin.

New Holland Manakin. Lath. Gen. Hist. VII. 238. ¢

Pardalotus Australis. Stephens’ Shaw’s Zool. XIII. 252. ?

83. Fam. FRINGILLIDE. .

Genus RampxHoce tis, Desmarest. ‘

Sp. R. Jacapa.

ah DO

Chinese collection.

Tanagra Jacapa. Lin. Sys. Nat. I. 313. Gm. Lin. I. 888.

Red-breasted Tanager. Lath. Gen. Hist. VI. 2. Griffith’s Cuv. VI.

317.

Ramphopis Jacapa. Shaw’s Zool. X. 439.

84. Genus AuAupa, Auctorum.

Sp. A Finch Lark.

Shot by the Curator, and mounted in the Museum.

Finch Lark. Lath. Gen. Hist. VI. 307.

I shot the present specimen at Garden Reach, during the cold wea-

ther, but Latham states it to be found at Cawnpore in the month of

April. Ido not find it in any other author. Neither Franklin, Sykes,

nor Tickell have mentioned it.

85.

Chinese collection.

86.

Chinese collection.

87. Genus Frineitia, Auctorum.

Sp. F. Celebs.—The Chaffinch.

Chinese collection.

Fringilla Celebs. Lin. Syst. Nat. I. 318. Gm. Lin. I. 901.

Turton’s Lin. I. 552. Steph. Shaw’s Zool. IX. 442. and XIV. 37.

Chaffinch. Lath. Gen. Hist. VI. 57.

The Chaffinch. Griffith’s Cuv. VII. 138.

Gros-bec Pinson. Dict. Class. D’Histoire Nat. VII. 537.

1841. ] Birds in the Museum of the Asiatic Society. 647

This specimen may possibly be a native of China, and if so, it has a

new locality. Latham says, it is met with on the Coast of Africa, at

the Cape of Good Hope, and at Aleppo. I have not seen nor heard of it

in India.

88. 89.—Fam. LoxtapZ.

Genus Loxta. Ray.

Sp. Loxia Punctularia.—Cowry Grosbeak.

Shot by the Curator, and mounted in the Museum.

‘ Loxia Punctularia. Lin. Syst. Nat. I. 802. Gm. Lin. I. 851. Turt.

Lin. I. 520. Steph. Shaw’s Zool. 1X. 830. Griffith’s Cuv. VIT. 152.

Cowry Grosbeak. Lath. Gen. Hist. V. 247.

Gros-bec Domino. Dict. Class. D’Hist. Nat. VIT. 526.

Coccothraustes Punctularia. Stephens’ Shaw’s Zool. XIV. 87.

The Cowry Grosbeak flies in large flocks, and is to be met with in

most parts of Bengal. Like the Amaduvade Finch, there are many

varieties.

90. Loxia Malacca.—Malacca Grosbeak.

Presented and mounted by M. Bouchez.

Loxia Malacca. Lin. I. 302. Gm. Lin. I. 851. Steph. Shaw’s Zool.

IX, 332.

Malacca Grosbeak. Lath. Gen. Hist. V. 244. Griffith’s Cuv. VII. 152.

Gros-bec Jacobin. Dict. Class. D’Hist. Nat. VII. 530.

90. b. Loxia Coccothraustes—Haw Grosbeak.

Loxia Coccothraustes. Lin. 1. 299. Gm. Lin. I. 844. Steph. Shaw’s

Zool. 1X. 236.

Coccothraustes Vulgaris. Steph. Shaw’s Zool. XIV. 86.

Haw Grosbeak. Lath. Gen. Hist. V. 211.

Common Grosbeak. Griffith’s Cuv. VII. 156.

Gros-bec Commun. Dict. Class. D’Hist. Nat. VII. 524.

91. Loxia Leucocephala.—White-headed Grosbeak.

Chinese collection.

Fringilla Leucocephala. Steph. Shaw’s Zool. IX. 493.

Spotted-sided Grosbeak. Lath. Gen. Hist. I. 248.

Gros-bee a tete blanche et dos rouge. Dict. Class. D’Hist. Nat. VII.

542.

648 Birds in the Museum of the Asiatic Society. (No. 116.

92. Loxia Astrilda. Wax-bill Grosbeak.

Loxia Astrilda. Lin. I. 8303. Gm. Lin. I. 852. Turton’s Lin. I. 520.

Wazx-billed Grosbeak. Lath. V. 257.

Coccothraustes Astrilda. Shaw’s Gm. Zool. XIV. 87.

Gros-bec Astrild. Dict. Class. D’Hist. Nat. VII. 520.

93. Fam. Srurniw2..

Genus AcrIDOTHERES, (?) Vieillot.

Sp. A. Varius ?—Pied Grakle.

Chinese collection.

Pied Grakle. Lath. Gen. Hist. III. 169. Shaw’s Zool. VII. 464.

94. Genus Sturnus. Lin.

Sp. S. Vulgaris —Common Starling.

Chinese collection.

Sturnus Vulgaris. Lin. I. 290. Gm. Lin. I. 801. Turton’s Lin.

I. 487. Steph. Shaw’s Zool. X. 483. XIV. 52.

Common Stare. Lath. Gen. Hist. V. 1. Griffith’s Cuv. VII. 172.

I have never seen the common Starling in Bengal; but in the cold

season 1837-38, a specimen was brought me at Juanpore; in no wise

differing, as I thought, from the English bird. }

95. Acridotheres Tristis—Common Mynha.

Shot by the Curator, and mounted in the Museum.

Paradisea Tristis. Lin. I. 167. Gm. Lin. I. 401. Turt. Lin.

J. 242.

Paradise Grakle. Lath. Gen. Hist. VII. 147. Shaw’s Zool. VII. 455.

Acridotheres Tristis. Steph. Shaw. XIV. 57.

“This species is exceedingly numerous, and is generally diffused

throughout India, even the sparrow is*not more frequent ; in its man-

ners it is as noisy, and nearly as familiar ; like that bird it not unusually

makes its nest in the house thatch, or between the rafters. It is very

prolific, and has several broods during the year. A pair made their

nest in the beams of my verandah, during the rainy season of 1822,

and to my surprise had two successive broods within a very short pe-

riod of each other; but the vermin was so numerous that I was

obliged to have the nest destroyed, and the crevice filled up. It

is a brisk lively bird, apt to learn words and to whistle, and withal

becomes very attached to its master; so much so, that instances are

1841. | Birds in the Museum of the Asiatic Society. 649

known in which it has been allowed to range abroad during the day,

with a confidence of its return at night."——-C. W. Smith's MS. Notes.

The Acridotheres Tristis is, as every body knows, one of the merriest

birds in India, which has caused some to wonder at the trivial name

given by Linnzus. That great naturalist, however, placed it among the

Paradise birds, and contrasting its sombre clothing with the bril-

liant plumage of the rest of that genus, he gave it the name of Tristis,

not from its disposition, but its raiment. It is the Pastor Tristis

of Temminck, Franklin, and Sykes. Its locality as given by the older

writers, is India and the Philippine Islands. Colonel Franklin found it

on the banks of the Ganges, and Colonel Sykes in the Deccan. I myself

have seen it wherever I have been, except Darjeeling ; it most abounds

in Bengal. Beyond doubt it is, as Mr. Smith observes, the commonest

bird in India. It was imported into the Island of Bourbon to destroy

the grasshoppers, and was found so useful as to be especially protected

by the laws. Latham says, it builds twice a year, and at each time

lays four blue eggs. The natives of India are almost as fond of it,

and tame and pet it as much as they do the Parroquet. They procure

the young birds by placing an earthen pot in the fork of a tree,

the mouth being put at the side to defend it from the weather, for it to

breed in, and take the little ones when rather more than half-fledged.

The young bird is taught to speak and whistle, and soon becomes very

fond of his master.

96. Acridotheres Malabaricus.—Malabar Mynha.

Shot by the Curator at Garden Reach, and mounted in the Museum.

Turdus Malabaricus. Gm. Lin. I. 815. Turt. Lin. I. 496..

Malabar Grakle. Lath. Gen. Hist. III. 151. Shaw’s Gen. Zool. VII.

471.

Turdus Malabaricus. Steph. Shaw’s Zool. X. 305.

Acridotheres Malabaricus. Steph. Shaw’s Zool. XIV. 57.

Latham, on the authority of Dr. Buchanan, thinks this a different

species from his Pagoda Grakle, (Acridotheres Pagodurum) ; but I sus-

pect there is some mistake about the matter, the differences between

the three birds being such as difference in sex or age would readily

account for. Both species (if they are distinct) are found in small

650 Birds in the Museum of the Asiatic Society. [No. 116.

flocks in Bengal, Behar, and Orissa, and are plentiful at Juanpore,

near Benares.

97. Acridotheres ?

Shot by the Curator, and mounted in the Museum.

This is the Saat Bhye, or Seven Brothers of the natives, so called

from being always found in a company of about that number. As

every body knows, it is one of the most chattering, noisyest birds in

India, squeaking and hopping about, now on the ground, then upon a

tree, the flock being constantly on the move ; when one starts, all the rest

follow it, one after another, making generally but a short flight of not

more than 40 or 50 yards at a time; and when alighted they hold a

sort of consultation, hopping and squeaking about all the time, till after

a few minutes they move off to another tree, and so on for the greater

part of the day, rarely staying for more than half an hour in the same

place : they feed on insects. It is common wherever I have been in the

plains of India.

98. Acridotheres Calvus.—Bald Mynha.

Chinese Collection.

Gracula Calva. Lin. I. 164. Gm. Lin. I. 396. Turt. Lin. I. 240.

Bald Grakle. Shaw’s Zool. VII. 461. Lath. Gen. Hist. III. 146.

Acridotheres Calvus. Steph. Shaw’s Zool. XIV. 57.

99. Gen. CRACTICUs, Vieillot.

C. Chalybeus.—The Green Paradise Bird.

Chines collection.

Paradisea Viridis. Gm. Lin. I. 402. Turt. Lin. I. 244.

Chalybean Paradise Bird. Shaw’s Zool. VII. 504.

Blue-green Paradise Bird. Lath. Gen. Hist. III. 195.

Barita Viridis. Tem. Man. II.

Cracticus Chalybeus.

100. Genus Pica, Brisson.

Fam. Corvipz. *

Sp. Pica Vagubunda.—Rufous Magpie.

Shot by the Curator, and mounted in the Museum.

“Its namesake in Europe is proverbial for its noise and rest-

lessness. The present subject possesses a full portion of the above

1841.] Birds in the Museum of the Asiatic Society. 651

qualities, added to which a familiarity not quite so innocuous. I have

known it enter a covered verandah of a house, and nip off half a

dozen young Geraniums; visit a cage of small birds, begin by stealing

the grain, and end by killing and eating the birds, and repeating these

visits daily till destroyed. Its flight has the same jerk, and its

motions the same bustling character as the English Magpie. The egg

is a plain greyish white."—-C. W. Smith’s MS. Notes. .

101. Pica Sinensis.—Chinese Mapgie.

Chinese collection.

Coracias Sinensis. Gm. Lin. I. 381. Turt. Lin. I. 229.

Chinese Roller. Lath. Gen. Hist. III. 54.

Specious Jay. Shaw’s Gen. Zool. VII. 364.

Pi (?) Sinensis. Steph. Shaw’s Zool. XIV. 65.

102. Genus Garrutus, Brisson.

Sp. Garrulus Gularis.—Gular Jay.

103. Garrulus Cristatus.—Crested Jay.—Blue Jay.

Corvus Cristatus. Lin. Syst. Nat. I. 157. Gm. Lin. I. 369. Turt.

Lin. I, 221.

Blue Jay. Lath. Gen. Hist. IIT. 55. Shaw’s Gen. Zool. VII. 359.

Garrulus Cristatus. Steph. Shaw’s Zool. XIV. 66.

104. Genus Coractas, Lin.

Sp. C. Bengalensis.—Bengal Jay.—Blue Bird.

Shot by the Curator, and mounted in the Museum.

Coracias Bengalensis. Lin. I. 159. Gm. Lin. I. 380. Turt. Lin.

I. 320. Stephens’ Shaw’s Zool. XIV. 71.

Bengal Roller. Lath. Gen. Hist. III. 72.

Indian Roller. Shaw’s Gen. Zool. VII. 390.

“ Though gifted with so brilliant a plumage, much cannot be said in

praise of its shape. Its appearance on the wing is lovely, yet

when perched we observe a large head, thick neck, prominent breast,

and a pinched body, which is rendered more conspicuous by a long

tail. It is a very common bird, is little afraid cf man’s approach, and

is pugnacious, driving away the crow without much effort ; it is a very

noisy, screaming bird, and in this respect is frequently very trou-

blesome. With the Hindoos it is esteemed sacred; they consider

652 Birds in the Museum of the Asiatic Society. [No. 116.

it propitious if seen upon the day which concludes the Dussorah, or.

Doorga Pooja festivals, and discharge their matchlocks to put it on

the wing. The Birmahs annually send parties to procure the feathers

of this bird, and of the painted Kingfisher.,.—-C. W. Smith's MS.

Notes.

105. Genus Corvus, Auctorum.

Sp. C. Dauricus.—White-breasted Crow.

Corvus Dauricus. Gm. Lin. I. 367. Turt. Lin. I. 219. Stephens’

Shaw’s Zool. XIV. 69.

White-breasted Crow., Lath. Gen. Hist. III. 17. Shaw’s Gen. Zool.

VII. 349.

“The Indian Crow is more social and familiar than any of its

tribe in Britain; like the sparrow it is every where, on the house top,

in the verandah, even venturing to take a snatch at the breakfast table,

yet always awake to danger, it is off at a moment’s warning.” —C. W.

Smith's MS. Notes.

This bird is very common wherever I have been on the plains of

India; but Calcutta seems to be its head-quarters, where it is to be

seen at all times of the year, upon the houses, in the fields, and on the

shipping in the river. It awakes before day-light on the gun being fired

in Fort William, and by its incessant cawing, seems determined that

every body else shall awake likewise. Latham’s drawing is bad; and

the description scarcely agrees with our bird. If this be the “ common

crow of India” of Col. Sykes’ catalogue, it is in his opinion the Cor-

vus Splendens of Vieillot: but with which it also does not agree.

106.

Genus Prirtonoryncuus, Kuhl.

Sp. P. Violaceus.

Presented by Captain Pemberton.

TOT.

Fam. Bucerip&.

Genus Buceros, Auctorum.

Sp. Platyrynchus.

Flat-crowned Hornbill.

Chinese collection.

1841.] Birds in the Museum of the Asiatic Society. 653

108.

Buceros Panayensis.—Panayan Hornbill.

Chinese collection.

Buceros Panayensis Gm. Lin. I. 360. Turt. Lin. I. 214. Steph.

Shaw’s Zool. XIV. 82.

Furrowed Horn-bill. Shaw’s Gen. Zool. VIII. 33.

Panayan Horn-bill. Lath. Gen. Hist. II. 321.

109. Buceros Homraz.

Presented by Dr. McCosh.

Mr, Hodgson discovered this magnificent species in Nepaul. Lieu-

tenant Phayre, 7th Regiment Native Infantry, brought me a specimen

from Moulmein ; and this in the Society's Museum was brought from

Assam, by Dr. McCosh. A species of Horn-bill more magnificent

than the above is found near Kerseangurry, on the road to Darjeel-

ing, at an elevation of about 3000 feet; the head and neck furnished

with long disintegrated feathers, forming a sort of mane, their colour

light chesnut, and that of the belly dark chesnut, back and wings glossy

black, tail do. with white tip. Bill without a casque. I forbear to say

more on this bird, having sent it to Mr. Hodgson of Nepaul for descrip-

tion—a gentleman whose exertions in this branch of Natural History in

the Himalayah Mountains, entitle him to a consideration of the kind.

Fam. Psirracipz.

Genus Psirracus, Auctorum.

Sp. Ps. Erythacus.—Ash-colored Parrot.

Psittacus Erithacus. Lin. I. 144. Gm. Lin. I. 332.

Psittacus Erythacus. Turt. Lin. I. 197. Steph. Shaw’s Zool. XIV.

‘107.

Ash-colored Parrot. Lath. Gen. Hist. I. 208. Shaw’s Zool. VII.

486.

111. Psittacus Sinensis.—Green and red Chinese Parrot.

Chinese collection.

Psittacus Sinensis. Gm. Lin. I. 337. Turt. Lin. I. 200. Steph.

Shaw’s Zool. XIV. 107.

Green and red-sided Chinese Parrot. Lath. Gen. Hist. II. 232.

Red-sided Parrot. Shaw’s Zool. VIII. 490.

654 Birds in the Museum of the Asiatic Society. [ No. 116.

112. Pstttacus Pendulus. Mihi.—Pendulous Parrot.

Chinese collection.

As I cannot find that this bird has been described by any author, I

have ventured to offer a name for it. The following description and re-

marks are from Mr. Smith’s notes :—

“The length of these little birds, the smallest of the tribe in India,

is about five inches. The bill is an orange red, the crown of the head,

back of the neck and wings a blueish green; the throat, breast, and

belly a light yellowish green; a spot of ultramarine colour on the

throat ; the lower part of the back and the tail coverts deep scarlet ;

the tail deep green and pointed ; and the legs a light orange.

The pfesent drawing was made from a pair of these birds in the

possession of a native at Gyah. They inhabit Bengal, however, and

do not appear to be found in the Gyah division, nor so far to the

Westward. I have seen cages full of them in Calcutta. They have

no note that I ever heard, nor do they speak; they are very tame, and

when going to roost, resort to the upper part of the cage, where they hang

in the manner that I have placed the upper bird.,-—-C. W. Smith’s

MS. Notes.

In Mr. Smith’s drawing the ‘upper bird” referred to, is repre-

sented as hanging to a bough by its legs, with the wings folded

almost close to the side, the tail a little spread, and the head down-

wards.

113. Genus Nanopgs. Vigors.

Sp. Nan. Pulchellus.—Turcosine Parrot.

Chinese collection.

114. anodes Discolor.—Red-shouldered Parrakeet.

Chinese collection.

Red-shouldered Parrakeet. Shaw’s Zool. 466.

115. Genus PLatycercus, Vigors.

Sp. P. Pennantit.—Pennantian Parrakeet.

Chinese collection.

P. Pennantii. Steph. Shaw’s Zool. XIV. 120.

Pennantian Parrakeet. Shaw’s Zool. VIII. 410.

116. Platycercus

Chinese collection.

1841.] Birds in the Museum of the Asiatic Society. 655

117. Genus Pezororus, Illiger.

Pez. Formosus.—Ground Parrakeet.

Chinese collection.

Ground Parrakeet. Shaw’s Zool. VIII. 454.

118. Genus PaLmornis, Vigors.

Pal. Alexandri.— Alexandrine Parrakeet.

Alexandrine Parrakeet. Shaw’s Zool. VIII. 423.

Paleornis Alexandri. Zool. Journ. II. 49. Steph. Shaw’s Zool.

VIII. 123.

119. Pal. Barrabandi.

Chinese collection. .

120. Genus TricnoG osus, Vigors.

Sp. Tr. Hematopus.—Blue-bellied Parrakeet.

Chinese collection.

Blue-bellied Parrakeet. Shaw’s Zool. VIII. 413.

121. Trichoglosus Concinnus.

Chinese collection.

122, 123, 124. Trichoglosus Pusillus.—Small Parrakeet.

Chinese collection.

Small Parrakeet. Shaw’s Zool. VIII. 471.

125. Fam. Piciwz.

Genus Bucco, Lin.

Sp. B. Cyanops.—Blue-cheeked Barbet.

Shot by the Curator, and mounted in the Museum.

Blue-cheeked Curucut. Shaw’s Zool. VII. 7.

The blue-cheeked Barbet is common in Bengal, less so in Orissa,

and I have not seen a specimen at Juanpore. Mr. Smith well observes

of it, that “It has a singular habit when perched of bowing the head,

accompanying each motion with a single note resembling the word

‘hoo.’ It has two broods, the one in the month of May, the other in

November.” —MS. Notes.

126, 127, 128. Bucco Indicus.—Indian Barbet.

The first specimen presented by M. Bouchez. The others shot by

the Curator, and mounted in the Museum.

656 Birds in the Museum of the Asiatic Society. [ No. 116.

The Indian Barbet is one of the most common birds of India, often

congregating in small flocks. One of them is generally perched on

the top of the highest tree and nods his head, and eries “ buck, buck,

buck,” every time with the most indefatigable perseverance for hours

together. From this cry the generic name was probably taken.

It feeds upon seeds, is a social good tempered little fellow, and flies

like a lump of a bird, as it is, in short jerks high in the air, though to

no great distance at once.

129. Genus Picus, Lin.

Sp. Picus Virtdis.—Green Woodpecker.

Green Woodpecker. Lath: Gen. Hist. III. 345. Steph. Shaw’s

Zool. 1X. 183.

130. Picus Mace. Cuv.

Common in most parts of India.

131. Picus

132. Picus Erythrocephalus.

133. Picus Torquatus.

Chinese collection.

Lewis's Wood-pecker. Lath. Gen. Hist. III. 376.

Picus Torquatus. Wilson Amer. Orn. I. Steph. Shaw’s Zool.

XIV. 164.

Is this a young bird of the P. Torquatus °

134. Picus

Chinese collection.

136. Picus Tiga.—Tiga Woodpecker.

Picus Tiga. Horsf. Trans. Lin. Soc. XIII. 177.

Tiga Wood-pecker. Lath. Gen. Hist. III. 416.

136. Genus CoLarTes, Swainson.

Col. (?) Rufus.

Presented by Mr. C. W. Smith, and mounted in the Museum. The

specimen was purchased among others in a collection from Java.

137. Colaptes

Presented by Mr. C. W. Smith, and mounted in the Museum; also

in the Java collection.

I cannot find this species in any work, is it new ?

1841. ] Birds in the Museum of the Asiatic Society. 657

138. Fam. CucuLip”.

Genus Cucuuus, Auctorum.

Sp. C. Edolius.—Edolio Cuckoo.

Chinese collection.

I shot a specimen on the banks of the Ganges below Rajmahal ; and

saw several others. I have never seen it in Bengal or Orissa. _ It is

figured and described in Mr. Smith’s notes, but he does not state

its locality.

Edolio Cuckoo. Stephens’ Shaw’s Zool. IX. 114.

Cuculus Edolius. Griff. Cuv. VIT. 455.

139. Cuculus Coromandus.—Collared Cuckoo.

In the original collection.

Collared Cuckoo. Lath. ITI. 292.

Cuculus Coromandus. Stephens’ Shaw’s Zool. XIV. 208. Griffith’s

Cuv. V. 455.

140. Cuculus

Presented by Mr. C. W. Smith, from the Java collection.

141, 142. Cuculus Metallic Cuckoo.

Chinese collection.

This appears to be Latham’s Metalline Cuckoo, described in the

General History, III. 301.

143. Genus EKupyNamys.

Sp. Bu. Orientalis—The Coel.

Shot by the Curator, and mounted in the Museum.

The Coel is common in every part of India. It is to be found in

every thick tree, and in the hot weather, is a pest of no ordinary na-

ture; uttering incessantly the cry from whence its name is taken,

* coel,” “ coel,” or “ cokeel, cokeel,” with a liquid intonation of the 2.

It continues this cry, loud enough to be heard several hundred

yards, from morning to night; and indeed from night to morning al-

most, for I have heard it at 10 o'clock at night, and at 2 in the morn-

ing. Latham describes this cry as cheerful and pleasant, but had he

heard it he would have thought differently ; it is melancholy and mo-

notonous, and wearisome to the listener beyond measure. During the

day other noises go to drown it, but at night, and especially early in

658 Birds in the Museum of the Asiatic Society. [ No. 116.

the morning, it is an absolute evil, by awaking one, when just dropped

a sleep from the exhaustion of the hot preceding day, and the still more

terrible early part of the night.

144, Genus Centropvus, Illiger.

Sp. Ce. Castanopterus.

Chesnut Coucal. Original collection.

Chesnut Coucal. Lath. Gen. Hist. III. 2438. |

“This bird is very common throughout India. It is vulgarly call-

ed the Crow Pheasant; and has acquired this appellation from a consi-

derable resemblance to the Pheasant in its mode of running, of crouch-

ing, and secreting itself in bushes; and from its taking wing in the

same bustling way. It feeds upon insects, grubs, and when oppor-

tunity occurs upon carrion. This and the two succeeding speci-

mens are usually seen upon the ground, in which they differ from the

‘other numerous members of their tribe, which seldom alight, but

make short flights from one tree to another.

Latham gives the appellation of Coucal to this tribe, to distinguish

them from the Cuckoos; but referring to their habits, 1 have called

them ‘“ Ground Cuckoo,” so strongly opposed to the Cuckoos, which

never descend from the tree.”-C. W. Smith’s MS. Notes.

145. Centropus

Original collection.

Besides these specimens of Centropus, Mr. Smith has drawn a third,

and I have seen a fourth differing from all, but having lost my notes,

I am unable to describe it. The name proposed by Mr, Smith of

“ Ground Cuckoo,” is a very appropriate one, and reminds us of the

analogy between the Cuckoos and Parrots in this respect, the Genus

Pezoporus of the latter being analogous to the Genus Centropus of

the former.

Mr. Smith describes his second species thus: ‘“ This bird is nine-

teen inches in length, and twenty-four in breadth. The bill is a red-

dish grey, pale at the edges, strong, rather hooked, and in length two

inches. The eye is of a pearly hue, defended above by strong lashes,

and having a grey skin or orbit edging the lower half. The plumage

of the head, breast, neck, and body is a hoary brown, inclining to

black on the crown of the head and behind the neck, and marked

» ¥84).] Birds in the Museum of the Asiatic Society. 659

throughout with darker bars. The wing coverts are a red brick

colour; the scapulars, secondaries, and quills, barred with black. The

tail is fan-shaped, black, with small grey bars sloping to a point on

the shaft. The legs are black, and the long claw on the inner hind

toe rather less elongated than in the preceding specimen.” — Centropus

Castanopterus.

“This species is found in the Gorruckpore district, elsewhere I

have not observed it. In its manners and habits it is similar to the

common Mohoka, but its shape more comely by far.” ——-C. W. Smith’s

MS. Notes.

“Tf, as I believe, not already named, I should propose the name of

Cen. Fasciatus, when its trivial character would stand as follows :—

Cen. Fasciatus, Black Coucal, with brick red wings, barred with

black.

Mr. Smith’s next species is by far a more interesting bird, as it

seems to form the connecting link between the ground and tree

Cuckoos, partaking of the manners and general appearance of the

former, and having the short hind toes of the latter. It will probably

form a new genus of Cuculide; but in the meantime till this be deter-

mined, perhaps the name of Centropus Cuculoides may be admitted.

Mr. Smith describes it as follows :—

‘‘ Measures sixteen inches in length. The bill is a bright vermillion

slightly edged with yellow, and has a black spot about the centre

of the edge of the upper mandible; there is a singular streak of

minute white feathers forming a line from the nostril to the lower part

of the eye: the latter is a dark brown, surrounded by white lashes.

The plumage upon the crown of the head, the hinder part of the neck,

the back, and wings, is a brownish satin colour, with black shafts ;

that on the throat, breast, and belly a faint orange, similarly marked ;

that of the tail dark grey, the two central ones wholly so, the next

have white tips. The legs are slate coloured ; and there is not the

long claw remarked in the hinder toe of the preceding birds.”

“‘T met with this species at the Bherah lake, in the Gorruckpore

district, where it appeared to be pretty common, but I have not seen

it elsewhere. It greatly resembled the Mohoka in its manner of running

and flying. The natives, who delight in extraordinary stories, affirm,

that it proclaims the morning, eve, and midnight hour by a pecu-

660 Mammalia in the Museum of the Asiatic Society. [No. 116.

liar note; unfortunately I never happened to hear such a timed note.”

—C. W. Smith's MS. Notes.

Ornithological works being procurable with difficulty in India, I

have chosen the most common for the few synonyms I have thought

it necessary to give.—J. T. P.

CATALOGUE OF MAMMALIA

In the Museum of the Asiatic Society. By J. T. Pearson, Surgeon,

Bengal Establishment; formerly Curator of the Museum.

Nore.—This very meagre list contains only the few specimens of Mam-

malia that were in the Museum before I became Curator ; that of the ad-

ditions made during the time I held the office was unfortunately lost in

the Ganges; and I have no copy.---J. T. P.

1. Class. MammMatta.

Ord. Brana.

Genus Homo.

Sp. Homo Sapiens.— Man.

A mummied Head.

Presented by Lieut. Archbold, who procured it in the catacombs

of Egypt.

2, 3, 4, 5. Ord. QUADRUMANA.

Genus Simia.

Sp. Szmia Gigantica.—The gigantic Ape.

The skin of the face and left fore and hinder hands, and part of

the skin.

Presented by Captain Cornfoot, who procured this specimen in

the Island of Sumatra. The animal is described by Dr. Abel in the

13th Volume of the Researches of the Asiatic Society. f

6. Genus SEMNOPITHECUS. i

Sp. Semnopithecus Melalophos.—The Simpai.

A stuffed specimen.

The Simpai is described by Sir T. Raffles in the 13th volume of the

Linnean Transactions; and as far as can be made out (from its bad

state) the present specimen agrees with his description. |

1841. ] Mammalia in the Museum of the Asiatic Society. 661

7. Ord. CaARNASSIERS.

Fam. CHEIROPTERA. Trib. VESPERTILIONES.

Genus PTEROFUS.

Sp. Pteropus Edulis.

The black Pteropus, or eatable Bat.

A stuffed specimen.

Genus GALEOPITHECUS.

Sp. Galeopithecus Rufus.—The Colugo.

A stuffed specimen.

Fam. Insectivora.

Genus Sorex.

Sp. 8. Indicus.—The Indian Shrew.

A stuffed specimen.

10.

Fam. CaRNIVORA.

Trib. PLANTIGRADZ.

Genus IcTIDEs.

Sp. Ictides Ater.

Presented by Colonel Farquhar.

Mr. Wardlow in the second volume of the Journal of the Asiatic

Society, has given very satisfactory reasons for identifying this spe-

cimen with the Jctides Ater of F. Cuvier.

1]. Trib. Digrr1GRaDA.

Genus FELIs.

Sp. Felis Kutas.—The Kutas.

A mounted specimen.

Presented by Mr. J. T. Pearson. This animal is described by the

donor in the 1st volume of the Journal of the Asiatic Society.

12. Fam. MaRrsupPiaTa.

Genus THYLACYNUS.

Sp. Thylacinus Cynocephalus.—Part of the skin.

662 Mammalia in the Museum of the Asiatic Society. | No. 116.

13. Ord. RopEnT1a.

Genus Rurizomys, Gray.

Sp. Rhizomys Sumatrensis.

A mounted specimen.

Described by Sir T. Raffles in the 13th vol. of the Trans. of the

Linnean Society. .

14. Genus Hysrrix.

Sp. Histrix Fasciculata.—Pencillated Porcupine.

A mounted specimen.

15. Ord. EpENTATA.

Genus Manis.

Sp. Manis Crassicaudata.—The short-tailed Manis, or Pangolin.

A mounted specimen.

16. Sp. Manis Crassicaudata.—The short-tailed Pangolin.

A mounted specimen.

A good deal smaller than the last.

17. Ord. Epentata,

Sect. MonoTrEMa.

Genus Ecuipna.

Sp. Echidna Hystrix.—The Porcupine Ornithorynchus.

A mounted specimen.

18. Ord. RuminantTia.

Trib. Cervip&.

Genus Moscuvus,

Sp. Moschus Javanicus.—The Kanchil.

A mounted specimen.

18. Sp. Mochus Javanicus.—The Kanchil.

Another mounted specimen. .

_..

1841. | Mammalia in the Museum of the Asiatie Society. 663

19, Trib. CapripZ.

Genus ANTELOPE.

Sp. Antelope Thar.—Native of Nepaul.

A mounted specimen.

Described in the Journal of the Asiatic Society, vol. iv. p. 489, by

Mr. Hodgson of Nepaul.

20. Sp. Antelope Thar.—The Thar Antelope.

A stuffed Head and Neck.

21. Trib. Bovine.

Genus Bos.

Sp. Bos Taurus.—The Cow.

A mounted specimen.

A double-headed Calf, presented by

22. Sp. Bos Bubalus.—The Buffaloe.

A mounted specimen.

A double-headed Calf, presented by Major Gall and Mr. Sewell.

Dive

Ord. CETACEA.

Fam. Crere.

Genus DELPHINUS.

Sp. Delphinus Gangeticus. The Gangetic Dolphin.

A mounted specimen, presented by Mons. DuvauceEt.

The Delphinus Gangeticus seems to have been formed into a

new genus: it is called the Plantanistes Gangeticus by Hardwicke and

Gray, as has been before mentioned in the Osteological section of the

Catalogue.

Notre.—Owing to inadvertence, the Catalogue of Mammalia has been

misplaced in its order of succession by the printer: it should have pre-

ceded the Ornithological Catalogue. py

664

Inscription taken from a Baolee at Bussuntgurh at the foot of the Southern range

of Hills running parallel to Mount Aboo. By T.S. Burr, F. R. 8. Captain,

Bengal Engineers.

The indefatigable research, and unabated zeal of Capt. Burt, has put me

in possession in this Inscription from Bussuntgurh, of some new and curi-

ous information regarding the early dynasties of the Ranas of Mewar.

Descended, as my readers need not be reminded, from the Balhara

monarchs of Saurashtra (Surat and Guzerat,) the family destined to fix its

seat of power at Chitore and Odeypore, sojourned for two hundred years

in the Bhauder Desert after the destruction of that monarchy, until (Useful

Tables, p. 109) ‘“ Baph, or Bappa conquered Chitore, and founded a new

dynasty in a. pv. 727.” The list of titular potentates who headed the

Gehlote or Jesodia tribe during the above period, from a. p. 524, when the

Parthians destroyed the capital Balabhi in Sourashtra, to the date above

noted, a. p. 727, is given by Tod from the 4'spur marble (Rajasthan, vol.—

p.—,) and he traces the succession of their princes from the Aitpur In-

scription, after their conquest of Chitore in the following order :---

Wilson’s List. Tod’s List.

A. pd. 700. Guhila, 1. Sri Gohadit.

Bhoja, 2. Bhoja (Bhagaditya.)

3. Mahendra.

4. Naga (Nagaditya.)

5. Jyela.

6. Aprajit.

7. Mahendra.

Kalabhoja, ... 8. Kalabhoja.

Bhartribhata, .... 9. Kuomawn (invasion of Chitore from Ca-

bul, a. p. 812.)

Samahagika, ... Mangal, expelled by chiefs.

Kuuman, ... ... 10. Bhirtripad, (founded thirteen principali-

ties for his sons in Malwa and Gu-

zerat.)

11. Singhji, whose Ranee Lukshmi bore

Allata, ... ... 12. Sri Allat, whose daughter Haria Devi

was grand-mother of

Naravahana, ... 13. Nirvahana.

14. Salvahana.

967. Saktivarma, ... 15. Saktikumar, 967 or 1,068?

1841. | Inscription taken from a Baolee at Bussunigurh. 665

I have given these lists at length for facility of reference with respect to

the suggested classification of the monarchs before inserting the Inscription

itself. It bears date Samvat 1,099, or a. vp. 1,042. The character is fairly

cut, and in high preservation in the ordinary letter of the period. The

reading by Pundit Kamalakanta Vidyalanka is printed as usual in com-

mon Nagree to accompany the Translation.

My readers will observe, that in the genealogical lists above given of

the ancestors of both Lahin and Vigraha, we find names entirely new

to us as reigning monarchs in Mewar. In one or two only do we

see coincidence or even resemblance with those of Tod’s list, which

Chronology will allow us to admit as identical with some names in our

Inscription. The names of the countries, Badari the kingdom of Raja

Sangna, and Vada, the residence of Poorna Pala, are new to us, and none

of the Pundits whom I took much pains to consult were enabled to give

me references sufficing to elucidate the difficulty ; under the impression

however, that they might by possibility be names of purely local applica-

tion to tracts long unknown, as the sites of power, or the habitat of a nu-

merous population, I begged Capt. Burt to oblige me by detailing, to the

best of his remembrance, any circumstances attending his discovery of the

Inscription, which might aid conjecture in coming to a satisfactory con-

clusion.

“ The Bussuntgurh Inscription was taken from a deep tank or baolee of

moderate dimensions, almost entirely surrounded with jungle, and lying at

the foet of that portion of (what Tod calls, as I understand him,) the Ara-

vulli range of hills, situated nearly opposite the northern. extremity of the

mountain Aboo. The country contained between these two heights is,

I think, and as far as Beejagnoh (Beejipoor by Tod, “ the city of victory,”)

called Badari; for I think one of the Sawars, (belonging to the Kawul of

Sirohee,) who attended me during my pilgrimage, gave it that name, in

contradistinction to that of the country lying on the other, or western side

of Aboo, and stretching out to Neebach, or Neemuch, (not our cantonment

of course) but a dependency I believe of the Sirohee Raj. In the first men-

tioned, the country is covered with jungle, and in the latter comparatively

open, that is, after clearing out a few miles from the base of the mount,

which is entirely surrounded by forest trees, as well as almost impene-

trable grass, rendering a descent from Aboo a dangerous operation at the

end of the rains, (being once there,) on account of the malaria generated by

the evolution of mephitic gas from the rife vegetation there, and similar to

that of the Terai below Nipal, and the forests between this and Bombay.”

Here then we have Badari recognised as the modern local appellation of

the tract of country near about the site of the Inscription. As to attempt-

666 Inscription taken from a Baolee at Bussuntgurh. [No. 116.

ing to trace with accuracy the genealogy now before us in that of the line

of princes whom we can already number with certainty as among the

rulers of Mewar, I own that at present, without other sources to refer to,

the effort does not seem likely to be attended with success. I did not fail

to consult my friend, Lieut. Cunningham, (Bengal Engineers,) than whom

I know no one more capable of giving a sound opinion upon a case of

historical or chronological difficulty. Without going into the detail of a

very ingenious calculation, (which I prefer keeping back until the con-

tents of another Inscription be fully ascertained, which I hope may throw

light upon that of Bussuntgurh,) I will merely state two of Lieut. Cunning-

ham’s positions, as being both exceedingly well founded. “ Bhirtripad,”

he observes, ‘‘ founded thirteen principalities for his sons, and I am inclin-

ed to suppose your new dynasty to be one of the branches of his family.”

The same idea occurred, I must own to myself, on first studying the genea-

logy, and evidence of the existence of petty states, “the land of Badari,”

and “the city of Vada,” which we find recorded in an age immediately

succeeding Bhirtripad’s in the Bussuntgurh Inscription, a. p. 1,042, proves

the correctness of the information we have, and gives a natural idea of the

state of the country, after the attack of Chitore, a. p. 812, in the reign

of Khoman, when after the expulsion of the temporary sovereign Mongal,

the next successor found himself compelled to subdivide his authority,

weakened by the anarchy and confusion of the twenty years preceding.

Lieut. Cunningham again accounts for the want of agreement between the

names on the Bussuntgurh Inscription and those recorded in the “ Useful

Tables,” by pointing out that “the Rajas in James Prinsep’s list, (after Sri

Allat) are descended on the female side, whereas in the Inscription they

would appear to be heirs male.” I would not readily hazard a conjecture

where further researches for the evidence of Inscriptions is almost certain

to be productive of fact established on the surest grounds. One can only

hope that those who have the opportunity will not allow it to escape them,

when at a slight expense of exertion, the ancient history of one of the

most interesting portions of India may be by their efforts, as so often by

Capt. Burt’s, greatly elucidated. py

Literal Translation.

1. I, Matri Sarma, a poet and the son of Hari, having offered saluta-

tions to Vani, (the goddess of wisdom, ) who is propitious to the learned,

made this eulogy.

2. May Hari, the illuminator of the three regions, who is himself

the sun (or the only object of speculation to the astronomers) Siva to

1841.]_ Inscription taken from a Baolee at Bussuntgurh. 667

Saivas (or the followers of Siva,) to be known by intuition and medi-

tation, remover of sins, illustrator (creator) of all, great, knowing all

human virtuous dispositions, and surrounded by the Vasoos, Kinnaras,

and Sidhas, and whose divine truth is unveiled to the wise,—protect

you!

3. From the wrath of Vasistha* was born a son* * * * * * *

and from him sprang many powerful Rajas.

4, From Utpala Raja, one of the descendants of this line, sprung one

named Aranya Raja, and from him was born Adbhita Krishna Raja,

who was renowned like Vasudeva, (Krishna).

5. His son, who was famous, noble, and whose name was Srinath

Ghosi, had also a son named Mohipala, from him was born Raja

Vandhuka.

6. Whose fame is still to be sung aloud even in the region of

the gods, by the well-dressed and adorned goddesses, as well as by the

females of the Kznnaras, having lutes in their hands.

7. He by his might easily carried off the Lakshmi, (Fortune,) of his

enemies, though they assembled a numerous army. His beautiful wife,

whose name was Ghreta Devi, was of a mild disposition and a

noble family.

8. From her and Vandhuka was born Purnapdla, who was al-

ways content, famous, and the supporter of all; who also acquired the

name Valadarpada, for his having fought battles and possessed king-

doms of (his enemies.)

9. His fame in the assembly of Jndra,t is always sung by the god-

* Note by Pundit Kamalakanta on the sloca 3 of the above. ‘*‘ From the wrath of

Vasistha.”’

The following sloka arevextracted from the 13th section of the 9th chapter

of Srimat Bhdgvat :—

Nini, the son of Ikohdku, having commenced a jagna, (a secret ceremony), wished

to acknowledge Vasistha as his priest for its performance, who instead of complying

with his request, said that he has, prior his petition, been bound to perform the cere-

mony commenced also by Sakra.

And further that he must wait till the same was over.

But Nini being sensible of the instability of worldly pursuits, determined to have it

(the ceremony) performed by another priest.

Whereupon Vasistha on his return (from the kingdom of Sakra) found Nénié to

to have broken his promise, cursed him to loose bis life.

’ From the dead body of Néné, which was a separated ia life and. Orn)

churmed by the gods, was born a son.

t+ The chief of the gods.

668 Inscription taken from a Baolee at Bussuntgurh. [No. 116.

desses, who are all beautifully adorned with the golden flowered

ornaments and with lutes in hands resplendent with jewels.

10. He (Parna Paéla) placed at the gate of his palace the strong

elephants exuding ichor from their temples, of his enemies, whom

he has easily slaughtered in several battles. To him, who was the

illuminator of the Péla line, and most eminent within the whole

Arryavata, the Sri. Lakshmi was, as it were, the governing queen.

11. His younger sister named ‘ the queen Léhini,” who was as it

were the Lakshmi herself, but without the seat of lotus, was married

to Raja Vigraha as Lakshmi to Krishna.

Here follows the lineage of Begraha :—

12. There was a celebrated Kshetriya named Kdsiswara, who was

most powerful, subduer of his enemies, and superior to all the other

Rajas, and who for his heroic disposition gained fame throughout the

whole world.

13. From his line descended Raja Bhabagupta, who was renowned

for his good counsels, illuminator of his line, and a great warrior. He

repaired the image of the Sun, established in some forest adjacent to

Vada, where he reigned for a length of time.

14. From the line of Bhabagupta, sprung Raja Sangana, who

gained the kingdom of Badari, and was himself respected by all. His

son was Ballabha Raja, who also had a son named Chara, and from

Chara was born Bara Raja.

15. From Bara Raja was born Vigraha Raja, who was respectable

for his noble qualities, and the king of kings; and whose good name

which he acquired by the power of valour, noble qualities, and libera-

lity, has far surpassed the regions.

16. He, Vigraha Raja, was always attended by people of a good

nature, and fond of many wives; he made his two lines, both paternal

and maternal, honorable, and was beautiful in person, ruler of the

world, very strong, superior to mankind, and like Médhaba, (Krishna,)

in disposition, though a man.

17. He, Vigraha, having gained so merited a wife, Lahinz (as above

mentioned,) enjoyed her, and she too being married to so desired a

lover as Vigraha, who was like Indra in the earth, (was likewise happy.)

18. She soon after the sudden demise of her husband, being de-

prived of all sorts of happiness in the world, at last took her abode in-

to the residence of her brother at Vada.

1841. | Inscription taken from a Baolee at Bussuntgurh. 669

19. This line, from which sprung Raja Vasistha, was also denomi-

nated “ Vasistha line.”

20. In Vada, the shrine of Nagradha is to be found. There Vasis-

tha, who was great, established the images of the Sun and Siva, who

yield salvation, and caused the temples, palaces, walls, forts, &c. to be

erected, and tanks to be dug.

21. There further the Brahmans, who have completely studied

Vedas, which are difficult, were in no instance proud.

22. Vadapoora, which is inhabited by people who are virtuous and

attentive to their faith, and as well as by musicians, heroes, and warriors,

&c. and commodiously situated for commerce, was looked at as if the

second heaven.

23. Near this is the river Saraswati, having a ghaut constructed

by the Raja, its water was adorned with the flowers for worship, nay,

it is as if the mother to the Brahman females. a

24. Here the inhabitants, who are all patriotic, wise, mild, addicted

to worship the gods and Brahmanas with the gifts of variety, and

renowed for talents, are always devoted to Bhanu, (the Sun.)

25. Here the queen Ldhiné mourning the death of her beloved con-

sort arrived, accompanied by Brahmanas, and being sensible of the in-

stability of worldly pursuits as well as of life.

26. Repaired the old temple of Bhanu, which had been once more

repaired by Vasistha when fallen down by time.

27. This temple of Bhanu, which was strongly built of bricks

‘and stones, when completed exhibited the colour of clouds, and was so

beautifully perfected that it resembled Himalaya, the mountain where

Siva resides.

28. Its staircase, which is beautiful as ought to be in its kind, and

built of stones, is like that of the gods, which are not to be found

elsewhere.

29. Further, she for the promotion of virtue, transformed the river

Saraswati into a tank, which was useful to the gods as well as to men,

and removing sin (by its water.) Its waves were so lofty, as if

they were to touch the firmament.

30. She being conscious of the instability of the world, has performed

this deed of virtue by the expenses of her own.

670 Inscription taken from a Baolee at Bussuntgurh. | No. 116.

31. So long as the Swrabhi* shall continue to graze in the region

of cows, and the waves of the seas agitated by the wind, the sun with

his one-wheeled car shall endure, so long shall this tank exist, the

water of which is pure as the rays of the stars.

32. This eulogy was made by Matri Sarma, a Brahmana, who was

the son of Hari, and the well-wisher of Lahini for the benefit of all.

33. It was engraved by Sivapala, the son of Dorhaka, who had his

dwelling in the fort of Raja Aswapatz, in the Samvat year 1099.

Aw Apsrracr BY KAMALAKANTA PuNDIT.

Literal Translation.

The particulars of the Janaka Rajé’s birth are already detailed in the

preceding slokas, extracted from Srimat Bhagavata.

From the line of this Janaka sprung many powerful Rajas, from

some of these was born Raja Ootpala ; from Ootpala, Aranya Raja;

from Aranya Raja, Adbhita Krishna Rajé; from Adbhita Krishna

Raja, Vasoodeba Raji; from Vasoodeba, Srindtha Ghost; from

Srinatha, Mohepdla ; and from Mohepdla, Vandhooka ; from his wife

named Ghrita Devi, was born Raj4 Purnapdla ; whose younger sister

was Ldahiné, the restorer. Here also follows the lineage of Vigraha

Raja, whom she had been married to, but unfortunately for a short du-

ration, when he, ( Vegraha Rajd,) departed this life, leaving Lahiné a

widow, who from that time took up her abode into the residence of

Purnapdla, her brother. The lineage is this. There was a Raj4 named

Kasiswara Dwiydte, and from his line descended a Raja named Bhabo-

gupt, who had also once repaired this very temple of Bhanu (Sun) in

the forest of Vadapura, where he had reigned for a while. From him

sprung Sambara, a Raja who also ruled the country of Vadari. From

Sambara was born Ballabha Raja, who had a son named Chara, and

from Chara was born Vara Raja, and from Vara, Vegraha Raja, the

husband of Ldahinz. It was she who caused the temple of Bhanu,

formerly established in the forests of Vada to be repaired, as well as a

reservoir of water made therein.

* An eternal cow, yielding every thing desired.

1841. ] Inscription taken from a Baolee at Bussuntgurh. 671

alacracfafqaramaeestta wafer: 1

yusq efeqaw afaat ATqueaut | gefgaaci aly

qufea; qaal aat | Satfasatfataci wa: faafyat eure

AAU AURA: A AYE TAMA ABT AT

sanegd afaaat at a aaa ware zafegfaakt

TASMAAN Sle | saesaasafaa: AAT 2:

Pop ob ot fd (vai) Fela aaqUT aaa: 1 ATT

Sf GAVAUFTATAT ATLUTT SAT ef aT TAA aH RA

awucisnt faaiaatha: faaaraza: || aes yITAA

afas: slatzetet gaara aerea: qaife aewareafeara

alaT | aeMeyeeyRUT aU | Tefeatit. PTCA

ailad ¢ atfaaOfa: | Aarfafes acai: | fara

astfacdtaaa: | aareat Weta Teatfeaerey are

AL ~ ae A'S ~ ~ ~\

uteeqaea | seathy arat gagfaarat qiw waa

~ 5 AN BAN ° S

Rita TATA faqwares: wT Auigia a fAqT: |

~ , o ry s~ g

werwuaite fata ag ata fad saeueta i araafu

: ~ ~

nay faraTTaT atugafuifaaniuar | faquTsaaedt TW

HAA Cet AVI IL: WY laa || Vea aa FCI TUT TAHT

UT Tay wt aa famrmaguiaan arse wa ate

ox iS CEEESN oN

Cl AU: UAHA TA Tl wazarad urfeara | Sat: wT

arate wate sean ahs fasta

AAT AACA Saat Asha a faa eas Baraat

qa aa i Teresa ofa aTathe orfafeatedt we

wat aaaray CTA | Ag aM fsaTATET: AT

WIT Ta TT aa: ATA AAA cae FAAS T Aa

TATA SZeq Bu qaaaHTAIe ICIS TAIT T AT: |

672 Inscription taken from a Baolee at Bussuntgurh. [No. 116.

Wea Teas GATACIAATAT AAAS ATA TATA: ATT T A

ATATT QU AAT STAT | TAA aiarg fever eTatt

aitaatferecrsarat * gerasttedtfgatteg taatadt

aafaaea sara ffs waararacnytaa:

qa aay: | wheayariacaia

freraraEra Ta qadha: FT ACCTY SATS: (| AAT TAT

apa qt: waar faatfaat F ays a ate | athe fra wT

ufaratu aqeA slau TAGS || wafers sa Wale SaaS

aqae ar fraatfarar | aiafaat se ant aeeferqeara

aHasgaman || afesasnife sameness

al ¢fa (araaaaratefuatia) aa sarayereaqrsya: |) |) <aTa

aaa Baal aasararereataaaa ate: | azar

antaa vf aSWaTeTA BAIA Thee: | ATATCAWI TAA

oN NA oN AC .

CASTH: ATATS (TIA!) Gat Aga: | afaaraieraA res wT

TTTMATHe | Aes avaay ss Aurea fear: | SH

a ae iy A E A

aaa: waafata: agagraifad | ararasaTeeaa:

afafedfard afuafacadt | Tutifwarsaacqataa: we

CEN ° ° Ly % ° PINs 2

aa: eae Waeafaat aytahaadfeaad | wee

aT AA aLAATaM Tarariaaraqay farsa Ter UA Ss

wUaten fanaa Taataafear | Ages aaasa ANT

faacatatfaan: carat Sarfawtaaaea aansaawia |

EN ‘ AN age ~ AN

ceurfeert: | Gaarwafacd Payrraeaeequeahyan: |

afer: waaranagafeaaraa afsaa | STATA

cat fgfererrarer stag aaa fanfeatn | aferartfan

Sat Tacs Seal qaleTarcareaagyy arate zaaaifeaai

afeedie: gad aetate faatiaasy restate Rave

1841. | Inscription taken from a Baolee at Bussuntgurh. 673

aTaAryarat: GATT TAA Tea facades

mae | Sora ifs: TAA aagr fastuyis fettwat

ai | ga: Waa ahy Fer waTE eaafara feat at

Pagar afefaqersa: acadt Rasta ah | fae

q wad ae wae yaya: 2: aarfuafagereay

meataaaatad i aaeittaaw: weefagcfaarag

HIATT S | AAA: Is waafayiaa: daar Wweatea |

qagifer were naefa fateceigneaaa aaa

BUIASACITM ACAeatfaatat | adtefcqaa aqua

fraqean afaatafearara ifeearateafaur | areas

aid: EITM TSANG | Fearfraa:fasaes

aIAT Tass Ss yaa er: || aaa fa araifamattecr

aaa SUMATATATATATIUT | wa TaeTATS Maa fa

FATAL TW ode Il

WeqUaay: ||

afew Rls aa TAA MAA AAA: MAA AATATAT

GAAAAT: | TARA ARTISTA AS! | ATA

ARI SATIATA TA AAPA! ARLAT ST: ACTA Ay

AMUS: | ATTA AHATIT: ATTA: lATTaTat aaTTal

AGUS: TATA TRAM WIT Faeat Fyre Faeat

WUITSATAT Cis WTS qf afeat fare

ateat tru faatfeat | fareus aa arfet fauat aw

TUITE SIqAe feqaadt| faetiaey FATEHTUT FAT

aa watsitsad fearfacrraet aes waagl Aa Fz

674 Inscription taken from a Baolee at Bussuntgurh. |No. 116.

SRECCUCCICIC ULCERS Ad: |azeq cise WT Glad acer

A SaATATAT TIA IT TTA ISTATT AW TATATATIF CATT

qa: wat: aayalacenagaifaaetrsy cagdt athe

azy aaatfeatata fetint PUTgie Tatars @ AAT I

Proceedings of the Asiatic Society.

( Wednesday Evening, \lth August, 1841.)

The Honorable Sir E. Ryan, President in the Chair.

Frercuer Hays, Esq. 62d N. I. Junior Assistant Governor General’s Agent, Sau-

gor, was proposed a Member by Dr. J. McCLEeLuanp, seconded by Dr. J. GRANT, |

Henry Wacker, Esq. Surgeon to the Governor General’s Body-guard, was also

proposed a Member by Dr. J. McCLEeLtanp, seconded by the Secretary.

Library and Museum.

Books received for the Library of the Asiatic Society, for the Meeting on the 11th August, 1841.

Jamieson’s Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, No. 59, January 1841, 1 vol.

London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science, 3d Series,

Nos. 115 and 116, Vol. 18th, February and March 1841, 2 vols.

Calcutta Christian Observer, New Series, Vol. 2d, No. 20, August 1844, 4 vol.

Map of the Provinces of Bengal and Behar, by J. B. Tassin, Calcutta, 1844, 1 vol.

Annuaire des cing departments de L’Ancienne Normandie, 1839, 5e. Année, Caen 1839, 1 vol.

Acts de L’Académie Royale des Sciences, Belles Lettres et Arts de Bordeaux, ire. Année

lre. a 4re. Trimestre, Paris, 1839, 4 vols.

Extrait des Séances de la Société Royale D’ Agriculture et de Commerce de Caen, par M. Lair,

19 Janvier 1838, et 18 Janvier 1839, (2 copies each,) 4 vols.

Reponse de M. P. A. Lair, a une lettre de M. Mercer, Caen, le 30 April 1840, 4 vol.

Société Royale D’Agriculture et de Commerce de Caen. Rapport sur le 2d volume des Institu-

tions Hippiques, Janvier 4 Juin 1840, 6 vols.

Ditto ditto Programme de deux Concours, 1840, 1 vol.

Extrait des Rapports faits par M. Levardois, 1840, (2 copies,) 2 vols.

De L’Extinction de le Mendicité, par M. Lecerf, Caen, 1840, (2 copies,) 2 vols.

Hammer Geschichte der Goldenen Horde in Kiptschak, des ist der Mongolen in Russian

Pesth, 1840, 1 vol.

Moorcroft’s Travels in the Himalayan Provinces, &c. in 2 vols. (10 copies, ) 20 vols.

Humboldt iiber die Kawi—Sparche auf der Insel J ava, vols. 2d and 3d, 2 vols.

Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy, vol. 19th, part ist, Dublin, 1841, 1 vol.

Wight’s Icones Plantarum India Orientalis, or Figures of Indian Plants, vol. 2d, parts 1st and

2d, 2 vols.

Reports and Abstracts of the Proceedings for investigating Coal and Mineral resources of India,

May 1841, Calcutta, 3 copies, 3 vols.

Madras Journal of Literature and Science, No. 29, October and December 1840, 1 vol.

1841. ] Asiatic Society. 675

Yarrell’s History of British Birds, part 24, London.

Oriental Christian Spectator, vol. 2d. No. 6, June 1841, 2d Series, Bombay.

Annuals and Magazine of Natural History, No. 42, April 1841, London, pamph.

Calcutta Monthly Journal, for June 1841, 3d series, No. 79, Calcutta, 1 vol,

Hammer’s Gemaldesaal, Funfter band Leipzig, 1838, 1 vol.

First Report of the Elphinstone Native Education Institution 1840, Bombay 1840, pamph.

Jahrbiicher der Literatur, 1839, parts 85 to 88, 4 vols.

Journal des Savants, December 1840, Paris, pamph.

Société de Geographie Recueil de Voyage et de Memoires, tome 6, 1 vol.

Hadiakoon Najoon (Persian,) 1 vol.

2 Chintamoney, (Sanscrit,) pamph.

Read the following Report submitted by the Officiating Curator :—

H. TorRENS, Esq,

Secretary Asiatic Socicty.

Srr,—For the month of July I have the honor to report as follows :—

Geological, Paleontological, and Mineralogical.—We are, I am glad to say, approaching the

completion of the Geological series of our Catalogues, and some of the Mineralogical and Paleon-

tological ones are also ready for the press. We are sadly impeded by the difficulties of de-

ciphering labels, ascertaining collections, and by the printers. The Index to the whole of the

Geological, Mineralogical and Paleontological papers in the Transactions, Journal, and Gleanings

of Science is printed, and a copy is onthe table. Our Secretary informs me it is his intention to

print it in the Journal. I have also at his request been occupied this month with a paper on a

fossil elephantine jaw from Jubbulpore, sent down by Dr. SprusBuRy, which in my limited know-

ledge of the subject, I am inclined to suppose may belong to a new species or variety ? It is at least

a piece of justice to Dr. Sp1usBuRyY, who has done so much for the Museum, and for the Geology

and Paleontology of Central India, that we should record in the fullest manner every thing relative

to his contributions ; and Mr. TorReEws has inthis view been good enough to allow me togo to the

expence of a plate to explain my views.

Osteological.—The Skeleton of the Neel-Ghye is completed.

Ornithological and Mammalogical.—N othing new to report.

Museum of Economic Geology.—We have at length obtained here five, out of seven, cases from

the Native contractor ; and with the exception of a few trifling arrangements, I may say, that this

part of the Museum is arranged. The Catalogue will also be completed ina few days.

Travelling Taxidermists.—At the end of the month of June we dispatched a Mr. Gomes, who

had been employed by Dr. HELFER, as taxidermist on account of the Society, to Lieut. TicKELL,

at Chyebassa, with a complete supply of every thing for his work, and a book of instructions. At

Midnapore however he appears, according to Dr. PAGAN’s account, to have taken fright at the

stories of tigers and jungles, &c. if he went alone; and he returned to Calcutta, with the excuse,

that he could not procure carriage, &c. We have however dispatched him again with two good

men for his companions, and he will no doubt arrive safe. This return and delay has made his

dispatch expensive, but a part of the expence is experience bought for future use.

Memorandum.—The expence including two months’ pay in advance, is in round numbers

as follows :—

Rs. As.

Book and tools, &2C., ssecocsseccerercceree rer ser cesses sesescessssvese 10 0

Two Month’s advance and travelling expences, wr.--00r0ee 62 0

TOtaljrccscvecsevess fe 0

Return and. re-dispatching, 206590 608 006000009058 000600 200008 Ces F009 43 0

Co.’s Rs. 120 0

676 Asiatic Society. [No. 116.

Additions to the Museum have been as follows :—

Osteological.—Skeleton of the Neel-Ghye.

Mineralogical, Geological, and Botanical.—Coal, sandstone, limestone, iron-ore, garnets, hemp,

dyeing drugs, &c. from the Chinnoor Sircar, collected by Dr. WALKER, presented by Government.

Museum Economic Geology.—Soils from Assam Tea Company.

Yours obedient servant,

Museum, 31st July, 1841. H. PIDDINGTON,

At the recommendation of a Sub-Committee the following order as respects the

Numismatic Collections of the Society was recorded for future observance ; viz. ‘‘ That

no coins be removed from the apartments of the Society without special permission for

a special purpose, on a written order given on the responsibility of the Secretary.”

A sample of a Table Cabinet (invented by the Secretary) for containing the Coins

was submitted to the meeting, and one like it ordered to be prepared.

Read titles of BARon DE Hammer’s works prepared by Dr. Rokr, which the

Secretary intimated he would publish inthe Journal for the information of the curious,

and should inquiry be made for any particular subject, that he would publish a trans-

lation of the same with the assistance of Dr. Rorr, who had kindly offered his ser-

vices.

Read a letter from Mr. Secretary Bususy, of the 23rd June, 1841, forwarding an

Extract from a Dispatch of the Honorable the Court of Directors of 28th April, 1841,

expressing their wish to receive a selection of specimens of Fossil Geology of India, for

their Museum at the India House.

Ordered,—That the Government be informed in reply that the Society would bear the

request in mind.

Read a letter from Mr. Secretary Busupy of the 2Ist July 1841, with enclosures, re-

questing the opinion of the Asiatic Society as to the Inscription to be placed on Bheem

Sing’s Lath at Allahabad, adding at the same time, that ‘‘the Right Honorable the

Governor General in Council would be unwilling to add any Inscription to the Lath

itself.”*

Ordered,—That a communication be made in reply, that the Society concur in opinion

with His Lordship in Council, that no Inscription should be on the Lath.

Read a letter of the 13th May 1841, from Moonshee Ruttun Sine Bawapoor, of

Lucknow, accompanied with a work compiled by him on Geography and Meteorology,

which he offered for the kind acceptance of the Society, ‘‘ as a humble token of the

high admiration and respect in which the Society is universally held.”

Ordered,—That the’ civility be reciprocated by the presentation to Moonshee

Ruttun Sine, with a bound copy of the Transactions of the Society.

Read the following papers, the greater part of which were received by the Secretary

as Editor of the Journal.

1841. ] Asiatic Society. 677

A Note on the Fossil Jaw of an Elephant sent from Jubbulpore by Dr. Sprispury,

by the Officiating Curator. This was illustrated before the meeting by Crania of Fos-

sil and recent Elephants, and by copies of the drawing made by the Officiating Cura-

tor to accompany his note.

Letters of 6th July 1841, from Dr. H. Fatconer of Seharunpore, and H. Prppine-

TON, Esq. Officiating Curator, on the subject of the late grand Cataclysm on the

Indus, described as one of the most remarkable natural phenomena hitherto recorded

as having occurred on the continent of India. The Secretary stated, ‘‘that having

communicated with the Private Secretary to the Right Honourable the Governor

General, he had the satisfaction of stating, that Lornp AucKLAND had personally ad-

dressed Mr. Crerx, (Political Agent on the N. W. Frontier,) on the subject at

_ length, requesting that inquiries may be made, and suggesting modes of conducting it.

N. B.—The Secretary has since learned that before the receipt of Lorp Auck-

LAND’s letter, Dr. Jamreson had been deputed by Mr. CueErk, for the purpose of in-

vestigating the causes of the Cataclysm.

A letter from Lieut. Postans, of 5th July 1841, with a Translation of the History of

Sindh, (Chuch Namuh). This interesting work has already appeared in an abridged

form in the Journal. The Secretary begged to state, that he would be happy to place

this valuable paper at the disposal of the Committee of Papers, for publication in the

Transactions of the Society. Referred to the Committee of Papers.

A letter from Capt. SHortTREDE, of 24th July 184], forwarding a new Table of Pro-

portional Logarithms, composed by himself.

A Note on the Cerous Elaphus, by B. H. Hopeson, Esq.

A letter of 17th July 1841, from James MippLerTon, Esq. forwarding Copy of the

Sanscrit Treatise, shewing the use of the silver Astrolabe from Kotah, now in the pos-

session of the Society, which Mr. M. had been unable to meet with when he wrote

his remarks (published in the Journal) on this curious instrument.

An account of Arracan, by Lieut. PHayre.

A letter of 30th July 1841, from Capt. J. S. Burt, in reply to one from the Secre-

tary regarding the Inscription at Bussuntgurh near Mount Aboo, as also a letter from

Lieut. A. CunnineHam of 18th July 1841, connected with the above subject. The

names of princes reigning in Odeypore, recorded in this Inscription are new, and will

it is believed be proved satisfactorily to supply the hiatus ‘after Bhritiprad, and

Allata in Tod’s and Prinsep’s (Useful Tables) Genealogical Lists.

Specimen of a short History of the Emperors of Hindostan to the reign of Shah

Allum the Blind, by Mr. Tuomas Contan. It was suggested that this paper should

678 Asiatie Society. [ No. 116.

be laid before the Committee of Public Instruction, in case it might be found expedi-

ent to communicate with Mr. ConLan.

Read letter from Dr. Rozr, Librarian, reporting progress in the classification and

arrangement of Books in the manner proposed by him.

Ordered,—To be referred to the Committee of Papers for consideration.

Read a letter from Mr. Secretary Manpbock of the 2d August 1841, forwarding for

deposit in the Society’s Museum, and for such notice in the Journal as they may

seem to deserve, a collection of Specimens of Minerals collected by Lieut. Bice,

Assistant Agent to the Governor General, North East Frontier in the Cachar Hills,

together with a report on a portion of them by Capt. TREMENHEERE.

Read a report by Mr. James Hyxtanp, on the Coal Deposit of Cap Island in Arra-

can, with specimens of Rocks of the same and other places.

Read letter from Messrs. ALLEN AND Co. of London, of 3lst May 1841, advising the

dispatch of a parcel of Books, presented to the Society by Dr. Freytaca, Professor

at the University of Bonn on the Rhine.

Ordered,—That the thanks of the Society be accorded to the Professor, and that a

selection of the Works of the Society be preserted to him in return.

The Officiating Curator submitted for the inspection of the Meeting the Geological

Catalogue, and Index to the same prepared by him, which would appear in the

Journal. The Secretary was requested to take that opportunity to print 300 extra

copies for general use.

For all these contributions and presentations thanks were accorded.

JOURNAL

OF THE

ASIATIC SOCIETY.

Account of Arakan.* By Lieut. Poayre, Senior Assistant Com-

missioner, Arakan.

Arakan Proper, called by the natives Ra-khoing-pyee, or Ra-khoing

country, lies between 20° and 21° 10’ N. Lat. on the sea coast ; in

the interior it extends to about 21° 40’. It is bounded on the west

by the Bay of Bengal and the estuary called Naf; on the north, by

a range of mountains named Wée-la-toung, and by a line not well

defined running N. E. through a hilly country to the Kola-dan river;

on the east by the Ye-ma mountains; and on the south it is separated

from the district of Aeng, and the island of ambree, by various

straits and creeks.

On the north, between Arakan and the Chittagong district, at

some distance from the sea-coast, there are several tribes living among

the hills and forests, who have hitherto remained independent of

the British government. Our authority extends up the Kola-dan

river, about 130 miles north from the town of Akyab, to the mouth of

a stream called the Oo-tha-lang, but beyond that, stretch mountains

and forests to the north-east, hitherto untrodden by civilized man, as

far as Munneepoor ; here live various savage tribes, who appear to

be in a constant state of warfare with each other. On the east our

boundary up to the Y%-ma mountains is only nominal. The tribes

* We give the name Arakan as a general term to four districts, which by the natives

is restricted to what is the present district of Axyab. In this paper the name Arakan

is used in the latter sense.

No. 117. New Seruzs, No. 33. 4an

680 Account of Arakan. [No. 117.

for 15 or 20 miles west of that range are independent, and have never

submitted to any regular government, neither to that of the Arakan

kings, the Burmese, or the British. .

The boundary above described contains about six thousand square

miles, of which from 12 to 1500 on the eastern side, are, from the

inaccessible nature of the country, under the controul of the moun-

tain tribes.

In Arakan there are three principal rivers; viz. the Mayz, the

Kola-dan, and the Lé-myo ; these all flow in a general north and south

direction, at an average distance of 15 or 20 miles apart, the Mayu

being to the west, the Kola-dan in the centre, and the Lé-myo to the

east. Their channels are separated by ranges of hills running in the

same general direction of N. and 8.; the principal rocks are sandstone

and shale.

In the upper course of these rivers, or about 150 miles from the

sea, the hills are lofty, and so massed together, that the direction of

the ranges is not discernible; but as the rivers descend, the country

becomes open; then ascend a height; and single ranges of hills are

seen, with broad and fertile plains extending from their bases as far

as the eye can reach; the plains, dotted here and there with villages,

are intersected by innumerable streams, and the bright-green rice

fields, alternate with dark forest tracts. The three rivers for the last

20 or 30 miles of their course, are connected together by a vast

number of creeks, through which all communication in the delta takes

place. The Kola-dan in the lower part of its course is called the

Ga-tsha-bha. The different branches of the Lé-myo in its lower

course take various names.

The ancient history of Arakan presents such a tangled web of

fiction, that I shall not attempt to give it in detail. I have not had

sufficient leisure to study the subject, and my object being merely

to give an account of the present state of the country, I shall only

refer to its ancient history so far as is necessary to give a general idea

of its condition previous to the British conquest, and to shew what

race the present inhabitants belong to. The inhabitants are,

In the Plains.—1. Ra-khoing-tha.—2. Ko-la.—3. Dom.

In the Hills. —1. Khyoung-tha.—2. Kimé or Kwé-mé.—3. Khyeng.

—4. Doing-niik, Mroong, and other tribes.

1841. ] Account of Arakan. 681

The Ra-khoing-tha and Khyoung-tha are of the same race. Like

the Burmans their national name is Myam-mda, the first appellations

here given being merely local, the former signifying inhabitant of

Ra-khoing country ; the latter, or Khyoung-tha, being the name given

to those who inhabit the banks of mountain streams within the same

villages as the hill tribes, and support themselves by hill cultivation.

How they came to be separated from their countrymen does not appear ;

it is rather extraordinary that they should remain so, as they subject

themselves in the hills to great hardships, while to procure a subsist-

ence in the plains is a matter of no difficulty. Lately I have seen

some instances of their settling in the plains and cultivating land with

ploughs. The religion of both these people is Budhism; they may

be said to belong to the Mongolian family, or to be between the

Mongolian and Malay race; their written language is the same as the

Burmese ; in the colloquial there are some provincial differences.

The Kolas, or Moosulmans, are of an entirely different race to the

preceding, they being of Bengalee descent. The Arakan kings in

_ former times had possessions all along the coast as far as Chittagong

and Dacca. Coins are still extant, struck by the viceroys at the former

town, with Bengalee and Persian characters on one side, and Burmese

on the reverse. While the Arakanese held these possessions in Bengal,

they appear to have sent numbers of the inhabitants into Arakan

as slaves, whence arose the present Kola (foreign) population of the

country ; they form about 15 per cent. of the whole population. The

Arakan Moosulmauns preserve the language of their ancestors for

colloquial purposes, but always use the Burmese in writing ; they have

also adopted the dress of the country, with the exception of the goung-

boung, or head dress.

The third class in the plains are Doms. These form such a minute

section of the population, that it is scarcely necessary to mention them.

The Doms, it would appear, were brought from Bengal to be used as

Phrakywn, or pagoda slaves. It is a strange anomaly in the Bidhist

religion, ‘as it prevails in Burmah,) that the servitors of the temples

are invariably outcasts, with whom the rest of the community will

hold no intercourse. In Burmah Proper, pagoda slaves are pardoned

convicts, or persons condemned to the employment on account of

crimes. The kings of Arakan finding in Bengal a number of degraded

682 Account of Arakan. [No. 117.

castes ready made to their hands, imported them and their families as

perpetual and hereditary pagoda slaves. Their duties were to sweep

in the vicinity of the temple, clear away the remains of offerings,

whether of food, flowers, &c. and also to wash the idol. These people

of course are now released from their compulsory servitude, and have

become cultivators, but in consequence of their former condition,

they are regarded by the people with as much disgust as they would

be from their low caste, by Hindoos.*

Since the conquest of Arakan by the English, a large number of

Bengalees have settled in the town of Akyab as shop-keepers, and

in the vicinity as cultivators; these are not taken into account. In

the interior reside a few Brahmins, some of Munnipooree descent,

who were brought by the Burmese as astrologers, and some are des-

cendants of colonists from Bengal, brought by the Arakan kings.

I am inclined to think, that the Arakanese monarchs were in latter

times very Brahminically inclined, and that the Burman conquest by

infusing fresh Budhist vigour, and contempt for Kolas generally,

followed by our own occupation of the country, has prevented the

introduction of Hinduism, which probably would have been brought

about in the same manner as it was in Muneepoor. The hill people, the

Khyoung-thas, have already been described ; next come the Az-mé, or

Kwe-mi, tribe.

* The Arakanese have so far adopted the Hindu prejudice against them, that if any

Ra-khoing-tha has unwittingly eaten with, or drank water from the utensil of a Dom,

or other low caste Hindu, he is excluded from society until he has undergone certain

purifications. Some years ago, when in consequence of inundations on the W. coast

of the Bay of Bengal the population was reduced to great distress, a number of Ooryas

found their way to this coast, and were purchased by Arakanese, or pledged themselves

for service, they became inmates of families, and eat and drank with them; all at

once it was noised abroad, that Ooryas were no better than Doms, than pagoda slaves.

Numbers of respectable persons, men, women and children were forthwith declared

unclean. They were excluded from the villages, the public festivals, and the

kyoungs, or monestaries. ‘To restore them was no easy matter. In former times the

king had only to smoke a cigar after it had been used by an outcaste, and he was

deemed restored forthwith ; but now the royal line no longer existed in the country.

At length it was settled that a meeting should be held of the most respectable men

in the country, who agreed to smoke with the unclean; the pipe to be handed last to

the European Magistrate, and then a general feast to conclude all. The ceremony

was gone through with the half of numerous Phoon-gyees, (or priests), and much to the

comfort of the outcasts, deemed and held to be sufficient for their restoration to

society.

1841. | Account of Arakan. 683

This hill tribe belongs to the same great family of the human race

as the Myam-ma ; their languages being apparently of the same struc-

ture; their physiognomy alike; they have black strait hair, high cheek

bones, oblique eyes, and scanty beards. The Aeémés, in short, appear like

Ra-khoing-thas in a more rude state of existence ; the traditions of the

latter people refer to the former as already possessors of the country

when the Myam-md@ race entered it. The Kumés chiefly inhabit the

Kola-dan and its feeders. They are divided into several clans, which

will be enumerated hereafter.

The next hill tribe is the Khyeng. There is comparatively a small

number of this people within our border, that is to say, within the

actual bounds of British authority in Arakan ; only those who live

on, and near to the banks of the Zé-myo river, are subject to our con-

troul. Eastward of this river, up to the great Yu-ma-toung range, there

are powerful tribes of this people, who rejoice in perfect freedom, (as

long at least as they can defend themselves from the attacks of their

neighbours.) They are separated from British authority by pathless

mountains and forests, and being to the west of the Ys-ma-toung

range, the Burmese have no dominion over them; many indeed to the

eastward of those mountains are virtually independent of Burmah.

The Khyengs live in the same primitive style as the Ku-mis, their

manners and appearance being similar.*

The remaining hill tribes are the Doing-nik and the Mring. They

both inhabit the upper course of the Mayz river. The language of

the first is a corrupt Bengalee. They call themselves Kheim-ba-nago.

Of their descent I could learn nothing; probably they may be the

offspring of Bengalees carried into the hills as slaves, where their phy-

sical appearance has been modified by change of climate. In religion

* There is a class of people residing in the Chittagong district, who call themselves

Raj-bunsé, and in Burmese Myam-mda-gyee, or “great Myam-mas.’’ They pretend

to be descendants of the kings of Arakan, a flattering fiction which they have invented

to gloss their spurious descent. They are doubtless the offspring of Bengalee women

by Myam-mds, when the latter possessed Chittagong, and other districts in Bengal.

Their dress and language are Bengalee; but they profess the religion of their fathers,

viz. Budhism. These people are called Mugs in Bengal, and being well known in

Calcutta as Mug cooks. I believe it is pretty generally supposed that the Arakanese

are one and the same with them; a terrible insult to the Burma race! All

Arakanese are termed Mugs by the people of India, from whom Europeans have

borrowed the name. How it arose I cannot say.

684 Account of Arakan. [No. 117.

they are Budhists. The people called Mring, by the Arakanese,

announce themselves as descendants of persons carried away from

Tipperah several generations back by the Arakan kings. They were

first planted on the Lé-myo river, with the view I suppose of cutting off

their retreat to their own country ; but when Arakan became convulsed

in consequence of the invasion of the Burmese, they gradually com-

menced leaving the Lé-myo, and returning through the hills towards

their own country. For a time they dwelt on the Kola-ddn; now

none are to be found in any part of Arakan, save on the Mayz in

its upper course, and only a few stragglers there. Many still reside,

I understand, in the hills on the E. frontier of the Chittagong district.

By a reference to a few words of their language, given in the appendix,

those acquainted with the language of the T%pperah tribes will be

able to decide whether the tale the Mrings tell of their descent be

true or not.

Having given an outline of the various tribes which now inhabit

Arakan Proper, 1 proceed to offer some suggestions as to the original

inhabitants. The traditions of the Ra-khoing-thads refer expressly to

the hill tribes as being in possession of the country when their own

ancestors entered it. The Khyengs havea tradition that they are direct

descendants of some Burmese refugees, or the remnants of an army

that was lost in the mountains when attempting to penetrate to

the westward. From the Kz-més, I could gather nothing as to their own

origin, but I consider both tribes akin to the Myam-ma@ race, and

distinct from the Malay.* If it be true, as is asserted, that the immi-

gration of the Malay race to Malacca, Quedah, and other districts

from Sumatra is an occurrence comparatively of late date, then it

is very improbable that they should have come so far north as 21° of

latitude in a remote era. The Khyengs and Kiz-més are probably an off-

shoot of the Myam-ma race, who left their original seat earlier than the

immediate ancestors of the Ra-khoing-thds. The most southern Kv-mé

tribes who inhabit the Ko/a-dan, represent themselves as being driven

further south each succeeding year, in consequence of the encroach-

ments of the fiercer tribes beyond them. ‘These encroachments still

proceed.

* To whom the hill tribes in this quarter have been assigned by Pemberton.

1841. | Account of Arakan. 685

The Ra-khoing-thas, (whose national name, as before mentioned, is

Myam-ma, whence the corruption Bur-ma,) are so called as inhabitants

of the country Ra-khoing, and this name is said to be derived from the

Pali word Rak-kha-pu-ra, signifying ‘abode of demons,” which

name may have been given to the country by the Budhist Missionaries

from India. The classic name for the country, and that used in all

state papers, is Dha-gnya-wa-ti.

The book which the learned refer to, as containing the whole account

of their nation, is called Ra-dza-wang, or “ History of Kings,”

of which many copies exist, differing from each other in details of the

early history, yet preserving alike the main features; there we are

told that in Oo-taya, the northern division of the world, reigned

the king Ma-ha-tha-gya, whose younger son, in consequence of a

quarrel, was forced to fly his country. He came to the kingdom of

A-the-toing-dza-na, (supposed to lie north from the city of Ava,)

where he married the king’s daughter, and had by her ten sons and one

daughter. These children departed to seek a home elsewhere; they

came to the site of the present town, Than-dwe, (Sandoway as we

usually write it,) which acquired its name from their binding it with an

iron chain, so that the country no longer moved as was its wont; the

germ of this account may possibly be the tradition of an earthquake

or volcano in some remote period. The ten brothers and their sister now

acquired the country. In various ways, eight of the brothers were

killed, the remaining two brothers and their sister, who is named

Ang-dza-na-de-wi, pursued their way northwards for Arakan. They

were accompanied by a Byam-ha, which in Burman Budhist writings

usually means I believe a celestial being, but here it is interpreted

to mean a human Brahman or Pun-na ;—whence he sprung does not

appear. On the road the two remaining brothers were killed, one by a

Bhi-l%, or human flesh-devouring monster, the other accidentally by a

hunter’s arrow, discharged at adeer. The Pun-na and the lady pro-

ceeded alone; on their arrival in Arakan, they find the male line of the

royal family is extinct. So confused is the account, that Arakan,

which before was represented as one vast forest inhabited only by

Bhi-lus, is here said to have a large population, and a queen over

it. The Pun-na forthwith marries the daughter of the last king, and

their progeny fill the throne for several generations. The sister

686 Account of Arakan. E No 117.

of the ten brothers becomes the second, or inferior wife of the Pun-na.

Why this long story of the ten brothers and their sister was given

does not appear; they are not of any importance to the after-history,

for according to it none of their descendants fill the throne, or exercise

any authority; but in this account we may recognize the first en-

trance of the Myam-ma race into Arakan, which we may infer, by the

story of the town of Than-dwe, took place rather by the delta of

the Arawati, where communication is easy, than by the mountain

passes farther north.* Yet the Ra-khoing-thas of the present day be-

lieve themselves to be descendents from a western people. They con-

found those who were their religious instructors with their progenitors,

and fancy themselves of the same stock as the Hindus. The above

abstract of their history contains evident marks of a mixture of ge-

nuine national tradition, and the invention of later times, when they

had been taught the use of letters, and had been instructed in religion

by Budhist Missionaries from India.

To proceed with the historical abstract, the descendants of the

Pun-na long governed the country, but supernatural monsters again

prevailed, and the whole population was destroyed. All these events

occurred after the manifestation of the Boodh Ka-tha-ba, and before

the advent of the Boodh of the present period, Gau-ta-ma. As this

latter person is supposed to have lived B. c. 543, the Arakan annals

vie with those of India in antiquity !

Arakan then was again made desolate by Bhi-lus; at this time

Ang-dza-nd, the son of the king of Kapi-la-wot, (or Ma-ga-dha, ) having

left his country and wandered through forests and mountains, arrived

at the source of the river Kola-dan; there he had intercourse

with a doe, which big with young, was carried down the stream ina

flood, and cast ashore at the mouth of the Mee-khyoung, a mountain

stream which joins the Kola-dan from the eastward ; there the doe

brought forth a son. A hill chief, of the ZYoung-mru tribe, was out

hunting, when his dog pursuing the scent of the doe led him to the

spot where she lay, and he saw the body of a beautiful child “ shining,”

* I refer here to the entrance of the people who now inhabit the plains, not to that

of the hill tribes, who though I suppose them to be of the same stock, had come much

earlier, and were more rude than the new comers.

¢ Cities on the east, and ninety-nine on the west of the Ga-tska-bha river are

said to have flourished.

1841. | Account of Arakan. 687

as the history has it, in the midst of a bush; the doe started off, and

the hill chief taking up the infant conveyed him home. The child

when grown up, marries the chief’s daughter; but not from this union

was the royal race of Arakan destined to spring. ‘The doe-born youth

is named Ma-ra-ya ; he becomes the favourite of the Mats, who furnish

him with magic weapons, and he clears the country of the monsters

who ravaged it. By some strange accident, which is not explained, a

princess of the Pun-na dynasty has been preserved amidst the general

ruin; she is discovered by the doe-born son of Ang-dza-na, and they

are married. The country once more becomes populated, and the

city of Dha-gnya-wa-ti is built to the north of the present city of

Arakan.

Of this race fifty-five kings reigned throughout a period of 1800

years; another dynasty then succeeded, which numbered twenty-four

kings, whose reigns extended throughout a period of 835 years. Then

came the king 7'san-da-thoo-vee-yd, who was not of a different dynasty,

but in his reign the Boodh Gau-ta-ma, having been born in Ma-gadha,

visited Arakan; the pious king in honour of him built the famous

temple of Ma-ha-mu-ni, which still exists; before Gawu-ta-ma left.

Arakan, the king caused a brazen image of him to be cast; or rather

it was miraculously formed by the Nats, being a likeness of the Budh

when living, and being for ages after endowed with the faculty of

speech, it became celebrated in all Budhist countries. This image

was carried away by the Burmese after their conquest of the country

in a. D. 1784, and is still to be seen in Amerapoora, where it is

regarded with peculiar devotion.*

The successors of 7'san-da-thoo-wee-ya are recorded in regular suc-

cession, though the dynasties are frequently changed. One hundred

and thirty-five kings extend from TYsan-da-thoo-vee-ya to the last

king, Ma-ha-tha-ma-ta, who reigned when the country was conquered

by the Burmese. The Arakan kings in the interim, “if they have

_ writ their annals true,” carried their victorious arms into the valley

of the Ari-wa-ti, to Siam, and even to China. The present Arakan

* Before their conversion to Budhism, the Myam-mas had probably the same simple

_ religious rites which we see among the hill tribes to this day, ¢. e. occasional offerings

_ of food, flowers, &c. to the Nats or Spirits, placed in the open air. Indeed these offer-

| ings are still common throughout Burma, though they are disallowed by strict

| Budhists.

688 Account of Arakan. [ No. 117.

era corresponds with a. p. 639; from what event it was established

is not mentioned, but I have been told that the former era having

extended to many hundred thousand years, had become inconvenient

for ordinary purposes, and therefore a new one was commenced.

The first king whose reign is calculated in the Ra-dza-wang,

according to that era, is Meng-T’san-mwon, who ascended the throne

in 746, equivalent to a. p. 1385; before his time the number of

years each king reigned is entered, but not the year of his ascent

according to the era, though of course this is easily ascertained. His

grand nephew, Za-tsan-phyoo, who succeeded in 821, or a. pv. 1460,

had extensive possessions in Bengal. Coins of that date now exist

with legends in the Bengalee and Persian character, as well as Bur-

mese, some being struck by the viceroys in Chittagong, others in

the name of the king himself. About a century later, the Portuguese

appeared and attempted to conquer Arakan. I say the Portuguese,

though the natives now call them Angleit, and I believe them to be

no others than the English. But Ang-ledt is, I think, an interpolation of

the copyists of the Ra-dza-wang in later times; the invaders are first

called Bho-dau-thwe-pha-laung, the first word being apparently a

corruption of Portuguese, and the second a term of contempt towards

foreigners, pha-laung being a provincial word for a tadpole. In the

latest editions of the history, the white invaders in ships are called

Bho-dau-thwe-aung-leit-pha-laung—1. e. Portuguese- English tadpoles.*

The invasion by the Portuguese occurred in the reign of Meng-bha,

and the same year a son being born to him, was known afterwards

by the name of Meng-pha-laung. This king in a. p. 1610, (vide

Marshman’s History of Bengal,) joined with some Portuguese adven-

turers in invading Bengal, when they took Bulooa and Luckipoor.

This event is also recorded in the Ra-dza-wang. In a. p. 1666, we

learn from the History of Bengal, that Chittagong was lost to the

Arakanese, they being defeated on the banks of the Tenny river by the

Subadar of Bengal. After this defeat, the Arakanese were occupied

with feuds at home; the old race of kings was deposed in 1124, or

A. D. 1768, and different chiefs, one after another, took possession

* This term pha-laung is still frequently screamed after Europeans by children in

the streets of Akyab, the little rogues then run off laughing heartily.

1841. ] Account of Arakan. 689

of the throne. At length the Burmese, on the invitation of Than-

dau-we, who was the Myo-thoo-ggee, or head fiscal officer, invaded and

conquered the country. The reigning king at that period was Ma-ha-

tha-ma-ta, and his son Re-bhau is still living in Amerapoora.

In various parts of Arakan there are traces of a much more exten-

sive population than it contains at present. The ruins of the ancient

temple of Maha-muni, built entirely of stone, the sites of former

cities shewn by the remains of tanks and ruined pagodas, the ex-

tensive stone walls at the old capital, certainly tell of a more flou~

rishing kingdom than what the British found it; but we have no

satisfactory evidence of the Arakan kings having subjugated Burmah

and Siam, much less China! Of the conquest of a part of Bengal, we

have credible historical evidence. At Dacca, I believe are still to be found

the remains of a Bhudhist dze-di, or pagoda, which can only be at-

tributed to the conquering Arakanese. The name T'set-ta-goung, of

which Chittagong is a corruption, is Burmese, and the descendants

of people of Tipperah brought hence from that country, still survive.

There are also some villages of Shan descent, but those people were

most probably brought from the Shan population, which is to be found

located west of the river Ara-wa-tt.

The Burmese established their head-quarters at the old capital.

For a few years their government was undisturbed, but at length

rebellions were stirred up by an individual called by the English King-

berring,* who was the son of Than-dau-we, the Myo-thoo-gyee, who had

first invited the Burmese into the country. Many of the Arakanese

fled into the neighbouring British province of Chittagong, and thus

quarrels arose on the frontier. At length the Burmese having provoked

the British government by several acts of aggression, Arakan was in-

vaded by the English, who accompanied by a number of the former

inhabitants, conquered it with ease, and entered the capital May 1825,

since which period it has been annexed to the British Indian empire.

Arakan is divided into 160 circles, of which 148 are denominated

kywn, or islands, being situated in the low lands, and 12 are called

khyoung, or stream, being in the hill districts. They contain a total of

* Properly Khyeng-byan, lit. “‘ Khyeng-return,’’ so called because he was the first-

born after his father returned from the Khyeng hills. A son of Khyeng-byun died in

Akyab, a. vp. 1840,

690 Account of Arakan. [No. 117.

960 villages. Each of these circles is placed under an officer, designa-

ted kywn-aop,* or khyoung-aop, according to the locality of his charge.

The duties of a kywn-aop are to collect the revenue, to preserve order

in his circle, and to assist the police in the apprehension of criminals ;

through him are made all statistical inquiries, and to him are referred

many disputes concerning land ; he is paid 15 per cent. upon his collec-

tions. In each circle there are from 3 or 4 to 15 or 20 villages; the

revenue collected by the different kywn-aops varies from 200 to 10,000

rupees: this great difference results from the rapid increase within a

few years of some circles, compared with others, consequent on superi-

or fertility of soil, more convenient locality for exporting grain, and

other causes.

The office of kywn-aop is not hereditary, but the son of any man

who has rendered essential services, generally succeeds on his father’s

demise.

Next to the kywn-aop is the rawa-goung, or village head. This

officer is elected by the villagers themselves ; if there are two or more

candidates for the appointment, the villagers meet and sign their

names to a document containing the name of him they vote for; these

lists are then forwarded by the kywn-aop to the officer in charge

of the district, (called myo-woon,) who appoints him that has the

majority of votes, unless indeed there be some good reason for reject-

ing him. The people generally make a good choice; for the last

three and half years IT do not recollect more than one instance of such

an election being disapproved. The rawa-goung collects the re-

venue of his village, and delivers it to the kywn-aop, who carries it to

the government treasury. He is paid four per cent. on his collections.

A village of thirty houses is entitled to a rawa-goung, that is, to

a stipendiary one; if a village have a less than that number of houses,

they pay their tax to a neighbouring goung, but if the villagers, as fre-

quently happens, dislike this arrangement, and elect a goung of their

own, the proceeding is confirmed, but they must pay him themselves.

Their object then is to induce settlers to come among them, whereby

their village may be raised to the privileged standard of thirty houses.

Under the orders of the rawa-goung is the rawa-tsa-re rawa-tsa-

gan, or village scribe. He is paid two per cent. on the village

* This is pronounced as one syllable, Ayok,

1841. ] Account of Arakan. 691

collections. The appointment is usually held by the son or some

relation of the rawa-goung. His duties are to prepare, under the

orders of the goung, the village sa-rang or register, containing the

name of each householder in the village, with the amount of tax de-

mandable from him upon each item.

There are no agents of police in the villages; the village officers

being held responsible for the preservation of order and the seizure

of criminals.

Throughout the district there are six police stations, (thanahs, )

at which the police ordinarily remain, until information being given

by a village officer or other person, of any occurrence requiring their

presence, they proceed to the spot. Nearly all communication in

the district is carried on by water.

The European functionary in charge of the district is styled a Senior

Assistant to the Commissioner of Arakan, (by the people myo-woon. )

His duties are of the same nature as those of a Magistrate and

Collector in India ; he also tries civil suits, and hears appeals from the

native Judge’s court. There is also a Junior Assistant to the Com-

missioner. ‘To conduct all revenue affairs, there is an officer styled

myo-thoo-gyee, whose office under the Arakan and Burman govern-

ments was considered the most important in the country; he then

apportioned to each circle the amount of revenue demanded by the

government ; his duty now is under the orders of the Senior Assistant,

to superintend all the kywn-aops, and to inspect and report on the

annual registers of their circles; the office still carries with it a great

deal of importance in the minds of the people. This officer is paid a

fixed salary, and resides at the chief town of the district. The revenue

business is conducted solely by natives of the country, and the

language of the records is Burmese. The judicial officers of the

Magistrate’s court are Bengalees, chiefly natives of Chittagong, it not

having yet been found practicable to introduce the Arakanese into

this branch of the public service. They are however active and ener-

getic police darogahs.

There is a native civil judge styled éa-ra-ma-thoo-gyee, who tries

all suits for sums not exceeding 500 rupees. Few cases in Arakan are

for a larger amount than this. The language of the Civil Judge’s court

is Burmese. He holds his court at Akyab.

692 Account of Arakan. [ No. 117.

The chief town of Arakan now, is Akyab; it is situated at the

S. W. extremity of the district ; it was first occupied in the beginning

of 1826, and consisted only of a few fishermen’s huts called T’set-twe,

the name by which the present town is still known to the natives.

The old capital, which lies about 50 miles distant N. E. from Akyab,

was abandoned on account of its unhealthiness. The site of Akyab

was well chosen. It is at the mouth of the principal river of the

country, the natural. outlet for the produce of a vast extent of fertile

land; the soil in the immediate vicinity is of a light sandy nature,

unlike that of the interior, which is generally clayey ; both the tradi-

tions of the people, the appearance of the surface, and the marine

remains, proclaim the site to have been but lately redeemed from the

sea. Shells are to be found near the surface in the streets of the

town, and on the roads of the station; west of the station is to be

traced a raised sea-beach, along which a road now runs towards the

river Ma-yu, and between it and the present sea stretches a plain of

more than a mile in extent ; here tradition also points out where ships

used formerly to be moored.* To the S. W. of the station is a ridge

of sandstone rocks running nearly N. and S. some distance inland,

and elevated in some places from 25 to 30 feet above the highest

tides; to this height the rocks are perforated by marine animals.

There is no tradition regarding any convulsion having raised this tract

of country. The same effects are visible along the coast for 50 or

60 miles from Akyab. In the upper portion of the ridge of rocks

above mentioned, no shells are to be found in the perforations, but

lower down oyster-shells are still seen adhering to the rock. On the

opposite shore of the Akyab harbour is a remarkable conical-shaped

rock on the top of a little hill elevated above the water about 150

feet. It is stated, that in the reign of king Thoo-re-ya-tseit-ra, the

water was so high, that this conical rock was only just protruded

above the surface, and the king on the occasion of a war-like expedition,

deposited there his hair comb as an offering, without moving from his

boat ; hence the rock is called to this day, Oo-bee-gyap-toung, ‘‘ Head-

* Akyab, the name given to the present town by foreigners, is perhaps derived fom

the name of a pagoda built hereabouts, which was probably a good land-mark in

former times, and therefore well known to mariners. The site of the pagoda is called

A-khyat-dau-kun, ‘* Royal-jaw-bone hillock,’”’ from a jaw-bone of Gautama’s being

buried there.

1841.] Account of Arakan. 693

comb placing hill.” Akyab is a very regularly built town ; the streets

are broad, and all run at right angles to each other; the houses are of

flimsy materials, being built only of bamboo and canes of the nipah

tree, but they are spacious and airy, and being elevated a few feet

above the ground, are admirably adapted to the damp climate of

Arakan. The population of Akyab does not exceed 5,000 souls,

excluding some villages which form the suburbs.

The whole of the land of Arakan, whether forest, cultivated or

fallow, is the property of the state ; but as it seldom happens that the

state has cause to assert its claim, the great mass of land is trans-

ferred by sale from hand to hand, or inherited from generation to

generation, like other property. Every man who purposes bringing

waste land into cultivation, gives notice of his intention to the rawa-

goung ; either that officer, or the cultivator himself if he pleases,

informs the officer in charge of the district, and the land tax is re-

mitted for two or more years, according to the nature of the soil,

and the jungle to be cleared. Cultivation and occupation of land give

a prescriptive right to a cultivator as long as he pays the Government

demand upon it, but if he abandon it without entering into an ar-

rangement with any body else to keep it in cultivation, or to pay the

Government demand, he forfeits his right to it. The cultivator

then has the possession, but not the property of the soil. By custom

a distinction is made between rice land, and that which has been enclos-

ed for gardens. If a portion of the former be taken for public

purposes, a road for instance, the common law of the country gives the

cultivator compensation; but in the case of gardens, the owner is

entitled to the value of every tree and shrub they contain; all produce

being bona fide his private property. Some cultivators make over

their land to others for a year or more, if from any cause they are unable

to cultivate themselves; if their land be very productive, or have

any peculiar advantages of position, they receive a rent for it from

the sub-tenant which frequently equals the Government demand ; these

arrangements among the people are not interfered with; the former

tenant’s name remains in the village register, and he is responsible

for the Government tax, unless he has formally given notice to the

rawa-goung, that he is not going to cultivate. On the death of a

cultivator, his land is inherited by his heirs in like manner as if it were

694 Account of Arakan. [No. 117.

his own property ; the law of the people, whether Burman or Mahome-

dan, regulates the proportion which the heirs receive.

The mode of “ settlement” of a village in Arakan is as follows :—

During the month of February, by which time the crop is cut, and the

grain for the most part thrashed out and winnowed, the ru-wa-goung

gives notice to the cultivators that he is about to measure their lands ; he

is accompanied by the village scribe, and the cultivators of the fields

in the direction of which he is proceeding ; sometimes the kywn-aop is

present, but not always; in extensive circles he cannot personally su-

perintend the measurements in all the villages.* The cultivator whose

field is to be measured holds the bamboo, which is 12 feet long, and

measures out the length and breadth of his field, which is then writ-

ten down by the village tsa-re, hence the area is deduced and the village

the village. In the register is entered the name of each householder,

his wife’s name, (but the women are not so carefully registered as the

men,) each lodger, and formerly every bachelor above the age of 18

years, together with the amount of tax due from them, whether for

rice land, garden land, or capitation tax. To make a return of those

persons subject to capitation tax, the ra-wa-goung must be acquainted

with the age and condition of each villager, whether married or unmar-

ried, a householder or lodger. This tax formerly extended to all males

above the age of 18, who were deemed capable of manual labour; but

within the last year (1840,) this objectionable tax has been much reduc-

ed, unmarried youths wholly exempted from it, and the train laid for

its eventual abolition.

The village register being framed is delivered to the kywn-aop,

who has received like registers from each village in his circle, and

he delivers them into the yon-dau, (kucheree,) where they are com-

pared with those of the past year; if no doubts arise as to their

* The land measure now in use in Arakan was introduced from Chittagong in 1835.

Up to that period the tax was levied not upon the area of cultivation, but upon the

ploughs, each plough being estimated as equal to a doon of land. A doon contains

30,720 square yards, equal to a little more than six and a quarter English acres.

+ A poll tax is not necessarily of that hateful nature generally ascribed to it, and

certainly it is not so regarded in Arakan. We have an instance of a self-governed

people voluntarily imposing this tax upon themselves. ‘‘In the state of Massachusetts,

every male citizen, from 16 to 60, is subject to a poll tax, which is commonly a dollar,

or a dollar and a half.””’—Goodrich’s Universal Geography, Boston edit. p. 340.

1841. | Account of Arakan. 695

accuracy, they are accepted ; if they appear incorrect, inquiries must be

instituted through other channels than the village officers. Supposing

them to be accepted, the kywn-aop then receives slips of paper, called

hyoung-hlya, which are bills presentable to each tax-payer for the

amount demanded from him, with a specification of the item of tax-

ation for which the demand is made, whether for rice-land, garden-land,

capitation, or the extent of his land by measurement, and the months

in which each instalment is to be paid. No man can be called on to

pay any tax without a bill for the amount, bearing the seals of the

myo-woon and myo-thoo-gyee being presented to him; the village

officer must give a receipt on the back of the bill for each instalment

paid. If a tenant be dissatisfied with the measurement of his land,

and dispute the amount demanded in the bill, either a new measure-

ment by the village officers is ordered, or, at the request of the tenant,

a person unconnected with them is sent to remeasure the land; the

expence of this new measurement falls on the village officer if his out-

turn be found incorrect, or the cultivator if it be correct. The above

process of registry and land measurement is continued yearly. It is

not to be supposed that from so rude a people really correct survey of

the cultivated area is to be obtained ; all that can be hoped for, is to pro-

cure a fair approximation to the actual amount.

The cultivated rice lands are divided into three classes, which pay

at the rate of 12, 10, and 8 rupees per doon. The first sort will pro-

duce from one thousand to twelve hundred baskets of dhan,* which

will sell on the average at from 10 to 12 rupees per 100 baskets. One

man with a pair of buffaloes will cultivate a doon of land with ease ;

the produce will fetch, in ordinary seasons, from 100 to 120 rupees ; the

tax payable to Government therefore for this class of land is from 10

to 12 per cent. of the gross produce of the soil; the profit from the se-

cond and the third class of lands is from 1 to 2 per cent. less than the

above ; the cultivator thus realizes a handsome profit, and is certainly

never distressed to make payment. I have never known a single cul-

tivator a defaulter. The grain market has hitherto been a sure one;

the cultivator receives for his grain cash payment from the ship, which

* The basket of Arakan proper is much smaller than that of the Southern districts ;

100 of rice of the former are equal to about 30 Indian maunds.

696 Account of Arakan. [ No. 117.

anchors alongside the field that has grown the rice. It is principally

exported to Madras, Coringa, and Masulipatam. A reference to table B

will shew the rapid increase of the Akyab rice trade; we there see a

population of less than 1,50,000 souls, growing and exporting grain to

the value of eleven and a half lakhs of rupees. Only one rice crop is

raised in the year. The tax on gardens is higher than that on rice

land, being at the rate of 16 rupees per doon.

Wages in Arakan, compared with those of Bengal, are very high.

