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Poa ee a Ly

OF THE

ASIATIC SOCIETY OF BENGAL.

VOL. XXXV.

PART I.

Nos. I. ro 1V.—1866.

EDITED BY

THE PHILOLOGICAL SECRETARY.

“Tt will flourish, if naturalists, chemists, antiquaries, philologers, and men

of science in different parts of Asia, will commit their observations to writing,

and send them to the Asiatic Baripty at Calcutta. Tt will languish, if such

CALCUTTA :

PRINTED BY J. WENGER, BAPTIST MISSION PRESS.

1867,

CONTENTS.

EG eur

No. I.

(Published 15th June, 1866.)

Outlines of a Plea for the Arabic Element in Official Hindustani.

—By J. Beames, Esq., C.S.,

A Translation of the Chapter on Ordeals, from the Vyavahara

Mayukha.—By Professor Grorer Biucer, Elphinstone

College, Bombay,

Rough Notes on some of the Antiquities i in the Hie District.

By W. Peprrx, Esq., — re :

Reiary Intelligence, re des am SA ae

No. II.

(Published 31st August, 1866.)

Descriptions of Ancient Remains of Buddhist Monasteries and

Temples, and of other buildings, recently discovered in

Benares, and its vicinity.—By the Rev. M. A. Suerrina,

Tad. B,, and Cuartes Horne, Esq., C. §.,

Assyro-Pseudo- Sesostris.—By Hype CLARKE, "Esq. “Member of

the German Oriental Society, of the Society ‘of Northern

Antiquaries of Copenhagen, of the Academy of Anatolia,

of the Institution of Engineers of Vienna, Local Secretary

of the Anthropological Society, ;

Notes on some of the Temples of Kashmir , especially those not

described by General A. CunninaHam in his Essay publish-

ed in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal for

September, 1848.—By W. G. Cowrn, Esq., M. A., Chaplain

on duty in Kashmir during the summer of 1865,

Remarks on Barbier de Meynard’s edition of Ibn Khord4dbeh

and on the Land-tax of the aes of the Teta Se

Dr. A. SPRENGER, es soe

Literary Intelligence, ae ose ae ons

No. III.

(Published 2nd November, 1866.)

A Notice of the Gaunaka Smriti—By Professor Grorex

Bunter, Superintendent of Sanskrit Studies, Punah

College, or eet ns “3:

124

147

149

iV Index.

Notes on Atranji Khera or Pi-lo-shan-na of General Cun-

NINGHAM, (vide Continuation of Report for 1862-63,

No. VIIL page 15.)—By C. Horns, Esq. C. S.,

Notes on some Buddhist Ruins at Doob Koond. —By Captain

W. R. Metvitte, in charge, Gwalior Survey, ...

Some Objections to ‘the Modern Style of Official Hindustani.—

By F. 8. Growsz, Esq , M. A. Oxon, B.C. S.,

Description of the Chandrarekh4garh near Sashtani, " Per-

gunnah oem Zillah MPGDEROES —By W. J. Huerscuzt,

Ksq., B. C. 8S

Notes on a Tourin Manbhoom, in 1864- 65. —By Lt.-Col. E. T.

Dauton, Comr, of Chota- Nagpore,

Notes on a Copper plate- Inscription from Sambhalpur. —By

Ba’su RAsenprasta Mirra, vee sos .

Literary Intelligence, _.., ps sp aa

Nor Pye 5 |

(Published 6th July, 2. ..,

Notes on the History and Topography of the Ancient Cities of

Delhi.—By C. J. Campsett, Hsq., C. E.,

Notes on Pilgrimages in the Countr y of Cashmere. —By Major

D. ¥. Newatt, R, A.,

A. Vocabulary of English, Balti and Kashmiri, compiled by

H. H. Gopwiy Austen, Capt., H. M.’s 24th "Regt. Assist.

Gt. Trigl. Survey,

Notes on Gupta Inser ADORE, from meee ‘and Behar. By Babu

RaAsENPRALALA MitRa,. sae

Literary Intelligence, She vee eos eve

SSIS LILA

Page

165

168

172

181

186

195

197

. 199

219

233

268

275

LIST OF PLATES.

Pillared portico at Nair,

Stone figure at Genjun,

Rough Section and Plan of the Koch temple,

Oomga temple, za

Rough Plan of Tilia N ala Vihar Ch: aitya, oon

Buddhist Vihar in the Rajghat Fort,—ceiling, ...

View of Buddhist Vihar in the Rajehat Fort, 5

Buddhist Vihar in the Sy eee Fort, —details of

Pillars, ‘-‘h “ne

Bhanyar "Temple, Colonnade,..

Temple at Lidar,

Buddhist Chaitya (ceiling a

Rough Plan of Atranji Khera,

Conch Temple, _... :

Roof of Pandrethan, -

Temple in the lake at Manusbal,

Figure of Sesostris at Ninfi,

Hindu Temple at Chandrarekhagarh,

Plan of the Masjid Kutb ul Islam,

Hlevation and details of ditto,

Map of the sites of the old cities of Delhi,

Facsimiles of Inscriptions on a stone pillar i in the

Behar Fort, Sy aa ves

RI IN NII

INDEX TO PART I.

Achulpow, on the Kallee Nudee, visit to, ;

AcvaLA’YANA, many passages of the Caunaka Kariké ‘agree

with the sutras of, , sae:

Adampur Mahalla, ancient mounds in n the,

Adi Bishweshwara, description of,

Adilabad, fort of, : ts

Aprtyas, names of the twelve,

ADITYA Suna,

Adoption, Caunaka’ s Law of,

Adultery and theft, ordeals in cases ‘of,

Ain-i-Akbar Ys extract from the,

Alai Durwaza built by Ala Udin,

Axa’ Upin, description of the site of the entrenchment of,

Ata’ Upin’s extensive improvements of the Kutb Ul Islam, on

Autamsu’s tomb, peculiarities in,

Atyy Hasany’s account of weights,

Amarnath, pilgrimage to,.

Ananpa Swa'Mt, author of S’aiva sudhdkara,

Aphsar and Behar Inscriptions, Notes on, ... oP

Arabic Element in Official Hindustani, a "Plea for the,

Arabic used in the language of law-courts of India,

Arhéi Kangura mosque, description of the,

A'soxa’s pillars, Lat Bhairo one of,

Aureus of Constantinople, Standard of Musulman weights,

AURANGZEBE destroyed the temple where Lat Bhairo stood,

AURANGZEBE’S mosque near Bishweshwara temple,

Austen, Capt. H. H.G., Vocabulary of English, Balti and

Kashwniri, aes

Avantiswémi temple, description of the, . om

Avantiswaémi, pillars at,

Bala and Vriddha, defined,

Battis Khambha, description ie

Buames, J., Hsq., Outlines of a Plea for the Arabic Element

in Official Hindustani,

Bela, ruins near,

eee eee een

eGo

Vil Index.

Benares, absurdity of deriving the word from Burna and Assi,

———-——. antiquity of,

— certain Annals of, :

extent of the city of, ne

Bhagavati sutra of the Jains, "Dr. Weber's Essay on,

Bhaniyar temple, description ‘of the,

Bhaumajo temple, description of the,

Bina’rt Das, author of the Satsaiy4,

Bona Durra, founder of the Boonyar temple,

Bondr Rasa, "founder of Rajghaut fort,

Budaon Mahalld, small mosque in the, as

Buddhist Chaityas, at Rajaghat, ...

origin of Lat Bhairo and Battis Khambhé,

——— Vihar, Rajghat,

and cloisters altered by Mahomedans, *

Buutzr, Professor G., Translation of the Se on Ordeals

from the Vyavahara M ayukha, :

Notice of the Caunaka Smr iti,

Burabur Hills, figures removed to Newree from the,

Burna, the boundary of Benares, es

Caiva sfidhékar of Ananda Swami, aE

Campsett, C. J. Topography of the ancient cities of Delhi, es

Canja, a system of Musulman weights,

Ca’nta Varma’, ste ae Gee

Caunaka Smriti, Contents of the, af re 151,

Cantis peculiar to the, : cea. aes

more extensive than a Grihyasutra,

Laghu and Brihat,

Genuineness of the first three verses of the,

doubted, . ’

Caunaka Katka written by. a Vaishnava, ean

Chaityas at Rajghat, description of the Buddhist, coe

Cuanp, the bard of the last Hindu King of Delhi,.

Cuanprak, sent Umr Sing and Beja Sing to the Doob Koond

temple, ... ae

CHANDRA RAJA’, ae of phe Chane ‘Garh,

Chandrarekha Gar h, measurements of the,

Cuaucer, ridiculed for French words, ved

Choukhambha mosque, description of the, aes

Chullandaraka, gift of the village of, es

Churra, Devélayas at,

CrarKke, Hsq. H. E., On Assyro- Pseudo- Sesostris,..

Cloisters of Buddhist Vihars altered by the Mahomedans,

Court-language of the Bengal Presidency unintelligible because

it is highly cultivated, iis 5at oa

bs ERE Ee heterogeneous origin of the, os gee

Cowin, Rev. G. W., On the Temples of Kashmir,... Fae

Index.

Coins, silver Hindu, found at the Atranji Khera,

Cossai, banks of the, colonized by the Srawaks,

Court-language, convenience of the,

_ Cubic measure, Qafyz, ..

Darton, Lieut.-Col. BE. Pi, ‘Tour in Maunbhoom,

Démopara fought with the Hunas,

Dattaka Miménsa quotes clokas from Caunaka,

Delhi at the time of Timur,

——,, chronology of the different, cities of, rs ate

, Various cities of, ave va 214 et

Deokund, ruins near,

Dhulmi, ‘antiquities of,

Droporvs Sicunvs, account of Sesostris by,

Doob koond, repaired by Pandu and his brothers,

Drubgama temple, description of the, ;

Durjankari-panchanana of Rangachari Swami,

Dyamun, description of temples at, ...