For ordinary labour the people of the country cannot be hired at a less

rate than four annas a-day, or if by the month, six rupees; though

for some sorts of work they demand seven to eight rupees a month. In

the reaping season, which generally commences in December, many

hundreds, indeed thousands of coolies come from the Chittagong

district by land and by sea, to seek labour and high wages. They are

engaged by the Arakanese cultivators, and are generally paid at a certain

rate for the quantity of rice cut down. If they work diligently, I am

informed they can earn from four to five annas per diem; in their own

country their labour for the same time would not bring them more

than six pice, or at the most two annas. ‘The Bengalee labourers are

not much employed in ploughing the land; that work is performed in

the rainy season (about the middle of June) at the commencement of

which they for the most part return to their homes. They are begin-

ning however to seek employment also in ploughing land. One great

source of loss to the cultivators, is the frequent occurrence of a mur-

rain among their cattle, by which thousands sometimes perish in a sin-

gle year. In 1839-40 a sickness prevailed among the cattle, simulta-

neously with the cholera among the inhabitants, by which 16,000 head,

cows and buffaloes, were carried off. The cattle are replaced from

Chittagong and also from Ava. I have been much interested at wit-

nessing the cheerfulness and determination with which a cultivator

would set to work at his field by spade, after losing his buffaloes, worth

perhaps from 40 to 50 rupees the pair, determined to labour hard in

order to replace them as soon as possible.

A measure has lately been sanctioned by government for the whole

province of Arakan, which is calculated to extend largely the cul-

tivation of jungle tracts, and perhaps eventually alter the tenure of

all land in the country. Rules have been passed for grants of large

1841. ] Account of Arakan. 697

areas, and they are so liberal in their terms, that they cannot fail to be

successful. They confer leases in the first instance for periods varying

from eight to sixty-four years, according to the nature of the land;

rent free for half the period of the lease, and at a low rate of rent for

the remainder. The hereditary right to the soil is declared as long as

the grantee fulfils the terms specified; future leases for twenty years

are guaranteed at ano higher rate than the average of that paid by

adjoining government lands. The people do not yet sufficiently ap-

preciate the advantages to be eventually derived from these grants,

but they are gradually becoming more sensible of their value. Num-

bers of the descendants of those who fled in troublous times from their

country, and settled in the southern parts of Chittagong, the islands of

the coast, and even the Sunderbuns of Bengal, are gradually returning.

Rumours of an attack from the Burmese have prevailed among them

for the last three years, and retarded their return, but this alarm has

now subsided, and during the N. EK. monsoon, boats filled with men,

women, and children, with all their worldly goods, may be seen steering

south along the eastern coast of the Bay of Bengal, to return to the

land their fathers abandoned 30 or 40 years before. They have told

me, that in their exile the old men used to speak with regret for its

loss of the beauty of their country ; the fertility of the land, which re-

turned a hundred-fold ; the heavy ears of rice ; the glory of their ancient

kings ; the former splendour of the capital ; the pagodas, and the famous

image of Gautama now carried away, with which the fortunes of the

country were indissolubly united. Who would have imagined that

Arakan could inspire such sentiments!

It is a question of interest to consider how far the people of Arakan

are satisfied with British rule. The mass of them are infinitely better

off now as regards personal freedom, wants, and comforts, than they

were under the government of their native princes or the Burmese,

and they are doubtless sensible of the advantages they now enjoy.

During the times of the Arakan kings, and the Burman governors,

the people were not called upon to pay much in regular taxes, but

there were constant calls on them for labour, for service, and for mate-

rials to make or repair the houses of the kywn-aops and other govern-

ment officers; besides which, the circles were obliged to furnish the

public officers with followers. for special duties; the people therefore

698 Account of Arakan. [No. 117.

had no certainty of the amount that would be demanded from them.

Arakan Proper, after paying its own expences, or satisfying its local

government, was required to furnish subsistence for the royal white

elephant ; this amounted to 120 viss of silver annually, or about Com-

pany’s rupees 20,000. All the lands west of the river Mayu were set

apart for the Tharawadi Prince, the present king of Ava. He ap-

pointed to them an officer, who remitted to Ava yearly the tribute due

to the prince, which amounted to about 3000 rupees. Neither the

myo-woon, nor any of the public officers received any fixed salary, but

had fees upon all collections and customs, and a share of all fines im-

posed. Each buffaloe plough paid yearly 15 Burman baskets of

dhan, equal to 104 maunds. LKach bullock plough paid ten Burman

baskets. There was also a capitation tax on each married householder.

When the myo-thoo-gyee, and other officer was called to the court

of Ava, the province had to pay the expences of his journey, as also of

the journies of the myo-woon, and other officers appointed from Ava,

on their coming to assume charge, likewise on their recal. A certain

number of men were expectedto take to Ava every year a beautiful

flower peculiar to Arakan, which none but the royal family were al-

lowed without permission to wear in their ears or hair; others were set

apart for keeping the royal gardens in order; sixty were always to be

at work at Ava, and had to be supported by the remainder of their

number in Arakan; they were relieved annually.

These various calls upon their industry, the general poverty from

stagnation of trade, and the flight of a large portion of the populace,

together with nearly all the respectable families, made the condition of

the people very wretched, and the contrast is infinitely in favour of the

present state of things. But the upper classes do not participate in these

congratulatory feelings to the extent that the lower do. They have re-

gained their country, but not the high position they appear to have an-

ticipated. They refer to the power they formerly had under their own

kings; their being then allowed to hold slaves, who under our rule

have been declared free; also the emancipation of the debtor slaves,

who having pledged their persons were bondsmen to their masters,

until they could repay the sums advanced.

The upper classes, and the literati, who are much respected, speak

with regret of the neglect now shewn to pagodas and religious edifices,

1841. | Account of Arakan. 699

which formerly were repaired by the government; they declare there

is a general decay of dhamma-wat, or virtue, among all classes ; less at-

tention to religious duties and ceremonies, which they attribute to the

governing power not setting the example ; to this neglect also is attri-

buted cholera and sickness among cattle, which of late, have fre-

quently visited the country. The phoongyees, or priests, complain,

that people are no longer constrained to respect in their presence

the law, ‘thou shalt not kill,” but catch fish in tanks near the monas-

’ teries with impunity.

When Khyeng-byan raised a revolt against the Burmese, (he

was the son of the man who first invited them across,) all the most

respectable families joined his standard, and finally they fled to the

Chittagong district. These men on the breaking out of war between

the Burmese and the British, offered their services, through Mr.

T. C. Robertson, then Magistrate of Chittagong, to assist in con-

quering Arakan. Some of them were connections of Khyeng-byan, and

relations of those chiefs who, in the latter times of the kingdom when

_ the regular monarchs were deposed, had one after another seized

the throne. Among these men, two of the most distinguished were

Oung-gyau-ri and Oung-gyau-stan, the former a brother-in-law of

Khyeng-byan’s, rendered important services to the army of invasion ;

the latter was a nephew of Khyeng-byan’s, and a man of influence and ,

ability. After the occupation of the country, these men were amply

provided for, but appear to have cherished hopes that when the Bri-

tish army was withdrawn, the country would be made over to them, or

at least to a native dynasty. Both were impatient of controul, and

were convicted of exercising their authority with cruelty. One was

removed from his office of myo-thoo-gyee on a charge of bribery and

corruption, and the other being convicted of severely wounding a po-

lice darogah with a dha, was sentenced to seven years’ imprisonment.

In less than two years after the occupation of Arakan, the establish-

ment of a native dynasty was canvassed and plotted for, and these two

men, together with nearly all the influential persons in the country,

were privy to intrigues to compass that object. In December 1826, or

January 1827, a grandson of A-bha-ya, a chief who had seized the

throne and reigned for nine years before the Burman conquest, returned

to Arakan. Mis father, named Pa-tang-tsa, had been carried to Ava

700 Account of Arakan. [ No. 117.

by the Burmese. The son of Pa-tang-tsa, named Shwe-pang, either

had made his escape, as he averred, or been permitted quietly to de-

part the court of Ava, perhaps, hoping thereby to excite troubles in

Arakan. Certain it is, that on his appearance, most of the headmen

of the country were favourable to his claims, and attempts were made

in April 1827, to tamper with the native officers and men of the Local

Battalion. Shwe-pang was subsequently made a kywn-aop ; the flame

was smothered for a time, but the fire remained smouldering. Nine

years after, the above named individuals were guilty of exciting a man,

named Hyeet-tsan-we, to rise in arms; he commenced plundering the

country, with the assistance of a band of escaped convicts, and other

desperate characters, and some of the ignorant hill tribe, the Khyengs.

He and his adherents were at length forced to fly into the Burman

territory, whence they were brought back in the beginning of 1837,

being given up by the Burman government.

This emeute was called dakotty, (gang robbery,) but the real object

of the attempt was to seize the government of the country. The in-

stigators were insane enough to believe, that the British government

would be wearied out by their system of ravaging the country, and

make it over to them on payment of a yearly tribute! Since this

attempt, every thing has been very quiet. The English expedition to

China has excited an intense interest among the Ra-khoing-thas, and

as China is regarded as the first power in the world, the issue of the

contest was held to be rather doubtful until the favourable result of

certain magical calculations which were resorted to, when it was dis-

covered to have been long ago foretold in certain books, that the

English were destined to subdue China. There is in Arakan a village

named Ya-rouk, the same name which the Burmese give to China.

On going into the interior in January 1841, I directed my steps to

this village first, in order to ascend a hill in the vicinity. The people

were impressed with the belief that I was going there to have a mimic

fight for the village, and order the inhabitants to come out and make

their submission, as an omen for the success of the China expedition !

Within the last four years, great improvements have been made in

Arakan taxes. It is difficult to account for such an impolitic and

unjust system of taxation as existed up to 1836 ever having been

proposed or adopted. Boats, nets of all sizes, cattle not used in agri-

1841. ] Account of Arakan. 701

culture: all trades, occupations, and callings had separate taxes upon

them ; these have now been happily abandoned, and other taxes to the

amount of nearly a lakh of rupees reduced, without any loss accruing

to the state. The grants of land will raise up a new class in Arakan,

viz. of extensive landholders with an hereditary right to their estates,

whose interests will be bound to the British government.

Among the hill tribes I have omitted mentioning two, viz. Kyan,

and the Toung-mru, of which only a few families exist. The former

live on the Kola-dan among the Ku-mis, from whom they differ in

some habits, but have the same general appearance. A few words

of their language will be found in Appendix D. A few houses of

the Toung-mru tribe are to be found in the upper course of the

Ma-yu.

The hill tribes within the British territory, may as regards their

relation with the government, be divided into two classes.

lst. Those who live near the plains, and are therefore entirely under

the controul of the Arakan authorities.

2d. Those residing at a greater distance, and whose country is inac-

cessible for ordinary purposes.

The first are assessed at the rate of two rupees per annum for each

cultivator ; the chiefs are answerable for the preservation of order in

their clans, and must surrender all criminals to be tried by law.

Slaves among these tribes have been emancipated.*

Among the second class, no inquiries are made regarding the

number of cultivators, but the chief of the clan pays a fixed sum

yearly in token of his fealty. The tribes of this class are not inter-

fered with in their internal arrangements, but of course they are bound

to abstain from all attacks on tribes within the British frontier, and

indeed beyond it; too frequently it is to be feared they join in the

former, or furnish information which leads to them. They still hold

slaves, and punish their own criminals in petty cases. It would be

* The chiefs complain of this as a great hardship. In a Khyeng tribe, I once met

a young towng-meng, or chief, who had lost one of his fingers. It appeared that his

slaves had one fine morning absconded, and he was obliged to set to work himself for

his support in clearing forest land. By his clumsiness, he soon cut off a finger, and now

he held up his mutilated hand to me, in dumb appeal for the restitution of his slaves.

This young man was all but naked, and a blush was visible in his clear olive cheek,

when the Ra-khoing-thas with me threw a cloth over him, and he heard for the first

time in his life, that he was committing a breach of decency in appearing unclothed.

“02 Account of Arakan. LNo. 117.

next to impossible to controul them on these points, as they are

separated from the plains by too difficult and dangerous a country

to be approached, except by an armed party. The hill tribes pay

their quotas in cotton, ivory, and other raw produce. Tribute is

paid by all tribes residing within the limits, in which the Arakan and

Burman governments formerly exercised authority. Some of these

know us by name as some dreadful beings, but have never beheld an

European.

The hill tribes live a life of danger, struggle, and hardship. The

chiefs indeed have an easy time of it, but the women are especially

hard worked. The latter are scantily clothed, as much so, however, as

precipitous hills and a warm climate render necessary ; they are stout-

ly made, but diminutive in size; the generality not exceeding in height

four feet six inches. The Ku-mis (men) are not smaller in stature than

the Burmese, the Khyengs I think are.

The hill cultivation is called in Burmese toung-ya. It consists in

clearing away the thick forest, and luxuriant shrubs and creepers,

which clothe the mountain sides. After the large trees are cut down,

what remains of the underwood is set on fire; the stumps of the large

trees are left standing. This work is finished in April. The seed,

whether rice or cotton, is then put into the ground, small holes being

dug or scraped a few inches apart, with a sort of hand hoe. The crop

is reaped in October.* What a hard and bitter life must these people

live! Each year the same labour must be encountered, the same dense

unyielding forest be cleared, and yet they know not whether they

shall be there to reap the fruits of their toil, or be carried off in an

attack as slaves to some more powerful tribe. Notwithstanding the

noble trees which find sustenance upon the mountains, yet the soil is so

unfavourable to grain, that it cannot be raised again, the people say,

upon the same spot in less than from fifteen to twenty years. Iam

inclined to think, that this is chiefly in consequence of the rich surface

soil, when deprived of its protecting trees and shrubs being washed

down the steep hill sides by the heavy rains ; it is not until brushwood

has again appeared, and the soil been bound again by bamboo roots,

* Besides grain and cotton, the hill tribes grow tobacco and a few esculent vegeta-

bles, such as pumpkins, gourds, &c. These are planted in little valleys, or by the side

of streams, on soil left dry after the rainy season. ;

1841. | Account of Arakan. 703

(which spring up very thickly in two or three years after a hill side

has been cleared,) that sufficient soil is accumulated to nourish grain.

Each returning season, then, brings for these mountaineers the toil and

hardship of a new clearing. They are unacquainted with the terrace

cultivation of other hill countries ; indeed the hills appear too precipi-

tous for it to be practicable. Spots favourable for clearings are by

no means plentiful. ‘The people have sometimes to go one, two, or

more days’ journey from their village, in small parties here and there,

to sow their grain. In these separate clearings, they erect temporary

-sheds, raised from fifteen to twenty feet from the ground, and remain

there until the work is finished, when they return to the village,

leaving perhaps two or three hands to watch the crop. These people

instead of the high raised sheds commonly used, sometimes sleep at

night up in trees, where they have made a convenient resting place

with interwoven branches, and a few split bamboos bound together

with strong creepers, which interlace these forests in profusion. This

practice has perhaps given rise to the tale, that some hill tribes had

no regular dwellings, but lived in trees, more like apes than men.*

After a village has remained in one site for two or three years, all

the culturable spots in the vicinity are cleared and exhausted.| The

* The tree-living Awkis, represented to live in the hills and forests east of the

Chittagong district, have attracted considerable attention. The whole account of their

| cannibalism and tree-dwelling I regard as fable. There may perhaps have been

instances of some of these savage tribes offering human sacrifices. I have had inter-

course with very “pretty savages’’ in the wild country bordering on Arakan to the

_ E. and N. E; all of whom had comfortable houses, even the poorest of them far more

_ roomy than the wretched hovels of Bengalee peasants ; these savages had intercourse

_ with other tribes beyond them, but had never heard of tree-living and human-flesh-

_ devouring people, though they had plenty of wonderful stories to tell of Amazonian

tribes, where male children were destroyed, and of others who by magic could make

themselves invulnerable. But these best authority is that of the Khyoung-thas, men

_ of Burman race, who live among the hill tribes, and are comparatively civilized.

Some of these I have known who had been taken as slaves, and passed to distant

_ independent tribes, and subsequently regained their freedom. ‘lhese men had never

heard of tree-living men. The name Awki was unknown to all, but the same tribes

_ are called by many names. The tale has, I suspect, been received from Bengalee

narrators in the Chittagong district, and incautiously received as correct. What

European can vouch for its truth ?

) t I know two cases, one beyond the British territory, where tribes had a wide

range of territory, and jealously guarded against any clearing being made in it by

_ other tribes. They have thus kept their villages on the same site for more than

| twenty years, or crops, for so they reckon time. One of these villages was perched

upon a rock almost inaccessible, it was therefore a favourite position, one not easily

| surprised.

4uU

704 Account of Arakan. [ No.-4172

people must then look out for another home; their village is aban-

doned, and forth they go, men, women, and children, two, three or more

days’ journey, to ‘build their bamboo huts near some spot where they

may raise food ; men and women may on those occasions be seen toiling

up the steep hills, their conical baskets on their backs, fastened by a

strap passing round the forehead ; in some their children sleeping con-

tentedly, others containing their worldly goods. I have entered de-

serted villages, in which perhaps half the people’s property, such as it

was, had been left, until they could return and take it away at leisure ;

there were baskets of rice, dhan, pounding mortars, cotton spinning and »

weaving machines. I have even seen spoons, the bowl rudely cut out

of wood, and a bamboo handle lashed on. The cotton cloths these

people weave are really excellent, the threads are coloured with vari-

ous vegetable dyes, blue, red, yellow, &c. and are frequently woven in-

to very handsome patterns.

The houses of the hill tribes are built entirely of bamboo in the

walls, the supports, and the flooring. They are roofed with leaves of the

same plant. The houses are raised on platforms, and from the steep-

ness of the hills, oneside may be from twelve to fifteen feet above the

ground, and being supported by bamboo props, not more than two in-

ches in diameter, they look very slight ; but last well, with trifling re-

pairs, for three years, the general period for which they are required.

The chief's house usually consists of a spacious hall, extending right

across the dwelling, in which the feasts are held, and where is always a

large hearth of plastered mud, on which a whole ox might be roasted ;

on either side of the hall are separate rooms for the different members

of the family, the unmarried sons and daughters. The houses of the

people of course are not on such a large scale as the chief's, but they

are spacious ; two families sometimes live together, in which case they

ordinarily cook and eat separately.

The villages consist of from twenty to forty, or fifty houses, which

are built as regularly as the nature of the ground will admit. The

rapidity with which these people will run up a bamboo hut is surprising.

Journeying in the hills, I have come to halting ground for the night,

fifty Ku-mis with their dhas leap into the bamboo forest, which resounds

with the sharp strokes of the dha in rapid succession, and forth they

come, dragging the slender stems after them in bundles of eight or ten.

1841.] Account of Arakan. 705

These are cut to the required size for the platform and roof supports,

split and crushed for the walls and floor; the leaves formed into slate-

like pieces, bound with battens; thin strips are cut to tie the whole fa-

bric together, and in less than an hour, out of the confused rush of fifty

dark forms, each has found his proper place and work, and there stands

a comfortable house, which will shelter one from a severe storm,

should it appear.

The villages of the remoter tribes are generally built on the tops

of hills not easy of access; in these situations there is a scarcity of

water for six months in the year, and the people are obliged to

descend daily to the lowest dells for that necessary of life. These

villages are invariably stockaded, and the ground in the vicinity

thickly studded with sharp bamboo spikes, to prevent the approach

of foes; they are as hard as iron, and to bare-footed men are a great

hindrance, especially in the night time. The tribes somewhat within

our border, have abandoned or neglected this system of stockading

their villages, and unfortunately some of them have suffered severely ;

but no tribe within our border has attacked another so situated

since April 1837.* Different clans of Au-mis attack each other ; there

is a feeling of jealousy between clans of the same tribe living upon

different streams, and those clans of Ku-mis living beyond the British

frontier, consider those within as fair game. Their native arms for attack

and defence are spears, bows, arrows, and square leathern shields, about

three and a half feet long, by two feet broad. Even the most distant

tribes now possess. muskets and ammunition, which are conveyed

up the Kola-dan by petty merchants, and thence passed from tribe to

tribe far into the interior. They use poisoned arrows in the chase,

but I think not in war.

One grand necessary of life—salt, the remote tribes have great

difficulty in procuring. The Ku-mis of the Kola-dan procure it and

salt fish from Akyab; among them it is plentiful. The tribe living

higher up the Kola-dan, beyond the British frontier, receive a good

deal from Cox’s Bazar, through the Khy-oung-thas, living in the hills

east of Ramoo. Some tribes further removed, and isolated by savage

| feuds, cannot procure salt at all times, so content themselves with an

| * When a terrible slaughter was made of a Khyeng village on the Le-myo, by a

| Kumi chief of the Kola-dan.

"06 Account of Arakan. [No. 117.

alkali, which they have the ingenuity to obtain by the combustion of

bamboo. Powerful outside clans frequently force supplies of salt and

gunpowder from their inner and weaker neighbours.

The great art of war among the Arakan hill tribes is, to fall on the

enemy by surprise. If they are discovered before reaching a village of

attack, they effect a retreat. An open advance in day-light is utterly

inconsistent with their ideas of warfare. Before starting on an expe-

dition, they send trusty spies to ascertain the best mode of approach;

numerous are the feasts and ceremonies practiced to propitiate the

spirits of the mountain ; then they march, four, five, or six days’ journey,

and burst upon the devoted village an hour or two before dawn.

These attacks are sometimes made through revenge, the consequence

of feuds existing for many years; but generally the great object is to

take prisoners who may be made slaves, women, and children therefore

are captured ; the men are generally slaughtered without mercy ; they

would be too troublesome to keep. The prisoners are sold from

tribe to tribe. I have sometimes been fortunate enough to recover

Khyeng women and children, poor creatures who had been carried from

their original homes amidst the Yu-ma mountains, about two hundred

miles. This appeared a very world of distance to them, in a moun-

tainous country, where communication is so difficult. The Khyeng wo-

men have their faces tattooed in a remarkable manner, and being the

only tribe who follow this custom, they are easily recognized amidst

other people. |

I need scarcely remark, that none of the hill tribes are acquainted

with the use of letters. A few words of their languages will be found

in Appendix D. They are the same as those published in the ‘“ Compa-

rison of Indo-Chinese languages,” by the Rev. N. Brown of Sudya, in

the Journal of the Asiatic Society for December 1837. Separate clans

of Ku-mis and Khyengs differ from each other in their words for some

objects.

On the tribe called “ Lung-khe.”

On the upper course of the river Kola-dan, and generally located

to the west of that river, beyond the British frontier, there exists a

tribe called by the Ku-mis and Ra-khoing-thas, Lung-khe. They

1841. ] Account of Arakan. 707

are sometimes called Boung-ju and Boung-jwe. It is this extraordi-

nary variety of names given to one and the same people, that leads

to so much confusion, and causes so much difficulty in attempting

to classify the different tribes. Another difficulty is, the inability

of these people to give any connected account of themselves. The

most that can be done, is to treasure up what they incidentally let

fall, and draw inferences from it; to gain a knowledge of them by

direct questions is almost hopeless, for they will give different answers

to the same questions day after day, not I conceive from any wish to

deceive, but from ignorance, and inability to reflect.

In my inquiries concerning the Lung-khes, I learnt sufficient to

make it appear probable, that the Lung-khes and Boung-jwes were

originally separate tribes, who had been conquered and reduced to

slavery by a third. Their present towng-meng, or chief, is named

Leng-kung, and he describes himself as belonging originally to a very

powerful tribe to the N. E. of his present seat; his clan in that

tribe is named Hlaing-ji-u, Hlaing-chou, Hling-ju, and Hleng-tchyo.*

Several generations back, a portion of his clan coming from the N. E.

subdued the Lung-khes and Boung-jwes, and though still retaining

intercourse with his ancestor’s nation, yet his dialect, he states, has

become changed. The nation from which he is descended, is called by

the Ku-mis, Tsein-du, or Shin-du, a corruption probably of the clan-

name Hiing-ju, but as the AKu-mis use the term for the whole people,

T shall adopt it with the same signification in this paper. I could not

discover from the Lung-khe chief, that they had any generic name for

the whole people. In speaking of the TZsezn-dus, he used the term

Que-sak, which he said signifies in his tongue, “upper people,” or

people living in the upper country; while he and those of his clan,

who separated, as above described, are called by the Tsein-dus,

Que-tang or Que-plang, 2. e. “people living lower down ;” referring

either to the course of streams, or to the diminished elevation of the

hills. The Ku-mis have a great dread of the Tsein-dus.

I must proceed to narrate how I first met the Zung-khe chief, for he

formerly lived in independence beyond the British frontier.

* T heard these four pronunciations given for the clan-name, by Leng-kung and his

brother.

708 Account of Arakan. [No. 117.

In October 18388, the village of Hleng-kreing,* a powerful Kumz

chief of the Kola-dan, was attacked by the Lung-hkhes. The attack

took place in the dead of the night, and the surprise was complete.

Between thirty and forty persons were killed in the village, and thirty-

eight women and children were carried into slavery. This attack

was headed by Leng-kung, a young man of 23 or 24 years of age.

A party of the Arakan Local Battalion was sent in pursuit of the

Lung-khes, but they abandoned their village, and fled with their

captives into the hills, where it would have been useless to follow.

In December of the same year, I proceeded up the Kola-dan, to make

inquiries regarding the assailants, and found they had abandoned

the site of their village, and gone westward with their prisoners,

putting themselves under the protection of a Kyoung-tha family,

living within the hill boundaries of the Chittagong district.| Being

assured of this by persons whom I sent to ascertain the fact, I addressed

the Magistrate of Chzttagong, who recovered no less than thirty-three

women and children that had been captured in Hleng-kreing’s village ;

these were restored to their homes ; one among them being the chief’s

daughter; two had been killed in retreat, and three sold to the Tsein-

dus.

Shortly after their recovery, Leng-kung himself, and his elder brother

Leng-hung, came down to Akyab to answer for their misdeeds. Leng-

kung so far from denying that he headed the attack, gloried in it, aver-

ring, that “ thirty years before, Dha-boing-gyee had attacked his tribe,

killed a number of men, carried off several captive, and dug up his

grandfather’s bones,{ plundering the grave of the various implements

of war and state, which are always buried with a chief.” This sacrilege

the young man declared he had been brought up to avenge, and his eyes

gleamed with delight as he told of his success! An elder brother ac-

companied him to Akyab, but the younger, from his superior energy

and ability, possessed all authority in the tribe. From Leng-kung I

* This chief is generally called Dha-boing-gyee, a title of one of the officers of

state under the Arakan kings, which he has assumed.

¢ This Ky-oung-tha family, the present head of whom is named Thak-tang-phyoo,

enue from Arakan about 60 years since.

{ The Lung-khes and Tsein-dus bury their dead, differing from the Ku-mis in this

Bra who burn them.

1841. | Account of Arakan. 709

learnt the following particulars regarding the Lung-khes and Tsein-

dus :—

“ The Lung-khes subject to me, amount to three hundred houses ;

they are all my slaves, except the immediate members of my family ; we

live in bamboo houses like the Ku-mis; we receive iron from the

Tsein-dus, and salt from the Ku-mis ; our cultivation in the hills is

toung-ya like theirs; our language and that of the 7’sein-dus is nearly

alike ; we possess cows, pigs, goats, cats, and fowls ; we bury our dead ;

the corpse is placed in a sitting posture, with a pipe in its mouth, food

by its side, and kung ;* besides these a moung, (Burman gong,) sword

and spear, together with the feathers worn in the hair by men of rank.

‘“‘ We worship four Nats, (spirits,) who are called Que-sing, Sur-par,

Put-ten, and Wan-chung ; Sur-par is the head Nat; he lives in the

sky, and so do the others. ‘There are cities in the sky where the dead

men live; there are many countries there, where trees bear food ready

cooked, and clothes, and all things necessary. If men do not worship

the Wats, when they sicken they die ; we worship once or twice a-year

in the village, by sacrificing a buffalo, or pig, and drinking kung; we

do so to benefit ourselves, our wives, and children, and that no sick-

ness may arise ; in the cultivation we have another sacrifice of goats

and pigs to the Wats of the earth and water; there are no names for

those Nats ; for them we kill a fowl and throw it into the water, and

leave meat or rice exposed on the ground. All men sacrifice for them-

selves, but we have tsha-yas, (instructors, ) who at festivals are the first

to bring the kung, and adjure the spirits. What they say I do not un-

derstand ; only a ¢sha-ya’s son can succeed him. They have nothing

to say to marriages or funerals. In marriages, the father and brother

of the damsel are presented with clothes, brass ornaments, cattle, &c.

A great feast takes place. I (Leng-kung,) gave the value of thirty

cows for my wife. A son can marry his father’s inferior wife, after the

father’s death. A chief can marry as many wives as he pleases.

When a woman of rank dies, a cow is killed and eaten, and the people

drink and dance ; she is buried in a grave lined with stones, and some-

times valuables are buried with her; not always; we do not practice

witchcraft, but other people around us do. A man’s life when he dies,

* An intoxicating drink.

710 Account of Arakan. [No. 117.

goes to the sky ; all men, whether good or bad, go there. Our fathers

who have gone before, we see in dreams, and they see us.”

I learnt from Leng-kung some particulars respecting the T'sein-dus

nation. It consists of the following clans :—

1. Tyin-dza,* 8. Ting-lhoul,

2. Za-tang, 9. Ti-a-dai,

3. Keng-lot, 10. Rul-bu,

4. Lhon-shin, 11. Boi-kheng,

5. Til-teng, 12. Chung-ngla,

6. Rwol-lweng, 13. Hlaing-ju.

7. Mlhul, |

This last clan the Lung-khe chief originally belonged to; there are

still some villages of it, he said, remaining among the T’sezn-dus.

The Tsein-dus observe the same ceremonies in burying their dead

that have been mentioned above. Their country is very extensive,

fifteen days’ journey, my informant said, from one end to the other.f

There are several hundred villages of them. The village sites are not

moved periodically like those of the Ku-mzs and Lung-khes, for much

of their cultivation is in elevated plains, and comparatively broad

valleys, which admit of continued cultivation ; they work with hoes

or spades, not ploughs; they have not so much cotton and rice as the

Ku-mis, but a greater variety of vegetables, as yams, pumpkins, &c.

They manufacture their own salt from brine springs existing in their

country ; the salt, said my informant, “is like stone, white and some-

what bitter in flavour ;” to obtain it, they boil the brine in iron vessels,

which they obtain from the province of Yan in Burmah. No salt is

obtained from bamboo; in fact my informant declared positively there

were no bamboos in the Z’sein-du country, a statement scarcely credi-

ble; the houses are built entirely of plank ; the roofs are of plank for

great men, but the poorer classes use grass; men chiefly perform field

labour ; the wives of very poor men only perform out-door work. The

religious notions of the T’sein-dus correspond with those of the Lung-

khe chief.

* The head of this clan is Van-u, whose sister named Terh-rhal, Leng-kung

married.

t I have been informed that Kumi tribes bordering on the Tsein-dus have heard

from them of white foreigners far to the North, to whom some of their clans paid

tribute. The country these clans paid to, they called A-syn. It can scarcely be

Assam; they may probably mean Cachar. But it is certain that they are acquainted

with the fact of Europeans having possessions to the north of them.

1841.] Account of Arahan. 711

The Tsein-dus receive from the province of Yan, ponies and horned

cattle. When Zeng-hung and his brother first arrived at Akyab, they

were dressed in handsome silks procured through the Zsein-dus from

Yan. The former wore also a tiara of dark feathers, his distinguish-

ing mark as chief.

Since writing the above, I have received accounts of the death

of Leng-kung, supposed to have been caused by poison administered to

him ; such is the story of the hill people. Certain it is, however, that

the Jsein-dus marched to reyenge his death, and plundered a Khy-

oung-tha village on the Chittagong frontier in May last. Endeayours

are now being made to recover the Khyoung-tha prisoners from the

Tsein-dus. On the death of Leng-kung, his tribe dispersed ; his

imbecile brother will not be able to keep the people together, and they

will probably become incorporated in other tribes.

I abstract from various Tables furnished to me by the author of the

above interesting report—returns, as follow, showing the high progressive

prosperity of drakan within the few past years :—

The Revenues of Arakan were,

Rupees.

Tn 1832-33, 2,48,569

1833-34, 2,80,304

1834-35, 3,10,168

1835-36, 2,87,016

1836-37, 3,26,293

1837-38, 3,385,731

1838-39, avs 3,80,287

1839-40, on ae oes pro 3,79,809

1840-41, on 5 a 8,79,697

Since 1837-38, taxes on forest produce, huts, boats, houses, sugar presses,

handicraftsmen, bachelors, &c. &c. (which prevailed as part of the ancient

reyenue system of Arakan,) had been abolished to the extent of 97,349

rupees a-year; the beneficial effect of this measure is shewn in the en-

hanced revenue, and trade of the province. In 1834-35, the number of

square-rigged vessels which cleared out from dzkyab was 140; in 1840-41,

it was 709 ; in the first named year the tonnage was 16,000 tons; in the last

noted 82,111 tons. In 1834-35, rice to the extent of 4,25,040 maunds,

yalued at rupees 1,73,636 was exported from dxyab. The rice exports

-in 1840-41, were from the same port 26,54,298 maunds, and their value

rupees 11,42,187. I have returns for the intermediate and some preceding

years, but give these as years of fair comparison. wy

Arakan and in the Hill Districts adjoining.

712 Comparison of the Languages spoken in 2

] |

English. Burmese. Lung-khé. |Koladan Koo-mf.| Mee Koo-m{. | Ky6. Lémy6é Kying. | Doing-nak. Mriing

ioe le, Eos, aK, kali, Ali, khyi, bo, nau-b4,

Ant, paynetseik, nghet-te, Pa-leng, ma-ling, |ma-tsi, pa-lein-tsa, —

AARENT mya, lee, ta-i, tsa-k0-i, kha, Ié, {lé.

Bird, nghet, wa, t6-6, ka-wé, wi, ho, hau, — ho.

Blood, thwe, ati, vhi, a-ti, thi, a-ti, — |

Boat, hle laung, p'laung, mi-laung, p'laung, laung, no, jriing.

Bone, ayo, a-ru, a-hok, la-ki-nang, |r, mwé-hau, ar, ba-kré,

Buffalo, kyué, na, pa-no, ma-na, cha-lawé, nau, mo-it, ma-shi

Cat, kyaung, si-yo, mi-yaung, |nim-bo-i, mi, mim, bi-lé-i, a-mi.

Cow, nwa, tcho, tsi, kha-bo-i, char-ra, shyé, g6-ru, |ma-chéu.-

Crow, kyi, lang-4, G-dk, {m'kyi, & wa, |wut, ang-0, ko-ba, jtuk-qua.

Day, jné, jstin, kan-ni, ja-hong-nat, ta-ni, din, |tsa-l6.

Dog, khwé, Wi, wi, ii, bi-i, Gi, kG-giir, |tchai.

Ear, nd, hua, kun-no, ka-na, na, hno, kan, \king-ja.

Farth, mye, w'lé, ku-long, 1é-kong, ni, teit. -—==

Egg. a, wat-ti, ku.di-i, a-di-i, la-twi, a-ti-i |— —

Elephant, _|shen, tsai, kus-a-i, ku-sha-i, sang-hung, |mwi, —

Eye, |myetsé, mik, a-mik, a-mi, |mé-t6, mi-t-{, sop, ma-qua.

Father, la-phe, ka-pha, Nga-d-{, pha-d-i, \ba, bo, bap, a-bha.

Fire, |i, |mé, ma-i, |ma-it, mi, a-gu-in,

Fish, jnga, inga, ngo, |mwe, ngwau, ng0, mait, a-d.

Flower, |pan-bwen, par, ka-shong, \a-pa, pa, pa-pa,

Foot, lkhyé, |ké, a-kok, a-kauk, pat, ashi, teng, ya-kong.

Goat, sheik, kel, mé-é, |si-bé, |ké-rat, mé, sa-gol, pin.

Hair, |shaben, tsam, tehan, a-shang, tehan, sang, sal, buk-ka-nd i.

Hand, let, kut, kok, ja-ku, quét, kuth, hat, yak.

Head, |ghaung, la, hla, a-lii-a-san, 14, 1d, 1a-ga, tsir-ra, \bo-krad.

Hog, wet, wok, jad, Au, wet, wut, s(i-gur, wa.

Horn, \khyo, a-ki, tug-gi, a-ta-ki, yu-é, a-hyi,

Horse, \myen, rang, kaung-o, ka-phik, sha, tsd, go-ra, go-ra.

House, jeing, eing, tim, jeing, ing, eing, gur, |nao.

Tron, than, ur, ta-m6, ka-dang, ki-ying, hti, 16-4, tcho.

Leaf, yuet, ting-nha, tchaung-ngam, la-kang, ting-ka-nui, _|tein-tshoingha,,—— |

Light, (dawn), len, que-dé, kti-wang, \kun-ni, kwe-w4-ta, |a-wa,

Man, la, maé-nun, kvi-mi, kti-mi, ma-shi, kydng, mo-rot, |tsa-ld.

Monkey. |myauk, yaung, ki-lait, ka-l4-i, 16-4, yaung,

Moon, {l4, hla-pa, lo, sli, kya, khro, than, ta-

Mother, jame, ka-nu, na-o-i, nwé-i, ning, nu, ma, ‘a-m0.

Mountain, jtaung, kldng, slang, mii-é, ta-kiing, hldng, kon, mi-ra, lai.

Mouth, juhok-payat |a-ka, la-baung, tk-kha, ma-kas, a-hmaung,

Musquito, khyeen, mur-song, chang-rang, |khang-ts4-ang \sa-nung, hau-bau, — —

Name, jnamé, m’nung, a-ming,a-miin, nang-pa-mé, na-hmé-u,

pate ne yan, wim, ma-kiing, — tseit-yon, rait, hur-r6.

sim jth: tsi, , a-tauk, tsa-ting-twi, tsi,

Plantain, nghet-pyo, jbal-Iha, \kiit-ti, kii-ti-teing, hném-bo, ko-la,

aires yi ti-wé, yang-pang, ta-gha, hau-laung, _|gang, tei-bii.

Hee F tow Jam, : lam, i lang, : lang, lan.

ae ltha-yé pat pa-lo-t, ma-lwe, ma-tsi, ma-tsi, ——

Sk , line ’ -wil, md-e-pik, a-mit, mé-wan, nau-wan, — —

= ys |m6, wan, wyn, ka-ni, quein-nii, mi-tstik, né-bi, — —

Boal (=k, ee Mapes {pawl ma-qui, jmi-ytik, pwa, : itsap, tsé-bii.

Sine eee: ir fwi, us shi, , a-si, jar-shi, 44-shin, ta-ra, han-d6-gri.

k yauk, lim, \long-tchdng, |ka-ltng, \Iting, lfm, sil, ki-laung.

Sun, né, ni, |ka-ni, kan-ni-ta-lip, né-teha, ko-nhi-6

Tiger, kya, tchek-ké, ituk-kée, ta-gé.in, kich, kyé, — —

Pooth, thwa, ha, h6-6, a-pha, ha, a-ho, — |

Ties, thit-pen, ting, a-kiing, ta-gom, ting, teing, gait, ba-pang-

ge, yua, \qwa, a-wung, wang, \ko, nang, para.

WEieE, yey ti, . tii, ti-i, \ti-wé, ta-1, paont, tei.

am, my4k-khaung, burh-r4-ratdung, ho, kha, ‘pat, bwa, la-li, hta.

713

Table of Proportional Logarithms. By Captain Rozerr

SHORTREDE.

The accompanying is a Table of Proportional Logarithms, which I

have lately constructed with a view to diminish their size, and at the

same time considerably extend their use.

Proportional Logarithms are commonly arranged in vertical columns

of 60 each, and the construction is such, that the larger the Logarithm

the less is the corresponding quantity. I have never been able to

perceive any great benefit resulting from such a system, but often I

have felt much inconvenience from the want of an arrangement analo-

gous to that of Tables of common Logarithms.

The present is a specimen of what I conceive to be the most conve-

nient form of Table. The Logarithms here given are the arithmetical

complements of those in common use,* so that they increase along with

the quantities to which they belong, and the arrangement is such, as to

retain the advantages of the decimal as well as the sexagesimal subdi-

vision. The Table was intended primarily to facilitate the finding of

proportional parts for minutes and seconds, in a set of Tables in which

the quantities were tabulated for every 10, and it was immediately

obvious, that it would serve equally for seconds and decimals when the

quantities are tabulated, as in Hutton’s Tables, to every minute, and

generally for any quantities whose subdivisions are by 6, 60, or 600, &c.

The column marked ' ’’ contains minutes and even ten seconds from

1 to 9’.50. The col. marked N contains ath of the seconds in the

former ; the odd integers being found in the head line of the Table

exactly as in Tables of Common Logarithms. The column marked

common difference, gives the mean value at the middle of the line

opposite which it stands: and beyond this are proportional parts for

the decimal subdivisions of the mean common difference.

The use of the Table is very simple. The fractional part of 10’ or 1’

being found in the proper column (' ” or N, as the case may be) take

out the corresponding Logarithm ; to this add the log. opposite the Ta-

bular Difference found by column N ; the sum of these is the logarithm

of a number which found in column N is the proportional part required.

* If the term Proportional Logarithms be considered as being already definitively

appropriated otherwise, those here given may be called Co-proportional or Arco-propor-

tional Logarithms, or Anti-proportional, or Proportial, or Correctional, or any other

term which may be preferred.

714 ‘able of Proportional Logarithms. | [ No. 117.

Example.—-The Table Diff. for 10’ being 461, required the propor-

tional part for 4’ 10”.

Opposite 4'.10” (column’ ") is the logarithm, 6198

Opposite 461 column N. is ....... ....-- 8855

The Sum: 16... ss. .+2%0 5053)

The next less log. in the Table is 5051, corresponding to 192, and

for the difference 2, the table of proportional parts gives °1, hence the

whole proportional part is 192-1.

Required the log. sin. and tan. of 22° 27’ 37'’.3, using Hutton’s Tables.

For 37-3 Proportional Log. is, - 7936 | He “ Se 2 7936

For 3056 the lab. Diff. for sin P. I; 7069 | Tab. Diff. for tan. 3579 P.L. 7756

1899-6 5005 Ni: 2905; «5692

Lg. SIN... sceecces 22° 27° = ab 081 9236 L tang. 616 1514

Log. sin... .. 29° 27! 373!'—95821 135-6 | 9-616 3739

It very often happens, that the correction for 2d difference is omitted,

though it may be sufficiently large to affect the result. To make this

correction as little troublesome as may be, I have prefixed a set of de-

cimal factors, which multiplied by the second difference will give the

correction to be applied, with a sign opposite to that of the 2d dif-

ference. For example in Hutton’s Tables, the log. sin. of 22° 27’ hasa

2d difference of 3. The coefficient for 2d difference at 37.3 is ‘119, this

multiplied by 3 is ‘357 or ‘4; which added to the result above found,

gives 9°5821136 as the log. sin. of 22° 27’ 37.3.

The Table here given has no indices. The want of them may be

supplied by the following Rule. When the fractional part of 10’ for

which proportion is required is between 10’ and 1’ the result is greater —

than ra of the Tabular Difference, when between 1’ and 6” the result ;

5 1 4 :

is between j, and 75 of Tab. Diff.

When the Tab. Diff. is for 1’, then between 1’ and 6” the result —

is greater than ; * of the Tab. Dit. and similarly in other cases.

P.S.—In using this Table to find the Logistic Log. for 1 hour, the frac-

tional interval is to be reduced to decimal of minute, and found in

column N.; the Logistic Log. is the arithmetical complement of the

rithm in the Table. And similarly, if the whole term be 3 hours, —

1841. ] Table of Proportional Logarithms. 715

reduce as above and divide by 3. Also for 12 hours, reduce to decimal

of hours and divide by 2 (for 24 hours divide by 4) ; the qualities

being thus brought into tenths of hours, col. N. will serve as before,

the arithmetical complement of the Tabular Log. being the Proportional

Log. of the usual sort, to which apply if need be, the proper index.

Riis.

Proportional Logarithms for 10 minutes : as also 5

for 1 minute, or 1 degree, or 1 hour.

a SS ET

Proportional Parts.

Coefficient

for vy 2

20|27|34.) 40147] 54/61

18/23|29/35|41147/53

16}21|26'31/36)|41/46

14/18/23 '28 132137142

12)47)21 |25|29133/37

11}15/419 23127'30)34

410} 14| 1 7/21/24|2813)

16|20|23)27|30

15/18/2124 97

14) 17 120/23 25

13 |16]19/21)24,

12) 14/17/20|22

42)14/17/19)}04

11/13} 16/48)}20

11/13)15/17/19

10)12/14/16/48

10)12)44|16)17

-045 |1-00) 6 |0000/0072/0142/0212|0280| 0348/0414/047910544/0607| 67

-052 | 10] 7 |0669]0731|0792/0852/0911|0969|1027| 1083] 1139]1195| 458

058 | 20) 8 |1249)1303/1357) 1409|1461/1513/1563|1614/1663]1712| 52

‘064 | 30} 9 |1761]1809|1856|1903/1950|1996|2041|2086|2131/2175| 46

"059 | 40} 10 |2218|2262'2304| 234712389] 2430] 247212512) 2553|2593| 42

075 | 50) 11 |2632/2672|2711)|2749/2788/2825|2863|2900| 2937|2974| 38

080 | 2-00} 12 |3010/3046/3072| 3118]3153|3188|3222|3257/3291/3324| 35

085 | 10) 13 |3358/3391| 3424) 3457/3490] 3522/355413586/3617/3649| 32

089 | 20] 14 |3680/371113741/377213802|3832|3862| 3892! 3921|3950| 30

"094 } 30] 15 |3979/4008]4037|4065|4094|4122|4150|4177/4205|4232) 28

“098 | 40] 16 |4260/4287|4314)434014367/4393/442014446|44'72/4497| 26

102 | 50} 17 |4523)4548)4574/4599|462414649|4674|4698| 4723/4747) 25

105 | 3:00] 18 |4771/4795|4819| 4843] 4867|4890|4914!4937/4960|4983| 24

°108 | 10) 19 |5006|5029|5051/5074|5097|511915141|5163|5185|5207| 22

111 | 20} 20 |5229)5250|5270/5293|5315|5336|535715378/5399|5420| 24

“114 | 30) 24 |5444/5461/ 5482) 550215523/55431556315583|5603|5623| 20

"116 | 40) 22 |5443)5662/5682/570215721|5740/5760/5779|5798|8847| 19

pee

RESO OHONNHONANWNUVNHNWND* OWN NHNOHNOWOWwHwWwWwUOqgoo PRL BDRRUANMOAMOVHOWOS Md 9

148 | 50) 23 |5836|5855|5873)589215911|5929|5948/5966|5984|6002] 19 '11/43/15147

"120 | 4-00} 24 6021/6039] 6057) 6075|6092|6110)6128|6145|6164/6180) 18 11/12/14) 46

“122 | 10} 25 |6198|6215|6232)6250|6267|6284|6301/6318|6335|6351| 17 40/12)14'45

“123 | 20} 26 |6368/6385|6402)6418|6435|6451/€467|6484/6500|6516| 16 10)12)13) 45

-124 | 30] 27 |6532)6548|6564|658016596|6612| 6628/6643] 6659|6675| 16 40}11/13} 44

124 | 40] 28 |6690/6706|6721|6736/6752|6767 |6782|6797|6812|6827| 15 11/121) 4

125 | 50| 29 |6842/6857|6872|688716902/6917|6931|6946|6961/C975| 15 10} 12) 13

125 | 5:00} 30 |6990)7004|7019)7033|7047| 7061/7076|7090| 7104|7418| 14 10/11|43

125 | 10) 34 |7132|7146)7160|7174|7188| 7202|7215|7329|'7243)7256| 14 11|42

124 | 20) 32 |7270|7284|7297|7311|7324|7237|7351|7364|7377|7390| 13 11/42

124 | 30] 33 |7404|7417|7430|744317456|'7469|7482|7495/7508/7520| 13 10)42

123 | 40) 34 |7533|7546)7559|7571/7584|7597| 7609/7622) 7634|7647| 13 10\44

122 | 50) 35 |7659)7672|7684|7696|7709| 7721 |7733|7745|7757|7769| 12 10}

-120 {6°00} 36 |7782)7794/7806|781817830] 7841 |7853| 7865] 7877/7389} 12 10/44

118 | 10} 37 |7901)7912|7924|7936|7947/7959|7970)7982! 7993] 8005] 12 9/10

-116 | 20) 38 |8016/8028|8039|8050/8062| 8073/8084! 3096|8107/8118| 11 940

114 30] 39 |8129) 8140/8151 |8162|8173/8184/8195|8206/S217|8228)} 11 9140

111 | 40} 40 |8239/8250/8261| 8272/8282) 8293|8304|8314/8325|8336| 14 9/10

108 | 50) 41 |8346/8357/8367|837818388|8399|8409|8490| 8430/8441} 10

105 | 7-00) 42 |8451/8461/8472/8482/8492|8502|8513/9593/8533| 8543] 10

102 | 10) 43 (8553/8563/8573/8583/8593| 8603/8613 | 1623/8633] 8643] 10

098 | 20) 44 |8653/8663/8673/8683 19692] 8702/8712) 8722|8731/8744| 10

094 | 30] 45 |8751/8760|8770|8779|5789|8799|8808|8818|8827/8837| 10

089 | 40] 46 |8846/8855|8865|8874|88g4|8893|8909] 3912/8921! 8930

085 | 50] 47 |893918949)8958)/8967|8976| 8985 |8995|9004|9013|9022

“080 | 8°00} 48 1903119040 9049/9058! 9067/9076 |9085|909419103/9112

075 | 10) 49 |9120|/2129|9138)/914719156|9165|9173|9182|9191|9199

069 | 20} 50 (9208/9217 /9226/923419243| 9251/9260) 9269| 927719286

064 | 30} 51 (9294/9303 9311|9320|9328] 9337 |9345|9353| 9362/9370

058 | 40) 52 |9379|9387 9395|9404|9412| 9420/9428] 943719445] 9453

052 | 50) 53 |9461|9469'9478]9486 9494] 9502|951019518|9526|9534

045 | 9°00) 54 (9542/9550 '9558/9566|9574| 9582/9590] 9598|9606|9614.

038 | 10) 55 |9622|9630|9638|9646| 965419661 |9669|9677|9685| 9693

031 | 20) 56 |9700|/9708/9716|9724|9731]9739|9747|9754|9762| 9770

024 | 30) 57 |9777|9785 9792|9800|9808] 9815 |9823/9830|9838| 9845

016 40 58 {9853/9860 |9868] 9875/9883] 9890/9897 |9905|9912| 9920

‘008 | 50| 59 '9927'9934'9942(9949]9956'99641997119978'9985'9993

Beh fh ek fk fa fafa fa Jak eb ek kok beh ek ek bt et ek bb eb ed bh ht hd bi eb BE ed 29 WDA AWW WN WWW HELIO OPAMARN

SH WWW WNSVDNW WOW WHEW WWOHEIW WOOD AR DAK BAO UANHOOEOIIVoOro

C9 69 69 WO LOW COO OA DPA DE BABRR OUTER ANATHAGAYINHOOHDODSSEENS

SPL LSP PEP HEART AANHABDMDRHAYANSNVOHOSTOOLO

BE Sr OE AGA AAT AAA ARDAAGAAGIIWIUSG OOOO MOLO

AAMTARRBOOWAAADMAHVYUIWAWTOADADO OO OW WL

AF AFOH COD COMM MMO OM

PARADA DADA SAGA AI 5 I I OO OO

NIN NIN UMN NOOMOOnmamnoceo

716

Memorandum on Nurma Cotton. By H. Pippineron, Esa.

A very fine silky cotton having been sent to the Secretary of the

Asiatie Society, Mr. Torrens, with some other productions from Kho-

rassan, I find on reference to the Transactions of the Agricultural Society,

that it is well known in Malwa. Believing it to be of importance that this

cotton should have a trial under the American experimentalists, I

have ventured to suggest that seed* should be procured in Malwa, and

dispatched to Captain Bayles without delay.—

It is also of great importance to obtain specimens of the soz/s in

which the Nurma cotton is grown in Malwa; and from the experi-

mental cotton farms, so as to ascertain their identity, or to see what

manure may be required. I take the liberty then of subjoining the

following queries and directions :—

1. What is the Nurma cotton in Malwa? Is it the common cotton 3

of the country ; or a choice sort ?

2. Does it grow on any common cotton soil? er are peculiar soils

and spots sought out for it?

3. What manure (if any) is used to it?

4. When sown? How sown? When harvested? How cleared ?

5. What price does the best sort command ? Where is it exported to,

if at all?

6. Is it an annual cotton ? or does it last more than one year ?

7. If it grows on any cotton soil, please to select specimens from a

couple of the best fields you can find out ; if from any peculiar sort of

soil, such as red, or white, or black, then form all the sorts.

8. If from a peculiar soil, a specimen of the surrounding common

soil of the country would be desirable.

9. Specimens of the soils should be sent as follows :—

a. For sending by dawk-banghy, a large tin wafer-box for each sort

is the handiest package; but a larger quantity should be taken to

furnish samples to Museums, Societies, &c. This may be sent after-

wards.

* Seed of Nurma from Herat, procured by me, is now on its way to Captain Bayles.

‘Ty

¢ I am assuming here that he is not acquainted with it.

——————

1841. | Memorandum on Nurma Cotton. lei

b. Scrape off two or three inches of the soil with the hand, and

take your specimen also from the field before any manure has been

laid on. The soil at two or three inches deep may pretty nearly be called

surface-soil ; unless, as in rare cases, it changes at this depth. One

specimen should be taken here and another at eighteen inches deep.

c. If any rocks or stones are lying about the fields, these should be

sent separately. ‘The same of those below at eighteen inches or two

feet deep.

d. The soil should be dried on a hot-water plate, or in a hot sun,

that it may not rot the labels.

e. A label should be inclosed within the box, and it should also be

numbered, so as to refer to a list. The box should also be marked

outside in ink or paint, on the side, and lid.

f. If the manure used be any kind of earth or stone, samples of

it should be sent also.

10. Inquiry should be made if at the time of ripening any peculiar

manure is added, as with some of the choice sorts of tobacco. If the

plants are topped, 2. e. the young shoots pinched off, or beaten with

sticks, or allowed to be eaten down by animals. All these processes

are used in various parts of the world, (America, the French and

Spanish Colonies, Persia, &c.) and no doubt influence both the pro-

ductiveness and the quality of the cotton to a great extent.

11. Nothing relative to the native methods of culture, irrigation,

&c. should be overlooked.

12. Inquire if it is subject to any diseases or insects, which seri-

ously affect the returns from it.

13. The amount of return in clean merchantable cotton per biga ; if

a known number of square yards, is of importance; and the average price

of the best sorts.

Specimens of the soils are requested for the Museum of Economic

Geology now forming; and I shall be glad to afford any assistance in

the investigation of their qualities which may be desired.

H. Prppine Ton.

| Calcutta, 31st August, 1841.

P.S.—Since writing this, I learn from Mr. Grant, that the Nurma

cotton is so highly prized in Malwa, that the rajahs and great persons

will wear no garments, but such as are manufactured from it. He

718 Memorandum on Nurma Cotton. "MENGE ELE.

adds, that Mr. Bruce, now in Bundlecund, can give every information

relative to it.

The Persian name Nurmah, (Nurm, “soft,”) bemg applied to a similar

article both in Khorassan and in Malwah, would seem to go far to induce

the belief, that the Pathan conquerors of the latter country must have

introduced this peculiar cotton into the country they subjugated. The fact

is worth noting, as it is not often that disproof of so positive a character

can be adduced against the common assertion,—that the Mussulman con-

querors of India came rather to destroy totally, than to improve by even

partial means. poy

Report on some Articles of Trade sent by Lieut. Postans from

Khorassan. By H. Pippineton, Esa.

I. Guljuleel.—-This is evidently the yellow flower of a plant. It is

however so broken up, that I could with difficulty pick out a few

entire flowers for sending to Dr. Wallich, whose severe illness has

hitherto prevented my obtaining any reply. He thinks them the flowers

of a Delphinium.

It is stated to be used for dyeing green, of course with indigo.

I find that with the common aluminous mordant, it dyes silk and wool

a very handsome canary yellow, as per margin; which with indigo be-

comes a very good green.* Having but very little of it, I did not ex-

periment further, because I thought it might be better to send it home.

The yellow resists coarse soap and water well.

In sending it, or any future sample home for trials, great care

should be taken to pack it dry. I found that exposed in paper it ab-

sorbs moisture very rapidly, and had a slight mouldy smell, so that

I was obliged to dry and keep it in a stoppered bottle.

II. Bhoj-ghund.—This is, I think, a new sort of galls. It is wide-

ly different in shape and appearance from ours, being a small pyriform

brown capsule, much resembling a miniature dried pear; it is hol-

low and empty, the shell being of a gummy elastic consistence, wholly

differing from the Aleppo gall.

* It has no affinity to Cotton.

1841. | Report on Articles of Trade from Khorassan. 719

As our sample is no doubt a bazar, or even a work-shop sample, we

may take it to be one at maturity, at least in the best state for use.

I find that it gives a nearly colourless infusion and a tincture, which

does not become deeper than of a Lisbon-wine colour. This last is a

very valuable property in using it as a chemical re-agent, in which

the dark colour of the ‘tincture of common galls sometimes renders it

an equivocal test.

I find, by experiment, that its delicacy is fully equal to that of

the best Aleppo galls; and the exceeding small portion of extractive

matter which it contains, will I think render it of much value in

fine dyeing. I have found that it is procurable in the bazars of

Calcutta, under the name of Pistach-ka-fool,* (Pistachio flowers,) and

that it is brought from the Red Sea and Gulf of Persia by the Arab

ships, no doubt for the use of fine dyeing operations. This name would

lead ‘us to suppose, that it was the gall-nut of the Pistachio tree,

(perhaps of the wild Pistachio? Pistacia ferebinthus?) Its price in

our bazar is too high to allow it to be used extensively, but this

is probably, as with many other articles of small consumption, owing to

the little demand: three rupees per seer was the retail price. Those

which I obtained were very old, and were worm-eaten. Iam looking

out for some new ones, when I can ascertain the quantities of tannin

and gallic acid, should we learn upon reference home, that as I suppose,

they would be valuable in the arts.

III. Gum from various trees, principally the Almond.—This gum

seems to hold a middle place between gum arabic and the com-

mon cherry-tree gum; and may possibly be of value if well picked, for

the market value of gums depends very much on this process. It

softens much in damp weather, but dissolves entirely in cold water,

having the solution slightly turbid, though quite colourless ; which is a

great object in the use of gums in dyeing. It should by all means be

sent home for trial.

IV. Nurma Cotton.—I had occasion, about a year and a half ago, to

assert in print, that “the indigenous cottons of India were very little

known to us,” and here is an example of the truth of the assertion.

This is a very beautiful silky cotton, of which I should think very

* Or Pistach-ka-fol, Pistachio fruit ?

720 Report on Articles of Trade from Khorassan. | No.. 117;

highly, and it is sent to us from Khorassan as a novelty. Now I find

that (vol. 1v. p. 218,) in the Transactions of the Agricultural Society,

is a letter under date 12th April 1837, from J. W. Grant, Esq. refer-

ring to this very Nurma Cotton, as having been grown in Malwa from

time immemorial! It is there compared, in two notes, first to the Sea

Island, and then to the Upland Georgia. The fact is, that it has the

silky fibre of the Sea Island, and the woolly adherence to the seed

of the Upland. It more resembles the fine Manilla cotton, which is

always worth a shilling a pound, than any other I can compare it to. The

Manilla cotton has like it, the woolly seed.

Ours are perfectly fresh, and Dr. Spry has promised me to send |

them to Captain Bayles. I have two plants growing in my garden, but

I suggest that it may be of much importance to procure a quantity of

the seed from Malwa, for the Cotton Experiment-farm, with some of

the soil it is grown upon, and some of these of the best spots for cotton

about the Cotton Experiment stations. By comparative analysis of

these, we shall be certain that if it does not succeed, it will be owing

to climate, and we shall go to work safely as far as soil is concerned.

I add a separate memorandum, that no time be lost in procuring the

seed and soil for the approaching season. If samples of the soils are

sent to me, I shall be glad to give any assistance I can in the matter.

V. Musagh, Walnut-tree bark.—The use of this at home in dyeing,

staining of wood, paper, &c. are so well known, that I have not thought

it worth while to experiment upon it.

H. PrppineTon.

Museum, 24th August, 1841.

Note on the Cervus Elaphus (2?) of the Sal Forest of Nepal. Hodie,

C. Affinis, nob. By B. H. Hopeson, Esa.

Many years ago, I announced the existence of the true Stag of

Europe in the saul forest of Nepal, upon the strength of a skull and

horns in my possession, of which I afterwards published an illustra-

tive sketch in the Journal, giving those of the Sambur or Jarai, and

of the Baraiya or Elaphotdes, for comparison; and observing that

the latter species and Wallichit seemed to form two distinct links

in the chain of connexion between what H. Smith regarded as typi-

cal Stags of Europe and of Asia, (Elaphus and Hippelaphus.) It has

lately been asserted, however, that I have confounded the common

Stag of Europe, of which there is alleged to be no analogue in India,

with C. Wallichit ;* and, again,t that C. Wallichit is really no other

than that analogue ; there being no grounds for supposing the existence

of a third species liker to the Red Deer of Europe than either Wallich’s

Stag or the Baraiya, which last is pertinaciously called Du Vaucelliz,

despite the explanation afforded long ago in the Journal. I will

not enter into discussion with my critics: and I must admit that

I have never been able to obtain, or to see, a second specimen of

Wallich’s, or of the true Stag. Neither do I profess to have lately ob-

tained any new lights as to the leading principle upon which, following

H. Smith, I distinguished the several species of Cervus, viz.: the

number and position of the antlers,{ especially the inferior ones. I

too, therefore, may still have my doubts, though they are not precisely

those of my critics ; for I feel satisfied that there is a Stag in India

distinct from the Sambur or Rusa, from Wallich’s, and from Du

Vaucel’s, and nearer allied to the Red Deer of Europe than any of

them; and the accompanying sketch and dimensions will, I think,

satisfy most persons that such is the fact :—

* Ogilby, apud Royle.

+ Blyth, apud Proc. Zool. Soc., 1840, p. 79.

+ That is, the basal and median, for the upper are said to be more liable to mutabi-

lity. The true Stag has three of them (directed forward) on each beam, two of which

are basal, and the third a median, or royal. Watlich’s has two basal and no median:

the Baraiya one basal, and no median, but a crown of many snags at the summit, like

our Red Deer, but like no other Indian Deer: the Samburand Axis have one basal, no

median, and one subterminal antler.

4¥

722 Note on the Cervus Elaphus. [ No. 117.

Dimensions.

Inches.

Scull_—Extreme length, along the curve, to upper edge

of foramen magnum, ... Ue Ns a -» 224

Do. do. to central jut of transverse crest, Le sae: OLS

The same, by rectilinear measure, like all the measures

that follow, ... Be , a seis itt Te

Symp. maxill. to anteal oo of tie i ee ee ce!

Symph. maxill. to tips of nasals, ee ait we = dd

Length of the nasals,_... ee are by sabe Oz

Greatest breadth of nasals, sie dee se sept 2S

Length of frontals, ae be aie ww. of

Greatest width of do., between outer gee of orbits, .. 74

Greatest width between outer edges of molar teeth, ... 42

Greatest width of occiput, Hs a bie sa, Loe

Greatest depth of do. from mesial point of crest to infe-

rior edge of condyle of foramen, __... af beh:

Length of the intermaxillaries, ... ee sis ite oF

Greatest width between them, ... ue ae ae OL

Greatest height of scull from frontal crest to inferior, or

coronal, edge of first molar tooth, ... ais ee eS

Horns.—Greatest length, along the curve, sig vm woe

Girth above the burr, ... A DA. Ses ae fl OF

Girth between Ist and 2nd eal antlers, be --eit LOZ

Greatest divergency between outer terminal snags, ... 47

Interval between znner terminal snags,... ue -» 262

Length of the basal antler, Bee ae 35 ap 12

Length of the median antler, ... aia ved ity 18

Length of the superior (outer) antler, ... ee ae) ALO

Nearest basal interval of the horns, ... wee ae eevee:

The spoils above measured belonged to an animal of moderate age, j

being rather young than old, as is proved by the distinctness of the

cranial sutures, and of the coronal processes of the teeth; and, by —

comparison with the sculls of several mature and large specimens of the

Sambur or Jarai, I find the scull of the above to exceed them in size in

the proportion of about an eighth, whilst the horns surpass the finest

specimens of those of the Sambur by two-fifths. .The scull is further

Stag of the Saul fornst

be hig ZB ica. ts oe ‘ : S .

_== ts ® ZB = f ae ee Cfferies : Unonatous: Risa \ ge \

ie) a + Was Sixe ; : “de

= “ E ere Vat Six ‘ The lilo Jarek of Nope SS

: $ Nat Size Wee

C, Hetlerocerms 1106:

1841. | Note on the Cervus Elaphus. 728

distinguished from that of the Sambur, by greater elevation of the

frontals, between the bases of the horns, and by a proportionally greater

dip across the forehead above and between the orbits; by superior

saliency of the orbits, and by their more advanced position in relation

to the entire length of the scull; by broader nasals, less arched in their

length; by wider intermaxillaries, leaving a larger nasal cavity; and,

lastly, by suborbital pits of considerably less size. Of the Baraiya,

again, the scull and horns, in proportional size, fall fully as much (and

more) short of the present animal, as do those of the Sambur or conti-

nental type of Rusa; and if, in reference to such details as those just

indicated, although there is more resemblance here than before to our

subject in the frontal or cerebral portion of the cranium, there is

even less in the facial portion, which is singularly compressed and

attenuated. The horns of the Baraiya, by their pale hue and smooth

surface, as well as by the more forward direction of the basal antler,

and the greater reclination of the beam, more nearly approach those

of our animal than do the horns of the Sambur. But still they differ by

a vast interval in point of size,* as well as in the technical characters

_ of having but one basal snag, no median, and several (four to five) termi-

nal ones. All three sculls are distinguished by canine teeth ; but they

have no other similar and literal resemblance. Of Cervus Wallichii,

_I have no specimen either of the scull or of the horns; but I have a

clear general recollection of the original specimen in the live state;

and, with the utmost allowance for the (supposed) effects of decrepi-

tude, I cannot perceive any means of thus soundly accounting for the

deficient royal antler, or for the vast inferiority in size, nor, therefore,

of identifying Wallichit with our present subject.

This animal, as it appears to me, very remarkably resembles the

Stag of Europe in almost all the characters of the scull and of the

horns, leaving indeed, as distinctive peculiarities, only superior size in

the horns,t and the simple Sambur-like bifurcation of their tips.

Greater age might possibly have given to our animal the full crown of

* The largest horns of the Baraiya I have measured, were but 34 to 36 inches long

by the curve: nor are the largest Sambur horns longer; whereas the horns of our

Stag measure no less than 54 in.

+ H. Smith, apud Cuvier, gives the dimensions of the horns of a European Stag that

were considered enormous; yet they fall short of the size of those of our animal.

724 Note on the Cervus Elaphus. [No. 117.

snags distinguishing the Red Deer of Europe; and, if so, I should in-

cline to my old opinion, and regard the difference between the two

animals as merely a variety. But, on the other hand, the noble horns of

our present subject seem so fully developed, and his age so far from

juvenile immaturity, that we may reasonably suppose these horns to

exhibit the normal form; and, in that case, the species will be distinct

from C. Elaphus, and may be called C. Affinis, from its extreme affinity

thereto. The pedicles are tolerably elevate ; the burrs rather small;

the two basal antlers of each beam of equal size, nearly straight, and

so forward in direction as to overshadow the face to the end of the

nasals: these basal antlers are larger than the royal, and even than the

terminal antler, and are put off from the anterior side of the beam, one

above the other, with an interval of about inches two and a half, the

beam continuing as thick there as it is close above the burr, where the

lower antler divaricates. Having put off these basal snags, the beam

reclines considerably, and in the style of Ais thirteen inches, and then

gives off the median snag from the anteal aspect as before, but with a

more upward direction. A foot higher is the terminal fork, the

prongs of which radiate laterally and equally from each other, so that

it is difficult to say which is the beam and which the antler; more

especially as the inner prong (so to speak) of this fork is the longer,

though slighter, and the outer one the thicker, though shorter. We

now leave our “true Stag of the saul forest,” or Cervus Affinis, nob,

to the discretion of the European Master of Museum and Library.

Specific character (?) C. Affinis, Stag of India, very closely affined to the

Red Deer of Europe. Horns very ample, pale, smooth, rounded, having

two basal antlers and one median directed forwards from each beam, but

the crown simply forked as in Rusa and Axis; standing in a natural

arrangement between Llaphus and Wallichiz, but larger than either.

B. H. Hopeson.

Nepal, June, 1841.

725

Notes and Observations, in continuation, from Dr. Waker, Madras

Medical Service, on a tour in H. H. the Nizam’s Territories.

On the evening of the 25th of April I left Chinnore, and reached

Khummamait on the 3d of last month.

Until within thirty miles of Worungul, the sandstone remained the

surface rock, but, at this point, the sienite appeared, with its charac-

teristic tors and logging stones, and continued so all the way to

Khummum. ‘The various trees mentioned in former reports were

seen in abundance, particularly in the sandstone country, the greater

portion of which is covered by them, forming, in many parts, a dense

forest. The granitic country, on the other hand, although sufficiently

well wooded, is, throughout, a much more open country, the tree vege-

tation being neither so various, nor so luxuriant, as that of the former.

The Circar of Khummamait, differs in scarcely any of its cultivated

productions from that of Worungul. The dry grains and legumes

of both are identical, and there is scarcely a variety of rice cultivated

in the one, that is not grown in the other. Of the garden produce,

Turmeric alone, (Curcuma Longa,) would appear to be exclusively

cultivated at Khummum.

Mineral productions.—lIron ore, of the kind mentioned in the first

report, occurs in the neighbourhood of Khummum, even more abun-

dantly than at Hunnumkoondah. In preparing the iron, the great fault

observed in the process, is, the little care bestowed in pounding the

ore ; the workmen, instead of reducing it to a fine powder, as is done

in Sweden, content themselves by breaking it into pieces about the

size of a hazel nut. Much additional labour, and an unnecessary ex-

penditure of fuel, are the consequences of this error.

The garnet mines of Gopulrowpet, described by Dr. Voysey, are

situated to the north-east of Khummum, towards the Godavery, distant

about seventy miles. According to his description, which would appear

to be found in the alluvium, composed of the debris of a rock of gar-

netic granite ; specimens are sent of the garnets ; which are mined and

exported in their rough state to Hydrabad on the Coast, where they

are cut.

Animal productions.—A considerable quantity of deer and buffa-

loe’s horns, the former brought from the jungles, is sent from Khum-

726 Tour in H. H. the Nizam’s Territories. [ No. 117.

mum; their usual price there being about a pice each; the wool

produced is manufactured into cwmbuls, which are also exported. The

demand for hides, for agricultural purposes, in the Circar is quite equal

to the supply.

The Mylabris Cichorei, possessing blistering powers superior to

those of the Spanish fly imported from Europe, is abundant through-

out the granitic country, from the middle of June till December, and

may be gathered for about a rupee a pound.

Vegetable productions.—The Sanseviera Zeylanica, the Ishnia Co-

danar of the Telingas, and the bowstring hemp of Roxburgh, is a very

abundant production, both in the Worungul and the Khummum Cir-

cars. Its useful properties are unknown to the natives, who turn it to

no account. Dr. Roxburgh proposed the cultivation of this plant for

the hemp which it affords, and the strength and tenacity of its fibres,

rivalling, which if not excelling, those of its congener and closest ally,

the Phormium Tenax, (New Zealand fiax,) render it remarkable that his

proposal should never have been, as far as I am aware, adopted. It is

probable, however, that the proneness to nip and rot, when exposed to

moisture, is common to the fibres of all monocotyledonous plants; should

such be the case, we must prefer seeking for hemp plants in the exo-

genous class. In addition to the medicinal plants mentioned in the

former report, I may here add the Cucumis Colocynthis, the true

Colocynth, the Asclepias Asthmatica, the country Ipecachuana, the Zpo-

mea Ceerulea, the seeds of which have been proposed by Dr. O’Shaugh-

nessy as a substitute for Jalap,—all common plants, and also the Ce@sal-

pinia Bonduca, Gentiana Verticillata, and some other medicinal plants

less known and appreciated,—as several species of Huphorbie and

Asclepias, the Aschynomene grandiflora, Pavetta Indica, &c.

Manufactures, &c.—Calico printing is practised at Khummum ; but

it would appear to be a feeble off-set from the art pursued at Mada-

pollam and Masulipatam, from whence the printers have originally

come. The printing is confined to two colours, black and red ; the for-

mer obtained from a mixture of gum, myrobolan, and sulphate of iron ;

the latter from the root of the Morinda Citrifolia. The printing blocks,

composed of teak-wood, are procured from Masulipatam, and there is

little variety or beauty in the patterns; the cloths printed are usually

coarse surrhees and handkerchiefs. Hand-fans from the leaf of the

1841. | Tour in H. H. the Nizam’s Territories. T27

Borassus Flabelliformis are manufactured at Khummum, and also a

coarse kind of toys. Two of the exports from this Circar are rather re-

markable ; viz. plates from the leaves of the Pallas tree, ( Butea Fron-

dosa,) which are sent to the Coast, and kingfisher’s feathers, which

are purchased by Burmese agents, to be sent to Ava.

Having brought to a conclusion all the information I have been

able to collect, regarding the productions of the three Circars of

Worungul or Hunnumkoonda, Chinnore or Ramghur, and Khummum,

I shall now proceed to give some general observations on the inhabi-

tants, their conditions and diseases, communications, &c. Although,

strictly speaking, what follows is applicable to that part of Telingana

which is included in a triangle having a point on the Purmeetah river, a

few miles north of Sevoucha, for its apex, and a line drawn from Hydra-

bad to Khummum for its base, yet the greater number of the remarks will

be found applicable to a much more extensive range of that country.

The natural division of this country is into the sandstone and grani-

tic. The former is composed of a belt, of various extent, on each

side of the Godavery, while the latter is the great formation of the

country. Considering how much the causes that modify or determine

the character of a people depend on the geological structure of the

country they inhabit, I think it as well to state this division zn limine,

as I shall have frequent occasion to refer to it. [regret that I cannot give

a very accurate account of the breadth or extent of the former, but, in

the plain which I visited to the south of the Godavery, its depth was

from twenty to fifty miles from the river, although in many parts it sends

out processes covering the granite to a much greater distance.

Inhabitants.—The great majority of inhabitants, perhaps three-fourths

of the whole, is composed of Telingana peasantry. This class is readily

known by their spare form, dark complexion, and a certain air of sub-

jection impressed by their occupation. They appear a contented race,

with less spirit and enterprize than the Mahratta cultivator, but

superior to the Bengalee in courage and activity, as is proved by their

reputation in the ranks of the Madras army. The indifference to

better their condition, and to rise in the world, common to agriculturists

in most parts of the world, is fully possessed by the ryots of Telingana.

Brahmins.—If we are to judge of this puzzling caste by common

tests, there is much reason, from the striking diversity of feature and

728 Tour in H. H. the Nizam’s Territories. [No. 117.

complexion, to pronounce the Telingana Brahmins a mixed race. The

pogjarees wear no turbans, and daub their countenances with paint

to a much greater extent than is the custom to the westward. Many

Zemindars are Brahmins.

Aylmas.—This is a caste peculiar to Telingana; they affect for

themselves a high descent, which however is denied by the other

castes, who assert that the bhaats (bards) sung them into repute from

a very humble origin; they are respected and feared throughout the

country, as gallant soldiers, and dangerous enemies. They seclude their

women, a practice in all probability derived from the Moosulmans,

and which would seem to give countenance to their being but newly

sprung up. Several of the Khummumait and Worgungul Zemindars

aré of this caste; they are a well-made, rather a good-looking, set

of men, very fond of the chase and of all active exercises.

Mahomedans.—With the exception of troops, Government employés,

and a few tradesmen, there is scarcely a Moosulman in the Telingana

country. I, of course, leave the city of Hydrabad out of the question.

Bedurs.—This race, or rather tribe, is found chiefly in the Chinnore

Circar, where they take the place of the Dhurs, and act as a sort of

Gibeonites to the Brahmins and higher castes. Their chief, it is well

known, resides at Shorapoor ; they are an industrious, contented class, of

a darker hue, perhaps, than the Telingana Coombees, but with scarcely

any other distinguishing mark.

Goands.—It has been customary to consider this people as the

aborigines of India: If, by this, it is meant that, as far as records go,

they have been what they now are, there is little to be objected to the

term, although one that is less decisive ought, in our ignorance, to be

applied; but, if it is assumed from any fancied absolute difference in

their physical appearance from the inhabitants of the plain or cultivated

districts, it is positively to be rejected, as leading to error. It is said

that they are a dwarfed, stunted race; but an under-fed, oppressed people,

with limited resources, will become so in the course of a few genera-~

tions. Their not professing Hindooism is surely, with the history of

religion before us, no argument that they must be necessarily distinct

and separate ; nor is their peculiar language (if peculiar it be) a better

proof. None of the marked distinctions of form, feature, shape

of head, character of hair, by which different races are characterized,

1841.] Tour in H. Hl. the Nizam’s Territories. 729

are observed to exist between the Goands and the Telingee cultiva-

tors.

The Goands are to be found wherever there are hills and fastnesses,

but they abound most in the north and east of the Khummum and

Ramghur Circars ; although a wild uncultivated race that have scarcely

advanced a step towards civilization, as is shewn by their non-associ-

ation in villages. The Telinga Goands are not, like the wild tribes

towards.the north, addicted to cannibalism ; good faith and treatment

render them tractable and submissive, and would doubtless turn their

labour to profit, did circumstances demand it. Dhurs, the Telinga Dhur,

is a despised impure creature. Foreign war and domestic dissension,

which, by conferring intelligence, have given some importance to this

class in other parts of India, having been wanting in Telingana for

centuries, the race has remained in its present state of degradation and

“moral slavery.

Dwellings.—A Telingana village presents a striking contrast to a

: Mahratta one; instead of the ciose flat-roofed habitations of the latter,

huddled together, so as to take up the smallest possible space, the

greater number of the houses of the former are separate, or, what is

called, self-contained. The Gurrie in the Mahratta country which in-

eludes, generally speaking, all the houses of the village, is in Telingana

a detached fortification of some fifty yards square, composed of

masonry and mud, seldom having within its enceinte any houses

save that of the zemindar or village chief. In the granitic country,

the houses are usually of adhesive earth, of a square or rectangular

form, smeared often with red earth, and tricked out with bands

of chunam, (the sign of comparative comfort and cleanliness within, )

with pyramidal roofs of palmyra leaves or grass. On some occasions

| the houses are more substantially built, and are tiled ; on others, they

| are mere sheds of palmyra leaves, marking the richer and poorer classes

as occupants. The Dherwarra, always detached, and always filthy, is

composed of habitations of the latter class.

_ In the sandstone country, the construction of the houses is dif-

‘ferent. From the inferior tenacity of the soil it is mostly rejected

‘in building, or, when employed, is mined from the localities where it is

ferruginous, and more adhesive. Bamboo and wattle are there the

eicinal substitute for clay in the houses, and the strong-holds are con-

730 Tour in H. H. the Nizam’s Territories. [No 117.

structed of hewn stone ; the labour required in rendering the last ten-

able, diminishes in no ordinary degree their number, although it may

render the few that are constructed more formidable as places of

defence.

Food.—The Brahmins of Telingana affect to eat nothing that ever

was possessed of life, but report attributes to them any thing but a strict

fulfilment of their profession. Their usual diet consists of rice highly

seasoned, vegetable curries, cakes flavoured with garlic and asafeetida

fried in ghee, wheaten bread, &c. ; with the assistance of the ghee, flour,

and condiments, they take good care to avoid the evil consequences

said to arise from an unazotized diet. The food of the Zemindars of the ©

Coombee caste, resembles that of the Brahmins, with the addition of

mutton, fowl, game, &c. The poverty of the cultivators restricts their

diet to dry grains; leguminosz being within the reach of few, and

that only in particular districts. This arises not from the higher price

of equal quantities of rice and dry grains, but from the little nourish- —

ment yielded by the latter, rendering it a more expensive article

of diet. It is only on occasions of festivals or merry-makings that

they eat flesh, and (duhee, curdled milk) is also a very common article of —

diet among the poorer classes. The Goands and outcastes, as elsewhere, —

are wholly without scruples as to their diet, rejecting nothing, whether —

animal or vegetable, that can be digested by the stomach, and which is —

not actually poisonous. i

Drinking the fermented sap of the palmyra tree, often to intoxica- ”

tion, is the invariable daily custom of the Telingana peasants. To- 4

wards Chinnore and Mahdapore, the palmyra tree is not so common, —

but is then much more detrimental. Matwa spirit, distilled from the

flowers of the Bassia Latifolia, a common jungle tree, is had very —

cheap, and in consequence is much used. Brahmins are charged

with partaking of both these forbidden beverages in secret, and perhaps

with truth, for it would require a more heroic virtue than they are sup~

posed to be possessed of, to keep them from an indulgence so readily

procured, and the effects of which, a very ordinary degree of caution

ean conceal. Tobacco is used by all classes, being smoked and snuffed.

Little bhang, or any of its preparations, and less opium, are consumed

by the Telingas; but the Goands indulge, as far as their means will

permit, in the latter, to which they are much addicted.

1841. | Tour in H. H.. the Nizam’s Territories. 731

DISEASES.

Fever.—Fevers, of the intermittent and remittent types, are met with

throughout the whole country, particularly at the close of the monsoons,

and for six weeks afterwards; they are not very formidable diseases in

the open granitic country, but in the neighbourhood of thick jungles,

their severity is much augmented ; in the sandstone district there is a

good deal of fever in the course of the monsoon, from the great facility

with which the soil parts with moisture by evaporation, thereby

generating malaria; and here it may be remarked, that the superior

drying quality of the sandstone soil over the granitic, is by no means a

circumstance favourable to the salubrity of the former. A few days of an

October’s sun effects its desiccation, and sends up an evaporation loaded

with impurity, at a time when the malarian influence is at its height,

and when the human frame, weakened by the return of heat, is little

adapted to resist its action. The fevers are then of a severe, and often

a fatal character, to which the spirit-drinking of the mass of the inhabi-

tants contributes in no small degree.

Spleen.—This disease exists on the banks of the Godavery, after its

union with the Purneetah river, and all along the banks of the latter.

At Sevoncha it is particularly severe ; being attributed by the natives to

drinking the impure water of the rivers, for the great depth before

water is reached in digging, almost amounts to a preventive to their

employing any other.

Cholera.—Compared with other parts of India, cholera cannot be

said to be a very prevalent disease in Telingana. For the last eight

years it has not appeared epidemically, and, on that occasion, it followed

“as a consequence of a severe dearth. It is held in great dread by the in-

habitants. Leprosy and Elephantiasis, in all their horrid and disgusting

shapes, are frequently met with.

_ Eye complaints.—Diseases affecting the globe of the eye, particularly

| ulcers of the cornea, albugo, and other consequences of ophthalmia

and cataract, are common, especially in the sandstone districts. From

| what came under my observation, I should say, that affections of the

| eve appendages are rare.

_ Dracunculus.—This singular and troublesome disease is met with, in

| a greater or less degree, all over the country. At Chinnore it is less pre-

valent than at Worungul, and at Worungul less than at Khummum, which

}

)

732 Tour in H. H. the Nizam’s Territories. [ No. 117.

would appear to be its head-quarters. The natives universally ascribe it

to the use of well-water, whether in drinking or bathing; although

their explanation of how this happens is not probably correct, from

many observations I have made, both here and in the Bombay presi-

dency, I think their opinion is so far well-founded, that when the

supply of water is dependent on wells sunk in a decaying rock, whether

of granitic or trap, in other words in Mohrum, Dracunculus is almost

certain to exist. There is seldom a body of men who are so similarly

situated with respect to diet, exercise, clothing, &c. as European

soldiers, yet I have known one-third of a European Regiment, which

was indebted solely to wells for its drinking water, laid up with Guinea

worm, at the same station with another which used aqueduct water, in

which there was not above six or eight cases. The situation, too, of the

Telinga cultivators, in the Circars of Khummum and Worungul, is re-

markably alike ; yet for one case of Dracunculus at Worungul, there are

four at Khummum, the former deriving their chief supply of water

from tanks, while the latter depend solely on their wells, which are sunk

in a loose rock. The natives allege, that this disease is acquired by

the germ entering the body while bathing at the wells, and that the

greater latitude afforded by tanks for washing, diminishes the chances

of the worm getting access to the body; but the rare ablution of the

European soldiery, who are fully as liable as the natives to this disease,

disproves their manner of accounting for the complaint.

The native hakeems are, for the most part, Brahmins ; their great stand- __

by in fever is starvation, and were this means of cure used with moder-

ation, it might be productive of good; but it is pushed sometimes to —

such an extremity as to cause death from sheer inanition. Opi-

um is given in Cholera, but from the great nicety required in admi-

nistering the drug in this disease, I should fancy they did as much

harm as good with it. They have a proverb for the treatment of Guinea :

worm, “ Ek naroo huzar davas,” for one worm there are a hundred re-

medies ; which pretty clearly shews that the much-vaunted native prac-

tice in this disease is not so successful as some have represented.

The Surgery is in the hands of the hajjams, whose universal cure

would seem to be the actual cautery. I have heard of the operation

of cataract being performed, but have not had an opportunity of

seeing either the operator or his tools. The hakeems have their books

1841.] Tour in H. H. the Nizam’s Territories. Toe

of medicine, with the characters written, or rather scratched, on

palmyra leaves.

With regard to the most eligible spot for cantoning troops, there are

several in the granitic country that would answer the purpose, being

salubrious and well situated for supplies,&c. The following circumstances,

when grouped together, point out a locality well adapted for this purpose.

A red, gritty soil ; the neighbourhood of a clear tank ; and the country

around open and unbroken. The vicinity of a black granitic hill, adding

as it does much to the heat of a station, should be avoided: above all, let

the troops be independent of wells for a supply of water, for besides its

almost constant bitterness, it will bring on Guinea worm, than which

no disease can more effectually cripple or render them inefficient. More

difficulty would be experienced in fixing a locality for this purpose in

the sandstone country. There is no point, after the junction of the Goda-

very and Purneetah, that can be regarded as salubrious during the latter

part of the monsoon, and for weeks after. Madhapore, a village ten

miles below the Sungum, where a detachment of the Nizam’s troops was

at one period cantoned, was found to be very_unhealthy at certain times ;

nor can this excite our surprize, situated as it is between a dense

jungle, and the slough and ooze of a muddy river. Chinnore, ten miles

above the Sungum, would seem to promise better, the jungle there

not being so dense, the river clearer, of much smaller compass, and at a

greater distance; while the ground also rises somewhat towards the town.

The Brahmin viliage of Muntini, still higher up the Godavery, would

seem preferable to Chinnore in point of salubrity ; but other considera-

tions would, in all probability, fix on the latter as the more eligible posi-

tion of the two, for troops to be stationed.

Communications. —The road from Masulipatam to Hyderabad skirts

the Circar of Khummum to the south. It is a good road, although

liable, as every other in the Peninsula is, to be cut up by flood during

the monsoon. The red soil is well fitted for road-making, becoming

bound and hard when stamped or trod upon. The black soil is, as

elsewhere, less so, but its extent in many parts of Telingana is such,

that it might in a great measure, be avoided, in the construction

of roads. With the exception of the one above-mentioned, there

is no other communication of the kind in Telingana, for it would be a

misnomer to apply the term to the rude, unmade paths of the

734 Tour in H. H. the Nizam’s Territories. [No 117.

country. In the Chinnore Circar, carts are a very ordinary mode of

conveyance, and, as timber is abundant, and iron procured at compa-

ratively a small cost, they are more substantial and better built than

in many other parts of India. In the other two Circars, carriage bul-

locks are almost wholly employed, to the exclusion of carts.

With the exceptions of the Godavery, and the stream sent from the

Pakhall Lake to the Kistna, there is no permanent running water in

those parts. The latter, although deep, has scarcely width enough to

be turned to account as an avenue of commerce; but the Godavery is,

with some impediments which would seem removable by art, a naviga-

ble river from June till February. I have conversed with more than

one individual, who has sailed down the river from Chinnore to Bhudra-

chellum in three days, from which to the sea, at Coringa, no great ob-

stacle offers itself. Captain Fenwick, late of the Nizam’s service, from

whom I have derived the greater part of the information respecting the

Godavery that I have now the honour of communicating, and who had

ample opportunities of making correct and extensive observations, hav-

ing frequently sailed down the stream, says, ‘‘ From Coringa to Bhudra-

chellum the navigation is perfectly free, except that there is a whirlpool,

or papee condul, not far above Palaverum, at the opening of the narrow

and tortuous straits of the same name, which wind through a range of

high hills for more than twelve or fifteen miles, commencing from the

Nizam’s boundary. The river here is generally not more than 300

yards wide. In some places, I think even less. The mountains rise

almost perpendicularly from the water's edge, and the depth is many

fathoms.”

From Bhudrachellum to Ellapoka, the river is impeded by rocks when

it is low; but when half full or more, there is difficulty in the navi-

gation. The same description applies to the rocks marked at Chen- |

tral, Doonurgoovum, and Albaka; from the last point the river, al-

though quite free, is somewhat shallow, early after the rains. The next

obstacle is the two whirlpools at Mooknoor, which, when the river is

full, present a considerable obstacle, but not so when it is moderately

full, at which time the boatmen, who are very expert, manage to steer

between them without danger. ‘The passage between Nulumpully and

Mooknoor is only tedious after the rains, as during the freshes the rocks

may be sailed over. The last obstacle in the Godavery is just at the

1841. | Tour in H. H. the Nizam’s Territories. Wao

junction of the Indarootee. The channel through the rocks, which are

there high, is very narrow, and pointed ones in it render the passage

somewhat dangerous. “‘ Some of these,” adds Captain Fenwick, ‘I had

removed ; the nature of the rock being soft slate.”

From the junction of the Indarookee to the Purneetah, not a pebble

is met with, and the Purneetah itself, which contains at least double the

water of the Godavery at Chinnore, is without impediment of any kind

up to Coorta. The rocks there and at Dharoor are only formidable

when the river is low; above these, there is no obstacle as far as

Chunchmundel above Woone, where the rocks are formidable, if not

insurmountable obstructions.

The map of the Godavery and Purneetah accompanying this letter,

is copied partly from maps procured from the Residency, and partly

from plans sent by Captain Fenwick, drawn up from his own experi-

ence.

The boats of the Godavery are miserable canoes, hollowed out of

the trunk of a single teak-tree. Two are often joined together by

means of a raft of bamboos, particularly for the purpose of ferrying ;

they are without sails or fixed rudders.

I cannot conclude these letters without bearing testimony to the

comfort and happiness which the natives of these districts appear to

enjoy. The short period I spent in the country could not afford me

many opportunities of inquiring minutely into the circumstances, or of

making very extensive observations; but there are signs of general

prosperity, particularly in the Circars of Worungul and Khummum, that

he who runs may read; of these I may mention the frequent occurrence

of silver ornaments among the wives and children of the Coombees,

and the rare circumstance of a ruined tank ; nor can I[ omit to mention

the kindness of Mr. Wighton, who afforded me every facility and

assistance in his power, in fulfilling the purpose for which I had been

Sent to the districts.

736

A general Review of the Species of true Stag, or Elaphoid form of

Cervus, comprising those more immediately related to the Red Deer

of Europe. By Epwarp Biytu, Curator of the Museum of the

Bengal Asiatic Society.

Of the various minor groups distinguishable in the great genus of

the Deer (Cervus, Lin.), a very obvious one is exemplified by the Eu-

ropean Stag (C. Hlaphus, Lin.), or Red Deer of Britain, to which the

Greek word EAado has hitherto been specifically attached ; and it is

accordingly known as the Hlaphine group of Colonel Hamilton Smith,

or that of the Stags, properly so called. It consists of several large,

powerful, and comparatively long-bodied species, with cylindrical

antlers,* bearing many tines or branches, and a short tail surrounded

by a pale disk. The males of them, and occasionally, I believe, the

females also, are furnished with upper canine teeth. Their coat is

more or less harsh, tubular, and spongy, and conceals in winter much

delicately fine wool; being in the young speckled, or menzlled, with

white, as in most, but not all, other Cervi ; which spotting disappears

with the first shedding of the hair, except, in some, a row along each

side of the spine, which however are considerably obscured, though

there is again a tendency in some species to resume the spots in sum-

mer livery, which is always more or less rufous (as in most other

Deer), that of winter being generally darker, especially on the neck,

limbs, and under-parts, and the female being mostly paler than the

male. The most peculiar character, however, of this group, though it

nevertheless does not occur in all the species which strictly pertain to

it, consists in the normal presence of a second basal tine to the antlers

(vide plate,—fig. 3, 6,) which occurs normally in no other species of the

family : these two basal tines are denominated, in books on “ venerie,”

the “brow antler” (a), and the “‘bez-antler” (6); for the word “an-

tler” referred to the principal tines, or branches, and not to the entire

* In conformity with the practice of some recent naturalists, I apply this term to

the deciduous horns of the Deer family, as distinguished from those of other horned

ruminants, which are borne permanently, and have their bony core invested by a

cuticular or corneous sheath, likewise persistent, after having been (at least the

softer external layer) once shed in the young animal, and which partly corresponds

to the velvet, or hairy skin, of a growing Stag’s antler, that withers and shreds off

when the vessels it encloses are obstructed by the final deposition of bone, forming

the burr, or basal ring.

1841. | true Stag, or Elaphoid form of Cervus. 737

production, which may be more conveniently distinguished by that ap-

pellation. A third tine (ec) is given off midway up the beam, which was

termed the “ royal” antler ; and the ramifying summit of the beam (d),

was styled the “ crown,” or “ surroyal.” I shall simply designate them as

the first and second basal tines (a, b), the medial (c), and the crown ;

and may remark, that in the European and some other species, the last

assumes a more characteristic form than in the generality of Wapiti

Stag’s antlers, (the species represented,) being generally trifid (as

in fig. 3, d,) with a disposition to subdivide further, more particularly

shewn by the innermost and hindward of the three coronal prongs that

issue from a common centre, and which is always longest, imparting a

lyrate curvature to the entire pair of antlers when viewed in front.

These noble and picturesque animals are gregarious, and frequent

extensive moorlands, interspersed with bog and forest, more particu-

larly on the lower ranges of mountains, where indeed such tracts

usually occur. In general, or avith some modifications, the habits of

the British Red Deer may be presumed to illustrate those of all

the other species; the gigantic Wapiti, perhaps, differing most in

its monogamous inclination, which, it may be, the nearly allied Jer-

rael Stag (C. Wallichii), of middle Asia, likewise evinces. The

geographical range of the group extends to both continents, but

is confined to the northern hemisphere; and, with the sole reported

exception of the Jerrael, upon the mountainous interior of the Burmese

territory, to the northern temperate zone; with one established excep-

tion, however, they belong to the eastern continent.

The American species, denominated the Wapiti (C. Canadensis,

Gmelin, C. Strongyloceros, Schreber), or “ Elk” of the Anglo-Ame- .

ricans, by whom the true Elk (or Alces of Cesar) is termed Moose,” is

* The frequent mal-appropriation of vernacular names, such as is here noticed,

and which is a great deal too much encouraged by writers on Zoology, leads to continu-

al misunderstanding and mistakes, of which an instance is now before me, in the des-

cription of the true Elk, published in the Naturalist’s Library, where an anecdote

related by Major Long and Mr. Say, referring to the Wapiti under its false name of

Elk, is assigned to the species properly so called. In South America, the same appel-

lation, Elk, is bestowed on the Cervus Paludosus ; in India, on the Sambur, C. Hippe-

laphus ; in the Malayan territories, on the C. Equinus; and finally, in South Africa,

the Caffrarian Impoof (a sheath-horned ruminant) is designated Elk, Eland, or

Eland-bok. ‘‘ Eland’’ is the Swedish term for the true Elk, and signifies miserable ; in

allusion, no doubt, to the extremely plaintive and dolorous cry emitted by this

animal, rather than to its being subject, as alleged, to frequent fits of epilepsy,

which has been suggested to have induced the application of such a name.

738 A general Review of the Species of [No. 117.

a great imposing animal, the largest (so far as known) of the whole

group; and it would appear to exemplify a subordinate section of the

Stags, characterized generally by large stature, a heavier and less

compact build, shorter tail, and enlarged white disk surrounding it ;

the head borne low and horizontally, with the neck much bowed, as in a

Camel ; and the crown of the antlers assuming generally a different form

from that of the others, very seldom trifurcating (so far at least as my ex-

perience has gone), but the continuation of the beam usually turning

abruptly backward and downward, and throwing up a series of succes-

sively diminishing tines, all nearly in a line with each other (vide Plate,

fig. 4). Ofa very considerable number of full grown Wapiti antlers,

I have seen but one pair whereof the crown decidedly trifurcated (as in

fig. 3); and have remarked that many had the second basal tine longer

than the first, which however is abnormal, aud also that the greater

number had a snag (fig. 3, e,) near the origin of the two basal tines,

which is of rare occurrence in the Edropean and what other species

I have had opportunities of examining.

The Wapiti stands four feet and three quarters to five feet and

upwards high at the shoulders, with towering antlers, sometimes above

five feet in length, though they rarely much exceed four feet ; they

are often a foot round at base above the burr, and eight inches in the

beam; the pair diverging more or less, but sweeping round till they

converge towards the extremities, as in the genus generally. An

unusually large male, killed by the hunters attached to the expedition

of Messrs. Lewis and Clark, was found “on placing it in its natural

erect position, to measure five feet and a quarter from point of hoof to

" shoulder ;” but the curve of the body is probably here included, which

would add some inches to the alleged height of so large a creature. It

is certain that they do not generally attain to so much as five feet

high, and the female to more than four feet and a half. The head of the

male measures fifteen inches from muzzle to base of antler ; the ears

nine inches ; tail four inches, or, with hair, five ; and from nose to base

of tail, in a specimen four feet and three quarters high, eight feet

ten inches. This large species (of which magnificent specimens are

now living in England, in the Zoological Gardens and elsewhere, ) has

an aspect of much grandeur and stateliness, but is deficient in the

grace of its European relative ; being considerably more massive and

1841.] true Stag, or Elaphoid form of Cervus. 739

ponderous, with stouter limbs, shorter in proportion, and terminated

by broader and more ox-like hoofs; at least the inner hoof of their

cleft fore-feet (more especially) is much widened. The full grown male,

in winter more particularly, has a peculiar character in a sort of beard

pendent from the throat, in aspect not unlike a dewlap ; besides which,

as in the European species, the hair is in winter lengthened around the

neck, only not so coarse as in that animal. The summer hue of both

sexes is very bright rufous, darker on the head and neck ; and the

male is seldom without some appearance of the throat beard, though

his neck becomes quite smooth; in the course of a few weeks only,

the tips of the hairs begin to fall off, and the colouring is thus rendered

nearly similar to that of winter, save that the hues are much less

finely brought out ; at which latter season the Wapiti is clad with long-

er hair, of a pale lilac-chocolate colour, approaching to whitish in

fine males, with the limbs, lower part of the neck, and under-parts,

dark and deep russet brown; colours which are not so intensely con-

trasted in the females and younger males. The fawn is but slightly

menilled on the sides, and it is remarkable that there is no trace of the

usual row of large spots on each side of the dorsal line, which alone

are permanent in the Kuropean Stag. Whether the same is observable

in the young of other species of this group, I have not now the

means of ascertaining. The general colour of the Wapiti fawn is deep

rufous brown, fainter on the sides, and still more so on the under-parts,

(whereas the adults are there darker) ; the face, the neck partly, and im-

mediately above the hoofs, being much darker; a black line passes along

the back, and there is a streak of the same, as usual, over each eye.

The characteristic expression of its species is strongly marked from the

first. They do not acquire their full growth under four or five years

at least, (like the European Stag); but, as in the rest of the genus, can

propagate at eighteen months old. Mr. Bullock states, that one five years

of age stood four feet and a half high, and was nine feet in total length.

These younger Wapiti have more the aspect of the European species,

and, like the female, shew little trace of the throat-beard, nor have they

much lengthened hair round the neck. The fully adult female more

resembles the European hind, than is the case with the mature males

of these species, with all their distinctive characters fully developed.

At the same time, I have observed that some European Stags have

740 A general Review of the Species of [No. 117.

decidedly more the contour of the Wapiti than others, being lower upon,

and not so fine in the limbs; as is well exemplified by two Common

Stags that were living in the Zoological Gardens, Regent’s Park, at the

time I left London, near the end of April, 1841.

The full grown Wapiti, like other true Stags, sheds its antlers

either late in February, or (the majority) during March: in less than

a month, the new have attained a foot in length, and continue to grow

with surprising rapidity, at one time, above an inch and a half per day;

but the growth slackens as they advance towards completion and

solidify, being not finished before August; the velvet shreds off in

September, when the rutting epoch commences, and lasts through the

following month; the period of gestation is rather more than eight

months, (as I was informed at the Zoological Society’s Garden, and not

so much as nine months, as has been asserted) ; being about the same,

accordingly, as that of the European hind; and the young, either one

or (in the wild state) commonly two in number, and in case of twins

(which would appear to happen much oftener than in the British Red

Deer) generally male and female, being accordingly dropped—a few at

the end of May, but the majority in June. Colonel Smith noticed, that

the medial and basal tines of the antlers of this species ‘“‘ seem to be

instruments of use; for, with them, when a small dead pine, or a bar

of a split fence, sixteen or eighteen feet long, lies in their way, they

will lift and toss it clear over their heads.” Possessing these appendages,

they make such incidental use of them; but we are not to suppose

that their antlers were designed for purposes of this kind.

The wild Wapiti, notwithstanding its great size, is as timorous as

any other Deer; except, as usual, during the rutting excitement, when

it is dangerous to approach the males. It inhabits the greater part

of North America, but “does not extend its range,” according to

Dr. Richardson, “ further to the north than the 56th or 57th degree of

latitude, nor (in the fur countries) is it found to the eastward of a

line drawn from the south end of Lake Winnipeg to the Saskatchewan,

in the 103d degree of longitude, and from thence till it reaches the

Elk River, in the 111th degree. To the south of Lake Winnipeg, it

may perhaps extend further to the eastward.” Messrs. Lewis and Clark,

in their arduous expedition to the source of the Missouri, and thence

to the shore, of the Pacific, encountered the Wapiti in considerable

1841.] true Stag, or Elaphoid form of Cervus. 741

abundance nearly throughout their route, and pretty high up the moun-

tains ; and they state it to be ““ common in every part of the country,

as well in the timbered lands as in the plains, though much more

numerous in the former.” Hunter, in the interesting “‘ Memoirs” of his

youth, passed among different (so called) Indian tribes, asserts that

*¢ they are small, far south, but increase in size in the neighbourhood of

the mountains.” He also mentions, that they are very large about the

Columbia. In the States, the distribution eastward of this species is

limited by the settlements, in the vicinity of which it fast disappears as

they become populous ; having been extirpated more than a dozen years

in Illinois,* while Dr. Godman (in 1826) writes, that “ it is still oc-

casionally found in the remote and thinly settled parts of Pennsylvania,

but the number is small ; and it is only in the western wilds that they

occur in considerable herds.” t

Dr. Richardson describes this species to be “pretty numerous amongst

the clumps of wood that skirt the plains of the Saskatchewan, where

they live in small families of six or seven individuals:” the males,

according to Dr. Harlan, attaching themselves to the females, and

the members of each troop being strongly united. Colonel Smith also

mentions, that “they are said to live in small families of six or seven

individuals, headed by an old male, who is reported to be monoga-

mous ; the rest, besides the hind, being calves or semi-adults.” I have

met with no account of the sexes ever herding separately : but Hearne

asserts, that “they generally keep in large herds, and, when they find

plenty of pasture, remain a long time in one place ;” so, also, Umfreville

relates, of his ‘‘ Red Deer,” which is clearly this species, though C.