Egyptian measure, the Irdabb,

English language, foreign elements in the,

Hunuchs, how to be judged,

Fire, ordeals by,

Firuzdbdd, city of,

Futtehgurh, description of the temple at, My “eh

Garbhalambhana, rules of, given in the Gaunaka Smriti and

the Rig Veda Grihya sutra,

Gaya, antiquities of, . ak

Genjun, ruins near,

Geography of Ibn Khordabeh,

Growsr F. §., Hsq., Objections ‘to the modern style of official

205 eee

Hindustani,

Gulzar Hahaila, Maqdum sahib in the, ;

GUPTAS, probable connexion of the, w ith Lat Bhairo,

of Aphsar,

— of Bhitari ruled in Behar,

Hariri and Muhammad, languages of,

Hasuxa Gupra,

Hellenes observed Iberian Mythology,

Heroportvs’s account of the expedition of Sesostris,

Herscuzt, W. J., Esq., Chandra-rekha-garh,.

Himyaritic dialects spoken by troops of Yaman,

Hindi current in Akbar’s Court,

— and foreign words compared, ‘ee

— different kinds of,

Hindustani benefited more by Semitic than ‘by Indian ele-

ments,

eee eee cee

3 official, Se 3 oh

opesdx’ s notice of the affinity between the Caucasian and the |

Himalayan Valleys,

ee eae . tee

x Index,

Page

Horn, C., Esq., Atranji Khera or Pilushanna, 2h ec 165

—_— Buddhist remains in Benares, ... Shak 61

Isn Batutd’s travels, translation of, gies ebpiged - ohh

Inn KuorpaBeEH, MSS. of, Be mo LG

Inscription, copper- plate, from Sambalpur, ‘translation Ole. ADE

— on Alamgir’s Masjid, a om 77

Inscriptions, Major Dixon’s Sanscrit and Canarese, + selec 60

—— -——— from Aphsar, ee wis aie ok WAFS

= 9. Sekar: tk sha ite site: E+

Jahanpanah, Citadel of, ‘ga a “vs sus LS

Jain origin of the Bishweshwar me a wit ott 81

JIVITA Gupta, a nee vovitiias. 268

QopaMma’s account of the Sayad revenue, bs ron SG

Karika, the original work of Gaunaka, a air ey hed

Kasuyapa, the “< Ocean” desiccated D5) bias Sad raced

KArvdvana, works of Gaunaka known to, ... series! 0 4D

Kausika Gotra, Brahmans of the, we ik edith eh OG

Kavya Prakas’a of Mahesa Chandra, Pe coenine, aes) AE

Kirta Bisheshwar temple and Alamgir mosque, oe bis 77

Kispa, ruins near, =o 4 ie ie te 52

Kohil, temple at, ... ee “a8 ee gray REG

Konch, ruins near, ae cee ose wae fed 53

Kona Devi’, as ae. a eg sae (268

Krisona Gupta, ee an e fo a

Kuma’ra Gupta, ek ae wits viel Bo

Kunamoh, temples at, a mA ate Seat, nea

Kutb Minar, description of, ae ais SE

Kutb Minar ascribed to Ananga Pal, 9 3 wh jh ember OE

Kutb ul Islam, description of, . wad aig a ee

Lalkote, description Oly at, “cue igh = o-niet agate 4M MID

Lall Mahal, remains of, . me 217

Language of the Arabs ‘corrupted by Mahomedan conquest, i. 9

Lanka, description of tempie on the island of, ... 111 et seq.

Lat Bhairo Buddhist Vihar, oth rr ScitaneE. 73

—_-—— Mahomedan Cemetry, i re Bie 74

LIndar, temples at, stelle 97

Lingam, measurement of the, at t Atranji Khera, & ee] Oe (RE

Lomasa Rishi, cave of, ... ae te ince GORE 51

MapHava Gupra, are eed baie = vas 268

Maha Devi, .... dive site edt pba GR

Mana Supee Rasa’s grant of land, rus nthe gage eS

Maud Sena Gureta, save i sou gal ~~ 268

Ménava Dharmas’Astra notices Caunaka, ae dn RHE 49

Manasbal, description of the temples of,.. vai AO aanebaegs

Magdum Sahsb, remains of Buddhist chaitya at, iene 71

Martand, description of the middle chamber in, ... sos - 218

pillars at, compared with those of Bhaumajo, ale 93

Maruts, names of the seven, ... a wid Veal 31

—

Index. xl

Page

Matris, names of the seven, ... ce ee aie 3

Masha, ordeals by hot, ... a ae belitrcnes 45

Maushari, site of, not "determined, wan 208

Menviie, Capt. W. R, Buddhist ruins of Doob Khund, dani OS

Mrra Sauep’s tomb near Tilia N ala, sei ee 71

Mithqal weights, ... 5 af =i). vine (426

Mogqaddasy, editor of, ... oes sigs jah ee

Months suited for ordeals in gener aie se 17

Nagari characters abandoned on the adoption of Persian dialect, 177

Nair, ruins near, ... ie ve 50

Narain Suan, description of the temple of, we unt awe skees

Newa t, Major D. F., Pilgrimages in Kashmir, AK h ieee eRe

Newree, ‘figures near the village Of, . as sme 49

Nigumbode, temple of, ... ; ‘ae ee eer

Nirnaya-sindhu alludes to Caunaka, j se REG

Nowg1, Sri Buddha and Chinamusta, temples dedicated BB yctxcase oe Lote

Oaths may be administered to both parties in an ordeal, .... 16

Offerings, burnt, in ordeals, _— gat) awe 33

Omar I. sent Othman to survey Babylonia, seb ie ws

Oomga temple, description of the, ... 58

Ordeals, papers on, by Ali Tbrahim Khan, Professor Stenzler

and Mr. Macnaghten, 14

to be applied where human evidence fails, ae 1 (Lae S 14

immediate and mediate, ... ace atts 14

invocation common to all, ane ans oo. 20, 22

Pacheta, Raja of, Ga ane siandhi\seana. ( LOM

Padinapore, pilgrimage of, — te eae ey: |

Palee, ruins near, ee ee 50

Pandit, (the) a monthly journal started at Benares, aus a hbet

Pandrethan, description Of, . ... . one ons das, ALS

pilgrimage to, nae Peart ee:

— Lidar temple copy of that at, Bi ~~ 99

Panjabi Dictionary examined, She dati, oyslte

Péathin Sugandhegwara, description of temples at, . fata (ELS

Payach and Lidar drains compared... P cou ee 98

Peppn, W. Esq. Antiquities of Gya, vr sis 49

Persian, the effects of the abolition of, in law- courts, Mii coal gee

Ploughshare, ordeals by, oes dade fe ive AT

Poison, ordeals by, we ees <4 se » a 43

Premsagtir, the language of, ... sAaliaRverwigds: winch he

PRINsEP’s ground plan of the Bisheshar temple, di oe. 81

Putra Sangraha vidhi, text and translation of the, Kicidaen ) AY

Ra/sENDRALA’LA Mirra, Babu, Shambhalpur Inscription, be vealOS

—— Gupta Inscriptions from ame

and Behar, ... ‘ee vids he 261

Rajghat fort, key of Benares, ba xa pty 64

Ramayana’ 8 aecudad of the Kols, #3 Sed 193 et seq.

Ranga’ cna’ rt Swa’ mi, author of Durjana Kari Panchanana,... 147

Xll Index.

Rig Veda, Mantras quoted in the Gaunaka Karika from the, . 154

Ritter doubted the Egyptian character of the monument of

Sesostris, a ts ues ae 88

Rudras, name of the eleven, 31

Sabhabilisa, the only Persian word in the, i is the name of

the writer, sats wae BS eee ane

Sambhalpur and Sarabhapura, identity of, ie oon 6 (398

Sanaka taldo, stone pillars at, iE. 84

SANKARA GAURESWARA, description of temple at, se. Ho 4S

Sankshepa Sankara Jaya, edition of, 195

Sanscrit, Greek, German, Latin, and English words compared, . 5

Sanscrit manuscripts of the Royal Asiatic Society, ae oy 60

Sarabhapura, conquered by Maha Sudeva raja, __... nae OS

Sarap, Serab, Serak, or Srawak, earliest Aryan colonists, ... 186

Sarnath encompassed by Benares, ro 63

Sarvéntkramani, an account of the writers ‘of the Rig Veda

Caunaka, fs y gay | ESD

Sasanian king J obad, revenue of the Sawd4d under him, ea Se

Sawad, revenue of the, according to Qodama, wv » DSGY > eb eeg.

Scales, ordeals by, suited to women, ... in Si 16

— ordeals of, directions for, ... Bi 23 ~—s et: seq.

Seasons for special ordeals, ... ee we ys

Semitic language, endogenous character of ‘the, sao ee 4

SESOSTRIS, images of, En A= = 88

———— monument of, near Ninf, oe fee, 87

Shahjehanabad, city of, ae bate or pee) SS

Shahpur, fort of, ab bo | VE

Shahpur ruins, age of the, determined, a Hf ce aS

SHERRING, Rev. J, Buddhist remains at Benares, | me 61

Silver standard in Persia, ac ae oe ee 8

Scrr, description of, : dager, 62206

Son, an only, not to be given away ¢ or r adopted, i 163

SPRENGER, Dr. A., Ibn Khordabeb and land-tax of the

Khalyis, Lx ee

Square measure of the Arabs not much known, ef Re

Srawaka settlements broken up by Hos and Lurka Coles, <42..° 86

Suxsuma Siva, ... a ree. woo theo

Takt-0- -Sulimani, description of, #5 is eee ED

Tapoban, Rama, ‘halted at, ae, Bace sat ER Tp

Tewan, description of a temple at, wi Ne ieee ki!