Virginianus is often so termed in the States, ‘“ They are very common

in all parts of the country, and they assemble in herds; it is not

unusual to find 500 or 600 of them in a place; but they are not to

be met with on the open plains, where the Buffaloes | American

Bisons{] resort.” The same is noticed in Keating’s “ Narrative of an

* Featherstonehough’s Journal.

+ American Natural History.

{ The term Buffalo is often vaguely applied by persons not naturalists, to any

animal bearing a general resemblance to an Ox, but which is obviously distinct from

an Ox. Thus, when English graziers talk of having seen a Buffalo, it will generally be

found that the large or Brahminee breed of Zebus, or Indian humped cattle, is

intended ; and in North America the Bison of that continent is thus termed (as above

742 A general Review of the Species of [ No. 117.

Expedition to the source of St. Peter’s River ;” but Lewis and Clark oc-

casionally observed them upon the same plains with the Bisons, as in

page 82 of their work, where it is stated, that ‘fifty-two herds of

Buffalo, and three of Elk [Wapiti] were counted ata single view!”

I have been informed, however, by a gentleman who has travelled

much in the western regions of North America, that they never asso-

ciate with the Bisons, and it is very rarely that both species may be

seen at one view: though Catesby asserts, that “they usually accom-

pany Buffaloes, with which they [did, in his time,] range in the upper

and remote parts of Carolina, where,” he remarks, “as well as in the

other colonies, they are improperly called Elk.” Keating mentions “a

herd of fifty or sixty Elk,” which some of his people “approached on

horse-back, as near as they could, without alarming them, when the

party dismounted, and crept for about a quarter of a mile on

their hands and knees, leading their horses until they came within

eighty yards, when they all fired, and one of the herd fell. A

member of the party then mounted his horse, and pursued the

herd for more than a mile, but his horse was too much alarmed by

their appearance to be urged on near enough to allow pistol-shot to

take effect. While in pursuit of them, he observed the Elk in the

rear would frequently stop to look at him [standing at gaze, as it is

termed, like all other ruminants]. When in herds they are easily

overtaken, but when they are alone it is much more difficult. This

animal is represented, however, as short-winded.’* It is probable

noticed), which, inhabiting the same region with the so-called Indians, is sometimes

even worse styled—the Indian Buffalo. In India, the word Bison is, in like manner,

attached to a species which isnot a Bison, namely, the Gaour, (Bos Gaurus); and

Capt. Lyon mentions three distinct species of animals inhabiting the mountains to the

south of Fezzan, all of which he erroneously calls Buffaloes, though two at least of them

are not even Bovine. Those who write on subjects of Natural History should be

more definite in their choice of vernacular appellations than has hitherto been custom-

ary, at least in the English language, and in time such errors may be eradicated;

though not before the city of Bugfalo, in North America, and the Elk River (so nam-

ed from the number of Wapiti Stags, not Elks, that are found on its banks), have per-

petuated the memory of them in these established denominations. The name Buffalo

derives from the term Bubalus of the ancients, which was applied to the true Indian

species ; otherwise, it has been remarked, on the subject of purely fortuitous coinci-

dences of the kind, a legitimate derivation would have seemed to occur in Beufal eau!

* Keating’s ‘‘ Narrative’’ vol. ii. p. 1. ‘A large herd of Elk’? is also mentioned

in vol. i., p. 303; and I could cite other instances of Horses being much frightened

at the sight of these creatures.

1841. | true Stag, or Elaphoid form of Cervus. 743

that the herds of Wapiti are made up by the aggregation of a number

of distinct families, such as have been already noticed, the individuals

of which know each other, and keep together; for this is the case in

many gregarious animals, and I have observed that, in the common

Fallow Deer of English Parks, the sexes of which herd separately during

the summer, particular individuals of the same age occasionally evince

a friendship for each other, and always feed together, which partiali-

ty is resumed, by the same individuals, season after season. In like man-

ner, herds of domestic Oxen commonly separate, or rather resolve into

pairs ; and the advantage of always stalling such pairs together is duly

appreciated by English graziers, who find that their cattle are apt to

pine, and not to fatten well when separated from the companion of their

choice, in whose presence they appear to derive some consolation for

the irksomeness of imprisonment.

The Wapiti Stag feeds much, like the European species, upon grass,

and in like manner eats the young shoots of willow and poplar, as

also ‘‘ some buds of coniferous trees,” according to Colonel Smith, who,

from personal observation, adds that “‘ in summer they feed on aquatic

plants, which they seek under water, while sheltering themselves in that

element from the bites of flies.” It is worthy of notice, that the Rein

Deer Gadfly, according to Captain Franklin, ‘“‘infests the Wapiti, but

not the Moose or Bison; nor have its larvee ever been found upon the

Wild Sheep or Goat of the Rocky Mountains, although the Rein Deer

of those parts are as much tormented by them as those of the coast.”*

Kalm states, that this species feeds eagerly on the broad-leaved kalmia,

‘which is poisonous to other horned animals;” and Dr. Richardson

describes them to be “‘ very fond of the hips of the Rosa blanda, which

forms much of the underwood in the districts which they frequent.

Hearne,” he continues, “‘ remarks that they are the most stupid of the

Deer kind, and frequently make a shrill whistling and quivering noise,

not very unlike the braying of an Ass. Mr. Drummond, who saw many

of these Deer in his journeys through the plains of the Saskatchewan,

informs me, that it does not dell, like the Stag of Europe ; and Mons.

F. Cuvier describes the cry of the male as being prolonged and acute,

and consisting of the successive sounds of a, o, u, (French,) uttered

* “ Narrative of Second Expedition,’’ p. 189.

744 A general Review of the Species of [ No. 117.

with so much strength as to offend the ear. The cry of the European

Stag, when compared to it, is dull and tame, though not deficient in

strength.” On one occasion I have remarked a cry, which, though not

loud, corresponded otherwise with F. Cuvier’s description, from an

isolated female, which seemed to express ennui, or impatience of soli-

tude: the only sound I have ever heard the male emit, is a disagreeable

snuffling noise, expressive of menace, which it often makes during

the rutting season. Dr. Richardson further adds, after Hearne, that

“‘ the flesh of the Wapiti is coarse, and but little prized by the natives,

principally on account of its fat being hard like suet, [as, indeed, in all

other Cervide, except the Elk.]| It seemed to me to want the juiciness

of venison, and to resemble dry, but small-grained beef. The hide,

when made into leather, is said not to turn hard after being wet, and,

in this respect, to excel Moose or Rein Deer leather.”*

Dr. Godman remarks, that ‘the Wapiti is shy and retiring. The

moment the air is tainted with the odour of his enemy, his head is

raised with energy, his ears rapidly turn in every direction to catch the

sound, and his large glistening eye expresses the most eager attention.

Soon as the approaching hunter is fairly descried, the Elk bounds

along for a few paces, as if trying his strength for flight, stops, turns

half round, and scans his pursuer with a steady gaze; then, throwing

back his lofty antlers, he springs from the ground and advances with

a velocity that soon leaves the object of his dread far out of sight. In

the rutting season, however, this animal assumes a more warlike and

threatening aspect. He is neither so easily put to flight, nor can he

be approached with impunity, although he may have been wounded.

His hoofs and horns are then employed with full effect, and the lives

of men and dogs are endangered by coming within his reach.” An

instance of this is recorded by Major Long and Mr. Say, wherein a

wounded animal ‘turned furiously upon the foremost of his pursuers,

who only saved himself by springing into a thicket, which was impassa-

ble to the Elk, whose enormous antlers becoming so entangled in

the vines as to be covered to the tips, he was thus held fast and blind-

folded,’ and was despatched without difficulty.” It can only be

wondered that such cases are not of much more frequent occurrence.

* Fauna Americana-borealis, and Hearne’s Narrative.

1841.] true Stag, or Hlaphoid form of Cervus. 745

The most nearly allied species to the Wapiti, I conceive to be

the Jerriel Stag, (C. Wallichi, Duvaucel), a splendid Asiatic ani-

mal, hitherto only known in Europe from the coloured drawing

transmitted by M. Duvaucel, and published by Mons. F. Cuvier. The

following particulars are principally taken from a MS. description

by the late Major-General Hardwicke, which, together with a bad co-

loured figure of the individual, I found among his papers deposited in

the library of the British Museum. It doubtless refers to the identical

specimen which was seen by Mr. Hodgson, and figured by M. Duvau-

cel, and the antlers of which are now before me in the Museum of the

Asiatic Society: these, which are evidently the same as are figured in

both drawings, I am enabled to state positively belonged to an animal

in its third year, at which age it would by no means have attained its

full growth; and the suggestion of my esteemed friend, Colonel Hamil-

ton Smith, therefore, that it is doubtful whether the specimen was not

aged, with declining antlers, I venture to negative without any hesita-

tion.

This animal, according to General Hardwicke, stood four feet and a

quarter high at the shoulder, and from muzzle to base of tail mea-

sured seven feet and a quarter ; the tail five inches, surrounded by a disk

nine inches square; head to vertex one foot five inches, and thence to

shoulder two feet five inches ; the ear, including its base, eleven inches.

Hair on the ridge of the neck long, thick, and bushy, standing like a

mane, and browner than the rest.* The prevalent colour a brownish ash,

_ darkest along the dorsal line to the rump-patch, which is pure white, con-

trasting strongly with a blackish border, that merges without into the

_ hue of the rest of the body. The limbs and under-parts are remarkable

| (more particularly as shewn by M. Duvaucel’s figure) for being pale,

_ whereas in other Stags these are darker than the body. Lips and chin

_white; the ears large and ovate, with a deep-sheathed base, and co-

_ vered with whitish hairs; and the eyes large and surrounded by a

whitish circle. The texture of the coat appears, from description, to

resemble that of the Wapiti; and General Hardwicke states, that the

i animal “bowed down its neck in the manner of a Camel,” 7. e. the

| Wapiti, “and, when moving, carried its head very high, bringing the

| * The whiteness of the antlers, as represented by M. Duvaucel, intimates that they

_ were then about to be shed, and consequently the season at which the animal was

figured, which was probably in the month of February or March.

oOo B

746 A general Review of the Species of [ No. 117.

front almost to a horizontal position. It was brought from Mukte-

nauth, about five weeks journey from the valley of Nepal, in a north-

westerly direction ;’ and the name Cervus Wallichii, 1 may remark,

occurs in the interesting list of Mammalia inhabiting the Tenasserim

provinces, prepared by the late unfortunate Dr. Helfer ;* though this

alleged identification of the species much requires to be confirmed.

The pair of antlers in the Society’s collection are rather more than

two feet long, following the curvature of the beam, five inches and a half

round above the burr, and five inches immediately above the two basal

tines ; each possesses these, and one of them has no further subdi-

vision, while the other throws off what I cannot hesitate in consi-

dering to be a median tine, or “royal,” the bifurcation being 11 inches

above the second basal tine, or “bez.” Mr. Hodgson, therefore, I

feel satisfied, is incorrect in supposing that the Jerraiel has no median

tine.{ In the Gardens of the Zoological Society, there now exist (or

did so, when I left England,) a fine pair, male and female, of the noble

Persian Stag, or Maral, brought from that country, and presented to

the Society, by Sir John McNeill. At the time of their arrival, the

male bore his second pair of antlers, (what, however, are usually

regarded as the first, though the true Stags, unlike the Fallow Deer,

Axis, &c., develope a small knob, or ‘‘ button,” as technically styled,

the first year) ; this second pair consisted, as usual, of slender branch-

less beams, termed “ brockets,” but the following year (1840) were

replaced by a pair corresponding to those of the Jerraiel now before

me, except that the median tine existed in both antlers. In the com-

mon Kuropean Stag, the second basal tine is ordinarily wanting at

this age, but irregularities of the kind occur in every species: it is

remarkable that the two basal tines of the young Maral, or Persian

Stag, in the Zoological Gardens, were conjoined for a short space

at base, but it remains to be ascertained whether this be a permanent

character. In the Jerrdel’s antlers before me, there is an interval of

an inch and a half in one of them, separating the two basal tines, the

same as is generally noticeable in the European Stag; while, in the

Wapiti, this scarcely ever exists. For a figure of the pair, vide

Plate, fig 7; and of those of the Persian species, sketched from

* Vide Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, for 1838, p. 897, et seq.

+ Vide Note to p. 721, ante.

1841. ] true Stag, or Elaphoid form of Cervus. 747

memory only, though I venture to affirm not very inaccurately,

vide fig. 10.

I now pass to a consideration of Mr. Hodgson’s C. Affinis, repre-

sented in pl. —; and with all deference to that gentleman, I feel con-

strained to observe, that I can perceive no reason whatever why his

animal should not be identified with C. Wallichit, as originally sug-

gested by Mr. Ogilby, and accepted by myself on a former occasion.

It appears to me, that Mr. Hodgson’s specimen represents the animal

in its fourth, or probably fifth, year ; at apparently the former of which

ages, there is a stuffed specimen of C. Elaphus in the Museum of the

Zoological Society, with absolutely (so far as I can remember) the

same flexure, or somewhat abrupt bend upwards about the middle of

the beam, represented in Mr. Hodgson’s sketch: the youth, or ‘‘moderate

age,” of this naturalist’s specimen is attested, as he justly observes, by

the condition of the teeth and cranial sutures; and I cannot doubt that,

with full maturity, this noble species possesses a terminal crown to its

antlers, assuming, thus, every feature of a typical member of the Ela-

phine group.

The Jerréel, probably, extends its range widely over the Chinese

empire ; and it may be presumed to be the “ great Stag” mentioned

by geographers upon the ranges of the Altai. Such is indicated in

Strahlenberg’s work on the northern and eastern parts of Europe and

Asia, (p. 371, English translation,) as the Irbisch, or great Stag of Si-

beria, which inhabits that vast region, in addition to the Jsubrissen, or

common Stag; the Suchata, or Elk; Olen, or Rein Deer; Cosa, or

Roe, &c. Whether it be identical with the Kashmir Stag of my

friend Mr. Vigne, which I think is very likely, that gentleman having

observed it in summer garb, remains to be determined. I understand

that Dr. Falconer considers them distinct ; and, at the request of Mr.

Vigne, who furnished Dr. Falconer with some particulars with which

he has likewise favored me, I leave this Kashmir species to be described

by the latter eminent naturalist. I may, however, venture to publish two

drawings of an antler of the Kashmir Stag (Plate, — figs. 8, 9,) in the

collection of Mr. Vigne, the dimensions of which are already published

in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society for 1840, p. 72, on the

occasion of my exhibiting the specimen. This antler measured forty-

four inches in length, and was eight inches round above the burr; the

748 A general Review of the Species of [No. 117.

general character being intermediate to that of the Wapiti and of the

European Stag, but agreeing more nearly with the latter in its kind of

granulated surface. Respecting the great Siberian species, we -are

informed by Pennant, (in his Arctic Zoology, p. 31,) probably on the

authority of a private communication from his correspondent, Professor

Pallas, that, ‘“‘ Stags are totally extirpated in Russia, but abound in

the mountainous southern tract of Siberia, where they grow to a size

far superior to what is known in Europe. The height of a grown hind

is four feet nine inches and a half, its length eight feet, and that

of its head one foot eight inches and a half,” which is proportionate to

Mr. Hodgson’s admeasurements of the skull of the male,* and scarcely,

if at all, inferior to the American Wapiti. I cannot bring myself to

think that an Elk (Alces Cesaris) is here alluded to; but may mention

that a fully grown female Elk, which I measured alive in the Zoological

Gardens, gave eight feet and a quarter from muzzle to base of tail,

and stood five feet two inches high at the back; the apparent eleva-

tion of its withers consisting of hair only. Its head, measuring over the

drooping upper lip to the rudimental naked muzzle, gave twenty-six

inches and a half. — .

The ordinary fossil Stag of Europe, currently identified with C.

Elaphus, is generally about one-fourth larger in all the dimensions of

its antlers than the common existing species of the same region, as

remarked to me, of the fossil specimens found in Switzerland, by my

friend Professor Schinz, of Zurich ; and this I have equally found to be

the case in numerous examples obtained from the gravel and peat of

various districts in the British Islands. It would even appear that a

remnant of this larger race still survives in Hungary, or was in

existence not many years ago. Of such an animal, it is stated, ina

German sporting work, ‘Wildungen’s Wiedmann’s Feierabende, (p. 91,)

that the author “has to thank Count Erbach-Erbach for the antlers here-

with carefully figured, (and one of which is copied in the Plate, fig. 11),

which prove that the Giant Stag is not yet totally extirpated in Europe.

The animal which bore them was shot by a Wallachian, in the year

1815, on the Imperial Lordship Rewantz, on the Buckowina, and the

Count received the antlers from a friend who superintends the imperial

* Vide p. 722, ante.

1841. | true Stag, or Elaphoid form of Cervus. 749

studs in that province, and who assured him, that the specimen by no

means represented one of the largest of the Stags still found in that

country, and hoped that he would be able to send one still more

considerable. The circumference of the burr was eleven inches and a

quarter, (Rheinland measure,) and of the beam, above the basal tines,

nine inches and a quarter. Extreme expanse, measured outside, five

feet, and the innermost tips were three feet and half asunder.

Length of the right horn, following the curvature, four feet from

burr to summit.”* The character of these antlers is absolutely that of

the British Red Deer, but the size equals the Wapiti; and it is strange

that so grand a species, for such it must be, should still remain to be

investigated and described. I am inclined to suspect that to this

‘“‘ Giant Stag” must be referred an extraordinarily fine pair of ‘‘ German

Stag horns,” that have been hung up, as I understand for more than

thirty years, in front of a cutler’s shop, in Great Turnstile, London.

These measure forty-one inches over the curvature, and ten inches

and a quarter round at base, above the burr ; the crown of one, in parti-

cular, is very fine; and of numerous other Stag antlers, imported

from Germany, to be manufactured into knife handles, &c., not any

approached to these dimensions. The antlers of the common Euro-

pean Stag, or British Red Deer, seldom exceed three feet in length,

and are generally under; and the animal scarcely stands above three

feet and a half high at the back; but its general form is more elegant

than that of any other species of the group with which I am ac-

quainted.

( To be continued. )

Explanation of the Plate.

Figure 3 represents a Wapiti Stag’s antler, a and 6 indicating the

two basal tines or branches, or the “ brow and bez antlers” of writers

on venerie ; c, the median tine, or ‘‘ royal antler ;” and the portion above

d, d, the “‘ crown, or sur-royal;” e, is a mere snag, of very common

occurrence in this particular species, and not very unfrequently met

with in the Axine group of Deer, where it is always thus directed

* For these particulars I am indebted to the kindness of Colonel Hamilton Smith,

to whom a copy of the work was presented by the author, who was one of the chief

observators of the game and forests of the Elector of Hesse.

750 A general Review of the Species of true Stag, ce. (No. 117.

upwards, and not outwards and forwards (like a veritable second basal

tine, or “ bez’). Neither the second basal nor the median tine ever

occurs in the Axine or Rusa group, to which the C. Hlaphoides may be

referred, a species wherein (normally) each of the ordinary two coronal

prongs of the Axine group merely bifurcates, with a tendency to sub-

divide further ; the C. E/laphoides has, besides, the shorter and thicker

body of the Axines, and no disk surrounding and ascending above

the tail, asin the true or Elaphine Stags. Its naked muzzle, also (if I

mistake not), is more expanded, as in other Axines.

Figures 1 to 6 represent some picked antlers of the Wapiti Stag

(Cervus Canadensis) ; 7, of the young Jerriel Stag (C. Wallichii) ;

8, 9, of the Stag of Kashmir (C. Wallichii?); 10, of the young

Maral, or Persian Stag; 11, of the great Hungarian Stag ; 12, a singu-

lar and very abnormal variety of the European Stag.

Figure 2 represents a Wapiti antler, with the basal tines a little

removed apart, which is very seldom the case in this species, though

common in C. Elaphus ; fig. 3, represents a trifurcating crown, which

is also rarely seen in the Wapiti; fig. 4, either wants the median tine, or

has it removed so high up the beam that it appears part of the crown ;

figs. 8, 9, representing an antler of the Kashmir Stag, scarcely differ

from fig. 2; fig. 10, representing an antler of the young Persian

species (drawn from memory only, though I pledge its essential cor-

rectness), is remarkable for having its basal tines united for a short

space where they issue forth, and may be compared with fig. 7, illus-

trating what I consider to be the corresponding age of C. Wallichii ;

in the northern European Stag ( C. Hlaphus/, and a very nearly allied,

but larger, fossil congener, the basal tines are even commonly as much

separated as in fig. 11, though typically approximated as in the Wapiti ;

fig. 12, an abnormal antler of C. Elaphus, wants the second basal

tine, which, however, is not unusual in young animals of this species,

and presents a strangely ramifying crown; the specimen is in the

British Museum.

ae. eee Oe ae ee ee ae

751

Proceedings of the Asiatic Society.

( Wednesday Evening, 1st September, 1841.)

The Honorable Sir E. Ryan, in the Chair.

Henry Wacker, Esq. Bengal Medical Service, and FLercHer Hays, Esq. 62nd

Regt. N.I., Assistant Governor General’s Agent, Saugor, proposed at the last Meeting,

were ballotted for, and duly elected, to whom the necessary communications of their

election and rules of the Society for guidance, were ordered to be forwarded.

The following gentlemen were proposed as Members, viz :—

The Honorable A. Amos, Esq. by the Honorable President, seconded by the

Honorable H. T. Prinsep, Esa.

Rosert Bartow, Esq. C. S. by the Honorable H. T. Prinsep, Esq. seconded by

the Honorable President.

C. G. MawsEL, Esq. C. S, by the Honorable President, seconded by the Secretary.

Library and Museum.

Books recewed for the Library of the Asiatic Society, for the Meeting on the 1st September, 1841.

Illustrations of the Literature and Religion of the Budhists, by H. B. Hodgson,

Esq. Serampore, 1841, | vol.

Discourse touching the Spanish Monarchy, London, 1654, 8vo. | vol.

Calcutta Christian Observer, September 1841, New Series, vol. 2d, No. 21, pamph.

Annals and Magazine of Natural History, May 1841, No. 43, London, ditto.

Calcutta Monthly Journal, July 1811, ditto.

Report on the Statistics of Western Australia, in 1840, Perth, Western Australia,

1841, ditto.

Oriental Christian Spectator, July 1841, Bombay, vol. 2d, No. 7, ditto.

Hammer Purgstall’s Falkner Klee Wien, 1840, 1 vol.

Read the following report of the Officiating Curator for the month of August last :—

H. Torrens, Esa.

Secretary, Asiatic Society.

Sir,—For the month of August I regret to say that illness and debility, during ten

or twelve days, have prevented my doing much that I had in view previous to the

arrival of Mr. Blyth, who may now be daily expected.

Geological, Mineralogical, and Paleontological Departmenis.— We have received

here from Government several limestones from Cachar, with other specimens, collected

by Lieut. Bicce, Assistant to the Agent to the Governor General on the N.. E.

Frontier, with their analysis as limestones by Captain TREMENHEERE. I find, however,

that they are of much higher interest than as mere limestones ; for three if not four out

of eight contain organic remains! I have not been able to identify the localities, which

I believe to be farther to the Northward and Eastward than Dr. M‘CLELLAND’s valu-

able discoveries in that quarter, being from Cachar, (the Mukir range,) but the fact is

important, if only as corroborating or connecting other discoveries.

We have also from Government a continuation of the collections made by Dr.

Wacker in the Chinnoor Sirear, Nizam’s territory : consisting of shale, coal, argil-

laceous limestone, sandstone, anthracite, &c. &c; with a map of the Godavery from

Chanda to below Mungapett, shewing the site of the coal, &c. &c. I have, I fear,

752 Asiatic Society. [No. 117.

omitted to mention, in the July Report, the presentation of a copy of Mr. Tassin’s

large map of Bengal, by Government.

The printers are, | grieve to say, as dilatory as ever. 1 have only been able to

obtain one proof, a day or two ago, for the whole month.

Osteological.—The skeleton of one of the samurs is in preparation.

Ornithological and Mammailogical.—Nothing new to report.

Botanical.—I have the pleasure to add here to my former report on our Lichens,

that we have obtained a second, purple colour from the Society’s Himalaya specimens ;

being No. 9, marked in my paper as an ‘‘ orange crimson.”’ | look with confidence to a

third, if not a fourth, which, out of 19 sorts, will be a rich harvest. It appears that

some months are required for the change from crimson to purple, as in the prepara-

tion of archil and cudbear in Europe.

We are also in this department indebted to Government for a valuable collection

of gums, hemp, wax, silk, &c., from the Nizam’s territories. I have handed to our

Secretary a note on some articles sent on requisition by him, from Khorasan, (via

Sinde,) by Lieut. Postans, amongst which are a new yellow dye, a new species of gall

nut, anda very valuable sort of cotton, (the Nurma cotton, ) which I have since found is

highly prized in Malwa, where it is known by the same name. It is hoped this will

prove of importance in the hands of Captain Bay es and the American experimen-

talists. That no time may be lost, a memorandum has been transmitted to Government

on this subject.

Museum of Economic Geology.—We have at length’obtained all the new cases from

our contractors. The original collection sent out by the Court of Directors is ar-

ranged; and I have added, from our own neglected stores, a valuable series of silver

ores from Peru, and the remains of Captain FraNnKLIn’s iron ores from Bundlecund,

with specimens of gold, tin, copper, manganese, lead, &c. which can be fully spared ;

and are, in fact, utterly useless and lost as now lying dispersed, while here they

form objects of both interest and utility, as being specimens of, or incitements to

search for, our Indian resources, placed where they can be properly exhibited and

studied.

The Donations to the Museum have been as follow :—

Scull and horns (imperfect) of Cervus Muntjack,

(Barking Deer,) from the Tipperah Hills, ....

The Choudonah Parrot, ( Psittacus,).......... erate Mr. L. Swaries.

A collection of Rocks and Minerals from “te ha |

\ W. A. Peacock, Esq.

to accompany a paper presented at the last

Meeting, eeeeoceeeavneeeeeoeseeeeee @ @eeeaeo*epveene@ ee

Js. Hyland, Esq.

Rocks and Minerals, from Cachar and the Naga

HOLTON Ss sheet salotne 0 spiale elbiclelclenrele salah Oe ciotewia eee

Rocks and Minerals, collected by Dr. Walker, Ni-

BAW S WELEMOLY co staie'e's wo vaiee cleecinnle eee

A collectionof Gums, Hemp, Was, Silk, ke. hea

the Nizam’s ferritory:.s i... <'Hanslieleltteletcieies

Lt. Bigge, Asst. Agent G. G.

N. E. Frontier.

Government.

\ Government.

Mr. Tassin’s large Map of Bengal, &c., .......... Government.

I am, Sir,

Yours very obediently,

Museum, \st September, 1841. H. PIDDINGTON.

1841. | Asiatic Society. 753

Read report on some Articles of Trade sent from Khorasan by Lieut. Postans, anda

memorandum on Nurma Cotton, by the Officiating Curator. [Inserted in the present

number. }

Read the following letter of 3lst August last from the Officiating Curator, reporting

result of his examination of Lieut. BigGe’s specimens.

H. Torrens, Esa.

Secretary, Asiatic Society.

Sir,—Upon examining Lieut. BtaGE’s specimens, which illness had prevented my

doing earlier, I find three out of four of his limestones contain organic remains, and

these I should say marine !

This is of very great importance asa geological fact, as it carries Dr. M’CLELLAND’s

discoveries much farther to the Eastward. At all events, a quantity of these specimens

would be most highly desirable, both for the Museum, and for the Museum of the

Honorable the Court of Directors, say three or four maunds weight of as many sorts

of them ascan be procured, so as to enable European geologists to compare with their

collections.

You can then, doubtless, recommend this to the attention of Government, and

through that channel he will probably pay more attention to the recommendation

than if simply from the Society, which I fear is not in the best credit with collectors,

of late years. Yours very faithfully,

31st August, 184). H. PippineTon.

P.S.—These are the specimens sent us from the Government Secretariat, with

Captain TREMENHEERE’S analysis, who seems quite to have overlooked the locality,

for he notices them only as limestones !

Read letter, No. 1274, of 12th August last, from Mr. Secretary Bususy, forwarding

30 copies of the Cochin-Chinese Dictionary and Vocabulary for distribution.

Resolved—That 25 copies of the Dictionary be forwarded to Messrs. W. H. ALLEN

and Co. of London, with instructions to distribute them to the learned Societies and

individuals in Europe, agreeably to the wish of the Government, and that five copies

be retained for the use of the Library of the Society.

Read a letter, No. 792, ofthe 25th August last, from Mr. Secretary Bususy, intima-

_ ting the authority to the Coal Committee to make over a package received from the

Court of Directors, containing specimens of copper ore, exhibiting the various stages

of its reduction, for deposit in the Museum of Economic Geology.

Several specimens of snakes, minerals, &c. were presented by Lieut. M. Kitror,

accompanied with the following letter from that Officer :—

To H. Torrens, Esa.

Secretary to the Asiatic Society of Bengal.

My pear Torrens,—I had hoped to have been able to have attended the Society’s

meeting this evening, and have presented the few specimens of snakes and minerals,

5 ¢

754 Asiatic Society. [No. 117.

&c. as per annexed memo. which I now send, but a relapse of fever prevents me. I

regret that I should not have been able to have brought a finer and more extensive

collection, but there are reasons for it, which the least mentioned the better.

I would beg to invite the attention of any member versed in mineralogy to the

minerals; they belong to the iron formation of the Keunjhur Mountains, and appear

uncommon.

The fish is, I fancy, anondescriptspecies of carp, it is a stone-sucker like the loach,

and has like feeders or appendages to the mouth ; it is like the ‘‘kalabanse,’’ which is also

a stone-sucker, butit differs in size, colour, and the shape of the mouth in particular; it

is sometimes caught as high as 23 to 3seers in weight. The specimen from which the

drawing was taken was about 14 seeror more. I have never seen this in any other river

but the Brahmen’s, which abounds in fish, and this is the second nondescript fish

I have found in that river.

The squirrel is quite destroyed; it has lost three inches of its tail, which quantum

was of a pale slate colour. I believe the animal to be full grown, as there is a consi-

derable variety of the tribe in the Keunjhur Mountains; perhaps this specimen is

sufficiently perfect to admit of being properly described by Cantor or M‘CLELLAN D, to

whom it is my wish that all the specimens be sent, for examination and nomenclature.

The snakes must go to Cantor. There are several which are well known. I brought

them merely to increase the stock, to enable the Society to furnish duplicates to other

Museums. The birds’ eggs are damaged ; they will do in the room of better specimens.

The book I send, I consider to be a curiosity.

Yours sincerely,

Catcutta, lst September, 184]. M. Kirtok.

Minerals.

Three specimens from the iron formation of the Keunjhur Mountains.

Two Ditto of serpentine and one green quartz (?) from Juspoor.

Ditto of an elegant squirrel, Keunjhur hills.

Ditto 6 snakes, and a kind of scorpion, also lizard, Keunjhur and Mohurbhunj

jungles.

Ditto broken, and of a hawk, called in Hindoostan ‘* Luzzur.’’

An unfinished drawing of a fish caught in the Brahmen’s river, believed to bea

nondescript.

An ancient work in one volume, with manuscript marginal notes, entitled “‘ A Dis-

course touching the Spanish Monarchy,”’ translated from the Latin edition by Campa-

NELLA, a Spanish monk, in the 16th century, printed in 1654.

A war-cap adorned with human hair, and a crest of the tail hair of the elephant,

worn by the chiefs of the Naga tribes, together with some Naga spears and swords, were

presented by Mr. Mitnzg, late in the employ of the Assam Tea Company.

The Secretary noticed the safe arrival of the taxidermist, who had been sent to

Chybassa, and placed under Lieut. S. TickELL, in pursuance of the plans the Society

have in view, of placing taxidermists throughout the country, for the preparation of

objects collected by Members, who take an interest in the subject.

For the presentations and contributions, the thanks of the Society were accorded.

At a Special Meeting held, on the 24th September 1841, of the Com-

mittee of Papers—

The Hon’ble Sir E. Ryan, in the Chair.

Read letter from Mr. H. Pippineton of 9th September 1841, reporting that on

the 6th idem he had delivered over charge of his departments of the Museum of

the Asiatic Society to Mr. E. Biytu.

Read the following correspondence with that gentleman :—

To Epwarp Biytu, Esa.

S1r,—As you have now taken charge of the Muséum of the Asiatic Society of Ben-

gal, in your quality of Curator of that Museum, I am directed by the Honorable the

President to address you, for the purpose of pointing out those particular points to which

the Society would wish you to give your first and most earnest attention.

2. The Hon. the President in writing to Professor WiLson regarding the qualifica-

tions of a Curator for the Society, (a reference which resulted in procuring for the

Society the advantage of your service,) made use of the following terms, in specifying

what was required.

“We think the office should be filled by a person who can give to the Museum his

principal attention, and be in attendance from 1] to 4 p.m. The Salary is 200 Rs.

amonth, As to duties, we require monthly reports on the state of the Museum. We

do not allow specimens to be removed from the Museum. Our Museum has, in faet, two

departments. The Oriental Antiquities, Numismatics, &c. &c. we must leave to our

Oriental Secretary,—but as to every thing connected with Natural History in our Muse-

um, we look to our Curator,—all this is specified in a paper in our Journal, or rather in

the minutes of the Proceedings of the Society for December 1839, when the question

was fully considered.”’

3. The Hon. the President has desired me to enter the above at length for conveni-

ence of reference, although well aware that you must, in all probability, have already

_ perused the passage in the original letter to Professor WiLsoNn, before completing

your arrangement with the Professor on the part of the Society.

4, The paper referred to, as containing a detailed statement of the Curator’s duties,

you have doubtless alsoseen. I append it (as published in No. 96, Asiatic Society’s

Journal, December 1839, p. 1060.), for readier reference.

5. ‘The first object of the Society,’’—it is there stated—“in remodelling its Mu-

seum, should be to form a grand collection of minerals and fossils, illustrative of the

Geology, Geography, and Paleontology of our British Indian possessions.’’—This great

object it is the anxious and earnest desire of the Society to see carried out; and with the

Museum of Economic Geology now added to our own, and the very large, but still much

disordered collections belonging to the Society, it is believed that opportunities exist

of forming the basis, at any rate, of a great Mineralogical and Geological Collection,

useful in every and all respects to the scientific Student, the Miner, or the Agricul-

turist.

6. The Hon. the President is most anxious to know, what course you propose to adopt

in carrying out the design of the Society. The late officiating Curator, during the

short period of his holding the office, has, as you will observe, done much towards the

756 Asiatic Society. | LNo. 117.

classification of many of the superb collections belonging to the Society. His patience

and energy have led to the recovery of many specimens supposed to have been lost,

and to the restoration of more than one collection, such as Dr. GzRarp’s, from the

Himalaya, unique in rarity and value.

7. The Hon. the President does not doubt but that your ability and scientific know-

ledge will be steadily directed towards carrying out the general objects of the Society,

but being specially interested, as in possession of the wishes of that body, upon the im-

portant question above noted, and being led to believe moreover that a different branch

of science is that to which you are from habit and inclination most ready to devote your

principal attention, he has directed me to request that you will oblige him by stating

how far you consider yourself qualified to undertake the main duties of the Curatorship,

(as stated in the accompanying paper, ) including the charge, conduct, and advance-

ment of the formation of the Museum of Economic Geology.

8. I am desired to observe, that the Society of which you are Curator, has always in

view the interests, in the first instance, of India, as respects the elucidation of her

natural phenomena, the development of her resources, and the advancement of know-

ledge in all branches of science whereby this country may be benefited. The Society

works therefore for itself, and not subordinately to any other body whatsoever. The

first fruits of all labour by its Members, or its Office-bearers are due to it; the subse-

quent results are of course available for general uses.

9. I am directed to request that you will favor the Hon. the President with a reply

at your early convenience, and have the honor to be,

Your obedient servant,

H. Torrens,

Secretary, Asiatic Society of Bengal.

To THE SECRETARY OF THE ASIATIC SOCIETY.

S1r,—I beg to acknowledge the receipt of your communication, detailing the objects

which it is the desire of the Asiatic Society should more prominently engage my at-

tention, in endeavouring to fulfil the duties of Curator to their Museum ; and I fully

trust that, with the great facilities afforded me in maturing what acquaintance I alrea-

dy possess relative to the multitudinous and highly diversified objects of investigation

committed tomy charge, I shall, in reasonable time, be able to afford entire satisfaction

to the Society, by carrying out their wishes in every department, which falls within the

scope of my duties to investigate.

When, however, it is remembered that these duties comprise various departments

of the general subject of Natural History, to which in Europe the principle of division

of labour is applied, and that it is rare to find an individual minutely conversant with

the details of two or more of these departments, to the extent which I consider neces-

sary to enable me to discharge efficiently what is generally expected from an indi-

vidual filling the office of Curator to a Museum, I think I may crave some indulgence

on the part of the Society, if I do not, at the very first, prove alike proficient in every

one of these several departments, confidently appealing to the experience of any prac-

tical naturalist, for an acknowledgment of the reasonableness of the plea which I

have here ventured to offer.

It is in the Mineral Department, unfortunately, that I am at present less qualified,

by previous study, to devote my immediate and first labours advantageously for the

1841. | Asiatic Society. , 757

Society ; but with the opportunities for study which are now before me, and with the

liberal encouragement and support I may reckon upon receiving, I do not fear but that

I shall soon render myself competent to discharge that portion of my duty which

relates to the efficient management of the Museum of G&conomic Geology ; this being

a subject in which I feel the liveliest interest, and with the high importance of which

I am deeply and thoroughly impressed.

Inall that relates to the determination of organic forms, recent or fossil, I hope to be

already able to meet the wishes of the Society, having heretofore more particularly

devoted myself to this exceedingly comprehensive branch of study, which has found

me very ample employment in attaining to what information on the subject I at

present possess.

With great respect,

Asiatic Society’s Rooms, I am, Sir,

Calcutta, 22nd September, 1841. Your obedient servant.

Epwarp Buyru.

Resolved, with special reference to the letter from Mr. E. Buytu, that he be put

in charge of the office of Curator, upon the understanding that the appointment will be

made permanent, if at the end of twelve months he has qualified himself for carrying out

the intentions of the Society respecting their Museum, as set forth in the Proceedings

of the Society, recorded in the December No. (96) of the Asiatic Society’s Journal,

1839.

Ordered,—That a copy of the foregoing resolution be communicated to Mr. E,

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PLATE V

JOURNAL

OF THE

ASIATIC SOCIETY.

Description of a Persian Astrolabe, submitted to the Asiatic Society

by Major Pottinger. By J. MippieTon, Esq. Principal of the

Government College at Agra.

The Astrolabe, whose name sufficiently expresses the purpose which

it was originally intended to subserve, seems at first to have been of

very simple construction, consisting of two concentric rings of brass,

the one revolving within the other, upon pivots fixed in their exterior

and inner edges respectively. The instrument thus formed, was so

placed, that its exterior circle coincided with the plane of the meridian ;

the interior one was then made to revolve till the shadows of that part

of the limb, towards the subject of observation, overlapped that of the

Opposite part, when the opening of the rings shewed the meridional

distance of the luminary. By a different adjustment of this simple

instrument, the zenith distance of the sun, and hence the latitude of

the place, could be nearly ascertained. Subsequently, the number of

rings of which the instrument was composed, was augmented until

not only the meridian, but also the Equator, the Ecliptic, the Colures,

&c. were represented, and thus it was when Ptolemy found it, who

established the principles, and contrived the means, by which to pro-

ject the whole upon a plane surface; and to this projection he gave the

name Planisphere. Of the modification of the Astrolabe the Arabs

availed themselves, and were enabled by their improvements in science,

especially in Trigonometry, to raise it to a degree of perfection which

sufficed, during several centuries, both in Asia and part of Europe, for

No. 118. New Series, No. 34. 5D

760 Description of a Persian Astrolabe. [ No. 118:

the somewhat unscrupulous scientific purposes of those times. To

what extent the Astrolabe may be now used by observers in Central

Asia, Iam unable to ascertain ; but among Arab navigators it has given

place, generally, to the quadrant or sextant, upon which it has conferred

its name; the latter being called the Belatee (or foreign) Oosturlab.

Though but little that is new can be said at the present day on the sub-

ject of the Astrolabe, about which volumes have already been written,

yet the one which in this article, I propose to describe, is so superior in

its kind, and displays a degree of taste and accuracy of execution, which

we would scarce be prepared to expect from Central Asia, about a

century and a half ago ;* and it is at the same time so crowded with

facts subservient to science, or superstition, that I am inclined to

believe a short description of it will not be unacceptable. As to the

plates, I may say generally, that for the Persian names of the planets

and signs, I have substituted the Greek symbols, which modern times

have adopted, and have changed for the Arabic numerals, those used

by ourselves. To this substitution, 1 have necessarily sacrificed the

elegance of the original inscription, in which the light and graceful

forms of the Persian characters are tastefully intertwined with flowers.

The object I had in view, constrained me to this sacrifice,—and that

was, to present, in as simple and general a form as possible, an intelli-

gible view of the instrument.

The Astrolabe in question was brought from Herat by Major Pot-

tinger; it consists of a circular piece of brass, about eight inches in

diameter, and three-fourths of an inch thick, being on one side so hol-

lowed out, as to’ contain several plates of brass, upon either side of

which Planispheres are described, according to the latitudes of the

principal places of Mahomedan power or veneration. On its upper

limb is a triangular piece of brass, not represented in the plate,

through the apex of which a ring is freely passed, by which, for pur-

poses of observation, the instrument may be suspended in the vertical.

The back of the Astrolabe, with exception of the triangular part, above

mentioned, is represented in Plate I. Fig. a. while the face is partially

shewn in Plate II. I say partially, because the outer edge of the

* Notre.—The Astrolabe was procured by Major Pottinger from a party,

who had gotten possession of it on the flight of the original owner from

Herat, some time previous to the last siege of the town by the Persians.

1841.] Description of a Persian Astrolabe. 761

recess, in which the trelliced circle represented by Plate IJ. revolves,

is divided into 360°, a mode of graduation well known to the ancients

I have also refrained from introducing drawings of all the Planispheres;

since the doing so would have swelled the number of plates to fourteen,

without, at the same time, disclosing a new truth, or illustrating an old

one.

Premising these general observations, I shall now proceed to more

particular explanation, throughout which, agreeably to my plan, f

shall abstain from introduction of the abstract forms of science. I

shall also, for greater perspicuity, subdivide my description, and arrange

it under heads corresponding with the purposes which the instrument

is intended to serve; viz. those of Astronomy, Astrology, Geography—

and first of its

Astronomy.—I have already said, that but little new can be adduced

on the subject of the Astrolabe, and the same remark applies to Arabian

science generally. The admirable works which the French savans

have conferred upon the world on the Astronomy of the Ancients, leave

but meagre gleanings for whoever may follow, especially in respect to

Arabian astronomy. I shall therefore in the following remarks confine

myself to a description of the astronomical uses for which the instru-

ment in question was probably intended, and refer such who would

acquaint themselves with the principles employed in its construction,

to the “ Astronomie Ancienne” of Delembre.*

In Plate I, which represents the back of the Astrolabe, the upper

limb is divided from the left and right ; or, as the Arabs express it, from

the east and west points, into two equal parts, terminating on the

highest, or zenith point; these quadrantal arcs are again subdivided

jnto ninety equal parts or degrees, ‘‘ the use of the limb thus graduated,

is for observation of the altitudes of celestial bodies, whether for

ascertainment of the latitude, or of the time. The instrument, it is

true, might be employed with even greater accuracy for the determi-

nation of terrestrial heights and distances, but I am not aware that

the Arabs ever do employ it for such purposes; the manner in which—

the Astrolabe is used, is this: the label, or index, Plate I. Fig. 6. is

fixed upon its back by its axis c, which not only secures it there, but

* qu: Bailly? Ep.

762 Description of a Persian Astrolabe. [No. 118.

also passing through the centres of the Planisphere discs, together with

the trelliced plate (Plate II) on the face, binds the whole firmly and com-

pactly. The observer now suspends the instrument, by holding the

ring mentioned above in his right hand, the line passing through the

origin of the graduated arcs, and the centre thus being horizontal,

while that through their terminus, and at right angles to the former,

is necessarily vertical. The object to be observed is now made to

coincide with the plane of the quadrants, and the label is turned

towards it, until a ray of light pass from it to the eye of the observer,

through the perforations of two small plates projecting from the label

near its ends, and at right angles to its length, (Plate I. Fig. 6.) The

are of the quadrant between the horizontal line and the edge of the

label, will evidently be the altitude required. There are undoubtedly

several sources of error, which would render such an instrument unfit

for the purposes of modern science, but with those for whose use it

was originally intended, its imperfections would be unimportant. It

is evident, that in the observation described, the altitude obtained is

too great by the whole amount of refraction, an error which becomes

considerable, when the object is near the horizon. I am of opinion, to,

that the error in reading off the altitude would not be sufficiently

allowed for, when repeated observations are impracticable, under 5.’

Another ground of inaccuracy would necessarily be the difficulty, almost ~

impossibility, with such an instrument of taking the centre in observa-

tions of the sun. These errors, springing from different sources, might

sometimes, it is true, correct each other to a certain extent, but this

vague probability must, of course, be insufficient to produce confidence

in the instrument. ;

The parallel straight lines on the left of the upper limb are semi-

almacanthers, or semi-circles of celestial altitude, seen on their edges,

while the concentric arcs on the right seem to be intended to connect

those signs which have north declination with those which, in that

respect correspond with them towards the south; such a table is

committed to memory by Asiatic astronomers, to which the neat

arrangement is well suited.

Under the central line, and symmetrical with the centre, are two

rectangles, the one within the other, and whose length is twice their

breadth. The figures alluded to, are immediately recognizable by

1841. ] Description of a Persian Astrolabe. 763

terms—horizontal shadow,—vertical shadow,—at their longer and

shorter sides, respectively. These rectangles are each divided into

two equal parts by the production of the vertical line above. They

are next divided on the lower edge from the centre towards the right

into twelve, and towards the left into seven equal parts. The vertical

edges are also submitted to similar graduation. The meaning and

principle of these graduations the next paragraph will explain.

To the Arab, as to the Hindoo astronomer, the gnomon was an

important, if not an indispensable auxiliary. Some divide the

shadow into twelve, others into seven equal parts, according to

fancy, or the length of the gnomon employed. This scale, whether

divided into twelve or seven parts, is of the same length as the gno-

mon itself, and is consequently only capable of measuring altitudes |

within the limits of 0° and 45’, or 45° and 90°, according to the

situation of the plane upon which the gnomon stands. In order to

compensate for this insufficiency, two gnomons are used, one parallel

to the horizon, and one vertical to it. At sun rise, it is evident,

the shadow of the vertical gnomon is indefinite, and is for long after

incapable of being used as a measure of altitude. Again, at the time

of sun rise, the shadow of the horizontal gnomon, pointed as it is

towards the east, is zero, and gradually increases as tlie sun ascends,

until he has attained the altitude of 45°, when the shadow reaches

the limit of its scale, and from that time ceases to be available as

a measure of altitude. Whilst the shadow of the horizontal gnomon has

been thus slowly stretching itself, that of the vertical has contracted

‘to the further end ofits scale, and is now prepared to perform the

functions for which the other ceases to be qualified; and the same

process is repeated, but in an inverse order, till the going down of

the sun.

The scales by which shadow is measured, are sometimes made five

times the length of the gnomon, the shadow being then divided into

sixty and thirty-five equal parts; but as such a scale could not be laid

down upon the instrument, without causing embarrassment, or injury

to its compactness, the following ingenious artifice is resorted to. In

construction of the Astrolabe, the horizontal scales, just described,

are produced to the right and left respectively, the former being then

divided into sixty, the latter into thirty-five-equal parts. This done,

764 Description of a Persian Astrolabe. [No. 118.

the edge of a geometrical rule is passed over the centre of the instru-

ment and each of the divisions successively, and the points in which

the same edge cuts the limb are marked ; the numbers corresponding to

them on the original scale are then affixed, and thus the rectilinear scales

have been projected into the more convenient form of circular ones,

seen in the exterior demi-annulus of the lower limb. It is plain that,

by means of these scales and the quadrants of altitude, the height

of the sun being given, the length of the shadow may be found, and

reciprocally.

Having thus described, however imperfectly, the astronomical uses

of the back of the Astrolabe, I proceed next to its face, which exhibits

a stereographic projection of the ecliptic on the plane of the equator.

I should here mention, that Plate V. shews the method of construc-

tion here employed. If I recollect right, Delembre gives a less ac-

curate method by which he believed Arabian astronomers effected this

projection, and on this account I consider this a very accurate and neat

plate, too important to omit, and by means of which, when fixed over the

Planispheres by the common axis, yet left free to revolve, many in-

teresting and useful problems, for which globes are used with us, may

be readily performed. The numbers on its fancifully formed angular

points correspond with those of the list of stars, with which this part of

my description will conclude. On the instrument itself, the names, as

given in the table, are neatly engraved; this the flexibility of the

Arabic character, and its susceptibility of packing, permitted ; with

ours, on the contrary, it could scarce be done, and I have therefore

preferred on that, and other grounds, the method of reference by

numbers. I believe, observations regarding these stars should more

properly come under the astrological head; but as they are used for

ascertaining the time of the night, &c. and as there is besides some-

thing very interesting about them, I prefer reversing them from that

situation.

Ulug Beg, whose authority we have given for the position of the stars,

was king of Samarcand, and flourished in the early part of the fifteenth

century. He was an eminent astronomer ; and the accuracy with which

his observations were made, is sufficiently proved by the fact, that on

making computation from his data, for the present time, I could readi-

ly discover, with one exception, the stars inscribed on the plate. The

ae ing

1841. ] Description of a Persian Astrolabe. 765

learned Hyde, who gives a Latin version of Ulug Beg’s tables, which was

obligingly lent to me by our worthy Secretary, in his able preface to that

work, says of the author, ‘‘ Inter distractiones animi et repetita regni

negotia administranda ad subtiliora in scientiis investiganda se appli-

euit.” And again quoting a contemporary historian aud panegyrist,

he says, ‘“‘ At celsus iste animus etsi in summo rerum fastigio esset

constitutus tamen in pulverem mathematicum descendere non dedig-

natus esset.” This historian, obviously, did not understand that the

royal astronomer while thus engaged, was but drawing pleasure from

its purest source, and inscribing his name on the bright heavens, in a

character which would not soon be forgotten. We are informed by

Ulug Beg himself, that for the observations, the result of which appear

in his tables, he caused to be constructed a quadrant of great radius,

“ cujus radius altitudine Templi Sanctze Sophize cequaret,” and that the

latitudes and longitudes of the stars thus obtained, were to serve as

data for future computations, the method of effecting which, he bimself

supplies. c

“‘ Stellarum loca in tabulis designavimus pro initio anno Hejyra 841,

at. quovis tempore quis possit stellarum loca invenire cum singulis sep-

tuagenis annis solaribus per annum tantum gradum moveantur.” The

addition of 1° for every 70 years is not quite correct, as the precession

of the equinoxes is about 1° in 72 years nearly, on the average, since

the time of Ulug Beg; at present it is 1° in 71.66 years. Allowance

is also to be made for the diminution of the obliquity, a fact which

appears to have been unknown to ancient astronomers.

Description of a Persian Astrolabe. [No. 118.

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1841.] Description of a Persian Astrolabe. 769

Astrology.—This is a subject which, I am aware, has but little in-

terests for us; yet I should have but unsatisfactorily completed the work

I have undertaken, had I passed it over. Among the Mahome@ans of

India, too, so far as my information enables me to judge, Astrology is

but little respected ; some of the most intelligent of them, whom I have

met with, and questioned on the subject, evidently disliked the inquiry ;

and generally replied to the effect, that there is no power in the crea-

tion but that of the Deity, and that it is against the religion of a true

Mussulman to believe in other influences. It is however probable, that

extreme ignorance on subjects connected with science may have as

much to do with their disbelief, as rigid piety. What degree of import-

ance may be at present attached to it in Central Asia, Iam not aware;

if, however I may judge from the care and finish which have been

bestowed on this part of the Astrolabe, and its completeness, it is con-

siderable; and I remember Major Pottinger stating, that the instrument

was chiefly used for Astrological purposes, by the person from whom he

obtained it. Towards the South West, it appears to have still its hold,

since Lamartine informs us,in his Travels in Palestine, that on his

visit to the eccentric Lady Esther Stanhope, he thought he could detect

the secret of her surprising influence over the lawless tribes of the

desert, in her enthusiastic belief, and apparent skill, in the sciences of

Astrology and Palmistry.

Among the Hindoos it is still implicitly believed in, and the neces-

sity which this imposes on those who profess it, of being acquainted

with the prominent facts of Astronomical science, has served to con-

tinue down to our times disjecte membre of their ancient system,

which otherwise, like the rest, would probably have been lost. I shall

now proceed to explain, what part the Astrological constants engraved

upon the Astrolabe, (Plate I. Fig. a.) bear in the casting of a Horoscope,

be it natal or annual.

The interior of the rectangle, about the sides of which, as already

explained, are distributed the divisions of shadow, as also the four

interior demi-annuli of the lower limb are entirely devoted to Astro-

logical purposes.

The rectangle contains the celestial Trigons, so called from their

positions in the ecliptic occupying the vertices of equilateral triangles,

together with the Planets which govern them by day, and those

770 Description of a Persian Astrolabe. [No. 118.

which govern them by night. Their influences are expressed in gene-

ral terms in the margin. Their order in the drawing is, according to

that of Persian writing, from left to right ,and hence perhaps the fol-

lowing arrangement will be found more plain :—

Trigons. Governing Planets Governing Planets

by Day. by Night.

te i onoue ON ie p/ ERE S PROM:

Ce ae Ts RED OES: aie aes

Te 1 4G a Mer asy Ip

Sed WOE PosudixD Cee 2) gid

By the Hindoo distribution, the twelve signs constitute one Trigon, each of the vertical column

constituting a side.

The inner demi-annulus contains the lunar mansions; they are 28

in number, and extend over the whole ecliptic; each representing,

proximately, the space passed. over by the moon in one day. Their

names are as follow :—

Be aOR =

mn TON OB AN Oo ON NY See eS Bs

es | > & ie

Zi 2 nN Nn N

ra | r

= y ae ap =

= fas} n oS SS =) o

* is] Rl al an o

(ae mB CO re tlon' Pr n = 2S SS =) ~

®D * = ee nw be i 5S 4 rae)

2 Ze 2 a8 eS eee ee

i. [o) pie | = om 3 fae] om

sg ch ee ara ay BOON ey ee ee

fo) CN — ; ef “7 ae —

2 'e Ne Ch) ec en” He Nive

o's. 3| 8 BA SO 8 og 2 eee oe

=| FS fax 4: x AS og Ww WV 4 > i, | (aed

Be Ls 2 Fay 3 e £ 2 ra

Gw =

22 |

ao) 1D OF OO Cy o@ (eM (0 (oS Be Oa

oF A) rl ete) ett rt boGNinarGNag |G) pliGe GREG XN AN

Sete

om.) | an

gs QV 69) RSE AG ne a aS AN 2 ee a

—_

Z, ND

=) = ae S oy «~

ro) OS oS i rr - PR s ~ & - cs o

ae | 2 So Be eS oe oe oe ee ee

= | 5 S Veaar eS ily Ba Soe Sue a ee

‘ 6 Sema 4) Jeg Sy ae esi: f Orie tees ee =

Sie Tee ia ee ie Le

“ Al 4 4 we KR A 21 sa teeON Gq

ag ae yA ee eo he

ee eS > a ee

Zi 2 D)

— WN oO!

~~ = = ma

No. of

Mansions.

]

1841.] Description of a Persian Astrolabe. til

These mansions occupy a prominent place in the Astrological

system; certain actions are to be annually performed, certain to be

avoided by a person throughout life, according to the mansion in

which the moon was at the time of his birth. With the Hindoos, each

mansion is divided inte four equal parts, to each of which appertains

exclusively a certain letter or syllable, according to which the name

of a person born during the occupancy of such portion, has its com-

mencement determined. For instance, the late Lion of the Punjab

must have been born while the moon was in the Ist quarter of the

15th mansion, as to that alone belongs the letter { with which his

name Cutsjta fas commences. There are many other attributes

which they possess, but which it would be tedious and unprofitable to

mention. The names of Mahomedans are determined by the Koran, as

the sortes of old were by a reference to Virgil.

The next demi-annulus contains the faces or aspects of the planets,

the nature and importance of which are as follow :—Each planet views

with full power the sign opposite to that in which he is, if in the 4th

and 10th signs with one half, or so on.

The full power of a planet is represented in the plate by the

number 60, the half by 30, &c. &c.

The third demi-annulus contains the signs of the Zodiac themselves,

to which, as will be seen, the others are referred.

The fourth, and last, is occupied by the Aedood, or houses of the

Planets, which I have termed, not happily I find, ‘‘ comparative influ-

ences ;” each sign is divided amongst the Planets. For instance, to

Jupiter appertains the first six degrees of Aries, and consequently if he

is within the limits of the first six degrees, he is in his own house ; if

between the sixth and twelfth degrees, in the house of Venus, and

sO on. )

When a Horoscope is to be cast, a square is first described, and

divided into twelve compartments as follows :—

Tee Description of a Persian Astrolabe. [No. 118.

The arrangement of the signs in this is intended to shew their

position in the case when rises at the time, for which celestial

interpretation is to be made.

In order to the casting of an Annual Horoscope, the following data

have to be established.

First.—The master at the time of birth of the changing sign, e. g.

if Aries rises at that time, the next year at the same hour it will be

Taurus, and so on.

Secondly.—The master of the first house for the year.

Thirdly.—The master of Trigons.

Fourthly.—The master of the sun’s house at the beginning of the

year, if the year begin during the day, and of that of the moon, if the

year begin during the night. |

Fifthly.—The master of the first house at the time of birth, if

Aries or Scorpio rose at that time; Mars is the ruling planet if Taurus

or Libra; Venus, if Gemini or Virgo; Mercury, if Cancer; the Moon, if

Leo; the Sun, if Sagittarius or Pisces ; Jupiter and Capricornus or |

Aquarius, if Saturn.

The above observations and computations having been duly made,

the advantages and disadvantages, to which every planet is subject,

are represented by numbers. The former are then added, and the

sum of the latter subtracted from the amount of each. The remain- |

ders are now compared, and the planet which has the greatest remain-

der is the master of the year, and his influence is then paramount.

A similar, but far more complex process, is followed in determining

a natal Horoscope; but which, as my object is merely to render

OS pe Se

“ial i_—* «

1841.] Description of a Persian Astrolabe. me

intelligible the inscriptions on the Astrolabe, it were superfluous here

to enter into.

I shall now take leave of this part of my subject, with the hope, that

a structure so laboured and unsubstantial, so carefully repaired and

sustained by selfishness and priestcraft, will at no distant date crumble

into dust, when the congenial shade of ignorance, which it now enjoys,

shall have been dissipated by the sunshine of knowledge.

Geography.—I shall now describe the geographical and devotional

parts of the instrument. The association of these two subjects in one

category may at first sight appear singular, but it is none other than what

the Astrolabe itself exhibits. I have not deemed it necessary to present

a drawing of that part of the instrument exclusively devoted to these

subjects, since I feel reluctant to increase the number of the plates

beyond what is indispensably requisite ; and in the present case, I have

hopes of making myself understood by explanation alone.

The bottom of the recess in which the Planispheres repose, is di-

vided by concentric circles, the common centre of which is the reason

of the recess into the annuli. The outer of these contains symbols

‘indicating the directions, generally expressed, of Mecca, from the places

named in the annulus next below, and correspond with S. E. for

South-Kast, &c. The second contains several of the principal places

of Mahomedan veneration and power, beginning, of course, with Mecca. ,

The third and fourth are devoted to the longitudes and latitudes of

those places respectively, and the fifth is occupied with the azimuths

of the Kaaba at each of them. The remaining annuli are similarly |

occupied ; and thus by this neat arrangement, fifty of the principal

Mahomedan cities in Asia, with their absolute and relative positions,

are exhibited at one view. It must be confessed, however, that these

latitudes and longitudes are, with a few exceptions, under the most

favorable view of them, exceedingly inaccurate, and consequently,

so are also the azimuths dependent upon them.* Such places as

* The following is their method of deducing the azimuth from the latitude. Having

cut off from the meridian, beginning at the zenith, an arc equal to the sum or differ-

ence of the latitudes, and from the prime vertical an arc equal to the sum or difference

of the longitudes, and from the points of section having drawn perpendiculars to the

ares ; the point in which these perpendiculars meet is the zenith of Mecca. Then

having drawn chords to the arcs denoting the distances of the zeniths, and those ex-

pressing the differences of latitude and longitude, they easily obtained, by Plane Tri-

gonometry, the azimuth angle.

774 Description of a Persian Astrolabe. [ No. 118.

Mecca, Medina, and Ispahan, and a few others, have their latitudes and

longitudes pretty correctly assigned; those of inferior note seem to

have had them very carelessly observed, or perhaps merely guessed.

I must at the same time confess my belief that, generally speaking,

European mathematicians have not done their Arabian predecessors

full justice, in respect at least to their longitudes ; but that having

assigned to them a first meridian from which they did not compute,

they have unintentionally attributed to them errors that sprung from

themselves.

The first meridian among the Greeks passed through the “ Fortunate

Islands,” a meridian which Ptolemy adopted, and from which he made

his calculations. These islands have been pretty generally believed to

be the Canary Isles, probably from the circumstance of their lying

at the Western extremity of Europe. I am rather inclined to think,

however, that the place from which Grecian geometers, (and conse-

quently their imitators, the Arabs,) commenced their longitude, was an

umaginary one, aud that therefore, like the Lanca of the Hindoos,

its position was never satisfactorily ascertained.

The Fortunate Isles probably owed their origin primarily to the”

fabled Hesperides, and, secondarily, to that copious fertility of inven- |

tion that sprung into existence about the time of Alexander, and which

may be traced downwards to that of Columbus himself: an invention

which filled up the blanks of unexplored regions with mysterious and

delightful lands, untrodden by the foot of ambition, where the golden

age still lingered in its bright perfection. Diodorus informs us, that

the Tyrant Cassander sent one Gohemerus on an exploratory voyage, |

and that he discovered the island of Panchaia, astonishing for its |

wealth, and the innocence of its inhabitants: where the most perfect |

happiness, peace, justice, and voluntary obedience to the laws, had |

flourished for thousands of years; this was indeed a fortunate island, |

and probably the father of our family. Pliny the second informs us,

that it was in his day believed by some, that the Hesperides still existed |

somewhere in that direction, but that there was much doubt upon |

the subject. He also states indeed, giving his authority, that the |

Fortunate Islands lie under the first meridian. “ Juba de Fortunatis ita |

inquisivit ; sub meridiem positas esse prope occasum a Purpurariis |

DCCXXV.M. passuum sic ut CCL supra occasum navigetur: deinde |

See ee

CSE aE Ce,

1841. | Description of a Persian Astrolabe. — 775

per CCCLXXV.M. passuum ortus petatur.” Without doubt, these were the

Canary Islands, but there is no reason to believe that, by any observa-

tions of his, the navigator ascertained them to lie under the first

meridian ; it is rather to be suspected, indeed, that from their being a

group, and lying in the supposed direction, he assumed them to be

such. Pomponius Mela also attempts to identify the Fortunate Isles

with the Canaries, but his description, more minute indeed than that

of Pliny, is so tainted with incredibilities, as to convince us of the

little reliance that is to be placed on the observations of those who

supplied him with information. Some Arabian authors of the twelfth

century have got over the difficulty of identification, by asserting, that

the ‘“ Fortunate Islands” had been, before their time, submerged. How-

ever this may be, it may I think be easily shewn, that the first meridian of

the ancients could not have passed over any part of the Canary Islands.

In order to ascertain the first meridian, as implied in their compu-

tations, I selected some of the principal places, and thus found it to

be about 35° 50’ to the west of ours, and thus about nearly 6° beyond

the most remote of the Canary Isles.* Bagdad for instance, according to

Ulug Beg, in whose authority I have much confidence, lies in 80° E.

longitude, while its ascertained longitude is with us 44° 30", which gives

for the first meridian of the Arabs, a position 35° 30’ west of ours, or

about 5° to the west of the Canary Islands, and by the whole amount of

this difference have the errors of Arabian longitudes been augmented

where errors existed, and supposed where they were not. Playfair, for

instance, in the introduction to his Geography, while commenting upon

their inaccuracies, expresses surprise that they should so far have mis-

calculated the longitude of the debouchment of the Indus, which if

he had taken their first meridian in place of the assumed one of the

Canary Isles, he would have found it pretty exact.

To our Astrolabe belongs, as already stated, several circular plates

of brass, upon which are inscribed stereographic projections of the

* The following computations confirm this statement :—

a. Long. E. Long. Dif. of Long. Average diff.

Medina, Fatieyin yes or 20) 39° 20" 36°

Damascus, ..., 72° 36° 36° 30° 33”

Ispahan, ee oOo 52° 34? 4”

Sheraz, iene Oe a2? 45" Bo? 15”

Bussorah, .... 84° 46° 30" By eeu

776 Description of a Persian Astrolabe. [ No. 118.

sphere, according to the latitudes of certain places. Plate III. is a

representation of one of these, and only differs from the others in

Polar altitude, or otherwise in the distance of the Pole from the as-

signed limit of vision, which in such projections, is supposed to lie

considerably below the horizon : here 24°.

It will be seen from an inscription, at the centre of the plate, that

it is characterised not by its latitude alone, but also by a certain

measure of time. This was usual among ancient Geometers, who divid-

ed, arbitrarily, the earth into a certain number of climates by par..lels

to the Equator. The limits of these climates were determined, either

by their equinoctial distance, or by the length of their longest day, or,

as in the case of our Astrolabe, by both. The column of figures rising

upwards from the margin of the plate towards the Pole, belongs to the

parallels the latitude, of complements of which are numbered, obliquely,

from the Equator northward, on both the east and west sides. The

figures indicating the degrees of longitude, are arranged both ways

from the meridian to the horizon, and are then continued under the

Pole on a semi-parallel of latitude. In addition to the meridians and

parallels of latitude, are two concentric circles parallel to the horizon,

one above, and the other below it: these are almacanthers of altitude.

There are also horary circles, with their corresponding numbers, com-

mencing with “ first” at the east point, and continuing round the sphere

to the same point, also numbers commencing from at the west and

ending with 12 at the east, the reading being backwards. These

were called by the Arabs direct or reverse hours, for an obvious reason.

The latter arrangement of the numbers arises, as I apprehend, from |

their being conceived to lie on the side of the sphere opposite to that |

of the former. |

By means of the Planisphere, the moveable plate, (Plate IT.) already |

described, and the circles of shadow and of altitude, numerous problems |

regarding latitude and longitude, time, the altitudes of celestial bodies, |

&c. are readily performed. Indeed, they serve pretty generally, in these |

respects, the purposes of our globes, with the great drawback, how- |

ever, that each Planisphere serves only for its own latitude. Hence it |

is, that each Astrolabe has usually, in addition to their finished spheres,

a model plate; after which others may be constructed. The represen- |

tation of this is given in Plate IV. It consists of horizontal ares des- :

ie ae ar ‘os ae

(i eg Hil

LAK aaa Wig

Z hi ‘N\) WAV

AY pT

N Me, , (7,

is Wali aii Mf My 7,

i Y

We Wi Nat

Ni ne

qh iN

\ ah

(On on

Ni lh iM

o i aves

SL /

iG, HE

SN ) ia

% ie [JCA

i yet

Labs

Cyr

AGG IS

et ks POPS

¥ nate ) Hey 1S

—

pa me WA

LO.

UE Ge

jenni

ub. Marines of

L, hoe

SF Meas. Aine. C

Wichorivys Me

1841. ] Description of a Persian Astrolabe. VIG

cribed for the different latitudes marked at their ends, as also the

Equator, the Tropics, the Solstitial and Equinoctial colures and indica-

tions, in round numbers of the obliquity of the Ecliptic. On some of

the Planispheres are drawn, the circles of szrwé or circles of the direc-

tion of the Kaaba; on the one given it is wanting; a few of these

appear on the right of the upper limb, Plate I. Fig. a. one of which is

marked as the line of prayer for Ispahan. The others are similarly

marked in the Astrolabe, but I have omitted the names.

In now taking leave of my subject, 1 have much pleasure in

acknowledging my obligation to Rajchunder Dutt, an intelligent

Pundit of Calcutta, now, I believe, employed at the Nepaul Resi-

dency, for the valuable assistance which he rendered me in decypher-

ing the inscription; as also to Pundit Ruttunlal of this place, who

has supplied me with much astrologtcal information.

Agra, September 11th, 1841.

Notice of the Marmot of the Himalaya and of Tibet. By B. H. Hoveson, Esa.

Resident at the Court of Nepal.

In the extensive peltry trade carried on between Nepal and Tibet, no

skin is more commonly met with than that of the Marmot, which I long

ago named in my Catalogue, Arctomys Himalayanus, and now beg to

furnish a summary description, and correct drawing of.

This animal is from twenty-three to twenty-four inches long from

snout to vent, and the tail is usuallv from five to six more. It is a mas-

sive animal, larger than the Indian Hare, with weighty broad head, furnish-

_ ed with large eyes, and small, rounded, but apart, ears. |

The neck is short, the body full, the limbs short, and of equal strength

_ fore and aft, though the anterior nails be somewhat stouter than the

posterior. The general structure of the feet, is that of the commoner

_ Murines, or Rats, and the digits are cleft to their bases, as in the ordinary

- Rat and Mouse; but the nails are rather stouter, and more suited to digging,

though not at all typically scansorial. The tail, one-fourth the length of

_ the animal, is rather slender and cylindric, ending in a bluff point, and not

having the hair at all more elongated, or more or less full than it is on the

body. The incisors are very powerful, and the molars are as broad on the

778 Notice of the Marmot of the Himalaya. [No. 118.

. See 3 2

crown, as they are high above the gum. Dental formula, incisors 3 molars

iq. The distance between the snout and the fore canthus of the eye is

greater than that to the base of the ear from the latter; and so broad is

the head, that the eyes are 13th inch apart in straight measurement. The

general colour is a clearly fulvescent catsgrey, much like that of Felis Chaus,

and fading into pure rufescent yellow below ; the limbs and ears the same,

but deeper; and the chaffron and end of the tail, dark brown. The fur is

close, thick, composed like a cat’s, but rather harsher, and of two sorts, or

hairy and woolly: the hair, straight, elastic, about 13 inch of maximum

length, and triannulate as to colour from the base, with dusky-brown,

rufescent-yellow, and black; the last and apical part being the least; the

woolly piles about one inch long, wavy, and void of the black tips; hands,

feet, and face, dressed closely in soft hairs only. The following, then,

may serve for a specific character, perhaps.

Arctomys Himalayanus, of a rufescent cat-grey colour above, and pure

rufous yellow below; the limbs more saturate; the bridge of nose and

end of tail, deep brown; the tail equal to 3 of the length of the animal

cylindric and bluff pointed ; the fur close, thick, composed of two sorts, and

trebly ringed in all the upper parts with dusky, rufescent yellow and

black ; the wool, without the last ring of the hair; snout to vent 24

inches; tail 6 with hair; head 42; palm (with the nail) 23; planta

(ditto) 33.

The habitat of this species is the Himalaya, and Kachar rarely, and very

commonly the sandy plains of Tibet; gregarious in large bodies; live in

burrows ; hibernate for four months; have all the confident tameness of the

Bay Bamboo Rat of Nepal, which they greatly resemble in manners; so

that the people say of both, that when approached by men, they never

think of running away; but put up their fore-feet civilly, deprecating the

intrusion, and, if not heeded, resign themselves at once to captivity. The

fat of the Marmots is much prized for certain medicinal properties, and is

used as an unguent in rheumatism and gout. The cured skins are yet

more valued for dress, and form an important article of commerce. Many

come to Cathmandoo, and many more go to the towns of China, in the

course of trade.

B. H. Hopveson.

Nepal, June, 1841.

Memorandum on the Organization of a Museum of Economic Geo-

logy for the North-Western Provinces of British India, to be estab-

lished at Agra. By Lieut. W. Bairp Smitu, Bengal Engineers.

The adequate representation and illustration of those important and

Characteristics of a eXtensive departments in the economy of life, in which

hen oF Bee iidite the principles of the science of Geology are made

Geology. subservient to the interests or comforts of mankind,

may with safety be assumed as the chief characteristics of a well-

organised Museum of Economic Geology. ‘To insure such results, the

resources not of science alone, but of art also are essential; since while

the one indicates when general principles are applicable to special

cases, the other shews how they are to be most effectively applied.

In devising, therefore, a scheme for the organisation of a new institu-

tion of this nature, theory and practice must each have its proper

place assigned to it, and each be illustrated by appropriate means. It

has been my anxious endeavour to embody these views practically in

the following details of the system proposed for the Museum of Eco-

nomic Geology for the North-Western Provinces of India, and al-

though it may be long ere the institution attains that completeness in

its various departments herein specified, it has been considered ad-

visable in projecting it, to do so on the most effective scale. Slow

and laborious may be its progress, yet may it be anticipated that by

the continual efforts of those interested in its success, even the highest

point in the scale proposed, will ultimately be attained.

2. In the investigation of the mineral resources of hitherto unex-

. See plored districts, it is of the utmost idk es soca WY

the department of have a weil-defined standard to which the newly

etsy: discovered products of such regions may with readi-

ness be referred. The basis, therefore, of the Museum in the depart-

ment of mineralogy, ought, I conceive, to consist of a series of charac-

teristic specimens of all minerals of established economic importance ;

and if it were possible to procure such specimens from the localities

most celebrated for producing them, their value would in some degree

be increased. The object of this collection being to impart as great

an amount of information as possible, all its arrangements ought to be

made subservient to this purpose. ‘The specimens should be carefully

780 Museum of Economic Geology [ No. 118.

classified and named, according to an established system of classifi-

cation and nomenclature, while means ought to be taken to exhibit

for each those synonymes by which it is so unhappily burdened. I

feel it a matter of considerable difficulty, from the existing state of

Mineralogy, both as regards classification and nomenclature, to specify

which of the many systems that have, from time to time, been propos-

ed, is likely to prove the most useful. In truth, the many anomalies

that disfigure even the most highly recommended of our methods of

arrangement, and the excessive and bewildering multiplication of

synonymes in mineralogical nomenclature, leave us but the power of

selecting the least defective of the schemes that have been proposed ;

so, that in expressing myself in the present instance in favour of the

Natural History system of Professor Mohs, I would add, that I am fully

conscious of its deficiencies, and of the anomalous results it not unfre-

quently exhibits; but on considertion of its general utility, of its

extensive adoption as the system of valuable mineralogical works, and

of schools of instruction, I am disposed to prefer it to the rival chemi-

cal system of the celebrated Berzelius, the only one that can compete

with it. Believing, however, that minerals will never be grouped ac-

cording to the system that actually exists in nature, save by a method

of classification that, without being rigidly based either upon their

external physical properties alone, as in that of Mohs, or on some ar-

bitrary relation of their chemical constituents, as in that of Berzelius,

takes due cognizance of both classes of characteristics, and forms its

orders, genera, and species, in accordance with the natural analogies of

these, I regret much that I have never seen the system recently pro-

posed by Professor Naumann, of Freyberg, which is based on the pre-

ceeding mixed principle, and which, in the opinion of Mr. Whewell,

himself a Professor of Mineralogy, is the best hitherto published.*

Till this system becomes known in India, I would recommend ad-

herence to that of Mohs, in the classification and nomenclature of the

mineralogical department of the Museum.

3. While it is essential to the completeness of the Museum that all

Metallic minerals minerals of established economic ratio should have

Coals. place in it, their high commercial and social im-

* History of Inductive Sciences, vol. iii. p. —

1841. | for the North Western Provinces. 781

portance give a marked pre-eminence to those of the metallic and car-

bonaceous orders. Both of these ought, accordingly, to be illustrated

to the greatest extent of detail that circumstances will admit of, and

specimens of metals, with their various ores, as also of the different

species of coal, are of primary importance. The opportunity thus af-

forded of studying with care those external characters which, by ex-

perience, have been recognised as the indices of certain properties in

the minerals exhibiting them, may frequently enable us to pronounce

an immediate opinion as to the economic importance of newly discover-

ed members of either of the two orders above alluded to. Specimens of

each metal when it occurs native, accompanied by others of its native

salts and ores, are, I therefore conceive, essential to the illustration of

metallic mineralogy, while specimens of all the varieties of coal, both of

such as are considered good and bad, are equally essential to that of car-

bonaceous minerals. As subordinate to the former, specimens of the

different matrices, whether of rock, gravel, sand, or clay, in which

metallic minerals occur may be provided, while in the same relation

to the latter, specimens of the rock, that constitute the coal formation,

together with their characteristic fossils, would prove most useful.

Some farther remarks relative to the illustration of these two im-

portant orders will be made in noticing the mechanical details in

Metallurgy and Coal Mining; and I would only add as a reason for

adverting specially to them at present, that there is abundant reason

to believe, the North-Western Provinces of India afford, both in me-

tal and coal deposits, fields of the richest character. Metallic minerals

have long been known, and wrought for commercial purposes through-

out them, and indications of extensive coal beds have very recently

been discovered in the Himalayas, so situated, as in the estimation of

their discoverer, to be of the highest importance to our lately acquired

right of navigating the Indus. This, indeed, is but one of many

causes that at present combine to give importance to such researches,

and to urge upon us, increased activity in their prosecution. The

most powerful of all these stimulating causes will probably be found

in the execution, in all likelihood at no distant period, of a grand

line of internal navigation, connecting the‘remotest limits of these pro-

Vinces, with the central mart of Indian commerce, and promising, from

the scale on which it has been projected, to admit of such increased

782 Museum of Economic Geology [No. 118.

facilities of intercourse, as may be expected to awaken to new life the

commercial energies and enterprise of the valuable districts, through

which it will pass.

4. Since it may be expected that many of those persons willing to

Requisites for the avail themselves of the existence of the Museum to

determination of the become acquainted with the principles of Economic

of Minerals. Geology would require information of the most

elementary character, I consider it would add to the useful effect

of the Museum, were measures adopted to facilitate the acquisition of

such knowledge. As addressing themselves more immediately to our

senses, the external characters of minerals first claim attention, and

among these, the high importance of crystalline form, arising from its

constancy in the same substances, naturally suggests that some mea-

sures should be taken for the illustration both of the general principles

of Crystallography, and of the manual operations by which these are

practically applied to the determination of particular bodies. For the

former object, it would I think be found most useful to have a series

of model crystalline forms, so arranged, as to exhibit distinctly, those

varied, yet determinate modifications of certain primary forms, which

are found to exist among crystallised bodies in nature ; for the latter

purpose, goniometers, or instruments for the measurement of angles of

erystals, both of the common compass and reflective kinds, ought to be

provided. Those brilliant optical phenomena exhibited by minerals,

possessing the property of double refraction, under the influence of

polarized light, and which furnish us with new means of referring

these minerals to the systems of crystallisation of which they may be

members, require for their display an apparatus of the most simple

character, consisting only of a few pieces of common glass, and any —

non-metallic reflecting surface. For the determination of the important

property of specific gravity, a hydrostatic balance, or properly con-

structed hydrometer would be essential, while, a smal] magnet and

electrometer would be necessary for ascertaining the magnetic or electric

properties of any mineral under examination. Separation of the most

important characters is elicited by the employment of the blow-pipe

in the examination of minerals. This therefore, with its necessary

accompaniments of fluxes, &c. would be required, and with the

addition of a few minor articles, as files, knives, pincers, &c. would

1841. | for the North-Western Provinces. 783

complete the list of requisites, for the determination of the external

properties of mineral substances.

5. But these physical properties wili not in all cases suffice for the iden-

Reason for the at- tification, still less for the determination of the econo-

tachment of a chemi- ‘ : :

cal laboratory to the Mic value of newly discovered minerals; and were we

ee ae t, econe to tal f them alone, we would be led

mic Geology, North %0 take cognizance of them alone, we would be led, as

Western Provinces, Mohs has in many instances been, to class together

and anticipated be-

nefits. substances of the most different nature, on account

of their external resemblances. Farther, it has been found, that there

exists in nature a class of bodies between which the singular quality

subsists, of being competent to replace each other in compound mi-

nerals without in the slightest degree affecting the external characters

of these. Since the class of isomorphous substances is by no means

limited in number, the necessity of having recourse to the definitive

test of chemical analysis before deciding on the real nature of any

mineral presented to us, becomes apparent. The attachment therefore

of a small, but effective chemical laboratory, to a Museum of Econo-

mic Geology is, I consider, essential to the efficiency of the institution.

Such a laboratory ought to be fitted up with special reference to

mineral analysis, and as the apparatus and re-agents required for

this are not either very extensive or expensive, the necessary outlay

would, I believe, be amply compensated by the results of its oper-

ation. It is net merely in the department of mineralogy that its

aid would be required ; but it will be found, as we advance, that in

almost every department of Economic Geology the results of analysis

will prove most important,—important not only in an economical,

but also in a purely scientific point of view. It is to be remembered

that mineralogy is no more limited to the mere identification and classi-

fication of minerals than is Astronomy to those of the heavenly bodies,

or Botany to those of plants. Like any science it has to do with causes

as well as an effect; with laws as well as results, and its true limits

will only be attained, when to a clear development of physical pro-

perties, it adds the discovery of those principles of internal organisa-

tion of which these properties are only the visible exponents. An

element of the first importance towards such discoveries, is a thorough

acquaintance with the chemical components of mineral substances, so

that viewed only as a boon to pure science, the application of analysis

784 Museum of Economic Geology LNo. 118.

to the mineral products of the North-Western Provinces would be

of the highest order ; and the field is so novel and extensive, that we

could scarcely fail to develop information at once valuable and inter-

esting.

6. From the experience already obtained in the prosecution of min-

mee Sao ing operations in this country, it appears that one

ting processesofMe- main obstacle to their success has arisen from de-

tallurgy and practi- : : :

cal details of Coal fective knowledge of the practical and working de-

eae. tails of such operations. In the arrangements of the

practical department of the Museum, our efforts ought accordingly

to be directed to the removal of this deficiency, and measures ought

to be adopted for procuring, from the best sources, the means of

illustration required. Primarily, in the case of metallic minerals,

specimens of the ores of each metal, in the different stages of their

progress, from their original extraction from the matrix to their

production in a state fit for commercial or general purposes, ought to

‘be procured, and arranged systematically with every reference to in-

struction. ‘For the illustration of each process, wherein apparatus or

machinery is employed, models of these ought, whenever practicable

to be procured, and on such a scale, as to admit of the exhibition of

details of construction. Farther, similar models exhibiting the under-

ground arrangements of the mine, the means of ventilation, whether

by shafts or machines, of keeping the mines free from water, of con-

veying and raising to the surface the rough material, and generally such

other practical details as it may be possible to represent in this manner,

would prove most useful. It would, I conceive, be perfectly practica-

ble for a person familiar with the subject, and with modelling, to

represent in a single model, the entire series of details now adverted to,

and although such a model might prove expensive, yet since the

information to be derived from it, would be in every respect of more

practical benefit than that afforded by drawings, or oral or written des-

criptions, I do not think a complete Museum of Economic Geology

ought to be without something of the kind. Models of the most ap-

proved forms of miner’s tools would also be most useful ; and since

blasting with gunpowder is constantly had recourse to in all extensive

mining operations, the series of tools necessary for that purpose may

be annexed. Arrangements of a nature similar to those just detailed,

1841. ] for the North- Western Provinces. 785

would be necessary to the illustration of practical coal mining. In

reference to this branch of the subject, it may be remarked, that the

strongest evidence of the necessity of taking effective measures to ex-

tend an acquaintance with the practical details of coal working, may

be found in nearly every page of the valuable and interesting report

of the Coal Committee, and from these documents, the most authentic

as well as extensive records we possess of Indian mining operations

it may be learnt, that to deficiency in this respect, combined with

neglect of proper investigation of the fields themselves, the feeble suc-

cess of our coal mines is chiefly to be traced. With new fields open-

ing to us in the North-Western Provinces, it becomes us to follow

another course, and by taking measures to disseminate practical in-

formation, and also by careful examinations of the deposits that may

be discovered, to guarantee, as far as we can, its legitimate return to

invested capital, and to enterprize its merited reward. The survey

of a newly discovered coal field being conducted either by the sinking

of shafts, or as is in every respect superior, by the employment of the

method of boring, it is advisable to represent the tools and working

apparatus required for the latter operation in model, as part of the

illustrations of the department under notice. There would be the

less difficulty in doing this, since the whole series is in this country,

and unless recently removed, is, I believe, lodged in the arsenal of Fort

William. Ina former paragraph, the propriety of having a complete

suite of characteristic specimens of the varieties of coal was alluded to,

and these, combined with the series of illustrative models, would afford

a most useful study to individuals desirous, either of prosecuting or

directing coal-working operations. There are certain subordinate

points, as for example, the kinds of furnaces best calculated for the dif-

ferent varieties of coal, the uses to which inferior descriptions of the

mineral, as those highly impregnated with pyrites, may be put, &c.

&e. on which information may be conveyed with advantage. ‘Time

must elapse ere the Museum for the North-Western Provinces could be

complete in the practical departments now being noticed; but in a few

years, provided its objects are energetically pursued, it may be expected

to become an institution of the highest utility to this part of the country,

and will I have no doubt, realise the expectations that have been

formed of it, both in regard to its economic and scientific importance.

786 Museum of Economic Geology [No. 118.

7. The next department of the Museum, on the arrangements of

which I would make a few remarks, is that of

and ae eae oh Architecture and Civil Engineering ; in which are

Cal Beet included the various applications of the rocks com-

posing the earth’s crust, to the purposes of common

or hydraulic architecture ; of road-making, in the formation of mortars

or of cements. Since each of the great systems or series of rocks,

formed the distinct epochs that have been recognised by geologists

furnish materials adapted to some of the preceding objects, it would

be well to place in the Museum, a suite of characteristic specimens of

the individual rocks composing these systems, arranged according to

that order of superposition, which has been found to prevail among

them in nature. It is, however, to be remarked, that those lithological

characters of rocks, on which their applicability to the purposes of the

architect and engineer is dependent, vary so much in different loca-

lities, that although a particular rock may, in one country, be admir-

ably adapted to such purposes, it by no means follows, that its equi-

valent in another, must be equally so. Hence, although it would be

useful in aiding research, to have in the Museum such a collection

of specimens as I have above averted to, yet in this department our

chief object should be to procure, with the least possible delay, a col-

lection of native, not exotic rocks. It is by the investigation of the

physical and chemical properties of the former, that information avail-

able for practical purposes in this country, is to be procured ; and

although comparison of these results with others obtained elsewhere

would, of course, be interesting, and in time might be instituted,

it is I consider, of secondary importance. Specimens, therefore, of all

natural products, employed in the department of Public Works,

whether as building materials, road materials, or materials for making

mortars and cements, ought to be procured for the Museum, and their

properties experimentally investigated.

Considering the extent to which Public Works are now carried

on, and the number of intelligent individuals employed upon them,

it cannot be doubted that a large amount of information, speci-

ally relating to the department of Economic Geology under no-

tice, exists in the community; and were the Museum established,

it would prove the means of concentrating this for general bene-

1841. | for the North- Western Provinces. 787

fit and use. In process of time, when specimens and information

had accumulated to such an extent, that the resources of the

different districts whence they had been procured were duly re-

presented by them, it would be practicable to construct a map of

these Provinces, from which would be gathered at once, the extent of

means available for Public Works in any given localities, and much

aid afforded to officers deputed to conduct such works, to whom the

districts might be unknown. Beyond the simple facts of rocks having

been extensively used as materials for different purposes in our Public

Works, and having in several instances been found most useful, we

possess no farther information regarding them. No definite details of

their physical or chemical properties, of their power of cohesion, adhe-

sion or absorption ; of their mineral characters, geological relations or

-component, parts have ever been furnished, and till we know something

of these, we can form but very indefinite estimates of the real economic

value of any materials we may have at command. To accumulate

information on the points just mentioned, and to encourage farther

investigation, so that the sites of new materials may be discovered, will

be regarded as objects of higher moment, when it is borne in mind, how

intimately the agriculture, and consequently the revenue of these

provinces is dependant on the facilities, with which works for the

purpose of irrigation can be executed, and how extensively the

materials alluded to, are employed in the execution of these works. In

like manner, the interests of trade afford a motive for encouraging

investigations, relative to the materials for the construction of roads,

so that viewed generally, the prosperity of the country is intimately

connected with the effective illustration of this department of the

Museum. The properties possessed by sandstones, limestones, or

dolomites, fit them best for the purposes of building, and: those possessed

by rocks of igneous origin, as trap, or basalt, for road-making; hence

both classes become of economic importance, and ought to have place

in the Museum. For the illustration of the mortars and cement,

specimens of the materials employed in their formation, from the pure

limestone, to the impure argillaceous kunker, together with models

of the best forms of kilns for burning, and of mills for crushing,

ought to be provided, and would, I think, complete this department of

the Museum.

788 Museum of Economic Geology. [No. 118.

8. The importance of the department of agriculture in the Economic

rat eee Geology of the North-Western Provinces is so

the department of great, that we can scarcely be too anxious to in-

mii sure its effective illustration and development.

Under it may be included investigations of the geological rela-

tions, the chemical composition, and the capabilities of different soils,

of the influence exerted upon these by waters of irrigation, natural and

artificial, and of the nature and effects of the application of varieties of

mineral manure. To illustrate the geological relations of the soils of

these provinces, specimens of the rocks that may be found to underlie

them, and from which their mineral constituents may have been

derived, ought to be procured for the Museum. There are of course

many localities, as the great alluvial districts, and the valleys of the

great rivers of India, the soils of which can be referred to no particu-

lar derivative rocks, but which have been derived from many sources,

yet where such rocks do occur, a most intimate relation necessarily

subsists between them and the soils to which their disintegration,

by natural causes, has given origin. It is this relation which gives

so much of their value to the geological maps of districts, and render

them of so much utility to the scientific agriculturist. From those

localities, therefore, in which particular kinds ofsoils may be observed,

specimens of the soil itself, of the underlying rock or stratum, and

also of the sub-soil, or portion intervening between the soil and rock,

and exhibiting the gradual transition from the one to the other, ought

to be forwarded to the Museum, and there systematically arranged.

As in the previous department of Architecture and Civil Engineering,

so in this, materials would so accumulate ifi process of time, as to make

it possible to construct a map, exhibiting the distribution of soils in the

North. Western Provinces, a work at once interesting and useful. Since

the staple vegetable products of this country are common to it, and to

many distant parts of the earth’s surface, it would be of the highest

interest and importance, to be enabled to compare the soils sustaining

them here, with those from which they may there be produced.

Hence these specimens of such soils from tracts producing articles

similar to our own, ought to be obtained to as great an extent as may

be practicable. The analysis of these might be expected to yield us

information as to the peculiar principles on which their adaptation to

1841. ] for the North- Western Provinces. 789

particular products was dependent, and might suggest experimental

inquiries as to the improvements of our native soils, the results of which

could scarcely fail to influence beneficially the general interests of the

country. It is to be remarked, that as certain portions of a soil are

withdrawn from it for the sustenance of the products reared upon it,

so its analysis, to afford the most useful results, ought, I conceive, to be

made both before the seed was sown, and after the harvest had been

reaped. The results of simple analysis, however, although most im-

portant, are by no means the sole requisites for enabling us to com-

pare soils, the fertility and adaptations of these being the effects of

many conjoint causes ; as the physical aspect, the atmospheric relations

of temperature, moisture, exposure of the districts from which they

may be obtained, and also the nature of the deposits from, or the

chemical constituents of, the waters employed to irrigate them. In

illustration of this last mentioned point, it would I think be advisable,

that specimens of soils from districts in the North-Western Provinces

should be accompanied by others of the waters of irrigation, whether

derived from springs, rivers, wells, tanks, or artificial canals and water-

courses. An experimental investigation of them, both as regards the

matter held in simple mechanical suspension, or in chemical solution

by them, would always furnish us with most interesting information,

and in some instances, might enable us to detect the source either of

the peculiar fertility or sterility of the soils in certain localities.

Specimens of the various kinds of mineral manures employed in this

country, and also in other countries, from which it may be possible to

procure them, together with those of soils to which they may have

been applied with success, would complete, I think, the illustrations of

this department of the Museum ; and on being subjected to the same

process of analysis as in the preceding instances, might be expected to

add, in an important measure, to the information previously collected.

It will be observed how essential the aid of the chemical laboratory

recommended in a former paragraph, is to the effective illustration of

this department, since without it, those researches which promise to

east light upon the principles by which the practical operations of

agriculture are influenced could never be undertaken ; nor could we

ever expect to replace the empirical rules, by which agriculturists are

now guided, and often guided wrong, by general laws induced from

790 Museum of Economic Geology. [No. 118,

carefully observed phenomena, the only sure foundation on which the

philosophy of agriculture can be reared.

9. Since the earths, alumina and silica, constitute the basis of all

descriptions of Pottery, from the common earthen-

Pere ees = ware vessel to the Porcelain vase, the rough ma-

BS oF toa Glass terjals for such manufactures will be found where-

ever silicious and aluminous rocks prevail. These

are by. far the most extensively diffused in nature, and there are.indeed

but few rocks into which the earths above mentioned do not enter in

greater or less proportions. From the circumstance, however, that the

simple minerals composing rocks of the granitic and felspathic classes

furnish silica and alumina, both in greater abundance and more

purity than usual, it is from them that materials are most frequently

procured for the higher descriptions of Pottery, as Porcelain and

China-wares. Thus, the celebrated Kaolin, or Porcelain earth of the

Chinese, is simply a result of the disintegration of granitic rocks, and

has been found abundantly in Southern India, where these largely

prevail, while for the use of the Staffordshire Potteries, immense quan-

tities of Scotch and Welsh granites and feispars are imported. From

the geographical extent of the North-Western Provinces, it may be ex-

pected, that rocks of the classes above adverted to, will be found in many

localities, and from these specimens of the rocks themselves, and of the

result of their disintegration ought to be forwarded to the Museum,

where an investigation of their properties would be made. But it is not

to the mere exhibition of the materials best adapted for manufactures

in the different varieties of Pottery, or to the diffusion of information

relative to these alone, that this department of the Museum ought to

be confined. If we desire to raise the standard of our Indian Pottery

manufactures, we must endeavour not only to supply good materials

and improved processes of manipulation, but also to correct and elevate

the ¢aste, by which the use of these is to be regulated. To effect

these objects, measures ought to be taken to procure for the illustra-

tion of this department, specimens from our English Potteries, exhi-

biting each successive process in the formation of articles in Porcelain

or Stone-ware, from the first appearance of the rough material, to its

production in a state fit for use or ornament. Accompanying these,

should it be practicable to obtain them, ought to be model representa-

1841.]- for the North- Western Provinces. 791

tions of the apparatus or machinery employed in preparing the mate-

rial in any of the processes alluded to. Examples also of the varieties

of manufacture, selected with the view of their being presented to

native workmen as models for imitation, ought also, I conceive, to be

procured for this department; in the higher and ornamental descrip-

tions of Pottery such specimens ought, of course, to be chosen as may

be distinguished for beauty of design, both in relation to form and em-

bellishment, so that the purest models may be presented for study, and

some perception of the truly chaste and beautiful infused, if possible,

into the native mind. I would only add on this subject, that the

specimens of Indian Pottery exhibited in the decorations of native

temples and palaces, display such an extent of knowledge in the simple

process of manufacture, and in the nature and methods of applying

colouring materials, as to encourage the belief, that were the standard

of taste corrected and refined, this improvement would be rapid and

important. A series of illustrations of our manufactures in Glass,

similar to that recommended for those in Pottery, might be expected

to call attention to a department of industry, for which the requisite

materials exist in abundance in these Provinces; but which I believe

has hitherto been followed only to a most limited extent.

10. Intimately associated with the preceding, as furnishing to the

Porcelain painter or Glass stainer, the materials

eee of required for the completion of his designs, is the

a Dees, igments department of Mineral Pigments. This however is

by no means limited to manufactures, it extends also

to the arts, and to the more common applications of painting, for both

of which it furnishes some of the most important colours required. It

is only necessary at present to refer, as examples, to the chromates of

iron and lead, the various ores of cobalt and manganese, in Porcelain

painting, and different departments in glass manufacture ; to the pure

and impure bi-sulphurets of mercury or vermillion and cinnabar ; to

the arseniates of sulphur, or red and yellow orpiment, in the arts; and

to the sulphate, blue and green carbonates of copper, the colcothar or

oxide of iron, sulphate of zinc, in the more common varieties of paint-

ing. There is farther, a large class of colouring materials derived from

combinations of the foregoing, and others in various proportions, as

smalt, from the mixture of the ores of cobalt with silica and potassa,

792 Museum of Economic Geology. [No. 118.

red, yellow, and green colours from that of the chromate of iron with

oxides of other metals. For the illustration of the department of

mineral pigments, specimens, therefore, of the various simple pigments,

found in nature, and the compound ones formed by art, ought to be

procured. When attention has been attracted to this branch of the

subject, we may anticipate the development of information relative

to native colouring: materials and modes of applying them, that could

not fail to prove both interesting and useful. With the department

under notice, I have associated that of mineral dyes, because many

minerals included in the one, belong also to the other. A similar

series of illustrations would be requisite for the dyes as for the pig-

ments, and similar results might be anticipated from their investigation

as employed in native manufactures.

11. Under this department of the Economic Geology of a country,

Department of Mi- are included the different kinds of mineral springs

neral Springs. oy waters that may be found in it. These are im-

portant, not only as holding in suspension or combination certain

mineral products applicable to economical purposes, but also in their

scientific relations, and especially in their connection with the geologi-

cal structure of the district in which they may be found. The occur-

rence of mineral springs is almost invariably characteristic of the

action of disturbing forces, and it is in those districts, where such forces

have been most active, that they are found in the greatest abundance.

When they are thermal as well as mineral, their interest in a scienti-

fic point of view, is much increased ; and 1 may remark, it would be an

important contribution to the materials already collected for the in-

vestigation of the subject of interior terrestrial temperature, were the

thermal conditions of such springs of this class as either have been,

or may, yet be discovered in India, investigated with care, and in

detail. In the department under notice, are also included those

springs of petroleum, naphtha, or the impurer bituminous products

which have already been found in several parts of India, and which

we may hope to find in the North-Western Provinces also, when the

Himalayan coal fields have been more thoroughly examined. Spe-

cimens of all mineral springs, whether bituminous, chalybeate, sul-

phureous, alkaline, saline, or acidulous, that may be discovered in these

provinces, ought to be forwarded to the Museum, where they would

be examined, and their economic value ascertained.

1841.] for the North- Western Provinces. 793

12. It is unnecessary for me to do more than simply to allude

Department of Mi- to the department of Mineral Medicines. It has, I

neral Medicines. believe, in common with the other branches of the

Materia Medica of India, been carefully investigated by a Govern-

ment Committee, and it may therefore be concluded, that little diffi-

culty will be found in obtaining such information, as may enable us to

illustrate, by specimens, the resources of the North-Western Provinces

in this useful and interesting department of the Museum.

13. There are other instances besides those to which specific allusion

has now béen made, in which geological principles or mineral sub-

stances, are made subservient to economical purposes ; as an example

of the former, the theory and practice of the Artesian method of well-

sinking may be mentioned, and of the latter, certain processes in me-

tallic manufactures, in soap-making, bleaching, &c. I am unwilling,

however, to extend this memorandum by any details relating to these,

since with the exception of the first mentioned, they are of minor

importance. The method of boring employed in sinking Artesian wells,

has already been adverted to in a former paragraph, and measures for

its illustration therein recommended. I would now, therefore, only

recapitutate here the several departments with which the measure has

been subdivided, and conclude with a few remarks on certain collateral

measures to be adopted, for increasing the utility of the institutions.

The departments are—

) 1. Mineralogy,

2. Architecture and Civil Engineering,

3. Agriculture,

4. Pottery and Glass Manufactures,

5. Mineral Pigments and Dyes,

6. Mineral Springs,

7. Mineral Medicines,

8. Miscellaneous.

14. In order to furnish specific information to those persons, who

may be willing to forward the objects of the Museum, relative to the

points to which their attention ought to be directed, it is proposed to

circulate extensively tabular forms, or when more appropriate, lists of

queries, exhibiting the desiderafa in each of the preceding depart-

ments. Some progress had been made in the preparation of these,

oe 3 Museum of Economic Geology, &c.. [ No. 118.

when sudden illness interrupted it. I trust, however, ere long, to be able

to submit the series for the consideration of the Asiatic Society. The

information obtained by the means above alluded to, ought to be

embodied in the periodical reports of the Curator of the Museum, and

made public, either directly, or through the medium of the Journal of

the Asiatic Society, as may be thought most advisable. It is possible

that the Society may be able to render farther aid to the Museum, by

transferring to it, daplicate specimens of minerals, rocks, &c. or other-

wise to give it such assistance as an institution, which if established

at all, will be so by its recommendation, and in immediate connection

with it, may be considered entitled to. ‘Those means of illustration

in several of the departments, which it will be necessary to procure

from England, may, I presume, be obtained through the influence of

the Court of Directors, which, by the establishment of the Museum of

Economie Geology in Calcutta, has given the strongest proof of the

interest felt by it in the subject, and of its willingness to aid practi-

cally, its development in this country. By the Curator of the Muse-

um placing himself in communication with learned societies in other

countries, much interesting information relative to the economical

applications of their mineral products might be obtained, and rendered

available for useful purposes here.

15. It only remains for me to add, in conclusion, that from the

circumstances under which this memorandum has been prepared, I

fear that some points of importance may have escaped notice entirely,

and that others may have been imperfectly discussed. Such defects

will, however, be rectified by those, under whose consideration these

remarks will come, and I will most gladly avail myself of their wider

experience, and more extensive information, to correct or extend the

views herein expressed.

6th September, 1841.

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bh. fron belour & and.'3 tested, ht. mnisk! a

od. 4-93. Me podterior of the live apertures — )

aes telweew these mun ts that of the frewts.-

Meeanterver!; Meat of tee food. ,

a rg Rc HR OS F Meat: obuge. a ; Ey

795

On a new Organ in the Genus Moschus. By B. H. Hopason, Ese.

Resident at the Court of Nepal.

That accomplished naturalist, Mr. Gray, gave, five years ago, in the

Zoological Journal, some observations on the Genus Moschus of Linn.

in the course of which, after remarking that the great Swede’s genus

was characterised by himself merely by the absence of horns, Mr.

Gray suggested some further marks of distinction for the genus.

Mr. Gray divided the genus into three subgenera, and discriminates

the Musks proper by their coarse pelage, their simple and clad meta-

_ tarsus, their throats undenuded of hair, and the peculiar pouch in

ee ee

which the musky secretion is found.

Without staying at present to remark upon these diagnostics, it will

readily be allowed, that most of them are not so important, but the

addition of another decided and organic one must be hailed with

satisfaction ; and I therefore proceed summarily to describe, what the

pencil of my painter has made the description of almost superfluous

by the accompanying drawings. The very short tail of the proper

Musks has often been remarked on; but it has not been, so far as

I am aware, noticed, that this short tail is the seat of a secreting

_ apparatus as marked and peculiar in character, as the celebrated pre-

putial pouch. The tail is rather more than an inch long, and nearly as

wide at its base as long, trigonal, depressed, and nude, especially

on the upper surface, far below it is (like the proximate margin of

anus,) partially covered with soft hair, At the very apex, there isa

- tuft of hair as harsh and quill-like as that of the body generally! and

this tuft only is seen in the living animal, the rest of the tail being hid

by the hair of the rump. Raise that hair, however, and you at

once perceive the real tail, flat-looking, nude, thick, and greasy, whilst

around it the hairs are glued together with a viscid liquor, which

has become more or less dried and candied here and there. Look

closer, and you discern that the whole tail, especially on its superior

surface, consists in fact of a hard solid gland, about three-eighths

to half an inch thick, which secretes the viscid humour in question, and

gives it off slowly, but without intermission, by means of two lateral

pores. These pores consist of longitudinal folds of the skin, about

as deep as the thickness of the gland, and about three-quarters of

an inch long. They are narrowly eliptical in form, possessing thick,

rounded, but not very mobile lips or edges, #nd they resemble in

796 On a New organ in the Genus Moschus. [ No. 118.

the general character, the suborbital pits of the Rusa Deer, when

periodically excited, or yet more nearly, the frontal pits of the Muntjac

under similar excitement; and, lastly, these caudal pores have a

basal and marginal position, one on each side of the tail. If you

press hard on the gland, the secretion is protruded through the pores in

a thick state, like vermicelli; but it ordinarily passes off by the pores

in a more liquid state like melted honey, becoming hard and candied as

it dries on the edges of the pores. It seems always to be secreted and

always to pass slowly off. It has a strong, peculiar, and rather

offensive odour, not at all musky ; and by its abundance, and the regular

apparatus for its formation and discharge, must be of high, though

I know not of what, importance to the animal. I noticed it first a

year ago, and have since examined it in two other specimens, one

live, and the other just dead. The first subject was submitted to

Dr. Christie’s inspection, who can confirm all that I have stated. My

fresh specimens of these animals are of the more ordinary and uni-

formly dark species, called by me, Saturatus. But, so far as a judg-

ment may be safely formed from dried skins, the other species, or

Chrysogaster and Leucogaster, possess a similar organ, which there-

fore would appear to belong to the whole of the Musks Proper. These

animals, I may add, are further distinguished by the absence, not only

of suborbital and inguinal, but also of interdigital pores, and by hoofs

and false hoofs, as long and pointed almost as spikes; not to mention

that remarkable pouch, in which the musky substance itself is collected,

and of which, as more talked of than understood, I subjoin a sketch,

in addition to the ones exclusively dedicated to the illustration of the

caudal gland and pores. B. H. Hopeson.

Nepal, July, 1841.

P.S.—Should this paper fall under the eye of Mr. Ogilvy, I beg to let

that gentleman know, that when I published my description of the

three species of Moschus to which he adverts, I had been long familiar

with the ordinary effects of nonage upon the colour of the common spe-

cies of this genus, of whose parturition and gestation I had, years

previously, given a particular account in print.* Mr. Ogilvy’s scep-

ticism, therefore, is not better founded in this instance, than in some

others, as he must pardon me for saying.

* Vide Gleanings in Science. .

Sa .. ! eke eee

ce, ae

797

Extracts from a Report on subjects connected with Affghanistan. By

Dr. Grirritus, communicated to the Editor, from the office of ‘the

Political Secretariat of India.

Forests.—The nearest wooded part of the Sufaid Koh to Cabul is

Taizeen, a distance of three marches, including, at least by the common

route, a steep pass, the Huft Kothal, some 3,000 feet in height. In the

direction of Cabul, there does not appear to be any water-carriage

available for the transport of the timber of the Sufaid Koh. Cabul may

therefore be said to be in a considerable measure beyond the reach of

an efficient supply of good and durable timber.

Candahar and Ghuzni may be said to be absolutely beyond the

reach of any indigenous supply, no forests occurring within any prac-

ticable, if within any distance. The forests of the Sufaid Koh consist

of various kinds of Fir, among which the Deodar is abundant; the

Cheel or Pinus longifolia also I believe occurs, as well as the Chilghozeh,

which from the abundance of the seeds, sold or exposed for sale, must

be common. The seeds of this appear to resemble exactly the seeds of

the Kunawur Pinus Gerardiana; it will be interesting to ascertain whe-

ther the trees are identical ; if so, it will not ke the only instance of affini- -

ty between the Floras of the two countries. These forests likewise contain

the Baloot, a species of Oak ; the Zaitoon, a species of Olive ; the Sehnee,

and two or three others. I am not personally acquainted with the trees

of this range. Captain Burn, commanding the Khybur rangers, one of

the few who had ascended the lower ranges, informed me, that the Baloot

and long-leaved Fir were common. The chief tree on the Taizeen ridges

is the Deodar. Itis very unfortunate, that from this great range, there

does not appear to be available water-carriage in any direction, at

"least to the northward. The only forests, with which I am tolerably

acquainted, are those about Olipore, in which direction the mountains,

as I have more than once observed, assume the Himalayan features.

The principal trees of these mountains, always excepting the neighbour-

ing ones of Kafiristhan, are the Deodar or Nokhtur, the Zaitoon, and

the Baloot. There is perhaps another species of Oak, but, so far as I

know, there is no other Fir tree. The distribution of the forests may

be stated as follows: the Baloot ranges from the bed of the river

to an elevation of 2,000 feet above it, or 4,500 feet above the sea. It

commences to be mixed with Zaitoon towards its upper limits ; and is

798 Report on subjects connected with Affghanistan. [No. 118.

soon supplanted by it, the Zaitoon forming the chief, if not the only

part of the forests, as far as the lower limit of the Deodar, at an

elevation of 6,500 feet above the sea.

Between this and the summits of the ridges which attain a height

of about 10,000 feet, the Deodar rules supremely vast in abundance

and in size. These forests may be considered as available for Jilalabad

and Peshawur. .

As the valley of Olipore is very narrow, and the lowest, which is a

considerable one, sweeps in many places under the Oak forests along

its right bank ; this timber could be supplied effectually.

The tree, however, does not reach any size near its lower limit of dis-

tribution. Greater labour, and a proportionally greater expense would

be required to supply the two others in proportion to their distribution.

There is perhaps but little prospect of the country about Jilalabad

arriving at much importance. A small supply of timber may be

demanded by Europeans, but Jilalabad, from its extreme heat, can

scarcely become their residence except for the winter months.

The forests of Olipore are therefore of comparatively little use, and

will probably remain so, until Peshawur assumes its real importance.

The want of timber about Candahar, though not, if I recollect rightly,

in the city itself, is remedied by the construction of the houses, which

are generally domed. The houses of Cabul are extremely slight,

_ built of mud and small timbers; these are supplied exclusively almost

by the Poplars, which are planted in many places along the banks of —

the Logor and Cabul rivers, by which they are carried towards the

city during the floods. This timber is white, and very soft; it does

not enjoy fair chances, for the trees are planted so close together, that

they not unfrequently grow together, and they are cut prematurely.

They are quite unfit for building purposes, and some idea may be

formed of their perishableness, when it is said that Cabul is renewed

once in every 25 years.

I have already mentioned that the great majority of the cultivated

The only other trees trees are fruit trees; these are for many reasons

besides the fruit trees :

known tome, are three not available for the purposes of timber.

or four kinds of Poplar, . ‘

three or four of Wil- The great bulk of the vegetable fuel is suppli-

lows, and the Haw- s - a

thorn. In Baben’s gar- 4 by the low bushes, chiefly species of Artemisia,

den, there are many

very fine Poplars.

that occur commonly in the barren parts of the |

1841. ] Report on subjects connec'ed with Affghanistan. Ts,

country. They are not good fuel, except perhaps for particular

purposes, having no bulk, and burning very rapidly. They are, I believe,

chiefly used by the bakers, and the loads, carried generally on asses,

constitute not one of the least nuisances of the crowded and confined

streets of Cabul. From Taizeen supplies of Baloot branches are

brought to Cabul, as well as a good deal of charcoal prepared from it

and the Deodar. But the price is enormous. I have heard officers say,

that the daily expense for fuel, during the severity of winter, was not

unfrequently three rupees.

Nevertheless, the experiment might be tried with some of the indi-

genous trees, on the better parts of these same slopes. Attention

| should, I think, be chiefly directed to the Baloot, which is the only tree

that has striven to establish itself on the barrenness of an Affghan

mountain. The Zaitoon and Deodars of Olipore cease abruptly, the

Baloot struggles on from Koonur to Taizeen.

The growth of the timber trees now cultivated should be discourag-

ed as much as possible, as soon as efficient European timber trees

have been introduced. This may be a matter of time, but scarcely of

difficulty, considering the state of perfection the overland interchanges -

_ of seeds between Drs. Royle and Falconer. I have appended to the

report a list of the various desiderata.

In all the lower parts of the country the best of the timber trees of

the dry plains of the N. W. might be introduced. In such parts as

about the Koonur valley, the Sissoo is occasionally met with; to it the

Seriss, Jamun, Kikhur, &c. might advantageously be added. Around

each of the main places in the country, small plantations might ad-

vantageously be made, particularly of such timber trees as are best

adapted for the purposes of military arsenals. Thus at Jilalabad and

Candahar, the Sissoo might be planted with reasonable prospects of

success ; for the supply of Cabul and Ghuzni we must look to Europe

and the Himalayahs. At present I know, itis next to impossible to re-

pair or construct properly a gun-carriage; the Plane tree is the only

available one, and besides not possessing even ordinary merit, is procur-

able with difficulty. I cannot offer any particular suggestion towards

supplying Candahar with fuel ; with regard to Cabul, I may be allowed

to suggest a comprehensive survey of the Taizeen forests, and of the

other wooded portions of the Sufaid Koh in that direction; particular

oJ I

800 Report on subjects connected with Affghanistan. [No. 118.

respect being paid to their communications with Cabul. At present

the line of road for any beast of burden, but a mule or a donkey, is very

circuitous and arduous. The dealers in wood and charcoal, however,

instead of turning the range which forms the south boundary of the valley

of Cabul itself, cross it near the place where the large Bactrian pillar,

now called Baber’s Pillar is situated; by this they debouche imme-

diately into the valley of Kooro Cabul, saving a circuit of several

miles, and preferring shortness and great steepness, to length and com-

parative levelness. A new line might possibly be marked out. The

grand remedy will be found when good and accessible coal shall have

been discovered ; this is one of the greatest desiderata, and search for

it should be proportionally encouraged.

Affghanistan is a country of mountains intersected by vallies, or as

Physical features SOMe may perhaps be called, steppes. It appears to

of Afighanistan. me to possess many peculiarities, and my limited

experience cannot suggest a country, with which it may fairly be com-

pared. A popular general idea of it may be formed by imagining,

the upheaving of an extensive and varied system of mountains,

through an enormous plain variously covered with boulders and shingle,

and presenting here and there deposits of soil, generally in the shape

of narrow strips along the principal lines of drainage. The general

form of the country as now limited, may be compared to that of an

equilateral triangle. Its boundaries are undoubtedly the Indus along

the Southern line; the Koh-i-Baba, Paropamisus, and Hindoo Koosh

along the North-Eastern; Persia, Seistan, and the territories of Khilat

along the Western.

Of the above-mentioned boundaries, those of the North-Eastern

and Southern or South-Eastern sides are natural in the strict sense

of the term; those on the Western sides are badly supplied by the

changeable and arbitrary boundaries of Beloochistan and Persia.

The mountains may, I think, be said to belong to two great systems,

that of the Hindoo Koosh, Koh-i-Baba, and Paro-

pamisus, which appear to be nothing but different

parts of the westerly continuation of the great Himalayan chain, and

the Sufaid Koh. This is, however, connected with certain of the extreme

southerly offsets of the end of the Himalayas, or beginning of the

Hindoo Koosh. To one or the other of these systems all the subor-

Mountains.

1841. | Report on subjects connected with Affghanistan. 801

dinate ranges may, I think, be traced: although I have no personal

acquaintance with the countries between Candahar and Ghuzni, and

the Southerly prolongation of the Sufaid Koh. The true mountain,

Hindoo Koosh, for this name has been laxly applied to the whole

See Burnes’ Travels. range, is situated nearly due north of Cabul. I have

no personal acquaintance with it. The higher peaks of this chain

always present traces of snow, and are visible from some points about

Cabul. Iam not acquainted with the exact point in which the Hima-

layas assume the name of the Hindoo Koosh; but I have grounds for

believing, that the features of the Himalayas are not changed at

Olipore, Lat. 34° 54’ 38” N. Long. 70° 12’ E. The Kohi Baba is a

direct continuation of the Hindoo Koosh, from which it appears to be

separated at first by the Kaloo torrent, and then by the united Kaloo

torrent and Bamean river. On either side of these lines, which appear

to be the deepest lines of separation, numerous and very varied offsets

from both ranges occur. It is over these intermediate portions, that the

best routes to Bamean pass, the highest point traversed, is the Krak

pass, which reaches an altitude of 13,000 feet. But the best route, one

which is said to be more easily practicable for artillery, and open

throughout the year, is through the country of the Shaikh Ali Huzaras,

this probably does not pass over ground exceeding 9,000 feet in altitude.

The eastern end of the Koh-i-Baba, or its commencement, is cer-

tainly grand; a magnificent view of its three snow-clad peaks is enjoyed

from a pass between Yomurt and the Helmund river. Its extreme

eastern part shews itself in the form of a vast rounded mass on ap-

proaching it up the Siah Sing torrent; but to the west, it rapidly

assumes a different appearance, presenting a succession of lofty peaks,

as far as the eye can reach. In this direction it loses itself, and I

believe becomes diminished in the Paropamisus. Snow exists on its

eastern portion throughout the year; in sheltered places it occurs in

beds of considerable size.

In August 1840, 1 ascended this range near Kilah-i-Kaloo, up to

13,500 feet. No change in the usual features occurred, but from that

altitude the ascent became much steeper, and was rendered much more

difficult by the ruins of enormous slips.

With all my endeavours I was only able to reach the general level of

the connections of the peaks; these were completely inaccessible,

$02 Report on sulyecis connected with Affghanistan. (No. 118.

the nearest did not appear to be more than 1,000 or 1,500 feet higher

than the spot on which I stood. Patches of snow commenced about

sheltered situations at 13,500 feet, and towards the summit beds oe-

curred, except in the most exposed spots. The upper portion of the

range appeared entirely bare, the surface consisting of nothing but

angular fragments of the rock, of which the peaks are composed. The

snow in the upper beds was wrought, if I may so express myself, by

the action of frost and thaw into pinnacles, which during sunshine,

presented thousands of glittering objects. The few plants found above

13,500 feet were different from any that I had met with elsewhere; the

only animals observed were a large hare, and a covey of the snow grouse,

Koki-i-dusrah of Affghanistan, the Tehoo or Gallus Neillii of Mr.

Gould. The general character of the Koh-i-Baba is great barrenness,

this it shares, I have been told, with the Hindoo Koosh, and generally

with the Paropamisus, of which portion I have not much direct know-

ledge. To these three ranges, the Hindoo Koosh, the Koh-i-Baba, and

Paropamisus, and perhaps with the western extremity of the Hima-

lyas Proper, I should be disposed to assign all the ranges to the

north of the valleys of Peshawur, Jilalabad, Cabul, Ghuzni, and

Candahar.

The Sufaid Koh, or Espeen Gar, which in Pushtoo has the same sig-

'Sufaid Koh. nification as that of the Persian name, is perhaps as

lofty as the Kohi Baba, and like it, although more exposed to the effects

of heat and the influence of the great plains of India, presents traces

of snow throughout the year. This range is seen to perfection from

the valley of Jilalabad, the southern boundary of which it forms. It

is continued directly, I believe, down in line with the right bank of the

Indus as far as Beloochistan, regaining, as far south as the Tukht-i-

Soliman, a considerable portion of its loftiness. The Sufaid Kohi is by

no means uniformly bare, as is the case with the previously mentioned

mountains; many parts of the southern boundary of the Jilalabad

valley are covered with Fir forests. Similar forests occur on other

portions, such as those about Taizeen. Fir trees also occurred on cer-

tain parts of the return route of the Bombay Army, as | was in-

formed by Lieutenant Marriott, of the Bombay Engineers.

To the Sufaid Kohi, I am disposed to refer all the ranges along the

right bank of the Indus, as far perhaps, or farther, than Brahooistan,

1841.] Report on subjects connected with Affghanistan. 803

and all those to the east or south-east, or south of Cabul, Ghuzni,

Candahar and Quettah.* Of the mountains of the Khilat territory I

have no personal knowledge, nor do I know to what system of moun-

tains they are approximately referrible. On surmounting the crest of

the Kharlekhir pass, peaks of considerable altitude covered with snow,

at that season at Jeast, were seen to the south.

A high mountain, Chiltern, rivalling Tuchatoo in height, towered

over the valley of Quettah to the south-westward of the town, but with

what chain this was united, I do not know. It will be readily seen,

that this grouping of the Affghan mountains is only approximate, if even

this much share of truth can be claimed for it. Mountainous systems,

like all others, pass into each other by numerous ramifications: an

intimate knowledge of which is only to be attained by close and exten-

sive acquaintance with the features of the country.

I have before alluded to the barrenness of the Hindoo Koosh and

Koh-i-Baba ; this is a general characteristic, equally affecting their low

offsets and the culminating ridges as far as an altitude of 15,000 feet.

This barrenness may be said to be comparatively absolute; that of the

barest portions of the lower ranges of the Himalayas between Bhar and

Simla is rich and luxuriant clothing, compared with what occurs in

Affghanistan. Of the structure of these mountains, I regret not being

competent to give an account. Very generally their surfaces are

immediately rocky, except in some of the offsets, interposed between

the Sufaid Koh and the ranges derived from the Hindoo Koosh, to-

wards the western end of the valley of Jilalabad. There they are

composed of sand, in all degrees of softness and induration, in which

last state it becomes tabular. Alternating layers of a conglomerate,

often exceedingly hard, are to be met with in this sandstone. . Excep-

tions also occur in the valley of Bamean, on both sides of which the

offsets are composed of earthy or clayey materials of varied and

rather vivid colours. Generally speaking, the Affghan mountains did

* It is this range that will best repay the trouble of future botanical investigations.

Its isolated situation, and its elevation as well as prolongation to the southward, in-

vest it with peculiar interest. From a few specimens brought to me at Khaffal, I

apprehend its Flora will approach to that of the Himalayas.

+ The appearance of the highest ridges and peaks of both these chains appeared

to me to resemble such as I had seen in the far more magnificent Himalayas.

804 Report on subjects connected with Affghanistan. [No. 118.

not appear to me difficult of access; in this respect they are widely

General decessibility different from the other mountains I have travers.

of the mountains. ed. It was found to be a general feature, that they

might be ascended and descended, by making use of the beds of the

draining streams which are very generally dry, except in the season

of floods. These ravines, are gently inclined planes, the steep ascent

only commencing on reaching their heads; and this perhaps in no

instance exceeds 1,200 feet.

A section of an Himalayan ravine may be, I think, correctly taken

Ravines. as wedge-shaped v, that of the Affghanistan ravines

would be a broadly truncated wedge wu. The base line of an Hima-

Jayan ravine is again a succession of steps, with intermediate, more or

less level spaces; that of an Affghan ravine is an uninterrupted in-

clined plane. The bottom of an ordinary hill ravine, again, is generally

choked up with fragments, torn from the sides, or by boulders of

various sizes rolled down from various distances. The bottom of an

Affghan ravine may be in contra-distinction stated, as being almost

evenly strewed with moderate sized boulders or shingle.

The vallies, enclosed by these mountain ranges and their innumerable

Vallies. offsets, vary much in altitude, and a good deal in

nature, and have been formed perhaps by two different causes.

I am unable to state whether they usually present any definite direc-

tion with regard to the mountain ranges, except on the southern face of

the Koh-i-Baba, in which direction they are, in the usual manner of

the Himalayas, parallel to the chain.

The ordinary form of these valleys is generally very narrow, the

tillable soil is confined to a narrow strip along the line of drainage.

The space between this portion, and the bases of the outcropping

boundary hills is an inclined plane,* strewed over, and indeed entirely

formed of boulders and shingle, generally without a particle of soil.

These slopes, very aptly termed by that talented officer Lieutenant

Durand, of the Bengal Engineers, glacis slopes, appear to my li-

mited experience, characteristic features in the physical configuration

of the country. I beg to subjoin a rude attempt at a sketch of a very

* Without personal knowledge of the country, it is almost impossible to imagine

the extent of these glacis slopes, and the enormous proportion they have to that of the

tillable soil.

1841.) Feport on subjects connected with Affghanistan. 805

marked one on the left bank of the Cabul river, below Jilalabad, and

opposite the village of Chardeb. As instances of these vallies, I may

cite the valley of Shawl, which is not however characteristic ; the val-

leys of the Wighand at Turnah; of the upper parts of the Cabul river ;

of Jilalabad, and of Koonur. In the only vallies of the Toorkistan face

of the Koh-i- Baba, with which I am acquainted, these glacis slopes are

not developed to any extent.

ranges, and the frequently isolated hills.

The other form of valley, to the existence of which the country is

almost entirely indebted for its agricultural produce, are of consider-

able width, their bottoms are apparently almost level, and entirely

covered with tillable soil, except towards the boundary hills along the

bases of which glacis slopes very generally occur. Their principal

distinction rests therefore on the amount or extent of tillable soil, the

proportion of which is reversed in the two forms. As instances of

these, I may adduce the valleys of Peshawur, of Candahar, and the

vicinity of Cabul, and perhaps the whole line of country between

Mookhloor and Nannee, near Ghuzni. Perhaps the best marked in-

stance is the valley to the immediate west of Cabul. }

The formation of some of these valleys is easy, and it appears to me

naturally explicable by assuming their having been the beds of inlaid

lakes. By this assumption it is, I believe, that Dr. Lord has explained

the formation of the vallies of Cabul, Jilalabad, and Peshawur, in

Dr. Lord’s report or account of the Koh-i-Daman, Journal of the

Asiatic Society, June 1838, willbe found some geological speculations, to

which J, although not professing any acquaintance with geology, beg

806 Report on subjects connected with Affghanistan. [No. 118.

leave to object. The three vallies, cited by Dr. Lord, as having been

once large basins, do not, as they now exist, present that amount of

similarity of features, or, in other words, of affinity, which chiefly

authorises us to ascribe formations to similar agencies. And the only

one which, it appears to me, is naturally explicable by the hypothesis

of Dr. Lord, is that of Cabul, which presents a tolerable level surface

surrounded in every direction by hills. It may even now be said to

be a marsh. The valley of Jilalabad presents soil, such as may be

imagined to have been a deposit from tranquil water, only along the

course of the draining river, which, as Dr. Lord correctly mentions,

hugs the northern edge.

Between Bala Bagh and Pigdulluch, which looking to the boundary

mountains, appears to me to be the western extremity, or part, rather

of the valley ; it is, if I may so express myself, blocked up by a low

series of sand hills and the table land of Gundamuck, from which there

is a descent again, over other sand hills, to Sooikhab.

The space between the southern bank of the river and the Sufaid

Koh, or southern boundary, is occupied by an enormous glacis slope,

intersected by the northern draining torrents of the range, along and

about which, here and there, small and generally well cultivated valleys

occur. :

If the great valley of Jilalabad, therefore, had ever been occupied

by a grand sheet of water, or if it ever presented in other words the

features that now characterise the valley of Cabul, great changes must

have subsequently occurred.

The Khybur pass which was selected by Dr. Lord as the exit to

the “mighty rush of waters,’ did not appear to me to present any

greater evidence of unusual water action than did any of the other

characteristic passes of the country. Neither can I omit observing,

that the assumption of the necessity of more energetic means in

former times to enable nature to carry her measures into execution,

is not consonant with those modern doctrines which believe, unless

I am mistaken, that the causes now in operation in modifying the

surface of our planets, are fully competent. The valley of Pesha-

wur, as it now exists, is open freely towards the Indus. The

Greedur Galli is a small ravine, presenting fewer traces than usual

of the action of water, affording an easy cut across a spur of the

1841. ] Report on subjects connected with Affghanistan. 807

Afredi range, which forms the south-east boundary of the valley. If

the water of the great basin selected this as the direction of the

least resistance, that part of the valley now open towards the Indus

must have since undergone depression. Dr. Lord supports his hypo-

thesis with considerable ingenuity, but he has omitted to observe, that

the rolled pebbles of Jumrood are not limited even to the most exten-

sive allowable sphere of action of the rush of the waters of the Jilala-

bad basin, but form a well-developed belt or glacis slope all round the

bases of the boundaries of the valley. Nor does Dr. Lord mention

that boulders, constituting glacis slopes, exist on the west side of the

Khybur pass, from its mouth to the Cabul river at Dhukka, that is, on

the side of, or in that which he assumes to have been, the great basin.

If the boulders and shingle, composing these vast extents of glacis

slopes are found to have been constituent portions of the ranges of

mountains, their formation is, I think, naturally explicable, by the

agency of floods, which are no doubt frequent and severe during the

spring months. ‘The intimate mixture of the boulders and shingle, by

which I mean smaller water-worn stones, which may be observed even

to the rather sudden transition to the tillable soil, may be explained per-

| haps by allowing great inequalities in violence of the floods. But I think

I have more than once seen these water-worn stones and boulders lodged

on the sides of mountains in situations which would not, as it appears to

me, warrant us in the invariable adoption of such an agency, unless I

am mistaken. I might especially refer to the sand ranges about Gun-

damuck, on which, unless my recollection fails me, boulders are abun-

dantly strewn, and which could not have been brought to their present

Situation by the action of water. It would be, however, useless to

speculate further on a point which a practised geologist would determine

ata glance. I fear that I have already infringed the principle, that

no one is authorised to remark on things he has not studied.

I return to my impressions on the physical features of Affghanistan.

This country is also, I think remarkable, always keeping in view that

I write, drawing my comparisons from India, the country with which

I am better acquainted than any other, for the smallness in number and

size of its rivers and streams. From the general dryness of the

_ ‘Rivers and Streams. climate, perhaps many springs cannot be expected,

and the summer supply will be almost entirely confined to the streams,

Bik

808 Report on subjects connected with Affghanistan. [No. 118.

which drain the loftiest ranges on which snow is to be found through-

out the year.

In most of the mountainous parts of India, I have seen almost every

ravine give exit to a water-course, but this is not the case in Affghan-

istan. In the Bolan pass water is plentiful enough, and at Sir-i-

Bolan, which the Affghans consider as the head of the pass, a beau-

tiful and copious spring gushes from the rocky southern side of the

gorge. But from this to Sinab, a distance of about 24 miles, and where

there are kahreejees, not a drop of water is procurable, unless rain

has very lately fallen.

cnc BLL LLAL LC nl

cane ——>— | |

Sectionjofthe ,’ surface of «the or /dinary form sof Affghan valley.

/ . ' ‘ %

AY s L ti ‘,

if * i ; %

i s Gay »

4 u be AN

oe:

vid .

oo”

Boundary mountains _— Glacis slope of boulders _—‘Tillable soil, a strip on either

usually bare rock. and shingle. side of the line of drainage.

IVA

— ea ae ° a

Section!of ‘the surface ,of they, other form of val‘leysuchas that, to the immediate

west oft »Cabul city. ‘s .

1 Sw,

«a

ABawbibhb es ea mae MRR KR ETH

auuemewuer ome —- =

Rocky boundary Glacis slope of boulders Level tillable soil.

mountains. and shingle.

1841.]| Report on subjects connected with Affghanistan. 809

[cB

bp 2

¥ a3} a 3 .

os 2 : 5 Ci

aes 3 a 8 Deere kid 6 rs

= 2, = 2, x ory Ps acca cs

S) a eS ria ° °

= eS) 3 3 ake

wo Ce Oo #A Sa Cr Ararat

3 2 Bik ieti ic eae eee allen ite i Skene

D 3) ® 5) Se So S\yvo 's

86 q = ao 28 So

| om Se aS = oso —

ah eS 5S Oo Ses AS

H x w i ;

; : ok : Ee eae

= x 4 H

: : Geni 1

: i 5 3 : Dig oe

i i H Howe ae ak

; 4 H i ~ Lone

CrP H i Nb La

Valley of Peshawur. Valley of Dhukka

or Lalpore.

Superficial oblique section (not drawn in proportion) of Peshawur valley, of the Kybur range, and

valley of Dhukka, to shew that glacis slopes of boulders and shingle exist in the Afredi, as well as

the Kybur side of the valley, and as well on the West as on the East side of the Khybur range.

The Kojuck pass is much less supplied; there is a good spring near

the head of the ravine up which the road runs, and there is also some

water at Chummun, on the north face of the range, 3,000 feet below its

crest. But between Chummun and Kelah Abdoolla, no good water is

procurable, and even at the last mentioned place the supplies obtained

were brackish; the same comparative scarcity occurs in the road to

Bamean, above Sir-i-Chusma, and it is only when one arrives within the

drainage of the Helmund, that most of the ravines present small

supplies of water in the Khybur pass. There is no water until

Sundyck-hara is reached; the bed of the ravine by which the army

descended from Lol-Ghurree Beg, was found to be dry to within

one mile of Ali Mussid, at a place called Sir-i-Chusma, where there

are copious supplies from a sort of cavernous limestone. In-

deed, this rock seems to be the principal source of the peren-

nial waters of the country in those parts beyond the influence of

the melting of the perpetual snows. It is the source of the sup-

ply at Sir-i-Bolan;-at. Mookloor, or the head of the Turnuk; at

Sir-i-Chusmah or the head-of the Cabul rivers; and the place

of the same name I just mentioned as occurring in the Khybur Pass. I,

whose journeys had been confined to the North-eastern portions of

British India, was particularly struck with the small number of natural

810 Report on subjects connected with A fighanistan. (No. 118.

springs. On this depends, I am disposed to think, though perhaps in

a secondary point, many of the peculiarities of Affghan vegetation.

But few as springs are, and few as streams are, the effect is heightened

by the quantities of water expended in irrigation. To this, and in

a greater degree to great absorbent powers of soil, is to be attributed

the not unfrequent occurrence of the actual disappearance of the

streams in Affghanistan, at various distances from their sources. This

may be observed both in the Kojuck and Khybur passes.

Before remarking on the only two rivers in the country worthy of

any detailed notice, some observations on the lines of drainage may be

necessary.

The main lines are two, one easterly, towards the Indus, the other

westerly, towards the lake of Seistan; of course in both cases there

will be many minor modifications.

After crossing the Bolan range until one arrives within the influ-

ence of the Logur, between Ghuzni and Cabul, all the streams ob-

served flowed westerly. From the point mentioned all flowed easterly,

and perhaps a line drawn due north from near Sharkabad to the crest

of the Koh-i-Baba, will describe the approximate direction of the divi-

sion of the two lines of drainage now alluded to.

“The chief river of Affghanistan is the Helmund, the principal feeder of |

Helmund River. the celebrated Seistan lake. This river has a course of

perhaps 400 miles, and arises in the southern face of the eastern portion

of the Koh-i-Baba, or western of the Hindoo Koosh. I have only seen |

it towards its head, at an elevation of 11,500 feet ; it is at Girdun Dewar, :

where it is crossed going to Bamean from Cabul, by a small river, |

knee-deep in the cold weather. At Girishk, the Helmund is a large and a |

rapid river. I am not aware whether this river is ever made use of for |

the purposes of descent; the only use, so far as intercourse is con- |

cerned, that the collected waters of so variously levelled a country can |

be put to. But connected with the small distance of Girishk from |

Candahar, (40 miles,) the valley of the Helmund is worthy of being |

surveyed, with a view of ascertaining its mineral resources. Connected |

too with the subject of wool, its capabilities of affording a rapid |

means of descent to within 40 miles of the second place in the country |

should not be lost sight of, more particularly if any of the upper parts

of the valley are great sheep resorts during the shearing season. Were |

1841. ] Report on subjects connected with Affghanistan. 81]

there any reasons for supposing that forests of any description existed

in the same direction, an enquiry would be still more necessitated.

The only other river I shall notice at much length is the Cabul

Cabul River. river, by which name the large body of water that

falls into the Indus just above Attock, appears to be generally known.

This river has its chief origin from a copious spring at Sir-i-Chusmah,

about 37 miles to the east of Cabul. It drains the well cultivated

Mydan valley, but is quite insignificant until it joins the Logur in the

valley of Cabul, and even here it is easily fordable. On leaving the

valley of Cabul, it enters a mountainous district through which it

continues to flow, until it emerges into the valley of Jilalabad, near

Baler Bagh, where it receives the Soorkhab, a considerable tributary

arising in the Sufaid Koh.

At Jilalabad, the Cabul river is of considerable size, and of a moun-

tainous character ; two or three miles below Jilalabad, it is joined by the

large river which drains the Koonur valley, and which is known, I be-

lieve, by the name of Rania in the lower parts of its course, and of Koonur

in theupper. The Cabul river then ceases to be fordable ; it continues to

hug the northern side of the Jilalabad valley, untilit enters the Momund

hills, which connect the offsets of the Sufaid Koh with those of the Hin-

doo Koosh, or western parts of great Himalaya, at the Abkharah, a

few miles below Dhukka.

It continues to be confined by these, until at Mucharr it emerges into

the valley of Peshawur.

From Sir-i-Chusmah to Jilalabad, this river is of no importance

except agriculturally. But from Jilalabad to Peshawur it assumes

an additional importance, by affording means of safe, and generally rapid

descent. For this purpose it is navigated by rafts, floated on inflated

skins, the only mode resorted to by the Affghans, except at Lalpore,

where the ferry is carried on by means of one large boat. These rafts

are perhaps the safest possible conveyance, and are admirably adapted

to such rivers as those of Affghanistan. They are very buoyant, and

some of the skins may be burst without causing danger. Indeed, if

care be taken in properly securing the frame-work, a serious accident

ean scarcely occur.

Descent by this river is a good deal resorted to, especially when the

Khybur pass used to be disturbed. It saves a distance of ten marches,

812 Report on subjects connected with Affghanistan. [ No. 118.

and when the Indus becomes a channel of greater traffic, it will be

probably by this route, that most of the exports will leave the country ;

for ine rafts would experience no difficulty in proceeding to Kalabagh,

and there discharging their loads into the boats of the Indus. The

rafts would then have to be broken up, and the skins to be carried in

a collapsed state to Jilalabad for a fresh journey. During the floods, the

distance between Peshawur and Jilalabad may be traversed in 12

hours, the distance by land being about 100 miles.

The Koonur River deserves considerable notice from being similarly

Koonur River. navigable, and from the forests which occur along

the tributary which passes Olipore, and falls into the Koonur river

at Chughar Serai Pareen. It presents the most feasible plan of sup-

plying Jilalabad, and especially Peshawur, with fine timber and

good fuel. The Olipore branch of the Koonur river comes, I believe,

from the more western parts of Kafirsthan ; it is a large torrent, and is

crossed by wooden bridges, on the same principle, but of much worse

construction than those of Bootan, or by beams thrown across.

At Chughar Serai Pareen, where it is rather more gentle in its

course, it is fordable with some difficulty in the cold weather. The

main branch, which drains the little Chughar valley, is perhaps the

larger of the two; united they form a stream which I think exceeds

rather in size the Cabul river at Jilalabad. Both these rivers practi-

cable for descent, may possibly come into considerable play, should

any great stimulus be given to the wool trade of Affghanistan; the

low tracts along both being frequented in the cold months by the

flocks of the Nomadic tribes.

The waters of the Arghandab and Logur, are chiefly used for irriga- A

tion; by the latter small poplar timbers are floated during the floods

Urehandad ana for the Cabul consumption. The Arghandab passes

Logur. within three or four miles of Candahar, and though

fordable, is a stream of some size. The Logur passes within a short

distance of Cabul; it is scarcely as large as the Arghandab. It is in

the direction of these streams which may be descended during the

floods by rafts, that search for coal or any other valuable mineral pro-

duct should be encouraged. Timber is, I fear, scarcely to be expected.

Both these cities would double their importance, should coal mines be

found within the range of either of the above rivers.

1841. | Report on subjects connected with Affghanistan. 813

The only lake in the kingdom of His Majesty Shah Shoojah known

Lakes. to me, is that of Cabul, which is of some extent. I

am not aware of its being of any other use than supplying the market of

Cabul with water-fowl, and ice during the winter, and affording in the

same season healthy recreation to Affghans and Europeans.

Of Hurmal, or chalybeate springs, I observed only two; of these the

Springs. most striking one is a chalybeate on the Siah Sing

torrent, in the direction of Bamean ; it is perfectly clear, and emits copi-

ous bubbles, depositing copious sediment of red powder, by which all

_ the turf and plants around are covered. The Hurmal springs, if they

can be called so, occurred at Gurmah; of three examined by Dr.

Henderson of the Sappers and Miners, the hottest had a temperature

of 81° and 82°. Small salt springs do not appear to be uncommon in

the valley of Bamean, but are not, I believe, put to any use by the

natives.

Having thus attempted a sketch of the physical features of the

) country, I pass to another great natural feature, the absence of forests.

It is only eastern Affghanistan that possesses forests. From Dadur

to Tanjeen, three marches from Cabul towards Jilalabad, nothing wild,

worthy of being considered a tree, was to be seen by the Army. An

involuntary exclamation of surprise escaped me, on reaching the crest

of the Huft Kotul pass, from which the fir-clad ridges above Tanjeen

are visible. |

The Bolan pass, beyond a few miserable Rairoo trees* may be said

to be absolutely devoid of arboreous vegetation ; some pollard-looking

Sehnee trees exist in the ravines of the Khojuck range, elsewhere not

only are these absolutely wanting, but there is nothing like luxuriant

shrubby vegetation. The forests of eastern Affghanistan are limited

to the Sufaid Koh and to the Sub-Himalayas north of Pusheet and

around Olipore, lat. 34° 54’ 38,” long. 70° 12’. On both of these

mountain chains, firs, Zaitoon, and oak forests are common. Other

forest trees occur on the Kafir mountains within a few miles of Olipore ;

of these the two most striking are the horse chesnut, and a beautiful

abies or spruce fir, apparently allied to the Morinda or Khutrow of

the Himalayas. These are only known to me from specimens

purchased from the Kafirs.

* Acacia?

814 Report on subjects connected with Affghanistan. [ No. 118.

The transition from the absolute barrenness of the Hindoo Koosh

to the finely clothed Himalayas, certainly takes place somewhere to the

north of Pusheet, or between it and Jugdalluck. It would appear

to be almost sudden, both firs and the Zaitoon ceasing abruptly; the

Baloot only straggling as far as Jugdalluck, about which it is a stunted

tree, very much like a holly. During my stay at Olipore, I was of

course anxious to ascertain to what causes the general barrenness

of the Affghan mountains was to be attributed. - Independently of con-

sideration of climate, a primary cause appears to me to exist in the want

of soil. Tillable soil exists on the mountains around Olipore, which

are consequently inhabited, and partly cleared. That soil is rich, and

of considerable depth, the bare rock being only exposed where the

inclination of the strata approaches so near the perpendicular, that no

lodgment of soil can take place.

The bare mountains, however, present very different circumstances ;

they are almost entirely, or quite, devoid of soil, rocks project in every

direction, the intervening spaces being strewed with angular debris

by no means sufficiently comminuted. These mountains are never

cultivated, and sustain nothing but arid-loving thorny and aromatic

species, which almost invariably occur solitarily.

The Sufaid Koh is the range best calculated for the complete inves-

tigation of the extreme inequality in the distribution of forest, for it

unites in many places the characteristic features of both series of

mountains, and it is this circumstance which leads me suspect, that the

bareness is in some measure independent of climate.

The matter is of some importance connected with any attempt that

may be made to improve this deficiency in the dominions of His Ma-

jesty Shah Shoojah.

On the climate of Affghanistan I am not able to present any details,

Climate: such being only compatible with a residence of some

continuation, as in all mountainous countries a great variety of local

climates will be found to exist.

The general peculiarities, as. compared with North-western India,

are the confinement of the rainy season to the winter and early spring

months, and the great dryness of the remainder of the year.

The peculiarity of the climate of the higher districts is excessive

winter cold ; of the lower, excessive summer heat. Even at Candahar,

1841.] Report on subjects connected with Affghanistan. 815

which is in lat. 31° 35’ 33” and at an elevation of nearly 3,500 feet

above the level of the sea, the direct heat of the sun in May and

June cannot be much less than 125° to 130°. Throughout the lower

districts, during the hot months, westerly winds, often assuming the cha-

racter of hot winds, are prevalent.

They were very incommoding at Candahar, and were rendered very

hot from blowing over a desert of some extent, a short distance to the

westward of that city. In certain places, these winds become quite

deadly ; their fatal effects have been especially experienced in Kutch

Gundava, but they are dreaded by the natives in some parts of Affghar-

istan itself, as on the stony desert between Ali Baghan and Chardeh,

near the valley of Jilalabad. In such they are I believe, known by

the name of Badi Simoom.

Little or no dew is deposited in Affghanistan except in the spring

Dews. months, and in those places, such as the Chummuns,

where the water is very near the surface, and along the imme-

diate vicinity of the lines of drainage. :

I have seen it mentioned in books of some authority, that dews are

the providential means by which plants are supplied with moisture in

arid countries. To this opinion I do not subscribe; it certainly does

not apply to Affghanistan, as I had opportunities of observing during

the marches of the Engineer department. If the deposit of dew de-

pends on the presence of moisture in the atmosphere, I do not see

how it can be a phenomenon of general occurrence in Affghanistan,

in which, except at the season and in the places alluded to, the air is

always remarkably dry. The other circumstances known to attend

on its deposit, are all favourable throughout the country, particularly

the nightly lowering of the temperature, and cloudless skies. I con-

ceive it to be probable, that in the places alluded to, as presenting

deposits of dew, these may be the effects of moisture derived from the

soil during the day, more especially towards its close. This moisture

would be deposited during calm nights, presenting the other required

conditions. But throughout the greater part of Affghanistan, the

habitual summer dryness is not modified by any such source of

moisture.

816

Description of another new species of Pika, (LaGomys) from the

Himalaya. By Evwarp Burts, Curator of the Asiatic Society.

The genus of the Pikas, (Zagomys, Cuvier,) which, until the com-

paratively recent discovery of a species upon the Rocky Mountains of

North America, by Dr. Richardson, was known only by the figures and

elaborate descriptions supplied by Pallas of three species, inhabiting

the Steppes of Northern Asia, has lately been detected upon the Hi-

malaya range by Dr. Royle, who carried home a single imperfect skin

of a decidedly new species from the Choor Mountain, (subsequently to

which, however, other and perfect skins have been obtained,) while

another new species is now figured and described, (Plate —) by Mr.

Hodgson from Nepal, to which I have the pleasure of adding a

seventh, recognised by Captain Broome, as of common occurrence in

Lahoul, Ladakh, and Kooloo, and which extending westward, may pos-

sibly also be the “small species of Lagomys,” noticed by Captain

Thomas Hutton, as an inhabitant of the hills of Afghanistan.*

The materials for description consist of a skull and perfect skin, (now

mounted,) which were presented to the Asiatic Society, by their late

Honorary Curator, Dr. Evans. The animal is in all respects a typical

Lagomys, which precludes the necessity of entering into such details,

as are of generic rather than specific application. From Dr. Royle’s

species, (ZL. Roylii, Ogilby,) and that now described by Mr. Hodgson,

by the appellation Mipalensis, the present animal is at once distin-

guished by its inferior size, measuring but 6 inches in length, though the

condition of the skull proves the specimen to have been fully grown,

and its sex is male; from heel-joint to extremity of middle toe-nail —

measures 1+ inch, the ears (posteriorly) 2 inch and 3 inch broad; and the -

moustaches are very long, a few of these vibrissee exceeding 21 inches,

and passing considerably beyond the tips of the ears. The general

east of colour, approaches that of an English Water Vole ( Hypudeus

Aquaticus ), judging from memory of the latter, having a distinct rufous |

tinge, and the fur, which is delicately soft as in all the genus, consists, —

as usual, of two kinds, differing only in the longer having coarser tips

of another colour, which latter is alone visible at the surface; these |

* Vide Calcutta Journal of Natural History, vol. i. p. 558.

1841.] Description of another new species of Pika. 817

longer hairs are { inch in length, and for rather more than 3 inch are

slaty-black, then pale brown, afterwards more rufous brown, and

finally tipped with a dark colour; the under-parts are dull whitish ;

the feet pale brown, with a faint tinge of rufous above; the anterior

moustachial bristles dull white, and the posterior portion of the same

tuft blackish ; and the ears are nearly naked posteriorly, having only a

slight downy tuft near their base, and a scanty border of minute hairs

near the margin, while anteriorly (or within) this border is more de-

veloped on the outer side, and there are some long hairs growing from

the inner corner; the form of the ears is a rounded oval, with a very

slight indication of a terminal angle at the extremity of the outer edge,

the margin being slightly fringed with whitish ; the nose is completely

hairy ; there is a more decided tinge of rufous on the forehead, and on

the sides of the neck toward the fore-limbs; and the ear has the

usual internal conch, or involucrum, observable in other members of

this genus. The skull measures 12 inch in total length, and J inch across

at the zygome@ near the bind edge of the orbits; from front of bony

palate to inferior margin of occipital foramen not quite Z inch ; and tha

vertical height, with lower jaw in situ, Z inch. I cannot do better than

apply to this species the name of Lagomys Hodgsonii. It is obviously

distinct from all the others.

It may be remarked, that a fossil species of Lagomys, from the Osse-

ous Brecchia of the Island of Corsica, is noticed by Baron Cuvier, who

describes and figures the skull in his ‘‘ Ossemens Fossiles,” tom. vi., page

598. (6rhi edition, and plate 175,) figs. 4, 5, and 6.

> a eS

i TAT

Fa: oeghaarferaeae quia ieHaaaaraaahy fad eae | Maar a ia tre MM TTR SM | ARATE TAT —- —

— — aealetiaaanfaa —

sazafemaquifss: — — vfaaat — — Aatfeaacad AcaTAATTs STATAT — — gicetae FqefeafareiaVTTETHT II

a — gfaastaa — — wataamenmtaxifesateatfaac | ware aerta: wactaaagaguiensiat — — cise

Hat 2 afqesafcarariarfastaqur: | a fcaursyarayfaeriaaifan: | PaaS AA AIT SAAT: | feqayaeneqagia:

| gang faaqtadafectamaaeda — a

aya Il sfagaacrsay fay weadatya — — wae aus aeaT fA fay: 1 atzat

aaufasaat — — sacrsit

feardantarcifaatt

— — vfeursarfareiays —

Actn Noe > . sc c. _s hi £, ~ fi f% ~ af a

qqufqvatadtaae: 2° |) Mt — weafeatafet — — — MATATATATIT | IAM Yaa MAA Teo Ulta fe all AMAIA eIAAa AAT || A ITRILET

wamlacrequiaaeferaes | arariyfaarire naa frataarecd te cad rararecacateararaiaeiTes

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qRaARaaGs || WATMTACye a faafaan ear TATA AA Vas || — — — qfaanaatatatsangrelasisaacataacifacan | 1y

SRSA AC aA Ses Teaea TAT

cee engi a garter ead fedaraer areas ata rear fre: ae feta TC AAA eT AT

— dtaqgadiaiaseatifaataeat | a

ARMAS aaa — saa — — Waa TEasaeat | TeV TST CATA T LTA [12 YI) PAASTATATATAT

— — — argaacatafafaaqaradigatatsargeretacecs: — wanwtgfestaen | BIER MTA S A hay TH: Aaa aia shes eA MATA TAA TATA LTT | TSE

— wadaqaraafas:| TATA ETETAeTAasATS | — — gaaraatfeat: aq aaalattaracattae tara: | aeatate: sUwiaafcaqafaatcaaanrya: HUTSTa aa aaea fae eat

— — — — — — — ~~ ~— FE — — facttatardtaractieamacqears ernie |) aeaT — — weuainueae: | sarmaniteneatasahaee at RX

cfaadafusaaet — — — adaawnfasteaasaqarfed | fatteeaciae | aafaarfrareted | afcequmeniaq

=— — — =| — — —afees — — —

- cata awaits | aequisaaia — — —

> ee

— > — > aera | aeitvreanfatrrys: eee

it =

— af —- — —

— — farasia —

— — aera — — — wgyfaatizaqat

at — — — afay — — — aeafet — — — anfaenfafeaer | farrequiaqoegqe

era — | Sree a Faces ee eH eA RATATAT AAS TAG TAT FAAS | aTaa

ee eS — — — wafacfactryeaaryzaaee, Walaa eR PatAMNAy

— —~ — — a4 (ous area 29 Cafeageaqs —

waaasatea afte

— — — sfreraardtersaratagtaaetars

atin fazer

WOHIATT

as asfa: =F PUTTAR AA: waco tt: | aqaeqagmtameraeaae ae |

fanriseeatag |) TR wai a Fara fran y ema ferrereniareeeteecafiermzaTT ava

aarfed

well as to the Gods

819

Literal Translation of the Dhavala Inscription. By Pundit

Suropauwa Prasapu.

]. May the (rays of the sun) which remove darkness, protect you.

2. The four-headed (or Brahma was) enamoured of Sabitre, the

wife of Surya, (Sun,) from whom was born Harivarna, who was the

ruler of the whole world. He was, as it were, the rising sun amidst

the new clouds to the lily-like eyes of all, and who further deprived

the females of his enemies of the beauty of their moon-like faces,

(2. e. by causing the death of their husbands.)

3. And who has grown wise by his (constant) exercise and com-

passion. Viswavarna, was in morals like the sea rising high by the

influence of the moon-beams, and glorious as having possessed the loft

and ancient Jaina temple, which deprived the peaks of Himalaya of

their splendour. Py him (was ***) by means of gifts was

Dhavala, like the moon-beams from the moon, enlightening the whole

From him was born Aroma.

From him sprung

world. He, while on his elephant, (in battle,) cut off his enemy’s army,

and thus noted his revenge.

5. A multitude of Rajas of the wild countries Soobha Raja

was born. He continually and wonderfully enjoyed (?) by the might

of his arms. He restored the army of (?) (to battle) who were

defeated by those of Anuchandra. He (Dhavala) established two

(images) of Gods.

among his people.

(He who was) superior to all, established tranquillity

The Raja Dhoronivaraha, who was him-

self very wise and great, threw head-long (expelled) the Raja Kondesika

from his dominions in the jungles, as an elephant throws a tree, and

a boar a young koal, (a kind of boar.)

7. As* one takes his rest under a tree when fatigued with the

burning sun, so the multitude have taken their refuge under him (or

under the cool shade of his arms.) He was beautifully mild as the moon.

Sung (the fame) of (him,) who was as the crest jewel of all the archers,

_ and always devoted to his spotless (true) faith, He was the follower

* One whole sloka, measuring 13 letters in each stanza.

820 Translation of the Dhavala Inscription. [No. 118.

8. At his (Raja's?) expedition towards his enemy’s dominions,

the Sun obscured with dust (rising high) from the earth, while passed

over by his army, was as it were, obliterated in disgrace, from the

firmament, being totally overpowered by the spirit (of this Raja.)

9. (He was ?) like the sun aati faz i in spirit; Boudha in

compassion; Yudhisthira in wisdom, truth, and virtue; Pralayanila*

in might; the minister of Indra; (Vrihaspati) in counsels; and

(Cupid){ in beauty, which is attractive of female minds.

10. (He) who was fortunate and virtuous, safely performed the

ceremony agreeably to the doctrines (of Veda,) which had ever been

performed by the Gods themselves and for Kali, never creates any

interruption in such affairs, when undertaken by a man of virtue (as

this.) (Besides) men having even in Kaliyuga perceived the spotless

this Raja.

1]. The Creator having as if considered it (?) proper to be placed

together with talent, palace beautiful as the moon-beams. Who

else could describe it in its full length? The kingdom of this Raja was

Hastikanehika, which like the region of Kuvera, was inhabited by -

people of great fortune, and white like the ice (pearl) necklace, and

like Stva.

12. Equalf{ to the minds of those, who reside (together) at one

and the same place joy and health around beautiful as

washed gold, where (in the kingdom) not like the beautiful shafts

of Lama

by others always amidst a crowd of both sexes

moderation, restriction (of passions) compassion, and pleasant con-

verse. .

13. (Slokas of double meanings, altogether untranslatable into

English. )

14. His court Pundit, who was like the priest of the Gods ( Vri- :

haspati) endowed with gravity and such other natural qualities

15. The splendour of a tank, (beautiful with the plants of full

blown lotus)

16. The whole heavenly region was struck with wonder, ad-

mitting it to be as if the second Lokaloka mountain.

* Wind at the time of Deluge.

¢ This comes out from sense.

{ It is translated literally, but what the sense should be, is out of my ability to make

out.

——$—$—$=$$———— nn ena

———

1841.] Translation of the Dhavala Inscription. 821

17. Having by his (?) instigation considered his wealth, wife, and

sons, (family) unstable as the breeze of the fan.

18. (This temple) was illuminated (with the lustre) of the starry

ornaments of female images, and exhibiting how far the power of ar-

chitecture extend |

having four corners shining with jewels,

reddish like shells and pearls.

19. In this ocean of the world, established by those who are re-

nowned. Formerly the Vidagdha* Raja TEqat was like the descend-

ants of Yodu (Vansa) * * *.

20.

with Jainas

The powerful Dhavala Raja (having fought) in battle

so long as the earth supported on the hood of

Ananta will continue to wear the splendour of Pattala,t| which resem-

bles a temple supported by a silver pillar (so long shall this * * *.)

21. The poet has written these slokas in best metaphors,

&c. The priests who were superior in talents, moderation, and

seal capacity, for holding burdens, performed many sacred rites.

Pee ee (He Dhavala) has with a view of discharging his debt to

his ancestors, consecrated (dedicated) this (temple?) at Mahidhwaja

(a village) in the Samvat year 1053, on the 27th Magh, while the

Moon was in Pushya, (a planet.)

(Five lines obliterated.)

28. (This line is entirely obliterated, except the following words,

“not formerly possessed by Bidagdha.”)

29. (Ditto, except the words ‘even by the people of the town.” )

30.

and others, and he who rules it in his turn, is the sole enjoyer of its

The earth has been enjoyed by many kings as the Sagara

fruits.

* The word Vidagdha, which means ‘‘learned,’’ may also be applied as a name.

—S. P.

+ A watery region below the earth.

821*

Observations on a second Inscription taken in fac-simile from the

neighbourhood of Mount Aboo. By Capt. Burr, Bengal Establish-

ment, F. R. S.

In a notice of the Bussuntghur Inscription, (Asiatic Society’s Jour-

nal, No. 116,) I made mention of another also sent to me from the

same part of the country by Capt. Burt, which I hoped might, when

decyphered, throw light on the dynasty of Rajpoot chieftains, whose

names were therein first made known to us. Some trouble has been

required to read this second inscription, which is to a great extent not

to be made out, owing to obliteration of the characters. It is cut,

Capt. Burt tells me, “in the interior of a gateway leading to Mandir,

distant one kos from Beejapoor, on the route from Odeypore to Sirohee

near Mount Aboo.”

The date of this inscription is Samvat 1053, equivalent to a. p. 996,

and it is consequently 46 years anterior to that taken from the Baolee,

at Bussuntgurh. It contains, also, as will be seen, notices of a new

dynasty, and mentions a principality hitherto unknown. Raja

Dhavala, of the race of Viswavarna, is represented as engaged in con-

stant wars with neighbouring chiefs, and appears, on the consolidation

of his power, to have followed the usual course of erecting, and dedica-

ting a temple with pious reference to his ancestors. Lands and endow-

ments were doubtless assigned in the ordinary mode for the main-

tenance of this shrine, the record of which has been obliterated with

the erasure of great part of the inscription.

The facts which may be deduced from this ancient record, confirm

the theory which I ventured, with Lieut. Cunningham’s concurrence, to

put forth, based on the Bussuntghur inscription, as respects the condi-

tion of Meywar subsequently to the first invasion of the country from

Cabul, in a. p. 812. The presence in that inscription of the names of

a new dynasty reigning over the country still called locally Badarz,

near Mount Aboo, about a. p. 1042, and the historical knowledge

which we have of a so-called division by Bhritripad, about two

hundred years previously of the territory under his domination among

thirteen sons, led to the conclusion, that this list of names recorded

the reign of a line of petty potentates, either descendants of Britripad’s

successors, or, as is more likely, of chieftains established in a small

1841.| Lnscription from the neighbourhood of Mount Aboo. 821+

principality by force of arms, after the temporary disruption of the

monarchy at Chitore by the Mussulman invaders. The justice of this

Opinion is confirmed by the tenor of the Dhavala inscription now

before us. Enough of it remains to give us evidence of the existence

contemporaneously within the boundary of the ancient monarchies of

Chitore and Odeypore of another petty state, whose princes-we now,

only have for the first time heard of in this obscure record of their acts,

and whose territory may be perhaps yet, faintly remembered by some

local appellation, or traditional record. The inference is natural, that

similar mementos of other petty states established by the sword about

the same period, during the time of political confusion may be still extant

in Meywar. Their discovery would of course afford further proof of

the truth of our suppositions as to the state of great part of Rajpoo-

tana, for two hundred years or more after the first Mussulman in-

vasion.

Enquiry into such monuments of antiquity, however slow, and how-

ever desultory, has yet the advantage of adding something to the

amount of our knowledge of the true history of India. Materials are

gradually accumulating, whence in the course of time, a sound and

rational account may be framed of men and things as they at various

times have been in this vast country. From the inscription before us,

meagre and mutilated as it is, we are able to find evidence of hosti-

lities carried on at this period against the Jains, on the ground of reli-

gion, and noted in this record as an act of special merit. We are

empowered to conclude, that in Rajpootana, war and foreign invasion

had not as in other parts of India, (as evidenced by other inscriptions, )

caused the pursuits of literature to his neglected, the style and lan-

guage of the record being singularly good: the arts, as it appears by

the description of the temple, continued also to flourish, and the power of

the ruling prince was sufficiently well established to enable him to declare

the doctrine of possession in right of sovereignty of the produce of the

earth : ‘‘ He who rules it in his turn, is the sole enjoyer of its fruits.”

The amount of information thus acquired is often but small, and the

labour of attaining is heavy ; but of such, let it be remembered, is the

material of real history composed, and by such evidence alone are the

errors and misrepresentations of tradition exposed and corrected.

ili naa Hy

822

A letter to the Secretary to the Asiatic Society, on the Nurma Cotton

of Bundelcund, from J. G. Bruce, Esq.

In compliance with a letter from the Secretary to the Government,

North-Western Provinces, regarding the Nurma cotton produced in

Malwa, and requesting I would furnish you direct with any inform-

ation which I might possess on the subject, I have the pleasure to

inform you, that the Nurma cotton, of which the fine Chundellee cloths

are manufactured, is the produce of a shrubby perennial, cultivated

in the vicinity of Chunderee, to the extent required for the fabrics

of that place. I never heard of any being grown for exportation

in its raw state.

The piece goods manufactured at Chunderee, I beg leave to

inform you, consist principally of costly cambrics, turbands, and

seylahs, or waist bands: these were of so beautifully fine. a texture,

that some of the higher numbers sold for two hundred rupees a "plese,

and were used by the Native princes and noblemen.

Although the Chundellees are so much dearer than the Europe

cambrics, the Native princes give the former the preference. It is

said to be more durable, and keeps the body cooler in the hot sea-

son, from the quality it is said to possess, of more readily imbibing

respiration. Had it not been for this preference, the manufacture

of the Chundellees would long since have been discontinued.

When I came to Calpee in 1808, I found some few plants of the

Nurma cotton in the “‘ Nuzzer Baug” garden, belonging to the Jallone

Rajah. They had been sown before the seat of his government had

been removed from Calpee in 1804 or 1805, to supply him, and his

household, with the Brahminical* thread worn by the Brahmins (the

Rajah himself was one) and higher castes of Marhattas. The cotton

which these plants bore was beautifully soft, and of a good staple. I

cannot, at this distance of time, distinctly recollect whether it was

the smooth black, or downy grey seeded; but, as far as my memory

* The Nurma cotton was, no doubt, chosen for its length, strength, and fineness of

fibre. Moor, in his Hindu Pantheon, page 379, says, ‘‘ The Zennar is composed of three

threads, each measuring ninety-six hands (cubits); they are twisted together, and

folded into three; then twisted again, making it to consist of nine threads: these are

again folded into three, without twisting, and each end fastened with a knot. Of these

Zennars, a Brahmin wears four; the other privileged tribes three,”

1841. ] On the Nurma Cotton of Bundelcund. 823

serves me, I think it was the latter. It appears to have been culti-

vated about Chunderee, rather extensively, some years back, to meet the

demand there was then for the Chundellees at all the Native Courts.

It was customary with the Native princes, when they met together

to celebrate marriages, or on other occasions of rejoicing, to present

to each other, as well as their dependents, the Chundellee Mamoodies,

(cambrics,) turbands, and seylahs, among other things, as Khillats.

In fact, these were in requisition at the Courts of all the Native

princes in Bundelcund, Malwa, and Central India generally ; but since

machinery has tended to lower so considerably the prices of Europe

cambrics, the Chundellees are merely required for the personal gar-

ments of the princes.

Chunderee is a province of the Gwalior state, situated on the

banks of the Betwa river, between Jhansee and Chutterpore. I

imagine the Resident of Gwalior, instead of Indore, could more

readily afford the particulars required respecting the Nurma cotton.

In the letter from the Secretary to the Government of Bengal, it

is denominated the Nurma cotton of Malwa. Without a more definite

description, the Resident may suppose that the information called for,

relates to the indigenous Malwa cotton, or Gossypium Herbaceum,

which is the same as the common Bandah. It would prevent mistake,

if the Nurma grown about Chunderee, from which the Chundellees

are manufactured, was mentioned.

As Chunderee borders close upon Bundelcund, I think the Nurma

cotton, which has already been acclimated to the country, and used

for ages in the manufacture of the finest fabrics, may be grown suc-

cessfully in the whole of Central India and Bundelcund, if not gene-

rally in the North-Western Provinces. The soils of the two first are

similar ; principally the rich black marl: that of the latter mostly clay

and sand. The black marl seems to be decidedly the best for cotton.

There is another description of cotton, which is of a longer staple,

and finer fibre, than the common country. It is grown about

Omrawuttee, and known in the Mirzapore and Moorshedabad marts as

the cotton of that place. It has, however, the disadvantage of being

very greatly intermixed with leaves and dirt, from being allowed to

fall on the ground, before it is collected. In consequence of its being

found so foul, there was never any demand for it in Calcutta, but it was

824 On the Nurma Cotton of Bundelcund. [No. 118.

dispatched overland from Moorshedabad, principally to Dacca and the

adjacent districts, for the manufacture of the muslins. Notwithstand-

ing it was so foul, it realized a better price, when I was concerned in

the cotton trade, than the Banda produce.

Omrawuttee is a large trading mart, situated on the Poorna river, in

the Nizam’s country, bordering on Nagpore. Owing to the immense

distance Omrawuttee was by land from Calpee, this cotton never

formed part of the Company’s investment. I was given to under-

stand it was black-seeded, and originally of foreign importation.

I have tried, at various times, the Sea-Island and Upland American,

the Egyptian, the Bourbon, and the Pernambuco cottons several years,

on my own account, to the extent of fifteen and twenty beegahs at a

time ; and lastly, on a scale of four hundred beegahs, in partnership

with two of the Calcutta mercantile houses in 1837, in the neighbour-

hood of Calpee, with, and without irrigation ; but never at a remunera-

ting price. My last experiment of four hundred beegahs happened to

be made when the famine raged with so much severity in the North-

Western Provinces; and I attributed the drying up of the plants,

notwithstanding they had the benefit of being irrigated during the pre-

valence of the hot winds, to the unfavourableness of the season. The

seed was put into the ground in March and April, and watered from

wells, until the periodical rains commenced ; but as soon as there was

a cessation of rain, the plants began to wither, and although watered

afterwards, became brown, and the leaves had the appearance of being

scorched, and ultimately fell off, leaving a few capsules on the leafless

plants, the produce of which, unfortunately, did not cover a tithe of our

outlay.

I ascribed, as I have already stated, our want of success, solely to

the untowardness of the times; but from what I have observed in the

present season, with respect to the experiment now carrying on under

the superintendence of Captain Bayles, and the American planters, I

am inclined to believe that my failure was not entirely owing to

drought: for the plantations at the four localities in Bundeleund

and the Dooab, bear the same appearance, as mine of 1837 did, and

the result is likely to be as unfavourable.

The American planters at the Farms commenced their cultivation of

the cotton with the first showers of rain that fell at the end of June, and

1841.] On the Nurma Cotton of Bundelcund. 825

beginning of July last. As long as the rainy season continued, the plants

looked healthy and fresh. About the middle of September, the rains,

it may be said, ceased ; and almost immediately after, the leaves of the

plants became brownish, and began to wither and fall off. This could

not have arisen from want of moisture, as some of Captain Bayles’

cotton fields had only, a few days before, been well saturated with the

rain that had fallen. ;

Towards the end of September, the wind set in rather hot from

the Westward, and I am of opinion, that the injury which the cotton

sustained, is ascribable to it. If my conjecture be correct, I fear the

American method of culture will never answer in Upper India, owing

to the hot winds.

The American mode of cotton culture, I think, is, in one essential

point, objectionable with respect to this country. It exposes too much

of the surface of the soil to the rays of the sun; this is liable to occasion

too rapid an evaporation of moisture. It has been found by experience,

the “ Purwa” soil, or mixture of clay and sand, will not bear it; and

the black marl, I have had opportunities of ascertaining, unless it

has lain fallow for some time, and is overrun with weeds, is seldom

more than superficially turned up. The “‘duckhur,” instead of the

plough, is usually employed in the preparation of the black soil. It

has an iron scythe, in the room of a share, about twenty inches broad,

and five deep, fixed to a beam of wood, between four and five feet long,

and six inches in diameter. The buckhur is peculiar to Bundelkhund,

Malwa, and Central India generally. In the course of the day, as far

as five or six beegahs of land are buckhered. The iron scythe, which

is fixed to the centre of the beam, enters about eight inches in the

ground, effectually cutting, and rooting up weeds and grass, and

the beam pulverizes the earth as it is turned up. The sand intended

for the Khurreef, or rainy season crop, is once buckhered before the

seed is scattered. It is then ploughed to cover the seed, and prevent

the birds from getting at it. The Rubbee land is two or three times

buckhered during the rains, and merely sown with the drill plough

about eight inches deep.

The cultivators of this district have an idea, that if too much of the

soil is turned up, the produce is not so great. The black soil is subject

to immense cracks and fissures during the dry months of the year,

826 On the Nurma Cotton of Bundeleund. [No. 118.

which again fill with water and close up, after the rains have set

in heavily. The cotton produced in this soil has ever been reckoned

superior to that which is grown in the others. It is to be regretted

that the Mexican seed, which Captain Bayles brought with him to this

country from America, was not tried, in the first instance, on this soil,

as the rains were uncommonly mild, and in a moderate season, the

cotton in this soil grows best; it would have been the means most pro-

bably, of securing an abundant supply of seed acclimated to the

country, to have commenced the following year, on a scale commen-

surate to the magnitude of the object the Court of Directors had

in view; which, I am led to believe, from having had a perusal of their

despatch on this subject, is the supercession of the supply from Ameri-

ca, for the manufactures of Great Britain.

If Great Britain is ever to look for the supply of its manufactories

to India, other measures, than those which have been commenced

upon, must be resorted to. Ages must pass away, (if the present

method of home cultivation ever succeeds, which however is pro-

blematical,) before India can respond to the demands of England.

The most feasible and simple plan, it appears to me, would be to

follow the one which Captain Bayles partially adopted this season,

at my suggestion, when I was ordered by Government to aid him,

in fixing his localities. I procured him engagements from the land-

holders and ryuts, contracting for their labour at four rupees per

beegah. They were to plough,* sow, weed, scarify, and do all the

work that was required, entirely under the superintendence of the

American planters. If the land-rent, establishment, and other

expenses, trebled the amount, still the cost of the cotton would —

have been very moderate. The indigenous plant, when properly

attended to, will yield at least an average produce of a maund of ‘clean

cotton; the Mexican, cultivated according to the American system,

ought to give the same, if not more. Any mercantile man would

pronounce a maund of American cotton landed at Calcutta, at twelve

rupees, very cheap, and willingly engage for all that could be produced

at such a rate through Captain Bayles’ agency.

It is greatly to be lamented that the result of Captain Bayles’

experiment proved so unfavorable in the present season. Had it been

* With their own cattle.

1841.] On the Nurma Cotton of Bundelcund. 827

successful, those who had contracted for their labour at four rupees a

beegah, might have been encouraged to have grown the cotton on

their own account and risk. Until the landed proprietors and ryuts

can be persuaded to do so, there is little likelihood of India ever being

able to furnish the quantity, which America now annually sends to

Great Britain.

I prevailed upon Captain Bayles to receive the engagements at four

rupees a beegah, with the view of shewing the Government, and the

mercantile community, at what specific cost the American cotton

might be produced in Bundelkhund. Unless this was done, it appeared

to me, individuals would hold back, from the impossibility of telling

what the actual cost of a beegah, or maund of cotton, would amount

to, under the “ neez,” or home cultivation system. The purchase and

feeding of cattle, the cost of ploughs, the pay of the ploughmen and

establishment, and innumerable other expensive items, were not

likely to elicit readily this desirable information.

As long as Captain Bayles and the American planters cannot make

the produce of their mode of culture yield a remunerating value in the

market, it is unreasonable to expect, that capitalists will embark in

the speculation, or the impoverished landholders and ryuts will relin-

quish their system, which, they consider, secures to them at least a

subsistence, if not plenty.

It is worthy of remark that the American cotton, cultivated by the

ryuts with their own small-sized cattle and country ploughs, at four

rupees the beegah, under the direction of the American planters, was

in every respect equal to what was cultivated on account of Govern-

ment, with the large-sized cattle, and American imported ploughs,

under the superintendence of the planters themselves. This proves

that neither a costly plough, nor team of horses, are absolutely neces-

sary. The loss which Government must inevitably incur upon the

present year’s experiment, is, in some measure, repaid by the acquire-

Ment of this valuable knowledge. For how, or where, could the poor

ryuts have supplied themselves with such expensive agricultural ap-

pendages, if the successful introduction of this superior description of

cotton, depended entirely upon the possession of them.

It having been ascertained that the means already in possession of

the ryuts, will answer for the cultivation of the American cotton, the

828 On the Nurma Cotton of Bundelcund. [No. 118.

next point to be considered is, the most expeditious way of accomplish-

ing this highly important national object. As the cultivators, I am of

opinion, will not engage on any other terms, before they have practical

proof that a beegah of the American will yield as much profit to them,

as their indigenous cotton: the most eligible plan appears to be, to

employ the landholders and ryuts to cultivate, as they did in the pre-

sent year, by contracting at so much a beegah. If the Cotton Associa-

tion, which has been established in England, will consent to undertake

the risk, and come forward with the means, I am inclined to believe,

that, in two or three years, a cultivation to almost any extent may be

secured for the Association, through the agency of Captain Bayles, and

other fit persons.

Humeerpore, 18th October, 1841.

Letter to the Editor, on Lichens in the Himalayas, from Henry

Corr, Esa.

T regret much to say, that in consequence of my having been obliged

to leave Mussooree for this place some days since, the rich harvest

I had promised myself, on the investigation of the Lichens, suggested by

you, has been interrupted, and I have been enabled to do much

less than I had promised myself; especially as regards the investigation

of the Botanical characters of the plants in question,—an almost

untrodden path, and therefore the more deserving of exploration, especi-

ally with the possible results likely to accrue to the arts before me.

I have now the honour to inform you, that I dispatched, previous

to my leaving Mussooree, small parcels of seven kinds of tree Lichens;

which, if found useful, are likely, from the respective quantity of

each, to become objects of commerce. They are two species of Bor-

RERA or Evernta, one of them that is commonly in use amongst the

natives as a dye, and named by Dr. Royle, B. Ashneh, one species of

Usnea, one species of Parnura, three of Ramana, and a small

quantity of a species of CLaponra. I have been very particular in sepa-

1841. ] On Lichens in the Himalayas. 829

rating all other species and extraneous matter; and as I see by Dr.

Hooker, that the presence or absence of the fructification is supposed to

make a difference in one of the Dye Lichens he notices, I have put

in two small parcels (paper), specimens of the B. Ashneh, with and

without the fructification, for separate experiments. I have sent you

also, for exhibition at the Meeting of the Society, branches of the Bar-

berry (Rusoot, Berberis) which will, in some manner, illustrate

the fact of the abundance of some of the Lichens, as whole trees are

as thickly covered as the pieces I send you, and absolutely killed

by parasite. There are very few Lichens growing on rocks; they

are almost entirely confined to the trees (especially the extreme bran-

ches, where no doubt they can imbibe moisture more freely) and

shrubs, but freely taking root amongst the moss, &c., on which they

may occasionally fall from the trees, detached by wind or the birds.

The greater part of those I have sent, are found on almost every kind

of tree or shrub; but more particularly such as have the roughest

bark. The Rhododendron alone seems almost exempt from them,

though it has other less conspicuous species lodged on its smooth

epidermis.

Ihad commenced a collection for the Hortus Siccus, but even that

was unfinished, or rather only in its infancy when I left: but such as

it was, I thought it best to forward it to you, as it may enable compe-

tent botanists to pronounce more positively as to the correctness of my

nomenclature, which was, however, much improved by the assistance of

a small except from his Herbarium sent me by Dr. Falconer. The num-

ber of species I have forwarded is 19, and I have no hesitation in saying,

that it is scarcely a tithe of those to be found in the Himalayas. The

greater part however will only be valuable as botanical curiosities,

as they do not individually occur in sufficient quantities, to warrant

the probability of their becoming useful in commerce.

I have, in a separate communication, endeavoured to give you my

gleanings of all that is known respecting the various properties of the

Lichens, and would beg the particular attention of chemists, and of

your Curator especially, to the recommendation of Westring respecting

the extraction of the dyeing principle from the Lichen, on the spot

where it is found, as the chief cost of any article sent from the

Himalayas over the capital to England, would consist of freight, &c.,—

830 On Lichens in the Himalayas. [No. 118.

a point of great importance in so bulky a substance. Should you re-

quire larger quantities of the Lichens, I can furnish them. As the

mode of dyeing adopted by the natives, may not be generally known, I

do myself the pleasure of handing you the same, with a few other

details, which may be of interest.

Chulchelera is the name by which the Evernia AsHNEH is known

in the Upper Provinces of Hindoostan, but not to the natives of the

mountains, who have one general name for all plants growing on the

bark of trees, viz. Chal, a word meaning the bark itself, with all that

is on it.

As far as my information goes, the chief supply of the Doab is de-

rived from the village of Nagul, no great distance (about ten miles)

from Dhera, and the town of Khalsee, on the right bank of the Jumna.

In these places the dealers in Lichen of Saharanpoor, (bunyas,) have

correspondents, to whom they write at the commencement of each

season, and mention the quantity if most probably required for con-

sumption. These correspondents, also bunyas, notify their wishes to

the petty chiefs or zumeendars in the hills, and the quantity ordered is

delivered, the Paharees receiving either cash, but mostly salt, in pay-

ment. Hach Paharee brings down a load of about 30 seers, packed

in leaves, and bound with Moonjh, and has to pay the Gurwal Rajah, at

established chowkees, a small duty, varying according to local arrange-

ments with the chokeydars. The time for gathering the Lichen is

January and February. The Nagul and Khalsee bunyas keep no

stock on hand, but send all they receive to Saharanpoor. I am told

the quantity annually exported to this town barely exceeds 100 maunds,

(less than four tons,) of which about ten are used in the place and its

vicinity, and the remainder sent further south. When first gather-

ed, the Paharees are not particular in confining themselves to the

genuine species required, but to hasten their work, tear off several other

kinds, and along with them, break off the branches on which they

grow. This, and those, give much trouble to the consumer, for the ex-

porter below does not take the trouble of cleansing the article he re-

ceives, before he sends it forward. As the Lichen is only used during the

earlier months of the hot season in the plains, any remaining uncon-

sumed after these, is spoilt by keeping in bulk during the rains, and

thrown away as worthless. The entrepots for the Lichen to the east

1841. ] On Lichens in the Himalayas. 831

are Kassipoor and Philibeet in Rohilkhund, which derive their supplies:

from the Kumaon province.

The Lichen rarely finds its way into the hands of the regular dyers, as

almost every Mussulman, and many Hindoos, know how to, and do

use it as a household article of manufacture, thus saving the cost of

the dyer’s labour. One seer will dye from ten to fifteen pieces of

cloth, of the ordinary length, made in this part of the country

and about two feet broad. The article when brought in the bazar,

is carefully picked, and freed from all extraneous matter, thoroughly

dried in the sun, and rubbed with the hand on. the rope bottom

of a Charpae, till not only all the remaining particles of earth,

bark, &c., are rubbed through, but until the whole assumes a white

colour, by the peeling off of the dark under-surface, which you will

observe on the plant. This process gives to the massive an almost

silky softness. The Lichen is then put into as much water as may, in

the estimation of the operator, be required to dye the cloth in hand,

and boiled until the colouring matter is strongly given out. The dye

water is then cooled, and modified by the addition of various sub-

stances, according to the taste or fancy of the amateur dyer.

These are chiefly Kutt, (Catechu, which is plentifully produced in the

Sewalik Hills by the natives, from the wood of the Acacia Catechu, )

a pice weight of which, to the whole quantity, deepens the colour much ;

but is not generally admired. The Kutt is pounded, rubbed on the

seel with water to a paste, mixed with more water, strained, and added

to the Lichen dye. This is the way in which the following ingredients

are also added.

2ndly. Mehendee leaves (Lawsonta énermis) much used and admired.

3rdly. Pawn leaves (Pirer Betle ).

Athly. Flowers of the Harsinghar (NyctTantuus arbor tristis, / which

is indigenous to the Dhoon (valley) of Dhera, and its neighbourhood,

&e. &e.

In order to give the cloth an agreeable odour, it is usual to add, when

about to be dipped for the last time into the dye, a small quantity

of the following aromatics, pounded, ground, strained, and in the same

manner as the Kutt, &c.; viz., Nagurmothor, (root of the Cyperus

rotundifolius, ) Kaphoor Kucheree, (root of the HepycHiuM spicatum, )

and Balchur, (root of Vaterrana Nardus ).

832 On Lichens in the Himalayas. [No. 118.

The cloth is dipped once, twice, thrice, or even oftener, according

to the intensity of the colour it is wished to impart, carefully wrung

each time, and hand-dried in the shade. The cloths chiefly dyed are

those used for. pugerees or doputtas. Instead of washing, (which

however they will bear without loss of colour,) the cloths are, when

soiled, occasionally dipped in whatever portion of the dye may have

been left, and put aside for this purpose.

The Saharanpoor bazar rate of the Chulchelera will give a very fair

idea of the cost and charges of not only the Chulchelera, but of all

the other kinds, should they become articles of commerce, and be

sought after for exportation.

The Chulchelera, in its rude state, (that is as gathered with admix-

tures in the Hills, ) is sold in Saharanpoor, when cheap, at rupees 1-8 per

maund, or 7 pies the seer, (3s. per maund, or 4/. 4s. per ton) ; and when

at the highest price, at from 2-8 to 3 Rs. per maund, which would give

from 6/. 6s. to 8/. 8s. per ton. I have no doubt that, in case of an

increased demand, the article would also rise in price, and that it would

never be procurable at less than 6/. 6s. per ton; that is, rupees 2-8

per maund. At Saharanpoor, it would require (or rather at Nagul or

Khalsee) to be picked and properly packed,—an operation which, from

its cost, say 4 ans. per cwt. and the reduction in weight it would cause

(at least one-third,) would enhance the price from 2-8 to rupees

3-10-8, and including the cost of one gunny bag. per maund, at least

5 ans. more, or say in round numbers rupees 4, or 8 Rs. per maund,

or 11d. 4s. per ton.

To this, carriage from Saharanpoor to Ghurmuktiser, or rather

Sookerthal, a ghat twenty miles above Ghurmuktiser, at the minimum

rate of 8 ans. per maund, and freight to Calcutta at no less than

1-4, including insurance, &c.; and we shall find the cost of the article

delivered in Calcutta to be 5 rupees 12 ans. per maund, or 16/. 2s. per

ton. The freight and expenses to London will not fall much short

of 52. thus allowing the Lichen to be delivered in London at 211.

odd.

The following is a rough guess of the proportions in which the other

species I have sent might be obtained, from which it would appear that

there would not be much difference in the cost of the several kinds.

1841.] On Lichens in the Himalayas. 833

Taking the Chulchelera as the criterion represented by the figure 1, I

think the other species might be thus placed :—

Evernie species (? tenacissima) Wile as 4

Parmeliz ditto oa ag; ee e. 4

Usnea florida a a ne aoe =

ali i a ta Ae

Ramaline species (tree) ae a

The species of Cladonia at not more than }, if so much.

This proportion of Course would only influence the original cost

- of gathering.

Dehlee, 4th October, 1841.

Proceedings of the Asiatic Society.

( Wednesday Evening, 6th October, 1841.)

Dr. J. J. Heper win, Senior Member present, in the Chair,

The following gentlemen proposed at the last Meeting were ballotted for and duly

elected as Members ; viz:—

Honble. A. Amos, Esq.

R. Bartow, Esq.

C. G. MANsEL, Esq.

Ordered—That the usual communication of their election be made to the aforesaid

gentlemen, and that they be furnished with the rules of the Society for their guidance.

Library and Museum.

Books received for the Library of the Asiatic Societe at the Meeting of 6th October, 1841.

Royle on the Productive Resources of India, London, 1840, two copies, royal 8vo.

2 vols.

‘Report of the British Association for the advancement of Science for 1840, 8vo. 1 vol.

Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, 1839, part 4th, 1 vol.

Hodgson’s Illustrations of the Literature and Religion of the Buddhists, Serampore,

1841, ten copies, 10 vols.

The Oriental Christian Spectator, August 1841, vol. 2d, No. 8, second series,

Bombay, pamph.

Transactions of the Zoological Society of London, 1840, vol. 2d, part 4th, 4to. 1 vol.

Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 1840, vol. 14th, part 2d, 4to. 1 vol.

The Annals and Magazine of Natural History, including Zoology, Botany, and

Geology, June 1841, vol. 7, No. 44, pamph.

Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science, 3d series, vol. 18, No. 117 and

118, April and May, 1841, pamph.

Calcutta Christian Observer, October 1841, new series, vol. 2d, No. 22.

Yarrell’s History of British Birds, London, 1841, part 25, pamph.

34 Asiatic Society. [No. 118.

Journal of the Bombay Branch Royal Asiatic Society, July 1841, No. l, pamph.

Calcutta Monthly Journal, &c. August 1841, third series, No. 81, ditto

Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 1840-1841, No. 18, ditto.

Reports of the Council and Auditors of the Zoological Society of London, April,

1840 and April 1841, ditto.

Seear-Ool-Mutakh-Reen, (Persian,) 1. vol.

Another Persian Book, ‘‘ Heedayah,”’ vol. 3d.

Books presented to the Library of the Asiatic Society by Mr. A. Csoma.

Histoire général des Huns, Paris 1756, tome lere. parties lere. et 2d, et tome 2d.

Ato. 3 vols.

Dufresne Choix de Littérature, Edinburgh, 1808, 8vo. 1 vol.

Recueil ou Melange Littérature, &c. par A. Scott, Glasgow, 1803, 8vo. 1 vol.

Deodati Lettre d’una Peruviana, Londra, 1798, 8vo. 1 vol.

Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, London, 1834-

30-36, Nos. 2, 3, and 5, 3 vols,

Memoir of the Expedition of an Ecclesiastical Establishment, by the Rey. C. Buch-

anan, London, 1805, 4to. 1 vol.

Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, London,

1833-34, vol. 3d, parts Ist, 2d, and 3d, 4to. 3 vols.

Ditto ditto, Appendix, 1 vol.

The Religion of Reason and of the Heart, by Chas. Benhurini, 1 vol.

Europe and America, or the Future Prospects of the Civilized World, by De S.

Phiselduk.

Radjatarangini, ou Histoire des Rois du Kachmir, traduite par M. A. Taylor, Paris,

1840, in 2 vols. 8vo. thirteen copies, 26 vols.

Comptes Rendus Hebdomedaires des Séances de L’ Académie des Sciences, tomes

Ge. 410, 4to. 5 vols. ;

Histoire des Mongols de la Perse, traduite en Francais par M. Quatremére, Paris,

1836, tome lere. royal folio, (2 copies, ) 2 vols.

Journal Asiatique, 3rd série, Paris, 1840, tomes 9 and 10, 8vo. 2 vols.

Recherches sur L’ Ancienne Astronomie Chinoise, 4to. 1 vol.

Brosset’s Chronique Géorgienne, Paris, 1831, six copies, 8vo. 6 vols.

Nouvelle Suites a Buffon, Cours de Geologie, tome 2, et Planches, 2d Livraison,

Paris, 1839, 8vo. 1 vol.

—— Histoire des Végetaux Phanérogames, tomes 7 and 8,

Paris, 1839, 8vo. et Planches, 1] 4 14 Liv. 2 vols.

Dr. Walker’s Histoire des Reptiles, tome 5, Paris, 1839, 8vo. 1 vol.

Ditto ditto, Planches, 5 Liv. 1 vol.

——————-——_ Histoire des Insectes Orthoptéres, Paris, 1839, 8vo. 1 vol.

Ditto ditto, Planches, 1 vol.

Geographie D’Aboulféda, Texte Arabe, Paris, 1840, 4to. 2d Livraison, (6 copies, )

6 vols.

Y.—King, Antiquissimus Sinarum, &c. 8vo. 2 vols.

Dupin’s Bien-Etre et Concorde des classes dti Peuple Francais, Paris, 1840, 12e.

(two copies, ) 2 vols.

Bulletin de la Société pour l’instruction Elementaire, Juin-Sept. 1840, Paris,

1 vol.

EN Be ae Asiatic Society. 835

Société pour l’instruction Elementaire 24me Assemblée Générale, Paris, 2 vols.

Assemblée Générale et Annuelle de la Société de la Morale Chrétienne, Paris, Mai

1840, (2 copies, )

Procés-verbal dela Séance Générale de la Société Asiatique, du Juin 1840,

(six copies. )

Coup D’Oeil sur la situation de 1’instruction primaire en France, par M. Boulay de

la Meurthe, Paris, 1840.

Ville de Paris, Rapports et conclusions de la Commission des livres et Methodes,

Anneé seculaire, 1840-4], 4 pamph.

Rapport sur la 3rd édition du Manuel des Ecoles Elementaires, &c. par M. Sarazin,

Paris, 1840, (2 copies, ) ditto.

Journal de Médecine et de Chirurgie Pratiques, 9th Anneé, Paris, tome 9, 1

Cahier, Janvier 1838, ditto.

Echo de la Litterature et des Beaux Arts, Novembre 1840, Paris, ditto.

Epistemonomie ou Tables generales d’indications des Connaissances Humaines,

Bruxelles, 1840, ditto.

Extrait des Annales de la Societe Sericicole, 1840, Paris, 2 copies, ditto.

Catalogue de la Librairie D’Ab. Cherbulliez et Cie, a Paris et a Geneve, ditto.

Calcutta Christian Observer, new series, vol. 2d, No. 23, November 1841, ditto.

List of the Geological Society of London, 1841, ditto.

Journal des Savans, Janvier, Fevrier, et Mars, 1841, 3 vols.

Jaubert’s Geographie D’ Edrisi, tome 2d, Paris, 1840, 4to. 1 vol.

Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, new series, vol. 7th, parts .

1, 2, and 3, Philadelphia, 1841, 4to. 3 vols.

Freytag Hamase Carmina, textus Arabici, Bonne, 1826, 4to. 1 vol.

Reid on the Law of Storms, with Charts, London, 1838, royal 8vo. 1 vol.

Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, by Professor Jameson, January to April

1841, No. 60, 1 vol.

Farmer’s Cabinet, devoted to Agriculture, Horticulture, and Rural Economy, 4th

August 1839 to July 1840, Philadelphia, 8vo. 1 vol.

Calcutta Monthly Journal, for September, 1841, 3d series, No. 82, 1 vol.

Oriental Christian Spectator, September and October 184], vol. 2d, Nos. 9 and

10, 2d series, 2 vols.

Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, vol. Ist, Nov. and Dec. 1840,

No. 14, and vol. 2d, Jany. Feb, March 1841, Nos. 15, 16, 17, (2 copies each, ) pam.

London, Edinburgh and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science,

1841, vol. 18th, No. 119, and Supplementary Number 120, and vol. 19th, No.

121, 3 vols.

Proverbia Arabica, edidit G. G. Freytag, Bonne ad Rhenum, 1838, 2 vols.

- Proceedings of the Geological Society of London, 1840-41, vol. 3d, part 2d, Nos. 72

to 75.

Forbes on the Ancient Languages of Gaul, Britain, and Ireland.

Freytag Darstellung der Arabischen verskunst mit sechs Anhaengen, Bonne 1830,

1 vol.

Histoire Naturelle de Poissons D’eau douce de l’Europe Centrale, par Lieut.

Agassiz, Planches, 1 vol.

836 Asiatic Society. [No. 118.

Elliott’s Carnatic Inscriptions, MSS. 2 vols.

Freytag’s Chrestomathie Arabica Grammatica Historia, Bonne, 1834, vol. 2d, and

Ist, chapters 7 to 14, vols.

Freytag’s Liber Arabicus seu Fructus Imperatorum et Jocatio ingeniosorum, Bonne,

1832, 4to. 1 vol.

Dastoor-Ool-Aunwar, (Persian, ) 1 vol.

Kittab Mat-Laol-Audda-en, 1 vol.

Read letter from Jas. CricHton, Esq. Colonial Surgeon, with a box of Insects

from Western Australia. f

Read letter from H. B. Hinton, Esq. Civil Surgeon, Akyab, with six Geological

Specimens for the Economic Department of the Asiatic Society.

(To these, reference has been made in the Curator’s Report.)

Read Memorandum on the organization of a Museum of Economic Geology for the

North-Western Provinces of British India, submitted by Lieut. Bainp Smiru, of the

Engineers, agreeably to the request of the Society.

Ordered—That a copy of the Memorandum be forwarded to Government, and the

original made over to the Secretary for publication in his Journal.

Read letter from Mr. H. Cops, of Mussoorie, offering his services for the collection

of Lichens, for the purpose of assisting the researches set on foot by Mr. Pip-

DINGTON, for the extraction of colouring matter from them.

Read letter from Mr. Secretary Bususy, of 15th September 1841, intimating that

the Resident of Indore had been written for information respecting the Nurma Cotton,

and for specimens of the seeds and soils, and that a communication would be also

made to the Lieutenant Governor at Agra, that reference may be made to the Sudder

Board of Revenue at Allahabad, and to Mr. Bruce of Bundlecund, who is stated to be

well acquainted with the Nurma Cotton of Malwa.

Report for the Month of September, by the Curator.

ANIMAL KINGDoM.

‘¢The arrival of two large and double glazed cabinets in the Museum, for the recep-

tion of the stuffed specimens of Mammalia, at the time of my taking charge of the

Society’s collections, has occasioned me to bestow more particular attention on this

department, during the brief period that has elapsed since 1 assumed the duties of the

Curatorship, and I have accordingly inspected and properly arranged what few

specimens there as yet exist illustrative of the living Mammalia of India, and have

labelled every species with its synonyms, so far as I have been successful in deter-

mining the latter.

‘* With the important accessions in this class with which the Museum has been enriched

during the past month, the entire number of species of which we possess some portion,

more or less, amounts to 147. There are eighty stuffed specimens, pertaining to 64

species; and seven other species may be considered as temporarily represented by

imperfect skins; indeed, many of the former require exceedingly to be replaced

1841.] Asiatic Society. 837

by better specimens. The number of perfect skeletons is 28, comprising several large

and valuable species; besides which, we have nearly all the bones of the Malayan

Tapir, and of alarge species of Whale, with a few belonging to some other species: of

skulls, there are examples of fifty-four species additional to the thirty represented

by the entire (or nearly entire) skeleton; and the remainder of the collection consists

of a few specimens of Bats, and one of the Sylhet Mole, preserved in spirits, the frontlets

and horns of various Ruminants, and a few specimens of tusks and other parts, being

all that we possess of their species, and comprising those of the Narwhal, Hippopotamus,

Phacochere, the molars of the Cachalot, &c.

“Tt willinterest Zoologists in Europe to be informed that the spoils of the identical

specimen of the Sumatran Orang-utan described by Dr. CLtarke ABEL in the 15th

Volume of the ‘Asiatic Researches,’’ and to which so gigantic a stature has been

ascribed, are still preserved in our Museum, in so favourable a condition that I have

even had the skin cleaned and mounted, which has enabled me to examine the speci-

men minutely, and to ascertain positively the fact of its possessing the same cheek-

callosities as the great Bornean Orang-utan; the omission of Dr. ABEL, to notice

this conspicuous and unsightly feature in his elaborate description of the specimen,

has induced a suspicion that the remarkable character in question would prove not

to exist in the Orang-utan of Sumatra ; nor was I| able to satisfy myself of the presence

of the callosities until the skin of the face was moistened and rendered pliable, when

they became conspicuously apparent. This will account for their not having been

remarked by Dr. ABEL, as that naturalist took his description from the dry skin,

as I first saw it. The individual being merely adolescent, the callosities on the

cheeks had not attained the frightful extent of development figured by M. Txm-

MINCK, in the instance of the fully mature Bornean Orang; nor had its beard

grown to nearly so great a length. With regard to the size of the animal, the

statement of Capt. CornFoort, that ‘‘ he was a full head taller than any man on board

(his ship, ) measuring seven feet in what may be called his ordinary standing posture,’’

(As. Res. xv, 493,) is an exaggeration to which I can only wonder that Dr. ABEL

gave publicity; the length of the body, from shoulder to ham, could never have

exceeded two feet and ahalf, and I suspect was even some inches less ; and the animal

was thus by no means of the largest size, nor probably quite full grown. I can perceive

in it no external difference whatever from the great Bornean Orang, and consider

them to be very decidedly the same in species; nevertheless, in the only portion of

the skeleton of Dr. ABEL’s Sumatran specimen which the Society possesses, namely,

the lower jaw, there is a very remarkable difference in form from the lower jaw of

a male Bornean Orang of similar age, also in the Museum,—the ascending portion

of the jaw being half an inch less broad, while the alveolar portion is considerably deep-

er, especially in front, and the chin more slanting. I shall take an opportunity of

recurring to this subject on another occasion. That individual variation of form

occurs, to a considerable extent, in certain details in skulls of the Orang-utan, is now,

I believe, generally admitted by those who have had opportunities for observation.

‘* Considering how many years the valuable specimen which I have been noticing has

been exposed to the destructive influences of an Indian climate, hanging from the

wall of a room, it is consolatory to find that it is in no respect much injured by such

exposure, while it encourages me to hope that, with proper care and attentiog, the

838 Asiatic Society. [No. 118.

mounted skins of animals in our Museum may be preserved for an indefinite period,

with little more than the same protection which such specimens receive in Europe.

“Of the next genus, that of the Gibbons (Hylobates), two highly interesting fresh

specimens have been presented by the Right Hon’ble the Governor General, which

had died in the park at Barrackpore. One of these isa half-grown female of the

Hoolock, or White-browed Gibbon, (1. Hoolock, Harlan, H. Scyrites, Ogilby, and

the brown variety H. Choromandus, Ogilby). The specimen is in beautiful con-

dition, and if any doubt could exist of the specifical identity of the H. Scyrites and H.

Choromandus of Mr. Ogilby, the present individual would remove that doubt, from

the intermediateness of its colouring. The other specimen is astill younger female, also

in admirable pelage, of the White-handed Gibbon (Simia Lar, Linneus, but not H.

Lar of Vigors and Horsfield, which applies to H. Agilis; H. Albimana, Vigors and

Horsfield, S. Longimana, Schreber, and the brown variety—Pithecus Variegatus,

Geoffroy, but not H. Variegatus of Miller, which refers to H. Agilis.) The colour

of this specimen is a very pale yellowish brown, and every intermediate shade be-

tween yellowish white and deep-black is exhibited by the species, in common with the

greater number, if not all, of its congeners; the circumference of the face and the four

hands being white invariably. This species of Gibbon is generally brought from Sin-

gapore, and according to the most trust-worthy information, is unknown in Sumatra,

Java, or Borneo, in each of which islands it is represented by a nearly allied species,

respectively peculiar to the island, viz. by H. Agilis in Sumatra, H. Leuciscus in

Java, and H. Concolor of Miiller in Borneo ; whether the last-mentioned is identical

with the H. Concolor originally described by Harlan, remains to be determined : the

present specimen was brought from Moulmein ; and it is doubtless the species referred

to by the late Dr. Helfer in Tenasserim, as being ‘‘ the most common species of its

genus in the interior, howling most piteously in the solitary forests :’’ that gentleman

also mentions the Siamang (H. Syndactylus), as having ‘‘ been found in the southern

parts of Tenasserim, up to the loth degree of north latitude ;’? a statement it would

be desirable to have confirmed, as this animal was previously supposed to be

restricted to Sumatra. Finally, to complete this brief notice of the Gibbons, the re-

mainder consist of the Hoolock upon the hills of Assam and Arracan, and the White-

cheeked Gibbon, (H. Lewcogenys, Ogilby), a species lately characterized from a

young individual in the possession of the Zoological Society, and the habitat of which

was unknown. My friend and fellow-passenger, Lieut. Beagin, however, of the 2nd

Madras Cavalry, recognised the drawings which I possess of this species, as decidedly

representing one which he had often seen upon the Malabar ghauts, and forests of the

Neelghierries, and which varies as much in shade of colour as the others (the Siamang,

perhaps, alone excepted, which has never been observed otherwise than black.) Mr.

Beagin had seen and handled a freshly killed specimen of the full-grown male,

which taking it under the arms required considerable exertion to lift; the height was

about three feet. Speaking on this subject to Mr. Walter Elliott, that naturalist

remarked to me, that he had never heard of such an animal in those parts; but

Mr. Ogilby, in his treatise on the Apes, (published in the Library of Enter-

taining Knowledge), states, ‘* We have heard from an officer of high rank and cele-

brity that there is unquestionably a real Ape in the forests of the Malabar coast: he

had often heard the natives speak of it, and not unfrequently heard its cry, wow-wow,

1841.] Asiatic Society. 839

in the woods, though he had never actually seen it.’’ Of all these species of Gibbon,

itis highly desirable that the Society should possess a good series, illustrative of the

principal variations of colour ; at present we possess but four specimens, namely the

Hoolock just mounted, and a young one in bad condition ; and a black specimen of

the Lar, which contrasts remarkably with the almost white example that has been

just set up. The kindness of Dr. Walker enables me to exhibit an equally pale speci-

men of the Hoolock. I have had the skulls of all four taken out, and the entire skele-

ton of the new Hoolock is in course of preparation. I have saved also the caecum

with its small appendiz vermiforme of this specimen. It should be remarked that the

individual of H. Lar here noticed, possessed 13 pairs of ribs, whereas Daubenton, as

quoted by all subsequent writers, found but 12 pairs in the specimen dissected by him.

(Vide Buffon, Hist. Nat. xiv. 104.)

“When at Madras, two packages of skins were entrusted to my charge, for the

Society, the one a donation from Dr. Coles, and the other from David Ross, Esq. The

former consisted entirely of those of Mammalia, procured in Travancore. Among them

are some highly interesting specimens. Of the genus Semnopithecus, there are two

species new to the Museum, which previously contained only a half-grown female of

the Hoonuman, (S. Entellus.) One of these is referrible to the Hooded Semnote,

(Simia Johnii of Fischer, Sem. cucullatus, Is. Geoff., and apparently also the

**Leonine Monkey’? of Pennant and Shaw.) The specimen is a female, nearly half-

grown, but which had not begun to change its first dentition. It would seem to be this

species which is indicated in the following passage, extracted from Dr. Harknesse’s

volume on the aborigines of the Neelghierry Hills, (p. 61.) That author notices—

‘*A number of large black Apes, which kept up a continual rustling among the trees,

and every now and then projected, from below the foliage, their grey-bearded visages,

chattering, and apparently surprised at our intrusion.’’* I have been informed that it

keeps always to the trees, and never, like the Hoonuman, resorts to houses; this I

mention, because nothing has been hitherto published of the habits of the species.

The other specimen, if not an entirely new species, is a finer example of the adult

male S. cephalopterus, (Cercopithecus latiburbatus, Desmarest, C. leucoprymnos,

Otto, Sem. fulvogriseus, Desmoulins, S. Nestor, Bennett,) than appears to have been

hitherto met with by naturalists. Indeed, it differs so much from all the descriptions

I have seen of the latter, and from the figure supplied by Mr. Martin, that I much

suspect it will prove to be new, in which case I would propose for it the appellation—

S. hypoleucos.¢ This animal is nearly allied to the Entedlus, but considerably smaller,

the present apparently aged male measuring about twenty-one inches from crown

to base of tail, the tail thirty-two inches, (which accords with the dimensions of

S. cephalopterus.) The entire back and shoulders, together with the outside of the

humerus and thigh, are of a rather deep and somewhat dusky brown, with a tinge of

chocolate, becoming paler laterally, and having passed into white on the sides,

under parts, and inside of the thigh and humerus; the face, ridge of hairs impending

the brow, a few on the cheeks and lips, with the whole tail, and the remainder of the

® Vide a notice, also, in Dr. Royle’s Illustrations of the Botany, &c., of the Himalaya Mountains,

at the end of a note to p. 30, where the productions of the Neelghierries are adverted to.

+ Since writing this, I have seen the S. cephalopterus alive in the park at Barrackpore, and can

therefore pronounce on its distinctness from S. hypolewcos.—Cur. As. Soc.

840 ' Asiatic Society. [No. 118.

limbs, deep black, mixed with whitish inside the fore-arm and in front of the leg ;

crown, occiput, sides of the head, or what are called the whiskers, together with the

beard, brownish white, having a faint tinge of the hue of the body upon the vertex ; the

whiskers are not remarkably lengthened, though very copious, and do not stand out

in the remarkable manner stated, as well as figured, of those of C. cephalopterus.