Timira Nasaka of Babu Siva Prasad, +e Os Ae)

Trendaraka, Savabhapura in the district of, or ety SS 0)

TULSI Dasa, ft we : 2 epee Deel

Tourauar Krran’s invasion ‘discussed, _ “He EP He aie,

Urdu authors, age of the, 2 , ae 74.

Urdu compared with languages of modern ‘Europe, + fig ee 1

Urdu and Hindi, distinction between, not recognised, veer TO

Vadivivadabhanjana, edition of, ... a ae ee oe

Index,

Vapya eaves, boulders close by, as his ey

Viwrama'pityA, the raj of Pat Kote claims descent from, ...

VIsHNU, Avatars of, ar ote) pou.

Vyavahara mayukha permits a widow to adopt a son,

- authorities quoted in the, ... 15

Wangat, description of the temples at, ... at 10

Water, ordeals by, Ps she eee

Weights and measures of the Arabs, remarks on, 125

Weights, grain, of different kinds, among the Mussulmans,

Widow, the right of a Hindu, to adopt a son,. i

Ya’sNAVALKYA’s vyavasthé for heavy accusations, owe

Yoga Aphorisms, Mr. Cowell’s edition of hacker i ves

LDV VOVUPPOPVYPPPPQIPOPPPIYOIVYIOIIPIFFVUUYULUIVVU™

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JOURNAL

OF THE

SeplATIC.. SOCIETY.

Part L—HISTORY, LITERATURE, &.

No. I.—1866.

—_—~

Outlines of a Plea for the Arabic Element in Official Hindustant,—By

J. Beames, Esq., C. 8.

[Received 17th April, 1865. ]

It is the fashion at present to lavish a good deal of abuse on the

language generally employed in our law courts in this country.

This unfortunate variety of human speech is condemned as_barbar-

ous, a medley of heterogeneous elements, a pedantic, clumsy, unintelli-

gible jargon, and the rest. After seven years’ daily experience and

use of it, I venture to take up the cudgels in its behalf. I consider it

as the most progressive and civilized form of the great and widespread

‘language of the horde.’’ Not only is it compendious, eloquent, ex-

pressive and copious, but it is the only form in which the legitimate

development of the speech of the Gangetic tribes could show itself.

Those who condemn it, in a spirit of short-sighted pedantry and affec-

tation, must, if they are prepared to abide by the logical consequences

of their opinion, condemn also those languages of modern Kurope,

which, by virtue of following the same course as the Urdt, have suc-

ceeded in overstepping the narrow limits of their birth-places, and

becoming the common property of half the world. To object to the |

free use in Hindustani of words derived from Arabic and Persian, is as

absurd as to object to, the free use of Latin and Greek derivatives in

English. As a merchant, by skilful trading with borrowed capital,

2 The Arabic Element in Official Hindustani. [No. 1,

may become a millionaire, so English by readily borrowing and mak-

ing good use of its borrowed stores, has raised itself from an obscure

low German patois to the most extensively used medium of commu-

nication between distant countries.

I. The parallel between English with its Teutonic and Latin elements,

and Urdi with its Sanskrit and Semitic components, is no newly dis-

covered thing. It has been used again and again, with more or less

learning, to help us to deplore the iniquities of our omla and mukhtdrs.

The comparison, however, cuts both ways. It may perhaps help us

to find something to admire in the phraseology of a rubakdri or the

cunningly woven sentences of a pleading.

First then, of English. English is a dialect, as every one knows,

of Plate-Deutsch, allied to the Hoch-Deutsch, the tongue of Géethe

and Schiller, by the ties of a common descent from the early Gothic,

the sister of Sanskrit. It has been brought into contact with many

other forms of speech, some closely, others remotely, akin to it. Celtic

of Scotland and Wales; Scandinavian of Norway and Denmark; Latin;

Norman French, a blending of the two last named; early French,

the Frankish struggling still against the Latin element; Latin again,

barbarized by monks and lawyers; French again, from the wars of

the Henries and Edwards; Spanish, from the Elizabethan wars, bring-

ing with it a substratum of Moorish Arabic; French again, of Racine

and Moliere in the days of the degraded Stuart kings, from the court

of the “ Grand Monarque;”’ Dutch with William of “glorious, pious

and immortal memory;”’ finally a sprinkling of Turkish, Persian and

Russian from our travellers, and many words from Latin which crept

in in a roundabout way from time to time through our neighbours the

French avid Italians. )

All these elements skilfully worked up, patiently pieced together,

carefully incorporated into the solid Knglish groundwork, have com-

posed the bright, varied and harmonious mosaic of our modern mother-

tongue.

There were doubtless pedants and grumblers ready to find fault at

each stage of growth in English. The Saxon clod of the time of the

Conqueror objected to the terms ‘beef,’ ‘veal,’ ‘ pork,’ ‘mutton,’

which were then supplanting his pure English ‘ox,’ ‘ calf,’ ‘ pig’ and

1866. ] The Arabic Element in Official Hindustan. 3

‘sheep.’ Chaucer’s introduction of French words into his poems won

for him the ridicule of his contemporaries. But in spite of ridicule

and learned objectors, the language assimilated these foreign words

and profited by the process.

The German on the other hand has absorbed very little of the Latin

or other foreign elements.

It has endeavoured to meet the wants of civilization and progress by

combinations of indigenous words, rather than by borrowing: In

other words it has done what our purists wish the Hindustani to do.

The result is known to every one. Great as are the expressiveness

and power of composition of the German language, its usefulness as a

practical, working, every-day speech is far below that of English or

any other European language. We have only, for instance, to compare

a few German words with their English equivalents to see where lies

the flexibility, expression, and delicacy of sentiment.

“ Gefangenschaft” (literally ‘catch-hold-ship’) would scarcely be felt

as an advantageous change for ‘custody.’ Use might reconcile us to

“* Begripship,” but ‘ custody’ means more than mere holding fast.

Vergnuegsam (‘ For-enough-some’) is but a barbarous substitute for

“contented,” which latter gives us the idea of being contained and se-

cure in certain limits;—while the former is a barren enunciation of

merely having enough. Not to mention the unpleasantly harsh colli-

sion of consonants.

Verurtheilung, sentence. Here the English word is far the more

manageable than the clumsy circumlocution of “ fore-out-telling” or

* parting.”

Vervollkommen. ‘To complete” is again better than ‘ To fore-

full-come.”

Wiederaufleben, revival, ‘das wiederaufleben der Gelehrsamkeit

(the again-up-living of be-lore-some-hood) is rather a roundabout

substitute for the neat and concise English, ‘‘the revival of learning.’’

| Wiederherstellungsmittel. Here is a nice morsel for throat and teeth.

It looks very alarming, but only means ‘a restorative,” and the

English word gives the meaning quite as fully as the monstrous Ger-

man compound. Wieder = re ; herstellung = stor (stauz) ’s; mittel

= ative.

Zusammenberufen, to convoke.

4 The Arabic Element in Official Hiudustant. [No. 1,

Zuriickziehen, to retract, withdraw; ‘‘ withdraw’ is formed from

our own Teutonic stores.

The fact is that in making compound words, the English has the

advantage of using the short and expressive Latin prefixes, pro, re,

con, per, im; whereas the German, rejecting these commodious

foreigners, has to fall back on the unwieldy natives; Wieder, zusam-

men, zurtick, wider, heraus, &c. The result is that its compounds are

of uncomfortable length, and are rather circumlocutions than direct

expressions of the idea involved.

Turning now to Hindustani for Teutonic, let us put Indian as ex-

pressing the class of languages from which the old Hindi Bhashas are

derived and for Latin or Romance let us put Semitic. Then the pro-

position I would maintain stands thus: The Hindustani language

meets the requirements of civilization better by borrowing freely from

Semitic sources than by forming words and compounds from Indian

sources.

To borrow a metaphor from Botany, the Semitic languages are en-

dogenous, the Indo-Germanic exogenous. The former grow by addi-

tions from within, the latter by accretions from without.

Accretions, it is evident, are limited solely by their power of adher-

ing to the original trunk. Or perhaps it would be better to say accre-

tions may be multiplied up to the sustaining limit of the parent stem.

Endogenous growth on the other hand is limited by the space it can

squeeze out for itself in the enczente of the older formations. With a

strong parent stem like German or Sanskrit, accretive compounds may

be formed almost without limit. Sanskrit thinks nothing of a twenty-

syllabled compound, and a word like ‘ herausbekommen’ is as nothing

to German organs. In Arabic, and Hebrew, on the contrary there is

the triliteral root, which may be made to evolve many dozens of new

words, but all within the limits of the three radical letters aided by a

handful of serviles. The result is that the Semitic languages can ex-

press more in a small compass than the Indo-Germanic can, A pre-

fixed alif or mem will often have as much power as ‘ con’ ‘ pro’ ‘ re?

or half a dozen Latin or Greek words strung together; thus eon

nazara to see, the simple lengthening of a vowel gives us “ nazir,’

a word, the technical and ordinary meaning of which, cannot be ex-

pressed in any Indo-Germanic language without a compound. e. g.

1866. ] The Arabic Element in Official Hindustant. 5

1. Sanskrit, Adhyaksha.

. Upadrishta.

Adhikdri.

Avekshitd, all compounded with a preposition.

Greek, Epistatés.

Latin, Inspector.

German, Awfseher, Inspektor.

5. English, Overseer, Inspector.

Illustrations may be multiplied by any one who possesses a few dic-

tionaries. To be able to express ideas of a complex nature by short

and simple words is an undeniable advantage. When a language has

two or more sources from which it can draw, native sources giving it

only long cumbrous compounds, foreign ones giving it neat and conve-

nient uncompounded words, it is only natural that the latter should

be chosen. The Bengali, like the German, has chosen to trust to its

Indian resources; and the result is a collection of ‘ sesquipedalia

verba”’ of the most alarming description, and what is more to the pur-

pose in these practical days, it is yielding visibly to the more progres-

sive Hindustani. j

On the score of convenience then I defend the present court lan-

guage. If we look at the historical question again, we find good rea-

son for the use of foreign words. Hindi is in its origin Sanskrit, with

a substratum of Turanian elements, the extent and exact direction of

whose influence has never been fully worked out. I believe it to be

much greater than is usually supposed. The language thus constitut-

ed, was brought into contact with fresh Turanian influences through

the Mogul invasions. In the same manner Persian, Pushtoo and

Arabic were brought to bear-on it. The point of contact was western

Hindustan and the Punjab, but gradually the foreign influence pene-

trated the whole country. It must be remembered also, that along

with an influx of foreign languages came an entire change in the civil

and religious organization of the country. Whole provinces were

converted to a religion whose most sacred duties can be expressed only

in Arabic. Offices were created on the model of those in Cabul and

Persia. Systems were introduced which had long flourished in Central

Asia among the Mantchus and the Kirghis.

Hence a large importation of foreign words in religion, government,

6 The Arabic Element in Official Hindustant. [No. 1,

arms and art, which ended in the establishment of the Urdd or camp

language, a language destined advisedly for the palace, the court, the

camp, the market. Its father the Hindi, its mother the Arabic, it

borrows freely from both its parents.

Up to this point most men will agree with me that the free use of

Arabic and Persian is defensible both on the grounds of the origin of

the language as well as of convenience,

The two great accusations brought against the language, however,

are ; first, that the Arabic and Persian words are used in an incorrect,

garbled and distorted way, and secondly, that the language itself is

unintelligible to the mass of the people. I proceed to discuss these

objections a little more in detail.

II. First, then it is asserted that the use of Arabic and Persian

words in the way they are employed by native officials is mere pedan-

try ; that the words are used in wrong’ senses and often utterly mis-

applied, that participles are used as nouns, nouns as verbs and so on.

Now this may mean either that munshi Arabic is incorrect according

to the rules of grammar of the times of the Kuran; or that it is wrong

according to the usages of the modern colloquial and written Arabic.—

If the former of these two theories is advanced, I meet it by a simple and

positive denial of its truth. A few examples may be taken as tests.

Ashkhds. The Arabic shakhs, of which this is the legitimate and

regular plural, means, literally separation, or the distinguishing of one

thing from another; or more strictly, the act or condition of being

separate and distinct. Shakhs is therefore the exact equivalent of the

English word ‘‘ individual,” a word which is good modern English

enough; and ashkhds, signifying the persons or individuals concerned

in a lawsuit, is therefore a more accurate word than the Hindi log ;

which really means, ‘‘ the world,’ or the collected body of human

beings, and is quite out of place in designating a special class or num-

ber of people.

Mudda’i, from da’a, he called.

(Freytag—vocavit, advocavit, provocavit,) is the regularly formed

active participle of the 8th conjugation, and literally and exactly

means a claimant or prosecutor; “‘ Arrogans vel sili vindicans rem

contra aliquem ;” and is therefore a more expressive word than ‘badi,”

1866.] The Arabic Element in Oficial Hindustani. T

which simply means a speaker ; or “ firiyadi” which, besides being a

foreign word, means literally one who cries out, a weeper, lamenter ;

which a plaintiff often is not.

Mudda’é ’alayhi, literally ‘‘the complained against him,” or “he

who is complained against ;’ being the passive participle of mudda’/,

with the preposition and pronominal affix ’alayhi. Pratibdédi, “ he who

speaks back again”’ is far less comprehensive.

Hasbw ttafsilvlzayli, ‘‘ according to the specification below’’ is

good and grammatical Arabic, and in its Persianized form “ hasb-z

tafsil zayl’”’ gives a neat and convenient official formula for the

roundabout Hindi “jaisé ki nichhe likhd hud har,’ which cannot

be formed into a compound adjective or otherwise manipulated.

Inkizd, “ completion,” is the regular verbal noun of the seventh

conjugation of the verb kazdya the original meaning of which, as I

have elsewhere shewn, is “‘ cutting off, finishing, defining, decreeing,”

the word is used frequently in pure Arabic in the same sense.

’ is correct

Bad inkizd-t mohlat, “after the expiry of the term,’

enough, and almost incapable of being tersely expressed in Hindi

without recourse to some half obsolete word of Sanskrit origin.

Bi muktazd ; according to; in the phrase, ‘‘ b¢ muktazd rat ’addlat,”

“according to the opinion of the court,” the root kazdya in the eighth

conjugation, has the sense of deciding. The expression bi muktaza, is

used in Arabic authors as the equivalent of “ secundum” “ad.” I

should be glad if some of our critics would express this phrase in

modern Hindi in terms equally neat, and as generally intelligible.

Inkishaf ; rstiswab ; intizdm ; ikbdl ; are further instances of words

- which may be found in Arabic and Persian classics in the same sense

as they bear in Hindustani. It is useless to multiply instances, were

I to give half of the words used correctly by our Munshis I should

have to write a volume, not an essay.

To turn next to words which are used by Hindustani writers in a

sense different from their classical usage, also words which are not

found at all in the classics ; we find them tolerably numerous, and

they form in fact the chief stumbling-blocks to the purists. The word

“istimz4j” for instance is not found in good Arabic or in those Persian

authors who use Arabic words. The root ‘mazaja’ means he mized,

and the noun ‘“ mizaj”’ implies ‘ mixture’ and is used for that mixture

8 The Arabic Element in Official Hindustani. [No. 1,

of feelings and passions which constitutes the temperament of a human

being; in other words, his ‘disposition.’ Jstemzdj is used by our

Hindustani writers to signify, ‘“‘ wishing to know what the sentiments

of a person (mizaj) are on a certain point,” 7. e., asking for permission.

In other words, the noun mzzd7 is taken as the root from which a sort

of denominative verb in the tenth conjugation is formed zstamzdja, and

from this again a regular verbal noun zstimzdj is formed. Now I ad-

mit that such a process is not found to exist in Arabic with regard to

this verb, but such a process is found with regard to other words ; and

we do not know enough of the state of the various dialects of Arabic

in the thirteenth century to be able to affirm that such a word may

not have been used in some of them; and that it may not have been

brought into India by some of the ‘‘ mixed multitude,” who accom-

panied the earlier Musalmaén invaders. We have no right to suppose

that those writers who, three or four centuries ago, created the Urddé

tongue, borrowed their Arabic solely from the classical dialect of the

Kuran. So far was the Kuran from being written in the ordinary

colloquial style, that we know Muhammad himself was in the habit of

pointing to it as one of his greatest miracles, and that the unapproach-

able purity ef its diction is to the present day a subject of admiration

to all the faithful. The conversazione of Hariri again, from which so

many of our European scholars draw their ideas of Arabic, is a profess-

edly pedantic work, and it is never pretended that the ordinary Arab

of the period talked in such elaborate strains. Wemust seek for the

origin of many of our modern Indo-Arabic words in the language of

the lower class of which, to this day, we know next to nothing. That

the language of the towns even in Muhammad’s time had lost much of

its early purity is shewn, inter alza, by the customs of the townsmen..

of sending their children into the desert to learn from the mouths of

the Badawin the unadulterated tongue. The prophet himself:is said,

in this way, to have spent some years among the tribe of Saad a branch

of the Kuraysh.

After the death of Muhammad the decay of the spoken language

was very rapid. One of the latest and best authorities on this sub-

ject says; ‘‘ Every language without a written literature tends to decay

more than to development by reason of foreign influences; and the

history of the Arabic exhibits an instance of decay remarkably rapid

1866.] The Arabie Element in Official Hindustant. 9

and extraordinary in degree. An immediate consequence of the

foreign conquests achieved by the Arabs under Muhammad’s first four

successors, was an extensive corruption of their language: for the

nations that they subdued were naturally obliged to adopt, in a great

measure, the speech of the conquerors, aspeech which few persons have.

ever acquired in such a degree as to be secure from the commission

of frequent errors in grammar, without learning it from infancy.

These nations, therefore, and the Arabs dwelling among them, con-

curred in forming a simplified dialect, chiefly by neglecting to observe

those inflections and grammatical rules which constitute the greatest

difficulty of the classical Arabic.” (Lane’s Arabic Dictionary. Pre-

face ; p. vii. London, 1863.)

The inference I draw from the above remarks is, that we have no

right to compare the Arabic used in modern Hindustani with the

Arabic of classical writers, and to condemn it, if it does not agree with

theirs. Still less have we any right to compare it with the elaborate

Arabic of the grammarians. The Indo-Arabic of the present day is

the legitimate descendant of the Arabic brought into India by the

early conquerors, and we may safely give them credit for having spoken

their own language correctly, even though that language was not pre-

_ cisely the same as that spoken by Muhammad and his tribesmen.

When Abu Bakr raised the standard of Islam and sent out the armies

of the faithful to the conquest of Syria, warriors from Yaman and

- Hadramaut joined his troops. These must have spoken Himyaritic

dialects, differing widely from the dialects of Mecca and Medina.

Bar-Hebrous, in his Syriac ‘‘ History of the dynasties,” speaks of the

Arabs always as “‘ Tayoye,” or men of the tribe of Tai, whose dialect

“differed considerably, not only in the use of words, but in grammatical

forms, from the literary standard of Arabic.