All that I could learn of this monkey was, that it bore the namé of the Travancore

Monkey in Madras. The S. cephalopterus is only known to inhabit Ceylon.

‘«The remainder of Dr. Coles’ donation consists of the following specimens and

species :—

Galeopithecus Temminckii,

Pteropus medius,

Taphozous brevicaudus, Nobis, (a new species, entirely distinct

from another in the Museum, which again differs from 7. longi-

manus of Hardwicke, the only Indian species as yet described, )

Sciurus maximus, (three specimens, )

hippurus,

erythraus 2

Pteromys petaurista,

Gerbillus Indicus, and

Meminna kanchil, (a nearly white specimen from Malacca.)

‘¢Of these it will be sufficient to remark, that the specimens of Sciurus maximus,

with those previously in the Museum, illustrate the gradations of variation in colour

to which this species is subject: while I may also mention that all the examples of

genuine Pteromys petaurista which I have seen, whereof the habitat was known with

certainty, were brought from Travancore ;* though it is doubtless the same species

of which Major Forbes gives so interesting an account in his ‘Journal of Eleven

Years Residence in Ceylon:’ the allied Pé. nitidus comes always from the Malay

Peninsula and Islands, and the Pt.magnificus from the Himalaya. The Gal@opithecus

Temminckii is entirely distinct from the species inhabiting the Phillipines, as lately

_ shewn by Mr. Waterhouse.

Mr. Ross’s donation consists almost entirely of Birds, but contains three skins of

Mammalia, and one Reptile; viz:—

Pteropus medius ? (most probably distinct, but I wait for further

data before deciding, )

Megaderma lyra,

Herpestes griseus ; and the Reptile,

Varanus binotatus (Lacerta binotata, Kuhl.) .

The following are the Birds :—

Upupa Epops,

Alcedo Bengalensis,

Halcyon Smyrnensis,

Merops Phillipinensis, (adult and young, )

Coracias Indica,

* The Society has since received this species from Moulmein: and the Pt. Oral of Lt. Tickell,

(described in the Calcutta Journal of Natural History, No. 7, p. 401,) would seem to be no

other.—Cur. As. Soc.

1841. | Asiatic Society. | S41

Bucco Indicus,

Eudynamys orientalis, (male and female, remarkable for the

great sexual diversity of plumage, )

Centropus pyrrhopterus,

Lanius Hardwickii,

Lanius minor ?

Copsychus saularis, (Wagler, )

Hematornis, (Swainson, ) aspecies nearly allied to H. Caffer, but

much smaller, having the upper parts, with the hind-neck and

breast, of a hair-brown colour, slightly fringed (as in H. Caffer)

with greyish, and the under-parts dull-white, mixed with brown

anteriorly ; in other respects a miniature of H. Caffer: entire

length 6% inches ; of wing 3} inches; tail 23 inches; tarse 3 inch,

and bill from forehead 4 inch. Should it be undescribed, I pro-

pose for it the appellation H. pusillus.

Pitta brachyura,

Oriolus aureus,

Euplectes Phillipensis,

Pyrgita Domestica,

Cinnyris Mahrattensis, (two specimens, )

——— sola,

Perdiz Argoondah, (male and female,) Coturnix Argoondah,

Sykes,

Hemipodius pugnax,

Glareola torquata,

Tachydromus Asiaticus,

Parra Sinensis, (adult and young, )

Himantopus melanopterus. * ;

‘‘T have also to acknowledge the donations of a fresh-killed specimen of Pteropus

medius from Mr. J. J, Maclean; of a fine Alexandrine Parroquet, (Palaornis

_ Alexandri,) from Mr. L. Swarries; of a Bat, (Scotophilus castaneus,) from Mr.

Bouchez ; and two young Bats, of a species nearly allied to the European Pzpistredie,

have been picked up in the compound surrounding the Museum.

A large box of Insects, collected in the Australian settlement of Swan River, has also

been presented to the Society by Mr. Crichton of that place, containing many in-

teresting specimens, and especially valuable for the number of duplicates comprised,

the importance of which, properly distributed, need not be further adverted to. The

collection contains 287 specimens, referrible to about 80 species, and the Coleoptera

outnumbering all the other orders. A considerable number of native insects have

been taken by a person I have employed for the purpose.

**In the Osteological department, the skeleton of the Rhinoceros, which was much

soiled and badly set up, has been taken to pieces, cleaned, and is now in process of

being remounted. Several small skeletons are also in course of preparation, and some”

skulls have been added to the collection. A skin of the Yak, (Bos grunniens,) which,

* The whole of these specimens were collected in the Zillah of Chingleput, as Mr. Ross has sinee

informed me,—Cur. As. Soc.

842 Asiatie Society. [No. 118.

for five years, has been hanging to the wall of one of the apartments, I have had

moistened and stuffed, and the skull, which was wanting in the collection, taken out and

cleaned. The mounted skin now forms a very good specimen of the stuffed animal.

MINERAL KiNnGpom.

But a single donation has arrived during the past month in this department, consist-

ing of six specimens, presented by H. B. Hinton, Esq. for the Museum of Economic

Geology ; viz:—

One example of Granite Rock in the Ganges at Puturghat,

One of Hornblende, from Sicrigully, Rahjmahel,

———— Trap, called Whinstone by Buchanan, from the same locality,

—— Kunkur, ditto,

————- Quartz, ‘ fat and mealy,’ ditto, and

—— Iron, ditto.

‘“‘ Lastly, Dr. Lloyd has sent for deposit in the Society’s Museum, a Deep Sea Clam

and Cylinder, of which every care will of course be taken.”

The Secretary, before reading the foregoing report of the Curator, (Mr. Biytu,)

took occasion to introduce him to the meeting, and proposed that the services of Mr.

Pippin@ToNn, late Curator, be suitably acknowledged.

The best thanks of the Society were accordingly accorded to Mr. Pippi1Ne@Ton, for

his valuable services during the time he officiated as Curator, and hope expressed that

he would continue to afford his services in the good cause which he has as much at

heart as the Society, to promote.

Read a proposal from Molovi Abdoollah to reprint in Persian, the ‘‘ Hedayah,’’ and

soliciting the patronage of the Society for the undertaking, by their subscription for

100 copies.

This proposal not coming within the province of the Society, it was proposed by Dr.

H#sERLIN, and seconded by the Secretary, that the Society subscribe for five copies,

as an encouragement to the Molovi for his undertaking.

The proposal having been put to the vote, it was lost by a shew of hands: ordered,

therefore that the proposal be declined, and the Molovi informed accordingly.

Read letter of lst October 1841, from Dr. H&sBERLIN, submitting his reasons for

proposing that Professor H. Ewaxp, of Tibingen in Wirtemberg, be elected an

Honorary Member of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.

Read report from the Secretary and Officiating Curator of the Society of Ge 18th

June last, with correspondence on the subject of the Geological Collections of Capt.

Hotton.

Ordered, that the subjects of two foregoing papers be submitted to the Committee

of Papers for consideration and report.

Read the following report from the Librarian for July last :—

S1x,—I have the honour of transmitting to you my report of last month, requesting

you to lay it before the Committee of Papers.

1841.] 4 Asiatic Society. 843

It was highly encouraging to me, that the plan which I had the pleasure of propos-

ing for a new arrangement of the Library and Catalogue met, in its general features

the approbation of the Committee.

In compliance with their request, I now beg to state what progress has been made

in the new arrangement during the last month, premising, that it was commenced on

the 19th ultimo, when I received a communication from you concerning the resolution

of the Committee.

The classification adopted for the Classic Literature, is as follows :—

Ciassic LITERATURE.

1. 2.

Greek Literature. Roman Literature.

A. Philosophy,

B. History,

C. Geography,

D. Miscellaneous Works.

This division of the new catalogue has been completed, and the books of the Library

referring to it, have been arranged accordingly.

The classification of the second division is also commenced, and the works, belong-

ing to its first head, viz. Theology, have been entered into the catalogue ; the arrange-

ment has proceeded to the heads of Jurisprudence, Medicine, and Philosophy.

The following is the classified arrangement of Theology :—

II. Literature of modern times from the commencement of the Christian xra to

the present age.

Theology.

ae B. C.

Polytheism. Monotheism. Pantheism.

A B A B Cc

Special forms Polytheism in general. Judaism. Christianity. Muhammedanism.

of Polytheism : a. Holy Scriptures and their parts.

a. Religion of Egypt. b. Biblical Criticism and Interpre-

b. ———— of Greece and Rome. tation.

ec. ——— of Zoroaster. c. History of the Christian Church.

d. Brahmanian. d. Miscellaneous Works.

e. Buddhism.

f. Religion of Confucius.

I beg to observe with regard to this classification, that the subdivisions have of

course been made according to the number of works in the Library, as a complete ar-

rangement cannot be made, except there be a number of books sufficient to represent

the co-ordinate divisions of a branch of Literature.

I add two lists which have been prepared during last month for the consideration of

the Committee, one of all the defective works in the Library, specifying the volumes

which are wanting, as many of these works contain the most important information

about subjects intimately connected with the purposes of the Asiatic Society, which

renders it very desirable to have them completed.

844 Asiatic Society. [No. 118.

The second contains the number of books which require to be rebound. With

regard to them I would observe, that though the expense of putting them into good

condition, may be considerable, the preservation of so many excellent works will

justify the outlay ; for should they be allowed to remain in their present state, most of

hem will soon be so far destroyed as to be of little or no service in the Library.

Should the Committee resolve to have these books rebound, I would take the liberty

to suggest, that several respectable Book-binders be requested to send in their esti-

mates. I would also remark that, when books, requiring to be bound, are many,

as for instance in a Public Library, the prices ought to be something less than the

common rates. ‘

The rate for the binding of books, as fixed at present, appears too high, as the

accompanying list of the respective rates apparently shews.

llth August, 184]. I have the honour to remain, Sir,

Your obedient servant,

; ee E. Rokr.

Read report by Mr. PippineTon, on the Cylinder found on the hills near Herat,

and presented to the Society by Major E. Portinazr, which the Secretary informed

the Meeting he would print in an early number of his Journal.

Read letter of Ist September 1841, from Lieut. A. Cunnineuam, of which the

following is a copy :—

My pzEAR TOoRENS, Lucknow, \st September.

The Silver Plate of which you have got 500 lithographed copies, appears to me to

represent most unquestionably the portrait of Sapor II. or Shahpuhr Zu’) Aktaf, or Zu’l

Aknaf; for in the list of the Sassanian Kings, whose dresses are described in the

Majmul-ut-Towarikh, 1 find that he is the only one who has a crescent on his crown.

- His dress is thus detailed, a rose coloured tunic; red pantaloons ; a crown of blue and

gold, embroidered in different colours, surrounded by two circles of gold, and ornament-

ed with an embroidered crescent. i

Do you think then that Zw’l-Afkun, or ‘‘ Lord of the Lion,’ might be substituted for

Zw 'l-Aktaf, ** Lord of the shoulders’’; and Zw’l-Akna’f, “ Lord of the Wings???

The last of these is supported by the wings, which appear on the head-dress of so many

of the Sassanian Princes ?

Yours sincerely,

A. CuNNINGHAM.

For the Contributions and Presentations thanks were accorded.

JOURNAL

OF THE

ASIATIC SOCIETY.

Report on the Tin of the Province of Mergui. By Captain G. B.

TREMENHEERE, Lyxecutive Engineer, Tenasserim Division.

1. The tin of this province has not been sought for since the Burmese

took possession of the country from their Siamese neighbours. Under

the rule of the latter, or during the period at which Tenasserim was

an independent state, extensive works for tin were carried on. It

occurs chiefly in the beds and banks of streams issuing from the

primitive mountains, which form the principal feature of this peninsula ;

portions of the banks of streams in which it is found are, in some

instances, rivetted with rough stone-work, to confine the water for

washing operations ; and the ground on either side, for many miles

along their course, is penetrated by innumerable pits, from eight to

ten and twelve feet deep. Traces of the work of many thousands

of men are evident in several places. These pits are not connected

with one another, but seem to have been sunk by separate small

parties of men, to whom probably definite tasks were assigned, with

a view of tracing the tin ground, and of extracting the gravel with

which the tin is mixed.

Their variable depth, and the amount of labour expended on them,

is a tolerable indication of the success with which this has been

pursued, and of the places in which ground might be again perhaps

opened with advantage.

2. The streams themselves are rich in tin, which may be collected

from their beds in considerable quantities. The process by which

it has been deposited for long periods, and for many miles along

No. 119. New Series, No. 35. 5 P

846 Report on the Tin of the Province of Mergui. [No. 119.

the line of valleys through which they flow, appears to be in active

operation at the present day. Crystals of the peroxide of tin washed

down by the rivers, and deposited with sand gravel in their beds,

may, by changes of the river’s course during the freshes, be quickly

covered with a few feet of gravel and soil. The older deposits have,

as far as my observation extends at present, the same alluvial

character, and it would be well in future operations to have regard

to the levels in which the streams may have formerly run.

The first of these localities which attracted my attention, was the

Thengdon river, issuing from the primitive mountains in the imme-

diate neighbourhood of the coal mine on the Great Tenasserim river.

I visited this river in the course of my survey of the coal basin, and

found pits in great number along its banks, of the existence of which

I had been previously informed, though the object for which they

had been dug was not known to my informant. On washing some

of the gravel from the bottom of one of the pits, a small quantity

of tin was found.

3. A Shan was subsequently sent there, and collected 11,889 grains

of tin of the native peroxide in the course of an hour and half. Speci-

men No. 1, which is equivalent to 19 ounces and 198 grains of pure

tin.

4. After leaving the vicinity of the coal mine, I proceeded down

the river, and was accompanied by the Shan, who had been employed

in tin works in the Straits, and to whom several tin streams in the

Mergui province were known. These are situated chiefly on the Little

Tenasserim river, into which they empty themselves. The first and

most accessible is the Thabawlick, which unites with the Thakiet three

miles above the junction of the latter with the Little Tenasserim. The

mouth of the Thakiet is eleven miles from the town of Tenasserim.

5. The access to this tin ground is by land in the dry season.

Landing at the village of Thakiet, I proceeded on foot eight miles, and

reached the Thabawlick, at the point indicated in the accompanying

sketch.

6. The intervening ground is for the most part flat. After passing

a marsh of some extent, there is a low ridge of hills, which presents,

however, no obstacle to land carriage of any description. The face

of the country is, as usual, except in marshy places, thickly covered

F841.) Report on the Tin of the Province of Mergut. 847

with jungle trees ; but the wild elephants’ tracks are open and convenient.

During the monsoon, boats carrying 100 bags of rice, can ascend the

Thabawlick to the place alluded to, in one day. The tide is felt about

six miles from its mouth.

7. Having arrived at the spot at a point known to my guide, and at

which he had the previous year stationed himself for a few months,

for the purpose of collecting tin, I found numerous pits and old

cuttings, from which tin had been formerly obtained. It is found

in layers of gravel immediately beneath the soil. The surface is undu-

lating, and during the wet season, streams of water could have been

conveniently conducted near the excavations, for the purpose of wash-

ing the gravel.

8. The guide stated, that crystals of tin could be in this manner

separated by the hand without the usual aid of the washing trough.

The rains not being at that time sufficiently advanced for that purpose,

I did not succeed in obtaining any tin from the pits. The line of

deposit of the richest stanniferous gravel has been probably influenced

‘by many causes, and the chances of finding it are much the same

as those to which other undertakings of this nature are subject. A

few trials, however, across the low ground through which the hill

streams pass, would enable the speculator to follow its course.

9. The time of the tin washer was, I found, much better occupied

in seeking for tin in the bed of the river. He was assisted by one

man, who disturbed the sand and gravel with his feet to as great a

depth as he could thus accomplish, when a conical and shallow trough,

about two feet in diameter and ten «inches deep, was filled with the

same, and washed in the stream by a circular motion, so as to get rid

of the gravel and lighter particles, leaving the crystals of tin to collect,

by their gravity, on the apex of the hollow trough. Each filling and

washing occupied, on an average, six minutes.

One washing produced 1041 grains of native peroxide of tin in

six minutes.

Specimen No. 2, equivalent to 1 oz. 335 grains of pure tin.

One do. do. 1265 grains of do. do.

_ Specimen No. 3, equivalent to 2 oz. 31 grains of pure tin.

One do. do. 1785 grains of do. do.

Specimen No. 4, equivalent to 2 oz. 430 grains of pure tin. ;

848 Report on the Tin of the Province of Mergui. _[No. 119.

One hour’s work apart from the above, 8,166 grains of pure tin.

Specimen No. 5, equivalent to 13 oz. 160 grains of pure tin.

Total of half a day’s work, including the above, 25,406 grains, equi-

valent to 2 lb. 9 oz. 2382 grains of pure tin.

Specimen No. 6, contains of the latter, 13 oz. 149 grains.

The price of labour in this province is 6 annas per day.

10. The produce of a day’s labour of two men would be, according to

the above trial, equivalent to 5 lb. 2 oz. 464 grains of pure tin, at

the cost of 12 annas, exclusive of the expenses of reduction to the

metallic state. This process, from the pure state of the mineral, is

extremely simple and inexpensive. The tin collected in the trough

would require one more washing to remove particles of sand, &c. and

charcoal is the only fuel required for its reduction.

The pieces or ingots of tin in the shape of the frustrum of a cone,

(Specimens Nos. 7 and 8,) which are manufactured at the Rehgnon

mines, on the Pak Chum river to the southward, and exchanged there

for goods at 4 annas each, weigh 1 lb. 2 oz. 383 grains ; and their value

at Mergui, where the average price of tin is 85 rupees per 100 viss,

of 365 lbs. 4 annas 4 pie. The value therefore of Slbs. 2 oz. 464

grains, or the day’s work of two men, would be 1 rupee 8 annas 4 pie.

The cost of collecting being 12 annas, leaves 12 annas and 4 pie

for the cost of the reducing process, and for profit on the labour of

two men.

11. On the morning after reaching the Thabawlick, I traced the tin

ground for a mile in a N. N. E. direction. The pits are in some parts

more abundant than in others; and I was informed that they occurred

and were thickly scattered throughout the entire course of the river

between that point and the hills from which it issued, at the distance

of an entire day’s journey, if the windings of the river are followed.

12. The pits have not been worked since the Burmese took posses-

sion of the country. At the head of the stream, there are said to be

the remains of bunds constructed for distributing water for washing

the tin, and the posts of a house still standing, which is supposed

to have been occupied by a Siamese superintendent of the work there

carried on. :

The season was too far advanced to enable me to prosecute my —

inquiries towards the hills on this occasion, and my attention was

1841.] Report on the Tin of the Province of Mergut. 849

therefore confined to the spot from which I obtained the results de-

tailed above.

13. Four other rivers emptying themselves into the Lesser Tenasse-

rim, are said to produce tin, but none are so accessible as the Tha-

bawlick.

The following are the names of these streams, with their distances

from the Thakiet river :—

The Khamoungtang River, one day by the Little Tenasserim, and one

march inland.

Engdaw River, no road through the jungle.

Kyeng ditto, two days by the river, and two days inland.

Thapyn ditto, three days by the river, and one march inland.

From the Khamoungtang specimen, No. 9, weighing 2,890 grains,

was collected in ten washings, but I did not visit the place myself.

The size of the tin is larger than that collected in other places,

though the produce is not equal in quantity.

14. After returning to Tenasserim, I visited Loundoungin River,

where tin was said to exist, but it turned out to be Wolfran sand, which

had been washed down from the adjoining slate mountains, and was

lying on the surface of the sandy bed of the stream.

15. In proceeding down the Great Tenasserim River towards Mergui,

I halted at Moetong, for the purpose of visiting a tin ground which was

said to exist near the range of hills to the N. E. skirting the open

plain in which this place is situated. On penetrating to the hill itself,

I found it to consist exclusively of granite, with not a trace of another

rock of any description. The dry beds of the water-courses consisted

of granitic sand alone.

There were many excavations for tin on the face of the hill. Several

loads of gravel from the bottom of the pits and from the beds of the

water-courses were carried to the river and washed, but the out-turn

of tin was very small. There is no water within convenient reach.

16. The next spot visited was Kahan, a small hill near the Ze-

davoun Pagoda, on the right bank of the Great Tenasserim River, 11

miles from Mergui. The tin occurs here under conditions differing

much from that of the localities above mentioned.

Kahan itself is the highest portion of a low ridge of hills, not more

than 200 feet above the level of the river: it is composed of a soft,

850 Report on the Tin of the Province of Mergui. [No. 119.

friable, white sand-stone rock, the upper portions of which are de-

composed and irregular. The surface gravel does not contain tin.

It is found in the crystallized form, interspersed in decomposed granite,

forming a vein about three feet wide, which is enclosed by the white

sand-stone rock, and dips down at a high angle with the horizon.

Specimen No. 10, if its form be preserved, illustrates well the tin

crystals imbedded in the decomposed granite, which are easily detach-

ed from the matrix. The Specimen No: 11, from the same vein, of a

yellow colour, is considered the surest indication of the presence of

the mineral, and lies below the white, No. 10. Large scales of chlo-

rite occur with it, which as they are generally found where the tin

is most abundant, is called by the natives the mother of tin. The

face of the hill is in one spot scattered over with these, which appear

to have been brought down from the vein, with other matter from

which the tin has been separated ‘by the usual mode of washing. It

will be noticed, that the granite is completely decomposed, and that

the crystals would be easily separated by washing. No tin has been

raised here since the country came into our possession, but the loca-

lity has been known. It was worked during the Burmese rule, and

valued as supplying the richest ore of tin. A Burmese residing near

the spot, pointed out the place where his operations had ceased. He

had followed the direction of the vein alluded to, as well as he was

able, and had driven a gallery underground in an inclined direc-

tion upwards, till the bank above fell in, when the mine was abandoned.

He stated, that he had procured considerable quantities of tin daily,

and that he often found it in large masses mixed with the yellow

ground above mentioned. Arriving at the spot where his work had ter-

minated, I set people to excavate and find, if possible, the vein which

had been described. It was reached after about two hours digging, at

the depth of five feet from the surface of the cut in the hill, in which

we stood. In about a quarter of an hour, a few baskets of the decom-

posed granite were removed down the hill, from which 3,900 grains

of the crystallized peroxide of tin, equal to 63,176 grains of pure tin,

Specimen No. 12, were collected; and the next day 23,400 grains,

equal to 2 lbs. 6 oz., and 100 grains of pure tin were found in the

same manner by one man’s labour in excavating ; one carrying down to

the water, and a third washing.

}

1841. ] Report on the Tin of the Province of Mergut. 851

17. This locality appears to be of very promising description, and

I have little doubt that if the work were aided by ordinary skill and

means, that a tin mine here would be productive. A vein of tin is, in

fact, exposed to the day, and would only require for a considerable

period of work the precaution of well-supported galleries and shafts,

to allow of its contents being easily extracted.

The Kahan hill is, I conceive, an indication of a valuable repository

of tin. It is but a quarter of a mile from the creek communicating

with the river, which is accessible to any boats. Its proximity to

Mergui, offers also great. facility for the procuring of labour and sup-

plies.

18. The localities, therefore, which appear to hold out the best

prospects for tin are, first, for stream tin, the Thabawlick river and

the Thengdon river; and for mine tin, the Kohan hill. They all

produce tin of the same nature and quality ; viz. crystals of the native

peroxide, being a combination of oxygen and tin only.

19. No difficulty would be found in procuring labour from Mergui

for carrying on tin works at either of these places.

20. The location of the coal mine on the Great Tenasserim river

has given rise to much additional cultivation along the banks of that

river, where there are many Kareen villages, from which parties on

the Thengden could be supplied. Fruit trees, not indigenous to the

place, and other traces of a considerable population having once oc-

cupied its banks, are obseravable on this river. The banks of the

Little Tenasserim are thinly occupied by Siamese villages. The coun-

try in this direction, except near the banks of the river, is utterly

unpeopled, and appears always to have been so.

21. Communication by water from the Thakiet to the Thabawlick

tin ground, is not open in the dry season, but the distance by land

is short. The produce of two lines of country, that of the vicinity

of the Great and Little Tenasserim rivers, passes the town of Tenas-

serim at the junction of these rivers, only 11 miles from the Thakiet,

and no difficulty in procuring subsistence for working parties on the

Thabawlick need be apprehended.

(Signed) G. B. TREMENHEERE,

Capt. Executive Engineer,

Moulmain, 31st August, 1841. Tenasserim Division.

852

Report on the Manganese of the Mergui Province. By Captain G. B.

TREMENHEERE.

1. During my stay at the Tenasserim coal basin, a piece of man-

ganese ore (black wad) of good quality, was brought to me by a Kareen,

who stated that it had been found accidentally in the bank of a

stream called the Thuggoo, which enters the Great Tenasserim, seven-

teen miles below the coal site. Subsequently, several other pieces of the

same ore were brought by Mr. T. A. Corbin, Assistant to the Com-

missioner from the Therabuen river, five miles above the Thuggoo, and

from an intermediate spot, the locality of which had been previously

known, and had been, I believe, originally pointed out by Lieut. Glover,

of the Madras Army.

2. In proceeding down the river, I visited these spots, and found

at each that a valuable bed of manganese ore existed close to the

surface of the country. It had been apparently cut through by the

action of the streams and river before mentioned, leaving a section

of the bed of ore in their banks covered only by the debris of the

banks themselves. Large quantities might have been carried away, but

a few hand specimens only were taken, which sufficiently shew the

nature of the deposit, and are fair samples of what might be easily

collected.

3. The best Specimens, No. 1 and 2, are from the Thuggoo river

and the bank of the Great Tenasserim. That of the Therabuen did not

appear to be at the surface of so pure a quality, but the existence of —

the bed being known, it is perhaps premature to pronounce it an in-

ferior ore, from the examination of specimens taken from a hole ex-

tending not two feet into the bank. No. 5 is a portion of manganese

rock projecting into the Great Tenasserim river, near the sali of the

Therabuen stream.

4. For the localities above mentioned, I must refer to the sketch

accompanying my report on the tin of this province recently forwarded.

5. Of the extent of these manganese beds, it is difficult to pro-

nounce. The face of the country in which they are situated is flat,

thickly overspread with soil, and with the densest jungle. It is not,

as far I could perceive, intersected by many streams, which would afford

1841. ] Report on the Manganese of the Mergui Province. 853

the means of tracing the mineral deposit. The Great Tenasserim river

has passed through the manganese bed in one spot 24 miles removed

from two. other points at which it occurs to the north and south, at

both of which it is likewise discovered near the surface by the action

of the streams Thuggoo and Therabuen, the probability therefore is, that

it is an horizontal deposit, covering many square miles. But without

indulging in conjecture, there is sufficient at the localities referred to,

to indicate large quantities of manganese ore, which could be collected

by penetrating through the soil lying above it, and immediately near

the spots in which it is now exposed to the day.

It occurs in the form of the black oxide, and is the manganese of

commerce. It is largely consumed in Europe in the preparation of

bleaching compounds, and when pure, is valuable to the manufacturers

of glass.

The soft black ore, No. 1, is a hydrate of the peroxide of manganese,

known under the name of wad. It contains of water two equivalents

or 9 per cent.

Iron, 1.96 grains by analysis.

Its specific gravity is 1.47.

The specific gravity of the grey peroxide, No. 4, is 2.46.

(Signed) G. B. TREMENHEERE,

Capt. Executive Engineer,

Moulmain, 11th September, 1841. Tenasserim Division.

854

Of a new species of Lagomys inhabiting Nepal, (with Plate, )—Lagomys Nepalen-

sis, Nob. By B. H. Hovason, Esa. Resident at the Court of Nepal.

Two fine specimens, male and female, lately received from Gosainthan,

enable me to add the genus Lagomys to the Catalogue of Nepalese Mam-

mals, and it may be remarked as characteristic of the enormous and sud-

den inequalities of elevation proper to this kingdom, that the tropical ge-

nus Rhizomys, and the arctic genus Lagomys, have been taken within

40 miles of each other.

The specimens of the latter genus just procured by me, were shot by my

hunters on the margin of the sacred lake whence the Trisal Ganga River

issues, and close to the verge of perpetual congelation. There were but a

pair, of which both were obtained, as they moved about in the vicinity ofthe

small natural cavity, or rocky fissure, that formed their abode. Their sto-

machs were full of fresh vegetable matter, like the contents of a hare’s belly,

nor was there near their abode any evidence of the hoarding propensities

of the genus, or of a habit of digging for food. The height of the summer

being the season at which the animals were taken, may explain the former

circumstance however, but not the latter, and though it is said that these

Rat-Hares dig for their food occasionally, I fancy this must be a mistake.

My species appears to be nearly allied to Royli, and possibly may be iden-

tical, but I think not, and shall therefore give a summary description of

it, which with the beautiful drawing of my painter, will serve at once

to decide this specific distinctness or otherwise. Gosainthan, where

the pair were killed, is not above 30 miles north of Catmandoo. No

European has ever visited it; but as it is on the verge of the perpe-

tual snow line, it cannot be much less than 16,000 feet above the sea.

The male of the pair is seven inches long from snout to vent, and

the female half an inch less. The general appearance of the species is that

of a Guinea-pig, but the natives of India, who know no such animal, liken

it to a Rat, and as its Leporine teeth and soles (of the feet) are not obtru-

sive signs, the association of it to the Murine race seems natural enough.

Its general likeness, for instance, to the Rhizomys or Bamhoo Rat is very

noticeable, particularly as the latter is apt to hide its tail. Buta nice ob-

server will at once mark the greater superior massiveness of the head in

Rhizomys, together with the smaller eyes and ears, and will not be slow to

refer these peculiarities to the highly fossorial habits of that genus.

Our present subject which, weshall name provisionally “ Nepalensis,” has

a moderate hare-like head, but ears quite similar to those of the common

Rat, with the exception of that small internal process near the conch,

eee ae St

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1841. ] On a new species of Lagomys. 855

which seems proper to the Lagomides. The ear is rather less than half the

length of the head, is truncated, rounded, and nearly nude except on the

anterior and incurved edge of the helix, where very short hairs are pretty

closely set. The upper and outer pair of front teeth have a very deep

longitudinal groove, so as to look hke four instead of two, but neither

these, nor the inferior pair are at all remarkable for size or strength, offer-

ing in this respect, a strong contrast to Rhizomys. The inner pair of up-

per teeth are palpable, but minute. The whiskers are long, and firm,

reaching to the shoulders ; the lips and the muzzle entirely furred : the eyes

medial : the body full and cylindric: no vestige of tail : the limbs. short,

but fine, and of nearly equal length and strength before and behind : pen-

tadactylous before, tetradactylous behind : the nails acute : the soles fully

clad, except the termino-digital balls, and a tiny carpal pad placed a little

behind the elevated thumb. The last named are the sole parts of the

whole body, which are denuded of fur. The fur of the animal is Le-

porine in the general character, but softer and more silky. It is of one

sort, about an inch long, and of uniform structure throughout each pile,

or hardly perceptible, harsher in its apical portion. On the head and

limbs the fur is shorter, more adpressed, and less silky. The general

colour, internally, is blue black, but externally is deep bay from the

snout to the mid-body, and black freckled with paler rufous, thence

to the vent. Below the chin and belly are pale bay, and the limbs are the

same. There is a pale spot, or tuft rather, at the outer base of each

ear, and the mustachio is half dark and half light.

The following specific character may, for the present, indicate the ani-

mal :—

Lag. Nep. with broad, rounded, nudish ears, nearly half the length

of the head, soles nude on the termino-digital balls only, and soft equa-

ble fur, which is dark bay from the snout to waist, and rufescently freckled,

black thence to the vent: below and the limbs, paler bay; snout to

vent 7 inches: head 2: ears 3: palm (with nail) $: planta (with nail)

13: female similar, smaller, 63 from snout to vent. Habitat, Himalaya

of Nepal.

Catmandoo, August, 1841.

856

Notice of a new form of the Glaucopine, or Rasorial Crows, inhabiting the Nor-

thern region of Nepal—Conostoma modius, (Nobis type.) By B. H.

Hopeson, Ese. Resident at the Court of Nepal.

Amongst the very numerous forms* presented by the 850 species of

Birds already known to me as inhabitants of Nepal, there is one which

I believe to be still new to science, and to belong to a group, of the oc-

currence of which, either in these mountains or in the plains at their

base, I know of no other instance, save that of the ubiquitous tree

Magpies.

The group alluded to, is the Glaucopin, or Finch-billed Crows of Swain-

son; and the single species I am acquainted with, tenants exclusively

- the immediate neighbourhood of the perpetual snows.

In the lower and central regions, our bird appears to be represented

by the Timaliz and Crateropi, to both of which, and especially to the

former, it bears in much ofits structure, the same close resemblance that it

does also in its manners ; for all these birds alike have lax feeble plumage,

short rounded wings, longish, broad, frail subgradated tails, and very

large, yet not typically, terrestrial feet, though the habits are essentially

terrene and rasorial. But, whereas the Timaliz and Crateropi have a

more or less Meruline bill, slender, and provided with membraned and

open nares. The present birds, which we shall denominate generically

Conostoma, (KWVOC et OTOUG,) have the massive bill and simple concealed

nares of the Magpies. The bill of the Crypsirine vel Dendrocittz, or

tree Magpies in particular, has much resemblance to that of the Conostome,

owing to the clear arcuation of its whole commissure, and to the perfect

entireness of its tip. There are differences, however, between the two

even in the bills, in as much as that of Conostoma is more compressed,

with sides less tumid yet broader ridges; while in Crypsirine, the other

members, such as the long gradated tail, short tarsi, and considerably

pointed wings, indicate habits less terrestrial than those of our bird.

Conostoma is clearly a typical example of the Glaucopinz of Swainson,

* One ofthe most remarkable of these is the Cochoa of Nepal, and which was charac+

terised by me under that name in the Journal for June 1836. The expert naturalist

would immediately perceive what my inexperience then noted not, viz. that this is a

typical ampeline form, requiring to be placed between Ampelis and Casmarynchus,

though Swainson asserts that the group is exclusively American.

To this genus we have since given the classic name of Prosorinia. In the same

number of the Journal is the description of yet another rarity, first discovered and

described therein, and which Swainson has since called Nyctiornis. It is our Bucia»

hodie, Napophilus, a forest-haunting Bee-Eater. Mr. Swainson’s name must merge

in ours,

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1841.] Glaucopine, or Rasorial Crows. 857

and its natural position would seem to be between Glaucopis and Cypsiri-

ne. In manners the present species is ashy forester, adhering to the wilds,

and tenanting the skirts of forests, where brush-wood as well as trees

abound. Five or six birds are usually found together, chattering, hop-

ping, and scraping on the ground, and resorting to the trees and shrubs

chiefly for shelter. Their food is principally insects of the soft and imper-

fect kind in summer: but in winter they doubtless take some vegetable

food. Their essential form may be characterised thus :—

Bill short, strong, conico-compressed, with broad rounded ridges and

vertical sides; the culmen and commissure entirely arched, the tips equal,

obtuse, and entire. Nostrils circular, unfossed, furnished with a membran-

ous raised edge all round, and concealed by incumbent setaceous

plumuli. Rictus provided with a close series of short bristles. Wings

short, feeble, almost entirely rounded, the 6th, 7th, and 8th quills usually

equal and longest. Tail slightly elongated, rounded, consisting of 12

broad simple plumes. Feet very large and strong, yet not typically

ambulatory. Tarsi elevate, nearly or quite smooth, exceeding much the

central toe and nail. Toes medial, unequal; fores basally connected,

and outer lateral considerably longer than the inner. Hind toe large,

depressed, exceeding the outer fore, and with its large nail reaching to

the middle of the central toe and nail. Nails simple, large, scarcely so

acute or so curved as in Crypsirine.

Habitat, the northern region close to the perpetual snows.

Type. Conostama Cimodius, Nob. new.

Specific character.

Conostoma with head, neck, and body above dull olive brown, clear-

est on the secondary alars—below, paler, and passing into sordid slaty

blue, which forms, everywhere, the interior colour of the plumage. Iris

brownish. Bill dull orange. Legs slaty grey. Sexes alike. Bill to tail

112 inches : bill z: tail 42 : tarsus lo. Central toe and nail 1s. Hind toe

é 2 °

and nail 1;-. Weight 3} oz.

Catmandoo, August, 1841.

858

A Monograph of the species of Wild Sheep.* By Epwarp Buy,

Curator to the Asiatic Society of Bengal.

The arrival of various spoils of different species of wild Sheep, since

my memoir upon this genus of animals was read before the (Zoolo-

gical) Society, enables me now to clear up several points which I

formerly left as doubtful, as well as to include some additional species

in the catalogue, and to indicate still others as probably distinct, and

therefore desiderata to which the attention of travellers and others

should be directed.

1. Ovis Polit, nobis, (the Pamir Sheep.) In the narrative of the

celebrated Venetian traveller, Marco Polo, we read (in Marsden’s

edition, p. 142,) that upon the elevated plain of Pamir, eastward

of Bokhara, and which is 16,000 feet above the sea level, “ wild

animals are met with in great numbers, particularly Sheep of a large

size, having horns three, four, and even six palms in length. The

shepherds form ladles and vessels of them for holding their victuals.

They also construct fences for enclosing their cattle, and securing them

against the Wolves, with which they say the country is infested, and

which likewise destroy many of these wild Sheep or Goats” (Moutoni v.

Becchi or ‘ Boucs.’) More recently, an animal called the Rasse was in-

dicated, from report, in Sir Alexander Burnes’s Travels in Bokhara,

(vol. ii. p. 208), and its horns have since been transmitted to the Royal

Asiatic Society, by Lieut. Wood, of Sir A. Burnes’s party, through

the medium of G. T. Vigne, Esq.t In this magnificent specimen of

* This memoir upon the species of wild Sheep, read before the Zoological Society

in July, 1840, has already been reprinted, with copious annotations bringing the sub-

ject up to my then state of knowledge, in Taylor’s Magazine of Natural History,

for May and June, 1841, and upon my arrival in India I found it again in type, and

have availed myself of the opportunity to communicate some additional informa-

tion.—E. B.

t Burnes “ was told that the Rasse is larger than a Cow, but less than a Horse, of a

white colour, with pendent hair under the chin,’’ and a portion of skin attached to the

occiput of the frontlet in London is covered with white hairs. ‘* The flesh,”’ he conti-

nues, ‘‘ is much prized by the Kirghizes, who hunt and shoot the animal with arrows.

It is said to delight in the coldest climates, and a common-sized specimen will require

two horses to bear its flesh from the field. This creature is called Rasse by the Kir-

ghizes, and Kooshgar by the inhabitants of the low countries.’’ Lieut. Wood, however,

(in the Narrative of hislate Journey to the Source of the Oxus, p. 368,) distinguishes

between the “ Rass and Kutchgar, the former having straight spiral horns, and its

dun colour being of a reddish tinge.”” It appears to me that three different animals

1841.] A Monograph of the species of Wild Sheep. 859

a frontlet, I incline to recognize (though not without hesitation)

the Ovis sculptorum, formerly described by me from a horn in

the Museum of the (London) Royal College of Surgeons, but as

the characters of that specimen, as I originally drew them up, have not

are referred to under these names, two of which are confounded together by the latter

author.

The Kooch-i-Koh of Sir Alexander Burnes’ drawings now before me, refers to

my Ovis Vignei, and the same, I am enabled to state positively, is the ‘‘ Kutchgar’’

of Lieut. Wood, being also the ‘‘ Koch’? of the Sulimani range between India and

Afghanistan. I shall quote Lieut. Wood’s description of it under the head of O. Vignei ;

although this gentleman possessed the horns of both the Ovis Polit and O. Vigne, he

does not appear to have distinguished them, but probably considered the latter to be the

same species with the other, having horns incompletely developed. ‘* A skeleton

of this animal,’’ he observes, ‘‘ and several complete crania, were deposited, I believe,

at Loodiana,”’ and the crania here alluded to, five in number, together with some loose

horns, are at present before me, and pertain to Ovis Vignei. Lieut. Wood confirms the

statement of Marco Polo, mentioning, that ‘* we saw numbers of horns strewed about

in every direction, the spoils of the Kirghiz hunter. Some of these (being probably

_ those of O. Poli) were of astonishingly large size. * * * The ends of these horns, pro-

;

jecting above the snow, often indicated the direction of the road, and wherever they were

heaped up in large quantities, there our escort recognised the site of a Kirghiz

summer encampment.”’ This was at 14,400 feet above sea level. Itis curious, (though by

no means a recent discovery,) that the Kirghizes shoe their Horses with, and make

stirrups from, the horns of these wild Sheep. ‘‘ The shoes are nothing more than a se-

mi-circular piece of horn placed on the fore part of the hoof, When the Horse is in

constant work, it requires renewal at least once a week.”’

The noble frontlet of Ovis Polit in the Museum of the London Royal Asiatic Society

was labelled ‘“‘ Rass, or Roosh,’’ but it obviously cannot be the ‘* Rass’’ state

ed by Lieut. Wood to have “straight spiral horns,’’ and of which “ the dun colour

has a reddish tinge ;’’ this refers, in the opinion of my friend Mr. Vigne, to the Mark-

bur of Kabul, or Rawacki of Little Tivet, a race of very large feral Goats allied to the

- domestic animal, which is figured by Sir Alexander Burnes under the name of Mark-

hor, (the locality not being specified, ) and of which a skull and pair of loose horns have

been transmitted to the Asiatic Society from Loodiana, together with the before-

mentioned specimens collected by Sir Alexander Burnes. The Markbur, as I

was informed by Mr. Vigne, inhabits also the hills of Budukshan ; and I may

observe, that its massive horns vary much in amount of spiral flexure, from the

¢emse spirature of those of the Caffrarian Impoof, (Boselaphus Oreas,) or straight

with aprominent ridge wound round them, to the corkscrew curvature of the

horns of the Koodoo, (Strepsiceros Koodoo,) which is their most usual form,

though sometimes they describe a still more open spiral than in that animal,

More as in the Addax, (Oryx Addaz,) or at least such specimens of the lat-

ter as have come under my inspection.

To recapitulate, I think it probable, firstly, that the Rass or Roosh of Pamir

will prove to refer properly to the Ovis Poli, and may mention that the appel-

lation Rasse is likewise bestowed in Java upon a small species of Civet, (the

Viverra Rasse, Horsfield, or V. Indica, Is. Geoff, but not the V. Indica of

British authors;) 2ndly, that the Kooshgar, Kutchgar, Kooch-i-Koh, or Koch,

applies exclusively to O. Vignei, which is. also the Sha of Little Tibet, but

860 A Monograph of the species of Wild Sheep. [ No. 119.

hitherto been published ; as its flexure, too, which suggested the appel-

lation of sculptorum, would appear to form a less extended spiral than

is perhaps normal, and the habitat of our present subject also proves to

be different from that rather suspected with instance of the other,

(namely, the Taurus,) I here propose to dedicate the present gigantic

animal to the illustrious Venetian traveller of the thirteenth century

by the name of Ovis Polit.

As compared with the Rocky Mountain Sheep of North America, the

Rass or Roosh of Pamir differs in having the horns considerably less

massive, but more prolonged, approaching more in character to those of

the domestic O. Aries, but differing again from the latter, not only in

their very superior size, but in having their two front angles about

equally developed. As in the Rocky Mountain species, and I believe

also the O. Aries normally, the pair at first diverge backward, des-

cending to gyre round at a parallel with the axis of the body, and

inclining, as they again spire backwards, more outward to the tip. The

horns described were in their seventh year of growth, and measure 4

feet 8 inches in length, following the curvature, and 14} inches round

at base, having the tips, which are continued round till they point ob-

liquely backwards, 45 inches apart. The width of their upper plane is

34 inches at base, 23 inches at the distance of one foot from the base,

and 24 inches at two feet distance from the base; the depth of the base

inside is 5 inches, and distance apart of the pair, measured outside,

where they gyre forward at a parallel, 21 inches. The years of growth

are successively 154, 103, 18, 8, 5, 3, and the last (incomplete) 1, in-

ches. The College of Surgeons’ specimen, a single horn, was in its eighth

year of growth, but measures only 4 feet 4 inches round the curvature ;

its depth towards the base is 6 inches, and greatest width, about the

middle, 23 inches. The successive annual growths are 124, 9, 8, 8, 7, 5,

33, and the incipient eighth, 1 inch. It is curved in a spiral involu-

tion, and scarcely outwards for three-fifths of a circle, when it gradually

inclines more so to the tip, the horn describing one circle and about a

not the Sna of Great Tibet, the latter being the O. Nahoor; and 38rdly, that

Lieut. Wood’s ‘‘ Rass’’ refers to the Markbur, while the true Rasse, (Ovis Po-

“ii,) the horns of which were transmitted by him to London, does not appear

to have been distinguished by him from the species which he rightly describes

under the denomination Kutchgar.—E. B.

1841.] A Monograph of the species of Wild Sheep. 861

a third. When upon the head, it must accordingly have gyred consi-

derably inward, instead of descending at a parallel with the other, as

indeed is almost invariably the case with the domestic O. Aries. Both

specimens are of a pale colour, and indented with rugged transverse

striz, in general half an inch apart. Considering, indeed, the differ-

ences of the two specimens, it is by no means improbable that they will

prove to be of allied rather than of the same species, in which case

my former name of O. Sculptorum might be retained for that to which

it was applied.

2, 3, and 4.—The Museums of Western Europe do not, that

I can learn, contain any portion of the Siberian Argali, Ovis Ammon

of Pallas, that might serve for comparison with the Rocky Moun-

tain Sheep: of North America, O. montana of Desmarest; but as

the Kamtschatka Argali is described as a distinct species, O. mivicola,.

by M. Esechscholtz, in his Zoologischer Atlas, (differing from the two

preceding in its inferior size, and in wanting, it would appear, the

pale disk surrounding the tail, so conspicuous in both the others,) the

probability is thus enhanced, that the Siberian and Rocky Mountain

Species are not the same, however closely they may resemble. The

descriptions of O. Ammon would seem to apply in every particular to

the O. montana, though it is still probable that actual comparison of

specimens would lead to the detection of some discrepancies, as

generally, but not always, happens in like cases. I may notice,

that while Mr. Drummond affirms that the horns of old rams

of O. montana “attain a size so enormous, and curve so much

forwards and downwards, that they effectually prevent the animal

from feeding on level ground,” the same had previously been remark-

ed by Strahlenberg of the Argalis of Siberia, and no doubt is equally

observable in the ftasse of Pamir. The finest specimen of a head of

the Rocky Mountain animal, of seven heads of adult males ex-

amined, is in the collection of this (the Zoological) Society, and

gives the following admeasurements; horns 3 feet 5 inches over

the front ridge, and 174 inches round at base, where the front angles

are 43 inches apart. They number nine years of growth, which

successively give 9, 74, 64, 5, 44, 4, 24, 14, and 1 inches. They are

nearly equilaterally triangular, but bulge a little between the angles,

having the inner or front angle obtusely prominent, the posterior

862 A Monograph of the species of Wild Sheep. [No. 119.

double, or forming a second plane at a slight angle with the superior

one, and the inferior angle (if such it can be called) much rounded

off: the greatest depth of the horn is about 6 inches ; from base of front

angle to tip they measure 11 inches; and the tips apart 26 inches.

They are everywhere strongly furrowed across, more particularly

in front, the intervals between the grooves swelling out considera-

bly ; and they gradually become, as in all the rest of the genus,

more compressed to the extremity.

Of the O. nivicola of M. Eschscholtz, that naturalist writes: ‘ The

specimen described is a male in winter garb, measuring 5 feet

(French ?) in total length, and 2 feet 5 inches high. Its outer coat is

of a yellowish-grey colour, brighter on the under parts, and inclining

to straw-yellow on the head and neck ; the markings in frent of

the limbs are of a rust colour ; horns equilaterally triangular, 3 inches

thick at base, and gyring outwards to form one complete spiral circle,

10 inches in diameter, and having their points directed outwards

and forwards; the upper and posterior portions of the horn are

level, and marked with deep annual indentations, which succes-

sively measure 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 2, and 13 inches, making eight years of

total growth, besides which, there are numerous minor indentations or

ordinary cross striz, but no protuberant intervals.” From the figure

they would seem not to bulge between the angles, as is usual, though

not invariably the case, with the Rocky Mountain species; as also to

be somewhat more tensely spiral, as if pulled a little outward. The

appearance both described and figured at the base of the fore-limbs

externally, I suspect to be nothing more than the azzlla, that had been

twisted outwards in the mounting of the specimen. M. Eschscholtz

describes this animal to be very numerous on the mountains of Kamts-

chatka, residing upon the snow-clad heights in summer, and descend-

ing to the lower regions in winter. A notice of its Chamois-like

agility occurs in the Narrative of Kotzebue’s Voyage from 18238

to 1826.

In the 18th volume of the Asiatic Researches, (part ii,) Mr. Hodg-

son, of Nepal, gives a figure of a horned female of the Nahoor Sheep,

and also of the skull and horns of a young Ram, which he erroneously

refers to that species as since described by him. He also mentions

having once possessed a pair of the horns, which he “ could only lift

1841. ] A Monograph of the species of Wild Sheep. 863

from the ground with a considerable effort ;” but it is necessary to ob-

serve, that the description which he gives in the volume adverted to, of

the mutilated skin of a young wild Ram, procured in mid-winter, refers

evidently to the Nahoor, and not to the species with horns having a

triangular section, which is the subject of the present notice. Accord-

ing to Mr. Hodgson, the horns of this young specimen are “ equilater-

ally triangular,” as the figure likewise represents ; whereas the Rocky

Mountain species would at the same age have much compressed horns,

far from attaining to an equilateral triangle. Should a true species be

here indicated, as is not improbable, distinct from O. Ammon, I pro-

pose that it be dedicated to that assiduous investigator of Nepalese

Zoology, and be accordingly termed O. Hodgsonii.*

* This animal has since been more elaborately described and figured by Mr.

Hodgson, under the appellation Ovis 4Ammonoides, (vide ‘‘ Journal,’’ ante, p. 230,)

but except that no notice is taken of the pale disk surrounding the tail, as

in the true Stags, which is a very conspicuous feature in the Argalis of Siberia

and North America, and that the ears and tail would appear to be rather longer

at least than my notes specify of the Rocky Mountain animal, (for, unfortunately,

I have not Pallas’s Spicilegia now to refer to, for the very complete description of

O. Ammon furnished by that able naturalist, ) I cannot perceive in what Mr. Hodgson’s

alleged species differs from the latter, and very much incline to the opinion that it

will prove to beno other. The O. Ammon is described to be common in the Mon-

golian, Songarian, and Tartarian solitudes, inhabiting chiefly the lower ranges of

the mountains, and it may be that Mr. Hodgson’s specimens are trans-Himalayan,

and were perhaps brought from a very considerable distance to the North-eastward.

I mean to supply, however, some representations of (atleast) the Rocky Mountain

animal, which, together with the following description, will probably enable Mr.

Hodgson to arrive at a more decided opinion on the subject.

The Argali of either continent approaches the European Stag in the size of its

body, but is lower on the legs; having a pale disk, as large as in the Wapiti,

surrounding its very short tail; and truly enormous horns (as described in the

text,) attaining to a circumference of sometimes more than 1% foot at base, with

a length of 4 feet over the spire. (The American pair to be figured is the same as

that described in the text.) Its colour is pale greyish fawn, or light chocolate-brown

in younger individuals which have their coat newly renovated; with the generic

dark markings on the face, chest, and front of the limbs, more or less developed :

there is a ridge of lengthened hair on the back of its neck; and the chaffron of the

male becomes excessively bombed with age, contrary to what has been asserted.

A recent American specimen, with horns 34 feet long, measured 6 feet from nose

to tail, and was 3 feet 8 inches high at the back; from nose to base of horns 9

inches, ears 44 inches, and tail 4 inches. A large Asiatic Argali, with horns 4 feet

(Russian) in length, and one of which weighed 16 Russian or 15 English pounds,

was 6} feet (English measure,) from nose to base of tail, and weighed 310 medical

pounds; the female is a third smaller, anda fine Asiatic individual weighed 2094

medical pounds. The horns of a large American male have already been described, and

864 A Monograph of the species of Wild Sheep. [No, 119.

5. O. Californiana, Douglas.—The Jesuit Missionary, Venegos,

observed in California “a kind of wild Sheep, the size of a calf

of one or two years old, with extraordinarily thick horns, resem-

bling those of a common Ram, and tail shorter than that of a Stag,”

those of the female, (as plainly appears from Pallas’s figure of this sex,) though

proportionately diminutive, become somewhat bulky towards the base in full grown

specimens, assuming thus a corresponding character to those of the male.

The coat of the (American) Argali, observes Dr. Richardson, ‘‘like that of the

Rein Deer, is, on its first growth in the autumn, short, fine, and flexible,’ 7. e.

when the future tips of the hairs are alone put forth; ‘‘ but, as the winter advances,

it becomes coarser, dry, and brittle, though at the same time it feels soft to the touch.

At the latter season the hair is so close at its roots that it is necessarily erect.

Its colour is pale umbre or wood-brown, except on the buttocks and posterior

part of the belly, which are whitish; a deeper and more shining brown prevails

on the anterior aspect of the legs,’? the chest, fore-neck, and face; ‘‘ the short

tail is dark brown, and a narrow brown line, extending from its base, runs up

through the white disk to unite with the colour of the back. As the ends of

the hairs (in which the colour resides) are gradually rubbed off during the progress

of the winter, the tints become paler, and the old rams are thus almost white

in the spring.’’ At this latter season, analogy indicates that the Argali again

changes its coat, to assume a distinct summer garb, which (if I remember rightly)

is described by Professor Pallas. According to this naturalist, an Asiatic lamb, of

about three months old, and weighing 84 medical pounds, measured 3 feet from

nose to tail, and 23 feet high: it much resembled a young kid, except in shew-

ing a large flat protuberance at the place of each horn, and was covered with

frizzled woolly hair of a dark grey colour, and which, on some parts, was 4 or 3

inches long.

Like all the domestic breeds of Sheep, when left at liberty to follow their

own inclinations, it has been observed that the Asiatic Argali purges itself in

the spring with Ranunculacee and other acrid plants, until vegetation of a milder

kind begins to spring up, and shrubs to sprout, which, with alpine plants, con-

stitute its ordinary food. It frequents the salt-marshes which abound in Siberia,

and licks up the salt efflorescence diffused over the ground; and the American

animal is described by Dr. Richardson to pay daily visits to certain caves in the

mountains, situate in slaty rocks, that are encrusted with a saline efflorescence of

which they are fond.

Upon the Rocky Mountains of North America, the Argali, according to Dr.

Richardson, ‘‘ frequents elevated and craggy ridges, and collects in flocks con-

sisting of from three to thirty, the young rams and the females herding toge-

ther during the winter and spring, while the old rams form separate flocks, ex-

cept during the month of September, which is their rutting season. The ewes

bring forth in June or July, and then retire to the most inaccessible heights.

Their favorite feeding-places are grassy knolls, skirted by craggy rocks, to which they

can retreat when pursued by Dogs or Wolves. Mr. Drummond informed me, that in

the retired parts of the mountains, where the hunters had seldom penetrated, he found no

difficulty in approaching the flocks of this species, which there exhibited that simplicity

of character so remarkable in the domestic breeds; but where they had been fired at,

they were exceedingly wild, alarmed their companions at the approach of danger by a

hissing noise, and scaled the rocks with a speed and agility that baffled pursuit.”’

1841. ] A Monograph of the species of Wild Sheep. 865

whence it would appear that the Rocky Mountain species, or a

near ally, is here alluded to. Mr. Douglas describes the Califor-

nian Argali to have a tail 18 inches long (vide Zoological Journal,

vol. iv. p. 332.) Its length, he observes, from nose to base of tail,

In Asia, the Argali is described by Pallas to affect the bare rocks, upon which it is

constantly found basking in the sunshine; preferring a temperate climate, though its

range extends northward to a very severe one. No animal is more shy, and it gradu-

ally abandons a country in proportion as it becomes peopled. It is almost impossible

to overtake it upon the ground which it chiefly frequents, as it retreats upon the least

alarm in the direction of the most inaccessible crags, scrambling up and over the

rocks with surprising agility, but ever and anon stopping to gaze at its pursuers, and

successively veering from side to side as it runs, in the same manner as the domestic

animal. The adults are quite untameable, but the lamb becomes perfectly domesti-

cated if taken young. In autumn, when these animals descend from the mountains,

they are fat and in high condition, but in spring they are very lean, for want of choice

food, when they return to the sunny glens of the high mountains. Their lambs, one

or two in number, are born before the melting of the snow; and the males butt at

each other for the possession of the females in precisely the same manner as the domes-

tic ram.

The flesh of the Argali is pronounced by all who have tasted it, when in season, to

be equal, if not superior, in flavour to the finest English mutton; and the same is

remarked of other wild species of this genus ; though, when out of season, they would

appear to be tough and of rank flavour, on which principle may be reconciled a

variety of conflicting testimonies.

The Argali formerly inhabited the country about the river Irktisch, as well as

other parts of Siberia, where it is now no longer met with, since colonies have been

planted in those dreary regions : at present it is chiefly known to abound in the terri-

tory to the eastward of Lake Baikal, extending northward on the banks of the Lena to

lat. 60°. Its identification to the southward, upon the eastern Himalayas, and conse-

quent presumed diffusion over the intervening mountain ranges, between the great

sandy deserts on the west and the frontiers of China, is therefore not improbable. In

America, its most closely allied representative, if it be not the very same species, is

confined to the western side of the Rocky Mountains, as in Asia it inhabits the op-

posite eastern region; being found, according to Dr. Richardson, upon the lofty chain

of the Rocky Mountains, inhabiting from its northern termination in lat. 68° to about

lat. 40°, and most likely still further south. They also frequent the elevated and

craggy ridges with which the country between the great mountain ridge and the

Pacific is intersected ; but they do not appear to have advanced further to the eastward

than the Rocky Mountains, nor are they found in any of the hilly tracts nearer to

Hudson’s Bay, (fauna Americana-borealis.) More recently, the same naturalist

writes (in the Zoological Appendix to Capt. Beechy’s Voyage)—“ This species inhabits

the timbered parts of the Rocky Mountains, and the hilly countries between that range

and the Pacific, from North California to the 62d parallel.’? He there expresses his

opinion that the Kamtschatka species, as described by Eschscholtz, ‘appears distinct ;’”

and it may be that the two are found together in the territories of the Tungusi,

as the Californian species. would appear to coexist with the ordinary American Argali

in the regions adjacent to the Columbia river: these latter are doubtless frequently

confounded together.—E. B.

866 A Monograph of the species of Wild Sheep. [No. 119.

is five feet 10 inches; height of the shoulders 2 feet 8 inches; girth

behind the shoulders 6 feet ; head 16 inches long, 7 [to] between the

eyes, and 9 [to] between the horns ; ears erect, 14 inch [44 inches ? |

long, obtuse. The horns deposited in the Museum of this (the Zoo-

logical) Society, bear a general resemblance to those of the Rocky

Mountain species, but are smoother, and form a much more open spi-

ral: the terminal third is very much compressed, the medial interme-

diate, and the basal very thick and triangular : they were only in their

fifth year of growth, and would doubtless have attained to much greater

dimensions. Their length is 32 inches, measured over the front-ridge,

and girth at base 144 inches, having a span of 124 inches from base to

tip inside: from the tip to first annual depression they measure 123

inches, and then successively 61, 54, 43, and the incipient fifth year’s

growth 2 inches. They do not bulge between the angles, which are

rather obtuse, and, as usual, are transversely striated. Approximate

distance of the tips apart 33 inches.

‘From the testimony of the Indian tribes about the Great Falls of

the Columbia River,” writes Mr. Douglas, “this species appears to in-

habit the subalpine regions of Mount’s Wood, St. Helen’s, and Vancou-

ver, but is more numerous in the mountainous districts of the interior

of California. The only good skin that ever came under my obser-

vation was in lat. 46° 14’ 55", and long. 121° 17’ 0”. Forbes, in his

recent work on California, appears to allude to it by the name of Be-

rindo, which in Mexico is applied to the Anéilocapra furcifera.* He

quotes, however, the description by Venegos, including the statement

that it has a short tail, and remarks, that “ they still abound in the

plains at the foot of the mountains, and are always found in large

herds.” It does not, from the context, appear to me that the prong-

horned animal is intended.

* In reference to the name which is here employed, Colonel Hamilton Smith has

stated, in one of his letters to me, ‘‘ that when I first shewed my drawings and

description of this animal in Paris, it was totally unknown, and my account was

disbelieved ; Geoffroy St. Hilaire telling me ‘vous permittez qu’on doute.’ That

description, with the drawing, was then already before the Linnen Society,

and after twenty months, when Mr. Ord’s account had come out, they at length

published mine,’? &c. This animal is the Dicranoceros of Colonel Smith,

Aniilocapra of Ord, and Mazama of Ogilby.—E. B.

1841.] A Monograph of the species of Wild Sheep. —- 867

From these we might proceed, through the domestic Aries, to the

species generally typified by the Moufflon of Corsica; but I shall

interpolate a small group from the Himalaya, and apparently Caucasus,

distinguished by having smooth and sub-cylindrical horns, that form a

bold are outwards at nearly right angles with the axis of the body,

and have the tip turned backward. Such is :

6. O. Nahoor, Hodgson.—The Nahoor or Nervati, and Sna (not

Sha) of Tibet. Size of the larger breeds of tame Sheep, with pale

horns; and general colour dull brownish grey in old animals, with

the ordinary dark markings on the face, breast, and limbs, more or

less developed. Younger specimens, more particularly, have their

coat, when renovated, tipped with a light fulvous tint, deeper along

the middle of the back ; the tail is bushy, and conspicuously white,

its medial portion generally dark. Length, as given by Mr. Hodgson,

4 feet from nose to base of tail, and height of the back 32 inches.

A female was 3 feet 4 inches from nose to tail, and stood 29 inches

high at the shoulder. From nose to between the horns a male mea-

sured 84 inches; the ears 43 inches ; and tail 4 inches, or 7 inches to

the end of the hair. A pair of horns in the Museum of this Society,

which are far from having attained their full growth, measure 12 inches

in circumference at base, and 203 inches long over the curvature,

having their tips 27 inches asunder: their successive annual growths

were respectively 64, 4, 3, 23, 24, and 13, inches.* Those of a

very old female in the British Museum, have precisely the same curva-

ture as in the male, only that the tips do not turn so much backwards ;

they are, however, much compressed, and measure 93 inches long,

41 inches round, with the tips 14 inches apart. Another female,

in the collection of this (the Zoological) Society, is entirely desti-

tute of horns. The latter, and a young male which I formerly

examined at Mr. Leadbeater’s, accorded perfectly with the description

by Mr. Hodgson, having pale slaty blue hairs, deeper on the back, and

tipped with a rufous tint, more particularly on the back, which caused

* A handsome frontlet now before me, whereof the horns are in their tenth

year of growth, gives the following admeasurements. Horns 244 inches long over the

curvature, and 114 inches round at base, with the reverted tips 26 inches asunder. In

another, but 7 years old, the horns measure 12 inches round at base, with a length

of 234 inches. The annual growths of the former are successively 84, 2%, 23, 2, 1%

14, 14, 14 and 1 inches.—E. B.

868 A Monograph of the species of Wild Sheep. [No. 119.

the animal to appear of a pale fulvous or isabelline hue. An old

male in the Museum of the Linnzan Society,* and the aged female in

the British Museum, together with another skin which I have seen,

have not only no trace of this colour in their present state of pelage,

but I doubt whether they shewed much of it when their coat was new:

the colour of all three is a dingy grey-brown, not easy to express in

words.

The horns of the Nahoor differ but little in flexure from those of the

next species, but may nevertheless be distinguished by many dif-

ferences, in general strongly pronounced; as their superior size; the

greater proportional thickness of the basal half, beyond which they nar-

row somewhat abruptly ; the flatness of their dorsal aspect, with a

much more acutely raised ridge along its middle; and by the compara-

tive sharpness of all the angles, together with the existence, generally,

of some traces of cross-strize, more particularly towards their com-

pressed tips; whereas the horns of the Burrhel Sheep are much

less angular, of a deep rufous-brown colour, and quite smooth. Those

of the female Nahoor described were entirely destitute of cross-

furrows; but all have the marks of annual growth conspicuously

indented.

This species, according to Mr. Hodgson, “ inhabits the Kachar

region of Nepal, northward of the habitat of the Jharal Goat, amid the

glaciers of the Himalaya, and both on the Indian and Tibetan sides of

that range.” Mr. Vigne informs me, that it is plentiful in Great

but not in Little Tibet. I suspect that it is never found at so consi-

derable an altitude as the next species.

7. O. Burrhel, nobis.—Smaller and more robust than the Nahoor,

with shorter ears, and very dark horns ; having no white upon it ; and

general colour dark and rich chestnut-brown, or mahogany, with

the ordinary black markings upon the face, chest, and front of the

limbs, very distinct; tail apparently minute.

This handsome species bears pretty much the same relationship

in appearance to the Nahoor, which the English breed of South Down

domestic Sheep bears to the Leicester breed, except that there is

* Mistaken for Ovis Ammon in the Fauna Americana Borealis, vol. i. p. 274, nap

for a second specimen of O. Burrhel in part 6, p. 79, for July 10, 1838, of the Pro-

ceedings of the Zoological Society.—E. B.

1841. ] A Monograph of the species of Wild Sheep. 869

not so much difference in size. Length, of the unique stuffed specimen

in the Museum of this (the Zoological) Society, from nose to tail,

54 inches, but a foot less would probably give the dimensions

of the recent animal, as the skin is evidently much stretched ;

height of the back 382 inches, from which also about 2 inches

might be deducted; from muzzle to base of horn 8 inches, and ears

34 inches. The horns measure 20 inches over the uppermost ridge,

and 10 round at base, having their tips 25 inches apart; but those of

a specimen noticed in the Bengal Sporting Magazine, (for 1839, p. 295,)

were 254 inches long, with a girth of 114 inches ; and a horn of this

same species, which I examined at Mr. Leadbeater’s, had attained

a length of 2 feet, and circumference of 11 inches at base, having

a span of 14 inches from base to tip inside, and numbering at least ten

indications of annual growth, and probably at least one more towards

the tip, which could not be made out with certainty. The respective

lengths of these were successively 104, 24, 24, 12, 13, 14, 1, 1, 3, and

the basal 4 inches. The coat of the Burrhel Sheep is rather long, and

harsher than that of the Nahoor, having less wool concealed beneath it

than in the Moufflon and Rocky Mountain species. The female is

undescribed, and I have met with no other specimens than are here

mentioned.

In the description of the preceding species, the principal differences

are stated which distinguish the horns of that animal from those of the

present one. The Burrhel’s horns have all the ridges rounded off, though

still sufficiently distinct, and the marks of annual growth are deeply in-

dented, the horn bulging a little between them. Upon a front view the

backward curvature of the tips disappears altogether, and the animal

has an imposing appearance, finer than that of the Nahoor. Its colour

is much darker than the summer dress of the Moufflon Sheep.

The Burrhel would seem to inhabit a much loftier region of the

Himalaya than the Nahoor, where it bounds lightly over the encrusted

snow, at an altitude where its human pursuers find it difficult to

breathe. It has the bleat of the domestic species, as indeed they all

have, and is very shy and difficult of approach. Flocks of from ten to

twenty have been observed, conducted by an old male, which make for

the snowy peaks upon alarm, while their leader scrambles up some crag

to reconngsffe, and if shot at and missed, bounds off a few paces fur-

870 A Monograph of the species of Wild Sheep. [ No. 119.

ther, and again stops to gaze. They pasture in the deep hollows

and grassy glens. The Society’s specimen was met with near the

Boorendo Pass, at an altitude estimated to have been from 15,000 to

17,000 feet. The notice in the ‘Bengal Sporting Magazine’ refers to

the same locality ; and another notice most probably alludes to this

species, in Lieut. Hutton’s ‘Journal of a Trip through Kunawar,’

published in the ‘Journal of the Bengal Asiatic Society’ for 1839, p.

994.* Finally, Mr. Leadbeater informed me, that the horn described

as having been in his possession was brought from Nepal, together with

specimens of the Nahoor and Musk, and the skull and horns of a Hima-

layan Ibex, which I also examined.

8. O. Cylindricornis, nobis, (the Caucasian Argali.)—Colonel Hamil-

ton Smith notices this animal in his description of O. Ammon, (published

in Griffith’s English edition of the “‘ Regne Animal,” vol. iv. p. 817,) and

writes me word, that an individual died on landing it at Toulon, whither

it had been brought by a French Consul, who did not preserve the skull

or skin, but set up the horns, which were quite fresh when he saw

them. ‘ Each horn was about 3 feet long, arcuated, round, as thick

at the top as at the base, of a brown colour, nearly smooth, and about

15 inches in circumference. They were so heavy and unmanageable,”

writes Colonel Smith, “that I could not lift both together from the

ground, nor place them in that kind of juxta-position, which would have

given me an idea of their appearance on the head. I could not well de-

termine which was the right, or which the left horn. Circumstances

prevented my taking a second view of them, as they arrived only the

day before I left Paris, and they are now doubtless in the Musuem of

that capital.” In my former paper I alluded to this animal as probably

distinct, and apparently allied to the Burrhel: the foregoing details

confirm me in that opinion, and remove all doubt of its distinctness,

as there is no other species to which they will at all apply. The sketch

* More recently, I perceive that Lieut. Hutton has identified the animal here referred

to with O. Nahoor (vide ‘ Journal,’ 1840, p. 568), but it is probable that both species

are found there, and they cannot well be confounded after the description which I

have given of O. Burrhel. Of the Ovis Ammon, Lieut. Hutton observes, ‘ I could

learn nothing, save that an animal apparently answering to the description is found

in Chinese Tartary, and J saw an enormous pair of the horns nailed, among other

kinds, to a tree as an offering to Devi.’’ These, however, may haye belonged to

O, Poliit.—E. B. t

1841. ] A Monograph of the species of Wild Sheep. 871

which Colonel Smith has favoured me with, represents a Sheep horn,

apparently of the same general form as those of the Burrhel and Nahoor ;

but the dimensions specified are very superior to those attained in the

instance of either of the two Himalayan species adverted to, and I can

only suppose that the (reverted?) tips had been broken off, and the

truncated extremity worn smooth. The wild Sheep of Caucasus

and Taurus are at present little known, nor does any notice of this

genus occur in the catalogue of Caucasian animals, published by M.

Ménétries ; though it is nevertheless certain, from the vague inci-

dental notices of various travellers, that some, and not unlikely se-

veral, exist. At Azaz, by the foot of Taurus, Mr. Ainsworth men-

tions having seen an animal, which he designates Ovis Ammon, (vide

Travels in Assyria, Babylonia, and Chaldea, p. 42.)*

9. O. Gmelini, nobis, (the Armenian Sheep. )—This species belongs

to the Moufflon group, but is yet very different from the Moufflon

Sheep of Corsica. It is described and rudely figured in the feise

durch Russland (vol. iii. p. 486, and Tab. LV.,) of the younger

Gmelin ; and the skull and horns, forwarded by that naturalist to St.

Petersburgh, have been figured and described by Pallas in his

Spicilegia (Fasc. xii. p. 15, and Tab. V. fig. 1.) Messrs. Brandt and

Ratzeburg erroneously identified it, at the suggestion of M. Lichten-

stein, with the wild Cyprian species, the horns of which have a

nearly similar flexure. Fine specimens of the male, female, and young,

lately received by this Society from Erzeroom, enable me to give

the following description :—

Size of an ordinary tame Sheep, with a remarkably short coat,} of

a lively chestnut-fulvous colour, deepest upon the back; the limbs and

under-parts whitish, with few traces of dark markings, except a finely

contrasting black line of more lengthened hair down the front of

the neck of the male only, widening to a large patch on the breast ;

and in both sexes a strip of somewhat lengthened mixed black and

white hairs above the mid-joint of the fore-limbs anteriorly, which cor-

* Very probably, however, this notice refers to the next species, O. Gmelinz; as

may, also, that of Captain Mignan, who mentions seeing “ flocks of mountain Sheep,

the Chamois, and wild Goats,’’ at the foot of the Aligez range. Vide ‘ Winter Journey to

Koordistan,’ vol. i: p. 195.—E. B.

¢ Evidently the summer garb of the species.—E. B,

872 A Monograph of the species of Wild Sheep. [No. 119.

responds to the tuft of O. Tragelaphus ; tail small, and very slender :

horns of the male subtrigoual, compressed, and very deep, with strong-

ly marked angles and cross striz, diverging backwards, with but

a slight arcuation to near the tips, which incline inwards. As regards

the flexure alone, but not the character of the horn, which is allied to

that of the common Ram, this handsome species links the Moufflon

group with the Nahoor and Burrhel group.

Length nearly 5 feet from nose to tail; the tail 4 inches : from nose

to base of horn 8 inches; and ears 34 inches. Horns (about full

grown, or nearly so,) 20 inches over the curvature, 10 round at base, 4

deep at base inside, their widest portion 2 feet apart, and tips

21 inches, with a span of 133 inches from base to tip inside; their

colour pale. Around the eye and muzzle this species is whitish ;

the chaffron and front of the limbs are more or less tinged with

dusky, and its coat is rather harsh, and fades considerably in brightness

before it is shed. Female generally similar, but smaller, with no black

down the front of the neck, and in the observed instances horn-

less. The lengthened black hair of the male is only 1 inch long, and

that composing the tuft on the fore-limbs is so disposed that the latter

is white in the centre, flanked with blackish.

According to M. Gmelin, this species is found only on the highest

mountains of Persia. Its rutting season takes place in Septem-

ber, and lasts a month ; and the female yeans in March, producing

two or three lambs at a time: the males, he informs us, are very

quarrelsome amongst each other; insomuch that he had been at

one place where the ground was completely strewed with horns

that had been knocked off in their contests ; so that if any variation in

the flexure of these horns had been observable, this industrious natura-

list would doubtless have remarked it. Sir John McNeill informed me,

that ‘it appears to be the common species of the mountains of

Armenia ; occurring likewise on the north-west of Persia:” but

the wild Sheep of the central parts of Persia is evidently dis-

tinct,* ‘‘having horns much more resembling those of the domestic

Ram, being spiral, and completing more than one spiral circle—

I think Iam not mistaken in supposing,” continues Sir John, “ that I

* As also that of the eastern districts, which appears to be O. Vignei.—E. B.

1841. ] A Monograph of the species of Wild Sheep. 873

have also had females of this species brought to me by the hunts-

men, with small horns, resembling those of the ewes of some of

our domestic Sheep ; but, on reflection, I find that I cannot assert

this positively, though I retain the general impression.” It is high-

ly probable, that a wild type of O. Aries is here adverted to, which

would thus inhabit the same ranges of mountains as the wild common

Goat, (C. Aigagrus): and with respect to the circumstance of horns

in the female sex, I may here remark, that this character is very apt to

be inconstant throughout the present group. It has already been

noticed in the instance of O. Nahoor ; and the elder Gmelin states that

the females of O. Ammon are sometimes hornless, while those of

the Corsican O. Mustmon are generally so. The same likewise

happens in different species of wild Goats, in the Goral of India,

and in the prong-horned animal of North America; and even in the

Gazelles, and other bovine-nosed species of what are commonly

confused together under the name of Antelope, there have been

instances of hornless males as well as females. A male Spring-bok of

this description, as Iam informed by Colonel Hamilton Smith, was long

in the possession of the Empress Josephine ; and the specimen of

Izxalus Probaton, Ogilby, in the Museum of this Society doubtless

affords another example of the same phenomenon.

10. O. Vignei, nobis: the Shad (not Snd) of Little Tibet, and

Koch of the Sulimani range between India and Afghanistan.*—This

fine species is closely allied to the Corsican Moufflon, but is much

larger, with proportionally longer limbs, and a conspicuous fringe of

lengthened blackish hair down the front of the neck, and not lying

close, as in the Moufflon.t _Its size, as I am informed by Mr. Vigne,

is that of a large Fallow Deer, and “ from the general appearance

of these animals, their length of leg, and swiftness on the mountains,

they reminded me,” remarks that gentleman, “of Deer, rather than

Sheep.”

* Also the Kutchgar of Pamir, described by Lieut. Wood, and Kooshgar or Kooch-i-

Koh of Sir Alexander Burnes; Ovis cycloceros, Hutton, (‘Calcutta Journal of Natural

| History, No. IV. p. 557.’)—E. B.

| + At least as in the Mufflon in summer dress, for in winter it also hangs loosely in

| this animal. I believe now, however, that the summer and winter coats of both spe-

| cies will be found to correspond in this particular.—E. B.

874 A Monograph of the species of Wild Sheep. [No. 119.

The general colour of this animal, to judge from an elaborately

finished painting, taken from a living individual in its native country by

Mr. Vigne, to whom we are indebted for all we know concerning the

species, is a rufous brown, apparently not so deep as in the Moufilon ;

the face livid, or devoid of the rufous tinge of the body, and not termi-

nated by a white muzzle, as in the Moufflon Sheep: the belly is white,

separated by a black lateral band; and the limbs are brown, not mottled,

as in the Moufflon, but with a whitish ring immmediately above each

hoof, then a dark ring, and above this a little white posteriorly, as in

the Neelgai. The fringe in front of the neck is doubtless peculiar to

the male, and the hairs of it would appear to be 4 or 5 inches long,

and hang loosely. Tail about 6 inches long, and slender, apparent-

ly resembling that of the Armenian species rather than the Mouf-

flon’s.*

* This species has been described as the ‘‘ Wild Sheep of the Paropamisan range,”’

by Captain Hay, (in the ‘ Journal,’ for 1840, p. 440,) and I have no doubt of the cor-

rectness of this identification, though certain discrepancies are deserving of being

noticed. Capt. Hay states the muzzle to be white (as in the Corsican Moufiion) ;

the legs, too, to be ‘‘ covered with white, smooth, short hair; belly white ; tail small,

short, and together with the buttocks white. The general colour’ he says, “ is pale rufous

inclining to grey, and fading off to white beneath. A large beard from the cheeks and

under-jaw, divided into two lobes, which are white, and connected to a streak of long

black flowing hair reaching to the chest. The adult male stands 3 feet 4 inches at

shoulder : from nose to tail 5 feet 4 inches ; head | foot ; neck ponderous, 14 inches long,

and 24 in circumference; girth of body, behind shoulders, 4 feet. The female is

inferior in size, and not so much of a rufous colour; having small horns about

6 inches in length, which incline backwards and outwards. Those of the male are 24

feetin length, and 12 inches round at base,’? &c. ‘The lambs are the colour of the

female, have a dark stripe down the back, and in front of the fore-legs. They are pro-

duced in May and June.”’

Drawings of both sexes of this same species, transmitted by the late unfortunate Sir

Alexander Burnes, are also before me, and present a somewhat different coloration from

either of the above. The male is stated to have measured ‘43 feet [53 feet ?] in extreme —

length, from nose to tail-tip, and 3feet Sinches high, from the sole of the foot to the shoul-

ders; female 3 feet 10 inches long, and 2 feet high.’’ Both are evidently represented in

summer dress, of an uniform light bay colour (including the limbs and tail), rather more

vivid in the male, and merely fainter on the under-parts ; there is no trace of lateral

band ; the face of the male only is coloured more livid, and with no white muzzle

in either sex ; nor is there any mottling near the hoofs (as in Mr. Vigne’s drawing),

but a slightly dark shade in front of the limbs of the male only, which, it may be, is

intended merely for shadow. The lobes of hair pendent from the sides of the lower

jaw are whitish, and the fringe down the front of the neck is coloured dusky-black, —

being not very long, and projecting so as to form an obtuse point or angle opposite the

lower part of the neck, exactly as in the Moufflon of Corsica, The female has not |

1841. ] A Monograph of the species of Wild Sheep. 875

A full grown pair of horns measure 324 inches over the curva-

ture, and 11 inches round at base ; their widest portion apart, mea-

sured outside, is 2 feet, the tips converging to 8 inches, and span

from base to tip also 8 inches : they are subtriangular, much com-

pressed laterally, the anterior surface 22 inches broad at base, with

its side-angles about equally developed, and the posterior part of the

section tapers rather suddenly to a somewhat acute angle; eight

years of growth are very perceptible, which successively give 12,

7, 4, 3, 3, 14, 14, and + inches ; they bear considerable resem-

blance to those of the Moufflon Sheep, but differ in being very

much larger, and in the circumstance of the outer front-angle be-

ing as much developed as the inner one, and they have not the

slightest tendency to spire, but describing three-fourths of a circle,

and originally diverging as in a common Ram, they point towards the

back of the neck, somewhat as in O. TV'ragelaphus. Another and

younger specimen, however, has a decided spiral flexure outward,

more especially towards the tip, and has also the outer angle much less

developed than in the corresponding terminal portion of the former.

This pair had grown to 11 inches long, with the tips 144 inches apart ;

only one year’s growth, and that apparently incomplete, is however ex-

hibited, and the curvature is likewise less than in the older specimen.

The portion of skull attached is also so much smaller, that I think it

prudent to hesitate in identifying it as specifically the same. The pos-

terior margins of the orbits are but 44 inches apart, whereas in the

Other they are 55 inches. There are no materials for extending

the comparison, but a few more dimensions may be given of the smaller

one. The greatest width of this skull at the posterior portion of the

zygomz is 5 inches, and the orbits are 34 inches distant where most

approximated : the series of 5 developed molars occupied 23 inches ;

width of second true molars apart, posteriorly and externally, 24

inches ; of anterior false molars, measured outside and before, 12 inch ;

any trace of this lengthened hair, and is represented with very short horns, indicating

that the individual was probably young.

Mr. Vigne’s coloured portrait represents a much younger male than that figured by

Sir Alexander Burnes, and I should say in winter vesture: the same gentleman had

also a coloured figure upon a large scale of the head of a still younger specimen,

which was coloured similarly to the other, or of a livid hue, without any white

muzzle. I possess copies of both figures.—E. B.

876 A Monograph of the species of Wild Sheep. [No. 119.

greatest width of palate, 13 inch, and from front or first false molar to

anterior portion of occipital foramen, 52 inches. Mr. Vigne, indeed,

assures me, that the adult has only five grinders on each side of both

jaws, as in the Chirew, which, if normal, would make an important dis-

tinction, as the smaller specimen would undoubtedly have developed a

third true molar, and possesses three false ones ; whereas it is in one

of the latter that the Chirew is deficient. I am inclined, however, to

regard the two specimens as belonging to the same species, since

I have observed analogous differences in the mere flexure of the horn

in different Corsican Moufilons ; but it was at all events proper to indi-

cate the disparity.*

Vast numbers of this species,” relates Mr. Vigne, ‘are driven

down by the snow in winter to the branches of the Indus, near Astor,

at the southern extremity of Little Tibet, where the river breaks

through the chain of the Himalaya. I once saw a young one, apparent-

ly of this species, in Persia, but took no memorandum of it at the time ;

it was dirty and draggled, but, I think, was covered with short wool.”

I have great pleasure in dedicating this species to that gentleman.f

* Five skulls, with the horns, of adult males, are now before me, together with

some loose horns, which enable me to decide that the above animals were the

same in species; it is very rarely, however, that the outer front-angle of the horn

does not quite equal the inner one; the extreme length of skull, from vertex

to tip of intermaxillaries, is 83 inches, and greatest breadth 54 inches; length of bony

palate 43 inches. The series of molars consists, as usual, of three true and as many

false molars.—K. B.

¢ The Ovis Vignei is extensively diffused upon the various ramifications of

the Hindoo Koosh, inhabiting Pamir on the north-east, the Sulimani chain of

mountains on the south, and westward the ranges of the Elboorz, which skirt the

southern extremity of the Caspian Sea. At least I judge this to be the species

mentioned in Mr. Fraser’s ‘Winter Journey from Constantinople to Tehran,’ (vol.

i. pp. 153, 155, and 159,) as being very numerous upon a mountain near Shahrood. This

traveller notices, ‘‘ The wild mountain Sheep and Goats. The male of the former is a

noble animal, with a curly neck, and mane that would become a Lion [ winter coat ?],

and prodigious curling horns; the latter [probably C. 4/gagrus] has immense horns

curving backwards. ‘These mountain Sheep and Goats, warned by their sense of smell,

were makiny off from our vicinity, at more or less speed, to places where they might be

secure ; there they would stand still upon some point or slab of rock, resembling it so

nearly in colour as scarcely to be distinguishable without a glass.’ Again, further to

the eastward, ‘‘ a noble mountain Sheep’’ is mentioned (at’p. 399) ; and ‘‘ The wild

Sheep and the wild Goat’’ are stated by the Hon. Mountstuart Elphinstone to be

common on the eastern hills of Afghanistan.

In the latter country, Capt. Thos. Hutton has more recently observed the O.

Vignei, and supposing it undescribed, proposes for it the provisional name O.

1841.] A Monograph of the species of Wild Sheep. 877

11. O. Musimon, Linneus.—The Moufflon Sheep of Corsica and Sar-

dinia, but not, there is reason to suspect, of the Levantine countries.

It is unnecessary to give a detailed description of this beautiful little

species, though I may mention that the fine living male in the gardens

measures 39 inches from nose to tail; the tail 5 inches; from nose to

base of horn 7 inches ; ears 4 inches ; neck, from posterior base of

horn to the abrupt angle of its insertion, 8 inches, and thence to base

of tail 21 inches; height at the shoulder 21 feet. The horns of this

individual are remarkable for not spiring in the least degree, whence

they point towards the back of the neck : they measure 21 inches over

their curvature, and 81 inches round at base, being in their fifth year

of growth ; their widest portion apart is 15 inches, and at the tips

6 inches ; but another pair, upon the stuffed specimen in the Museum,

cycloceros, ‘‘from the circular position of its horns.’ (Extract from a letter dat-

ed Candahar, 12th September, 1840, published in the Calcutta Journal of Na-

tural History, No. iv. p. 557.) This gentleman thinks it will prove to be the

proper ‘‘ Bearded Sheep’’ of Pennant, and there is little or no doubt he is right

so far as regards the imperfect skin purchased by Pennant in Holland, and which

that naturalist was informed ‘‘ came from the East Indies ;’? but Pennant erro-

neously identified this skin to be of the same species as the Barbary animal,

(O. Tragelaphus,) and mixes up the two in his description. The figure he re-

fers to, also, as taken from the living animal in Paris, and of which a copy is

given by Shaw, (if I mistake not, a little embellished about the cheeks and chin, )

appears to me to represent a Corsican Moufflon, (O. Musimon,) the hoofs of

which had grown out of a state of protracted confinement, as commonly enough

happens with captive ruminants.

Compare Mr. Fraser’s notice with that of Lieut. Wood, of a specimen of the

* Kutchgar’ of Pamir: this author states, ‘“‘ It was a noble animal, standing as

high as a two year’s old colt, with a venerable beard, and two splendid curling

horns, which, with the head, were so heavy, as to require considerable exertion

to lift them. Though in poor condition, the carcass, divested of its offal, was a

load for a baggage pony; its flesh was tough and ill-tasted, but we were told

that in autumn, when this animal is in prime condition, no venison is better fla-

voured. The Kutchgar is gregarious, congregating in herds of several hundreds.

They are of a dun colour, the skin more resembling the hide of a cow than the

fleece of a [tame] Sheep. A skeleton of this animal, and several complete cra-

nia, were deposited, I believe, at Loodiana.’’ The latter are now before me, or

(as in a note to Taylor’s reprint of this memoir,) I should have been tempted to

refer the foregoing notice to O. Polit. Whereas the carcass of O. Vignei, however,

“divested of its offal, is a load for a baggage pony,’’ Sir Alexander Burnes was

informed, respecting the ‘‘ Rasse,’”’ that ‘‘a common sized specimen will require two

horses-to bear its flesh from the field,’ and the latter is moreover reported to be of a

white colour. Capt. Hay remarks, that the present species is ‘‘ gregarious in flocks

of about forty, headed by an old male.’? A stuffed specimen, 1 am told, exists in

the Museum of Paris. —E. B.

873 A Monograph of the species of Wild Sheep. [ No. 119.

which shew the more usual [? ] slight spirature are 26 inches long, having

their widest portion 14 inches apart, and the tips as muchas 12 inches:

this pair shews seven years of growth, and their development was evi-

dently completed, though they are only 7 inches in girth at base. The

female has seldom any horns, which, when they exist, are ordinarily

about 2 inches long.

The character of the horn of the Moufflon is nearly the same as that

of the domestic Ram, only that it is never so much prolonged, nor in-

deed to more than two-thirds of a circle : the inner front edge is acute

to near the base, where the outer one approaches to an equality with

t ; the first half being thus unequally triangular, and the remainder

much compressed, with strongly marked ruge, and having the inner

surface of the horn concave. It has always appeared to me, however,

that the specifical distinctness of the Moufflon is very obvious, and I

doubt whether it has contributed at all to the origin of any tame race.

That it interbreeds freely with the latter, under circumstances of re-

straint, is well known ; but we have no information of hybrids, or Um-

bri, as they are called, being ever raised from wild Moufilons, though

the flocks of the latter will occasionally graze in the same pasture

with domestic Sheep, and all but mingle among them. The male of

this animal is denominated in Corsica Mufro, and the female Mufra,

from which Buffon, as is well known, formed the word ‘ Moufilon ;’

and in Sardinia the male is called Murvoni, and the female Murva,

though it is not unusual to hear the peasants style both indiscriminate-

ly Mufion, which, (as Mr. Smyth remarks in his description of that

island,) is a palpable corruption of the Greek Ophion. It is some-

times stated, but I do not know upon what authority, that a few of

these animals are still found upon the mountains of Murcia.*

* I am not aware that the winter dress of the Moufflon has ever been described.

In summer the coat presents a smooth surface, with the hair in front of the neck

but moderately elongated, and lying close, though projecting so as to produce

an obtuse angular outline opposite the lower part of the neck, where it is longest.

The general colour is bright rufous brown, with a triangular white saddle-like

mark on each side; the head is dusky, with a white muzzle, and darker chaffron;

the belly and limbs below the mid-joint are also white, with generally dark mark-

ings in front of the latter, more or less developed ; and there is a conspicuous white

disk surrounding the tail, but not ascending above it (asin the Argali;) the lengthen-

ed hair in front of the neck is black, as also a lateral band bordering the white belly,

together with the outside and inside of the upper half of the fourimbs, the tail, and

1841.] A Monograph of the species of Wild Sheep. 879

12. The Cyprian Moufflon, figured and described by Messrs. Brandt

and Ratzeburg from a specimen in the Berlin Museum, and contrasted

by them with M. F. Cuvier’s figure of the Corsican animal, is probably

a distinct species, intermediate to O. Musimon and O. Gmelini ; its

a median line over the forequarters terminating at the white saddle: the female is

much less rufous, with the dark markings less developed, and no white patch on the

sides.

In winter, there is a considerable admixture of black about the body; the hair upon

the nape, and especially the withers, is much elongated, forming a very conspicuous

mane when it does not fall over on one side; that on the under or forepart of the neck

is also of considerable length, and projects forward in a peculiar mamner, being

directed upward from the chest, and downward from the upper portion of the fore-

neck; but the most remarkable feature consists in what in summer merely forms

the triangular white patch on the sides, which is then even with the rest of the

coat, whereas in winter dress this forms a whorl of very much lengthened

white hair protruding far beyond the rest, and imparting a singular appearance

to the animal when viewed otherwise than laterally. I have observed the same

character in a woolly domestic Sheep, which was brought from one of the West

Indian islands, in which case the whorl of white hair projected beyond the rufous

wool.

The Mouffion is a very brisk, energetic animal, rather powerfully made, and

Strong about the neck, but appearing more so from the length of the hair in front

of that part, which in winter may be termed shaggy; the wool beneath its hair is

much more copious than in the wild Sheep generally. Its pace is a fleet canter,

all lightness and agility; but (as Azuni remarks) it is soon fatigued when pursued

over level ground, though from their nimbleness they can seldom be approached in

their native wilds. There they bound with surprising vigour, ‘“‘jumping from rock

to rock at the distance of many feet, and if hard chased to the extremity of a cliff

from whence it can reach no other, it will throw itself over, and with astonishing

agility pitch upon it horns, without receiving any hurt.’’—(Boswell’s Corsica, p. 41.)

The same is stated of O. Tragelaphus in Jackson’s ‘Account of the Empire of

Morocco.’ This animal inhabits the wilds of Corsica and Sardinia, and never quits

the highest ridges, where the temperature however does not allow of permanent

snow. In general they live in small herds, headed by an old male, but unite oc-

casionally into flocks of a hundred or more, which separate again when the rutting

season commences, and the usual battles have decided how many females each male

can retain. The females yean two lambs in April and May. When brought up

tame, the adult male is a capricious and violent little animal, ever ready to butt

at strangers the moment their back is turned, or they look for an instant in an-

other direction. I have seen one run at and butt against a post again and again,

merely for amusement ; and when grazing, it often rubs the herbage violently with

its horns, which it makes full use of on all occasions. It is active, curious, impudent,

and lascivious, perfectly fearless, and propagates readily with the domestic Sheep,

though only under circumstances of restraint, (as noticed in the text.) Azuni and

other authors notice their flesh to be equal to the finest mutton; and the moun-

taineers are said still to convert their skins into vests, and a kind of cloak, which, it

has been remarked, may be the present representatives of the Mastruce Surdorum,

noticed in the commentaries on Cicero, as made from the skin of the Moufflon. This

dress was worn in particular by the inland robbers, the Mastruce lairuncule,—E. B.

880 A Monograph of the species of Wild Sheep. [No. 119.

horns have more the curvature of those of the latter species, but are

not so robust, and curve round gradually backward from the base, in-

stead of at first diverging straightly, as in O. Gmelini ; but the colour

of the coat would appear to resemble that of the Corsican Moufilon,

only without the rufous cast, and the specimen figured wants also the

saddle-like triangular white patch, which I suspect is never absent in the

Moufflon of Sardinia and Corsica. The Yragelaphus of Belon, it is

true, observed by that author in Candia and in Turkey, is described

by him to have “ horns similar to those of Goats, but sometimes gyra-

ted like those of a Ram;” yet the fact of a nearly similar flexure of

horn to that represented by Messrs. Brandt and Ratzeburg proving to

be of normal occurrence in the allied Armenian wild Sheep, confers ad-

ditional probability on the supposition that the Berlin specimen of the

Cyprian Moufflon has also normally curved horns, which alone would

go far to establish its claim to rank as a species, in which case it

might bear the appellation of O. Ophion.* |

13. O.—Ivalus Probaton, Ogilby.—I stated in my former paper an

opinion, to which I am still disposed to adhere, that this animal is no

other than a genuine Sheep, but specifically distinct from any at pre-

sent known: the specimen had long lived in captivity, as is obvious

from the manner in which its hoofs had grown out; but whereas I for-

merly sought to account for its absence of horns, by ascribing this to

probable castration at an early age, I am now inclined to consider that

this abnormity, for such there is every reason to suppose it, was

individually congenital, as in other rare cases before alluded to. The

Armenian wild Sheep approaches more nearly to this species than any

other as yet discovered ; so much so, that before actually comparing

them, I thought that they would prove to be the same; but they are

nevertheless distinct, as is particularly shewn by the longer and less

* It is worthy of notice that the Cyprian animal bears about the same relation-

ship to the Corsican Moufflon, which O. Gmelini does to O. Vignei. It is therefore,

also, probably distinct. In an original description of the island of Milo, published

in the Penny Magazine, (No. 136,) we read that, on Mount St. Elias, ‘still higher

up, the surface was broken into fine bold crays, among which we were told that,

“as in Candia, and one or two of the larger islands of the Archipelago, the Moufflon

is still to be found. We, however, certainly saw nothing of the sort; and on en-

quiring afterwards of some of the old inhabitants, we did not receive very satisfactory

assurances that they had ever seen any.’’—E. B.

1841. ] A Monograph of the species of Wild Sheep. 881

slender tail of the present animal, and the very different texture of its

coat ; the absence of dark markings on its face and limbs may prove to

be an individual peculiarity. The specimen is of the size of a large

tame Sheep, and entirely of a chestnut-fulvous colour, dull white be-

neath and within the limbs, also on the lips, chin, lower part of the

cheeks, and at the tip of the tail. From nose to base of tail it mea-

sures about fifty inches, the tail half a foot, and height of the back

two feet and a half. From nose to rudiment of horn nine inches, and ears

four inches: the vestiges of horns, which exactly resemble those found

upon many breeds of tame Sheep, are two inches apart. Upon the

minutest examination of the specimen, I can perceive no character

whatever to separate it from the genuine Sheep, nor any distinction

more remarkable than the trivial circumstance of its chaffron not

being bombed, as usual, which however is equally the case with O.

Tragelaphus. Ihave been favoured, however, by Colonel Hamilton

Smith, with a drawing of an animal observed by himself on the banks

of the Rio St. Juan in Venezuela, which appears to accord so nearly

with Zvalus Probaton, except in the particular of bearing horns

similar to those of the Rocky Mountain Goat, that its absolute inden-

tity is probable, in which case it would be curious that a species so

very nearly allied to the genus Ovis, should yet differ from it so con-

siderably in the character specified. ‘The South American animal

adverted to, is the Aploceros Mazama of Colonel Smith, and is pro-

bably congeneric with the Pudu of the Chilian Andes, mentioned by

Molina, (the existence of which would appear to have been lately

re-ascertained by M. Gay,) and also with the fossil Antelope Maqui-

nensis of Dr. Lund: there would indeed appear to be other living

species of this type, more or less distinctly indicated by different

authors.

14. O. Aries, Linneus, the Domestic Sheep.—Assuming that differ-

ent species have commingled to produce this animal, as appears to be

very evident in the instance of the Dog, it is still remarkable that we

have certainly not yet discovered the principal wild type, nor indeed

any species with so long a tail as in many of the domestic breeds,

which I cannot doubt existed also in their aboriginal progenitors:

nothing analogous is observable among the endlessly diversified races of

the Domestic Goat, which all appear to have been derived exclusively

882 A Monograph of the species of Wild Sheep. [No. 119.

from the Caucasian C. 4/gagrus ; and as in my former paper I sug-

gested ‘the probability that a wild Sheep more nearly resembling the

domestic races than any hitherto discovered, would yet occur some-

where in the vicinity of the Caucasus, it now appears that such an

animal does exist in Central Persia, as noticed in my description of

O. Gmelini: nor should it be forgotten, that Hector Boetius mentions

a wild breed in the island of St. Kilda, larger than the biggest Goat,

with tail hanging to the ground, and horns longer and as bulky as

those of an ox.* Pennant remarks upon this subject, that such an

animal is figured on a bas-relief taken out of the wall of Antoninus,

near Glasgow.

Of all the wild species of true Ovis that have been here described,

the Rass of Pamir appoaches nearest to O. Aries in the character of

its horns, though differing in one particular besides size, that has

been pointed out, namely, that the two front angles are about equally

developed, whereas in O. Aries, as in the Moufflon, the inner angle

is more acute to near the base. Some experience in the deduction

of the specific characters of Sheep horns enables me to state with

confidence, that the character of the long-tailed domestic breeds

of Europe, and also of most other breeds, is intermediate to that

of the Rass and that of the Moufflon, combining the flexure and

the prolongation of the former with the section of the latter, but

becoming proportionally broader at the base than in either; more

as in the Argalis of Siberia, Kamtschatka, and North America. That

O. Aries is totally distinct from all, I have been long perfectly satis-

fied, and examination of the Rass in particular has strongly confirmed

me in this opinion. I think it likely, however, that more than one

wild species have commingled to form the numerous domestic races,

though certainly not any that have been described in this paper.

It is not very long since the question was habitually discussed, whether

* Two crania of Sheep, apparently male and female, from the Irish peat, in the

possession of the Earl of Enniskillen, and exhibited sometime ago at a meeting of

the Geological Society, are probably of this race.

Here I may mention, that among the numerous valuable fossil remains from the

Sivalik deposits, presented to the Asiatic Society by Colonel Colvin, (as noticed in

the Journal of the Society, vol. v. p. 183), 1 have determined a large fossil Sheep

(allied to, if not identical with the Argali), a fossil Ibex, which I shall take an early

opportunity of figuring and describing.—E. B.

1841. | A Monograph of the species of Wild Sheep. 883

the tame Sheep has descended from the Argali of Siberia, or the

Moufflon of Corsica; and now that so many more indisputably distinct

wild species have been added to the catalogue of this genus, it is

probable that we are still far from having ascertained the com-

plete existing number; but that several more yet remain to be

discovered upon the lofty table-lands and snowy mountains of middle

Asia, from the Caucasus and Taurus to the Altai, and among them,

it is very probable, some much more nearly allied to the domestic

races than any at present known.

The whole of the foregoing animals appertain to my subgeneric

group Ovis, as distinguished from Ammotragus, which latter is cha-

racterized by the absence of suborbital sinuses, like the Goats, but

differs from the latter by possessing interdigital fosse, as in other

Sheep. This difference between the Goats and Sheep appears to

have been first noticed by Pallas, and has since been descanted upon

by Professor Géné in vol. xxxvii. of the ‘ Memorie della Reale Ac-

cademia delle Scienze di Torino.’ The fact of such a diversity in

genera so nearly allied in habitat as the Goats and Sheep, renders

the problem of the utility of the structure in question somewhat

difficult of solution. The species upon which I found the subgenus

Ammotragus, has decidedly an Ovine, rather than a Caprine, aspect,

when viewed alive; the male emits no stench, as in the Goats;

the bleat is precisely that of Ovis; and the animal butts like a

Ram, and not like a Goat. Unlike the other species of admitted

wild Sheep, as well as the long-horned or true wild Goats, it has

a concave chaffron, and no markings on the face and limbs: its tail

is rather long, which is the case in no species of Capra, and is also re-

markable for being tufted at the extremity. The indigenous habitat,

North Africa, is a further peculiarity in the genus in which it is here

placed, though two species of wild Goats respectively inhabit Upper

Egypt, and the snowy heights of Abyssinia.

15. O. Tragelaphus, Pallas, the African Goat-sheep.—This animal

appears to vary considerably in size, some exceeding a Fallow Deer

in stature, while others are much smaller. It has no beard on the

chin, like the true Goats, but is remarkable for the quantity of long

hanging hair in front of the neck, and on the upper part of the

fore limbs, the former attaining in fine males to about a foot in length,

884 A Monograph of the species of Wild Sheep. [ No. 119.

and the latter to nine inches; there is also some lengthened hair

at the setting on of the head, and a dense nuchal mane, the hairs of

which are three inches long, continued over the withers till lost

about the middle of the back. General colour tawny, or yellow-

brown; horns moderately stout, turning outwards, backwards, and

so inwards, with the tips inclining towards each other.