~ Moawuja’s army was composed almost entirely of Syrians; and the

Arab troops which conquered Persia were largely composed of the,

‘same semi-foreign element. There is thus ample ground for supposing

that the form of Arabic which the conquering troops of El Islam

brought with them into Persia, and which so powerfully influenced

that language, was not the form which is reproduced in the Kuran

and in the classical works of western and central Arabia. Here again

10 The Arabic Element in Official Hindustani. [No. 1.

I confine myself to hinting at a probable source of Indo-Arabic; to

follow up these suggestions thoroughly, would require an intimate

knowledge of all the forms of spoken Arabic, and would lead me too

far from the present enquiry. I trust, however, that I have shewn that

our Munshi Arabic should not be hastily judged by comparison with

an almost foreign standard.

_ III. The second assertion, that the court language is unintelligible

to the mass of the people, is partly true, partly false. The real fact is

that the court language, being the highest and most cultivated form

of Hindustani, is intelligible to the people exactly in proportion to

their education. To the highly educated native it is perfectly intelli-

gible ; to the illiterate rustic it is as Coptic or Chinese. Precisely the

same may be said of any language which can boast of a literature.

The literary style always will be, must be, in fact, from its very

nature, above the comprehension of the masses.

Put the Times or the Saturday Review into the hands of a peasant,

and see how much he will understand of it. Never was there a more

absurd and unreasonable demand made of any cultivated tongue, than

that it should exhibit copiousness and expressiveness, and at the same

time not be above the understanding of the boor. The ideas of the

Indian rustic do not soar above the petty wants and homely occupa-

tions of his every-day life, except in a few instances. When they do,

he uses Persian or Arabic words to express them. His own Hindi

does not help him. A considerable number of simple Arabic and

Persian words enters into the vocabulary of the peasant, and they are

as familiar to him as they are to the educated pleader or official.

Some exist side by side with words of Sanskrit origin, and have a

special sub-shade of meaning attached to them. Others stand alone,

having no equivalent in the Hindi.

Of the first class are such words as wakt, time in general ; and bela

or vela, a special time of the day; tarf and ur or dig; makdn and

ghar; rasta and sarak ; darwdza and dwdr; kitda and khet ; abdd

karnd and jotna ; zamin and matt: ; ’awrat and randé; sarhad and

stwdné ; and many others. Of the latter class, ma’léim, matlab, tabdil ;

ziydda, (jdsti), xiyddati, roshan, badma’dsh, strat, tajviz, zartr,

tamaim, nikdyat, mal, mawdshi, (maweshi), tarah, wdste, mudfik,

jabr, zabardast, zulm, zalim, gharib, parwarish, (parwasti), jawdb-

seas

AGP i pba

1866.] The Arabic Element in Oficial Hindustani. 11

jangal, maiddn, durust, and a long list besides. Any one of these

words may be heard from the mouth of the most ignorant ryot in the

most secluded parts of the country, as any one who has travelled

much in India knows. This large class of foreign words has almost,

if not entirely, displaced the corresponding Hindi terms. If any one

doubts this, let him read the following list, and judge for himself which

of the two he is most familiar with in the mouths of the people—these

Hindi words or their foreign equivalents :—

Foreign. Hindi,

ma’lum., parkash,

matlab. parojan,

tabdil. pher.

uiyada, adhik (aur.)

roshan, pargat,

badma’ash. gunda, lucha.

strat, ui) ee

tajviz, (no equivalent.)

zarar, uchit (more common in Ben-

gali than in Hindi.)

tamam. sara, sab,

nihayat, bahut.

mal. dhan.

mawashi, gort.

tarah, prakar, (Bengali.)

waste, liye.

muafik, si (as an affix.)

jawab. uttar.

jangal, ban (very inadequate.)

maidén. badh, r

&e. &e.

A few of these words express adequately the meaning of the corre-

sponding Persian word, but how many of them are known to educated

people? Ido not here speak of the English official, who may be

expected only to know the simple surface words which meet him in

his every day work; but I would ask any educated native how many

Hindi words he uses in his ordinary conversation with men of his own

and other classes,

12 The Arabic Element in Official Hindustan. [No. 1,

As I am here only outlining a defence of my side of the question,

I will pass on to another argument. Hindi is not one language. It

is ten or fifteen or more different dialects. The following list, taken

from a work which relates the early efforts of the Serampore mission-

aries to introduce the Bible in his own tongue to the home of every

ryot, will shew how great the diversity is.

_ Dialect. Locality.

Brijbhas‘ha, Agra, Muttra.

Canojia, Cawnpore, Futtehgurh, Eta-

wah, Bareilly, Alligurh.

Koshala, Oudh.

Bhojpuri, Benares, Ghazipoor, Arrah.

Hariani, Hariana, Hissar, Rohtak.

Bundelkhandi, Bundelkhund.

Boghela, Boghelkhund, (Central India.)

Harroti, Malwah. )

Oojjainee, Ujayin. |

Oodeypooree, Udaypir.

Marwari, Marwar. | Rajputana.

Jaypuri, Jaypur. |

Bikaniri, Bikanir.

Bhattania, Bhattanir. |

Magara, Behar, Patna.

Tirhutiya or

Maithil,

Tirhoot, Purneah.

Bhaugulpoor, Monghyr.

Now, I would ask those who wish us to abjure Persian and Arabic

and draw from “ the well of Hindi undefiled,” which of all these dia-

lects is to be considered as undefiled. If to the above dialects we add

Marathi, Guzaratti, Sindhi, Ooch, Punjabi, Dogra, Cashmeree, Par-

buttia, Moonugee, Palpa—all of which are more or less Hindi—the

difficulty of selecting our standard becomes almost insurmountable ;

for in these various forms of Hindi not only do the vocables differ, —

but the very declensions and conjugations, the very root and fibre of

the language. Thus for the genitive case affix, we have kd, ke, ki,

Hindi: dd, de, di, didu, Punjabi: cha, che, cha, chya, Marathi: sa, se,

si &c. Sindhi, and so on. The verb hond to be, undergoes a wonderful

variety of inflections. Not to multiply instances, it may suffice to say

1866. | The Arabic Element in Official Hindustani. Ls

that there is no such thing as a Hindi standard of speech which is at

once intelligible to all classes, in all parts of Hindustan. For a com-

mon standard you are driven to the Urdu, which has selected and

embalmed the purest and most widely used forms of the old Hindi.

Just as in England, if we threw aside our classical English tongue

with all its foreign importations, we should find ourselves in a chaos of

Hampshire, Somerset, Yorkshire, Lowland Scotch and other jargons ;

so would it be in India. Who that has not lived among the

people understands the following words, common though they are in

the mouth of the Hampshire peasant ? to brize, to dount, fessey, to hov,

kittering, mokin, rumwards, skrow, stabble, tuly, wivvery, wosset, yape,

to yaw. Examples without number might be given by any one who

recollects the peasant-talk of his own county in England. No one in

his senses would recommend our generally adopting any of these

words, good old Celtic and Saxon though they. be, and yet we are

asked in India to recommend and assist in a precisely similar process.

The fact is that the languages of modern times have all arisen from a

fusion of cognate dialects, just as most nations have been formed by

coalitions of kindred tribes. By throwing aside that which was pecu-

liar to themselves, and retaining all those words and inflections which

they possessed in common, modern nations obtained a national basis

of speech on which to engraft words borrowed from foreign sources ;

and thus were built up English, French, Italian, Spanish, Turkish,

and all the leading languages of our times. That the Gangetic tribes,

by a happy coincidence, have been able to follow the same course, and,

by fusing the rough Hindi dialects into one, to add thereto many ex-

pressive foreign words, is a circumstance which, far from being lament-

able or a sign of decay, entitles the language so formed, to rank among

progressive and civilized tongues. If the rudest of the peasantry

cannot understand the cultivated language of their educated compa-

triots, it is not therefore advisable to despoil the language of its legiti-

mate gains, to bring it down to the level of grihasths and gwialas.

Rather let the latter be educated till they do understand. The diffi-

-eulty which the peasant finds in understanding the Court language has

been immensely overrated, and is only due to his imperfect education.

The true remedy for the difficulty is not to be found in an insane

attempt to impoverish a fine and copious language, but in making it

more widely known to all classes in India.

14 On Ordeals, [No. 1,

A translation of the Chapter on Ordeals, from the Vydvahara Mayukha.

—By Professor Grorce Bunter, Elphinstone College, Bombay.

[Received 2nd June, 1865. ]

The following translation of the Mayukha’s chapter on Ordeals was

originally prepared by a Bombay Shastri at the request of my learned

friend, Mr. Wh. Stokes, and intended to be inserted in the reprint of

Mr. Borradaile’s translation of the Mayukha, which was being published

under his superintendence in Madras. When I looked over the Shas-

tri’s work, I found that it would be of no use, as his translation was

frequently unintelligible, and often decidedly wrong. I therefore retrans-

lated nearly the whole, with the assistance of Mr. Vindyak Laxman,

late Hindu Law Officer of the Bombay High Court. Circumstances

prevented the completion of the translation, before the printing of Mr.

Borradaile’s Mayukha was too far advanced to admit of its insertion.

These circumstances will explain how it happened that my attention

was directed to a part of the Hindu Law, like the Ordeals, which has a

purely antiquarian interest, and has become rather trite by the publica- _

tion of two papers on it; one by Ali Ibrahim Khan, As. Res. L., p. 389,

the other by Prof. Stenzler, Journ. D. Morg. Ges. Vol. [X., as well as

by the appearance of a translation of the chapter on Ordeals from the

Mitakshara by Mr. W. Macnaghten, (Principles and Prec. of H.

Law, Madras, 1865.)

Here (begin) the ordeals :

They are used to decide matters which are left undecided by human

evidence. They are of two kinds (1st) such, as decide (a case)

immediately, and (2nd) such, as decide it after the lapse of some time.

Amongst them Brihaspati describes those of the first kind (in the

following verse) :

‘“‘'The scales, fire, and water, poison, fifthly consecrated water ; rice

grains are declared to be the sixth; hot masha (coins) the seventh ;

the eighth is the ploughshare, according to the (ancient sages) ; the lot

is recorded as the ninth.”

Yajnavalkya declares (II. 95) that the first five (of these nine

ordeals) (are to be used) in (cases involving) heavy accusations only.

1866.] On Ordeals. 15

“The scales, fire, water, poison and consecrated water are the

ordeals (used) here (in lawsuits) for exculpation, if the plaintiff binds

himself to abide by the award (Qirshakastha means ready,) and to

suffer the punishment, which the defendant would suffer in case of

defeat.

Pitamaha (says) :

** Let him (the judge) order the scales, etc. for those, against whom

the accusation is urged with great confidence ; rice grains and consecrated

water he should order in doubtful cases.”’

Avashtambha (means) confidence.

According to this passage (of Pitaémaha) consecrated water may be

used when the plaintiff is full of confidence, (as well as when he is)

doubtful.

In the Kélikfpurana (we read) :

‘In case of an accusation of adultery, of theft, of a connexion

with women (the intercourse with whom is) forbidden, or of a

Mahdapataka or of high treason, let an ordeal take place.

_. “When there is conflicting evidence or (any other) dispute, or if a

blame is attached to the plaintiff, then shall the king order the ordeal

(to take place) after the plaintiff has declared himself ready to suffer

the punishment (of defeat). When there are many witnesses in an

action for adultery, let the defendant undergo the ordeal, in order to clear

himself without any additional punishment.”

Women, the connexion with whom is forbidden (agamydh) are others

than married women ; such as common prostitutes.

‘ Caste’ means ‘in the case of an accusation.’

‘ Sdhasam’ means ‘a crime perpetrated by violence.’

‘ Avarnah’ means ‘ blame.’

‘ Girah (head) means ‘ punishment.’

The specification of the accusation by the words ‘for adultery,’ is

unnecessary, because this accusation has been already mentioned. Like-

wise are the words ‘where there are many witnesses’ (unnecessary).

Therefore an ordeal may take place in every action, even if witnesses

be wanting. The indication of the object of the ordeal by the words

in order to clear himself,” is proper only, (if the passage be to her)

in this (sense). And it is acommon saying, “‘ In actions for high trea-

son and accusations of an offence which causes loss of caste (the defen-

16 On Ordeals. [No. 1,

dant) shonld undergo an ordeal, even if the plaintiff be not ready to

_ undergo the punishment of defeat.”

_ Narada (says) :

Those who are suspected by kings, those who are accused by Dasyus,

and those who wish to clear themselves, shall undergo an ordeal, without

(any additional) punishment (in case of defeat).

The ordeal which decides a case after (the lapse of some) time, is

the oath.

Narada has declared the different kinds of this (the latter) :

‘(Let (him swear) by truth, (or) let him touch (whilst swearing)

a vehicle, arms, a cow, grains, or gold, or the feet of the gods, or of his

father or mother; or (let him swear) by his pious gifts, and his good

works ; or let him touch the head of his child, of his wife or of a friend ;

or he may also—in case of any accusation,—drink consecrated water.”’

The oaths are declared by Manu (to be resorted to) even on very

trifling occasions.

Though consecrated water decides a case only after the lapse of

some time, it has been enumerated in the first (division), because it

is used in great accusations (also).

Yajnavalkya (says) (II. 96) :

‘¢ According to (their) pleasure either of the two may undergo (the

ordeal), and the other may take (upon himself) the punishment Gn

case of defeat.”

This alternative (lies) only at the pleasure of the plaintiff. If

he does not wish (to undergo the ordeal), (it falls) on the defendant,

Let nobody oblige the plaintiff to undergo the punishment.

‘¢ The ordeal should be imposed upon the accused by those who know

(the rules respecting) the ordeal.”

These are the words of Katyayana in the Divyatattva,

Here (follow) the rules regarding the different kinds of ordeals

appropriate to (different) individuals.

Yajnavalkya says (i 98):

“The scales (are appropriate) for women, children, old, blind, or lame

persons and Brahmans; fire or water, the seven grains of Yava or

poison, for a Cidra,”

(The scales are for every body) without reference to sex or caste

or age.

1866.] On Ordeals. Ly

Béla (is a person) who is younger than 16 years, of whatever caste

he may be. (A person whois) older than 80 years (is called) vraddha

(old). ,

Here (in this passage it is meant) that the scales only are intended

for a Brahman (when the ordeal takes place) at the time generally

(appointed for the scales), of which (more) will be spoken (below).

But (when the ordeal takes place) at the time (which is fit for the

employment) of fire and the like, those (ordeals) are employed even

(for a Brahman).”’

Therefore Pitémaha (says) :

“* All castes can, according to the rule, be cleared by (taking) conse-

crated water. All the (ordeals) (can be employed in case) of every

one, except poison (in the case) of a Brahman.”

In the Kalikapuraéna (we read) :

A hot gold masha coin should always be given to a man of the

lowest caste.

Narada (says) :

* Let (the judge) always examine eunuchs, men bereft of strength,

those whose mind is violently agitated, and these three, children,

old and sick people, by means of the scales. But neither poison

nor water, is prescribed for women ; by means of the scales, consecrated

water, etc. let him enquire into the hidden truth about them. Those

who are in (bodily or mental) pain, shall not clear themselves by the

water (ordeal), nor those who suffer of a disease caused by gall or

poison. The (ordeal by) fire is not ordained for the leprous, the blind,

those who suffer of a disease of the nails, and the like. Children and

women should not be immerged (into water) by those who know the In-

stitutes of law, nor (should this be done) to sick, old or weak men. He

should (likewise) not immerge into water those who have no force, and

those who have been enfeebled by sickness. When they are immerged,

they always die; for little life (is left) in them. He shall. not im-

merge them even if they have come (to court) on account (of an

accusation) of an offence perpetrated with violence. Nor shall he make

them take (into their hands) hot iron, nor shall he make them clear

themselves by (taking) poison.

Vishnu (says) :

“ (Let him not impose any of the abovementioned ordeals) upon those,

18 On Ordeals. [No. 1,

who suffer of a disease caused by the phlegmatic humor, or who are

(otherwise) sick, or women or asthmatic persons.”

Katyayana (says) :

‘‘ Let him not give the ordeal by fire to smiths, nor (that by) water to

those who (by their profession) have to work in water (as divers, etc.)

nor by any means poison to those who know the application of charms.

Let him not order a man, who is engaged on fulfilling a religious vow

or who has a disease of the mouth (to undergo the ordeal) of the rice

grains. |

A man who is engaged on a vrata (vratin) (means) a man who

performs the milk-vow and the like.

Pitamaha (says) :

‘“‘ Consecrated water should not be given by wise (men) to those who

drink spirituous liquor, to adulterers, gamblers or atheists.”

Narada (says) :

‘“¢ He shall avoid to give consecrated water to a man, who has com-

mitted a great crime, or who does not obey the law, an ungrateful

(person), a eunuch, a despicable (person), an atheist, a man whose crimes

(faults) are (generally) known. -

Katyayana (says) :

“ But the king should not order (the abovementioned ordeal) for

people, who ought not to be touched, for those of the lowest castes, for

slaves, barbarians, evil-doers ; nor for those born by pratilomya (whose

mother is of a higher caste than the father).

He should order for them, at the time, the ordeals which are known

{to be fit) for the (season).

Known (to be fit) for them are the scales, poison and the like (each

of which is fit for some proper season.)

Ii the person who has to undergo the ordeal is unable (to do so,)

the same (Katyayana) prescribes a substitute (to be chosen for him,)

in the Divyatattva.

‘Tf there is no hindrance (for the person, who has to undergo the

ordeal) as far as regards place or time, then let him undergo it, as

it is proper. He can have it performed by another (person); that —

is the rule in the contrary case.’ Anyena, by another, harayet, he

may cause it to be taken, (means) he may have it performed by a sub-

stitute, Viparyaye (in the contrary case), (means) if the person who

lie aP--

1866.] On Ordeals. 19

has to undergo the ordeal is unable (to do so), let (then another

person) do what is appropriate.

In the contrary case, 7. e. when there is a certainty that the defend-

ant formerly did commit a great crime, such as the murder of his

father or other (near relations) ; or when at some other time (the de-

fendant) was suspected of some other matter, the same (Katydyana)

declares (that he should perform) the ordeal through a substitute.

“(In the case) of people who have killed their father, mother, a

Brahman, their spiritual teacher, an old man, a woman or a child, of

such as have committed a Mahadpitaka, and especially of atheists,

those who bear the sign (of another caste than that to which they

belong) of women, of those who are acquainted with the use of charms

and yoga (supernatural power acquired by meditation, etc.), or of those

who are born in a mixed caste, of those who live or cause others to

live in a course of vice ;—in the case of such shameful accusations, a

justice-loving king should by no means order (the accused to undergo) an

ordeal. The ordeal ought to be undergone by good people appointed

by these (the abovementioned sinners). Where there are no good

men, there they should be cleared by their own people (undergoing

the ordeal).” Svakaih (by their own people) (means) by relations.

Here (follow) (the rules regarding) the time (when the several

ordeals should take place).

Pitamaha (says) :

“ Caitra (March, April) Margacivas (December, January) and Vaica-

kha (April, May) are months generally (used for a// ordeals), and they

do not present obstacles to ordeals.”

' The (ordeal by the) scales is ordained (to be employed) at any

season, (but) one should avoid it, if the wind blows.