The splendid male in the British Museum measures 5 feet from

nose to tail, and tail 9 inches, or with its terminal tuft of hair 13 inches ;

height of the back 34 feet, but the living animal would not have

stood so high by some inches; from muzzle to base of horn 11

inches, and ears 5 inches. The finest pair of horns which I have

seen are in the same collection, and measure 25 inches over the

curvature, 101 round at base, with an antero-posterior diameter of

24 inches inside; they diverge to 23 inches apart, measuring outside,

at a distance of 6 inches from the tips, which latter return to 15

inches asunder; their span from base to tip inside is 13 inches: at base~

they are closely approximated, but not quite in contact. General

form subquadrangular for nearly a foot, then gradually more com-

pressed to the end, and having a very deep longitudinal furrow for the

greater portion of their length outside, above which the horn bulges :

there is a mark of annual growth at 14 inch from the base, another

14 inch further, and a third after an interval of 3 inches; but the rest

are too indistinct to be made out with certainty among the wrinkles

of the horn. A large pair of female horns were 16 inches long; 74

round at base; their widest portion apart, near the tips, 19 inches;

and the tips 174 inches: their surface is marked with broad transverse

indentations, which in the males ordinarily become more or less effaced

with age. The female of this species is a third smaller than the other

sex ; and a lamb in the collection of this Society is extremely kid-like,

with the spinal mane upon the neck and shoulders very conspicuous,

but no lengthened hair on the fore-neck and limbs; in the half grown

male, the latter especially is still not much developed.

This species is well known as the Aoudad of the Moors, and the

Kebsh of the Egyptians ; it is also, according to Riippell, the Yedal of

the inhabitants of Nubia, which is doubtless the same as Teytal, appli-

ed by Burckhardt to the Wild Goat of that region, in addition to the

word Beden, which (in common with Riippell and others) he also as-

1841.]} A Monograph of the species of Wild Sheep. 885

signs to the latter. Sir Gardner Wilkinson, however, confirms Burck-

hardt by informing us, that the Goat referred to is called in Arabic

Beddan, or Teytal, the former appellation referring to the male only.

This author adds, that the present species “is found in the eastern

desert, principally in the ranges of primitive mountains, which, com-

mencing about lat. 28° 40’, extend thence into Ethiopia and Abyssinia.”

According to M. Riippell, “ it is found in all North Africa above 18°,

in small families, and always upon the rocky hills ;” frequenting the

steepest and most inaccessible crags amid the woods and forests of

the Atlas, and descending only to drink. It is a wonderfully agile

leaper, even more so than the wild Sheep and Goats generally, and is

remarkable for always browsing in preference to grazing. The Ovis

ornata, figured by M. Geoffroy in the great French Work on Egypt,

would appear to be merely a small sized individual.

The following may serve for definitions of the various ascertained

species of Wild Sheep that have been here described :—

O. Poli, Blyth. O. cornibus maximis triquetris, angustis altissimis-

que ; angulis anterioribus equalibus: extrorsim spiraliter gyratis, et

tam prolongatis quam sunt cornua Arietum domesticorum longissima :

sulcis transversim indentatis ; colore pallido. Animal non cognotum

est, sed O. Ammoni magnitudine saltem haud inferius. Habitat apud

planitiem elavatam Pamir dictam, in Asia centrali.

2 O. montana, Desmarest.—O. cornibus maximis triquetris, cras-

sissimis, et seepe inter angulos tumidis, ad apicem compressioribus ;

sulcis transversim indentatis ; deorsim et antrorsim gyratis ad paral-

lelum, apicibus extrorsim eductis; colore pallido, sed sepe rufo-brun-

neo suffuso. Animal ad magnitudinem Cervi Elaphi appropinquans,

sed artubus brevioribus ; pilis griseo-fulvis pallidis, maculis genericis

super facie, pectore, artubusque fuscis; cauda brevissima, et disco

albescente circundaté. Habitat apud Americe septentrionalis montes

occidentalem versus.

3. O. Ammon, Pallas.—Diversitas hujus speciei ab precedente

non cognota est, quamvis patria differt, hoec in Siberia Orientali

habitante; tertia alia species ambobus distincta regione intermedia

Kamtschatke invenitur, itidem simillima, tamen (apparenter) facillimé

dignoscenda ; viz. |

886 A Monograph of the species of Wild Sheep. [ No. 119.

4. O. nivicola, Eschscholtz.—O. cornibus triquetris, et inter cornua

Polit et Montane Ovium apparenter intermediis; apicibus magis

prolongatis quam in O. montand, sed ad basin crassioribus; potius

quam in O. Polit prolongatis, sed cornibus utriusque minoribus.

Magnitudo hujus animalis inferior est, et pilorum color flavescens,

sine disco caudali. Habitat apud montes Kamtschatke.

5. O. Californiana, Douglas.—O. cornibus crassis triquetris, ad apicem

compressioribus; sulcis transversim indentatis ; curvamine aperto ex-

trorsim (non antrorsim) gyrantibus, apicibus plurimtim extrorsim

ductis ; colore pallido, aut rufo-brunneo paultm suffuso. Magnitudo

Ammonis vel paulim inferior : cauda elongata, et non (? ) disco pallido

circundata. Habitat apud Californiam, et regionem proximam Americe

continentis.

6. O. Nahoor, Hodgson.—O. cornibus crassis subcylindraceis,

supra magis planiusculis, culmine abruptiore medio, dimidio-distali

compressiori, et extrorsum arcuatis, apicibus retortis: sulcis transver-

sis obsoletis ; colore pallido. Magnitudo Arietis grandis; pilis griseis,

vel in junioribus adultis fulvo terminatis, maculis genericis fuscis ;

cauda brevi et floccosa. Habitat apud regiones medias montium Hima-

laicorum, et in Tibeta Magna.

7. O. Burrhel, Blyth.—O. cornibus crassis subcylindraceis, supra

convexioribus, culmine longitudinali minus abrupto, et aliis angulis

mints prominentioribus quam in specie precedente, subequalioribus ;

in arcu extrorstm curvatis, apicibus retrorsis ; sulcis transversis obsole-

tis ; colore nigrescenti-rubido. _Magnitudo inferior est ahoori, sed

forma robustior; pilis castaneo-brunneis intensis ; maculis genericis

nigris et distinctis; cauda minima (? ) et non floccosd. Habitat apud

montium Himalaicorum regiones summas.

8. O. cylindricornis, Blyth.—O. cornibus maximis cylindraceis,

in arcu extrorstum (? ) sine diminutione curvatis, apicibus non cogno-

tis; sulcis transversis Obsoletis: colore nigrescenti-rubido. Habitat

apud Caucasum.

9. O. Gmelini, Blyth.—O. cornibus triquetris et robustis, altis, et

transversim sulcatissimis; in arcu retrorsim divergentibus, apicibus

introrsum ductis; colore pallido. Magnitudo Arietis; pilis brevissi-

mis, et castaneo-fulvis splendidé coloratis ; maculis genericis subdis-

1841.] A Monograph of the species of Wild Sheep. 887

tinctis, sed linea pilorum longiorum nigra infra collum in mare solo

excipiendd, apud pectore se expandente, et in utroque sexu cesarie

rudimenta brachiis, sicut in Ove T’ragelapho: cauda brevi et gracilli-

ma. Habitat apud Armeniam, et provincias Occidentales Persiz

septentrionalis.

10. O. Vignei, Blyth.—O. Musimoni simillima, sed magnitudine

Cervi Dame grandis equans, artubusque longissimis: cornibus robustis,

compressis, et subtriquetris, angulis anterioribus equalibus; lunatim

non spiraliter gyratis ; et sulcis transversim indentatis: colore pallido.

Corporis pilis rufo-brunneis; facie artubusque lividis; ventre, et

annulis supra ungulas albis ; linea laterali nigra, pedibus annulo secundo

nigro anticé albo super marginato notatis; apice caudex (brevis et

gracilis,) et lined pilorum paulum pendentium infra collum medium ad

pectus tendente, nigris. Habitat apud Asiam centralem—Varietas

cornibus extrorsum gyratis, cum angulo interiori pro-minentiori.

11. O. Musimon, Linneus.—O. cornibus compressis, ad basin

triquetrioribus, angulo interiori prominentiori; lunatim gyratis, et

sulcis transversim indentatis: colore pallido. Magnitudo Arietis parvi,

caud& brevi et magis villosd: pilis rufo-brunneis; facie livida cum

\capistro, ventre, clunibus, dimidiisque artum inferioribus, albis; et

linea laterali, caud4, pectore, et membrorum plerumque dimidiis

superioribus, nigris: macula triangulari alba utroque lumbo conspicua.

Habitat apud insulas Corsice et Sardinie, et forsan provinciam

Murcie in Hispania.

12. O. Ophion, Blyth.—O. Musimoni simillima, sed cornibus

retrosis, apicibus accurvatis : pilisque brunneisis, et non rufescentibus (?)

Habitat apud Cyprum, et forsan regiones alias Levantinas.

13. O. Aries, Linnzus.

14. O

morum, cauda paulim elongata, cornibus in specimine solo cognoto

abnormaliter (?) rudimentalibus, pilis castaneo-fulvis, et infra albes-

centibus.

? Ixalus Probaton, Ogilby.—Magnitudo Arietum maxi-

15. O. (Ammotragus) Tragelaphus.—O. cornibus magnis sub-

quadrangularibus, moderaté crassis, ad apicem compressioribus, sulcis

transversim indentatis; divergentibus et retrorsum curvatis, sed prope

basin rectis, apicibus acclinatis; colore pallido. Magnitudo Cervi

Dame superior, pilis flavescenti-brunneis; collo jubato, et infra

888 A Monograph of the species of Wild Sheep. [No. 119:

cum pectore brachiisque capillato, caudé elongata extremitate villosa ;

facie non convexd—ut in omnibus speciebus aliis, sinibusque suborbi-

talibus nullis. Femina semper (?) cornuta, cornibusque fortioribus

quam in feeminis specierum hujus generis ceterarum, que sepe non

cornute sunt, sed plurimee cornua parva, tenuissima, et compressiora

ferunt, que in maribus junioribus aut curvata sunt, aut sepe rectiora.

Habitat apud Africze septentrionalis montes rupestres.

A connected view of the species of Lichens, with their Botanical rela-

tionship existing between them and the Indian productions. By

Henry Corr, Esq.

Henry Torrens, Esa.

Secy. Asiatic Society.

Dear Sir,

As many of the Lichens which are indigenous to the Himalayan range,

are closely allied by generic or (less proximate) family characters to the

different species which have been used in Europe in the arts, or as arti-

cles of food for men or animals, it may perhaps be useful to present.

to the Society and those of its Members, who are interested in the

subject, a connected view of those species, as the Botanical relation-

ship which exists between them and the Indian productions, may lead

to further investigation. I am indebted to Sir W. J. Hooker’s sequel

to the English Flora, for the chief portion of what I have now the honor to

submit.

The Lichens of England, which with those of Europe generally, have even

a closer affinity as regard their Botanical characters with those of the

Himalayas, than the more conspicuous portions of vegetable producti-

ons, are divided by Hooker into seventeen families, comprising thirty-nine

genera, of which eleven are distributed through seven families, exhibit spe-

cies useful to man or beast ; and it is an interesting fact that of these eleven,

five belong to our family, the Umbilicariee, and that to this same family

appertain the species most frequently found in the Himalayas.

As, however, Dr. Hooker’s notes will be more interesting than any obser-

vations of mine, I shall proceed at once to extract them, commencing with

1841. ] On Lichens. 889

Variolaria faginea, Pers.

The intensely bitter taste of this Lichen, according to Messrs. Turner

and Borns, distinguishes it from every species hitherto discoverd. It is

upon this circumstance, which we have never found to vary, that we

have been induced to place our chief reliance in making V. faginea and

discoidea distinct. Mons. Braconnot detected in this and several other crus-

taceous Lichens, oxalic acid; in the present plant in such abundance, that 100

parts yielded 18 of lime, combined with 29.4 of oxalic acid, nearly the

same quantity in other crustaceous Lichens, and he remarks, that oxa-

late of lime bears the same relation to the Cryptogamia, as carbonate

of lime to corals, and phosphate of lime to the bony structure of the

more perfect animals. It diminishes, however, in the family of Lichens in

proportion as the species lose their general crustaceous texture, and

approach more and more to the membranous or cartilaginous, although

the latter also contain a considerable portion of salt. M. Braconnot strongly

recommends the adoption of V. faginea in the production of oxalic acid, and

an eminent French chemist now informs me, that it is so employed in

France, and upon a very extensive scale.—£nglish Flora, vol. v. p. 169.

Note.—Dr. Royle notices numerous species of crustaceous Lichens as in-

digenous to India generally, and as found both on rocks and trees ;

they belong to the genera Lecanora, Lecidee, Lepraria, Verrucaria, &c.—

Illustrations vol. i. p. 437.

Lecanora Parella, Ach.

This is the Parelle of Auvergne and other parts, where it is extensive-

ly employed to produce a dye far superior to that of the Cudbear,

and quite equal to that of the Archil.—Znglish Flora, vol. v. p. 191.

Note.—The Parelle which grows chiefly on basaltic rocks, is inferior

to Roccella tinctoria, (Archil,) in not bearing ebullition, and has the dis-

advantage of not answering with alum, which destroys the colour.—

Ure’s Dictionary of Arts, p. 52.

Lecanora tartarea, Ach.

This is the famous Cudbear, (so called after a Mr. Cuthbert, who first

brought it into use,) employed to produce a purple for dyeing wool-

len yarn, and nowhere perhaps used to so great an extent as in the manu-

factory of Mr. MacIntosh of Glasgow. This gentleman imports it largely

from Norway, where it grows more abundantly than with us; yet in

the Highland districts, many an industrious peasant gets a living by scrap-

ing off this Lichen with an iron hook and sending it to the Glasgow market.

When I was in the neighbourhood of Fort Augustus some years ago, I was

890 On Lichens. [No. 119.

informed, that a person could earn 14s. per week at this work, selling the

material at 3s. 4d. the stone of 22lbs. The fructified specimens are

reckoned the best.

A remarkable and fructified state of this plant, as it appears to me, is im-

ported by Mr. MacIntosh from Sicily, with the crust singularly thick, and

formed into warts so exceedingly elongated and cylindrical, that they ap-

pear like the podatia of an Jsidium.—English Flora, vol. v. p. 191.

Note.—The Lichen tartareus dyes crimson red. In Jutland, Cudbear is made

from it by grinding the dry Lichen, sifting it, then setting it to ferment ina

close vessel with ammonia. The Lichen must be the third year’s growth

to yield an abundant dye, and that which grows near the sea is best.

It loses half its weight by drying. A single person may gather from

20 to 30lbs. a day in situations where it abounds. No less than 2,239,685lbs.

were manufactured at Christiannsund, Flekkefiort, and Fahrsund in Norway,

in the course of the six years previous to 1812. [This gives an average of

166 tons per annum, which at the then market rate of £60, or up-

wards, yields a sum of £9,960, as the yearly proceed accruing from

the sale of a plant, which its appearance would lead the casual observer

to consider as worthless.—H. C.]—Ure’s Dictionary, p. 53.

Parmelia saxatilis, Ach.

In Scotland is collected abundantly by the peasantry with P. omphalodes,

to dye woollen stuffs of a dirty purple. It grows on trees, rocks, and

stones, especially in mountainous districts.

Note.—The principal species of Parmelia, which I have sent for exa-

mination is very likely the P. perforata, the very next species in the

English Flora to the above two.—H. C.

Peltidea apkthora, Ach.

This is the finest British species of the genus. It derives its name

from a circumstance related by Linnzus, that the Swedish peasants boil it

in milk as a cure for the aphthe or thrush in children.—English Flora, vol.

v. p. 215.

Peltidea canina, Ach.

Formerly employed at the suggestion of Dr. Mead as a cure for the

bite of a mad dog, whence the specific name.—English Flora, vol. v. p. 215.

Note.—Dr. Royle mentions this Lichen in his Illustrations as having

been found in the Choor.— Vol. i. p. 437.

Gyrophora.

Various species of this genus, (and they are found in cold rocky

situations, especially on granite in almost all parts of the world,) con-

1841. ] On Lichens. 891

stitute the Zripe de Roche of the Canadians, and with G. proboscidea, G.

villea, and afew other American species, Capt. Sir J. Franklin and his

brave companions were supported in Arctic America during a season

of want, such as happily few human beings have been subjected to. They

are, however, bitter and nauseous, and can only be employed in the

total absence of every other salutary food.—English Flora, vol. v. p. 217.

Note.—Berzelius has proposed removing the bitter principle of these

Lichens, by macerating them in a weak solution of carbonate of potass,

(one part to three hundred of water,) and afterwards washing them in

cold water. This bitter principle has been called Cetraria, and imparts

tonic properties to several of the species, as to Borrera furfuracee and

others, which have been used for the same purpose as Cetraria Islandica,

and some have been employed as a substitute for hops in the brewing of

beer.—Royle’s Illustrations, vol. 1. p. 438.

Gyrophora Cylindrica, Ach.

Is used in Ireland occasionally as food, and more frequently for dye-.

ing woollen cloth of a brownish green colour.—English Flora, vol. v. p. 218.

Cetraria Islandica, Ach.

Although this plant is abundant im certain districts of Scotland, it has

never with us been collected as an article of commerce. A considerable

proportion of what comes to our shops, where it is in great request as a

medicine in coughs, consumptions, &c. is procured from Norway and

Ireland. Immense quantities are gathered in the latter country, not only

for sale, but for their own use as an article of common food; the bitter

and purgative quality being extracted by steeping in water. The Lichen

is then dried, reduced to powder, and made into a cake, or boiled and eaten

with milk, and eaten with thankfulness too by the poor natives, who con-

fess “that a bountiful Providence send them bread out of the very stones.”

—English Flora, vol. v. p. 271.

Note.—The starchy substance which renders the C. Jslandica nutritive

and demulcent, is called Lichenin.—Royle’s Illustrations, vol. is p. 438.

Rocella tinctoria, DeCand.

This interesting Lichen is the famous Archill or Orchill; Orseille of the

French, which yields the most valuable dye of all this tribe. Its several

names are derived from a Florentine family of the Oricellarii, Riccellarii, or

Riccellai, one of whom in the year 1300, carried on a considerable trade in

the Levant, and returning with great wealth to Florence, first made known in

Europe, the art of dyeing with this plant. Far more abundantly than with

892 On Lichens. [ No. 129.

us, it is the product of warm climates on maritime rocks in almost every

part of the world, and always growing with R. fuciformis, DeCand, which

might almost lead to the suspicion, that they were mere varieties of each

other. The Canary Islands formerly yielded this Lichen in abundance,

whence it has been called Canary weed; but so great has been its consump-

tion of late years, that the best quality of it, whose average price is £200

per ton, (about 1-12 per seer, or Rs. 70 per maund,) has become extremely

scarce, and what is commonly imported from other countries, is not worth

£30 the ton, or Rs. 10 per maund, (a trifle more than three pence a pound,

or 4 As. per seer.) The English blue broad cloths are first dyed with Ar-

chill, which gives their peculiar lustre and purple tint when viewed in a

certain light.—English Flora, vol. v. p. 221.

M. Robiquet has separated the colouring matter of this vegetable.

The new and singular product which he has obtained has a very sweet

flavour, is easily soluble in water, colourless, crystalizes in beautiful flat

quadrangular prisms; by means of a moderate heat it may be volatilized

without decomposing, and does not acquire the colouring property till it

has undergone successively the action of ammonia and of common air.—

Silliman’s Journal, vol. 18, in English Flora, vol. v. add. and corrig. p. 10.

Note.—Roccella fuciformis, DeCand, is said by Dr. Royle, (Zilustr. vol. i.

p. 438, ) to be more widely diffused than R. tinctoria, being found in Europe,

Brazil, as well as in Ceylon and the Peninsula of India, whence several

specimens have been sent to the Royal Asiatic Society ; but it is far infe-

rior in quality, containing indeed hardly any colouring matter.

Dr. Ure in his Dictionary of Arts and Manufactures, details under the

article Archil, the different modes by which it may be rendered useful, and

the reader who wishes to be acquainted with them cannot do better than

consult the Dictionary. I may observe, that the Chulchulera of Hindoostan

belongs to the Genera Borrion or Evernia, which are both in the same

group with Rocce.ta, (the Umbilicariee,) and closely allied to it in exterior

characters.

Evernia Prunastia, Ach.

Was brought into use in Glasgow by the late Lord Dundonald, and

employed (during the war) instead of gum in calico-printing, it afterwards

fell into disuse as a very inferior substitute for that article—English Flora,

vol. V. p. 224.

The next useful species noticed by Hooker is Ramalina Fraxina, Ach.

which has been used in Glasgow for the same purpose as the Zvernia

Prunastia, (Flora, vol. v. p. 225); and from the apparent number of species

of this Genus in the Himalayas, it might be turned to advantage.

1841.] « On Lichens. 893

In the next family the Usnee are the Usnea florida and U. barbata, both

abounding not only in the Himalayas, but in all parts of India, and in

Ceylon, as well as in South America; where, according to Humboldt, the

Usnea barbata is employed as a substitute for the Roccella tinctoria.

In the succeeding family, the Corniculariee, we have the Alectoria jubata,

Ach., or Rockhair, (which is found in the Himalayas as well as in Europe,)

and is said by Linnzus to supply the rein-deer with food in winter

when the snow is very deep upon the ground ; for this purpose the

Laplander cut down the trees, that the plant upon the topmost branches

may be accessible to this useful animal.— English Flora, vol. v. p. 227.

The last useful species mentioned in Hooker, is the

Cladonia Rangiferina, Hoffur.

This for the greater part of the year, and especially in winter, is the sup-

port of vast herds of rein-deer, wherein consists all the wealth of the

Laplanders. No vegetable, Linnzus tells us, grows throughout Lapland in

such abundance as this, especially in woods of scattered pines, where

for very many miles together, the surface of the sterile soil is covered with

it as with snow. On the destruction of forests by fire, when no other plant

will find nutriment, this Lichen springs up and flourishes, and after a few

years, acquires its full size. Here the rein-deer are pastured, and whatever

may be the depth of snow during the long winters of that climate, these

creatures have the power of penetrating it and obtaining their neces-

sary food. Linnzeus has given a beautiful description of this Lichen, and of

these animals whose support it is, in the Mora Lapp. p. 332, but it is too

- long for insertion in this place.—English Flora, vol. v. p. 235.

It appears ( Ure’s Dictionary of Arts, p. 53, ) that the latest researches on the

Lichens as objects of manufacture, are those of Westring of Stockholm. He

examined 150 species, among which he found several which might be ren-

dered useful. He recommends that the colouring matter should be extract-

ed in the places where they grow, which would save a vast expence in

curing, packing, carriage, and waste. He styles the colouring sub-

stance itself cutbear, persio or turnsole; and distributes the Lichens as

follows: [Ure applies to all the generic name of Lichen. I have endeavoured

to supply the new nomenclature from Hooker.* H. C.] Ist, Those which

left to themselves exposed to moderate heat and moisture, may be fixed

without a mordant upon silk or wool, such are the ZL. cinerea, (Urceolaria

| emera, Ach.) ; L. hematonta ; L. ventosus, (Lecanora ventosa, Ach.) ; L. coralli-

| nus, (Isidium corallinum, Ach.); L. Westringii, (Isidium Westringii, Ach.) ; L.

| * And have marked those with a (*) which are indigenous to, or have congerers, in the Himalyas.

Oo xX

894 On Lichens. a No. 119.

saxatilis, (Parmelia saxatilis, Ach.) ; Z. conspassus; L. barbatus, (Usnea bara

bata, Ach.); L. plicatus, (Usnea plicata, Ach.) ; L. vulpinus, Hud., ( Borrer

flavicans, Ach.) ; &c.

2. Those which develop a colouring matter fixable likewise without

mordant, but which require boiling and a complicated preparation, such

are L. subcarneus ; L. farinaceus, (Ramalina farinacea, Ach.); L. jubatus,

Linn. (Olectoria jubata, Ach.); L. furfuracens, ( Borrera furfuracea, Ach.) ;

L. pulmonarius, (Sticta pulmonaria, Hook.); L. cornigatus; L. cocciferus,

( Scyphophorus cocciferus, Hook.) ; L. digitatus, (Scyphophorus digitatus, Hook.) ;

LL. uncialis, (Cladonia uncialis, Hook.) ; L.aduncus, &c. Saltpetre or sea salt

are requisite to improve the lustre and fastness of the dye, given by this

group to silk.

3. Those which require a peculiar process to develop their colour; such

as those which become purple through the agency of stale urine or am-

monia. Westring recommends the following mode of testing: he put three

or four drachms of the dried and powdered Lichen into a flask, moistened

it with three or four measures of cold spring water; put the stuff to be

dyed into the mixture, and left the flask in a cool place. Sometimes he

added a little salt, saltpetre, quick-lime, or sulphate of copper. If no colour

appeared he then moistened the Lichen with water, containing one-twenti-

eth of sal ammoniac, and one-tenth of quick-lime, and set the mixture

aside in a cool place from eight to fourteen days. There appeared in

most cases, a reddish or violet coloured tint. Thus the ZL. cinereus, ( Urceo-

laria cinerea, Ach.) dyed silk a deep carmelite, and wool a light carmelite ;

the L. physodes, (Parmelia physodes, Ach.) gave a yellowish gray; the ZL.

pustulatus (Umbilicaria spustulata, Schrad.) a rose red; L. sanguinarius,

(Lecidea sanguinarius, Ach.) gray; L. tartareus, (Lecanora tartarea, Ach.)

a crimson red, &c.

I cannot conclude these extracts without giving an account from Ure of

the Orcine, the name of the colouring principle of the Lichen dealbatus, Ach.

(Isidium paradoxum of the same author,) styled by Messrs. Turner and

Boner, a most beautiful production. The Lichen dried and pulverized is to

be exhausted by boiling alcohol. The solution filtered hot, lets fall in the

cooling crystalline flocks, which do not belong to the colouring matter.

The supernatant alcohol is to be distilled off, the residium is to be evapo-

rated to the consistence of an extract, and triturated with water till this

liquid will dissolve no more. The aqueous solution reduced to the con-

sistence of syrup, and left to itself in a cool place, lets fall at the end of a

few days, long brown brittle needles, which are to be freed by pressure

from the mother-water and dried. That water being treated with animal

charcoal, filtered and evaporated, will yield a second crop of crystals.

1841.] On Lichens. 895

These are Orcine. Its taste is sweet and nauseous, it melts readily ina |

retort into a transparent liquid, and distils without undergoing any

changes. It is soluble in water and alcohol. Nitric acid colours it blood-

red; which colour afterwards disappears. Subacetate of lead precipitates it

completely. Its conversion into the Archil red is effected by the action

of an alkali, in contact with the air.

When dissolved for example in ammonia and exposed to the atmosphere,

it takes a dingy brown-red hue; but when the Orcine is exposed to air

charged with vapours of ammonia, it assumes by degrees a fine violet

colour. To obtain this result, the Orcine in powder should be placed in

a capsule, alongside of a saucer containing water of ammonia, and both

should be covered a large bell-glass; whenever the Orcine has acquired

a dark brown cast, it must be withdrawn from under the bell, and the

excess of ammonia be allowed to volatilize. As soon as the smell of

ammonia is gone, the Orcine is to be dissolved in water; and then a few

drops of ammonia being poured into the brownish liquid, it assumes a magni-

ficent reddish violet colour. Acetic acid precipitates the red lake of Lichen.

' If the above pages contain a single hint which have escaped the re-

searches of your able Curator, or others interested in his researches,

I shall be amply repaid for the small trouble of transcribing them, and

have the honor to remain,

Sir,

Your obedient servant,

Dehlee, 5th October, 1841. Henry Corr.

A Fourth Memoir on the Law or Storms in Inpia, being remarks and

documents relative to the loss of the Ship Go.conpa, in the Tyfoons

of 22nd to 24th September 1840, in the China Sea. By Henry

PippineTon, Esa.

This memoir has arisen out of a question proposed to me by Mr.

Greenlaw, the active Secretary to the Marine Board, which was in sub-

stance this: “‘ On what day do you think the Golconda was lost.” ? I found

that the investigation which I undertook in order to reply to it with

greatest possible precision, elicited facts of so much importance that

they might be worth publication as a separate memoir; not only as

records distinctly shewing the truth of the Law of Storms for the

China Seas, but as affording to seamen a valuable practical lesson; for

896 Fourth Memoir on the Law of Storms in India. [No. 129.

_ as will be seen, we have here, of three, two ships which ran into the

storms, of which one foundered, and the other was in great danger :

while the third by heaving to, in due time and place, escaped all damage!

The Golconda, as my Indian readers well know, was sent from

Madras, with the head quarters and a detachment of the 37th Madras

Native Infantry on board, to reinforce the expedition in China.

Together with her crew, there must have been nearly 400 souls embark-

ed in her: she was seen on the 10th September standing out of the

Straits of Singapore, by the Calcutta Thetis, as noted in Captain Roche’s

reply to my queries, and again in Lat. 13° 44’ N. Long. 112° 58’ E.

by the Thomas King, as Captain Roche also states, since which time

she has never been heard of. It is supposed she must have perished

in the Tyfoon of the 22nd to 24th September, in which the London

Thetis and the Calcutta Thetis both suffered greatly; the latter being

dismasted.

It may perhaps be necessary to remark here, to those who are not

professionally acquainted with the navigation of the China seas, that

there are two routes from Singapore to Canton during the S. W.

monsoon, the one being along the coast of Cochin China, and the other,

the usual track, between the Macclesfield Bank and the Paracels. We

are certain, from the Golconda’s having been seen on the 18th Sep-

tember, that she took the usual route, which was also that pursued

by the London and Calcutta Thetis ; and as I shall shew, there seems

to be the utmost probability that she ran into, or was overtaken by

the centre of one of the hurricanes which those ships met with, in

which she foundered. She was, I believe, an old ship; but her com-

mander was a gentleman of much nautical knowledge and experience,

though it is possible that, like so many more, he was not fully aware

of the advantages derivable from due attention to this valuable class

of knowledge.

As we have obtained the Log of the Cafeutta, and a detailed report

from the London Thetis, I have first given these. I have then followed

them by a comparative table of the winds and weather at noon and

midnight of each day; and finally by a summary, shewing how the

evidence goes to prove distinctly enough, that there were fwo storms

travelling, the one to the WNW. and the other to the NNW, as will

be seen by a careful comparison of the table, and the outline chart.

1841.] Fourth Memoir on the Law of Storms in India. 897

This is an additional reason, when ships are in the proper quarter of the

storm circle, for heaving to, rather than scudding.

Report of the Ship Thetis of London reduced to Civil time.

In compliance with your letter received this morning, I forward you

the particulars of a gale of wind encountered in the China Sea in

September, 1840.

19th September.—Light Southerly winds, with hot sultry weather

( Thermometer,” ?:.""... 664°

| Barometer,............ 29. 94

Lat. by Observation, 14° 94’ N.

Mone! Chron’ re... 113° 39’ E.

Calm during the night.

20th September.—South Hasterly airs towards morning, noon calm

and sultry.

{ Thermometer,...°... ... 87°

| BaTOMeCter, sess. cscese cs 29. 90

Lat. observation, ..... 14° 53’ N.

tong: Crom... °.s. fa: Ty eS | as

p. M.—Light NW. winds, with gloomy sky and close weather,

midnight close weather.

21st September—Noon rain and thunder, with squally weather,

wind NW.

( Lat. Observation, .... 15° 57’ N.

| Longitude, Chron.... 115° 9’ E.

Thermometer,.. ...... 84°

Barometer, 22082: 29. 87

Sympiesometer very unsteady from 29. to 29.30 during these 24

hours.

p. M.— Wind at NW. with squalls and lightning in the NW.

8. p. M.—Finer weather, midnight squally. Barometer falling gra-

dually, wind very unsteady between W. and NW. large drops of rain.

22nd September.—Daylight strong breeze at WNW., heavy sea

from NZE., sent down the top gallant yards and masts, and otherwise

made snug; the sky very wild and threatening. Noon, glass still falling ;

sea rising higher from the northward, and the wind increasing at NNW.

Furled the top: sails and lay to under try-sails.

898 Fourth Memoir on the Law of Storms in India. [No. 119.

( Thermometer, ........... 854°

: Barometer,....... Wesel 29. 64

< Sympiesometer,...... ... 29. 42

| Lat. indifft, Obsn. ...... 16° 20’ N.

|, Leonmitudes pevasiont mene 115° 30) aie

p. M.—Wind increasing at NW. till midnight, and gradually veer-

ing to WNW., blowing a violent gale with terrific squalls: Barometer

still falling.

23rd September—a. M. Wind veered to West, blowing almost a

hurricane. At 4 veered to WSW. still unabated, and at daylight veered

to SW., force of the gale still unabated and continued so till noon;

lightning all round, squalls very violent, but some appearance of amend-

ment in the weather.

No observations. Position from observations next day.

( Sympiesometer at noon, 28. 70

Barometer,... .....000. 29. 20

4 Lat. Observation, .... 16° 40’ N.

| Longitude;...:).<.0 4.2 116° [sae

Pp. M.—Gale moderating fast, veering to South; 5 pe. m. made sail, and

ran before it, searising more than in the height of the gale. Midnight,

Barometer 29. 50.

24th September—a. M. Moderating, and veering to Eastward of South.

Squalls with rain. Noon moderate winds SSE.

( Lat. Observation,..... 18° 25’ N.

| Longitudé,: hwtinte. PLT? 20) Ee

Thermometer,... ... ... 814°

| Barometer, ............ 29. 80

From this time till the 26th, on which day we arrived at Macao,

the wind continued S. Easterly and moderate, and the sea very confused.

I there heard that vessels which arrived the day before us experienced

a gale, commencing at North and veering to Hasé, instead of to the

West, as I experienced it, and those who arrived a day or so after us,

had experienced a strong steady SW. gale upon the 22d and 23d.

I also beg further to state, that the Golconda, now missing, sailed

24 hours before us from Singapore, also bound to Macao; and the

Thetis of Calcutta, which ship arrived sometime after dismasted, I

believe left Singapore a few hours after us. Another vessel in com-

1841.] Fourth Memoir on the Law of Storms in India. 899

pany with us just before the gale arrived like ourselves without

damage, all which circumstances would lead to the inference, that the

gale was partial in its violence, as well as different in its direction.

I shall be happy to communicate any further particulars, if I have

omitted any thing you might wish to know.

The following Statement is abridged from the Log Book of the CaLcuTTa

Tuet1s, and the reply of Captain Roche, commanding her, to some

queries addressed by me to him. The dates relate to civil time.

The Calcutia Thetis left Singapore on the 13th September at day

light ; she had light Southerly and SW. 3 and 4 knot (rarely 5 knot)

breezes to the 20th; having passed Pulo Sapata at 94 a. M. on the

18th, on which day at noon her Lat. was 10° 10’ N. Long. 109° 24'

E.; on the 19th she was in Lat. 11° 44’ N. Long. 111° 16’ E. Bar.

29.79 Ther. 92°. Current for the past 24 hours, NE. by E. 71 miles,

having had 60 miles to the NE. the two preceding days.

20th September.—She was steering NE. with SW. and WSW. airs

and fine weather. At noon. Lat. 12° 40’ N. Long. Chr. 111° 56’ 45” E.

Bar. 29. 79. Ther. 89°. Current NE, 2?E. 18 miles. At Midnight

squally weather.

21st September.—Fine and smooth water; light airs from WNW.

till 7 a.m. At noon Lat. 15° 20, N. Long. Chr. 112° 40’ E. Bar.

29.70. Ther. 89°: A light drain of current to the NE.; 7 P.M. breeze

freshening from NNW. with squalls. Course NE. going 6.4 knots. At

midnight thick cloudy hazy weather.

22nd September.—Running to the NE. as before, with wind at

NNW. to 4 a.m. when it was NW. Day-light thick unsettled weather,

with a head sea; going 5 knots to NE. with wind WNW. Noon Lat.

14° 55’ N. Long. Chr. 114° 17’ KE, Bar. 29.56. Ther. 86°. Current

NE. 5 N.16miles. Wind W by S.—p. . strong breezes WSW. and

SW. At 5p.mM. every appearance of bad weather; sea rising from

NE. made all preparations. At 9° 80’ heavy squalls, wind being at

SW. from 6. p.m. ; split the foresail. Midnight, ship under mizen trysail

and fore topmast staysail, incessant and increasing squalls, and sea

getting up from the SW. ; heavy rain.

23rd September.—a. mM. Blowing a tyfoon from SW. gusts tre-

mendous, and in rapid succession. Bar. fell from 29.40 to 28.80 in

900 Fourth Memoir on the Law of Storms in India. [No. 119.

the two hours preceding midnight. Impossible to keep before the wind ;

broached totwice. At 3h. 30’ a.m. blowing a perfect tyfoon from SW. ;

hove to under the mizen try-sail. Day-light, tyfoon blowing most furi-

ously, with a high turbulent sea, but vessel making good weather. 7 4. M.

Gusts more furious, mizen try-sail blown away, and sails blowing

from the yards, though secured by lashings. Wind SW. through-

out. Ship lying to with head from NW. to N by W. During the

morning lost mizen topmast and fore and main top gallant masts.

Noon hurricane as before, sea high and cross; wind veering to

the Southward. Lat. account 15° 50’. Longitude account 115° 13’

E. Bar. falling gradually from noon of the 22nd to 10 P. Mm. of

the same date, when it was at 29.40, and at midnight fell to 28.80

as before mentioned. Midnight the same, but squalls not so frequent

or so heavy ; sea very cross ; wind SW.

24th September.—a. mM. Wind marked SSW. Heavy tyfoon and high

cross sea. Vessel labouring much. At 2 a. mM. the Bar. at 28.70,

the lowest depression. About this time the heaviest of the storm.

Towards 4 p. M. Bar. rose gradually. Wind South at 5 a. m. Daylight

moderating, but the wind falling fast, caused the ship to roll so‘much,

that by noon she had rolled away her main-mast, and suffered much

damage. Noon, Lat. 17° 14’ N. Long. account 115° 11’ 35” E. Bar.

29.40. Gale breaking and wind South. At 8 rp. m. SSE. with hazy

weather. The foremast was saved with much difficulty by cutting away

the topmast and fore yard. At one time the vessel, by the pumps being

stove by the fall of the mast, had three feet water in her hold. Midnight

moderate and hazy.

25th September.—Noon, Lat. 18° 25’ N. Longitude 115° 57’ E.

Captain Roche remarks, that, “ at the commencement we had a

good deal of lightning, with not much thunder or rain, and indeed

through the height of the storm scarcely any, till about between 2 and

4 a. M. of the 24th, after which the gale was on the decline. The

Longitudes are from the means of three watches, which were found

correct on making the land.”

I annex a tabular Statement, shewing the relative position of the two

ships, as marked on the Chart annexed to the Memoir.

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1841. ] Fourth Memoir on the Law of Storms in India. 903

We have now to examine the construction of the Chart, and the

evidence there is for the two storms as there laid down.

Taking first the London Thetis, as the vessel which was farthest

to the northward, we find her on the 21st September with the wind

at NW. with ugly weather, and the Simpiesometer warning her by

its oscillations, of bad weather for the whole previous 24 hours ; being

moreover 0.50 to 0.80 below the Barometer!* The Calcutta Thetis had

thick cloudy weather, with a smart breeze at NNW.; her Barometer

sinking to 29. 70

At noon on the 22nd, the London Thetis, with the sea rising from

the NE. and Northward, the wind increasing from NNW. the weather

threatening, and the glasses still warning, very properly hove to under

trysails. We may take the storm to have fairly begun with her now,

and I have thus laid down its centre as bearing from her about 130

miles to the ENE., which, assuming it to be a circular storm, would

give it a diameter of 260 miles.

The Calcutta Thetis at the same time has the wind a strong breeze

at W. by S. to which point her NNW. breeze had gradually veered ; her

Barometer had fallen to 29.56, with threatening weather and a head

sea, the ship always running to the NE. from 6 to 5 knots an

hour. If we look at the circle of the London Thetis storm, we see

that this could not be the same; for if we extended it to here,

it would give us the wind at about NW. by W. instead of W. by S. while

it is to be particularly noted, that the changes of wind which the Calcutta

Thetis has from 7 Pp. M. of 21st to 4 a. M. and noon of the 22nd, are

exactly such as should occur from a ship, and a circular storm running

on the tracks which I have laid down: the ship in fact chasing the

storm! ‘Thus it will be seen that at 4 a. m. when it was NW. the

first circle on the track of this storm makes it so, and this track must

be the right one, because the wind being W by S. at noon, clearly shews,

that the ship had passed to the Eastward of the meridian of the centre

at that time, 7. e. the centre was bearing N by W. from her if it was a cir-

cle. I do not fail to observe, that by this track she is placed within a

much shorter distance of the centre at this time than afterwards

on the 22nd at midnight, and during the 23rd, when the greatest fall

* A very beautiful instance of the importance of this invaluable instrument.

904 Fourth Memoir on the Law of Storms in India. [{No. 119.

of the Barometer was experienced, and the storm was raging in its

greatest fury ; but it does not appear to me, that the winds from noon

of the 22nd, the time it was at W by S. to the following midnight, and

to noon of the 23rd, when it was a steady SW. tyfoon, allow us to

assign any other track. We may either suppose that the storm was only

forming on the 21st, or that the track curved away to the Eastward

to account for this possible anomaly in the distance from the centres.

It is certain a storm must begin somewhere, and I presume it here to have

done so on the same line as that on which we find we can track it

as a completely developed hurricane.

Again ; if we attempt also to extend the circles of this storm at this

time, noon 22nd, tou the London Thetis, we shall find that it would

give a SSE. wind, instead of a steady NNW. one, with every ap-

pearance of a storm and this storm really setting in a few hours

after, with exactly the changes of wind which should, by the theory,

occur. I may perhaps be thought prolix in this explanation of my

reasons for laying them down as two separate storms; but I have

thought it very essential to our object, which is both to register the

facts, and to draw useful conclusions from them, to shew carefully

upon what grounds any thing is supposed to be proved which we

assume or lay down.

At midnight 22nd-23rd, we find that the London Thetis has a

violent gale WNW. with terrific squalls and Barometer still falling. The

WNW. wind would place the centre bearing NNE. from her, and

allowing for her drift from noon, when she so prudently hove to, the

centre at this time may be about where we have placed it. The

Calcutta Thetis has the wind at this time at SW. a tremendous gale

also, which of course makes the centre of her storm bearing NW.

from her as I have placed it, and it will be observed that the

same discrepancy would exist, as before if we attempt to extend the

circle of the one ship’s storm to the place of the other; shewing I think

to demonstration, (for the places of both ships are perfectly well as-

certained,) that there must then have been the two storms which I have

laid down.

There is a very remarkable fall of the Calcutta Thetis’ Barometer ; viz.

29.40 to 28.80, or more than half an inch in the two hours preceding

this epoch (midnight of 23rd) and we find that at 2 a. m. on the 21st

1841. | Fourth Memoir on the Law of Storms in India. 905

it had reached it maximum depression of 28.70 Now we have

not, unfortunately, the London Thetis’ Barometer for this moment,

but we may suppose this fall to have arisen from the near appulse

of the two tempests? There may have been a point, midway between

them at which the barometrical depression arising from both storms may

have operated, though the winds were directly opposed. What this produ-

ced we know not. It might have been a calm, but it was quite as pro-

bably, a succession of awful gusts from every quarter of the compass

mixed with calms, (almostas dangerous in such weather, ) much resembling

the sort of weather which every seaman has seen near the line, on the

coasts of Africa, or on those of Borneo, in violent thunder storms of long

duration ; but of course far more violent, and with a most dangerous sea.

At noon of the 23rd, the London Thetis’ storm having travelled on-

wards, as by the track, and the vessel having drifted the other way, she

has the wind at SW. and “some appearance of amendment,” though

the Simpiesometer and Barometer are still at the lowest registered

depression. By 5 p. m. she could bear up, the storm, having veered

to South, and what is worthy of remark, we find that as she approaches

and crosses the track we have laid down for that of the centre of the

storm, she has then the “ sea rising more than in the height of the gale,” !

which is some evidence that we are not far wrong.

The Caleutta Thetis, which was now, providentially, lying to, had the

weather at noon of the 23rd terrific; but towards midnight she has

fewer squalls, the wind veering to SSW. after that time, and to

South by daylight on the 24th. At noon, it fell so fast, that she

rolled away her mainmast, and was nearly foundering by her pumps

being destroyed by the fall of the mast.*

She did not cross the previous track of her own storm after she bore

up, but that of the London Thetis’ storm is close to her position at noon ;

and though the sea had had 24 hours to go down since the centre

passed, the latter portion of it, and that part of the sea of the Calcutta

Thetis’ storm which reaches this point, may well have assisted to

produce this dangerous sea.

I have thus shewn, I hope distinctly, and almost to a mathematical

certainty, that there were two storms. From the logs of single ships,

* This is worthy the attention of seamen and owners. The pumps, especially in small

vessels, seem placed to insure the most frequent occurrence possible, of this fatal ac-

cident ; and no doubt vessels have been frequently lost through it.

906 Fourth Memoir on the Law of Storms in India. _[No. 119.

the tracks are not easily laid down very correctly, so that allowance

must be made for this imperfection. To say where the unfortunate

Golconda perished is of course impossible, for like the Calcutta Thetis,

which was in great danger, she may have foundered after the storm.

The probability, however, is, that she was tempted by the Westerly

breeze to run on, as the Calcutta Thetis was, and was thus lost by

running into the centre of the tyfoon. There have been, even with

our limited knowledge and field of research, so many instances of this

kind, (See Third Memoir in Journal Asiatic Society, vol. ix, p. 1053)

that we are not judging harshly, I think, if we suppose this awful

loss to have arisen from another ofthem. The lesson afforded by this

investigation is one which the dullest may read. Of three ships

exposed to storms of the same kind, the commander of one, taking

due warning, and probably well acquainted with the Theory of

Storms, heaves to and makes all snug, which is what ought to have

been done ; for he was in the South- Western quadrant of a storm travel-

ling across and ahead of him. The second, with less warning it is true,

having apparently no Simpiesometer on board, and tempted by the

fair wind, runs on and narrowly escapes foundering ; for as will be

seen, he runs along the South-Eastern edge of his storm; and the third

we may easily suppose to have perished through an error of the same

kind leading him farther and into the dangerous centre.

I ought not to omit remarking here, the exact confirmation of the

theory, which we find in the report of the London Thetis, when

Captain Cass mentions that the ships ahead of him had gales at North

veering to Eastward. This is exactly what should occur, and proves to a

certainty, that this tyfoon was a rotatory storm. I should mention also,

that the storm-circles on thechart are not struck with any reference

to the sizes of the vortices, of which we know nothing, but simply

to shew the winds at noon and midnight ; and from centres upon the

supposed tracks of the tyfoons as far as these can be ascertained by

careful projection.

442 Bs

ond:T hetus sy 25, Hecw/

| 4

M Letitude 16 46K, Tigh dle)

ae {i

4h i

Peles

46)

{5- te

143

Lond Thetis, 24 o0n/

16H Letitude

Lond-Thetis ig* ee

4g 4 ot

UFiddinglon dele

Col -T. Wb 5.

Ballin ¥G ith

Chart to s

——

4u-tHre tracts

lft Paster Gal T SW.

Scale 1Tnch to 0. degree:

of the ships Thetis See ard Thetis

of Calcutta trough the Ty foo rus of the 227? bo Uh.

inthe China Sea

4 Septr 1840.

907

Classified Catalogue of Mammals of Nepal, (corrected to end of 1841,

jirst printed in 1832.) By B. H. Hopeson, Bengal Civil Service.

BIMANA.

O. Homo Sapiens.—Mass of population belongs to Kalmuc subdivi-

_ sion of the Great Mongolian stirps, with some admixture of

Indian stock. In the Zaraz and low valleys of the hills, are

some traces of aborigines of Southern race, like the Bheels,

Coles, &c. These latter are denominated Thari, Denwéar, Durre,

Manjhi, and Brahmoo. '

N.B.—As to location, the following initial letters signify as follows:—H.

is habitat, and G. after it is general, that is, both Tarai and all three regions of

the hills. L. is lower hilly region. C. is central hilly region, and N. is

northern hilly region. T. is Tarai and saul forest, or the plains at the base of

the mountains. For a general sketch of features and character of the above

four regions, see Catalogue as first printed apud Journal. Asiatic Society.

QUADRUMANA.

SIMIADZE.

1. Semnopithecus necnon Cercopithecus.—Gen. ch. nobis. Facial

angle 45 to 50: face flat: nose short with long narrow lateral

nares: limbs long: thumbs small remote: no cheek pouches:

oth tubercle on last molar present or absent: callosities large:

canines variable, large only in grown males: stomach saccu-

lated and banded as well as intestines: tail very long, com-

monly tufted, and exceeding the length of the animal. Agile,

grave, gregarious, not docile.

1. Sp. new. schist aceus nob. (Nipalensis of former catalogue,

see remark at end.)

H. T. and L. more rarely C. and N. even.

2-3. Macacus? Pithex, Nob.—Gen. ch. nob. Facial angle 50: muz-

zle not elongated. Callosities and cheek pouches large. But-

tocks often nude. Structure compacter, but generally like that

of Semnopithecus ; limbs shorter, thumbs larger, orbits more

salient, head rounder, canines similarly variable, nares shorter,

908 Classified Catalogue of Mammals of Nepal. [No. 119.

rounder, and more terminal stomach simple. Coecum and rectum

saculated. Tail equal to half the length of the animal. Agile,

lively, gregarious, familiar and docile.

2. Sp. new. Oinops et Pelops, nob.

H. of the first, T. L. and C.—of the second, N.

VESPERTILIONIDE.

RHINOLPHINE.

4.5. Rhinolphus.—2 Sp. new. Armiger et Tragatus, Nob. H. C. so

far as known.

PTEROPINE.

6-7. Pteropus.—2 Sp. new. Leucocephalus et Pirivarus, Nob. The

first is alleged to be identical with Medius Auct ; H. T. passen-

ger in hills.

V ESPERTILIONINZE.

8-12. Vespertilio.—5 Sp. new. Formosa, Fuliginosa, Subbadia. Mu-

ricola et Labiata Nob. H. C. so far as known.

FERC! VEL CARNIVORA.

FELIDEH, genus—FELIS, subgenera.

13-19. Felis.—7. Sp. Tigris, Pardus, Leopardus, Macrocelis, Nepal-

ensis Auct. Vivérriceps et Murmensis, Nob. Viverriceps is iden-

tical with Viverrinus Auct. Of 1, 2,3. H. G.; of 4, 5, 7. C.;

of 6. T. but Leopards are nearly confined to the hills.

20. Lynchus.—1\. Sp. new. Erythrotus, Nob. apparently identical

with F. Chaus Auct. H. G.

CaNnIDmH. genus—canis, subgenera.

21. Canis.—1. Sp. domestic, two varieties of the Mastiff and two of

the Terrier of Tibet ; the Pariar of the plains, and cross-breeds

with the first ; of 4 first H. N. ; of rest, G.

22-23. Vulpes.—2. Sp. Indicus, Nob. et Montanus, Pearson. Indicus

is apparently identical with Bengalensis, Necnon Kookri, H. of

first T ; of second, C. and N.

24. Sacalius, Smith, Oxygotis, Nob.—Jackall, 1. Sp. Indicus, Nob. var.

of Aureus? H. G.

1841. ] Classified Catalogue of Mammals of Nepal. 909

25. Cudn Nob.—General structure and dentition of Canis, but molars

ae only, the 2d tubercular being deficient. Odour and aspect

of the last. Head blunter. Tail and ears larger. Teats 12 to

14. Venatory, gregarious, does not burrow.

1. Sp. Cuon Primevus Nob. type.—Canis Primevus of Bengal.

Asiatic Society’s Transactions, (subsequently named-the type-

Chryszus by Smith.) H. L. C. and N.

MUSTELIDE.

VIVERRINA.

26-27. Herpestes.—2 Sp. new. Griscus, Auct. et Auropunctatus Nob.

The latter is alleged to be identical with Edwardsii Auct. H.

T. and C. respectively.

28-29. Viverra Auct.* Size large, robust habit, never climbs, thumb

not remote, nails obtuse.

2. Sp. new. Melanurus et Civettoides, Nob. H. G.

303-1. Viverricula, Nob.—Size small, scansorial, habit vermiform,

nails more or less raptorial, and thumb remote, pouch as in

Viverra.

2.—Sp. Indica et Rasse Auct. H. T.

32. Prionodon.—l. Sp. new. Pardicolor Nobis, H. C. and N.

33-35. Paradoxurus.—-3 Sp. new. Hirsutus, Nepalensis. et Laniger,

H. T. C. N. respectively.

N. B.—First possibly identical with Bondar.

36. Adlurus.—1 Sp. Fulgens Auct. the Wah, H. N.

MustTELiIn&.

37-40. Mustela.—4 Sp. M. Erminea Auct and three new, Hemacha-

Janus et Calotis et Auriventer vel Cathia, Nob. H. C.

41. Martes.—1. Sp. Flavigula Auct. H. C.

42.47. Lutra.—6. Sp. Leptonyx et Nair Auct. and four new. Taray-

ensis Monticola, Indigitata, Aurobrunnea, Nob. H. of 3 first

is T.; of 3 next, L. and C.

48. Gulo.—l. Sp. new. Nipalensis, Nob. (alleged to be identical

with Helictis moschatus of Gray, and also with Gulo Orien-

talis of Horsfield.) H. L.

* These are differential characters merely and are ours, See Viverricula.

910 Classified Catalogue of Mammals of Nepal. [ No. 119.

49. Mesobema (olim Urva) Nob.—Teeth as in Herpestes, but blunter ;

structure and aspect precisely mediate between Herpestes and

Gulo. On either side the anus a large hollow smooth-lined

gland secreting an aqueous foetid humour, which the animal

ejects posteally with force. No subsidiary glands, nor any

unctuous fragrant secretion. Teats 6, remote and ventral ;

orbits incomplete. Parietes of the scull tumid, with small

criste.

1. Sp. M. Cancrivora, Nob. type: the Gulo Urva of Asiatic

Journal, Nob. H. L. and C.

UrsInz.

50. Orsitarus, Nob.—Molars <. .. of ursine flatness almost on the

crown, but the last above transverse, and less than the carnas-

sial tooth. Aspect and size of Taxus. No ears, coarse scant

hair, anal glands as in Mydans. Genital organ bony, and

annulated spirally. Typically plantigrade and fossorial. Car-

nivorous. Teats 4 in a transverse parallelogram.

1. Sp. Inauritus Nob. Indian Badger of Pennant and Hard-

wicke type. H. L. .

N. B.—This form I still think is erroneously sought to be identified with

Ratelus Mellivorus.

51-52. Ursus.—2. Sp. Tibetanus et Isabellinus Auct. H. of first is C.

second N.

53. Prochilus.—1. Sp. Labiatus Auct. H. T.

SorEcIDA. _—

54-56. Erinaceus.—3. Sp. Spatangus Collaris, et Grayii Auct. H.

547.58. Sorex.—2. Sp. Indicus Auct. et Pygmeus Nob. H. G.

59. Talpa —l. Sp. new. Micrurus Nob.* H. C. and N.

* Specific. Character Uniform velvet black with silvery grey gloss iridescent

when moist; nude snout; feet and tail, fleshy white; the last very minute; structure

otherwise typical. Snout to rump 43 inches. Head 13. Tail < Palma and nails %.

Planta and nails =

1841. ] Classified Catalogue of Mammals of Nepal. 911

60.

61.

62.

63.

64.

65.

UNGULATA.

PacHYDERMES.

Elephas.—1. Sp. Indicus Auct. two varieties, Isodactylus et He-

terodactylus Nob. H. T.

Rhinoceros.—1 Sp. Indicus Auct. H. T.

ANAPLOTHERES.

Sus.—1 Sp. S. Aper Auct. the wild Boar, two varieties, Aipomus

et Isonotus Nob. H. G.

EDENTATES.

Manis.—1 Sp. new. Auritus Nob. alleged to be identical with the

common Indian type or Pentadactylus. H. G.

RUMINANTES.

Bovine.

Genus Bos. Subgenera?

Bos.—Cranium moderate, proportional, or without excess in the

cerebral or facial region; frontals shorter than the face, flat,

and not broader than long. Occipital plane of the scull

quadrangular, never arched along the culmenal line, nor in-

dented by the temporal fosse, smaller much than the frontal

plane and forming an acute angle therewith. Horns attached

to the highest line of the forehead, rounded, moderate, curved

up or down or forward ; 13 pairs of ribs; no true dorsal ridge,

but sometimes a fleshy hump; dewlap and muzzle large and

square.

1 Sp. and type, Bos Domest: Nipalese varieties of. H. G.

N.B.—These Bovine characters are all ours. See Journal Asiatic.

Bibos Nobis.—Cranium large, massive, exhibiting preponderance

of the frontal and cerebral portion over the facia!; frontals

as long as the face, concave, broader than long, and sur-

mounted by a large salient crest ascending above the highest

bases of the horns. Occipital plane of the scull spheroidal, very

large, larger than the frontal plane, deeply indented in its

centre by the temporal fosse, and forming an acute angle with

912

Classified Catalogue of Mammals of Nepal. [No. 119.

the frontal plane. Horns attached below the highest line

of the frontals, massive but short, ovoid or subtrigonal, and

curving ascendantly ; thirteen pairs of ribs; a true dorsal ridge

co-extensive with the ribs and terminating abruptly ; dewlap

and muzzle small ; period of gestation longer than in Bos.

1 Sp. and type. Bibos Cavifrons: probably the Bos Gaurus

of authors. H. T.

N. B.—Gaveus, an aberrant species leading to Bos?

66. Bison.—Cranium moderate, depressed, inclining to Bubaline

forms in the excess of the facial portion over the frontal, and in

the rounding off of the frontals into the occiput ; frontals de-

cidedly broader than long, more or less convex, and forming an

obtuse angle with the semi-circular or trigonal occipital plane

which is strongly ridged by the parietes at its summit, is

smaller than the frontal plane, and moderately indented.

Horns attached rather in advance of the parietal apex of the

cranium, small, rounded, curving ascendantly, or out of the

horizontal ; 14 (or 15) pairs of ribs; a true dorsal ridge, but

confined to the withers, and terminating posteally in a gradual

slope ; dewlap none ; muzzle small. Types B. Americanus et

Poephagus.

1. Sp. Poephagus in Nepal. H. N. and also Tibet.

67. Bubalus.—Cranium large, elongate, compressed or narrow, dis-

proportional, exhibiting great excess (a Srd) in the facial over

the frontal or cerebral portion ; frontals short, narrow, convex,

usually forming an obtuse angle with the occipital plane, which

is large and circular in proportion to the obtuseness of that

angle, and to the consequent rounding off of the culminal line

of separation; parietals merged, not ridged as in the last,

nor culmenal. Horns attached to the ends of the highest line

of the scull, always exceeding in length that of the cranium,

and usually greatly so, depressed, strictly trigonal, and neither

ascending nor descending, but directed horizontally backwards ;

thirteen pairs.of ribs; no true dorsal ridge nor fleshy haunch ;

muzzle Jarge and square ; dewlap medial.

. Sp. and type, Bubalus Arna, foem. Arnee, two varieties.

Macrocerus, et Speirocerus, Nob. H. T.

1841. | Classified Catalogue of Mammals of Nepal. 913

ANTELOPIDZ VEL CAPRIDE.

68-69. Antelopa.—2 Sp. Cervicapra Auct. et Pennettii Auct ? Bha-

ratensis, Nob. Vulgo, the Chouka or Ravine Deer. It seems

to be identical with Africana Auct. H. T.

70. Pantholops Nob.—Molars 6 incisors erect, strong and rectili-

nearly ranged. Horns with clear sinus in cores, long, slen-

der, erect, sublyrate, inserted between the orbits, compressed,

nodose, and approximated at their bases. Large inquinal purs-

es. No suborbital sinus. Nose ovine, bluff and hairy. Large

intermaxillary pouches or subsidiary nostrils. Knees simple.

Ears pointed, short. Tail short, full. Hoofs low, broad and pad-

ded with large interdigital pores. Size, habits, and general

aspect of Antelopa et Gazella. Females hornless, with lesser

inguinal purses, and two teats.

1—Sp. new, and type Antelope Hodgsonii of Abel; the Chiru

of Tibet. H. N. transnivem.

71. Tetracerus.—1 Sp. Chickara necnon Quadricornis Auct. Chou-

singha of Hindoos. H. T.

72-73. Nemorheedus vel Kemas.—2 Sp. Goral (Hardwickii) et Pro-

clivus vel Thar Nob. H. C. and N.

74. Capra, wild.—\ Sp. C. Ibex Himalayan variety and tame, two

varieties of the common Goat and twoof the Shawl Goat, or

Sinal ; 1 2, Doogoo ; 8, Changra ; 4, Chappoo. H of 1, is N. ; of

2, 3, C. ; of 4, 5, N. and Tibet.

75. Hemitragus Nob.—-General structure, odour, and horns of Capra,

but having a small moist muzzle and four teats in the females ;

no interdigital pores. H. N.

1.—Sp. and type, Capra Quadrimammis vel Jharal Nob. C.

Jemlaica of H. Smith?

N.B.—Mr. Ogilby has unwisely confounded this type with his Kemas, the

characters of which group were, by the by, first correctly stated by myself, as

were those of Hemitragus. ‘The Goral or type, or Kemas has, (besides a

larger muzzle than that of Jharal,) interdigital pores; the Jharal or type

of Hemitragus has none, wherefore Mr, Ogilby was especially bound by his

own principles not to confound the two.

76-77. Ovis, wild—2 Sp. new, Ammonoides Nob et Nahur Nob;

and four tame varieties ; viz. the Hania, Barw4l, Cago and Sil-

India. Ht. of 1,2, is N. ; of:d, Njasots, Bb, 6,.C.

914

Classified Catalogue of Mammals of Nepal. [No. 119.

-CERVIDZ.

Genus Czervus—Subgenera.

78. Cervus.—1 Sp. Elaphus of the Saul forest, possibly a distinct

species, Affinis Nob. Bara Singha of Hindoos. H. T.

79. Pseudo-cervus Nob.—1 Sp. Cervus Wallichii Auct. type. Tail

nearly obsolete. Horns branched at the base as in Cervus,

above as in Rusa, and quadrifurcate, size smaller.

N.B.—Alleged to be identical with Affinis. H. N.

80. Rucervus Nob.—Aspect and size mediate between Elaphus and

81-83.

84-56.

Hippelaphus. Muzzle remarkably pointed. Horns moderate,

smooth, pale ; one forward basal process on each beam ; no me-

dian ; summit branched as in Elaphus. Canines in males only.

N.B.—These subgeneric characters are ours, and are confessedly frailly based,

but not less so than the admitted distinctions. The whole family requires

reconstruction.

1—Sp. new, Cervus Elaphoides Nob. H. T. This is identical

with the C. Duvancellii of Cuvier.

Rusa.—Canines in both sexes. Heavily maned. Horns with

one basal and one superior process, thick, dark, and _ pearled.

3.—Sp. new, Jaraya et Nepalensis et Heterocervus Nob.

N. B. Jaraya probably identical with Hippelaphus et Aristotelis. H. T.

and L. rarely.

Axis.—3. Sp. 1st Cervus Axis Auct. or Axis Major Nob. 2nd

Axis Minor, Lesser spotted Deer Nobis, and 3rd Axis Proci-

nus. Smith. H. T.

87. Stylocerus —Sp. new, Ratwah, Nob. The Kaker and Barking

88-90.

Deer of Europeans. Probably identical with the insular type

or Cervus Muntjac. H. T. L. and C. |

MoscuHip/&.

Moschus.—3. Sp. new. Leucogaster, Chrysogaster, et Satu-

ratus, Nob.

N. B.—Saturatus is probably identical with the Moschatus of Linneus. H.

N. and Tibet.

91. Tragulus.—1 Sp. new, Mimenoides Nob. Vulgo Bijay. H. T.

SoLIPEDES.

92. Hquus.—1 Sp. two small tame Himalayan and Trans-Himalay-

an varieties. H.N.and Tibet.

1841. ] Classified Catalogue of Mammals of Nepal. 915

Ropentia. Murip2.

93.94. Mus, Rats.—6 Sp. Rattus Auct.? Rattoides Nob. Decumanus

Auct. Decumanoides Nob. Nemorivagus, et Nitidus, et Hy-

drophilus, et Niviventer Nob. H. C. and N. so far as known.

99.102. Musculus Nob. Mice.—4 Sp. new, Cervicolor, Dumecolus,

Nipalensis, et Dubius Nob. H. C. and N. so far as known,

103-104. Arvicola ? Neotoma.—2 Sp. new, Pyctoris et Myothrix Nob.

also probably the Hydrophilus introduced above. H. C. and N.

105. Arctomys.—1 Sp. new. Himalayanus Nob. H. N. and Tibet.

106. Rhizomys.—1 Sp. new, Badius Neb. H. L. and C.

SciuRID&.

107-109. Sczwrus.—8 Sp. new, Macruroides, Locria et Locroides Nob.

H. L. C. and N. indifferently.

110-112. Sccuropterus.—3 Sp. new, Magnificus et Chrysotrix, et

Alboniger. H, L. C. and N. rarely L.

113. Hystriz.—\ Sp. new, Nipalensis Nob. Leucurus. H. G.

114-115. Lepus.—2 Sp. new, Macrotus et Oiostolus Nob. H. of Ist,

G. ; or 2nd N. and Tibet.

N. B.—These are the Indicus et Omodius of former catalogue; but several

local names are now dropt.

116. Lagomys.—1 Sp. Nipalensis Nob. H. N. and Tibet.

In all 116 species, of which probably 55 to 60 are new. Their de-

scriptions, with four or five exceptions only, are to be found in the Jour-

nal of Bengal Asiatic Society, and in that of Mr. McClelland. The re-

maining four or five yet unpublished are forthcoming shortly. The cata-

logue is considerably enlarged since it was last published in Lin. Trans.

a. D. 1838. Some uncertainty still hangs over the intimate structure

of the murine animals, but all the rest have been carefully allocated in

the modern genera after full examination of their conformation, while

their special habitats have been determined upon accurate information.

I have lately seen a critique by Mr. Ogilby of my labours in this

department, but I cannot say it is distinguished by much candour.

It is well known, that when Mr. Ogilby wrote, several successive cata-

logues of mine, embodying the improving results of new information,

and greater skill in the appreciation of it, existed ; and had Mr. Ogilby

916 Classified Catalogue of Mammals of Nepal. [No. 119.

consulted the whole of these, according to their dates, he might have

spared a great part of his censorial remarks. Let Mr. Ogilby consult

the very first catalogue, and he will find, that most of his identifica-

tions of my so-called new species, with others recorded by authors, had

been priorly indicated by myself. Let Mr. Ogilby have patience, and

he will still find, that several of these species are really new. With re-

gard to Semnopithecus, Entellus, Papio Rhesus, Cercopithecus Radia-

tus, Manis Macrourus, Cervus Equinus, not [, but the late Mr

Bennett, is answerable for the errors committed where such there be,

as I have letters of his to prove: and so too, for the misappropriation in

reference to Felis Viverrinus. Of that species, my specimens had

reached London before Mr. Heath’s, and been seen by Mr. Bennett,

who had suggested to me the Viverrine likeness, which I was contend-

ing was confined to the head; when to my surprise, for Mr. Bennett

was in general singularly fair and courteous, suddenly appeared the

description of a novelty ascribed to Mr. Heath. Mr. Gray (apud Hard-

wicke) had meanwhile justly given the discovery of the species to me,

though he retained Mr. Bennett’s name for it; but as that name con-

veyed a false analogy, I have chosen to adhere to my own. In short,

Mr. Ogilby’s critique is rather too much like a comment on the well-

known text, ‘‘ Woe betide the local researcher, who presumes to judge

of his own stores.”

Valley of Nipal, Dec. 184).

ON7,

Proceedings of the Asiatic Society.

(Thursday Evening, 11th November, 1841. )

The Hon’ble Sir E. Ryan, President, in the Chair.

The Reverend Wa. Wincuester, Chaplain of Berhampore, was proposed a Mem-

ber by F. Beavront, Esq. seconded by the Secretary.

Library and Museum.

Read the following Reports submitted by the Curator and Librarian,

The Curator’s Report.

Sir,—My report for the month of October will be found to relate chiefly to a valu-

able donation of Quadruped and Bird skins, procured in the vicinity of Maulmain,

which have been presented to the Society by Government, and to another collection

of Bird skins from the Himalaya, for which we are indebted to the liberality of Dr.

Spry, of the Bengal Medical Service.

The first of these collections contains six skins of Mammalia, pertaining to as many

species, and 58 of Birds, which are referrible to 42 species. I have endeavoured to de-

termine the whole series, and shall proceed to notice them in detail, adding such re-

marks as I conceive may be useful to students of Zoology in this country.

The Mammalia consist of two Carnivora and four Rodentia, which are as follow :—

1. Urva cancrivora, Hodgson, (Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1837,

p. 562,) or, more recently, Mesobema cancrivora, ibid. (Calcutta Journal of Natural

History, No. 6, p. 214.)—The specimen has been mounted with considerable difficulty,

from the unfortunately decayed condition of the skin, though the hair is uninjured, and

its appearance now is fully as good as that of Museum specimens in general. I have also

had its skull (which is quite perfect) taken out and cleaned. This, as noticed by Mr.

Hodgson, isremarkable for having incomplete bony orbits, which is very rarely the

case in the highly natural sub-family to which the animal strictly appertains, namely,

the Viverride Herpestidine. I do not myself perceive any peculiar affinity which it

is said to bear to the Guline Mustelide.

2. Artictis Binturong, ‘Temminck ; Ictides Ater, Valenciennes; and a juvenile

brown variety, probably the ordinary dress of the young animal, J. albifrons, F. Cuvi-

er.—The latter has usually been regarded as the permanent female colouring of the

species, but a very old and much injured specimen of the female Binturong in

our Museum, which now that the present specimen has been received, I have had

the skull and limb-bones taken from, though sufficient to illustrate the fact here

stated is retained ofits skin, is equally black with the mature male. The Maulmain

specimen is little more than half-grown, and retains its deciduary canines : its colour is

black, with a grizzled whitish visage, occasioned by each hair having a subtermi-

nal yellowish-white annulation, which is likewise the case, more sparingly, on the

limbs ; while the belly and basal part of the tail underneath are of a dull reddish

white, more or less of which, I believe, is permanent; ears white-edged, but the

lengthened hair on their posterior surface black. This specimen was also in very bad

condition, being much torn and decayed, but the hair is nearly perfect. Its skull has

918 Asiatie Society. [No. 119.

been taken out, and we have now, therefore, two examples illustrating different ages of

the skull of this highly interesting genus. It pertains to the restricted division of

Plantigrada, which have two true molars on each side of both jaws, posterior to the

carnassier, or scissor-tooth, a distinction serving, with other characters, to separate them

(as a different natural group) from the Badgers and allied forms, which latter, associated

with the Weasels and their allies, form another, equally distinct, that might be termed

Subplantigrada : these have but one true molar in each jaw, posterior to the scissor-

tooth ; which latter is merely the hindmost of the false molars, and, as such, is re-

presented by a deciduary tooth in the young animal, which is never the case with true

molars. There are some genera in which the scissor-tooth can scarcely be determined

except by this test, and the Binturong is one of them. Both divisions here indicated

are distinguished from all the other Carnivora (Cuv.) by the absence of a cecum

coli, wherein they resemble the greater number of Jnsectivora (Cuv.) The ab-

sence of a cecum is, indeed, assigned by Baron Cuvier as a character common to the

whole of his Insectivora ; but M. M. Diard and Duvaucel had long previously to the

publication of the 2d edition of the Regne Animal, noted the existence of this viscus

in the genus Tupaia, Raffles ;* (Cladobates, F. Cuv. ; Glisorex, Blainville ; Hylogale,

Tem ;) and Dr. Andrew Smith has recently figured and described the cecum with the

other viscera of his genus Macroschelides (or Erinomys, Blainv.; Rhynomys, Lichten-

stein): it may be expected to exist likewise in the genus Gymnura, Vig. and Horsf. (or

Echinosorex, Blainv.),and also in the little known genus Eupleres of Doyére, figured, not

long ago, in the Annales des Sciences Naturelles. The restricted Plantigrada consist of

seven genera, whereof one—the Bears ( Ursus )—comprises numerous living as well as

fossil species, the former of which are distributed over Europe, Asia, the great Malay

Islands, the Atlas chain in North Africa, the Andes in South America, and all North

America ; a fossil species is likewise found in Brazil: of the other six, two are peculiar

to Asia, and the rest to America. The former are—the Panda(Azlurus, Duvaucel), or

‘ Wah’ of Nepal, chiefly known to inhabit the eastern Himalayas ; and the Binturong

(Arcitictis, Tem., Ictides, Valenciennes), which is also found in Nepal, and thence

southward to Malacca: the latter consist of the Raccoons, (Procyon, Storr) ; the Coati-

mondis ( Nasuwa, Storr) ; the Kinkajou (Cercoleptes, Lliger); and the Bassarvy (Bassaris,

Lichtenstein). Two of them are stated to have prehensile tails, namely, the Kinkajou

and the Binturong : in the former of these, however, this organ is prehensile only in a

very slight degree, (insomuch that the term is quite inapplicable, ) as 1 am enabled to

state from personal observation, having seen a very tame Kinkajou loose in a room;

this animal, as it clambered about the chairs, &c. merely pressed its tail occasionally

and very slightly against whatever offered, stiffening it throughout its length in a

slight downward curve, but never coiling it; but the Binturong, according to na-

tive accounts, twists its tail round a branch to give impetus to its spring, and then

throws itself on its prey, generally Monkeys (whence its Burmese name of Myouk

kya, or monkey tiger), and with it falls tothe ground. Its head is said to be par-

ticularly hard, and that it cannot be killed by blows inflicted on it. ‘The present —

specimen,’ which is the individual now presented to the Society, ‘had several

blows inflicted on it with a heavy bamboo, but not apparently to its injury: it was shot

at the summit of a tree; and the natives say, that this animal is generally seen upon

* Asiatic Researches, vol. xiv, p. 474.

1841. ] Asiatic Society. 919

trees, living in the jungles, where it is very seldom observed.’’* The crania before me

are by no means remarkable for solidity, and indeed that of the specimen referred to is

fractured, doubtless from the blows mentioned; and it may be remarked that the

tail of this creature has no naked space at its extremity, wherein it resembles those

of the American Sajous (Cebus, Geoffroy). In the other genera of true Plantigrada,

except the Bears which have scarcely any tail, this appendage is equally bushy through-

out its length, and is always ringed with two shades of colour. Several of these animals

have retractile claws, more or less so; as instanced in the Panda and Binturong, and

in the Bassary. The last named elegant species has been erroneously approximated

to Parodaxurus, among the Viverride, which family has no American representa-

tive. The Zoological Society possessed a living specimen at the time I left London,

and as this genus is but very little known to most naturalists at present, I may be

permitted to mention that it does resemble Paradowxurus not a little in external

aspect, having the same elongated body, enabling it to spring from bough to bough

with extreme lightness and agility, ruddered by its very bushy and squirrel-like tail.

Its head resembles that of the Kinkajou, with the same Marten-like ears, and long

extensible tongue, which latter is indeed common to the whole group, all of which

are great devourers of honey and other sweets: but the Bassary would appear to be

also highly predatory, and probably a good deal resembles the Martens in its habits.

Its talons are very sharp and retractile; and the fur short and Lemur-like, as in the

Kinkajou: colour greyish with a barred tail, What specimens have been obtained

have all been brought from Mexico. Such is a slight survey of the group to which

the Binturong belongs, and to which certain fossils are likewise referrible, as that

figured in Pl. 150, figs. 2, 3, and 4, of the Ossemens Fossiles of Baron Cuvier.

The Ictide Dorée of Mons. F. Cuvier is a veritable Paradoxurus.

3. Pteromys petaurista, Auct:—being the first well authenticated example of this

large dark species which I have seen from the eastward of the Bay of Bengal. It

may, therefore, rather than Pr. nitidus, be the great Tenasserim species mentioned

by the late Dr. Helfer; but it is probable that both inhabit the same forests. The

Pi. Oral of Lieut. Tickell, elaborately described in the Calcutta Journal of Natural

History, No. 7, p. 401, would appear to be no other than Pé. petaurista.

4, WSciurus bicolor, Sparrman.—A very fine specimen. Of this animal, which

Dr. McClelland procured examples of in Assam, we are informed by Dr. Horsfield

(in Proc. Zool. Soc., for 1839, p. 151), that ‘individuals agreeing in all particu-

lars with the Assamese specimens have been observed in other parts of India by

Dr. Francis (Buchanan) Hamilton and by Dr. Finlayson. The latter forwarded

several specimens to the Museum at the India House. The specific character origi-

nally constructed by Sparrman, and subsequently adopted by all systematic wri-

ters, defines accurately the animal as described by Dr. Hamilton and by Dr.

McClelland. Schreber’s figure also agrees with the same; while the animal from

Java (represented in Horsfield’s Zool. Res., and indicated as a variety in Fischer’s

Synopsis Mammalium,) appears to differ from the continental specimens by the vari-

ations to which it is subject. It remains, therefore, for further research and observation

to determine whether these two varieties may not be specifically distinct, and whether

* Captain McLeod, in Calcutta Journal of Natural History, No. 7, p. 458, from information

supplied by the Rey. Mr. Barb.

920 Asiatie Society. [No. 119.

the name of Assamensis proposed by Dr. McClelland should not henceforth be

applied to the species observed in continental India by himself, and by Hamilton and

Finlayson.’’ The present species is nearly allied to Sc. maximus, but differs from that

animal and its Javanese analogue Sc. Leschenaultii, among other respects, by the

constancy of its colouring; Dr. McClelland remarking that the description of it

which he took was derived from seven or eight specimens, and that among the various

individuals he had seen there appeared to be no difference. ‘‘ All the upper parts

are deep and glossy reddish-black, the cheeks and under-parts whitish tinged with

fulvous, with two dark spots on the chin. Body fifteen, tail sixteen inches long.’? Our

- Museum contains a fine series illustrative of the variations of colour of Sic. maximus ;

and the skulls of both the present and the foregoing species (Pteromys petaurista)

have been taken out, for purposes of comparison with their proximate allies. That

of Se. bicolor is much smaller, and otherwise differs considerably from the skull of

Sc. maximus.

2. NSciurus

?—Undetermined, but, I believe, a species which I have seen

before, in England. Dr. Spry possesses a living specimen of it from Arracan. Length

10 or 11 inches, the tail, with its hair, 1 foot or nearly so; ears slightly tufted with

whitish, denoting the hyemal dress. Colour grizzled fulvous-brown, purer fulvous

on the sides of the neck, and less so on the head and croup; fore-limbs and hind feet

ashy, the tail slender and black-tipped, and the under-parts and inside of the limbs

whitish-grey ; whiskers black and strong. This species is very common along the

Tenasserim coast.

6. Rhyzomys cinereus, McClelland, (Calcutta Journal of Natural History, No. 7,

p. 496,) genus Nyctocleptes of Temminck.—The researches of naturalists in this part

of the world are fast bringing to light additional species of this curious genus,

which, till lately, was only known to contain the Rh. Swmatrensis, Gray, (or Mus

Sumatrensis, Raffles,* Spalax Javanus, Cuvier, and Nyctocleptes—?, Temminck, )

and the Rh. Sinensis, well figured in one of the late Major General Hardwicke’s draw-

ings, edited and named by Mr. Gray. The latter species has been discovered to in-

habit the Phillippine Islands by Mr. Cumming—(vide Proc. Zool. Soc., 1840,

p. 62.) A third has been made known by Mr. ~ Hodgson as an inhabitant of

Nepal (Rh. badius, Hodgson); and the present species is described to me

by Mr. Barb to be the smaller of two inhabiting the Tenasserim provinces.

Moreover, two if not three species, according to Dr. McClelland, are contained ina

zoological collection of much interest, recently made in Assam by Mr. H. Walker,

and which is now under that gentleman’s investigation. An additional interesting no-

tice of the Nepalese species has been published by Mr. Hodgson (in Calcutta Jour-

nal of Natural History, No. 7, p. 411). The fact there stated of this creature’s tameness

when first caught, and not offering to bite with its formidable front-teeth, is observable

in even most other Rodents, though the genera Mus and Sciurus form conspicuous ex-

ceptions to it: the large Water Vole of Europe may be handled with perfect impunity.

With respect to the food of the species of Rhizomys, which is known to consist of roots,

and especially those of bamboo, I would call attention to an observation of the Rev.

* Dr. McClelland inclines to doubt the identification of Mr. Gray’s animal with that of Sir

Stamford Raffles, and which is figured in one of the late Colonel Farquarson’s drawings, preserved

in the Museum of the London Asiatic Society, where I have seen it. vide Loc. Cit.

1841.] Asiatic Society. 921

Mr. Bree, relative to the common Rat (Mus decumanus), to suggest the probability

of the same remarkable mode of feeding being resorted to in the present instance,

which the great power of the jaws and strength of the gnawing teeth seem to render

very likely. Mr. Bree describes the attacks of the Rats upon his ‘* young oaks in a plan-

tation near a brook and small pond. They gnaw the tree off just below the ground ;

sometimes nearly as level as if it had been cut with a saw. Young trees nearly as thick

as my wrist,’’ he states, ‘‘ have been served in this way ; and I have been quite asto-

nished how the Rats could cut them through so completely. The fact is, the Rat begins

his operations underground, and eats upwards as far as he finds the wood soft enough

for his purpose, which is just below the surface ; the consequence is, that the tree will

often remain erect, and appear to the eye as if nothing had happened to it; but of

course it throws out no leaves in the spring, and, on taking hold of it, you find it loose,

and ready to come up with a touch.’’* The same has been observed of young willows

growing in a somewhat marshy soil, and been referred, as I believe erroneously, to the

operations of the Water Vole. According to the information supplied to Captain McLeod

by Mr. Barb, the Poué (Rhizomys cinereus) is an animal rarely seen, and is found

in the more hilly parts of the country. The Burmans eat the animal when they can

catch it. It burrows very rapidly, and spends the day time in holes, living on the roots

of the bamboo generally, but towards night-fall it comes out and amuses itself by cut-

ting the bamboo down, which it does very expeditiously. It does not take to the water

at all.”’+ Mr. Hodgson was informed that the Nepalese species constructed burrows

under the roots of trees or shrubs, and that they may be taken almost as easily as a

domestic animal, from their extraordinary boldness or apathy. An interesting notice

follows, of an individual which that naturalist possessed alive.

Of the foregoing six Quadrupeds, the Urva, the two Squirrels, and the Rhyzomys,

are new to our Museum; the Pteromys was represented only by an imperfect skin,

noticed in my last report ; and the Binturong is equally acceptable, as replacing, till

we can get a still better one, the very old and shabby specimen already mentioned.

Of Birds, there are two species of the restricted order Scansores, or Parrots ; viz.

1. Palgornis Pondicerianus, Vigors, or Psittacus mystaceus and bimaculatus,

Shaw; which, though procurable in any number in Calcutta, is new to our Museum; and

2. Psittacula vernalis, Swainson.—The small Crimson-rumped Lorikeet, which is

also a common bird in India. Both these species, and the former especially, as I am

informed by Mr. Barb, are very common on the Tenasserim coast, where also are

found four other species of Paleornis, namely, P. Alexandri, torquatus, Bengalensis,

and flavitorquis.

The only Raptorial species sent is—

3. Athene cuculoides ; Noctua cuculoides, Vigors.— Which is also very common,

and much persecuted, and even frequently killed by the Crows (Corvus splendens,

Vieillot, or better named C. impudicus, Buchanan; the common Crow of India).

Of the order Imsessores, and first great division of it—Heterogenes, I find, among

the Syndactyli, technically so styled, two species of Buceride, three of Halcyonida,

and two of Meropida, viz.

* Gardener’s Magazine, vol. vii. p. 235, and Magazine of Natural History, vol. vii. p. 456.

t+ Caleutta Journal of Natural History, No. 7, p. 457.

t Ibid. p. 411.

922 Asiatic Society. [No 119.

4. Buceros ruficollis, Vieillot.—Mr. Barb assures me, that there are two races, or

perhaps species, of this Hornbill, which differ only in the colour of the naked skin of

the throat and around the eyes, which in one is of a beautiful blue, and in the other

an equally rich yellow. Both are very common, associating in flocks of a dozen or

twenty birds, but the two do not mingle in the same flock. The B. Nipalensis ( Hodg-

son) was not recognised by Mr. Barb as an inhabitant of Tenasserim.

5. B. leucogaster ? Nobis, n. s. ? Length about two feet, of wing from bend 92 in-

ches, tail the same ; beak 34 in. long, and, with casque, 2 inches deep ; the latter sub-

carinated, and narrowing and diminishing anteriorly to where it terminates, but little

abruptly, beyond the middle of the upper mandible, as if a young bird (which Mr.

Barb assures me it is not). All the upper parts wholly black glossed with green, ex-

cept the tips of the wing-primaries and secondaries, and of the tail feathers, exclusive

of the uropygial pair, which are white; belly and thighs also white, as is likewise the

inside of the shoulders of the wings: coronal and occipital feathers elongated. Beak

yellowish white; and tarse greenish. This species associates in large flocks, and is

even more common than the last. A still smaller black species, with a similar casque,

and the common Indian B. Malabaricus, are stated by Mr. Barb to be also common

in Tenasserim; while the great B. Homrai, Hodgson, is likewise found there, but

more sparingly, and differs from the rest in never flocking but keeping in pairs, and

avoiding human habitations. The B. Rhinoceros was not recognised by Mr. Barb

as an inhabitant of Tenasserim.

6. Alcedo Bengalensis, an adult and two young specimens.—This common Indian

species is contained in a collection made by Dr. Cantor in Chusan. It abounds in

Tenasserim.

7. Halcyon Capensis.

8. Hi. ?—The Goorial of the Sunderbunds of Bengal.

9. H. Coromandus, Alcedo Coromandus, Sonnerat.—The H. atricapillus and

H. Smyrnensis are likewise recognised by Mr. Barb, as being, with the three former

species, common in Tenasserim; and all are stated by him to be very piscivorous,

whieh is a fact not generally known of the restricted Halcyons. H. rudis, was ob-

served by Mr. Barb at Rangoon.

10. Coracias affinis, McClelland and Horsfield (Proc. Zool. Soc. , 1839, p. 164, )—

I am informed that this bird is not unfrequent in Bengal.

ll. Bucia Athertonii: B. Nipalensis, Hodgson ; Nyctiornis Athertonii, Swainson ;

Merops Athertonii, Jardine and Selby; M. cyanopterus, Jerdon (Madras Journal,

No. 27, p. 228.)—Both this species and B. amictus are stated by Mr. Barb to occur,

though rarely, on the Tenasserim coast. The latter is, I believe, more frequent in the

Malay peninsula. The Coracias Indica, Merops Indicus, and M. Sumatranus, are

also recognised by Mr. Barb as inhabitants of Tenasserim. Upupa Epops is very

abundant.

Among the Zygodactyli, technically so denominated, I find in the collection

12. Bucco Indicus and rubricapillus, Latham, B. Phillippensis and flavicollis,

Vieillot. A very abundant species in Bengal, and, I believe, throughout the Indian

Peninsula. It is equally common in Tenasserim, where, however, the B. cyanops, so

plentiful in Bengal, was not observed by Mr, Barb.

13. Picus occipitalis, Vigors.

1841.] Asiatic Society. 923

14. P. squamatus, Vigors; P. dimidiatus, Gray, not of Temminck.—Immature

plumage, having the crown and occiput more scarlet than in the adult, the breast a

little streaky, and the under-parts marked but obscurely. This and the preceding

species, which are nearly allied to the two green Woodpeckers of Europe, are included

with them in the subgeneric division Gecinus of Boié.

15. P. tiga, Horsfield, Chrysonotus tridactytus, Swainson.—The Indian Three-toed

Woodpecker. This bird only differs in plumage from the P. Shorii, Vigors, as figured

in Gould’s Century, by wanting the defined brown markings on the throat and fore

Neck; and as there is some tinge of the same about the throat, and on the sides of the

neck, of the present specimen, I incline to consider them identical, This three-

toed species is not particularly allied to the three-toed Woodpeckers of the North, which

essentially pertain to quite a different section of the genus—the Dendrocopus, Swaine

son; but it closely approximates to the common P. Bengalensis, which has a minute

inner back toe, and is intermediate in plumage to that species and another and larger

Woodpecker in our collection, (the P. Sudtaneus, Hodgson, ) which has a proportionate-

ly much larger beak, and a full-sized fourth toe ; from the latter, the only marked dif-

ference of plumage consists in the three-toed species having the hind neck black (as

in P. Bengalensis,) instead of white; while from the other it differs more conspicuous-

ly by its crimson rump, and the uniform golden orange colour of the wings externally.

All three are stated by Mr. Barb to inhabit the Tenasserim provinces.

16. P. badius, Raffles; P. brachyurus, Vieillot and Wagler; P. rufus, Gray, not of

Wagler.

17. P. (Meigiyptes. Sw.,) poiocephalus, Vemminck: an adult male and young

female specimen. Common in Tenasserim, as are all the other Woodpeckers which have

been mentioned.

18. Oxylophus —— ?—Undetermined. I believe, a well known species, but the name

of which | have not been able to ascertain. Length 17 inch, of wing from bend 64

inches, and tail 10 inches. Beak 14 inch from forehead, and tarse posteriorly 1 inch.

Coronal feathers elongated. Upper parts blackish-brown having agreen shine, except

a half collar of white at the back of the neck; under-parts white, tinged with rufous

on the throat, fore-neck, and under surface of the wings anteriorly ; lower tail-coverts

dusky-black; primary and secondary quills and their coverts deep ferrugineous, the tail

feathers slightly tipped with whitish. Beak blackish horn-colour; and legs greenish

plumbeous. This bird is common in Tenasserim, where the O. edolius, which is nu-

merous in Bengal, was not observed by Mr. Barb. It would appear to be nearly allied

to O. Coromandus.

19. Pheenicopheus longicaudatus ? Nobis, n. s ?—Length 234 inches, of wing from

bend 6 inches, and middle tail feathers 154 inches, the outermost 5} inches, and the rest

evenly graduating. Beak 14 inch from forehead, and tarse posteriorly 1j inch. Ge-

neral colour dark greenish-grey ; the wings and tail shining dark-green, with a white

tip to each tail-feather ; front of the neck and breast paler, passing into whitish on the

throat and immediately around the naked space encircling the eye, these whitish fea-

thers having dark shafts, which terminate in a slightly prolonged hair-like bristle ;

small anterior portion of the lores black. Beak bright-green, and legs dusky. A com- |

mon species in Tenasserim, and always seen in pairs. Th eCentropus pyrrhopterus is

also very common there, as in India generally.

924 Asiatic Society. [No. 119.

Of Heterodactyli, this collection contains only

20. Trogon Malabaricus, Gould, Tr. fasciatus, Gmelin, Tr. Kasumba, Rafiles,

Tr. Blonda, Tem.—An immature male, being the first specimen of this gorgeous genus

in our Museum. It is remarkable that the Trogons differ from all other yoke-footed

birds (or which have two toes directed forwards and two backwards) in the circum-

stance of the ordinary inner fore toe being reversed, instead of the outer ; in consequence

of which, that which corresponds to the middle front toe of the generality of the class

(or such as have three toes directed forwards) becomes the inner of the two anteriorly

directed toes, instead of the outer as usual, and the ordinary back toe becomes the

outer, instead of the inner, of those behind. The Trogon Malabaricus is common in

Tenasserim.

Among the Cantrices, or second grand division of Jnsessores (which have the gene-

ral organization of singing birds, whether or not they happen to sing), the following

species occur :—

21. Pica (Dendrocitta) vagabunda, Gould.—Three young specimens. A common

species, as in India; but D. Simensis not recognized.

22. Ianthocincla leucolophos?, var.; or perhaps a very closely allied species;

differing only in having the whole back, wings, sides, vent, and lower tail-coverts

ferruginous, which colour is usually confined to the nape and sides of the neck,

passing downward to cross the breast; while the white of the under parts, also, of the

present bird, instead of abruptly terminating at the lower part of the breast, is con-

tinued down the middle of the belly. Also common, occurring in considerable

flocks.

23. Kitta venatorius, Gray and Hardwicke.—Two adult and three young speci-

mens: considered to be arare species. The irides are bright red.

24. Dicrurus retifer, Vieillot.—Three specimens, but moulting their long exterior

tail feathers. This shewy bird is abundant in Tenasserim, as are also D. balicassius,

a smaller species nearly allied to this, and D. viridescens 2? (Edolius viridescens,

Gould) ; but the elegant D. krishna, which I observe to be common in the vicinity of

‘Calcutta, was unknown to Mr. Barb,

25. Lamprotornis chalibeus, Horsfield.—Common.

26. Graucalus Papuensis.

27. Eurylaimus nasutus, Tem.; Cymbirhynchus nasutus, Vigors.—Two specimens ;

being the only species of Hurylaimus observed by Mr. Barb. The beak and eyes are

very beautiful blue, the former fading within a day or two after death. It is common

in watery situations, and suspends its nearly globular nest, which is constructed of small

twigs, from the branches of trees growing directly out of the water; the eggs are four

in number, and pale spotless blue.

28. Muscipeta Indica, Stephens, M. castanea, Temminck.—Female.

29. Muscicapa cerulea, Vieillot, M. occipitalis, Vigors ; female: which isthe A -

ceruleocephala, Sykes.

30. Pitta brachyura, Auct.—T wo specimens.

3l. P. melanocephala, Wagler.

32. P. gigas, Temminck.—Apparently in nestling plumage. All these birds are

common in Tenasserim.

33. Oriolus melanocephalus, Linn,—Three specimens.

1841.] Asiatic Society. 925

34. O. Chinensis, Gmelin.—Two specimens.—

35. Chloropsis Malabaricus, Jardine and Selby.

36. Cinnyris Vigorsii, Sykes.—Being a new locality, I believe, for this beautiful

little species. It is common in Tenasserim.

37. Anthreptes rectirostris : Cinnyris rectirostris, auct; C. elegans, Vieillot.

The remainder consist of a Pigeon, a Jungle Fowl, two Storks, and a Duck; viz.

38. Carpophaga enea: besides which, the Columbe (Turtur) Javanica and

tigrina, and Vinago bicincta (Jerdon) and V. sphenura, are recognised by Mr.

Barb as inhabitants of the same region.

39. Gallus pseudhermaphroditus, Nobis, n.s.?—A very singular bird, which, if I

was not positively assured was a male in normal plumage, I should have suspected to

be either an individual of mingled sex, or possibly an aged male; forthatit is not a fe-

male in partially masculine attire is evident from the size of its comb and wattles, and

especially of its spurs. Size of an English game cock, or larger than the male G.

Bankivus, having much stouter legs, the spurs of which are 13 inch long; comb and

wattles asin the G. Bankivus, but the former more entire towards the front (possibly

a mere individual diversity): the tail is that of a cock bird of this genus, but scarcely

more developed than in the Euplocomi (as Eu. albocristatus) ; in other respects the

plumage is altogether that of an ordinary brown hen, having a redder cast than in the

female G. Bankivus, especially on the wings; tail coloured as in an ordinary male.

Length about 2 feet, of which the middle tail feathers occupy 10 inches, wing from

bend 9 inches, and tarse behind, to back toe, 23 inches. I am informed that this species

is never clad in the usual bright plumage of the other male birds of its genus.

40. Ciconia leucocephala, Ardea leucocephala, Auctorum; Ciconia umbellata,

Wagler.

41. C. nudifrons, Jerdon.—The Bald-fronted Adjutant, which I observe to associate

with the common Bengal species about Calcutta, where, however, it is comparatively

rare. The present specimen is young, and has some lengthened occipital feathers,

which seem to disappear gradually with age. Our Museum contains a very fine speci-

men of the adult of this species.

42. Microcygna girra.

Besides these 42 species sent, 14 of which are new to our Museum, and such as have

been mentioned with their congeners as inhabitants of the Tenasserim provinces,

the following have been recognised in our Museum by Mr. Barb, as species more or

less common in the same region: Milvus Cheele, Cercus melanoleucos, Gracula

religiosa, Sturnus conira, Pastor cinereus (Jerdon), P. tristis, P. cristatellus,

Parus monticolus, Copsychus saularis, C. macrourus, Phenicura fuliginosa,

Cryptolopha poiocephala, Rhipidura Albofrontata, Spermesies melanocephalus,

Tantalus leucocephalus, Ibis papillosus, Pluvianus Goensis, Rhynchops flavirostris,

_ and Dendrocygnus awsuree.

I now pass to the Himalayan collection of Bird skins, from which Dr. Spry has

kindly permitted me to select what species were new to the Museum, and for which I

have exchanged certain duplicates that were not required. Our acquisitions this way

consist of 2

1. Paleornis schisticeps ? mentioned in the catalogue of Dr. Royle’s birds: size of

P. torquatus, and nearly allied to P. Bengalensis, but having a dull lavender-coloured

926 Asiatic Society. | [No. 119.

head, and black chin and nuchal ring bordering the lavender tint. General colour of the

upper parts vivid green, a little paler underneath, and not yellowish as in P. Bengalen-

sis, but tinged about the nape with verditer ; maronne wing-spot as in P. Bengalensis ;

and tail wholly yellow underneath, the two middle feathers green above near the base,

then bright blue, and the terminal third yellow ; the other tail feathers all yellow on the

inner web and tip, having the rest of the outer web green. Upper mandible bright ver-

million as far as the notch, its tip and the whole lower mandible yellowish-white ; feet as

usual. Length 16 inches, of which the tail occupies 92 inches, its middle pair of feathers

reaching 23 inches beyond the next pair; wing from bend 6} inches, and tarse } inch.

2. Picus squamatus.—Female ; having the crown and nape black instead of red.

3. P. Himalayanus, Jardine and Selby; an immature female.

4. P. brunnifrons, Gould and Vigors. Male and female. The collection contained

four specimens of this species.

5. Myophonus Temminckii.-—One of seven specimens.

6. Turdus viscivorus.—The European Missel Thrush, one of three specimens, and

selected for the purpose of shewing a veritable Himalayan example of this well known

bird.

7. Petrocincla erythrogastra ; Turdus erythrogaster, Vigors.—A bad specimen, but

we had previously only the female of this fine species, of which the present collec-

tion contains also an example.

8. Orocetes cinclorhyncha, G. Gray.—Examples of the summer and winter dress of

this bird, selected from ten specimens ; the whole of which according in their plu-

mage, it may be presumed that there is no sexual diversity of colouring, as might be

suspected from its near affinity to the Redstarts. The only seasonal difference consists

in the feathers being slightly margined in winter with brownish on the back, and the

blue coronal feathers with dusky. The Museum contains an example of this bird in

nestling plumage.

9. Cinclus Pailasii, Auct.—The Himalayan Dipper, adult and young. A welcome

addition to our collection, but the young bird especially is in very unsatisfactory con-

dition.

10. Enicura maculata. One of three specimens, and selected from its appearing to

present the opposite sex to that previously in the Museum.

11. Muscipeta paradisea. Female. A bad specimen, but which will serve to fill the

place of this species until better examples of both sexes can be procured.

12. Lanius erythronotus.—One of two specimens.

13. L. Hardwickii.—Both these species were labelled ‘‘ Indian Mocking bird.”

Several of the Shrikes have been frequently stated to repeat the notes of other birds with

much facility.

14. Coccothraustes icterioides. Female. The sombre plumage of this sex was want-

ing in our Museum, where, however, there is a fine male, and the present collection

contains two other males.

15. Columba leuconota, Vigors.

16. Lophophorus Impeyanus.—Male and female; the collection containing five

females and four males of this resplendent bird.

17. Phasianus Wallichti: Lophophorus Wallichii, Hardwicke ; Ph. Stacei, Vigors

and Gould:—Male and female; of which species, four males and two females were sent.

1841.] Asiatic Society. 927

The remainder of this collection consists of d/cedo Bengalensis, Bucco grandis (2),

Pica (Cyanocorax) erythrorhynchos (2), P. (Dendrocitia) Sinensis, Garrulus gula-

ris (5), Nucifraga hemispila (3), Ianthocincla variegata, Oriolus aureus, Muscicapa

caerulea, Pheenicornis brevirostris (3), Euplocomus albocristatus (2), Eupl.

Pucrasia, Tragopan Hastingsii, Francolinus vulgaris (3), and Perdiz Chukar (2).

l have also to acknowledge the donation of a fresh Chinese Lory (Lorius Sinensis)

from P. Humphrey, Esq., and of a living specimen of a Hawk ( Elanus melanopterus ),

in immature plumage, from W. Frith, Esq.

The following species of Birds have been procured in the eivhbouthidod’ —

. Milvus Cheele.—Female.

. Strix flammea.—Male.

. Halcyon ——?—The Goorial, male.

. Coracias Indica.—Male.

. Merops Indicus.—Male.

. Bucco cyanops,—Two specimens, males.

. B. Indicus. Two specimens, males.

. Picus Bengalensis.—Male.

. P. Macei.—Male.

. Oxylophus edolius.—First plumage.

. Dicrurus Crishna. (Edolius Crishua, Gould). Female.

12. Pastor cinereus (Jerdon).—Male and female.

. Lora tiphia.— Young male.

14. Lanius Collurio? verus.— Young male.

15. Hematornis Caffer.—Two males.

16. Copsychus Saularis.—Male.

17. Geocichla citrina.—Male.

18. Oriolus melanocephalus.—Two males and a female, illustrating different states

of plumage.

SEOMNAUN KWH YH

bad

Sel

19. O. ——?n.s.?—Female; having no black whatever about the visage. This

specimen is now alive in a cage.

20. Ceblepyris melaschistos ; Volvocivora melaschistos, Hodgson: female.

21. Cinnyris sola.—Male, female, and young.

All the above (save the living Oriole) have been examined internally, the sternal

apparatus of the greater number prepared, and minute descriptions have been taken

of them in the recent state, noting the fugitive colours of the feet and other naked

parts, that of the iris, &c. On dissecting the Barbets, I found a very close approxima-

tion in general structure to the Toucans of South America, much more than to the

Woodpeckers, in immediate proximity to which latter the Barbets have been always

arranged : excepting the bill and tongue, the internal conformation of the Barbets

seems to be altogether that of the Toucan, even to the singular character of the im-

perfection of the clavicles, which do not join to form a furcula (or ‘ merry thought’)

as in other birds, but exist as small dagger-shaped bones, about half their ordinary

length ; nor do the bill and tongue of the Barbets possess any resemblance to those

of the Woodpeckers, as obvious enough in the instance of the former, while the tongue

is merely a flattened lamina of the ordinary shape and size, a little furcate at the

tip, being more distinctly so in B. cyanops, and less noticeably in the small B. Zn-

928 Asiatic Society. [ Nol He:

dicus. The African genus Indicator,* on the other hand, which has been currently

classed with the Cuckoos, appertains strictly to thenatural family Picide. The only

other birds I know of, wherein the clavicles donot join and form a furcula, besides

the Struthionide, properly so called, in which they are curiously modified, are the

Touracoes ( Corythaix ) of Africa (and doubtless the allied genera Musophaga,

Chiza@ris, and Colius), in three different species of which I have found the clavicles

to be separate, though all but joined; and various Psittacide, in which they are

altogether wanting. They vary in proportionate length in different species of Toucan

(Rhamphastos), but have been figured by |’ Herminier as united in the closely allied

Pteroglossus Aricari.