The (ordeal by) fire is declared (to be good) in the dewy, cold and

-rainy seasons, the (ordeal by) water in autumn and the hot season, that

by poison in winter and dewy season.

Poison (is recommended) to be taken in the cold and dewy seasons,

(but) other seasons also (at times) are included ; beacuse further on (the

passage) varshe caturyavamatra, etc. will be quoted.

Narada (says) :

““Consecrated water may be given at any season (of the year), (and)

the scales (likewise) may (be employed) at any time.”

20 On Ordeals. [No. 1,

Pitaémaha (says further) :

‘“‘ The ordeal by fire must take place in the morning, and in the morn-

ing the scales (must be employed). The (ordeal by) water ought to be

given in the middle of the day to those who wish (to learn) the real state

of truth. But the clearing by means of consecrated water is ordered

(to take place) during the first half of the day. But in the last quarter

of the night should the poison be given, being cold.

These ordeals should take place on a Sunday, thus say the Cishtas,

(i. e. those Brahmans who have studied the Vedas and Vedangas and

thereby have become authorities in law).

Now (follow the rules on) the place (where the ovtibiad ought to

take place).

Pitamaha (says) :

“The scales must always be made to turn towards the east, unmove-

able, in a pure place, near to the flag, in the hall (of justice), or in the

gateway of the king’s (palace), or on a crossing.”

Narada (says) :

‘‘(Let it be placed) in the hall or at the door of the king’s palace,

in a temple or on a crossing.”

Katyayana (says) :

‘Let him order those men who are accused of a Mahapataka,

to undergo the ordeal near the flag, those who (are accused to)

have committed high treason, at the door of the king’s (palace) ; those

who are born in pratilomya should undergo the ordeal on a crossing,

and wise men know that in other cases (the ordeal should take place) in

the midst of the hall (of justice).”

Narada (says further) :

‘Tf ordeals are not given at the proper time and place, or undergone

by people who claim to be exempted from them, they always cause in

lawsuits a false result ; of that there is no doubt.”

Now (follow) the rules which are common to all ordeals:

Pitamaha (says) :

Then let the judge, who is conversant with the religious law, invoke

the gods according to the following rule ; turning towards the east and

joining his hands, let him speak : ‘‘ Come, come, divine Dharma, ap-

proach this ordeal, together with the Lokapalas (eight protectors of the —

world) and the crowds of Vasus, Adityas and Maruts.” But if he ©

1866. ] On Ordeals. wi -

has brought Dharma to the scales, he should assign to the subordinate

gods their several places. )

The same (Pitamaha says further) :

“* Having placed Indra in the eastern direction, and the lord of the dead

in the south, Varuna in the west, and Kuvera in the north, he should

divide the (other) Lokapalas, etc., Agni in the intermediate points

of the horizon. Indra is yellow, Yama dark-blue, Varuna shines

like crystal, Kuvera like gold, Agni also (glitters) like gold, and

Nirriti is dark-blue, Vayu dark-brown, and let Icina be red—thus he

shall meditate on them in their order. To the south of Indra a wise

man should place the Vasus. These eight Vasus are declared to be

Dhara, Dhruva and Soma, Apah (the waters), Anila (wind), Anala

(fire), Pratyisha (early morning), Prabhisa, Between the lord of gods

(Indra) and Icéna is the place of the Adityas. The names of these twelve

Adityas are declared to be Dhatri, Aryaman, Mitra, Varuna, I¢a

and Bhaga; Indra, Vivasvat, and Pishan; and as the tenth Parjanya;

then Tvashtri, then last born, though not last (in power), Vishnu. But

the western side of Agni (between this god and Yama), they know to

be the place of the Rudras. The Rudras are recorded to be eleven (name-

ly), Virabhadra, Gambhu and the famous Giriga, Aja Ekapéd, Ahi

Budhnya, and the unconquered Pindkin, and Bhuvanddhievara, and

Kapali, Vitaémpati, Sthanu, and the illustrious Bhava. Between the

lord of the dead (Yama) and the Rax4sa (Nirriti) let him make the

place of the mothers. (They are) Brahmi, Maheevari, Kaumiari, and

Vaishnavi, Varahi, Mahendri, and Camunda, accompanied by her Ganas.

_ They know (tell) that Ganega’s place is to the north of Nirriti (between

him and Varuna),

The place of the Maruts is declared (to be) on the northern side

of Varuna (between him and Vayu).

The seven Marutas are said (to be); Gaganasparcana, Vayu, Anila,

Maruta, Prana, Prineca, Yiva. A wise man should bring Durga to the

north of the scales: and they prescribe adoration to these deities,

calling each) by his name. Having given to Dharma in the proper

order the (offerings), the first of which is the Arghya and the last of

which consists of ornaments (in flowers, etc.), he afterwards should give

to the subordinate gods the (offerings), beginning with the Arghya and

ending with the (presentation of) ornaments.

y2. On Ordeals. [No. 1,

(And) he should offer the adoration which begins with the (obla-

tion of) perfumes and ends with the (oblation of the) food.

By (Brahmans) who have studied the Vedas a burnt-offering should

be presented in each of the four points of the horizon. Let him offer

at these offerings clarified butter, boiled rice Samidhs accompanying

the act with the recital of the Savitri, the Pranava (Omkéra), and

the Svaha at the end.’

Havi’s (oblation) (means) Charu, boiled rice. The Eastern Mi-

mamsakas declare in the Divyatattva, that the clarified butter, the

boiled rice and the sacred fuel (Samidhah) are offered conjointly, just

asat the two Sdémndaya-ishtis, because the deities, (to whom they are

offered), are not opposed to each other.

That is wrong.

For (it is declared) in the Stitra of Acvaléyana and the rest: ‘ He

cuts off two portions of ajya, he places fuel once on the boiled rice, he

cuts off (portions) of the boiled rice twice from the middle and the

fore-part (of the heap), and he sprinkles the rice which he has cut off

(with ghee). Thisis the rule for cutting off.”

Sruva means, (here) fuel, because it has also this meaning.

(Besides) the conjoint oblation (of the various offerings) is im-

possible, because (in each case) a different instrument (for completing

the oblation) is prescribed (by the Sitra) hastasya.

But in the case of the two Samndaya ishtis the conjoint of oblation (of

the ghee, fuel and rice) is proper, because (there) only one instrument,

the juhit, is used.

The same (Pitdmaha says) :

“The accused having written the (crime) of which he is accused, on

a scroll (of paper) together with the following Mantra, places that (scroll)

on his forehead.

And the Mantra (is the following),

‘Sun and moon, wind and fire, heaven and earth, the waters, (man’s

own) heart, and Yama, day and night, the two twilights and Dharma

know man’s actions.”

Narada (says) :

“Then the judge (who ought to be) a Brahman, who has studied

the Vedas and the Vedangas, who possesses fame and a good character,

who has extinguished (the passions of) his mind, who has forsaken

1866.] On Ordeals. 23

envy, who keeps his promises, pure, clever, rejoicing in the welfare of all

ereatures, who has kept a fast (on the day of the ordeal) in wet clothes,

(who has bathed in his clothes), who has cleaned his teeth with water,

having worshipped all the gods according to the (prescribed) rule.......

Yajnavalkya (says II. 97),

“(The judge) having called the accused who has bathed in his

garments and fasted from sunrise, shall cause him to undergo the

ordeals in the presence of the king and the Brahmans.”

Pitaimaha also (says) :

* Ordeals always (should be ordered) to be performed by the accused

when he has fasted one or three days, who is pure, and dressed in a wet

garment.”

The same (author says) :

“ Surrounded by good men, the king should (order him to) perform

this clearing (through an ordeal) and should (order him to) gladden

the sacrificial priests, house-priests, and spiritual teachers by presents.

A king who orders the ordeal to be performed in this way, after having

enjoyed heart-gladdening pleasures, having obtained great fame, he

becomes fit to be (united with) Brahma.

Now follows the rule on the (ordeal) of the scales.

Pitamaha (says) :

“The king should order (his people) to construct a hall for the

scales, which (is) broad, high, resplendent, where a man will not be

defiled by dogs, Chandalas or crows, possessing an instrument for

(shutting) the doors, protected by watchmen, which contains (jars

with) water and the like, which is well furnished.”

Narada (says) :

*‘ Let him (the king) order (scales ) to be made there, of any Khadira

wood, except Cukla Khadira, which must be free from clefts ; Guklavarji-

ta (lit. except white) means except white Khadira wood,

“Ti there is no (Khadira) (t should be) made of Cimgapa, or (if

that be wanting) of Cala, which must be free from holes, or (it may be

male of) iron-wood (arjuna), or Tinduki, or of Tinica or red sandalwood.

-Mahava gives the following reading (of the passage arjuna-—candana) :

The arjuna, Tilaka, Acoka, Tinica, (or red sandal tree) (should be used).

He should use such like woods for the scales.

Such like (evamvidhani) means (that he may use) also others, as

24 On Ordeals. [No. 1,

Udumbara-wood (Indian fig-tree) and the like; thus (says) Madana.

For this very reason,

Pitamaha (says) :

‘“‘ Having cut (any) tree, that is fit to be used at the sacrifice, pre-

ceding the action, as in the case of the sacrificial post, with Mantras

(prayers from the Veda), and having worshipped the guardians of the

world, wise men should make the scales. The Mantra are addressed

to Soma, and to Vanaspati during the cutting, and muttered only.

Preceding the action by a Mantra as in the case of the Yupa (means

having muttered): ‘‘ O tree, protect him, etc.”