In the class of Mammalia, we are indebted to Lieutenant Tickell for two fine pairs

of Deer-antlers, belonging respectively to the Sambur (Cervus Hippelaphus), and

Axis (C. Azis).

In that of Reptiles, I have procured three specimens respectively of two species of

Snake, and some examples of an Anolis common in the neighbourhood. The former are—

Psammophis cer asogaster, Cantor :—which is considered by that naturalist rather an

uncommon species, and is new to the Museum; and .

Tropidonotus dora, Cantor; Dora of Russell; Coluber Dora, Daudin.

Osteology.—The skeleton of the Rhinoceros, noticed in my previous report, has

been remounted, and is again in its place. It is unfortunately deficient in the digital

bones of all four extremities, in the sternal pieces, the penultimate pair of ribs, and

one of the diminutive last pair. We possess, however, a skeleton foot of a Rhinoceros,

presented to the Society by Dr. Pearson. |

A skeleton of a Bat, Scotophilus castaneus, has also been prepared and set up, and

also the skulls of the following species of Vespertilionide :—

S'cotophilus castaneus.

Taphozous longimanus.

T. brevicaudus, Nobis, n. s.

Megaderma lyra, and

Dysopus plicatus (?).

Also skulls of

Canis aureus.

Vulpes montanus.

Urva Nipalensis.

Paradozurus typus.

Arctictis Binturong,—Two specimens.

Pteromys petaurista.

Sciurus maximus.

Sciurus bicolor.

Sciurus— ? Undetermined.

Mus— ? Undetermined.

Gerbillus Indicus.

Georychus fuscocapillus, Nobis, n. s.

* Since writing this, I have met with a Himalayan species of true Honeyguide—Indicator

xanthonotus, Nobis.

1841.] Asiatic Society. 929

The skeleton of the Hoolock, or White-browed Gibbon, is prepared, and quite ready

for mounting, as also that of a Crow (Corvus splendens ); and skeletons of two species

of Barbet, of a Snipe (Scolopaz heterura), and of Cinnyris Sola, are in course of pre-

paration. In addition to the sternal apparatus of most of the birds already mentioned,

as having been procured in the recent state, we are indebted to Mr. Bouchez, for that

of a Monaul (Lophophorus Impeyanus ), that of a rare Hawk ( Hyptiopus lophotes, )

and of one of the Australian broad-tailed Parroquets ( Platycercus eximius-

In the Botanical Department of the Museum, I have nothing to report,

The Librarian’s Report.

Sir,—The report I have the honour to submit to the Committee for the months

of September and October is as follows :—

I received on the 27th September 23 gems from the Secretary, which were deposi-

ted in the medal cabinet.

Almost all the books in bad condition, a list of which I sometime ago laid before the

Committee, have been rebound or repaired.

- Though the expence incurred is great, the preservation of so many valuable works

for the use of the Members of the Society and the community at large, will be more

than adequate compensation.

A great number of duplicates have been selected from the shelves. Should it ap-

pear desirable to the Committee, these might be sold or exchanged for others, and as

many of them are valuable books, perhaps the Members of the Society might wish to

take some of them and give others in their stead.

The classification of the catalogue has been completed in the month of September,

a copy of which is nearly ready for the print, and the arrangement of the library has

been also finished.

I add a paper containing a general view of the classification of the catalogue.

The classification was, on the whole, made according to the plan I had the pleasure

of proposing to the Committee. Such deviations from it only were thought advisable

which bore a stricter correspondence with the principles according to which the classi-

fication was framed; and I may here mention it generally, that in the progress of the

arrangement those principles were more and more rigidly adhered to, as this was

found not only in more accordance with the natural divisions of science, but likewise

better adapted to satisfy the demands of convenience.

The alterations alluded to are chiefly the following :—

There are at present only two main divisions, one containing the classic litera-

ture, the other that of the modern languages.

The science of medicine has found its more congenial place at the end of the natural

sciences, instead of being connected with the three first divisions.

An alphabetical list of the titles of the books and of the names of the authors will be

added to the catalogue, so that in finding the books every facility will be afforded to

those who wish to avail themselves of the advantages of the library.

With regard tothe collection I would remark, that, as it has been made mostly by

valuable donations from generous individuals desirous of advancing the interests of the

Society, no arrangement has been made to obtain all the standard works relating to

each branch of knowledge, so that there are necessarily many deficiencies in the libra-

930 Asiatic Society. [ No! IES.

ry, which it seems desirable to supply.. It would perhaps be well first to complete

those divisions of the library which relate to natural science in general, and likewise

_ those which refer to the history, civilization, languages, &c. of Asia.

I beg to submit to the Committee, if it be desirable, that all the books at present out,

should be returned, at least for a short period, as the arrangement of the library can-

not be completed till their titles and contents are ascertained. At the same time I

would ask, if it be not advisable to call in the books once a year for the space of five or

six days, that it may be known, whether they require repairing or any of them have

been lost. ;

2d November, 1841. I have the honor to be, Sir,

- Your most obedient servant,

E. Roerr.

Ordered,—That the three propositions,

ist. That the duplicate copies selected be either sold or exchanged ;

2d. That the books now lent out be returned for a short time ; and

3d. That the books be called in once a year for examination, submitted by the

Librarian, be referred to the Committee of Papers.

' Criassic LITERATURE.

A. Greek Literature.

1. Philosophy.

2. History.

3. Geography.

4. Miscellaneous.

B. Roman Literature.

Modern Literature, from the commencement of the Christian era to the present age.

I. Theology.

AG Polytheism.

Religion of Confucius.

a. Special forms of Polytheism.

1. Religion of Egypt.

2. ———— of the Greeks.

3. ——-—— of Zoroaster.

4, Brahmanism.

9. Buddhism.

Polytheism in general.

B. Monotheism.

a. Judaism.

b, Christianity.

1. Holy Scriptures and parts.

2. Biblical Criticism and Interpretation.

3. History of the Church.

4. Miscellaneous Works.

c. Mahommedanism.

II. Law and Jurisprudence.

rors

Ea Rae, NO? SOG ee ee ace NO Sie Ar AG Ba Oma Re aig: COS

Asiatic Society. 931

Philosophy.

Mathematics.

Natural Sciences.

Natural Science in general.

History.

Journals and Cyclopzdical Works.

Branches of Natural Science.

Natural Philosophy.

Natural Philosophy in general.

The branches of Natural Philosophy.

Pneumatics.

Hydrostatics.

Crystallography.

Sound.

Heat.

Light.

Electricity.

Magnetism.

Astronomy. J

Geology.

Chemistry.

Natural History, and Natural History in general.

Branches of Natural History.

Mineralogy.

Botany.

Zoology.

Zoology in general.

Branches of Zoology.

Anatomy.

Physiology.

Medical Science.

History of Medicine.

Pathology.

Therapeutics.

Materia Medica.

Applications and Arts.

Historic Science.

History.

General History.

Chronology, Dictionaries, Journals, etc

Universal History.

Special History.

Of Antiquity.

Of the Asiatic Empires.

Of Greece.

Of Rome.

932 Asiatic Socvety. [No. 119.

r. Of the Middle Ages and of Modern Times.

A. Of the Occidental Empires.

B. Of the Oriental Empires.

a. General History of the East.

b. Special History of the East.

Of the Huns.

Of the Mohummedan Empires.

1, Of the Arabs.

Of the Moguls.

Of the Sultauns of Egypt.

Of the Turks.

Of Persia.

Of Hindoostan.

Of China and Japan.

Of America.

Of Africa.

Biography.

Voyages and Travels.

History of Travels, Voyages round the World, aud Collections of Travels.

Travels in various parts of the World.

Travels in Europe.

Noose we

To various parts in Europe.

To special parts of Europe.

Travels in Asia.

Travels in Asia in general.

Travels in Western Asia.

Travels in Central Asia.

ert Ga ete e

Travels in Eastern Asia.

S. Travels in India, and Voyages to India.

ec. Travels in Africa.

d. Travels in America.

e. Travels to the Polynesian Ocean.

C. Geography and Statistics.

a. General Geography.

b Special Geography.

1. Geography of Europe.

2. —— of Asia.

3. ——— of Africa.

4 ——— of America.

—-—— of Polynesia.

E; Archeology and Antiquities.

VIII. Languages.

A. Grammar.

a. Comparative Grammar.

1. Grammar of European Languages.

2. Grammar of Oriental Languages.

1841. ] Asiatic Society. 933

d. Of the Semitic Languages.

B. Caucasian Languages.

Of Indian Languages.

1. Of the Sanscrit.

2. Of the Pali.

3. Of the Modern Indian Languages.

Of the Chinese Language.

Dictionaries.

Critics and Interpretations.

Literature.

Catalogues.

X. Miscellaneous Works.

Works.

Journals, Encyclopedias, ete.

Or mo OMY

Read two letters, dated the 29th September and 20th October last, from Mr.

Secretary Bushby, the first transmitting a communication from Mr, A. T. Christie,

late of the Medical Service, Madras Establishment, reporting his Geological Re-

searches in that part of India, and the second transmitting copies of Papers by

Captain G. B. Tremenheere, Executive Engineer, Tenasserim Division, on the

Tin Grounds and Manganese Beds of the Mergui Province.

Read also two letters from Mr. H. Cope, dated the 4th and 5th October last, on

the subject of the investigation of the Himalyan Lichens,

Read letter from Mr. J. G. Bruce, of 18th October 1841, on the subject of the

Nurma Cotton produced in Malwa, elicited with reference to the remarks of Mr. H.

Piddington, and noticed in a recent number of the Journal.

Ordered,—That the foregoing Papers be made over to the Secretary in his capacity

of Editor, for publication in early numbers of the Journal of the Asiatic Society.

Read letter from Captain S. R. Tickell, with sketches of Idols.

Read letter from Baboo Ramcomul Sen, of 3d November 1841, with a number of

Copper Coins, presented to the Asiatic Society by Dr. R. Stuart of the Native Hos-

pital, who, in sending them, writes: ‘‘ I have much pleasure in forwarding the accom-

panying Copper Coins, which were given to me as curiosities. When they are really

old, 1 know they possess much value in the eyes of such as wish to be thought an-

tiquarians ; how far those I send may be deemed valuable,I do not pretend to judge.”’

Read letter from J. H. Batten, Esq. of 4th October 1841, forwarding some ‘‘ Loose

Leaves’’ from Thibet, brought down by Deboo, Putwaree of the Juwater Pars (one

of the chief Bhotias), who got them from some man in Heoondes (the Thibet

name of Kemaoon.)

These ‘‘ loose leaves’ having been submitted for Report to Mr. Csoma, that

gentleman writes,

**I beg to inform you that the 24 loose leaves (of blue paper, with Tib. capital cha-

racter on, written with orpiment, under the following numbers of leaves : 5, 6, 8, 10,

6¢

934 Asiatic Society. [No. 119.

21, 40, 46, 53, 58, 60, 65, 68, 86, 92, 93, 95, 96, 101, 102, 104, 113, 117, 128 and 131,)

received from Almora, are the parts of some extracts of some Tantrika works, contain-

ing some short address or prayers to Shakya, to Vajra Pani, and to other Saints or

Divinities for instruction how to obtain prosperity and future beatitude, and how to

be delivered from miseries of the present and of the future life. There are likewise

many Mantras or mystical formule used in addresses for obtaining the favour of any

particular Divinity : also, when presenting some offerings, &c. All such Mantras are in

Sanscrit, but written in Tibetan character. There are in the Asiatic Society’s Library

many works on similar subjects.’’

The Secretary submitted for the inspection of the Meeting, facsimile Inscriptions,

sent down by Lieutenant A. Cunningham, reporting at the same time, that having

had these Inscriptions translated, they do not possess any thing of interest or novelty

to require any further specific notice,

With reference to Dr. Forbes’ communication on the discovery of a complete copy

of the Jami ul Tawarikh, printed in the 107th Number of the Journal of the Asiatic

Society, the following communication was read from H. M. Elliot, Esq., of Allaha-

_bad, of 20th September :—

‘* Not having yet observed any notice of Rusurep-00-DeeEn’s book at your pe-

riodical Meetings, I think it proper to bring to your notice a circumstance which

came to my knowledge about two months ago, and which I should have mentioned

earlier, had I thought it would have escaped observation so long. An anonymous

work on History, bearing the same titles of chapters as RusuEEp-00-DEEN’s was

brought by (the late) Sir Jonn Matcoum from Persia, and presented to the College

at Fort William, of which your Society has the Library. The work was copied at

(I think) Casbin in 2616, and bears the title of Jami-oo-Tuwareekh Judeem, but without

name of the author. This information I obtained one day from Stewart’s Catalogue

of Tippoo Sultan’s Library, and I now communicate it, after this long delay, in the

hope that a little search in your own archives will reward you with the discovery of

this valuable work.”’

A search having been made as suggested by Mr. Exuior for the book, the Secre-

tary had the satisfaction to report to the Meeting, that it was found, and the volume

submitted to inspection.

The presentation by Moulvee Abdool Ruheem of a copy of the translation by him

in Persian of the Kamoos was acknowledged by the Society by a vote of thanks, and

the presentation in return to the Moulvee of all the Arabic works printed by the

Society.

The Secretary submitted to the inspection of the Committee a folio containing

Sketches by Lieutenant Colonel Salter, of the (late) 2d a oeee Light Cavalry,

taken by him during his service in Affghanistan.

For these presentations and contributions, the thanks of the Society were accorded.

935

Proceedings of the Asiatic Society.

(Friday Evening, 3rd December, 1841.)

The Hon’ble Sir Epwarp RyAN in the Chair.

The Reverend Wm. WincuHEsTER, Chaplain at Berhampore, proposed at the

Meeting of the 11th November last, was ballotted for and duly elected.

Ordered, that the usual communication of his election be made to the Reverend W.

WINCHESTER, and that he be furnished with a copy of the rules of the Society for his

guidance.

Library.

Books received for the Library of the Asiatic Society for the Meeting of the 3d

December, 1841.

The Annals and Magazine of Natural History, vol. 7, Nos. 45 and 46, July and

August, 1841, eoee cece cose cece eooo Nu. of Copies. 2

Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, by Professor Jameson, No. 61, April

to July, 184], Seisie Sass Sie wevale cieinve starts seat |

Calcutta Christian Observer, December, 1841, new series, vol. 2d, No. 24,.. 1

Bulletin de la Société de Géographie, 2d series, tome 14, .. ats BEAL!

Journal des Savans for April, 1841, Paris, site's Bee stahne Seote te

Letter addressed to the Government of Bombay by the Chamber of Commerce

at the Presidency, 1841, _.... rer Gieats aercte daar BARC ee!

Liber As—Sojutii de nominibus relativis, Lugduni, Bat. 1840, .... ENS Pecs |

Read letter from the Secretary to the General Committee of Public Instruction of

26th November last, forwarding such Oriental books mentioned in the following list,

as can be spared from the Library of the Education Committee :—

List of the Oriental Books, forwarded for the Library of the Asiatic Society.

SanscriTt Works.

NTETAIOLVOS!, « eaie- sees asiate seers areiels sees No. of Copies. 1

Uttraramchuritra, ietave ster staves Sievets Stales ee eee eed

Mudra Rakshaha, Meee! sot eles Beate Sees olelele sielee tt all

Mugdhabodha, .. aietel cee sees sees seco sees aieveiay ee

Bhatti Kavya, 2 vols. weve Sear ieee eres SBUC sistoretne

Raghu Vansa, .. ashe lg eke Slater OBE Sales sishete tote BI

Sahitya Durpon, cece eeee sees cece coos cose Booey |

Kavya Prokasa, asiee oes eeee eee sees wees coos lL

Bhasa Parichhed, .... creer shoje nets Or area aceiseine sl

Mricha Kati, .. elas sisieie 352 dele siete slate Seige!

Munu Sanghita, 2 vols. cose soso coos ceee sees coor L

Viavusta Ratnamalah, .. ASE arn eee sails ara: oa sateine L

Duttuck Chundrica and Mimansa, SiGe Pee eiulehe sic. Biers Gite

Law of Inheritance, .... arehats Sieies Secale aslers eiuvate ma Sie iek

Subhabilahs,.... sere wees eiitere Sets Sinipie Satie Satay) oh

Principles of Chemistry, E. B., .. sees coos vient’ oaee coon I

936 Asiatic Society. [No. 119.

Wilson’s Dictionary,.... aietehd oe ° . 2d

Bebaud Chentamony, .. Sata Soe . ares

Malatee Madhava, .... ree ae or Be gee eh

Retnavoeli, ..20 ee o's ye areas a Glarus ie

Khetro Tutto Depica, .. eons eves wee seee vee Saree ee

Kyfayah, 4 vols. erate Bre ees

Suddedee, .... wees : ‘ 3 : - aE

Fussoli Abqrat, Scie wees ae Boats Alic Soe eg!

Mill’s Bridge’s Algebra, ere eens . : cove 1

Shanamah, ..«. peisis aoe ha oe ; oe Serene

Mujumah Sumshi,_ .... Swate eee SEE |

fAsop’s Fables,.. ..6- aes ne 68 ‘ : ete

Syer Mutakherin, .... sees Fa : a Aery |

Total No. of Copies, 29

Read letter dated Simla, 16th November 1841, from Capt. J. T. BotLeau of the

Engineers, forwarding an account of the Meteors which appeared there on the night of

the 12th idem, in sufficient quantities to establish the fact of their excess over ordinary

occurrences of the kind.

Read a 4th Memoir on the Law of Storms in India, being remarks and documents

relative to the loss of the ship Golconda in the Tyfoons of 22d to 24th September 1840,

in the China Sea, by H. PippineTon, Esq.

Read remarks by Capt. J. T. Boileau, Bengal Engineers, on the Construction of

Newman’s improved Portable Barometer, and on the mode of renewing the Guage

Point when lost, with a drawing.

The Secretary also submitted to the inspection of the meeting, a Perpetual Moon

Table by Capt. R. SHorTREEDE, who on a former occasion favored him with a Per-

petual Time Table.

The foregoing Papers and Table, the Secretary noticed, would appear in early

numbers of his Journal.

Read the following Report of the Curator for the month of November last: —

Sir,

During the brief period that has elapsed since the occasion of our last Meeting,

but little has transpired that can be embodied in my present Report. Due progress

has been made in determining and labelling the collection of Birds, which I trust will

be entirely accomplished by our next Meeting. I have also commenced arranging

the Insects, and shall soon have ascertained and labelled the order Lepidoptera,

to the extent of my present means of determining the genera and species: The

donations received for the Museum consist solely of Zoological specimens: viz. Ist, a

Bat from Dr. Cantor, being the third species of Indian Taphozous now in the

collection, whereas I believe but one has hitherto been described from this part of the

1841. ] Asiatic Society. 937

world ; 2dly, a skull of a species of Lutra,* and the lower jaw of a Delphinus (species

undetermined, and where taken I was unable to learn, though it was believed some-

where on the high seas, and not in the vicinity of India), from Mr. C. Harvey;

3dly, 4 species of recent Birds, from W. Frith, Esq., of which three are new to the

Museum; and 4thly, a fine recent Crocodilus biporcatus, 94 feet long, shot and

presented to the Society, at the suggestion of J. M. Seppings, Esq., by the Superin-

tendent Engineer at the Government Steam Yard, — Jones, Esq.

The following Birds have mostly been shot by myself; a few have been purchased,

and those presented by Mr. Frith to the Society are included :—

Paleornis torquatus, female.

Faico tinnunculus, do. in first plumage.

Elanus melanopterus, do. do.

Halieetus Pondicerianus, do.

Vultur leeuconotos, preparing as a skeleton.

Otus brachyotus.

Coracias Indica, two male specimens, in a phase of plumage which warrants

the suspicion that C. Assamensis (McCLELLAND and HorsFiELD), of which we

possess a specimen noticed in my last Report, entirely according with the description,

is a variety merely of the common Indian Roller.

Merops Indicus, male and female.

Alcedo Bengalensis, male and female.

Dendrocitta vagabunda, male and female.

Pastor tristis, male and female.

P. cristatellus, male.

P. cinereus ferdoa, male and female.

P. fuscus,(?) Wagler ; P. Mahrattensis, Sykes.

Sturnus contra, male.

Alauda, species undetermined, and apparently undescribed.

Dicrurus balicassius, sexes in different states of plumage.

Chloropsis Malabaricus, male in immature dress.

Geocichla rubecnia, male.

Calliope Lathami, female.

Muscicapu cerulea, male.

Jora tiphia, ditto.

Anthus rufescens (?.), ditto.

Motacilla alba (vera), two very different males and a female.

Pyrrhulauda crucigera, male.

Columba tigrina, male.

Ardea Malaccensis, male and female, immature plumage.

A. Javanica, Horsfield ; A. scapularis, Wagler, young female.

Sterna, species undetermined, female.

Tadorna Bellonii,+ male.

* I have since procured a recent animal of this genus, to all appearance the ZL. vulgaris,

and the skull of which entirely accords with that above noticed.—Cur. As. Soc.

+ In the Proceedings of the Zoological Society’s for 1834, p. 50, Mr. Gould notices a specimen

of the common Shieldrake from Trebizond, and remarks that it had not previously been observed

938 Asiatic Society. [ No. 119.

Pelicanus rufescens (?), Gmelin, * female.

Of these, the Otus, Pastor pagodorum and P. fuscus, Alauda, Motacilla, Pyrrhu-

Zauda, Tadorna, and Pelicanus, (seven species, ) are new to the collection; and the

remainder have replaced old and very inferiorly mounted specimens, and in several

instances have added the other sex, in a different state of plumage to what was

previously in the Museum

The only other Vertebrata procured, consist of a Squirrel (Sciwrus palmarum),

a fine specimen of the Dhamna Snake (Caduber Dhamna, Cantor), and the Crocodile

before mentioned, which is in process of being set up, while its skeleton is also pre-

paring, and several of the viscera have been preserved in spirits.

A number of Insects have also been collected in the neighbourhood; and several

of the Bird Skins from Tenasserim and the Himalaya, noticed in my Report for last

month, have been mounted. The present being the only season at which fresh spe-

cimens of animals will bear to be brought from any distance in available condition,

1 continue to spare no pains to induce the Shikarees and others to supply us with as

many species as they can procure; the duplicates of many are valuable for purposes

of exchange and transmission to other Museums, and while the examination of such

enables me to gain a more thorough knowledge of their various kinds, a rectification of

many synonyms will doubtless accrue from the intercourse which it is thus sought

to establish with Museums in different countries, and which it is to be regretted is not

more general and extensive than at present.

I am, Sir,

Yours obediently,

December 3rd, 1841. Epwarp BiyTu.

Read letter from Mr. Secretary Bususy, of the 10th November last, transmitting

copies of Registers of the rise and fall of the Tide at Prince of Wales’ Island and

Singapore, for the months of April, May, and June, 1841, together with transcript of a

memorandum which accompanied the Registers.

Ordered—That the thanks of the Society be conveyed to the Government for the

Registers in question.

For the Presentations and Contributions, the thanks of the Society were accorded.

out of Europe. Mons. Temminck, however, had already enumerated this species in his list of Eu-

ropean birds met with in Japan, and it was obtained by the late Sir A. Burnes on the Indus,

Here it would appear to be very rare, being quite unknown to our taxidermists,

* This agrees tolerably well with the description in Shaw’s Zoology, (vol. x111, pt. 1, p. 114,)

except that the feet are there stated to be yellow, whereas in our bird they were of a leaden

black colour, slightly tinged with green, and the claws white.

JOURNAL

OF THE

ASIATIC SOCIETY.

Report to the Secretary of the Board of Customs, Salt and Opium,

on the Salts, called Puckwau and Puooi-Kuarex ; with a process for

detecting the adulteration of Government Salt ; estimates of the quan-

tities of both Salts annually produced, and of the amount of loss

which the Revenue may sustain through the production of these two

articles. By Henry Pippinaton, Esa.

As requested, I have now the honor to submit my report on the

samples of Puckwau and Puocui-Kareer Salts which I have examined,

together with, such considerations as have occurred to me in the course

of the investigation.

From what I have learnt of the points desirable to be ascertained,

and for more convenient reference, I have divided my report as follows:—

I. Constituents of the two Salts.

II. Means of detecting the adulteration of Government Salt.

III. Chemical demonstration of the certainty of this method.

IV. Estimate of the quantity of Pockwau produced annually.

V. Estimate of the quantity of Puckwau, or edible Salt, annually

produced in the preparation of the Kuaree, and of the quan-

tity of Kaaree annually produced.

VI. Estimate of the loss to the Revenue by the Puckwau and

Prooi- KHAREE.

VII. Concluding remarks.

No. 120. New Series, No. 36. 6 pb

940 On the Salts, called Puckwah and Phool-Kharee. [No. 120.

I,.—

Constituents of the Salts.

The Puckwau is mostly produced during the manufacture of Salt-

petre, and sold openly in the bazars for culinary purposes. The Phool-

Kharee is manufactured from the efflorescence on the surface of vari-

ous earths, and sold, as well as other inferior sorts of Kharee, osten-

sibly for feeding cattle and manufacturing processes,* such as curing

hides and the like: the former sort, or Puoor-Kuares, really for the

purpose of adulterating Government Salt. I mention these few facts

preliminarily, though well known to you, as I shall have occasion

to recur to them again.

The effects of reagents on the solution are as follows :—

Tests.

‘Muriatic acid,

Nitrate Silver, ...

Acetate Barytes, ..

Gold Leaf,...

N.C Platina, ~~...

Oxal. Ammonia, ...

Puckwah.

Shewing

ia a air SS SSS

Acids. Bases.

.-- No Carbonates, =e aati

..-. Muriatic, (abundant, ) ————

-.» Sulphuric, ee

.. Nitric, (trace, )

an ae .-- No Potass

re mee ae: ... Lime, (trace, )

Phosphate Soda te'Animot, = ae --. Magnesia.

Its constituents were found to be in 100 parts, taken in its usual

state,

Insoluble matter, ...

aie ee ate Bee ae O19)

Extraneous Salts soluble in Alcohol, principally Muriates

of Magnesia and Lime, ote be ae wee 15.35

Sulphate Soda, dry,

Muriate Soda, wee

e ae aan be ae

p33 +. 75.00

Traces Nitrates, Lime, Soda, qe Magnesia,... ... «+» 0.50

Hygrometric water and loss, bet As dae Sebi Sct,

100.00

The essential parts of this, for revenue purposes are, in briefer

terms, that the Puckwah contains 75 per cent. of culinary salt, and that

* Report to the Board, says, there are three sorts, ‘‘ PHoot-KuHareg,”’ or refined

KuHAREE; ‘‘ BHE’R-KHAREE,”’

CuPRIER’S-KHAREE.

or sheep’s Ku arerE; and “ Cyoomar-KHAREE,” Or

1841. ] On the Salts, called Puckwah and Phool- Kharee. 94]

its bitter taste is owing to the Muriates of Magnesia and Lime and

the Sulphate of Soda.

Phool- Kharee.

Shewing

amt eros raat)

Tests. Acids. Bases.

Muriatic Acid, eee he No Carbonates,

Nitrate Silver, Sh Ar Muriatic, ee

Acetate Barytes, ... Se Sulphuric, ——_

Gold Leaf, os es No Nitric,

Mon rlatina, " ... qs ie -+- «e- No potass,

Oxal. Ammonia, ... ae ae us .»- Trace Lime,

Phosphate Soda and Ammonia, ... -- «- Do. Magnesia,

100 parts of the Salt in its ene state contain,

Insoluble matters, ... a ae ais RM 0)

Soluble in Alcohol naaeae i a Nes merit! @ Her es

Lime and Magnesia,... _... se Sic 50 doen races

Muriate Soda, Menthe tae abs oe wa: en 2A

Sulphate Soda, (dry), one fo es ... 80.00

Hygrometric water, ..... a be 600 sent 10500

Water of crystallisation* and loss, oe A eae O

100.0

Here, as before, the essential part of the analysis for Revenue

purposes, is, that the Salt is really one containing about 80 per cent. of

dry Sulphate of Soda, or dry Glauber’s Salt.

oeeeee ae

I].— Means of detecting the adulteration of Government Salt by the

Phool- Kharee.

The prompt, certain, and easy method of detecting this adulteration

is the following one :—I set down here the mere rules, such as Native

- officers would, with a little teaching, quickly understand ; the chemical

demonstration of them will follow in the next section.

* A small part of the sulphate of soda is in the state of crystallised salt, which

contains 56 per cent. of water, The greater part of it, however, is in the an-

hydrous state.

942 On the Salis, called Puckwah and Phool-Kharee. [No. 120.

The following is the necessary apparatus, all of which can

be made or procured in the bazar :—

1. A glass tube about 0.5 inches in diameter, and 10

inches high, as in the marginal sketch. It is graduated to

25 divisions, on the principle shewn in the next section.

2. Acommon precipitating glass, containing about a quar-

ter of a pint.

3. A pair of common medicine scales, with a single brass

weight of 100 grains.

4. A bottle of solution of Acetate of Barytes, of the

strength shewn in the next section.

5. A few straws, or a bone or ivory rod, for stirring the

solution of the suspected salt.

To detect an adulteration.

A. Weigh 100 grains of any suspected Salt, and put it

into the precipitating glass, fill the glass two-thirds full of

clear water, and stir the salt till all has dissolved. A few

grains will perhaps remain at the bottom, but these, which

are sand and sulphate of lime, are of no consequence. Let

the whole settle for a few minutes,

B. Fill your test tube from the bottle of Acetate of Barytes

exactly to the upper mark.

C. Drop now, carefully, the liquid from your test tube into the

solution of the salt. If there is any adulteration a heavy white cloud

will be seen rolling quickly to the bottom. You must continue to

drop in the solution till there is no more of this cloud; taking care

that you allow it to settle from time to time, and not to put in coo much

of the test, particularly at the latter end of the operation.

D. The quantity of solution you have used, willbe seen by look-

ing at thetube. If it is 10, or 12, or 15, this is an adulteration of so

much Kharee per cent. in your sample; and if it exceeds*—per cent.

the Salt must have been purposely and illegally mixed with Kharee.

* This blank will be of course better filled up by you. It would be proper to

make a set of trials with various Government salts before definitively settling it.

It will never 1 think exceed 4 per cent., or at most 95.

1841. ] On the Salts, called Puckwah and Phool- Kharee. 943

E. Unless you want to know exactly the total amount of adulter-

ation, which is rarely the case, you need only first drop in, say the

5 per cent. allowed by the Board, and after that 5 or 10 more. If it

shews ‘this, it is quite adulteration enough to prove that the salt has

been purposely falsified, and there is no use in wasting your time and

test liquor farther.

eee os eee

Il].— Chemical demonstration of the certainty of this method.

1. It has been shewn that there are no Carbonates in the Kharee ; and

the proportion of Sulphate of Magnesia is so small in good salt,* that

for practical purposes, it may be neglected or allowed for. The Sul-

phate of Lime may also for practice be considered as wholly insoluble

in cold water.

2. We have thus only to deal with the fraudulent admixture of the

anhydrous Sulphate of Soda, and perhaps at times witha little Sul-

phate of Potass. The problem is therefore, really, reduced to the simple

one of ascertaining the quantity of Sulphuric Acid in a given quantity

of salt. We may always assume that the base is Soda. The working

fact for revenue purposes is, that mo Sulphuric Acid [which in saline

compounds form the Sulphates| can be present in good salt beyond

the per centage which we allow at page 942 without having been put

there for fraudulent ends; and in the state of Sulphate of Soda, because

there is no other Sulphate available for so doing in the country.

3. We may take our specimen, containing 80 per cent. of the dry

Sulphate of Soda, to be the strongest average salt used for adulteration.

If a weaker sort, that is a Kharee containing more extraneous salts be

used, more of it will be put into the parcel of salt to be adulterated.

4. If we take 100 parts of good salt to be adulterated with 25 per

cent. of Kharee, it is clear that in this quantity there is + of the 80

parts [or 20 parts] of the dry Sulphate of Soda which our analysis

shews; the remaining 5 parts being made up by the extraneous salts.

* It is only 0.45 in bazar salt by Dr. McClelland’s recent paper. By

my analysis of Madras salt and Cuttack Pungah salt made several years ago, it

was 2.04 for the first, and 5.45 for the last, the mean of these would be 3.7 per

cent. Mine was I think very fresh salt, taken from the heaps. As before noted,

trials should be made before fixing a standard allowance.

944 On the Salts, called Puckwah and Phool-Kharee. [{No. 120.

These 20 parts of dry Sulphate of Soda contain 11.20 of Sulphuric

Acid, which require 37.50 parts of Acetate of Barytes to precipitate

them.

5. Now our solution of Acetate of Barytes is made by dissolving

100 grains of the salt in 1000 grains of pure water,* and the tube

filled to the mark, containing exactly as much of the solution as is

equal to 37.50 parts of Acetate of Barytes, the whole of its contents

will thus precipitate the 20 parts of dry Sulphate of Soda, which the

adulteration of 25 per cent. contains.

6. And, as it is marked with 25 divisions, each division will shew one

per cent. of such an adulteration. As before remarked, a weaker

Kharee would allow more adulteration, but as it would shew always a

nearly equal quantity of the Sulphate, this may be taken for a standard.

I do not believe that a much stronger Kharee could be prepared. Could

it be so prepared as to contain 90 per cent. of the Sulphate, this would

only make a difference of 24 on the scale in the whole per centage, and

for practice nothing beyond proof of, say 10 per cent. of the Sulphate

of Soda, is really wanted to be known.}

7. If we like to take our scale as representing the exact quantity of

Sulphuric Acid (which will then be an ewact index to the quantity of

Sulphate of Soda) we must remember that the 37.50 parts of Acetate of

Barytes contained in the tube, are divided by the graduation into

25 parts; and as this quantity of Acetate of Barytes is equivalent

to [or will precipitate] 11.20 of Sulphuric Acid, we have thus 25

divisions for 11.20 of Sulphuric Acid. Every five divisions will then

represent 2.24 [or 21] of Sulphuric Acid, so that we may say in

practice, that every 22 divisions of the scale will shew about 14th part of

Sulphuric Acid, or nearly two of Sulphate of Soda: every five divisions

representing exactly four parts of the pure Sulphate of Soda ; and five

of the adulteration, because of the extraneous salt and water.

* This solution, at the temperature of 84° is of sp. grav. 1.36, and the Acetate is

preferred, because of its cheapness and facility of making it, and because if Muriates

or Nitrates are to be sought for, it is not in the way. The Muriate or Nitrate of Barytes

may of course be used if desirable, the tubes being graduated accordingly.

+ Here, as before, I need not remark, that a set of careful trials should be made with

the Phool-Kharee of various parts to fix a standard. This can only be properly

done in the district.

1841.]. On the Salts, called Puckwah and Phool- Kharee. 945

1V.—Estimate of the quantity of Puckwah produced annually.

The Report to the Board estimates the annual produce of Puckwah

at 11 lac of maunds. I presume this is a mere conjectural estimate,

at least I have not learnt on what it is founded. The following data

and estimate appear to me to have good chemical foundation.

1. Mr. Stephenson [Treatise on the manufacture of Saltpetre, and

papers in Journal of Asiatic Society] says, that the average of Muriate

Soda obtained by him from 20,000 maunds of Dooah* or crude Saltpetre

from Loll Gunge in Tirhoot at the Company’s factories, which he

superintended, were as follows :—

Average per cent. of Muriate of Soda from good Dooah, ... 4.2

From Dooah of native factories, ... ... ... «. : ee sen

——

(2)

ICE OR AR Rca aaa iO 159

and that only about 35 per cent. of this Dooah is Saltpetre. Hence

we shall not, I think, exaggerate, if we say according to his results,

(Pamphlet, page 47,) that in the average of factories, 2 maunds of

Dooah (35 per cent. would require nearly 3 maunds) go to the produc-

tion of one of Saltpetre. In round numbers we may also say, that as

the average of good Dooah gives about 4 per cent. of Muriate of

Soda,f there will be about 8 per cent. of it produced for every

maund of good Saltpetre. But then, as we have seen by our analysis,

there are but 2 (75 per cent.) of pure Muriate of Soda in Puckwah,

we must add the other fourth, or 2 per cent. to our 8 per cent. of Muriate

of Soda to make it Puckwah. This gives 10 per cent. of Puckwah for

100 maunds of good merchantable Saltpetre.

2. But the preparation of the Dooah itself produces a large propor-

tion of Puckwah, as I shall now shew.

3. Dr. Buchanan distinctly says, (Martin’s Buchanan, vol. i. Behar,

p. 363 and 364,) when describing the manufacture of Dooah, that he

is assured that as much Muriate of Soda as Nitre is obtained by the

workmen, and he gives at p. 364 and 365, the details of the manu-

* Dooah is in fact the first washings from the Saltpetre heaps or earths, boiled

down and sold to refiners of Saltpetre, Natives or Europeans, who make it into

marketable Saltpetre: all Saltpetre works must first produce Dooah,

+ He speaks of some containing 8 per cent.

946 On the Salts, called Puckwah and Phool- Kharee. [No. 120.

facture for making and refining the Nitre, with the products of it

and of the Culinary Salt, 14 maunds of Saltpetre and 14 maunds of

Puckwah. We shall afterwards see this singularly confirmed.

4. He again, in vol. ii. p. 280, when speaking of the manufacture of

the Company’s Nitre in Bhaugulpore, says, that ‘“ there is a concealed

source of profit to the contractors,” which he promises afterwards to

mention, but he has not done so, or Mr. Martin’s mutilated edition

omits it. No doubt this is the production and sale of Puckwah; for,

5. In vol. iii. p. 832, (Puraniya,) he says, that when the Company’s

advances for Nitre were withdrawn, their monopoly rendering the

private manufacturing of it illegal, the Beldars, ‘ Salt-makers,’ betook

themselves to the manufacture of Culinary Salt “ from a saline earth

found in many parts of the district.” A small per centage would not

have repaid them, and it is clear that it was no new trade to them as

Saltpetre-makers.

6. Again, at p. 334, he says, that a Native agent of the Company as-

sured him, and that some of the Beldars confessed, that they made Bel-

dari Nemuck, (the same as the Puckwah,) from a thick brine called

Jarathi, which subsides in making of their (crude) Saltpetre, which

last is of course the same as the Dooah.

7. At p. 337, he relates the process for making the Beldari Nemuck,

which is in fact Puckwah.

8. Dr. Buchanan, however, was evidently no chemist, and of ques-

tions like these only a chemist can understand the true bearings.

Mr. Stephenson, who was a manufacturing chemist, and sent out by the

Hon’ble Company, has left us still the best data. He says, p.- 8, that he

collected the saline soils from various part of Tirhoot to make an aver-

age; and he found by analysis that the Nitrates* formed 1.6 per cent.

while the Muriate of Soda formed 1.4 per cent. Here we havea

direct proof, though from another zillah, that Dr. Buchanan’s apparent-

ly exaggerated statement, [p. 7, ] that as much Culinary Salt as Salt-

petre is made, may, in some parts at least, be no exaggeration !

9. Mr. Stephenson again shews us, by direct experiment, (Pamphlet,

p. 84,) that in the making of Cooéiah Saltpetre, or Saltpetre made from

the earths preserved in factories, which is far richer in Nitre than that

* Of Potass and Lime, the first is Saltpetre, and the last becomes so as soon as it

meets with potass, from ashes or vegetable remains, in the Saltpetre heaps.

1841. | On the Salts, called Puckwah and Phool-Kharee. 947

produced in waste places, or on old walls, &c. the proportion of

Puckwah to fine Saltpetre was 1 maund 16 seers to 14 maunds, or

exactly 10 per cent. The proportion in earths collected as the Noo-

neas, (native Saltpetre-makers,) find them, was 7 seers of Puckwah to

22 of Saltpetre, or about 30 per cent. from the mother liquor only, after

the making of the Saltpetre. From the whole result [p. 86] the pro-

portion of Puckwah to Saltpetre was 17 seers to 55 seers, or about 33

per cent.*

10. I have not been able to meet with Dr. John Davy’s experiments

on the factory earths, or with Tennant’s work,—if he had any thing on

the subject ? To Colebrooke I shall refer subsequently.

11. Resuming all these, we find, I think, that there is evidence enough

to shew, that if as much Puckwah as Saltpetre be not produced, there

must at any rate be a large per centage, and I think it cannot be

below 30 per cent. for we find that Mr. Stephenson, doing his best,

and under the most favorable circumstances—he did not want to pro-

duce Puckwah but Saltpetre—could not avoid obtaining 10 per cent.

from factory earth of the best quality for Nitre, and 30 per cent. from

others. Taking it, however, at only 25 per cent. in all the earths, of

which as we have seen [page 7 | 10 per cent. certainly exists, for

it goes with the Dooah Saltpetre when sold to the refiner; we have

still altogether 25 per cent. of Culinary Salt produced for every

maund of good Saltpetre. I shall notice subsequently other sources

of it.

12. We must now endeavour to ascertain the total amount of good

Saltpetre manufactured in Bengal.

13. The total export of Culmee Saltpetre from Calcutta in 1840,

was 4,86,000 maunds, and it has in recent years been as high as

5,14,000 maunds; for the sake of round numbers we may call the

exports I think, 5,00,000 maunds.

14. We have next to estimate the internal consumption of Saltpetre

for nearly all India, for it can but in few places be made so cheap as

in Bengal.

* Again in Journal Asiatic Society, vol. ii. p. 23, he says, that an analysis from

several hundred maunds of Native Dooah gave 8 per cent. Culinary Salt, (Muriate, )

&c, to77 Nitre. The proportion 8 to 77 is about 19} per cent. How much had been

already extracted from it ?

6 F

948 On the Salts, called Puckwah and Phool-Kharee. [No..120.

15. I find as a datum [the only one I can obtain,] that, by the

return you have obliged me with, the mean importation of Saltpetre

into Calcutta, before the abolition of the transit duties, from 1831 to

1835, or four years, was

Factory maunds, — rid af “a .»» 4,501,446

But as we know how smuggling flourished in those days, even within

the Custom House itself, we may I think fairly call the real imports

bazar—instead of factory maunds.

Say then, imports, bazar maunds, ... pe ae .» 4,501,446

Average exports for the same period, from Custom House

tables given by Stephenson, are bazar maunds, .» 4,25,683

The apparent consumption of sun for Calcutta, is

thus bazar maunds, ... es ay ant 25,763

Throwing away the odd hundreds, let us say 25,000 maunds for

Calcutta, and this for such a circle of it and its environs as would

include a population of a million. If our Bengal Saltpetre grounds

and factories supply only as much of all India as includes a popula-

tion of 50 millions, we have then 25,000 maunds to multiply by 50,

or 12,50,000 maunds for the consumption of 50 millions of inhabitants ;

reducing this again to less than one-half, because of the more quiet

habits of country villages, we may still say, that the home consumption

equais the export; or that we have 5,00,000 bazar maunds, produced

somewhere, for that purpose also.

14. This appears startling, but when we recollect the almost per-

petual vollies of fireworks, small arms and cannons, which are kept

up, in one place or other, all over the country, and every day in the

year, and often night and day, and that all gunpowder contains 75 per

cent. of Saltpetre, we shall not be so much surprised. Here is ano-

ther calculation bearing upon this matter.

Buchanan in his statistical table states that, for Patna City and Zillah

Behar, there are

Atusbaz, or firework-makers, ... ... s wats oie cdl

For the district of Bhaugulpore the same artificers, wide) Sele

otal. a ag b's Sit v cey agliteey

1841. | On the Salts, called Puckwah and Phool-Kharee. 949

Population (according to him) of Patna and Behar,... 33,64,420

Bhagulpore,... —... Sb Bc on ..- 20,19,900

eee Co

Total,.. 569 5 .» 0,084,320

In Rungpore he Heats of the shapaene! -makers, but not of the

Atusbaz. I do not know if he means the same thing, and it is not un-

likely in small places, that the two trades are exercised by the same per-

son. In Calcutta I find they are sometimes:mixed and sometimes se-

parate. We must also recollect that, in India, great numbers of individu-

als as often make their own gunpowder as buy it. I leave then the ~

mere gunpowder-makers out of the question, and look only at the fire-

work-makers.

If we take the 162 artizans in this trade, to find employment each for

3 workmen at 5 Rupees, and the master to make 7 Rupees per month

we have per month, oe Bok Rupees 22

For 162 artists, this is per ae of eer Be i 3,564

or 12 per annum profits, ... sine bai ase 42,768

If we take the profits to be 10 per cent. on the capital

employed, this will be capital employed _.... we» 4,27,680

If we take about three-fourths of this to be in Saltpetre,

we may say for Saltpetre, .. Vis a «+» 3,00,000

At 6 Rs. per maund, this is, ... 55 -»» Maunds 50,000

Now 50,000 maunds of Saltpetre annually, for a population of

0,384,000 would give, for one of 50 millions, about 4,62,000 maunds

of Saltpetre, which, when we take all the home-made gunpowder and

other manufacturing demands into consideration, is not so far from

our former calculation. Patna, Behar, and Bhaugulpore comprise,

I may observe, all varieties of population, from a great and luxurious

city to the wild Hill tribes; and thus offer the elements of a fair

average. Like all Indian statistical questions, the elements are so un-

certain, that they are really but mere approximate notions, and I should

not have occupied your time with it, were it not that the question of

“what zs the internal consumption of Saltpetre,” is really an important

one in our estimate. If we say that the 5,00,000 maunds of Saltpetre

are worth at 6 rupees, 30,00,000 Rs., this would still not give an ex-

penditure of one pice each in fire works for 50 millions of population.

* Wages must be paid out of profits.

950 On the Salts, called Puckwah and Phool-Kharee. [ No. 120.

16. We must then in the absence of better data than the foregoing

take

The exports, at bazar maunds, we a -»» 0,00,000

The consumption at least,... ... i dine ws 0,00,000

Total amount of refined Saltpetre produced, Baz, Mds. 10,00,000

And in the production of this, there appears good che-

mical ground for assuming, that at least 25 per cent.

of Puckwah are produced, which gives, from the Saltpetre

manufactory alone, Puckwah to the amount of, Baz. Mds. 2,50,000

17. We have next to consider, that we may at least look at all the

sources of the article, the different notices of the Salt works which

are to be met with in various authors. This Salt we may also

call Puckwah. They will scarcely afford us data, but they should not

be passed over in attempting to estimate the quantity of Puckwah

thrown into the market.

18. Mr. Colebrooke, (Remarks on Husbandry and Commerce of

Bengal, ) says, page 181, of London edition, that in Oude and Benares,

this process of washing earth and evaporating the solution, is followed

to obtain Culinary Salt without extracting the Nitre, and he details

the process, but without any figured statements, as a perfectly familiar

one. The proportion of edible Salt must be considerable, and the

places where it is found numerous, to render it so well known an oper-

ation. Dr. Buchanan, vol. i. p. 550, speaks of the Salé works from

wells in Ramghur, Zillah Shahabad.* In vol. iii. Dr. Buchanan,

as before quoted, says, that the Beldars of Puranya made Culinary

Salt alone, and he describes it as a separate manufacture at p. 337 and

338, the produce selling at 4 rupees per maund. Mr. Stephenson

(Journal Asiatic Society, vol. iii. p. 86,) has a valuable paper on the

manufacture of Salt in the Ghazeepore district, shewing that the

earth contains half as much Muriate of Soda as Sulphate of Soda,

2. e. 1.5. Muriate to 2.7 Sulphate, and that the Salt contains 60 per

cent. Muriate of Soda or edible Salt to 37 per cent. of the Sulphate.

We have no data by which to ascertain the extent to which this

edible Salt manufactory is carried; we must therefore allow it asa

* Mr. Stephenson found the water of wells in Tirhoot to be strongly impreg-

nated with Muriate of Soda.

1841. ] On the Salts, called Puckwah and Phool- Kharee. 951

make-weight in our former estimates of Puckwah. It will be seen in

the succeeding section, that we may assume a considerable portion of

Puckwah to be also produced in the manufacture of the Kharee, and

possibly some in the preparation of the Reker or Soda earths, for the

use of the washermen, soap-boilers, glass-makers, &c. &c.

V.—Estimate of the quantity of edible Salt produced in the manufac-

ture of the Phool-Kharee, and of the quantity of Phool-Kharee an-

nually made.

1. The production of the Salts called the Kars, Karees, and Dhars,

is a separate trade where earths are washed for these alone, and they

are also produced in the preparation of Saltpetre ; we may suppose

them not always thrown away when they form so large a per centage

as it will be seen they do.

2. Dr. Buchanan says, vol. i. p. 866, that he estimates the production

of Dhar at 2 maunds of it to every 14 maunds of crude Nitre. This

is -th, or say 14+ per cent. which as we allow 2 maunds of crude

to make but one of refined Saltpetre, gives 284 per cent. upon every

maund of this article.

3. Mr. Stephenson says, (p. 8), in his Analysis of the soil in

Tirhoot, that it contains nearly as much of the Sulphate (Kharee) as

of the Muriate and Nitrate together, but as we have before noticed

(p.8) the Culinary Salt obtained from these two sources, I only

allude to them here. As a source of Kharee, they should be borne

in mind. Mr. Stephenson says, 2.7 of Sulphate and 3.0 of Muriates

and Nitrates. In Mr. Stephenson’s paper, (Journal Asiatic Society,

vol. iii.) on the efflorescence of the Kharee, we find the best datum.

He says there, that the efflorescence collected by him gave 58 per

cent. Sulphate, (Karee), and 22 of Muriate of Soda; so that, using

round numbers, every maund of Kharee from thence would give the

workman one-third of a maund of Puckwah. This, however, may have

been a richer spot than the average. Buchanan says, that some Muriate

of Soda is also found with the efHlorescence of Carbonate of Soda,

(Rehar or Sajee Mutti) ; but his work has evidently been sadly

952 On the Salts, called Puckwah and Phool-Kharee. [No. 120.

mutilated in this part, and we have no data* to guide us in a calcu-

lation. Perhaps instead of 33 per cent., or one-third of a maund

of Muriate of Soda to one of Kharee, we might assume with full

safety 20 per cent. from this source ? The low price of the Kharee,

the best the report says, selling for 12 annas per maund, is strong

presumptive evidence, that it is not the only product derived from the

manufacture.

5. As to the quantity of Kharee produced, the report estimates the

total of Kharees at 24 lacs of maunds. If our estimate, above taken,

be correct, we have here 50,000 maunds of Culinary Salt from the

Kharee. We may, however, make some attempt to estimate the quan-

tity of Kharee produced. Dr. Buchanan says, as quoted p. 13, 14+

per cent. on the rough Saltpetre. Mr. Stephenson gives 23 per cent. in

one case, and 173 per cent. in another, of the Sulphate, but these pro-

portions must be doubled, because 2 maunds of Dooah go to make one

of good Saltpetre, which would then give 46 and 39 per cent. The

mean of these three; viz.

Buchanan,... “ es aise Bad ... 282 per cent.

Stephenson on A ne ati aL Pe

Pp , al

1 133 99 ”?

Is, wee OO per cent.

If we only take this at 25 per cent., which is a larger deduction than

the near approach of Dr. Buchanan’s estimate, by weight of manufac-

turing produce, and Mr. Stephenson’s by chemical assay, would warrant,

we should then obtain, if our estimate of the production of Saltpetre

(p. 12) be correct, 25 per cent. upon 10,00,000 maunds of Saltpetre,

or 250,000 of Kharee from this source alone; and as this must be of —

the purer sort, we cannot perhaps go far wrong if we suppose that the

work of those Wooneahs, who make Kharee only, supplies the consump-

tion of the cattle and the curriers. This is vague enough, but we have

no better data. The report says, about 80,000 maunds of each of the

three sorts may be produced in all, which would allow only 80,000 of

* This is an important question for research. ‘Is any Muriate of Soda extracted

from the Soda earths?’’ If so, this may be also a very considerable source of illicit

Salt.

1841. | On the Salts, called Puckwah and Phool-Kharee. 958

the: Phool-Kharee to be used for adulteration. I should be much

more inclined to rate it at the lowest at double this quantity, or nearer

2 lacs of maunds of the first sort. We have already estimated the

amount of Puckwah made with the Saltpetre alone, and we see that

the amount of Kharee made with it must be very large. In the

European refining factories it appears, (for we do not know all the

secrets of the trade,) that the extraneous Salts are mostly thrown back

to the Saltpetre heaps; yet with the large deductions I have made, and

Dr. Buchanan for our authority, that the Nitre-makers do sell it, we shall

not perhaps at all events exceed in saying that, every thing considered,

at least a lac of maunds of Phool-Kharee may be thrown into the

market for adulteration, and 25,000 maunds of Puckwah be produced

_ in the making of Kharees of all kinds?

VI.— Estimate of the loss to the Revenue from the foregoing sources.

Maunds.

Puckwah from manufacture of Saltpetre, es .. 2,50,000

From Phool-Kharees, Ns, He bf See 50,000

Phool-Kharee sold for adulterations, ... tae »»» 1,00,000

Total maunds, ... he she fer -» 4,00,000

This being all sold as Government Salt, gives

Total value at 400 rupees per 100 maunds, Co.’s Rs. 16,00,000

Of which loss to Government at 300 rupees, is Co.’s Rs. 12,00,000

VII.—Concluding Remarks.

This amount of loss to the Revenue seems enormous, but we may

notice

1. That the nature of the Salt is a chemical certainty.

2. That we can attach the highest confidence to Mr. Stephenson’s

results, because he had no motives to wilful misrepresentation any

way, and might fully expect his results and statements would be

closely examined in Calcutta, so that his professional character as a

chemist was at stake. J] add, that from personal knowledge of him

as a working chemist, I feel quite satisfied, that they are entitled to full

confidence.

954 On the Salts, called Puckwah and Phool-Kharee. [No. 120.

3. That even now our knowledge is evidently very imperfect, and

the probability is, when we recollect that since our possession of these

provinces Mr. Stephenson seems to be the only practical chemist

who understood what he saw about him, that’ there are many more

things for a chemist to discover.

4. I have, it will be observed, indicated some sources which can

only be taken into account as make-weights ; what may be the aggregate

amount of all these we know not. It may be much larger than we sus-

pect.

Postscript.

Fortunately I had not seen the report of the officer deputed to enquire

on this subject before handing mine to you; and indeed I had but a

few minutes’ conversation with him before entering on the investiga-

tion, and the results of this conversation I have stated in my report.

I say ‘‘fortunately,” because it is most satisfactory to me, as it must

be to the Board, and to him, that in so intricate and uncertain an in-

vestigation, two reports founded, the one upon local inquiry, and the

other upon chemical and statistical deductions from a mixture of cer-

tain and uncertain data, the main results should so closely approximate.

To shew how nearly they do so, and where they differ, I set down

briefly in parallel columns, our results, following the order of my sec-

tions, and add my remarks at the end of each, where required.

Section 1.—Chemical constituents of the Salts.

PUCKWAH.

Report says ‘‘ Par. 38. Is inform- I shew, that the sample analysed

ed that good Puckwah contains 10 contains 75 Culinary Salt, no

Nitre, 53 Culinary Salt, 21 Kharee, Nitre, 2+ Kharee, and 15 extra-

Sulphate of Soda, &c. 16 various neous Salts,

Salts.”

‘“¢ Par. 60, contains Nitre.”

Note.—It is possible, and indeed most probable, that every sample

differs, and in this the report agrees with me. But I should exceed~

1841. ] On the Salts, called Puckwah and Phool- Kharee. 955

ingly mistrust the information of any manufacturer, European or

Native, on this subject, as see Par. 53, where it is said that the export

of the Puckwah is kept secret as being illegal; see again p. 57. As

there must be from 8 to 10 per cent. of water and insoluble matters

in the Puckwah; this seems for a chemist a very rough note indeed.

Next, what is meant by good Puckwah. Puckwah which sells well

I suppose? for they could, I think, separate most of the 10 per cent.

of Nitre and the Kharee with ease? I presume this mixture is that

which best disguises the taste of the factitious Salt, or else that as

mentioned farther, the factory servants had an interest in producing

more Puckwah ? Of the chemical constituents of the Kharee, the re-

port says nothing.

Sections II. and III. have nothing in which we can compare, being

wholly new.

Section 1V.—Estimate of the quantity of Puckwah produced annually.

First from the Saltpetre manufacture in all its stages.

Report, ‘“‘ Par. 38. Very little

Puckwah produced in the refining

of Saltpetre, butafterwards, Par. 47,

6 per cent. occurs even with Kuro-

pean superintendence, and the ac-

tual produce of it should be there-

fore reckoned from the Dooah. Par.

43. European factories have 6 to 8

per cent. Puckwah on their pro-

duce of refined Saltpetre.”

“In a small factory Puckwah

amounts. to 10 per cent. on the

refined Saltpetre.”

* Par. 44. Four factories near Pat-

na give 24, 30, 50, and 56 per

cent. Puckwah!”

‘** Par. 45. Nooneahs allow that

their produce amounts to about

I deduce that the produce is to

be really calculated from the Dooah

That on

the whole, with every allowance

and in 2z¢s preparation.

and deduction, it will not be exces-

sive to say, that, for every maund

of refined Saltpetre in the mar-

ket, 25 per cent. or 10 seers may

be allowed as the average pro-

duction of Puckwah in making it.

Thence it would appear, that it

really must at least reach to this

amount.

956 -

25 per cent. on their crude Nitre,

[ Abee or Dooah.” |

“‘ Those of Behar and Shaha-

bad may even obtain as much Salt

as Saltpetre.”

‘Par: 49.

Tirhoot, the name of Saltpetre is but

And in northern

a cloak for the making of Salt.”

On the Salts, called Puckwah and Phool-Kharee.

[No. 120.

That there are in various parts

Salt works, of which we have no

notice; but I allow their produce

as a make-weight.

V.—Puckhwah produced with the Kharee, and the quantity of Kharee.

“Par. 61. The

Phool-Kharee contains Puckwah.”

“Par. 71. Puckwah made in N.

E. Tirhoot.”

“ Quantity 1,83,000 maunds, but

is now said to be [from the tax]

3,23,680 maunds, and 50,000 in

Report says,

I deduce that it certainly must

be produced with it, to the extent

of at least 25,000 maunds.

From Saltpetre and other data,

1,00,000 maunds_ Phool-Kharee

will not be excessive, or 3 lacs of

all sorts.

Sarun of all sorts—Total 3,73,680

maunds.”

ees Se

Section V1. and VIJ.—Little or nothing in common with the Report.

To conclude. The first object of my paper was to shew, that the

adulteration might not only in the hands of a chemist be detected by

very simple means, but that it might be measured. This measure-

ment I see removes another of the difficulties before the Board, which

is the detection of the adulteration of good Salt by Puckwah.

From the statement of the report to the Board, it seems that

Puckwah also contains 21 per cent. of Kharee or Sulphates. In this

case, the Puckwah is in fact but a mixture of Kharee and Puckwah;

but taking our sample as a very pure one, a really good Puckwah, we

see it contains 24+ per cent. Kharee. Now, say the Government

allows for chance impurities 4 per cent. of Sulphate, we may fairly

take the medium between the 21 per cent. mentioned above, and our

very pure sort as an average sort. This will be about 10 per cent.

which is an amount distinct enough to be shewn to the clumsiest hand

1841. ] On the Salts, called Puckwah and Phool-Kharee. 957

by the use of the test, which thus becomes in all probability as good

a one for the adulteration by Puckwah as for that practised by means

of the Kharee.

Calcutta, 31st October, 1841.

—___

Remarks by Captain J. T. Boireau, Bengal Engineers, F.R.S., F. R.

H. S., on the construction of Newman’s improved Portable Baro-

meter, and on the mode of renewing the Gauge Point when lost ; with a

Drawing.

A recent modification has been made in the portable (or as it is

more commonly called the mountain) Barometer, by Mr. Newman of

Regent Street, London, whose standard Barometers have become so

justly celebrated ; and believing that a description of these instruments

has not yet been published in India, I am induced to forward the ac-

companying sketch of their construction, and at the same time annex

the result of some comparisons made with two of these portable instru-

ments, and the Observatory standard, for the purpose of determining the

gauge (or neutral) point of the latter, which had been lost in both by

the escape of a considerable portion of mercury from their cisterns.

In the best portable Barometer of Troughton, Dollond, and Cary, the

surface of the mercury in their cistern is brought by a simple mechani-

cal contrivance to the level of a gauge point, (the Zero of the divided

scale ; by which the height of the column is read,) a measure of which

if the gauge point were invariable, would do away with the necessity for

a correction on account of the varying height of the mercury in the

cistern, due to the rise and fall in the column.

The gauge point, or line, is not however invariable in either of the

above constructions save Cary’s ; and Mr. Newman’s object appears to

have been to devise an instrument, which should be independent of the

adjustment, preliminary and essential to each observation in those of

the above kind, and whence the true height of the mercurial column

should yet be deducible with as much accuracy, as if it had been read

from the absolute Zero of the scale.

It is in the construction of its cistern that Newman’s portable

Barometer differs chiefly from others, and a description of this part,

therefore, is all that is essential.

958 Newman’s improved Portable Barometer, &c. [No. 120.

The cistern, (shewn in section in the figure) is of iron, and is divided

into two chambers, A the superior, and B the inferior ; communicating

when in a given relative position with one another by a fine hole 9, 0.’

passing through the bottom of the upper, and top of the lower chamber,

the bearing surfaces of which are ground mercury-tight together; the

lower chamber has motion round the common axis of the cistern

through an arc-of about 90°, so that by turning it a small quantity only,

the connection between the two chambers is cut off, the continuity of+

the small hole being broken. _Into the upper chamber the glass tube

is inserted in the usual manner by means of a thick box-wood cap,

which is pierced also to admit the stem of a small Thermometer, having

its bulb immersed in the mercury of the cistern. A brass cylindrical

case in two parts covers the cistern, each part being attached to its

corresponding chamber. A hollow mahogany tube is attached by

screws to the upper part of the brass case, and a brass scale of about

14 inches in length screwed to the wooden tube registers by means of

a vernier reading to the 500th part of an inch, (and by estimation to

the 1000th part) the height of the mercurial column.

The instrument having only a partial scale, and this not being direct-

ly referable to the surface of the mercury in the cistern, it is evident

that to establish a correct Zero or neutral point, the capillarity of the

tube must have been accurately determined beforehand; this done,

a comparison is made with a standard instrument, and a point marked

on the brass scale, (which is as yet undivided, ) gives, after allowing for

the difference in the capillary action of the two tubes, the Zero read-

ing, or neutral point, of the portable Barometer.

An example will better explain this operation, upon the accuracy

of which the correctness of the instrument depends.

Let the capillarity of the tube of the standard Barometer be +002

inches, and that of the portable instrument +037 inches, then if at the

time of the comparison for determining the neutral point of the latter

instrument, the mercurial column of the standard stood at 25.362

inches the corresponding height for the portable Barometer would be

25.3862—(°037—°002)—=25°327 inches,

which would be the Zero, or neutral, reading at the temperature of

comparison; to and from this point the other divisions of the scale

(inches, tenths, and half-tenths,) would be set off.

1841.] Newman’s improved Portable Barometer, &c. 959

The neutral point being thus determined, the true height of the column

of mercury above the level of the surface in the cistern for any

other reading is deduced in the following manner :—

Leta... ... «.. b (see the section, ) be the line of level corresponding

to the neutral point, and suppose a fall to have taken place in the

mercurial column, a proportional rise will take place in the level of the

cistern, and the converse exactly for a rise in the column, which will

be accompanied by a corresponding diminution in the level of the

mercury below. The variations in height being inversely proportional

to the areas of the occupied portion of the tube, and of the cistern;

or, which is the same thing, inversely as the squares of their dia-

meters, since, in Mr. Newman’s portable instrument, both tube and cis-

tern are cylindrical. If then, D represent the interior diameter of the

cistern, and d,d’ respectively the interior and exterior diameters of the

tube, all expressed in terms of the same linear unit ; also if, h represent

the height of the column at the neutral reading, and h’ any other ob-

served reading, then the true height of the column H for that observed

reading will be

ae d2

MW, ee

H=h’x(h'—h' eames

sign is to be taken when the observed reading is greater, and the lower

1 at the temperature 1°— in which the upper

sign, when it is less than the neutral height. The factor ne is con-

stant for the same Barometer, and is what Mr. Newman calls, the correc-

tion for capacity—it is determined experimentally by the maker, and

together with the neutral reading and temperature of comparison of the

same, is stamped upon an ivory collar attached to the wooden case of

each instrument.

It is much to be regretted, that the ingenuity and care displayed in the

construction of the cistern of Newman’s portable Barometer, (which

is the same in principle as in his standard,) should be entirely thrown

away by the exceedingly primitive and imperfect make of the other

parts. For reduced, or indeed for good comparative observations, no

Barometer is to be trusted, the scale of which is not divided on

a brass or other metal rod extending the whole length of the instrument

—but this, it has been seen, is not the case in that just described.

There would be no difficulty, however, in fulfilling every desired requi-

site of the above nature in the construction of Newman’s portable Baro-

960 Newman’s improved Portable Barometer, &c. [No. 120.

meter, and thus improved, it would be found one of the most convenient,

safe, and elegant instruments of its kind ever made, instead of being,

as it now is, an almost useless toy.

In proof of this assertion, it is only necessary to mention, that

both the portable Barometers brought out as a part of the equipment

of the Simla Magnetic Observatory, were found to be quite unservice-

able the very first time they were taken out for use ; the mahogany

tube was loose in the brass case of the cistern, and in one, (No. 44,)

had warped, so as to have broken the Thermometer ; in both, the box-

wood cap, which attaches the glass tube to the cistern had shrunk,

so that the mercury escaped in large quantities, and the neutral point

being thus lost, the Barometer was of course, in its present state, useless

for absolute measurements; but having no other instruments, it became

an object of importance to repair, if possible, those in my possession,

and to institute a gauge point or neutral reading for them by compari-

son with the standard in the Observatory, and I am induced to forward

an account of the method in which this has been effected more pour

encourager les autres, who may be left to their own resources as I have

been, not to set aside even an imperfect instrument without an effort to

improve its condition : for the result of my own attempt has certainly

proved as successful as, under the circumstances, could have been ex-

pected. It is of the first importance too, in the publication of altitudes

determined by the Barometer, that the quality of the instrument em-

ployed should be known, and as the two portable Barometers in my

possession will be used frequently for determining the relative heights

of mountains by simultaneous comparisons with the standard in the

fixed Observatory, the following details are the more necessary, as shew-

ing what weight may be attached to the observations made with them.

The first thing necessary was to make the cistern perfectly mercury-

tight, which has been completely effected by a stuffing of tow and glue

round the boxwood cap, the cap having been filed to a level (inwards)

sufficiently to allow of a wrapper of the above materials being applied and

pressed down by an iron tool from above—next, the instrument being

inverted, a hole (ef) bored in the lower chamber and a fine screw tapped

into it; a supply of mercury was then introduced, and the cistern being

screwed up, the instrument was set by to dry for some days, after which,

the comparisons for determining the neutral reading were commenced.

1841. ] Newman’s improved Portable Barometer, §c. 961

The standard Barometer of the Observatory, with which the compari-

sons were made, is by Newman, the cistern measures 6 inches in height

and three in diameter over all, and about 24 inches inside, the tube is

5.54 inches in diameter zmside, and the scale and vernier are of platinum,

the former being attached to a brass rod terminating below in a fine

ivory point, which is adjusted to the surface of the mercury in

the cistern—the scale reads by means of the vernier to the 500th, and

by estimation to the 1000th part of an inch, to which limit all the

observations are taken.

The following are the values given by Mr. Newman of correction for

capacity, &c. of the two portable Barometers attached to this Observa-

tory :—

No. 40—Correction for capacity,........... . ; ~

For capillary (action, (2s... 2.e.0046 se +:042

MVEMAMERA GEE, 6/25 5. sila cle syeieia- «ls ne) doraierets 60° Faht.

No. 44—Correction for capacity, ...........- : =

Poriea pillanrycactiony scse. 5.03. se 6002. +031

Temperature, ...... SECT N As ses font . 60° Faht.

The Thermometer of No. 44 is broken.

The comparisons were made in the following manner: the two port-

able instruments were hung up on the same pillar with, and one on

each side of, the standard Barometer, and a small excess of mercury

having been introduced into the cistern, the escape of a portion was

allowed to take place by means of the screw below until the height

of the column read approximately the same as the standard, making

due allowance for the difference in the capillary action of the two

tubes ; a perfect coincidence was found impracticable.

The annexed table exhibits the mean daily results of the compa-

risons which were taken, every two hours at the times appointed for

the other regular observations, and embrace therefore the period,

nearly, of one complete oscillation ; viz. from 10h. 29m. a. mM. to 10h.

29m. P. M. inclusive, Observatory mean solar-time, so that each entry

is the mean of seven observations, and the mean of the means for No. 40

is deduced from 133, and for No. 44 from 112 comparisons ; the differ-

ences from the standard are as accordant as could have been expected,

considering the imperfect nature of the scale upon which the heights

are measured, the difficulty of getting a good contact with the surface

962 Newman’s improved Portable Barometer, &c. [No. 120.

of the mercurial column, and that the daily means combine the errors

or personal equations of the different observers. It is perhaps super-

fluous to mention, that the first comparative reading of each portable

Barometer has been taken as a Zero, to which all the corrections for

capacity have been made, and if the instrument could be read with

precision, all the differences from the standard should have come out

alike. The differences of the partial results from the final mean

are, however, generally within the limits of the probable error of obser-

vation, and the latter may therefore be considered as correct an ap-

proximation as could, under the circumstances of the comparison, be

obtained, and certainly sufficiently so to warrant the use of the instru-

ment in the determination of altitudes, comparatively with the Observa-

tory standard, to which, provided the cisterns remain mercury-tight,

they will now be immediately applied. The results of those observa-

tions will be communicated hereafter.

Table of the mean daily comparisons of Portable Barometers, Nos. 40

and 44, with the Observatory standard, No. 40.

Standard. Portable Barometer No. 40. Portable Barometer No. 44.

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7 -985|60°7| +232| 61:3) —:074| —-018| +214|—-0718 -289 —'054|—-010| +279} —-006

8 -394|60°1| °*348] 60-5} -++-042| 4-010) °358/—046] °396 +:053} +010} -406) +014

9 .404| 60° *354| 60-2] 4-045] +012! -366|—-028§ 407 +064] +°012] 419) 015

410 | °386)59°7| °347| 60°1|-++--041) 4-010} +357; —-0299 § °394 051} +010} °404| +018

14.| °386/58°9| +348) 58°7| +042) +010) -358)—-029% ‘398 055! +--010] -408 fu

12 | °429)57°3) *380| 57-0} -+-074/ +4018, -398)—-031f = *432 -089| +016] -448/-+- 019

13 -399|56°9| °353| 56°5)-+-047| 4-011) -364|—-035 +412 069| —--013| °425| 4-026

14 *354157°3| °306| 57°71} ---000) ---000) °306/—0489 -°364 021|+-:004| -368) 014

15 -408| 58° *362, 57°7' +056] +-013| °375/—-0338 °418 075, +014] +432] ---024

16 388] 58°7| °335| 58°2)/-+--029| +007, :342/—-0468 +394 051|-+-'010| 404/016

17 *346|59°4| +296! 59°1/— 010) —:002) -294) —-052

18 -320|59°4| °280| 59°3) —:026| —-006| -°274) —-046

19 *362|59°2| 318) 59°3/---012|-+4- 003} °321/ —041 *

a as ed —_———— | — | | te | ee |

mean| 23°356) 59°8| 23°312 69°9 9} 4-006) -+--001| 23°313, — 043 23° 366| + '026/-+--004 23° 5-370 hg ss po1t

Magnetic Observatory, Simlah, 5th Nov. 184).

* This difference is taken from the mean of the standard for 16 days, viz. 23.359 inches.

NOT

PORTABLE

e i) PORTABLE

Side vee

Thermemeter §

Lengutudinal Section

BY 1

Ly . ~

3 S

YS s :

SS ~ s PS :

Ni > % ~ 3

= x y

4 2 3 <2) :

2 oS. §

s -5 S 8

BS ~ ~ Se FS a

S y ~ » AS :

= > ce x :

» aS y ~ may :

~ S 3

~ iN ns :

~S 3 xX :

= S - “2 :

x = a

+ 3 ~S >

> y ‘

SP) Sj

= ~ 3

BS iQ

~ >

ms ~

8 S

= =

1841.] Newman’s improved Portable Barometer, sc. - 963

It appears from the above, that the mean neutral reading for Portable Barometer, No.

40, viz. 23°313 is .043 of an inch too low, and in No. 44, the neutral reading 23°370 is

‘011 of an inch too high. The following Examples will explain the method of reducing

the observed to the true readings for both instruments :—

Example for Barometer, No. 40.

Suppose the observed reading on the scale to be 22:43 inches, the temperature of the

mercury being 49° Faht.—the true height of the column is required.

Observed reading, @xveeseeee evoeeeeneeeeesese00 eo h’ = 22? 043 inches.

Neutral do. ee@eeeveesecee eeepeeeoeseeegene2e8202 80807 8889808 h => 23°313

Difference, @eeeoeenes Ceoeexeeeresee22700808 eoeeene (h’—h) —— —0:770

Correction for capacity, . cscedencecenverornrece = (h’—h = —0°183

Observed reading as above, ...scececccscecscces hi = 22°043

True height of column, ...+.s-+.se04.H.= bh’ — 3 (h’—h) = 22-360 inches.

Example for Barometer, No. 44.

Required the true height of the column of mercury, the observed reading on the scale

being 20°29] inches and the temperature of the mercury, 64° Faht.

Observed reading,........ eteieisiae wot dn vere tyr}. hi = 25°291 inches

Neutral ditto, e@eee 27 eeGeeeeseeeoneaeevnseese eB ene0 h. —— 28°370

Difference, seeoeseeteoee ee 88 ee eee0088802080 eee¢ecoea2e 820 Oe (h’—h) = +1-921

Worection for Capacity; ..ccccscsecccdcrveee sees (h’—h) = —°349

Observed reading as above, e@eeeseeeveeveaeeceoxes -00e8 Oo h’ = 25°291

True height of column, ...+++s+.2ssee66H. <h'+ & (hi—h) = 25-640

A correction would aiso be required for temperature, but with instruments of this

construction, 2. e. as to relates to their scale, the reduction in this account is impracti-

cable,

964

Observations of Meteors, on the night between the 12th and 13th

November 1841, made at the Magnetic Observatory at Simla.

Communicated by Captain J. T. Botnau, Engineers, F. R. S. &c.

ce. Superintendent.

The observed recurrence of numerous meteors on the same night,

during a series of years, having led to a belief in their periodicity ; it has

been become a special duty at all the fixed Magnetic Observatories

to watch for their appearance, on the dates in question; the nights of

the 10th August, and of the 12th November, have afforded the most

remarkable instances of their recurrence, both as regards their number,

and the regularity of the phcenomenon. Our labours here, on the

former night, were fruitless — not a single meteor having been visible ;

but the following account of those observed on the night between the

12th and 13th instant, confirms the fact, as regards the latter date.

It is to be hoped, should similar observations of these meteors have

been made in other parts of India, that an account of their appearance

may be forwarded for publication, in the Journal of the Asiatic Society,

without delay.

Night between the 12th and 13th November, 1841. By 3rd Assistant

C. NurraLt.

8: 15 p. m.—Brilliant meteors, to N. Motion moderate, direction

from near the Pole-star perpendicularly downwards.

11: 10P. mu—Meteor NE. by N. altitude 1st appearance 30°, direc-

tion downwards.

11: 15 ep. msp—Meteor over head, direction downwards.

By st Assistant J. B. GRISENTHWAITE.

2: 55 a. Mm—A few luminous patches appeared from E. to N.E. at

an elevation of about 30°. At 3h. 02m. a. M. they became more

brilliant, and light was apparently pulsating through them; at 3h. 08m.

assuming a dull appearance, they disappeared.

3: 30 a. M—Two dim meteors from Zenith downwards, direction

N.E.

1841. } Meteors on \2th and 13th November, 1841. 965

4:25 a. M.—Five bright meteors passed rapidly from Zenith verti-

cally downwards, N.E.

By 2d Assistant W. Crate.

On proceeding to the Observatory about 4: 25 4. m. perceived a

shower of meteors, and after taking the regular observations, recorded

meteors as follows ; viz.

1. From Zenith downwards, S.

] Ditto — ditto _S.. altitude of first appearance, 50°.

] - Ditto ditto E., ditto ditto, 40°.

1. From E. nearly horizontal to S.E. sf

1. From N.E., direction E., altitude of Ist appearance, 50°.

1. From Zenith towards E.

1. From ditto, direction downwards to S.W.

The 2d Assistant observed in all about 30 meteors, chiefly in the

above directions, but did not record them individually.

By Captain J.T. Borreau, Engineers, Superintendent, at Strawberry-

Bank, about 800 yards E. of the Observatory.

4:50 a.m.—l. From a Hydre, S.S.E. vertically downwards.

4:55 a.mM.—1l. Through Corvus ditto ditto.

5:03 4.m.—1. Between y and A Argus, small, _ ditto.

5:05 a. M.—]. Through middle of Auriga, N.E. to S. W.

5: 06 a. mM.—1. From near a Leonis downwards E.

5: 08 a. m.—In Argus as above, vertically downwards.

5: 11 a. m.—J. From near Procyon S. vertically down. ,

5: 13 a. M.—]. Near y Columbe, S. downwards.

5: 25 a, M.—!. Very small from a Leonis towards S.E.

5:26 a. m.—1. Between aand 9 Cassiopee downwards N.N.E.

5: 32 4. m.—l. Very rapid from Cancer through Gemini and past

B Persei.

5:41 4. M.—1. Very faint from near Sirius downwards W.S. W.

5:45 a. m.—I. Faint downwards N.N.E. from between & and n Urse

| Majoris. ,

966 Meteors on 12th and 13th November, 1841. [ No. 120.

Day-light interrupted further observation, though faint lines were

occasionally observed as of the passage of meteors, for sometime after

the day had well dawned. The night was remarkably clear, free from

clouds, and calm, and stars were particularly bright :—one meteor only

was observed on the evening of the 13th November, and none had been

seen for many nights before the 12th.

During the time of the luminous appearance observed in the N. i.

mentioned above, the underwritten readings of the Declination Magne-

tometer, were taken. The scale readings of the instrument had been

gradually increasing for nearly an hour previous to the phenomenon

noted, and at the moment of its occurrence, a gradual decrease began

to take place, and continued until the disappearance of the patches.

At2:45 a.m. Scale reading of Declination Magnetometer, 156.

3: 00 Ditto, ditto, 155.9

3:15 Ditto, ditto, 155.8

3: 30 Ditto, ditto, 155.4

3:45 Ditto, ditto, 154.7

4:00 Ditto, ditto, 154.2

The two latter readings being lower than any observed at these

times of the day, during the month. The change of reading indicates

a movement of the north end of the declination needle, West,

through an arc, not taking the torsion of the suspension thread into

account, of 1’: 13”—the arc value of the scale being .676' for each

division. The horizontal and vertical Force Instruments remained

steady during the above period.

967

On Porcelain Clay found at Mangalore. By A. T. Curisriz, Esa.

Madras Medical Service. Communicated by Government.

In compliance with the instructions of the Honourable the Court

of Directors, conveyed to me in a letter from their Secretary, before I

left England, to report proceedings to the Government of Fort St.

George, I have now the honor to furnish an outline of my researches

since my arrival in this presidency.

In proceeding from Mangalore by way of Cannanore, Tellicherry,

and through Wynaad to the Neilgherry Hills, I had an opportunity

of examining the geological structure of the country along that line

of road.

The country on the coast, and probably extending to the foot of the

Ghauts, consists entirely of the ferruginous claystone formation, which

has been described by Buchanan, under the name of laterite. It rests

upon granite and gneiss, which make their appearance in the beds of

many of the rivers, and very frequently on the sea coast. The late-

rite is of little importance in an economical point of view, except as a

building stone ; but is interesting when studied in relation to the phe-

nomena of springs, the nature of soils, and its general effects upon

vegetation, to all of which subjects I propose hereafter to devote my

attention. As far as I had an opportunity of examining the other for-

mations, they appear to yield no mineral products of any value. _

A few miles to the north of Mangalore, and in connection with the

laterite, I discovered an extensive deposit of pure porcelain clay, very

closely resembling that of Limoges in France, of which the beautiful

Sevres-ware is formed. I need not point out the importance of this

article. Being found close upon the coast, it might be easily shipped,

and sent home as dead weight, or with the assistance of Chinese work-

men, it may hereafter become an article of manufacture in India. I also

found it in considerable abundance, and nearly of equal purity on the

Neilgherries.

The whole of Wynaad consists of primitive rocks, with a few

patches of laterite in certain situations, and great deposits of diluvi-

um. In the latter (which consists principally) of a reddish clay, with

imbedded fragments of gneiss, granite, and quartz, gold is found.

On the road between Nellival and Goodaloor, I observed some shal-

968 On Porcelain Clay found at Mangalore, &e. (No. 120.

low pits in the diluvium, and remarking the similarity between this

deposit, and those in which gold is found in other parts of the world,

I made enquiries of the natives respecting it, and ascertained that they

procured gold here by washing in the rainy season. Having seen no

geological account of the gold works in this part of India, am not aware

whether this metal has yet been found in its original matrix, or whe-

ther it is wholly derived from this loose transported deposit, or dilu-

vium, as geologists call it. The latter forms a succession of low rounded

hills, which are intersected by streams, and are every year partially

worn down by the rains, which is perhaps the origin of the river gold

of these districts.

The Neilgherry hills are entirely composed of primitive rocks, con-

sisting principally of granite, gneiss, a large quantity of earthy felspar,

quartz, and a peculiar rock, which I would name corundum rock, from

its having that mineral as one of its principal ingredients. I have met

with nothing analogous to it in Europe, and it occurs in great abun-

dance ; many of the hills being entirely composed of it.

Some interesting questions connected with the parallelism and ele-

vation of strata, and other branches of theoretical geology may derive

elucidation from a more minute survey of the Neilgherries, and the

neighbouring country ; but as these are not suited to a report of this

nature, I must reserve them for the memoirs I hope to be enabled

to publish at some future period on the geology of India.

The climate and agricultural features of the Neilgherries are more

interesting and more worthy of attention than their geology. These

hills, rising in the middle of the torrid zone, to the height of nearly

9,000 feet, present every variety of climate, from that of the plains

of India to that of England. ‘The climate of their higher parts resem-

bles that of the great intertropical cities of South America,* which

have become the centres of civilization in the new world; but is

superior in one point of view, being never subject to those sudden

changes and cold piercing winds, which are occasioned by the vicinity

of lofty mountains, some of which are capped with snow. The mean

temperature of Ootacamund is rather more than that of London,

* Quito is about 9,000 feet above the level of the sea; Santa Fe de Bogota, 8,000

feet; Mexico about 7,400; and Caraccas nearly 3,000 feet. Although the latter place

has been called an earthly paradise, its climate is changeable and unhealthy.

1841.] On Porcelain Clay found at Mangalore, &c. 969

but its annual range of temperature is very small, and it may be said,

that the season of spring reigns throughout the year ; yet, though there

be no winter, the heat is never sufliciently great to bring the more

delicate Europe fruits to perfection, and at this height we can only

expect the successful cultivation of corn and of vegetables. The

valleys, which have a height of from five to six thousand feet, enjoy

the climate of Italy, the climate of the vine, the olive, the orange,

and the mulberry. The tea tree is cultivated in China between the

latitudes of 27° and 31° in a hilly country, and consequently in a

climate probably of 70° to 73° of mean temperature. Such is nearly

the mean temperature of the valleys in the neighbourhood of Kota-

gherry, and of many others along the Eastern and Northern faces

of the hills. The cultivation of this valuable plant might therefore be

attempted here, and with a much better chance of success, than

in almost any country beyond the limits of China. A little lower

down than this, coffee might be produced ; its native habitation being

on the sides of the lofty mountains of Yemen, and nearly in the same

latitude as the Neilgherries.

But with all these advantages of climate, there are certain peculia-

rities, which in some situations prove most injurious to vegetation, and

if overlooked in any schemes for the improvement of agriculture or

horticulture in these regions, might mar our best exertions. ‘These

are; Ist, the great intensity of the solar rays when the sky is not ob-

scured by clouds; 2d, the great waste of heat from the ground and

from plants by radiation in clear nights. The former will sometimes

produce a heat of from 90° to 100° on the surface of leaves, flowers,

and fruit during the day; the latter may subject them, in the suc-

ceeding night, to a degree of cold considerably below the freezing

point. Few plants will bear so great a transition, and it is only to be

avoided by a judicious selection of situations, which are not likely to

be much under the influence of the two causes I have noticed; or

in the case of fruit trees, and garden plants, by matting and other

contrivances. I need scarcely remark, that it would be highly desir-

able to ascertain the meteorological characters of the different parts

of the hills, before attempting the introduction of any new staples ;

otherwise, in a new country, and without experience, success would

be very questionable, and would rest only upon blind chance.

970 On Porcelain Clay found at Mangalore, $c. [No. 120.

Next to the climate of a country, the most important object an agri-

culturist has to turn his attention to, is the nature of the soils. One

of the most remarkable features of the Neilgherries is, the great depth

of soil met with, even on the highest hills. It has originated princi-

pally from the disintegration of the earthy felspar mentioned above,

which is more or less mixed with sand, is coloured with iron, and in

some situations, contains numerous pebbles and small fragments of

quartz, and of the other subjacent rocks. In some valleys, it contains a

certain quantity of vegetable matter; and in many places on the

higher hills, a thick coat of black vegetable stuff is found principally

formed of decayed ferns, and which might perhaps be usefully em-

ployed for the amelioration of other soils. The ground is, in general,

easily worked, but being (as far as I can at present judge) entirely

deficient of lime and of every description of salt, it will probably, for

certain kinds of cultivation, require to be highly manured, either

with lime, with salts, or with vegetable and animal composts. Lime is

clearly indicated as a manure for the Neilgherry soils; but the very

circumstance which renders it so necessary; viz. its total absence

among the subjacent rocks, makes it difficult to be procured. The

lime which is employed in building is obtained from the kunker,

(caleareous tufa,) which occurs in great abundance all over the plains

of Coimbatore; upon analizing it, however I have found it to contain a

considerable quantity of magnesia, which renders it totally unfit for

the purposes of agriculture, nothing being so injurious to vegetation

as that earth. Were the distance, not too great, shells might be

brought from the coast to improve the soil, and sea salt, and nitre,

neither of which are very expensive, might prove useful.

I need not insist on the inducements that these, and some of the

other hills further South* hold out to English enterprise ; since the

government have already by their many liberal and enlightened mea-

sures for their improvement, shewn themselves perfectly confident of

the immense advantages that must hereafter be derived from them. I

am led to hope, therefore, that I shall only meet the wishes of the go-

vernment, when I humbly beg leave to suggest, that I may be permit-

ted to devote part of my time to a more minute survey of them, so as

* The Pyney and Vunhogerry mountains, which have probably an elevation of

from 5,000 to 7,000 feet above the sea.

1841.] On Porcelain Clay found at Mangalore, §c. 971

to enable me to exhibit an accurate exposition of every thing connected

with their physical geography, such as the height of their principal

summits, the general height, form, and direction of their valleys, the

climate of their different parts, the characters, and composition of their

soils, the nature of their springs and streams, their vegetation, and their

geology. With this view, 1 could establish my head quarters on

the Neilgherries ; for under any circumstances, it will be necessary for

me to have a fixed residence, where I may leave my books, apparatus,

and specimens; and as long as I continue in the South of India, the

situation of these hills will be sufficiently centrical for this purpose.

After having remained several weeks on the Neilgherries, I came to

Madras by way of Trichinopoly and the coast, in expectation of find.

ing some secondary formations near the former place. In this, however,

I was disappointed, and found that part of the country to possess but

little geological interest. On the coast I was more fortunate, having

discovered several curious deposits containing fossils, which are calcu-

lated to throw some light on the geological epochs of the Indian for-

mations.

Since my arrival in India, I have made considerable collections in

Zoology, and have procured some very interesting specimens of fresh

water-fish, crustacea, and insects. These it will be impossible for me

to describe, while engaged with my various researches in India. My

time while in this country, must be chiefly occupied with collecting

materials, which can be only arranged and described on my return to

Europe.

Descriptions of three Indian species of Bat, of the genus Taphozous.

By Epwarp Buytu, Curator to the Asiatic Society.

Of the several well-defined generic forms presented by the Insectivor-

ous Bats, a perfectly distinct one exists in the Taphozous of the Che-

valier Geoffroy St. Hilaire, or Saccopteryx of M. Illiger, which was

founded by the former eminent naturalist upon a species discovered by

him in the catacombs of Egypt, and which he has figured and described,

in the great national French work on that country, by the appellation

972 Description of three Indian species of Bat. [No. 120.

T. perforatus ; a second African species is considered by him to exist

in the Doret Volant of Danberton, styled T. Senegaliasis by M.

Geoffroy ; and a third has been discovered in Abyssinia by Dr. Ruppell,

who names it 7. nudiventer ; a fourth is described by M. Geoffroy ;

T. Mauritianus ; and the Vespertilio lepturus of Schreber, or V. mar-

supialis of Miller, said to have been brought from Surinam (which

is very doubtful, as the form would otherwise appear to be peculiar

to the warm regions of the Old World), and which species (accord-

ing to Mr. Gray) ‘‘ scarcely appears to differ’ from that first noticed,

Is recognized as 7. lepturus by M. Geoffroy, and as Saccopteryzx

lepturus, by M. Illiger. Another alleged American species is the

T. rufus of Dr. Harlan, founded on the Bat figured in Wilson’s Ame-

rican Ornithology, on the same plate with the American Eagle owl;

but a glance at this figure is quite enough to shew that the animal

belongs to a widely different genus of Bats, and it is supposed by Mr.

Gray to be not improbably the Vespertilio pruinosus of the late accom-

plished American naturalist, Mr. Say, which Mr. Gray refers to Scoto-

philus of Dr. Leach, (synonymous with Nycticejus of M. Raffinestque).

The Taphien filet figured in the work on Egypt, is the type of the

distinct genus Khinopoma, and is stated to have been termed a

‘“Taphien’” on the plate by mistake. The only Indian species which

has yet been described, to my knowledge, is the 7. longimanus of the

late indefatigable Major General Hardwicke, of which a description and

plate are given in the fourteenth volume of the Linnean Transactions,

(p. 525). .This is mentioned as being ‘‘ common in Calcutta, in dark

- store-rooms ; at night it frequents habitations, attracted by the light of

the candles and numerous insects.” Finally, in the valuable ‘‘ Catalogue

of Mammalia inhabiting the Southern Mahratta country,” published in

the Madras Journal of Literature and Science (Nos. 24 and 25), by Walter

Elliot, Esq., we are informed that “‘ only one specimen of Taphozous was

obtained, of which the description has been lost.” (p. 99.) |

The members of this group are distinguished by a conically-shaped

head, flattened on the face, and having a large and deep circular concavity

between the eyes; the nostrils are small and terminal, approximated, and

capable of closure at the will of the animal ; the ears are widely separat-

ed, somewhat triangular, and broad at base, a fold of skin being conti-

nued from the base of their upper and fore margin to the border of the

1841. ] Description of three Indian species of Bat. 973

frontal depression above the eye, and another forwards from the lower

margin, which is furnished with a lobe corresponding to the “ drop” of

the human ear, only it is not pendent, and the base of it is even with the

mouth; the conch usually lies flatly outwards, the anterior margins of

the two ears forming a straight transverse line, and their medial part

collapses into plaits, which are obliquely transverse with the tip, as is more

particularly noticeable in the living animal ; within the conch is a short

hatchet-shapedtragus, nearly as broad again atthe extremity as at the base.

The wings in this genus are long and rather narrow, the short thumbs

being furnished at base with a small and slightly flattened cartila-

ginous cushion, which is more or less observable in other Bats, and is

only more developed in certain Dysopodes, or (according to Mr. Gray)

the young of these, supplying the trivial character upon which Spix

founded his subdivision Thyroptera: the innermost digit is connected at

base to part of the fore-arm by a small internal membrane, forming a

little sac, whence the name Saccopteryz of M. Illiger. ‘The tail of these

Bats is more or less elongated, and is enveloped at base in the inter-

femoral membrane, from the upper surface of which, about half way

from its margin, the extremity protrudes in proportion as the membrane

collapses, to a variable extent (apparently) in different species, curling

round backwards and upwards in the altitude of repose, and becoming

sheathed as the membrane is expanded. Another curious character, more

or less developed in the different species, and chiefly in the males, con-

sists in a large gular sac, the orifice of which is anterior and transverse ;

on the chin are two slight, parallel, and nearly contiguous, longitudi-

nal folds of the skin (which in certain species, are rudimental), each sub-

dividing into two smaller folds posteriorly, the channels between which

lead to the sides of the threat-sinus ; the interior of the latter would

appear to be glandulous, though I have been able to perceive no trace

of secretion. On the middle of the upper lip is a slight duplicature ;

and the top of the lower lip is conspicuously reflected, having a mesiai

groove; the mouth is cleft to beneath the forepart of the eye. These

animals, according to Cuvier, have one pair of upper incisors, though

often none, and the latter is the case with five specimens before me, ap-

pertaining to three species ; they are probably pushed out by the growth

of the permanent canines (as in various other Bats), which of course fol-

lows after some time the renewal of the properly decsiduary, or “ milk”

974 Description of three Indian species of Bat. [No. 120.

incisors, and therefore may be of some utility for a time, co-existing with

the first canines, but no longer required when these are supplanted ; in

the lower jaw are four distinctly trilobated incisors; behind the upper

canines are one or two very minute false molars, then a large sharp

pointed one, corresponding to the carnassier or “ scissor-tooth,” and pos-

terior to this are two large subquadrangular true molars, less elevated

than the last, and succeeded by a small transverse third true molar ; below

are two large pointed false molars, and two large and one small true

molar, corresponding to those above. The fur is soft, close, and velvety,

and in most species plentiful, being generally, if not always, slightly

grizzled towards the extremity of the pile.

The first species I have to notice is the

T. longimanus, (?) Hardwicke: but as the details furnished by that

observer are, for the most part, of generic rather than specific import,

it may prove to be an allied one, though I do not think this probable.

The only specimen I have seen is an adult male, for which I am indebted

to my valued friend, and former European acquaintance, Dr. Cantor, in

whose residence in Calcutta it was captured. The description and

figure are taken from the recent animal.

Length, from nostrils to end of tail, 43 mches, the membrane extend-

ing finch further ; alar expanse 16 inches; tail 1 inch, capable of protru-

sion 3 inch, and of being sheathed for its whole length ; ears, posteri-

orly 3 inch, or anteriorly to inferior lobe even with the mouth, above

# inch, their breadth at base 2 inch, and tips apart as they lie flatly out-

wards, 13 inch; tragus = inch, and of the usual hatchet-shape, widest

at the extremity. Length of fore-arm 23 inches, and from wrist

to end of wing above 3% inches; tibia 1 imch, and foot minus the

claws, 4 inch; two small longitudinal excrescences on the chin, but

no throat-sac in the specimen, though the site of this is indicated

by a semi-nude rudiment of the structure in question. Colour of

the fur uniform dark fuscous-brown above, slightly tipped with a light-

er colour, and pure white at base; beneath paler, except on the throat,

from being more conspicuously tipped with brownish-grey ; the fur

everywhere very close and full, rather short, and soft, and velvety ; face

almost nude, and with the membranes darker than the back ; the ears, as

usual, naked externally, except at their posterior base, and on a fold

near this ; within are a few minute hairs.

1841.] Description of three Indian species of Bat. 975

General Hardwicke’s animal is stated to have measured “‘ = inch

between the ears,” though it is dificult to understand where he fixed the

boundary of their bases ; but raising the ears, for they naturally lie flat-

ly outwards, (as in the Rhinopomata and Dysopodes,) the distance between

those of my specimen scarcely exceeds 3 inch, and as General Hard-

wicke’s Bat was only ‘5 inches long, and 14} inches in extent of wing,”

I doubt whether a greater interspace existed between its ears than in the

subject before me, notwithstanding the figure given, which has doubtless

passed through the ordeal of a native artist, in addition to that of the

engraver. ‘‘ The body,” he says, “is thickly covered with a very soft

hair, in the adult of a snuff brown ; the legs, wings, and membranes

black : but the full-sized young are of adeep black on all parts.” To this

I will add, from his Latin quasi definition of the species, ‘‘ supra ex fusco

rufescens, subtus pallidior,’ and what remains is wholly of generic ap-

plication. The absence of any notice of a throat-sinus adds negatively

to the probability of the specimen before me being correctly referred to

T. longimanus ; while, on the other hand, the whiteness of the base of

the fur, which is conspicuous when that of my animal is ruffled by handling,

is not a likely feature to be quite overlooked. However, if it should prove

to be the only Calcutta species, or the only one at all numerous in this

district, our doubts may be pretty safely set aside about the correctness

of the identification.

T. fulvidus, Nobis.—Of this species I found two males and a female

preserved in spirits in the Museum of the Asiatic Society, but cannot

learn where they were obtained; though I have been informed that

it is common at Darjeeling. It is smaller than the last, with pro-

portionally smaller ears, a deep throat-sinus, and fur pale fulvous-

brown at base, grizzled towards the extremity with darker-brown,

the extreme tips whitish : some haye the nape and interscapulary region

ungrizzled fulvous, and the under-parts are more slightly grizzled than

the upper : face very pale, and membranes also of a light colour.

Length of the finer male 4} inches from nostrils to tail-tip, the

membrane extending % inch further; alar expanse 134 inches :

length of the female, to end of tail, 33 inches, and alar expanse 13 inches.

Tail (of the male) 1 inch, of which half would seem to be enveloped in the

membrane and incapable of protrusion, nor does much of the remain-

der appear to be capable of being sheathed when the membrane is ex-

976 Description of three Indian species of Bat. [No. 120.

tended ; though this may perhaps be owing to the parts having become

rigid by lying in spirits: ears, posteriorly, 3 inch, and anteriorly,

to the lobe even with the mouth, #$ inch ; their breadth at base 3 inch,

exclusive of the duplicature of skin over the eye ; and tips apart, as they lie

flatly outwards, 13 inch: length of fore-arm 23 inches, and from wrist

to extremity of wing 32; tibia 1 inch; and foot, minus the claws,

nearly + inch: beneath the nostrils is a duplicature ofthe upper-lip, (rudi-

mental in the preceding species,) divided except in front, and merging la-

terally into the inner surface of the lip; under-lip reflected as usual :

the throat cavity fully developed, but rather less so in the female : co-

lour of the fur as described.

T. brevicaudus, Nobis.—For this species I am indebted to the kindness

of Dr. Coles of Madras, who presented to me, for the Society, a

collection of skins of Mammalia obtained at Travancore, among which

was a single specimen of this Bat, which is at once distinguished from

its known congeners by the shortness of its tail.

Length, from nostrils to end of tail, about 3 inches, the tail * inch,

and entirely enveloped in the membrane, though perhaps merely sheath-

ed in it, and capable of some protrusion ; the membrane extends consider-

ably less backward beyond its tip than in the others : alar expanse about 13

inches, or perhaps rather less: ears posteriorly, } inch, or. anteriorly,

as in the others, 2 inch; their breadth at base 3 inch; and distance of the

tips apart, as they lie flatly outwards, 1} inch. Length of fore-arm 23

inches, and from wrist to end of wing 32 inches; tibia nearly ¢ inch,

and foot, exclusive of claws, under 3 inch. No sign of throat-sac in the

specimen, and the merest trace of the excrescences under the lower jaw.

Fur dingy-white for the basal half, the remainder dusky-brown with

light brown at the extreme tips, which last is more developed on the

under-parts. Membranes apparently pale, and face dark.

In conclusion, let me avail myself of the present occasion to request

from those who may be interested in the elucidation of Indian Zoology,

to lose no opportunity of securing specimens of as many species of Bat

as fall under their observation ; these should be placed in spirits (though

not too many in the same vessel, or they speedily decompose) ; and in

the present state of our knowledge respecting the species inhabiting

India, it is desirable that many examples of each kind should be preserv-

ed for distribution to different Museums, by which means a certainty of

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1841. ] Description of three Indian species of Bat. 977

the correctness of the names attached to them can be ensured, and the

value of the specimens thus enhanced. At present, the Museum of the

Asiatic Society is sadly deficient in species of this interesting family.

December 5th, 1841.

Extracts from a Report on subjects connected with Afghanistan. By

Dr. GrirFirtH. Communicated to the Editor, from the Political

Secretariat of India.

PART III.

NaruraL PRopucrions.

Wild Animals.—None of the wild animals of the country appear

to be of any considerable importance. They are comparatively speak-

ing, few in number, and none attain any large size. The most im-

portant from their size, and probably from numerical extent of indivi-

duals, are the wild sheep and wild goats, of which last there are pro-

bably three distinct species, at least, in the country. The chase of these

animals for their flesh, which is, I believe, held in considerable esti-

mation, both by Europeans and Afghans, is attended with consi-

derable difficulty and exposure, and is principally confined to the win-

ter months, during which these animals are forced to take up lower

ground. The animals of the above nature known to me are,—

Ist. The Wild Sheep, Ovzs Argala ?—-The only specimen of this I

have seen alive was in the possession of Captain Ferris, at Peshbolak.

With the head and barrel of a sheep, it had the legs, the muscularity,

and activity of the antelope kind. Nothing can be imagined greater

than the agility and sure-footedness with which it would gallop along

the top of the narrow ramparts of an Afghan fort, and precipitate it-

self down from its bastions. It was perfectly tame, and naturally gen-

tle ; and seemed to prefer Europeans to Hindoostanees. In choosing

its companions and females, it was by no means select, and appeared

quite capable of pleasing a whole flock of ewes and she-goats. I re-

gret to say, that perhaps from want of any very great affinity between

the species, no marked breed has resulted from this extensive crossing.

978 Report on subjects connected with Afghanistan. [No. 120.

Of wild goats, I believe I have seen portions of two species, one of

which was sent me by Captain Macgregor. I have never seen either

alive. A species of Ibex also exists, with this I am only acquainted

from the horns, which it is the custom to attach indiscriminately to

the Zearuts, and places of sacred note.

From the forests of Olipore, I procured a species of Antelope of the

Goral kind ; this is known to the natives of those regions by the name

Suga. Other species doubtless exist in the dense forests of that part

of the country, such, for instance, as the Musk Deer. I alsoheard of an-.

other ruminating animal, which the Olipores called Goomast ; but their

description was so extraordinary, that I could make nothing from it.

Afghanistan possesses wild Asses, but these are confined to the

western and north-western parts of the country.

From the general scarcity of jungle and of animals, the country

derives one advantage at least, in the absence of the larger carnivora.

Mr. Elphinstone, in his very excellent and extraordinarily accurate

account of the kingdom of Cabul, mentions, but with doubt, the exist-

ence of Lions in the hilly country about Cabul. If Lions do exist in

any part of Afghanistan, they must be looked for, it appears to me, to

the West.

Of Tigers.—I did not get any information ; for even about Olipore,

where the upper part of the hills is covered with forest, the lower-

most parts and the sides of the vallies do not present much deviation

from the ordinary Afghan nakedness, and this is ill-suited to what we

know of the habits of these animals. Leopards exist about Chugur-

serai, and probably in all the wooded portions of the Sofaid-koh

system. A large wild Cat, with a tendency to the Lyncean tuft on

the ears, is also met with about Olipore.

A large and a small species of Fox appear to exist. The former,

which is perhaps identical with the large Himalayan Fox, I procured

from Quettah and at Olipore, at which place it is not uncommon.

The small kind seems to resemble the Fox of the plains of N. W.

India. Jackalls were observed at Quettah, and in the Koonur valley.

Of Wolves and Hyeenas I did not hear, although the nature of many

parts of the country would appear, from what is known of the habits

of the Indian species, well adapted to them. Of this I am quite sure,

that if they do exist, their existence must be more than ordinarily

1841.] Report on subjects connected with Afghanistan. 979

precarious, especially during the summer months, when the flocks are

driven far away into the high districts. The other carnivora known

to me are the Mungoose, and a small prettily marked animal of the

same family, which I saw alive in the possession of an officer of H. M.

13th Light Infantry.

Wild Hog occur in some parts, such for instance as the valleys of

Jellalabad and Peshawur ; in certain parts of which last, along the

Cabul river, they are reported to be numerous. No domestic swine are

to be seen in the country, the untravelled Afghans therefore cannot

appreciate the reasons which led to their being denounced as_ unclean.

They do not, however, hold them in less abhorrence than the Mussul-

man of Hindostan, who has daily evidence of their filthy habits. Af-

ghanistan possesses one species of Hedgehog of small size with large

ears. It is among the rat-like or rodent animals that the greatest va-

riety in form is to be found. In this direction, as in the Flora, the

transition between Afghanistan and India may be observed in the

dry parts of our extreme N. W. provinces.

Of these animals two only exist of any size ; the largest is the Por-

cupine, which is to be found in the lower parts of Eastern Afghanis-

tan, and a Marmot of about the size of a Beaver, which I have seen on

the mountains about the Hageeguk Kaloo and Erak passes, on which

it occurs between 11,000 and 12,000 feet.

It attracts notice chiefly by its loud whistling, but otherwise is a

very wary animal ; it may be occasionally seen sitting erect on its hind

quarters at the entrances to its burrows. Of the smaller rat-like ani-

mals, several] species exist in the collection: the most striking, from its

novelty, elegance of form, and agility, is the Jerboa, which was first

seen at Quettah, and was afterwards found to be of pretty general oc-

currence throughout the moderately elevated parts of the country.

One species of Hare was observed to be tolerably common along the

valley of the Turnuk. There are, however, probably two other species

in the country, as I observed one in a very different locality among

the hills at Targeen, and another among the snows of the Koh-i-Baba.

No Rabbits exist : their place is perhaps supplied by a species of Lago-

mys, not uncommon in rocky ground about Cabul, and perhaps gene-

rally between an elevation of 6 and 8,000 feet. By some of the officers

these little animals were said to have been eaten as Rabbits.

980 Report on subjects connected with Afghanistan. [No. 120.

Although not with strict propriety referable to a division headed

Natural Products, which, in the excellent statistical arrangement of

that wonderful man, Dr. Buchanan Hamilton, is limited to those things

supplied by nature without the assistance of man, I have appended to

my brief notices of the wild animals, those of a domestic nature.

Domestic Animais.—These are horses, ponies or yaboos, asses,

mules, camels, or dromedaries, oxen, buffaloes, sheep, goats, dogs and

eats. On the whole in this branch of domestic property, Afghanistan

may be considered as rather rich.

Horses.

The horses are heavy, but are said to be enduring. I sus-

pect that their qualities, as well as those of the Toorkistan horses, have

been a good deal overrated. On this point, however, I am not compe-

tent to remark, besides Government must be in possession of abundant

information, as to their value for Cavalry or Draft purposes. The

mode of treatment of horses by the Afghans differs considerably from

that in use among us. Afghan horses have their stated and defined

meals ; with us, food is always before them. I think the Afghan plan

is the more natural of the two.

Ponies.—The ponies are chiefly used as beasts of burden, for which

purpose the larger and stronger kinds are admirably adapted. These,

however, are not easily procurable. Although expensive to feed

and keep in good condition, the quickness with which they get over

the ground, and the ease with which they surmount the obstacles

presented by bad roads, renders them greatly preferable to camels.

Asses.—The native asses are not very fine, but those imported from

Turkistan are perhaps among the finest. The males are sent across

the mountains, they are generally white, have their nostrils slit, and

fetch a high price, say 100 to 120 Rs. at Cabul.

Mules.—Very few fine mules are procurable even for very high

sums. Although not so fast as yaboos, which in the hands of Afghan

drivers seated on the top of a load of 3 and 4 maunds, will go at the rate

of 5 miles an hour for 1d miles; they are more enduring, and much

less expensive to keep ; on the other hand, they are said to be more

liable to be galled.

Dromedary.—The Afghan dromedary is decidedly a very fine

animal, remarkably different in general configuration from that of

Hindoostan, having a round, handsome, and compact barre}, and short

1841.] Report on subjects connected with Afghanistan. 9381

strong legs. The outline of the head and face are very different,

and the upper lip is much less pendent. The under-hair or wool

of the dromedary affords excellent materials for warm, strong, and

cheap clothing, and the Afghans avail themselves largely of it. In

this country, these animals are always driven, not led, neither are

they incommoded with a nose string. Hindoostan camels are not

adapted to the climate of Afghanistan, or the stony surface of the

country; it was found, that unless as well cared for as horses, they

are by no means enduring animals, being exceedingly impatient of

cold and wet; and though not great drinkers, impatient of the want

of water. Although the Indian camels accompanying the Army of

the Indus underwent great hardship, and suffered from change of

diet or absolute privation, yet great part of the great loss was occa-

sioned by the cruelty and carelessness of the swr7ans or camel-drivers ;

than whom, even in Asia, a more worthless set does not exist. Captain

Fraser of the Cavalry was one, among the very few officers, who

did not lose a single camel between Ferozepore and Cabul. From his

experience it would appear, that with good grooming, clothing, and

feeding, the Indian camel may be depended upon. Perhaps this

may be deemed worthy of some attention. At present the well-being of

the carriage of an Army is almost entirely left to the natives, who in

addition to their other bad qualities, are merciless and most improvident

masters. At Urghundee, I counted about 20 camels, which had re-

covered after having been deserted and deprived of a large portion

of skin containing the mark, which it was necessary to shew to secure

compensation. On grooming and clothing I am the more inclined

to lay stress, as I am aware that the Government camels always had,

whenever it was procurable, a liberal supply of grain.

Camel.—The Bactrian camel is not common in Afghanistan, the

cross between it and the dromedary is a remarkably handsome and

valuable animal. Of the remaining domestic animals, only the sheep,

goats, and one or two breeds of dogs, are worthy of any detailed notice.

Sheep.—The sheep, are all dombas, like the Cape sheep, remarkable

for the great development of fat in their tails. ‘To the Afghans they

are of inestimable value, supplying them with cheap clothing admira-

bly adapted to the climate, with milk, and the favourite preparation

from it, kroot, a sort of dry curdle, which did not appear to me at all

982 Report on suljects connected with Afghanistan. [No. 120.

palatable, also ghee, and I believe oil. The flesh varies a good deal,

but generally was not much esteemed by us. When gram-fed it is, I

believe, excellent.

The sheep are very numerous, and are generally the property of the

Nomadee tribes, whose character might make us look with suspicion

on the alleged innocence of the pastoral lives of old. In the cold wea-

ther, so far as I have seen in eastern Afghanistan, they are congregated

in the low districts ; at this season I have seen vast flocks about Lalpore

and Dukka. At the commencement of the hot season, they are driven

to the high grounds, such as the Hazarah country, between Cabul and

Bameean. Each flock appears to be generally led by a goat, to whose

movements the sheep pay implicit attention.

Goats.—Goats are also numerous, and perhaps equally worthy of

attention, their wool is used largely ; and appears to be a promising ar-

ticle. These and the sheep are the only animals that could derive

sufficient nutriment from the Afghan mountains, which generally

speaking, are remarkably deficient in grassy vegetation. I think they

feed principally on the aromatic and thorny plants, which form the

principal mass of the vegetation.

Dogs.—The common dog of the country appears to approximate

a good deal to the Pariah of the plains. But the Tajee grey-hound,

a large handsome animal with exceedingly long curly hair about the

legs and ears, (I speak of the animal as I have seen it at Cabul in the

summer,) might be introduced into England perhaps with advantage.

Although doubtless much less speedy than the high-bred English grey-

hound, in their bone they may be found to possess advantages which

it might be desirable to transfer ; the Afghans are also said to possess

excellent pointers, but of these 1 have no personal knowledge.

AGRICULTURAL Propvwucts.

Of the cerealious or culmiferous plants, Afghanistan possesses wheat,

barley, rye, rice, Indian corn, and millet.

Wheat.—Of these, wheat and barley are the most important gene-

rally, although rice and maize, especially the former, constitute a con-

siderable proportion of the summer cultivation. Some of the Ghuzni

wheat was considered particularly fine. I sent some of the finest I

1841.} Report on suljects connected with Afghanistan. 983

could get in India for transmission to England, but am not aware

what value was assigned to it.

In connection with this, I may mention, that there is an important

remark in Dr. Falconer’s report on the Seharunpore garden, on the in-

ferior nature of the albumen of our Indian grains. Government might

probably deem it advisable to encourage the transmission of specimens

of all the finest sorts from Afghanistan to India; some of those of Can-

dahar may reasonably be expected to turn out well adapted to India.

In endeavoring to effect this highly desirable purpose, the following

remark of Dr. Falconer should be kept in view, as a guide to the selec-

tion of the finer kinds :—‘‘ The body of the seed of the European wheat

was formed of a farinaceous powdery albumen, whieh flew off into a

dust on crushing; while the Indian grains were seen to consist of a

hard horny-looking albumen, which was broken with difficulty, shew-

ing what English agriculturists call ‘a sleety body” and indicating

a comparatively very inferior grain. Throughout Afghanistan, wheat

may be considered as the staple grain of the inhabitants. It is gene-

rally eaten in the shape of bread, baked in flat oblong cakes, about an

inch thick ; the better kind is very light and well flavored.’’*

Barley.—Barley appears almost exclusively used for feeding horses.

Rye and Oats.—1 do not remember rye occurring as a distinct

crop; but it is not uncommon, as a mixed one. The same may be

said of their oats, but these perhaps are really wild. The greater

part of many of the fields about Bamean consisted of oats, but as the

grain ripens, and falls out before the wheat is ready for the sickle,

the only use it can be of.is, as affording straw for winter fodder.

Rice.—Rice occurs extensively about Cabul, the highest elevation

at which I have seen it cultivated in Afghanistan is about 7,000 feet.

It is all of the wet or shallee kind. The only particularly fine rice

grown west of the Indus, is that called shallee bara, grown near

Peshawur. The production is very local and very limited ; intro-

duced elsewhere it appears to degenerate into the coarse common kind.

It has a long grain, and is of such esteem, as to be among the list of

presents between crowned heads of the North-west.

* It is from wheat that the favorite article fuloodah is made ; this appears to besome

thing analogous to our vermicelli.

984 Report on subjects connected with Afghanistan. [No. 120.

Maize.—Maize, or Indian corn, is largely cultivated, especially about

Peshawur, where its flour is said to constitute the chief sustenance of

the inhabitants. | Sorghum and bajra are likewise frequent in the

lower parts of the country.

All these enter into other uses than merely giving nutritious grains.

The young wheat and barley are cut, and given as green fodder

to cattle ; this is esteemed especially serviceable in improving condi-

tion, and is known by the name of khased. The straw of all is taken

great care of, and chopped up into boosa.

The stout stemmed kinds, as Indian corn, sorghum, and bajra, are

given entire to cattle, who eat the leaves and the ears ; they are stored for

winter fodder at least in some parts, and are then cut into small pieces,

in this state it is called khurbee.. None of the other grains are worthy

of notice, the supply being limited, and the product very inferior.

Of leguminous grains, the Afghans cultivate muttur, a sort of

chunna, oror moong; but I know of none so good, or so extensively

useful, as to merit detailed notice. As might be expected, with the

exception of muttur (peas), these are confined to the warmer and more

tropical parts ; all may be observed about Jellalabad.

Oily.seeded Plants.—Of oily-seeded plants, mustard is the one

universally cultivated ; they have also another species chiefly confined

to the lower districts, in these also sesamum, or til, may be met with.

The country also possesses linseed, but I have never seen it exten-

sively cultivated.

Sugar.—The only place in which I noticed sugar was in the valley

of Jellalabad, where it occurs to some extent. It appears to be the same

kind as that in common use throughout the North-west. The chief

supply of sugar, which from the fondness of Afghans for sweet-meats

must be considerable, appears to be derived from the plains. Coarse

sugar-candy, in flat cakes, was procurable in 1840 at Cabul, for one-

half to two seers the rupee; a coarse kind of Russian loaf sugar, was

common also in the market.

Cotton.—Cotton is entirely confined to the lower districts, a good

deal is cultivated about Jellalabad. Two plants are cultivated for

their colours.

Madder.—Safflower and madder. The former occurs extensively

about Cabul, and is perhaps worthy of a more detailed notice than |

1841.] Report on subjects connected with Afghanistan. 985

am able to give it. Madder is confined, so far as I know, to western

Afghanistan. About Candahar it is common; it is planted on

trenched ground; the green parts are given as fodder to camels; the

roots are allowed to remain untouched for two, three, or five vears, or

even seven, the quality of those dug up early is inferior. The price

is, I was told, six Hindoostanee maunds for one rupee. Madder forms

an extensive export to Bombay ; it is, I believe, the same species as

that cultivated in Europe.

Tobacco.—Tobacco of excellent quality is grown about Candahar,

chiefly I believe in the valley of the Arghandab. ‘This again is one

of the agricultural products, upen which detailed information, accom-

panied by samples, is necessary.

Natural Grasses.—No valuable natural grasses occur, it would ap-

pear, in Afghanistan, except on the Chummuns. ‘The doab-grass is

found throughout, but I do not think it is used by the Afghans. No

hay is made in any part of the country I have visited, throughout the

poorer and less favored districts, such for instance as the Hazarah coun-

try between Cabul and Bamean ; the wild plants of the hills are cut

almost indiscriminately, and when dry are carried to the villages, and

‘stored on the roofs of the houses and towers for winter use. ‘The va-

rious kinds of thistles, the large leaves of the rhubarb, and indeed the

whole of such plants as are absolutely not too dry to afford nourish-

ment, are thus made use of.

Artificial Grasses.—To supply the wants of fine natural pasture

grasses, Afghanistan possesses very fine artificial ones in lucerne and

clover, these are extensively cultivated, requiring no great care, but

‘plenty of water. In the green state, they constitute the greatest, and

most valuable part of the food of the cattle, and in the dry state, in

‘which they are twisted into coarse ropes, they are extensively used

‘during the winter months.

The lucerne is the same species as that cultivated in the North-

west parts of India and Europe ; it occurs throughout the country at

‘almost every altitude.

The clover, which is unlike any of the English cultivated species I

remember, is a beautiful, and when in flower, a very fragrant plant,

it has long succulent tender trailings, stems, and heads of bluish

flowers. It first attracted my notice about Ghuzni; it is common at

986 Report on. suljects connected with Afghanistan. { No. 120.

-Cabul, and about Khujjah, below which I do not remember having

seen it. By the Afghans it is not so much esteemed as lucerne.

Of the number of seeds despatched by me, by order of his Lordship

the Governor General in Council to the Superintendent of the Seharun-

pore garden, for transmission to Europe, these two would appear to

be by far the most valuable, indeed perhaps the only ones worthy of

introduction into Europe. The accounts that have appeared of their

success, especially that of the lucerne in Ireland, are particularly interest-

ing, and very gratifying to me.

Vegetables.—In vegetables Afghanistan is very poor, although Mr.

Vigne has published a list of the Cabul vegetables, worthy of a Covent

Garden market ; the whole may I think be summed up in the following

list: cabbages, cauliflowers, beet-root, spinages, radishes, carrots, ban-

guns, lettuces, cucumbers, onions, and garlic.

Of these only the beet root and cabbage are worthy of notice. The

extensive introduction of good European vegetables would confer a

real boon on the country. Sir A. Burnes several years ago introduced

the potatoe, but on his return to Cabool with the army, he found they

had all been lost.

Flowers.—The Afghans do not appear to be skilful florists ; no one

of their cultivated flowers is worthy of notice. I remarked at Candahar

and Cabul, roses, jessamines, marigolds, pinks, sweet-williams, poppies,

larkspurs, stocks, wallflowers, narcissuses, flags and China asters,

which last are the handsomest, and of the most varied colours.*

Fruits.—In fruits the country is remarkably rich, and although the

Afghans are acquainted with grafting, the perfection to which several

of the finer fruits has reached, appears to me remarkable; it certainly

is more attributable to the climate, than to any skill on the part

of the Afghans; there is every reason for believing, that from the

improvements they will become acquainted with from their intercourse

with us, Afghanistan will become one of the finest fruit countries in

excellence, and variety of product. Should success ultimately attend

the praise-worthy efforts of Drs. Royle and Falconer to introduce

cuttings, &c. overland, Afghanistan should not be omitted in the dis-

tribution. Fruits in this country are of a more important nature than

* Hawthorn trees, and the famous Arghawan, occur in Baber’s garden at Cabul.

This last is, I believe, Cercis Siliquastrum of Botanists.

1841. ] Report on subjects connected with Afghanistan. 987

they are in India, or perhaps most other countries in which they

are not generally to be considered as absolute necessaries of life. In

Afghanistan, however, several kinds assist very largely in the suste-

nance of the bulk of the population.

Few things can be seen more striking to a person accustomed to

India, than the display of fruit in the markets and shops of Cabul ;

few things more astonishing than their very low prices. Even after

the whole army of the Indus had been encamped at Cabul for some

weeks, they still continued remarkably cheap.

The Afghanistan list of fruits includes

Apricots (zurd-aloo), two or three kinds,

Peaches (shuft aloo),

Nectarines,

Plums (also bokhara), several kinds,

Bullaces? (aloocoa),

Cherries (aloo waloo),

Apples (saioo), several kinds,

Pears (nass puttee), two or three kinds,

Quinces (bhel),

Pomegranates (unnar), two kinds,

Grapes (ungoor), several kinds,

Musk melons, (khur-booja, gurm),

Sinda ditto, (khur-booja, surda),

Water ditto, (turboozah),

Mulberries (toot), two or three kinds,

Walnuts (char mughz),

Figs (unjeer).

Of these, the most important, as constituting an article of food in

large consumption by the mass of the inhabitants, are the common

kinds of apricots, plums, grapes, melons, and mulberries.

The best flavoured fruits, and generally they may be pronounced

excellent, however disfigured and liable to be bruised, they are by the

dirty and rude hands of the Afghans, are the khaisee apricots, peaches,

nectarines, most of the grapes, the musk melons, the smaller kind of

pear, the large red mulberry called shahtoot, closely resembling the

good English mulberries, and the seedless (or bedanah) pomegra-

nates.

988 Report on subjects connected with Afghanistan. [No. 120.

Most of these fruits are consumed in the country ; some, such as a

large thick-skinned grape, (like the exported Portugal grape), the

seedless pomegranate, walnuts, apples, and figs are exported ; but with

the exception of the grapes, perhaps. in no great quantity, large

quantities of the thick-skinned grapes alluded to are consumed in

winter throughout the country.

From many preserves are made, and commonly sold in the bazaars.

Some again, especially the apricot, kissmiss grape, fig, and white mul-

berry are prepared by drying ; the apricot in this state, is, I believe, called

goobani. The dried mulberries abound in saccharine matter, and are

used to a considerable extent, as is likewise the dried kissmiss or raisin.

The peaches are of large size, and good flavour, but are generally

damaged by premature plucking and rough usage, the Afghans not

being acquainted with the European niceties attended to in gathering

such fruits. Nectarines I did not see, but I was told that they are

grown at Candahar. None of the plums are particularly good, and the

cherries are much more adapted for preserves, than for eating fresh.

Of the several kinds of grapes, I prefer the kissmiss; this isa

small roundish, seedless, grape, of a greenish colour, tinged with

brown when perfectly ripe. Besides this, Afghanistan possesses a very

large oblong fleshy purple grape; a green grape of similar properties,

other respects than colour, chiefly kept for winter use and for exporta-

tion; a large highly flavoured round purple grape; a dark purple round

sweet grape, with very large and very small fruits on the same bunch,

the small ones being seedless. All these, and I dare say more may be

procured at Cabul or Candahar. There is also a very large round sub-

fleshy green grape, the wngoorde kuttah, which is produced along the N.

face of the Sofaid Koh, as about the Khujjah district.

The surda melon is, I think, unknown in India; it is very distinct,

apparently both from the musk and water melon, is of an oblong

shape, with firm whitish flesh; it is sweeter than the musk melon, to

which I think it very inferior. It must be remarked, however, that

it is said only to attain its perfect flavour after having been touched

by the frost; it is in extensive use throughout the earlier, winter

months.

The seedless pomegranates have a high reputation. I never was

fortunate enough to meet with really fine ones.

1841.] Report on subjects connected with Afghanistan. 989

To the list may be added perhaps the zurishk or barberry, which is

generally eaten as a preserve ; a sort of bhair called aral ; the dried pulp

of the sinjit, a species of Eleagnis, commonly planted about water-

courses in the finer vallies and an Hippophaee, which I was told was

considered a fruit at Cabul. Date trees, but very few, occur at Jellala-

bad ; this fruit is imported in considerable quantities. Citronsalso are

common in the Jellalabad gardens. The palm of superiority of fruits

is I believe, disputed by Cabul and Candahar. Ghuzni is celebrated for

its plums, to which, and to apples, its supply is chiefly limited. The

fruit season lasts throughout the summer months; there will of course

be some difference between the seasons at Candahar and at Cabul.

The earlier fruits are chiefly confined to such stone fruits as cherries

and plums. The grand season at Cabul is in August and September.

The most widely distributed fruit tree is the common mulberry ; this

is found everywhere, up to elevations of 8 and 9,000 feet ; wherever

there is a village, there will be found the white mulberry.

The range of the apricot may be stated as between 3,000 and 8,000

feet, it is also met with higher, but scarcely produces beyond that

elevation. I have seen it in the Erak ravine as high as 10,500 feet.

Walnuts are, so far as I know, limited to considerable altitude, such

as that of Cabul, 6,400 feet.

Pomgranates range from 1,200 to 5,000 feet, at Khujjah ; 4,500

feet above the sea, they are said to attain great perfection. With

regard to cultivation, 1 am not aware that any great skill is applied.

To the unclouded summer sky, the great dryness of the air during

the season, the goodness of the soil, and facilities of irrigation, I am

inclined to attribute the good qualities of the fruits. It is scarcely

necessary to add, that all the trees are standards. Most, if not all the

stone fruits, as well as the apples, pears, and mulberries, are planted

as orchards. The grapes at Candahar are planted in trenches, to

the north face of which they are confined ; in most other parts, they

appear to be allowed to scramble over trees.

Introduction of the Afghan fruits into India.—A good deal

has, I believe, been said of the probability of the successful in-

troduction of the Afghan fruits into India. But if we look at

the opposite peculiarilies of the two climates, to speak generally,

we are not, I think, warranted in expecting such a result. I do

990 Report on subjects connected with Afghanistan. [No. 120.

not wish to disparage such attempts, but it appears to me that

in all such inquiries there are certain requisite preliminary consider-

ations to which no attention is generally paid in India. In Afghan-

istan, we have a considerable increase of latitude, accompanied by

a considerable increase in altitude, at least so far as the great fruit

districts are concerned. We have a cold or a very severe winter,

during which, and also about the vernal equinox, snow or rain falls

to a considerable amount, constituting as it were a sort of monsoon.

This is succeeded by an almost absolutely dry summer and autumn,

during which the sun exercises an unchecked and powerful influence.

These two last circumstances are, I believe, essential to the perfection

of what we call the later European fruits. In what part of the

continent of India can these circumstances be found? We may

command elevation, but in no Indian climate known to me can we

command a cold winter, a genial spring, and a fine summer. In

India on the plains, the spring months are very hot, and the time of

ripening of the later and better fruits falls in the rainy season. The

Coromandel coast agrees with Afghanistan in the distribution of the

rainy and fine months, but in no other circumstance. If we go to

the hills, we become exposed to an increased severity of summer

rain.

No fruit-bearing plant of Afghanistan can, I think, be reconciled

with any success to such extremes. It is curious that Peshawur,

which has an Afghan climate, so far as rainy winter months and a

dry summer are concerned, does not possess, perhaps, a single supe-

rior European fruit. Can we infer from this, that a certain amount

of winter cold is required for the attainment of excellence? With

Bengal Proper, I would not advise interchanges to be made. If it

be considered advisable to introduce the Afghan fruits into the N. W.

provinces, which have a very different cold weather and rainy season

from those of Bengal, I would beg to suggest that the introduction

be carried on from Candahar. I find on referring to my journal, that

grapes and musk melons were coming into season about the 15th or

20th June. This is about the period of the setting in. ofthe rains in the

N. W. as about Merut ; but the smaller amount of cold of the Indian

winter, and the greater amount of heat of the spring, would doubtless

cause the ripening to occur earlier, so that the fruits would be exempt

- 1841.) Report on sulyects connected with Afghanistan. 991

from the injuries of rain. If introduction into the Himalayas be

deemed desirable, Cabul should be the place of supply, unless there

is some unexpected affinity between the amount of solar heat of the

spring months these mountains enjoy and that of Candahar. And

perhaps attention should be chiefly directed to those fruits that are

in full season before the middle of June.

General Nature of Afghan Vegetation.—Before entering on a few

brief notices of those vegetable productions which are not cultivated,

but which administer to the wants of the people, it may be as well to

premise a few popular remarks on the general nature of the Afghan

vegetation. No parallel can be drawn between the Afghan Flora

and that of India in any part; for even in the lower parts of the coun-

try, but very little elevated above the general level of our extreme N.

W. Provinces, the Flora of Afghanistan is decidedly peculiar.

Line of transition from Indian to Afghan Vegetation.—The transi-

tion commences, as may be said, along the Sutlege: on the Ferozepoor

route it is gradual, on that of Shikarpore it is much more abrupt.

At Peshawur, which is in north latitude 34°, and about 1200

feet above the sea, it is tolerably mature, still there is an inter-

mingling of Indian species, and this continues, gradually becoming

less, until one ascends to Gundamuk.

In Kutch Gundava, the Indian forms are less frequent; indeed

it may be said that by the Ferozepoor route the Indian species en-

croach on the Afghan territory; in Kutch Gundava the Afghan

species encroach on the Indian territory.

The Afghan transitionary forms are various: Boraginee, Reseda,

Chenopodie, Bertholletia, Farselia, Medicago, Butomus, Peganum

Harmali, Nerium oleander, Alhagi Marorum? The Indian transi-

tionary forms consist of Calotropis procera, certain Amaranthacee and

Chenopodie, certain Saccharineous and Paniceous grasses, Acacia,

Arabica, and pudica, Prosopis spicigera and Dalbergia Sissoo.

Proper comparison only mith the Flora of the Levant, §c.—To

gain a just idea of the Afghan Flora, we must compare it with that

of the Levant, and perhaps with the greater part of the basin of

the Mediterranean, with which it may be said to correspond in

latitude. With the general Flora of Persia it may be regarded as con-

tinuous.

992 Report on subjects connected with Afghanistan. [No. 120.

Extent of Mediterranean Province.—Few things can be more strik-

ing or worthy of comprehensive investigation than this vast extent of

the Mediterranean or Australo-European Botanical province. Dr.

Falconer told me, that he had ascertained it to prevail a long way to

the northward and eastward of Afghanistan; and I have materials

for shewing, that it characterizes the country on the N. face of the

Paropamisus, between Maimuna and Bamean, and from the mission of

Meyendorff to Bokhara, to which my attention was directed by Sir

A. Burnes, it is evident that it equally characterizes Bokhara, and the

country between it and Orenburgh.

On this subject, I shall enter into details in the purely botanical

part of my report, which I shall have the honour of submitting with

the arranged collection.

Features of the Afghan Flora.—The striking features of the Flora

as compared with India, are the scarcity, generally amounting to abso-

lute want, of indigenous trees, a general poverty in variety of form, the

general prevalence of forms characteristic of Southern Europe, the

abundance of the large European families, such as cruciferous, umbel-

liferous, &c. plants, and of those forms of Composite known to Bo-

tanists as Cynarocephaliz, and of which thistles may be mentioned as

familiar instances ; the common occurrence of bulbous monocoty-

ledonous plants, such as Tulips, Hyacinths, Onions, &c. the nature of

its grasses, and the scarcity of Orchidleze and Ferns, which may be said

to exist only in Eastern Afghanistan.

The number of aromatic plants, the prevalence of thorny species,

and the very general occurrence of the flowering periods in the spring

months, are also deserving of notice.

From almost all the forms being what are called European, it fol-

lows that no transition in form occurs consequent on variation of ele-

vation, similar to that which has been so much noticed by all travel-

lers in the Himalayas, and other high Indian ranges. In this we are

accustomed to associate height with the appearance of forms familiar

to our earlier days. In Afghanistan it is not so, and it is remarkable

enough, that even the summer Floras of its lowest parts, which have as

high a mean summer temperature perhaps as any in the world, are

still characterised by a majority of European forms. In high or in

low, in hot or in cold situations throughout Afghanistan, forms charac-

—S

ee ee ee a a

Se ee as

1841. | Report on subjects connected with Afghanistan. 993

teristic of an European climate will be found to prevail. The tra-

veller may pluck roses, pinks, hyacinths, sea-lavenders, kochias,

eryngos, catchflies, flags, &c. at an elevation of 1,000 feet, as well as

that of 10,000 feet. It would perhaps be difficult to find many gene-

ric forms characteristic of altitude.

Ordinary visitors would be likewise much struck with the circum-

stance, that a total change in the indigenous plants may exist, while

there is little or none in those cultivated. Thus at Cabul, where the

winter is so severe, and where heavy snow lies for two or three

months, and about which not an indigenous plant, common to India

perhaps is to be found, he will see Indian corn and rice cultivated with

wheat and barley, rice perhaps forming the prevailing crop. We may

see at Cabul the rice fields bordered by poplars and willows; the aspen

quivering over the nodding rice. This is easily accounted for; an ap-

proach to community of temperature may perhaps be found between the

summer heat of Cabul, and the winter and spring heats of the plains

of India, which may explain the cultivation of wheat and barley.

Between the summer heats of the two countries, there is likewise suf-

ficient community to account for the cultivation of rice occurring

in both in the summer.

Brief notices on useful Plants occurring wild.—The accompanying

list will be found extremely meagre; but in the first place, the great

bulk of the vegetation consists of the large European families, among

which valuable products in the wild state are not extensively presented ;

and in the second, it is drawn up from memory chiefly, for even the

casual overlooking of the Herbarium, which is requisite to make

it more complete, would delay one considerably in the submission

of the report, and I may add, there is no probability of valuable

_information turning up to compensate for this.

Maizurrye (Chamerops.)—Among monocotyledonous plants, that

of the most use is, I think, the mazzurrye, of the Khyburs and

Momunds. It is a small palm, and appears to be a Chamerops ;

perhaps the same as C. humilis of Southern Europe? Should it be dis-

tinct, 1 hope it may be allowed to bear the name of C. Ritchiana,

after Dr. Ritchie, the only person who has explored the botanical

productions of the Khybur Pass. This plant is extensively used

in the manufacture of ropes, or strings for the bottoms of charpaiees,

99-4 Report on subjects connected with Afghanistan. [No. 120.

and of the sandals, so universally worn in the Momund and Khybur

districts, and perhaps generally throughout lower eastern Afgha-

nistan. :

Salep.—Salep is to be found in the markets of Cabul, at a much

lower price than in those of the N. W. of India. A species of orchis

is common in marshy places, high up among the Huzarah mountains,

but I could not ascertain whether it was from this that Cabul

was supplied. There is also an Eulophea in sand islands of the

Koonur river, from which salep may be derived.

Umbelliferous Plants —Among the dicotyledonous plants, the

umbelliferous family holds perhaps the highest rank, as affording

valuable wild products. In Afghanistan, most of the foetid, or aroma-

tic foetid gum resins, such as opoponax, assafoetida, ammoniacam,

sagapenum, will probably be found. Of these the most important

is the assafcetida, as it is largely exported, and consumed in the

country as an adjunct to cookery. It was first announced as existing

in the country, I believe, by Sir A. Burnes; it appears to be of

general occurrence on the hilly tracts. Probably it is furnished by

two species. At Metah, Captain E. Conolly told me, it was produced

largely in the hot country of Seistan. He also informed me, that it

was collected in conical pieces of paper, placed over a complete section

of the plant, at the junction of stem and root.

Prangos Pabularia.—As famous a plant as the assafcetida, exists

in the Prangos pabularia. In Afghanistan, however, it certainly does

not merit the reputation which Mr. Moorcroft has recorded it possesses

in some parts of Thibet. This plant is not uncommon on the Haza-

rah mountains, at an elevation of 9,500 and 11,500 feet; but it is not

used more, either as summer or winter fodder, than most of the plants

possessed of any degree of succulence, of the same districts. It is as I

have said, cut indiscriminately with thistles, docks, and a host of others,

which would surprize an English farmer; this agrees generally with

Dr. Falconer’s experience.

Maimunna.—The Maimunna, a Rhamnaeous genus, is held in

some esteem for its fruit, which for an uncultivated one, is by no

means unpleasant. It is common throughout the lower parts of Eas-

tern Afghanistan ; the fruit is a black berry of the size of a black

currant, and of sweetish flavor. A much more esteemed fruit, which ~

Oe 2 eh a ees > -

1841.] Report on subjects connected with Afghanistan. 995

is sold commonly in the bazars, is the Goorgoora, Edgeworthia

buxifolia, Fal. This plant was first found by Dr. Falconer about

Peshawur, and by him was named after Mr. Edgeworth, a distin-

guished member of the Bengal Civil Service. Its natural cha-

racters are, as it were, intermediate beween Myrsione and Theopha-

stree, tending likewise towards Sapotee. The fruit is roundish and

succulent, about the size of a small marble ; it is principally occupied

by the seed, which is not eatable. I have not seen it fresh. It is con-

sidered heating by the Afghans, and this perhaps is the reason of

its being common in the bazaars. The plant is generally a thorny

shrub: it is common throughout the lower parts of the hills of

Eastern Afghanistan.

Sinjt Eleagnus orientalis ?—The Sinjit, which is probably the

Eloagnus orzenfalis, ought perhaps to have been enumerated among

the cultivated fruit trees ; it is commonly planted along the banks of

water-cuts; and is ornamental from its graceful crown and grey

foliage. The dried pulp of the berry is eaten, but it is much too sour

for European taste.

Pistacia, P. Lentiscus.—The Pistacia occurs, Lieut. Sturt tells me,

on the Hindoo Koosh, to considerable extent ; scattered plants of it are

not uncommon throughout the mountainous parts of the country

generally. It is a low tree, the seed constitutes the fruit, and is as

much esteemed by the Afghans as almonds are by us.

Chilghozeh Pinus.—Edible seeds, of a very pleasant flavour, slight-

ly tinged with turpentine, are yielded by the Chilghozeh, a species of

Pine ; the seeds are to all outward appearance exactly like those of the

Kunawur Pinus Gerardiana. They are eaten in considerable quan-

tities, the supplies being derived from the Sofaid Koh.

Umlook.—Another wild fruit is yielded by the Umlook, a species of

Diospyros ; it also occurs in some gardens ; it is not worthy of any notice.

Schnee.—One of the most celebrated plants in the country for

its aromatic and stimulant properties is the Schnee, which may perhaps

be a species of Balsamodendron. It occurs in the Kojuck range, nad

is to be met with, though not to such extent, on most others.

Rhuwath.—Another famous plant is the Rhuwath, or Rhubarb,

which, as it is also cultivated and in great request, ought to have been

arranged with the vegetables. It is the only instance which evinces

996 Report on subjects connected with Afghanistan. [No. 120.

the knowledge of Afghans of the value of etiolating or blanching cer-

tain plants. I have never seen it, not having been in Cabul in the

spring. The wild plant, which, I believe is the original of the cul-

tivated one, is plentiful on the Kojuck range, and also on the Hu-

zarah mountains up to an elevation of 11,500 feet. The leaves of this

are used with others as winter fodder, the cultivated Rhubarb might

easily be introduced to Simlah, Mussoorie, and Darjeeling.

Artemisice.—Several of the wild plants of Afghanistan are extensive-

ly used as fuel. Those in most common use about Cabul, are species of

Artemisia or wormwood, by some of our officers known as wild thyme;

they are aromatic, camphorated, low shrubs, and some are eaten

by camels. In the loftier districts great part of the vegetable fuel

is furnished by the plants known generally by the name of Koollah-i-

Huzarah, Huzarah’s Cap. They form one of the most’ prominent

features of the Flora, occurring in dense, highly thorny, hemispherical

tufts, as unpleasant to touch as the back of a hedgehog. Many species

occur... To Botanists they are known by the name of Statice.

Ka-ri-Shootur—Alhagi Maurorum.—Plants eaten by camels become,

in such a barren country as Afghanistan, invested with a good deal of

importance. Generally such are not deficient, but one of the difficulties

of the Bolan Pass is occasioned by their absence, and to a similar cause

I attribute the great loss of camels on the return to India between

Bookhak and Bala Bagh. Of these the most esteemed is the Ka-ri-

Shootur, or Jaursa of the N. W., one of the most widely distributed

plants, occurring all over the N. W. of India, and all over Afghanistan,

up to an elevation of 9,500 feet. This plant is also known as affording

the Turunjubeen, a sort of manna-like substance ; the production of

this appears to be local, and the only place I was told it was procured

in Afghanistan was the Candahar district.

Perhaps the best other kinds of camel fodder are furnished by the

Chenopodee, or Goose-foot tribe. These abound throughout the coun-

try, and are succulent and saline.

Tragacanth.—There is every prohabalieyet of the true Tragacanth

plants being found in the country, the section being one of the most

common forms of Leguminose.

Daphne.—A species of Daphne not unlike D. Cannabina; the pa-

per plant of Nepal and Bootan, is not uncommon at elevations of 5,000

mae

si Vas Ae,

rt a SOAS a

jore

fol

\Khyee™

Liste

VALLEY of DHUKKA or LALPORE

2000 yards to 1.03 of an Inch

I Black, Asiaue Lith Prees Caleuitis. 1842

HLM, Smith

1841. ] Report on subjects connected with Afghanistan. 997 -

to 6,500 feet. The Afghans only make use of it in the construction

of the matches for their match-locks.

Of the timber trees of Eastern Afghanistan an extensive use is

not made ; the Baloot suffers most, from being most. accessible. The

Zaitcon wood is remarkably heavy, sinking in water: it has a very

close grain, and may be found to possess valuable properties. On the

subject of forest trees, I have entered elsewhere.

PART IY.

It appears to me, that there are three natural defects, of more or

Natural Defects of af. le88 general. occurrence, throughout Afghanis-

ghanistan.—Small portion tan, as. that kingdom is now limited; viz.

of tillable soil. small proportion of tillable soil, want. of fo-

rests, and of water-carriage. Afghanistan is, I think, decidedly a bar-

ren.and poor country... The tillable part of the soil bears no. propor-

tion to that which is untillable..

The untillable majority is composed of either bare rock, the mountain-

ous ranges for instance; or of the inclined planes of boulders and shingle,

which I fear must be considered almost as irreclaimable as rock itself.

On the proportions of the tillable to the untillable, part, I have no

direct observations to adduce. Those proportions are variable, but

very generally the irreclaimable parts are in. vast excess,* and conse-

quently they oppose a considerable obstacle to any such great exten-

sion of cultivation, as would entitle Afghanistan to be considered even

a moderately rich agricultural country.

It was a common remark throughout the army, how wealthy the

country would be, if stones were a source of richness and prosperity.

The stony nature of the country is almost inconceivable by a person

habituated to the extensive alluvial soils of British India. It is still

more striking, because, owing to the value of the tillable soil, all the

roads, with but very few exceptions, are carried over the edge of the

glacis slopes; as an instance, and yet it is scarcely an extreme one,

I may cite the county between Bala Bagh near Jelallabad, and Book-

hak near Cabul, over which the great line of communication with the

* T annex a survey of the valley of Dhukka to shew the proportion of vast excess ;

the section of the Peshawur valley gives the opposite and more fayourable one,

998 Report on suljects connected with Afghanistan. [No. 120.

Punjab runs. This distance is scarcely less than 65 miles, and the stones

are only varied by the occasional occurrence of patches of dry sand.

These stones and shingle are not merely strewed over the surface of

these glacis slopes, but they constitute them entirely, and I do not

exaggerate when I mention, that sections may be seen along the

course of draining ravines, as much as 60 or perhaps 100 feet in depth.

But although these portions of the country do not appear adapted

for any strictly agricultural purpose, there are considerable portions

of some of the finer vallies still uncultivated, and it is to these that

we must look for extension of cultivation. I shall merely mention

such places as presented themselves to my observation ; it would-be

useless to make any suggestions, for a great increase in cultivation has

always, and rapidly, succeeded the accession of British supremacy.

Of these vallies I would beg particularly to direct attention to that

of’ Pisheen, in which, on the line of route of the army, I was surprised

at seeing so little cultivation. This valley is, if not the largest, among

the largest; its general altitude is perhaps 5,300 feet; it is drained

by the river Lera, from which the application of the Persian wheel

would draw ample supplies for irrigation. The valley is also worthy

of examination as to the point of its applicability for a cantonment,

instead of that of Quettah, which has, I hear, been found to be decided-

ly unhealthy. Its extent and openness are greatly in its favour.

When the army was at Candahar, a considerable amount of land

both near the city and towards Deh Hajji was found uncultivated.

The same remark also applies to the fine and elevated tracts between

Mookoor and Nanee. But as in both these instances it was doubtless

ascribable to a rapacious and unsteady Government, the tracts alluded

to, must already have begun to shew evidences of great and perma-

nent improvement.

PART V.

On contemplating the general resources of Affghanistan, in connec-

Minerals and Wool, the — tion with its physical features, and nature of

two greatest resources of

the country—Proposed in- ‘ ; ;

troduction of useful Plants. two directions, which may possibly lead to

its inhabitants, it appears to me that there are

positive and permanent improvement. I allude to Minerals and to Wool.

Oe AS Pe fee ee a ee

1841.] Report on subjects connected with Afghanistan. 999

Minerals.—With regard to the former, I have to observe, that in

the absence of coal, which does not appear to have been discovered,

the mineral productions are only likely to become useful in the wooded

parts of the country, that is, about the great ranges, Sofaid Koh and the

eastern end of Hindoo Koosh, such for instance, as the Koonur and

Bajore valleys.

On the subject of Minerals, Iam not competent to afford any sound

information, but I trust that in the prosecution of my experiment, the

expence of land carriages, of labour, the general scantiness of streams,

and perhaps their general inapplicability, may always be borne in mind.

If mines are ever worked at Taigea, the products will be chiefly limit-

ed to the supply of the Cabool markets, for, so far as my information

goes, the Cabool river is not used for descent above Balabagh.. This

may possibly arise from prejudice on the part of the natives, and it

may perhaps be considered worth while putting it to the test by means

of a survey.

Bajore, I have always understood, to be deficient in streams. - Forests

of firs and oak doubtless exist on the ranges to the north of the val-

ley, but whether so near to the mine as to be thoroughly applicable,

remains to ke discovered. .

On the subject of minerals, generally, the remark may be made, that

those of Afghanistan can only be expected to meet with a market in

the country. India is I imagine independent in this respect, and to sup-

ply the European market appears to me a problematical assumption.

Wool.—lIt is to the wool of the country that I conceive especial

attention should be paid: the material exists in great abundance, and

trading in it will be in perfect unison with the habits of a great part of

the Afghan population. A good deal will depend upon the time at

which the best shearing takes place; this is stated by Captain Hutton

to take place in the summer. If this is generally the case, the wool

will be subjected to land-carriage from the higher districts to the

lower. Captain Hutton states, that the winter shearings are reckoned

inferior from the dirt occasioned by penning; but this scarcely applies

to Eastern Afghanistan, throughout all the parts of which known to me,

the flocks are in the autumn driven from the high to the low lands.

The great emigrations which thus take place towards Julalabad,

will abstract a good deal of the wool, from additional expence of Jand-

1000 Report on subjects connected with Afghanistan. [No. 120.

carriage ; the Cabool river being available to Peshawur, or to the

Indus. What is first required, is an exact knowledge of its excel-

lence, and the cost, inclusive of every charge, at which it can be deli-

vered first .at. Bombay, finally, in England.

If the properties of the wool be promising,* steps can be taken to

improve the native breed by importation of the best foreign stocks. Im-

provement of wool is stated to depend primarily on attention to the

breeds of Sheep, &c. It is also influenced by soil, climate, and food.

It has been ascertained that. fine clothing wool, the only one, judging

from the dry climate, and pastures of Afghanistan, that can be chiefly

looked for, may be grown equally fine in» most: situations, so that the

sheep are: confined and kept on dry: food, a great part of the year.

“It may also be grown on» the richest pastures,’ provided these be

it: to: be borne in mind, that Iam no authority in such matters, that cir-

cumstances intermediate in some degree between dry food and rich

pastures,. are prevalent naturally throughout Afghanistan. It ‘is also

somewhat to the purpose to remark, thatthe climate of New South

Wales is considered extremely favourable from its:dryness and mildness,

and that great advantage is derived from the absence of briars and un-

derwood. The mildness, though not a feature of the Afghan climate,

is obtained by the migrations I have alluded to, and the absence of

briars and underwood is complete. The introduction of first rate

rams is the main object at first: the offspring of the female appears

to be always influenced by the first male with which it has had inter-

course. It will be a matter of primary importance, therefore, to com-

mence with best untried ewes and first-rate rams.

‘““ By breeding from a coarse-woolled ewe and a pure fine-woolled

ram, the produce of the first cross will havea fleece approaching one-half

to the fineness.of that of the ram ; and by continuing to cross the pro-

geny with a fine-woolled ram, equal to the first ram in quality, the

fleece of the score and cross will approach three-fourths to the fineness

of the first, and in a few crosses more will be brought to an equal

quality.” Breeding in and in must be strictly avoided... But by breeding

from. a coarse-woolled ram and a fine-woolled ewe, the series will be

* On this subject I have no direct knowledge. For the accompanying remarks, I

am indebted to Rees’ Cyclopedia. «

1841.] Report on subjects connected with Afghanistan. 1001

reversed, and if continued, will be attended by the disappearance of

the fine-woolled race.

I know nothing more likely to invite to improvement than the

history of wool, nothing that should inculcate more steadily the ad-

vantages of interchange of breeds. Sheep’s wool appears to be the pro-

duct of cultivation; no wild animal is known resembling the wool-

bearing sheep. The wild sheep of Afghanistan, and indeed all the

wild animals of the same family in the country, are covered with

short coarse hair of large diameters, under which, and next to the

skin, occurs a various proportion of short wool. The effect of cultiva-

tion appears to be the falling off of the coarse hair, the place of which

is supplied by the increased growth of the wool.

The fine wool equal to the best Merino, now produced exclusively

in Australia is entirely owing to the skill and perseverance of a single

individual, John MacArthur, Esq. His stock originally conaisted of 30

coarse-haired Bengal ewes, but having in 1795 procured one Merino

ram and two ewes from the Cape, he commenced crossing, and by

constantly selecting the finest-woolled progeny for breeding from, he at

length succeeded completely. In 1802 he came to England, and obtain-

ed certain advantages as rewards, he returned with three Merino rams

and two ewes. In 1807, he possessed 7,000 sheep, and the better sort

of this wool he sent to the English markets, was considered equal to

the best. Merino in every point, but cleanness.

I have to add, that the signs of fine clothing wools are fineness

of fibre, softness, length, and soundness and equality of staple, (by

which are meant the locks of aggregated fibres.) The colour should

be pure white, and as the weight is materially influenced by cleanli-

ness, this last is an object of great importance to the wool buyer.

Among the manifold ways by which Afghanistan may be made to

benefit by its intimate connection with Great Britain, the introduction

of useful plants, such as those adapted for timber, for food, or for

other domestic purposes, is assuredly not-the least in the scale. The

plants most likely to succeed are perhaps those of Southern Europe.

Some of the most important of those of Kunawur, might also be, I

think, successfully introduced: with regard to these, I take the liberty

of submiting the accompanying list, premising, that it is drawn up on

general considerations, not strict practical knowledge.

[No. 120.

Report on subjects connected with Afghanistan.

1002

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1841.]

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{ No. 120.

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1004

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1841.]

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1006 Report on sulyects connected with Afghanistan. (No. 120.

Several of the European fruits may also be introduced with benefit,

such as currants, raspberries, strawberries.

Of vegetables, the artichoke, parsnip, carrot, turnip, potatoes, horse

radish, celery, sea kale, asparagus, parsley, good lettuces, endive, are

desiderata; some of them exist indigenously, but cultivated kinds are

required.

For the more tropical parts of the country, I would recommend the

introduction (or extension) of the Sissoo, Series, Jamin, the Mhowa,

Toon, Mangoe, and Kikkur.

The list might be extended almost indefinitely. I have taken my

authority for most of the plants adapted to the middle regions, by

which may be meant all between 3,000 and 7,500 feet, from Loudon’s

Encyclopedia, which book is also my authority for the properties of

the species. With regard to the North American plants, detailed

information is required, the habitats given by Mr. Loudon embracing

half of the new world.

Among these proposed introductions, the hop will be found. Ina

conversation with Dr. Falconer, it was suggested 'to me, that the Af-

ghan climate, from its dry summer, would probably be well adapted

to the cultivation of this plant. I in return suggested that the fine

tracts between Mookloor and Ghuzni, the valleys about Cabul and

Kohistan generally, would seem to be the most promising sites. I

would not now omit Candahar. I think that with regard to climate,

Afghanistan appears to present most, if not all, the circumstances un-

der which the hop reaches perfection in England; and I also think,

that the experiment should be tried. Mr. Loudon says, in his Encyclo-

pedia of plants, that the expences of a hop plantation are very great.

But I do not think that considerations of this kind, except where the

expence is unreasonable, are to be taken into so much weight when

connected with useful proposals recommended to a powerful Govern-

ment. Even putting the question into the shape of pounds, shillings,

and pence, great direct returns might be expected in the increased du-

ration of life among the European soldiery in India, to say nothing of

the enormous indirect advantage the army would derive from that

increase of sobriety, likely to attend the substitution of good beer,

for noxious ardent spirits. Excellent practical information regarding the

hop is to be found in the Penny Cyclopedia, vol. xii. and I would

1841.] Report on subjects connected with Afghanistan. 1007

suggest, that the article alluded to, should dictate the line of operations,

should the experiment be sanctioned by Government.

The same manure which in Flanders frequently ensures very large

returns, will not be difficult to procure, and may with much greater

cleanliness be used for the improvement of this plant, than in the

baking of bread, or heating of baths.

Cochineal. I must not pass over a product of the animal kingdom,

which though not indigenous to Afghanistan, is to Central Asia. I allude

to the Cochineal, to which attention was first drawn by Sir A. Burnes,

in his adventurous journey to Bokhara. This same distinguished

officer obligingly furnished me with samples of the Asiatic product

and that of America, derived from Russian commerce. He also sent me

specimens of a leguminous shrub on which the insect is said to feed,

and which is indigenous to Afghanistan. I could not detect any difference

between the two articles, either in their appearance or the colour of

their infusion. The subject is worth enquiring into; for my own part,

I could not but apprehend that some mistake has occurred, and that

the Asiatic insect, of whatever nature its colouring matter may be, will

be found to differ in more material points from the American one.

| No. 120.

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[ No. 120.

Report on subjects connected with Afghanistan.

1028

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1031

Report on subjects connected with Afghanistan.

1841.]

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Report on subjects connected with Afghanistan.

1032

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1033

Report on subjects connected with Afghanistan.

1841.]

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1034

1840.

April

Report on subjects connected with Afghanistan. _[No. 120.

23 Olipore, 7.27.2

fo se eae

WAIVNINIAA AAA AAA

NNN SST PT ST

—

ivy)

86.30

Go G9 bo 9 b9

Saad: Shalini

Spr

i ee

—Ooo

oro

oos

Observed Ailtitude,—( Continued. )

Oam. 17° 6 2 jy Altitude U. L.

», 110° 54’ 10’ Lunar distance.

3», 16° 26'22’ jy Altitude U. L.

», 110° 52’ 40’ Lunar distance.

» 16°10’ 6 j Altitude U. L.

5 ee? 5 12905 Lunar distance.

» 15° 39'35’ jy Altitude U. L.

3» 110° 50’ 20’ Lunar distance.

ast be Don ) Altitude U. L.

», 110° 49’ 40’ Lunar distance.

Observations for Time.

-. 7.51.50

sic goo: OG

-- 7.54.20

-. 7.55.32

- 7.59.45

9 U9 9 29

Or ar Or Ow

A eee ee

bic

60.30.00 }

61.00.00 |

62.00.00} 2 herm.

62.30.00 J

Longitude.

26° 48! 44’

26° 43/ 39'

He we

26° 39! 39’

26° 29/ 25'

20° 87! 52")

Q1° 9’ 4'|

21° 32! 29’ |

21° 45 41 J

99° 53’ 40’

99° 53’ 30’

99° 53’ 15’ % Lunar distances, Sextant.

99° 53’ 5’ :

99° 52’ 40’

20° 29’ 25’

25°-24' 20’ ;

25° 19' 14’ & }) Altitude Upper Limb.

25° 14’ 10’

25° 9 4

61.30.00 Spee | all the afternoon.

26° 28’ 33’ + J) Altitude Upper Limb.

1841.)

1840.

Ee Nerd

j 39 ee

Report on subjects connected with Afghanistan. 1035

April 24 Olipore,

For Longitude,—( Continued.)

h. m. 8. A.M.

7.25.00". 4. == 24° 18°44")

7.24.00 ,, = 24° 28/24’ |

7.26.00 ,, = 24° 54’ 50’ |

. 7.27.00 ,, = 25° 6 2'J

Observations for the Time.

-- 7.29.50 a.m.= 51° 20’ 00’

.. 7.30.85 ,, = 51° 40'00' | With Sextant.

- 7.31.29 ,, = 52° 00' 00’ | Therm. 75. Bar. 27.25.

e 6 e OF ad o..@) e ® e age @ e

TNA PAXAAA BDAAIAAAY BWAAaAae

® e e e e

2 1ScS,.6 == 162°-20' 000

3. 3 ,, = 52° 40'00') Error 43+.

.20.10 p.m.= 58° 00’ 00’)

12.45 ,, = 57° 40' 00’ |

13.31 ,, = 57° 20' 00’ + With Sextant.

14.25 ,, = 57° 00'00' | Therm. 80. Bar. 27.25.

15.16 ,, = 56° 40’ 00’ J

For Longitude.

43.20 ,, = 66° 28’ 00")

44.20 ,, = 66°27'00'| Altitude.

45.20 ,, = 66° 24’ 50' + )) UpperLimb Sextant.

46.20 ,, = 66° 22’ 40’ |

47.20 ,, = 66°21'00')

49.00 ,, =17° 26 22’)

50.00 ,, =17°39'34' |

52.00 ,, =18° 3’ | Theodolite.

53.00 ,, =18°18'14J

55.00 ,, = 88° 36’ 50’)

56.00 ,, — 88° 36’ 25’ |

57.00 ,, — 88°36’ 00’ } Lun. distances, Sext.

58.00 ,, — 88° 35’ 40’ |

59.00 ,, = 88° 35/25’ J

3.00 ,, = 65°31’ 00’)

4.00 ,, = 65° 26'00' |

5.00 ,, = 65°23'00'+ ) Alt. Upper L. Sext.

6.00 ,, = 65° 19’ 00’ |

700° <= 65? 14°50" J

6 @Q

1036 Report on subjects connected with Afghanistan. [No, 120.

For Longitude,—( Continued. )

h.m.s$, a.m.

April 25 Olipore, 7. 8.28 ,, = 21° 23'19')

deni aaa, b ata SOnt. NE=EeeEe2 a

ee 2 we 4 L1GOe 5. ee 2 Theodolite.

amet . 71230. ,,, —BeAsal J

Observations for Longitude entirely with Sextant.

A. M.

Oke; .. 7.16.00 ,, = 64° 30' 40!)

ne - .. -7.17-0000, 0 S225" 25)

Be! *, .. 7.18.00 ,, = 64° 20'00' >) Alt. Upper Limb.

Bap ees Riri (il 9 les WOM el Sa Be VRP?

a -- 7.20. O00, 0S 6485 10)

oe aa .. 7.28.20 ,, =48° 40’ 00’)

af TS, .. 7.24.10 ,, = 49° 00 00' | |

ae .. 7.25.47 ,, =49° 40’ 00' |

es .. 7.26.36 ,, = 50° 00' 00’ J

Ci, «> 7.28. DOG/8E0708.27.004

ee 43137229.00'0G, =—"G8E26,25

send te -- 7.30.00 ,, = 88.25.50] Lunar Distances, Up-

wee -. 7.31.00 ,, = 88.26.50 + per Limb.

oe ae - «4-02.00 06, 1S B8.25.35

oa .. 7.38.00 ,, = 88.25.30

oe toe j. 41 SEa0 ‘ay, tov 62.1 6.009

Bene! head -B7O0 . f=» 62.. 7.004

cai: -- 7.38.30 ,, = 61.59.00+ ) Alt. Upper Limb.

ee .. 7-39.30 ,, =. 61.51.10 |

athe -- 7.40.30 ,, = 61.44.00]

sieht »- 7.42.39 ,, = 56.40.00)

iar 8 -- 7.43.20 ,,. =°57.00.00,|

a ees «- 7.44.12 ,, = 57.20.00 + @-Alt. Lower Limb.

cite Ss 209 4.5545 2 DJ A00

bath: ied . 7.45.40 ,, = 58.00.00

pals -- 9.31.54 ,, =100.00.00=2..7.34)]

9» 99 oe ~=~— we 9.82.44. 5, .=100.20.00 =2.26.40 | Equal . Alt: for

ae -- 9.33.33 ,, =100.40.00=2.25.45 f the time.

Baad c5 -- 9.84.25 ,, =101.00.00=2.24.55 J

1841.]

1840.

Report on subjects connected with Afghanistan. 1037

Observations for Longitude with Sextant.

h.m.s. A.M. -

April 26 Olipore, 7.21.00

.- 7.22.00

33 33

3° 99 ee

Obs

85.00

= 76° 8' 20'7

= 76° 8' 20' |

= 76° 7'50'+ ) Alt. Upper Limb.

= 76° 6! 10'|

= 76° 5'30'J

—51° 40! 00")

— 51° Ou! 00" |

== 51° 40' 00’ |

= 52° 00' 00' J

= 76° 43' 20’

170m 42! 40’

vy re 44, Se Lunar distances, Upper

= 76° 42’ 20 Tag

— 76° 49! 20' er

— 76° 41" 20"

= 76 Al’ 25

= 75° 27' 40")

= 75° 24’ 25’ |

= 75° 20’ 45' $ jy Alt. Upper Limb.

— 45° 16! 30’ |

SE 751220" J

= 59° 20'00'}

= 59° 40’ 00° |

= 60° 20' 00" |

— 60° 40' 00’ J

ervations for Time, Equal Altitudes.

93>

h. m. Ss. P. M.

= 91° 20’00'/—2.51.20 ,,

= 91° 40'00'=2.50.32 ,,

= 92° 00’ 00'=2.49.44 _,,

= 99° 20/ 00'=2.48.51 _,,

= 92° 40’ 00’ =2.47.48 _,,

In submitting these observations, I beg that it may be understood

that I do not claim for any, except those for Latitude, even a tolerable

amount of correctness. They are only the attempts of a tyro, under

considerable disadvantages ; and I dare say are rendered worthless by

omissions, and even by absurdities. I have no theoretical knowledge

of the subject whatever. Symes Nautical Tables have been my guide,

and I have endeavoured to follow him, to the best of my ability.

I should not have ventured to submit those for Azimuth, Time or

Longitude, did I not believe that no more competent person than my~

self has been at Olipore.

1038

Grammar and Vocabulary of the Cashmiri Language. By M. P.

EpeewortH, Esa. Bengal Civil Service.

When stationed at Lodihana in 1839, I was induced to attempt to

learn the Cashmiri language, in consequence of the large Cashmiri popu-

lation at that place, many of whom understand no other language, and

the necessity of an interpreter in a Police office, I felt to be exceedingly

objectionable. With the assistance of Meer Saifuddin, a respectable Syud

of Cashmiri birth, I drew up some rudiments of the Grammar. Although

these are necessarily very imperfect, and no doubt require numerous

corrections, which I should have been able to give, had I been able to

prosecute the study further, yet they will be interesting, as throwing

some light on what appears to me a very intricate and peculiar dialect.

Alphabet and Orthography.

The Cashmiri language being a derivation of the great Sanscrit stock

it has an alphabet of the Nagari form. This is only understood by the

Hindoos. The translation of the New Testament published at Seram-

poor is in this character, and I was able to ascertain the force of most

of the signs used in it; but as they do not complete the Alphabet, and

I had no means of ascertaining their correctness from any Hindoo Cash-

miri, I refrain from giving it.

The cerebralt. and the aspirates of the Nagari are all used, and an

additional letter a and its aspirate ¢s. and ts,h, exactly the German z with

or without an aspirate; this is represented in the Persian alphabet by «—_

As numerous Arabic and Persian words have been introduced, the whole

of that alphabet has been incorporated with that portion, equivalent to

the Nagari, as in Hindostani.

The great peculiarity of the language consists in possessing three

very short vowels, which my instructor denominated the nim fathe, nim

kasra and nim zamma, and possessing respectively the forces of a very

short a, i, u. It is impossible to give a description in writing of these

very peculiar half-vowels. To represent them, I have used the above

vowels with a dot, a,1, u. )

There is likewise a short 0, “ zamma majhil,” and its corresponding

half-yowel. .

1841.] Grammar & Vocabulary of the Cashmiri Language. 1039

General Remarks.

The language resembles Hindostani in the two most troublesome

parts of that language, but with increased difficulties. The genitive

case agrees with the object possessed in gender, number and case

having moreover different forms according as the possessing noun is it-

self masculine, feminine, or neuter.

In like manner the past tenses of the verb agree with the object,

while the agent has a peculiar form, which I have termed the agentive

case ; but the verb agrees in some measure with the agent, as well as the

object; at least assumes a modified form according to the person and

number of the agent. ‘The verb is in like manner subject to modifica-

tions of its termination, where the enclitic pronominal dative is used.

The verb is generally placed in the middle of the sentence as in Eng-

lish ; but the object is indifferently placed before or after it.

In forming feminines, the letter of the masculine is generally changed

thus :—

d—g—zor}.

IEE

k ch.

nj. (the nasal na of the Nagri,) n of the Spanish.

] ——_—}.

Nouns.

The genitive is formed by adding as the case may be.

Mm. & GN. Mm. Pp. fanSs Sf. ps

S. Masculine Sand (an) sandi sanz (ac) Sanza sindes* In all but proper names.

Feminine, or hand (a) handi hanz (za) hauza Plural in all genders and

Neuter uk (ik) ich (icha) and cases.

The accusative by the addition of as or is in the singular, and az in

the plural, thus:

Singular.

Nom. Maiil, a father Nichu, child

Gen. Mélii, sand, &c. Nichu, sand In proper names the geni-

Ac. Malis Nichavis tive is formed by simply

Agent. Mail Nichavi adding wn, as

1040 Grammar & Vocabulary of the Cashmiri Language. (No. 120.

Gen.

Plural.

Mail Nichavi Nom. Nushirwén,

Mailan, hand Nichavin, hand, Gen. Nushirwaénun

Mailan Nichavin

Mailaw Nichvau,*

Singular.

Gabur, (son)

Gabra sand

Gabras,

Gabran,

Plural.

Gabar,

Gabran, hand

Gabran,

Gabrau,

Nom. Maj, mother,

Maji, Majihand,

t Maji,

Maji,

Majan, hand,

Majan,

Majaw,

Nagas

Naga, nishi, &c.

Nagi, khota, &c.

Nag,

Nagan hand, &c.

Nagan,

Feminine.

tsut, bread

tswachi,—hand

tswachi,

tswachan, hand

tswachan, Agentive also with

tswachaw, filled—ablative.

Neuter.

Nag, had, fountain garu, house

Naguk, ich, ik, icha, garuk, ich, iki icha.

garas

gar

garan hand, &e.

garan

* This word in the Serampur Testament is spelt nits, hu.

1041

1841.] Grammar § Vocabulary of the Cashmiri Language.

‘IopUad JO UOOUT}SIp JHOYAIA ‘aAoqe sv a

‘asus OATyeUUTXOId JO

refnosed B UL pasn ST ULIOF STILT, yx

° ¢

TY “EYL ‘Syor “NyI ore 1oynou

oY} JOsuoeUIULIE, [eATIUES OTT, y. y

*eZUGS

‘Ipues ‘zues °99 ‘puns

YI OUT, PUB BY OST sux

SI *sepuey

ezuey ‘Ipuey ‘zuey ‘puey yy

‘stue ‘Ag Aue ‘Arudre ‘14re ‘nfue

“dA ° f "$° HE ‘UL

“SUOLJVUTUIIA} [BATIIUAL) y.

Ky SN

5 = ‘) wr ( 2)

4 mound as eumy | = op | & | TAV

a ‘ueumyy mys § samyH< | > ‘o0y

fi auny ‘uny L &, 3 ny lS ‘MON

uown1h Tue «f WII

7 ueuitk ( | 44Ture to eyed ( “STUIIe X ( Hy | ‘Peyopguy

ueund | 2 sV2 IO yok = 4 STUB IO STUIe X 3 ‘20V

5 = 44/019 pues—'e =

‘Ox pney uewtt | xy TUR ~ | Jo we 10 ‘wth sto eA S, "uan)

Po} a0 ynyrared :

“eutA 10 with UI “UION

"SUNDUOL anrzvjay puy anrwajsuowag

Aeury STUNT} IYOT, 1S} Ise sn Sout) *paqoopuy

Tew IO Se} YIyoy, UIST, yse = =osn YT ‘our 03 ‘D0W

ueulyy

UAL xx GL +xUO DL, 2 (0) xeS SN IJ ‘OW JO “uaf)

wip, ‘Aouy, ns ‘oH my, ‘Nox np NOUL By ‘OM og fh ON

“e Z T

“SUNOUOAY JOU0SMag

1042 Grammar & Vocabulary of the Cashmiri Language. [No. 120.

"pep ‘eysourey ‘shemry

"ney gud TL,

"ese ‘oATTuL “190A

“eAULM “49%

‘as hy ‘syhy ‘Ay ‘ngdy hy 3 Aue MOP

2 aw —zedy g A

“ney ‘yedezt ‘nqt ‘qnd — (sv) “eyyoA “104A ngyed “rye ‘snf | — yey ‘uonepy

"ney ‘yedejoAyy ‘eAyy “QnAy (A077) "1ey IO “10 NyIBy "17ey "sny —j yey

‘eT[ox (Wot) "WO1}V.dO.LIO}U]

“ney yed eye} (os) "IT]9 (uy) "104 nye} “19e} | “ns "queysIp—jey J,

"ney Jo yed vyny “10 “ney "ey “ny "esU—Jey, J,

“ney io yed vy | ueye AIA “104 “nyed "yeh “Ur "mOlyepar

SI “hom yey pue—sty 7,

Joy =| °F a1oy | “yp oAaPT “sIq}

“Aq 04 2 +98

eH —- —_)

‘wouunyy JO ‘aw, JO ‘290d JO

“aa0gn ay) woLf paaisap anid pun aug fo squaapy

“a mk <

"TUES | “SBUIBY IO SLY ( = [ S) “eure 1 "0391p = | "14V

E yey) 8 "0x9 ‘puey ey | 2 5 “904 & | -srured 30 sek } 4 ‘D0

“newmey< § s 2 : hy Pr. = — i @; :

Ss n GS - Se ~~ e

S || ‘nyrey ) x f ‘og s-Turex 10 ¥ s "ow Sueur = {+ eyormed = Tue ne a waxy)

“Oru : ‘esey fj} = “esvh “f'| §

~ex ‘trey & ‘sny ub J ‘eund so wrk & L a snd ‘wu "WON

1841.] Grammar § Vocabulary of the Cashmiri Language. 1048

Adverbs. Prepositions.

much, seta yits, tsor, tseri, tsar from, nishi-pita ; a after a poss.

little, maine—kam by, nishi

without, nibar to, not

within, andar upon, pet

above, hyutr after, pat

from above \ Ha: before, _borit borita

eri pita : 5 >

upwards, with, seit, swan

downwards bon without, ru’st

below, tal near, nish

before, botit in, andar

after, pat, pati M.S. fea m.p. f. p.

directly, tikan, wil for, kyut, kylits, kyit, kyits

yesterday, . yow on account of, khatir, after genitive

day before . 6 between, manz, manzbag

yesterday, towards, kun

to-day, az than, (com- Rin

: ota

to-morrow, pagah or rats parison)

day after kalkeyat except, (but) yatu, siwa, warai, rust

to-morrow, mM. é

together, sait equal to, yatu, or sambit, sambi asamb

just now, adi

Conjunctions. also, ti

pak. like, \ me

F although !

Set sait, ine with governs the ac-

and, ta, or be cucatiwe

Oe ya, kina? sait, meaning by means of, governs

though, the genitive or the case in au in

although, yudunte, agarche plural,

since, yelli : andra, between, governs ‘2’ in

because, yowkani singular, “‘ aw’ in plural.

if, yudwai, hargahai, hargah, or az

added to the nominative

but, lekin, ama

unless, nal

Me ke Mp. Ff. p.

except, magar, yatii, yats, yeti, yatsa

khota, without, governs genitive,

or accusative in plural, and in

the neuter, the ablative in “7.”

then UM? adi

therefore, awai or awai khatir

else, nata

either,

Pronouns and Pronominal Adjectives.

Some. m. kats kaiti kaityah katsan

(several) /f. katsa _ katsa kaitsah kaithyan

1044 Grammar § Vocabulary of the Cashmiri Language. [ No. 120.

Any. m. kunh = kagh koutshah _ kainsi

, kath kautshah

Some. nom. kiuh, keutshah, k

(few) obj. keutsau.

Such. m. titay < aecuss tithig pl. titi tithan

(taisa) a: titsa titsi titsaha titsan

Kaisa. kitti or kihti kithis, kihis —_ kiti, kihi kithan, kihan

kitsa or kish _kitsi, kishi kitsaha kishi kitsan, kishan

Jaisa. yutii vithis yiti yithan

yitsa yitsi yitsaha yitsahan

Aisa. hutii huthis huti huthan

hutsa hutsi hutsaha hutsahan

The termination m. hut, hati, f. hats, hatsa, is equivalent to the

Persian 2dk, or English “< full.”

Verbs.

The substantive and auxiliary verb “ to be,” “ to be to,” z. e. to (have,

with dative and indicative.)

1. Present Indefinite.

i | oS chhus, am chhi chhum chhu

2 chhes chhe chhem chhe

9 | So chhukh chhiwa chhwi chhowa

2 chhekh chhewa chhi chhewa

9 fo chhi chhi chhus chhukh

VOR. Schihe chhi chhis chhekh

2. Past Indefinite.

1 | 3S asus, was ais Asum Asii

2 Ases dasa asem asi

9 | 3S asukh aséwa aswl asuwa

2? Asekh asewa Asi Asewa

3 | 3S diis ais asus asukh

2 dais désan ases asekh

3. Aorist, or Future, May or will be.

1 déasa aasaw >

2 atisakh dasyu

3 4asi Aasan

4. Present Definite, am

asan chhus, &c. asanchhum, &c.

5. Perfect, have been :

Asan asus, &c. asan asum, &c.

6. Imperfect, was being

a’smut chhus, &c. a‘smut chhum

1841.] Grammar & Vocabulary of the Cashmiri Language. 1045

7. Pluperfect, had been.

a’smut a’sus a’smut a’sum

8. Conditional Past, might have been.

asmut dasa, &c.

V. A. Intransitive, bihun, to sit; wathun, to stand up; pyun, to fall.

Imperative.

“ 1 2. bih, sit wath pl

, 3. bihin, let him sit wathin plyin

] { 2. bihyii wathyu piyt

i 3. bihin | wathin’ piyin

Aorist, or Future.

1. biha watha pima

Ss. 2. bihakh wathakh pikh

3. bihi wathi plya

1. bihow wathow pimow

pl. 12 bihyé wathyu’ piyu

3. bihan wathau piyan’

Present.

withan, chus piyén’ chhus

chhukh

chhu, &c. &c.

Imperfect.

Bihan asus

asukh

— aus, &c.

asa

—-- asakh

asi, &c.

_( Byuthus wuthus pyos

& | byuthukh | wuthukh pyokh

3 é bihuth byuth woth | pyou

2 } bethi wuthi

> bethwa wuthiwa

bethi wuthi

bethis wutsus

g | bethikh wutsekh

‘sd. beth wuts

‘S a becha wutsa

9 | bechawa wutsewa

{. becha wutsa

Perfect. Pluperfect.

m. s. 1. byuthmat chhus asus wuthmit

J. s1. ° bethmits chhes watsmuts

m. p. 1. bethmit chhi withimit

SF. p. 1. bechamatsa chhe watsimatsa

behawun

bihunwal

| See |

°S

* =

sb)

"1sB-NYo

Pappre 28M YIIA *[ SB sures O17,

jpPyy

yyemoyyo

wpyya

jPqy

wyeyeyys

qyeseyyo

BML YY TAS yyryyo

a —————— yyeaeyyo

BeMoyyo yyy wry

unyyo eMNYYO IMqyo qynyyo |

a esa es ipyequyyy

eaesnyyo qyesnyyo yyesnyyo

‘Sulop UY *jUasatg—'] II

eMeNe me — yyene —

ae yynd —

eMO — 4M0 — yyMo —

BMT — 4 qt —

ps < yyeye —

BMB-ICY ye-Ie3] qye-1ey

‘op Avul 10 T[IM ‘angny 40 781407 — TI

—_——- reulue

——— omeulue yyndé ——

eMeUIUR ofutue yyRn

— ypyerey

9 ¢ v g

‘op—aannsaduy— J

‘Op OF, ‘UNIeyY—Quay sauisuDsT, anijopy

soyyo

uemoyyo

uayyo

sayy

ueyeyyo

uesoyyo

uemeyya

snyyo

ne-ynyyo

ue-snyyo

sene —

unt —

nMo —

st —

ne-ye —

ne-Iey

seul —

und Iey

SeULIe>]

ueley

ayy

eMOYO

eyyo

oyyo

yweqye

soyyo

BMCYYO

rans

nyyo

woe

snyyo

ne — ¢

ni — Z%

i‘

PEPE

“aUINasD IAT ‘aururuay

MO —

we — Z

{‘—

B-Iey

“ pArey

uwey ——

‘rey

€

‘burs -unjgd

“aura

‘Hus -ungd

“aula T

pun auynosn Ar

NOON

“aUngn yy Y7

ayy suoysayfuy aarzoalggQ

yjun ‘sasuaf,— poopy |

1047

1841.) Grammar § Vocabulary of the Cashmiri Language.

“O][qeUlpapul “41104

"Maus gy jIaflag

eAUTRIMT

oAturfemuo-i0oy “7d

Kefleamoioy

femno10x us

nuuNnMOIOY 10

[NCU OYI] Poulpop “THeMUOIOY “Ss “we

‘aMijuLo gg JUaIsat

eAtueiey “df

raangvuyfuy

Auerey ‘sf tuerey od wu

Seuvy ey

undZ1ey

SBULPIIVY

ueyey

“Op 0} asvo]q -oangnaadusy pnfjoadsaxg—' J A

"ow 029 NBSU- UeNy

‘Bulop oq WS“ poafuadwy—* A

}-) “Oo” BAL-SNSP qye-snse

{ye-suse ne-snse

“SUIOP SAA -afuaduuy— Al :

UNIVY “Ss "wu

ueyiey ¢

nAyrey %

Oe elEG

Bey f

ese UeIEy

snse ueiey

ee ee eee eel

Grammar & Vocabulary of the Cashmirt Language. [Neo. 120.

1048

‘ajpuuyapuy Isvg ayy ayy ‘suoroayfuy aayzalgQ yum sasuat— TI

ye ——— yyayyo - ——— yw ro yypa g & ) &

eAose ——— eVMOYYO oe oe g ca :

t “nyYyo Brey t . Use

a ake ue ee unf 10 uel € & ( 4

: A G ~ ~

ee a ai Le + ieee

uns? qnuiey wunyYyo yNuUIey Me AuoOy fT » j _s

msof pe yafsadnyg pa flag ‘wAiof gst poafiadngg

3 as

alee peel Wee eu ve ah ae : ae

TsB-BMO ueMt = —— Sanaa — UPAKT —— 2, |<

BANeUl (It re 1 ‘Taide PR 3

ISv-Ul seul BMCUT yyeur ul ul : : 2 (ss

1sB-49 seyjya = ——— —_—_— —Ss- — wrIYa ueyye Bs — $° | 3

wo wa — =

—— —— enull yyeure : ;

! eqn — WI qn Miesz-.2 8

reyn Isv-Yyo seyn BMCYT Uy =

‘a ISB-BAN sean ee — van ueAN wan ——e =)

—— n 1n— 1 3,([$

Teun PACUL yyn n U an}

Teun Ise-un seun BACUI yyeun ul un n—— @¢ a 8

“19B-91 seyyn 11 ueyyn qn Zz €5 {=

Teun — enuIl yyeun UII}- UII un muey tT & | S

° ¢ ° = ‘

ue “wand ‘sojnbuas “ound “upynburs “manga “uppnburs

5 ‘UOSMIT PT "U0SlId PE

ee Coe "9a19alqgoO

1049

‘Ise YIU (‘pogtulo U94Jo,.)

ymy 1z41e Ise sn Nd, oul

meu} = sy gM «= BAS 1s} Sg

‘ds wy (mayz) ns (wey) : are sqiaA YIM pasn sunouosd oyT~OUS OUT,

~~ LL

"2aogy "IMIDSNID PT

‘Teinjd ut 1 soulodeq IevpNSuts Jo n 10 v

“AUIUTUIOJ UI 9 SoIODIq SUTTNOSVUL Jo T OIL],

‘JomoA Uado oY} Joye poyLoSUI SI y7 Ie[NSUIs pZ oy} UT

% SeUtooeg ‘Ise ‘sv “YYB atojoq Uosiad pg Jo *s—a[NI SI} MOT[OF yoolqo ortPOUE ay} Of UOTYeUTUTIA, UI SeSuLYO oI,

"Ow ‘029 ‘ISB JNULIVY

"[0U0’pUod ISD

184{.] Grammar 8 Vocabulary of the Cashmiri Language.

yyese =———— yyeyyo ———— yyodteA —— € & ]

BMose — Baoyyo ——— eesiiek 5

Ts® Is}tuey ayyo sy — vAred —— [ \

sose — soyyo ———— wins =—\ ¢ f |

J. rs reAryyo = ——— eyyred Coe

wose s}WWIey | WoyYo s}WMLWey wedtrA woy [T ~~ J

"mMLof pz yoafsadny g "aaflag ‘wmlof gst poafiadng

‘40

“aururua

1050 Grammar & Vocabulary of the Caskmiri Language. [ No. 120.

General Observations on the Verbs.

The negative is formed by adding za in all tenses except the common

imperative ; and in compound tenses it is added to the auxiliary, not the

participle, for the auxiliary and participle may be separated and dislo-

cated at pleasure, chhus na kordn or kordn chhus na. The interrogative

is formed by adding a fatha to a silent consonant or a dissimilar vowel.

If the vowel be fatha it is lengthened into a, the expletive ma is some-

times used, if negative interrogative nd is used instead of na.

In the imperative m or ma is prefixed instead of n affixed, except in the

imperative in zf, when na is used as usual.

Intransitive verbs agree with their nominative in number, person, and

gender.

Transitive verbs agree with their object and nominative in gender,

number and person, with their agent in number and person, but not in

gender in the past tenses, z. e. of the second mode as,

A man called a woman A man called a man

Mahnivi manjin zanana Mahnavi mangan mahnyu

A woman called a woman A woman called a man

Zanani manjin zanana Zanani mangan mahnyu

The passive is formed by declining Yun, to come, with the passive

participle in “ mut.” |

The causal verb is formed by adding “‘ ndwun”’ to the root, as sherun,

to adorn ; sherndwun, ‘‘ cause to adorn.”

1051

1941.) Grammar § Vocabulary of the Cashmiri Language.

—! SUIMOT[OF 9Y3 are STYY 07 IeTLUITG

Tey 9q unMBIeINp Biataye) eiup inp T- nuanp

JOUIUIe}S unMeIeIep ILrep aiep rep le-spomrep

oyIyM oq unMeresyoyyo Isyayyo @-syoyyo T - njayyo

SSOT 9q unredunyyo reAunyyo vAthu-Au T - nunyya

PIO 9q unMPIpng telng ting-pnq r- npnq

ISIR] 9q unaeIpeq refeq tfeq-peq T- mnpeq

ysns ‘Azey 3q UNMBICY ‘Se rey‘sye aAT-Y‘sye T- ny‘syze

puryq oq unmviedue reAue eAt-1hue i ee

"dh os ‘d "s

: ‘Way “SDT

“ysu buy “gla anrpisuDs "aALUDISNG — Vos =a

‘UdsyIyM 0} uemeredued “OVJIP Quay aarpipisuns 7

"SSOUO}TYM toAueid “g0U0Y} Paallap aarjunjsqny

vAuvid Aueid ‘s «f eAth reA —— ue ——

Tueid nueid *s uw eatATh eaek —— nf ——

‘aanvalpp 40 adiuimg puosay eAth ref —— ne ——

isytutAuvid 10 eAth of —— I ——

esyeur “7d ‘tsq 10H 1g OU yyedth yynd yye

iu ‘7d ‘nynu Auvad *s wu seAth snd ued eueid

(‘yeyts) ‘agdiounuog “aururmia y ‘aUyNaso yy, *jSVq “JSUsop

“oy aq 03 ‘wnunig sy ‘Aqyong fo squay fo wsog

ynwoAinp

qnuoArep

qnwmoAjayyo

qnuoAunyyo

qnuoApnq

qnuoApeq

qnuroAy‘sye

qnuro Aue

agape

ulUe.g

nAuelg

ulueig

uelg

“poafiaduy

uninp

uniep

unjayyo

ununyya

unpngq

unpeq

uny ‘sje

unue

‘aanguuyuy

“poanga

“burs

ANH A oD

1052 Grammar § Vocabulary of the Cashmiri Language. [No. 120.

uemeryyosa reqyoaAa Tyyorka ygtsa yada, ygndA = qnmodyjohaA ~—sunyjanha

UIY} 10 9T99IT 9q UBMBIYIU Ieqyoru eyyou qyoru Tu yuu yeuoAyAu ueyedu

suo] UNMBIYAIZ reyyooz TyYydez “YIOZ Ls Yaz ‘sqynAz qnuroAy4oz uny4ez

por UNMYIZOM ze(zom v-feznam ‘fezom t - nyezom qnuroATezom unyzZOM

10ys mnMeIj0Ys} reyooys} = toys} Joys} at - 11308} qnur044oy4s} unyyey‘s}

proe reyns} e-\yns} or - nyns} qnuroAynsy unyns}

19941q UNMEITIT} reyory eyo ‘sya - ny ynuoAy41y uniyy

Tre} UNMVIZCY} rezeyy e- doy} 1 - npeyy qnusoApryy mumy314

qyste13s UDMPBIZIS IeZIs ee ZIse 1 - npis ynu1o Apts unpis

9ATIUO}VE unmered<ues reAures eAthr Art - nues qnuroAurs unures

qyes unmereAunu zeAunu etAr Ary - nunut qnurofunu ununt

onyq unmesltu refou efou ‘fou = t- you qndu ynuro Apu unyiu

yuoptaa unmere<ueu reAueu estdu ‘Aut - nueu qnuroAueu unueu

J20Ms UNMeIY LUT Teyyorm = tyyorur ‘sy sau “yn AUT qnmoAyyIUL unyU

peu unMeresyeu resyeu @- Sieur A. - nyeur qnuro0A}euUr ungeul

Tews UNMBIYNT Teyoo] K- Woy. 1 - nyny qnuroAxo] uN yAO]

MoToA UNMBIPT] IIply UL se 1 = nuApty qnuroArpry UNIpTy

—yoryq unmeieAuyory reAuyyy eA- AU 1- nuyary qnuoAuyory umuys0x

pofo-au0 unmereduey reAuey vh-Auey 1 - nuey qnuoAuey | unuey

quinp unmerley refey e-fey 1- eyez qnuroATey unyey

OFT] qeysty cysty = - ydy so nyTYy TR

pexoo10 unMelyey refey efey-fey st - nyey qnuroAyey unyey

qysre14s unMeryoes reyors vyoes yes ot - nyes ———

"aS aos

“WaT ‘SDI

‘ysubuny "Quan anipsuns 7 ‘aayunjsqng = ——— ~- rasa ‘aqdeanzan ‘aangrurfuy

1053

Grammar & Vocabulary of the Cashmiri Language.

1841.]

IMIOZ

BAIGO}

qyNs0}

uIn30}4}

TM.G0}

80} 10 snse}

"1zed 1de}

‘esnzed = emi ASv}

‘yyedzed =. yyw A 8}

*woAzed uvise}

‘rAzed 1hSe4

*seAzed seh3ey

"aA0qog ‘aqe og

i ae SE Be

"sq4ag aniafag

eAIPL

Ipn4

Tet es

snpns

“OR” “BZOL

ZOL

“UreUlsy

1s] reap rpAum

BATISNY eMBIp PeAIPNUL

oe eye ipo

4sny seip pnu

BE bal Ae ede BPP ROT

snqsny sneip snpnur

‘aquuyfapuy Iso

"mRIOu uerew

"OQ “qUasatgy

1 ee

AAO

T cera

BRabocr

“DO “SOT eI9U ereul

"JS1hOp

nAIgU nAreur

SO] 190 reul

_aaunsaduy

‘yois og "gNO OX) ‘aI

"squay aaipisunaquy snjnbaray

i) 1 Co)

mt ON OD mi CN OD

“Ss

‘auynoasn jy

aN mi N OD

| ae |

“4

bas)

i>)

Ne)

unse}

esqrurlty

sqroulty

T#101.0}

INUISO}

sifey

unzo1 uNSO]

eIJNUILYS}O]

qnuiznd S}NUIYS}O]

Yanoatso) am Ce)

qnupns qNUAs}O]

eZznd

eMEZNI

ezni

yyozn1

seznd

unm

aauuyuy

UNICUL

eS}IUINUL

S}TUNUL

1yTUIpnut

qnupnuL

‘08 ‘qoafuadm gg ‘yoafiad-aydioysvg

aAvys}O]

NeYys}0]

eYS}OT

BAYS}OT

BYS}O]

gees!

Bee el

soysyny

‘poafuadny J

‘apuyopuy ISDq

ahve four

seAou

afoul

eMoAOUL

oAouw

aAow

yyohow

woAoul

esque

syIUe

nie

nqnwe

uey ‘syed

esjnu0s

synuio0d

TyTWLO.S

qnUIOS

reds

netes

oAes

emolhes

oAes

ahes

yyodes

sohes

aN SA OM

REN

“UUW

1841.]. Grammar § Vocabulary of the Cashmiri Language.

Infinitive.

Déhsan, To see.

Imperfect.

Caut,

Masculine.

Dydtham.

ut.

Dy Gth.

Participle.

Dyutthmut.

Dytithmiti.

Anun, v. a. to bring.

Anun, v. n. be blind.

Atsun, v. int. go in.

tsau

tsal

Alun, v. n. to nod head.

Alrawan, v. a. to make nod.

Asun, v. n. to laugh.

Aorist.

Desha.

Participle.

Deshan.

Past.

Feminine.

Déthim.

Déthit.

Détts.

Déthmits.

Déthmitsi.

Apuz, s. m. a lie.

Apuzyar, adj. false.

Ashi, s. m. tear.

Achhii, s. feye

Achur, 7. m. word.

Agur, uncut (wood.)

Ant. (pronounced én) blind.

Ainy, fem. .

Anachiwa,

pee it \ musk rat.

1055

Agun, s. f. fire, (especially for

cooking, while Nar is any fire.)

Atha, loose, also hands.

Ant,

Adij,

Adja, \ s. f. bone.

Adyul, large bone.

Ali, plough.

Al.

Ail, s. f. cardamum.

Athij, s. f. paste.

Air, hunting.

Anchi, pi. ¢ stone (of fruit.)

1056 Grammar & Vocabulary of the Cashmiri Language. [No. 120.

Behun, (dye to sit,

Bazun, to hear or understand.

Bazu, regular.

Bagrun, v. a. to share.

Awan, v. a. to divide.

Bawun, v. a. to explain.

Buzun, to fry.

Chyun, to drink.

Chapan, to hide (in a place,) or

tsipun (from a person.)

Chhewun, be drunk.

Chhevyar, (as pranun.)

Chhihun, v. a. to tease.

Dawn, to run

Dorun, ;

Deshun, to see.

Dyutar, p.

Detin,i mperative caret.

Dyutmut.

Detmits.

Dawun, v. a. to cause, to give.

Dazan, v. n. to burn, or be burnt.

Dyun, to give, shut, tie.

Batu, cooked rice.

Baya, female.

Buth, s. m. face.

Bats, s. m. p. people.

Bachhera, fool.

Bungir, s. f. “churi,” bracelet.

Bunj, s. f. plane tree.

Bai, brother.

ikakin, brother’s wife.

putr, brother’s son.

waza, brother’s daughter.

Bagii, s. m. share.

Benji, s. f. sister.

Braiir or byaur,

a cat.

Brair,

CH.

Chapat, pl. ts. s. f. slap.

CHH.

Dadu, s. m. pain.

Danyu, rice, growing.

Duni, whip.

Diuth,

Dreuth,

Dola, oblique.

Dwod, s. m. milk.

Dand, s. m. bull.

Dallun, v. n. pass, to pass by, to

pass from. |

Dollmut, to blow.

Dalén, v. a. transitive of the above.

Dalmut.

Dajmits.

sight.

1841. ]

Gonzurun, v. 7. to think, count.

Grezun, to roar, (tiger, river.)

Garun, to cut, (as a carpenter,)

make (as an ironsmith.)

Gewun, v. 7. to sing.

Gyo, m. and f. the same.

Harahar, dispute.

Hit, pretence.

Hats, s. f. false accusation.

Han, s. m.

Hairy, s. 7. \ ie

infl. Hain.

Hérun, v. a. to repay.

Halun, (in sco)

Halyomut.

Grammar & Vocabulary of the Cashmiri Language.

1057

Gotsur, s. f. small purse.

Garu s. m. house.

Gurii, s. m. horse.

Gad, s. f. fish.

Gddahauz, fisherman.

Gub, s. f. sheep.

adj. also pregnant.

it, .S:

ae Say. ¢ EN

Gwadii, s. m. by, below the knee,

stem of a tree.

Gathu, wisdom.

Ee ft adj. wise.

EH.

Harun, to lose in play.

Hyun, to take.

Hyikun, to be able.

Hawun, v. a. to show.

Hana, v. f. a little not used with

grains or as a diminutive Gor

hana, a small horse.

Hi, jasmine.

Hi-asm4n, lilac.

Harana, antelope

Hangaul, deer.

Hauz, boatman; not inflected, in

the agentive case.

Hichhun, v. a. learn.

Hichhnawan, v. a. teach.

Haud, s. m. ram.

Hash, s. f. mother-in-law.

Har, s. f. cowrie.

s, m. necklace.

Hol, hil, m.

Haj. hajt ¢ crooked.

1058

Karun, to do.

Kreshun, to desire.

Krushmut.

Krushmits.

Krehnun, to be black.

Khasun, to mount.

Kunun, to sell.

Kobun, (in sco) be hump-backed.

Katurun, to cut in two.

Kadun, to draw.

KH.

Khyun, to eat. Khanda wao — shalbaf.

ec Ae to mount, (used Kachul, s. m. ae Melee

khhite with took toform) Kat, s. f. Nate cc

Khotsun, v.s. or v. ¢. fear.

Kharun, v. a. causal of Khasun,

Khanum, to engrave to dig.

Grammar & Vocabulary of the Cashmiri Language. | No. 120.

Hol, s. m. waist.

Harinj, s. f. bow.

H6l, s. f. flabergastation.

Kath, s. f. word.

Kaum, kami, s. f. business.

Krek, cry, lament.

Kalla, m. head.

Kath, s. m. beam, gallows.

Kautar, cock sparrow. |

s. f. musk. |

Kéns, younger in age.

Kulii, s. m. tree.

Kuj, s. f. plant.

Kol, s. f. small river.

Kub, s. m. hump-backed.

Kobyar.

Kuthi, s. m. room.

Kath, s. m. sheep, ram.

Kat, s. m. arrow.

Kor or khwar, foot.

Kut, s. knee.

Kokiur, s. m.

ir;°s: f.

Kaur, s. m. neck.

\ cock and hen.

Khon, or khonwath, elbow.

1841.]| Grammar 5 Vocabulary of the Cashmiri Language. 1059

Layun, layu, to beat, (ay on). M Lat. f. a. a time, pl. lata.

laya, regular. . Lor s. f. stick.

Lagun, /. p. lajis,imp.lag, @ attach Led, adj. cowardly, indeclinable.

gyin, lagmut, lajmitz. § dagna. Lar s. f. house.

Larun, laryau, yaye, run after. Lar, s. f. fighting, thread.

Labun, to find. Loh, s. f. caracal.

Ladun, to send (a thing.) - Liul, s. m. large earthen pot.

Ladmut, to put (a thing), into Leji, s. f. small ditto.

(Lazmits, to hang), up cr put a Lang, s. m. thigh, large brand.

thing up or build, &c.

Likhun,

or Lékhun, Likhmut, $ to write.

hichh’mits,

Ledun’, v. (in sco,) be cowardly. |

Lasun, v. a. to live.

Mangun, to demand, in f. g. Maranwatul, sweeper.

changed to j., maugmut, Maul, father.

maujmits. Maij, mother.

Mathun, to rub, f. mots. Math, mut, forgetful.

Mashun, to forget. Mandact, modesty.

Muthmiut. Mal, s. m. (Arabic), property.

Mathmits. s. f. necklace.

Mashrawan, to forget. Mok,hta, s. m. pearl.

Mauchh, s. m. honey.

tilo, s. f. honey bee.

Minyamar s. /f. hind, (form of

Hangal.)

Musht, s. f. blow.

Moth, s. f. handful.

aply apl., chi, handle.

Mudr, sweet.

Mur, s. f. fowl-house.

Mar, serai.

Mast, s. m. hair of the head.

‘ Mats, arm.

1060 Grammar & Vocabulary of the Cashmiri Language. [No. 120.

Nag, f. eye.

Nag, n. lead.

Nerun, v. int. to go out, irregular, Nichu, child.

past, drao and imp. ner, niri Nauga.

put pethydraiimut nemwun. Nithnan. \ neked

past participle, nirit.

Nyan, to bring, as yun, nyu, nuj.

Nath-nati, s. f. trembling.

Naw, nivi, new.

J. p. nyumut. Navyar, newness.

Nawun, be born, be near, Nakh, s. m. shoulder,

v. (in esco.) Ho. Nakha.

a \ near.

Nai, conj. if not.

Nawrawan, to make new.

v. a. invent (a story.)

Nahun, v. a. | to obliterate. Nyatr, marriage.

Nashun, (obsolete.) Nyuk.

Nyikun, to become thin (in sco.) — Niki. thi

Nikrawan. Nich. mt

Nal tsunun, to wear. Nichha.

Nichhar, thinness.

Onguj, s. /. finger.

Ongul, s. m. finger’s breadth.

Paz, s. m. truth, pazi, /-

Puzyar-ing, true.

Pish, flea.

Pushurun, v. 7. to make over.

Parun, v. a. to read,

Pyun, to fall.

Pyau, | pyai. Periga, s. f. arzun, chhini, millet.

Peyi, peyi, (as gatsun.) Poribar, s. f. shawl.

P4wan, to throw, (find sometimes.) Put, s. m. plank,

Parzanun, Pett, pachhi, s. f. § f. small.

or recognise.

Parzanawun, ) an, m. leaf, thread.

Prénun, v. n. (in esco) be old. Pan, self.

Pazi, a defective verb, signifying or Patsh, trust, belief.

to be made, be sure, or Parzan, acquaintance.

proper. Posh, flower.

1841.] Grammar & Vocabulary of the Cashmiri Language. 1061

Pr,

Prarun, v. (in sco.) to wait, for. Praji, s. f. straw.

Presun, v. to bring forth, object. | Pranun, old.

Pyayi. Path durib, manner.

Piitsalau, fox.

Prat, every, (as every day, prat

dolu.)

Parbat, s. m. hill.

Padii, s. m. sole or print of foot.

Paz, hawk in agentive case, paz not

pazan.

PH.

Phérun, v. n. return. Phamb, s. m. cotton or shawl wool.

phyor. Phras, s. m. poplar.

phyir. Phyur, s. m. pl. phiri, dress branch

Phirun, v. a. turn. of flowers.

Phalun, to grow old, f. phaji, also Phyiik, s. m. shoulder.

to assess; phylana, clothes.

Phalwun, / in fem. transition of

the above.

Phulun, to flower.

Phulanawan, transitive.

it:

‘Rawun, v. n. to lose, lost to. Rats, s. f. night.

Rawrawun, v. a. to lose. Rus, s. m. A

Riwun, v. 7. to success, especially kat, infl. ch. roe

in kishtawér ryii. Ratnahan, wolf.

Ruchhun, to keep. Raid, s. m. rain.

Rachhit thawan, to take care of. Rwah, s. m. fault.

Ranun, to cook. Rét, s. m. month.

Sozan, to send a man. Swan, s. m. gold, asecond. s. f. the

Saman, samyou, to assemble. relationship of one wife to

to samyaiyii, to unite, resemble. another, amabdk.

1062 Grammar & Vocabulary of the Cashmiri Language. [No. 120.

Shubun, to be fit, proper or ra-. Samatsdr, participal acting, from

ther, or becoming. Saman, meaning united.

Stwun, v. a. to sew. Suit, s. m. wax (more generally

used.)

Sah, lion.

Siming, lioness.

Swar, v. a. slow music.

Sangur, s. m. mountain.

SH.

Shungun, Shong, Shurig, Shwinj, Shala, s. m. Pan. italicum, millet.

Shwinja, to sleep. Shur, s. m. a child of either sex.

Shichh, information.

Shal, jackall.

Shy

Traun, v. a. to leave off. Tamul, s. m. rice uncooked or tuna,

Trawan4awan, to make, to leave off. when used with phalle. —

Trawit tsunun, to throw away. Tarukh, s. m. star.

Tilr, s. f. bee, wasp.

Taiith, adj. 'Taithi, m. love, friend-

ship.

Taith, Tachha, /.

. Tyuth, tuh, bitter.

Tinj, s. f. string, (to tie, dyfin,) to

give.

Tal, s. f. talyun, s. m. top of head,

s. m. gum of mouth.

TH.

Thawun, to place. Thari, s. f. bush, bushy plant.

Thurun, to make, form. Thar, s. f. back.

Thiya, in presence of, evidently.

Tikun, to run, x. haste.

Tikyou, tikyye, v.

1841.] Grammar & Vocabulary of the Cashmiri Language. 1063

Thahrun, v. 2. re

Thahrawan, v. a. tA

TS.

Tsadun, to call, regular. Tapa, silence.

Tsanun, to cast, regular, strike, like Tsandar, s. m. new moon.

anun. Tsetas, remembrance, used with

Tsalun, f yun and pyun, to recollect;

tsalmut. > runaway,goaway. thawan, to remember.

tsajmits. Tsor, mtser, m. f. more, tsetun, /.

Tsanun, v. a. bring in. hen sparrow.

Tsetun, v. a. to tear,interrupt, to Tsak,s. f. anger, used with k,hasun

borrow, settle, &c. &c. ,L3 and yun.

Ts,henun, v. 7. to be torn. Tsep, verb neu. hiding from a person,

Tsissun, to hide, els}, } Tsai, properly, shade.

Tsokun, v. (sco.) be acid. Tsaud, blow.

T,shawul, ) s. m. Bat

—uj, fs. f. sen

Tsér s. m. lateness, or s. f. apricot.

Tso6r, four.

Tsuk, acid.

Tswakyar, acidity.

Uphun, to fly.

Viyinj, s. f. fairy. .

Ww.

Wathun, Wuzmal, s. f. lightning.

wuthmut, pto stand up. Wushka,s.f. barley.

a Wodinya, indeclinable, stand-

Wasan, to come ral in

wathmut, gee Wotadinya, 5:

wathmats, ‘ Wathmn, carpet.

Wothirun, to clean. Wari, s. m. inflected ¢ wear

Watharun, to spread. Wahras or Warihas.§’ ~~”

1064. Grammar § Vocabulary of the Cashmiri Language. | No. 120.

Wodun, v. n. weep. Waius, s. f. ages, years (only to a

Wo6nun, to weave. number.)

Wowun, to sow. Wazum, adj. loan, agreeing with

Wudun, to fly. the substance lent, used with

Wushinun, to become warm. dyun, hyun, or tsatun.

Wyethun, to become fat. (in sco.) Wachh, s. m. breast.

Wad, s. f. head (to)

Wyethrawan, to fatten. Vyuth,

Walan, to cover (as with clothes.) | Vyith, s. f. fat.

Wayun, to plough. Vyechhis, f. p.

Vyechar, fatness.

Wal, m. hair.

Yetsun, v. a. 7. wish. Yer, s. m. wool.

Yachh, adj. indeclinable, bad, ugly

Yed, s. f. belly.

_ Yél, overcoming.

Zin, s. f. moon. - Zann, v. n. to know.

Zu. s. m. life. Zenun, v. 2. to win.

Zuhar, length. Zyoni.

Zyuth, m. elder (brother.) Zenyl.

Zithi or zith, f. Zethun, v. 7. ch. to become, or be-

Ziche. long.

Zarpar, excuses. Zechhar, length.

Zichhar, elderness, being older.

Zal, s. m. not.

Zaltn, v. a. to burn.

Zaliin, to have a certain disease in

the breast? (a cough ?)

Zyun, (probable zu and yun), to be

born, to be curdled.

Zaorun, v. a. to beget, curdle.

Zaorum, regular.

Zang, s. f. leg (the whole.)