The two Mantras addressed to Soma and Vanaspati, are both spoken

during the cutting, because on account of the Mantras being muttered

their object isnot visible. (Which Mantras are called) saumyah, ad-

dressed to Soma, that is known. The Mantra addressed to Vanaspati is:

Vanaspate Catavalgosvaroha, (R. V. II. 8.) The transferring of the

qualities of the Yipa to the scales (by the words) asya yipavat i. e.

in the case of this as in the case of the Yupa, causes the repetition

of something established (before).

Pitamaha (says) :

‘But the scales should be made (in length) four hastas, and the side-

posts as long, the space between (the scales and the posts) should be

one hasta and a half.”

Vyasa (says) :

‘But two hastas of each side-post (of the scales) are to be dug into

the ground.”

| Pitaémaha (says further) :

\ “The scale beam is to be made four-cornered, firm, and straight,

‘and hoops should industriously be placed in three places (middle and

the two ends).”’

The same (goes on) :

Having iastened the two basins to the two ends (of the beam), let

him place kuga-gras, the tops of which are directed to the east, also on

the two basins.

Let him weigh those who undergo (the ordeal) on the western scale,

on the other (he shall place) clean clay, bricks or ashes, (but he shall)

avoid stones, potsherds, bones.

Narada (says) :

1866. ] On Ordeals. 95

“ Having firmly tied the scales (plates) to the two rings (at the

ends) of the scale-beam, let him place in the one scale the man, in the

other a stone. On the northern side scale let him place the man, on

the southern (side) the stone. (Or) let him fill the basin with bricks,

dust or clods of earth.”

The same (Narada) declares the manner of examining (the respective

weights of the man and stone) ;

“(Before the weighing) the examiners (should) always (make) the

scale-beam even by means of two mason’s plummets, and (people who

are) expert (in this business) should (always, when weighing,) pour

water on the scale-beam.”’

“That scale-beam on which the water does not flow, is what one

should know—to be even.”

Pitémaha (also) prescribes the two plummets (to be used) in order

(to produce) evenness :

*¢ At the two ends should he make two arches( torana), (which should

be) higher than the scale-beam by ten fingers, and a mason’s plummet

(should hang down from each arch (torana) made of clay, tied (to the

arch) by a string, touching the corner of the scale-beam.”

Pitaémaha (further says) :

“Having weighed the man first, he should mere hime descend from

the scale; but he should always adorn the scales with wimples and

banners ; then (a Brahman) who knows the Veda should bring the

gods near to it by this rule, with drums and horns, perfumes, wreaths

and ointments.”

Narada (says) :

“ Let him first honour the scales, with red sandalwood powder, per-

fumes and flower-wreaths, curds, cakes, unground (rice) and the like ;

then he should honour the learned (Brahmans).”’

Yajfiavalkya (says): (11. 100 and 101):

“‘ People who are expert in weighing should make the accused ascend

the scale, (and) when they have placed (in the other scale) a weight

equal to his (weight) and made a line onthe scales, he should be

ordered to descend. (Before he ascends the scale for the second time,

the accused) should address the scales with this Mantra:

— “<hou, oh balance, hast been formerly constructed by the gods to

be the abode of truth, therefore, oh good (goddess), speak the truth

26 On Ordeals, [No. 1

(now), and free me from suspicion. If I have done wrong, mother,

make me descend; if I am pure, let me ascend,’ ”’

Narada (says) :

“ Having bound (the accused) by oaths, he (the judge) should again

make him ascend the scales in (a place) sheltered from wind and

rain, having tied to his forehead a scroll (on which the accusation

is written).”’

Samayaih parigrihya, having bound him by oaths. These (oaths) are

given (in detail) by Vishnu :

“The hells of the murderer of a Brahman, the worlds where the liars

go to, those are the worlds (destined) for him who practises fraud at

the time of weighing.”

Narada declares the address (to the scales) at the time of ascending

it for the second time (to be the following) :

“‘ Thou knowest the bad and good deeds of all creatures; thou alone,

oh god, knowest, what men do not know; this accused man is weighed

on thee, therefore deign to protect him who is under suspicion, accord-

ing to truth. By truth thou excellest gods, Asuras and men.

“Thou art truthful, O divine one, in discerning right and wrong.

Sun and moon, wind and fire, heaven and earth, the waters, the

heart and Yama, day and night, and the two (gods of) the twilight

and Dharma know the deeds of men.”

Pitaémaha (says) :

“A Brahman of good character, who knows astronomy, should

examine the time (when the accused has ascended the scales for the

second time). Five Palas are the time allowed for the ordeal—that

should be known to (those who are) expert (in the matter). But the

king should employ as examiners the best of Brahmans who (will)

announce the result as they see it, (who are) wise, pure not covetous.

All the witnesses (after the lapse of five Palas) announce to the king

(whether the accused) is guilty or not guilty.”

Vinadyah (means) Palas; because (it is written) in the Smriti, that

the time (required) in pronouncing ten long syllables is called a breath,

(Prana, and) six (such) breaths are one vinddika (Pala).

Narada (says) :

“Tf the man who is being weighed, rises, he shall doubtlessly be

guiltless ; if (the scales) remain even, or if it sinks, he shall be guilty,”

1866.] On Ordeals. Mf

Vriddhih (lit. increase, means) rising. Hani (lit. abandonment

means) sinking.

Pitamaha (says) :

“Tf (the scales remain) even, (the judge) should know that he is

a little guilty ; but a very guilty man sinks.”

The smallness (of the guilt is implied, if the accused has) committed

a crime once (or) without intention.

But when it is asserted in the (scroll of impeachment) which iz

wears on his forehead, that the crime has been (either) committed only

once or without intent, and there is a conflict of evidence regarding

the crime only, then, if the ordeal has been instituted and evenness

(of the scales has been the result), it must be repeated, because in such

(a case) the fault cannot be a small one.

Therefore Brihaspati (says) : ;

“A man who (remains) level with that (counterweight) should be

weighed again ; a man who rises shall have won (his cause).”’

Katyayana names another reason for repeating (the ordeal) :

“Tf the scale, or the beam, or the string should break, or if there

should be a doubt about the guiltlessness (of the accused), he (the

judge) should examine the man again.”

Vyasa (says) :

““ Tf the scale, or the beam, or the two hooks, or the string or the

upper beam (which joins the two posts) break, the king should allow

_ (the accused) to try to clear (himself) a second time.”

But these (opinions of the lawyers) refer (to cases) where the

reason for the breakage is visible. But if no reason for the break is

apparent, he is certainly guilty.

For in another Smriti (we read) :

“Tf the scales, or the beam, or the two hooks, or the string, or the

upper beam, should break, then he shall declare (the accused) guilty.”

_ Kaza the basins of the scales.

Axa (axle, means) the upper beam (joining the two /eef or side

beams) which holds the scale beam,

_ The eastern (lawyers say) :

“Only the weighing is repeated, not the whole ceremony with (all

| its) parts (as prayers, etc.)” |

Madana (says) :

28 On Ordeals. [ No. 1,

“Tn order to avoid defects, the proceedings with all their details

should be repeated, in the same manner (as before).”’

Now follows the description of the proceeding.

The person who has to conduct the ordeal goes, on an auspicious day,

to one of the before-mentioned trees and cuts it, whilst reciting the

Mantra: ‘‘ O plant, protect me.’” Then he mutters (the verse), “‘ Somo-

dhenum” (R. V. I. 91-20)—Gautama is its Rishi, Soma the deity, the

metre is Trishtubh, and the manner of its recitation is Japa (muttering)

Somodhenum, etc—, and (the verse), ‘‘ Vanaspate (RV. IIL. 8, 11’’) its

Rishi is Vievamitra, the son of Gadhi, its deity Vanaspati, its metre

Trishtubh, the manner of reciting it is Japa, ‘“‘ Vanaspati catavaleah,

etc.” Then he worships the guardians of the world, Indra and the rest,

each separately, and makes the scale-beam four hastas long, four fingers

thick, four-cornered in the middle, and at both ends four fingers thicker,

and in the middle fitted with a hook or ring which is turned upwards,

and at each end with a grapple or ring which is turned downwards.

Some (lawyers) say, that he then should make an altar, seven or —

five hastas long and four fingers high. Then he shall there or in ~

another clean place dig into the earth, two hastas deep, two four-

cornered posts six hastas long, and surmounted by tops. Above

the earth will remain four hastas (of the posts), besides the top portion ;

the distance between those two posts should be two hastas or one —

hasta and a half. Between the two tops he shall place a piece of the

wood which is fitted with a grapple (lit. crab), a ring, a hook or the

like instrument turned downwards, for fastenmg the scale-beam to it.

From that (beam) hangs the scale-beam with its upper hook or ring

or the like, and two boards should be tied to the ends (of the beam),

each with three strings. Having dug into the earth a pair of posts,

(the one) to the south (the other) to the north, at a distance of two

hands (from each other), at the eastern end, of the scale-beam, he shall

place a joining-piece over them. ‘This is the arch (torana) and that —

should be ten fingers higher than the balance. He shall make an (arch)

of this kind also on the western side of the scale-beam. In order to know

if the scales are even, he must make two mason’s plummets, of clay,

in the shape of balls, hanging down from the arches, tied to them ie

by strings, and touching the ends of the scale-beam. He shall spread on .

the scales Kuca-grass blades with their tops turned to the east. Then 4

1866.) On Ordeals. 29

the Pridvivika, having fasted one (day), shall make the accused,

who has fasted one (day), or in case of heavy accusation, if he can

do it, three (days), and who has bathed in his garments, ascend the

western scale on a Sunday after sunrise, and having placed in the

eastern scale stones, bricks, clay, or the like, shall make (this weight)

equal (to that of the accused). Truthful Brahmans and goldsmiths

shall make an enquiry into this (if the scale-beam stands even) by

throwing water (on it) and the like. Then (the Pradvivaka), having

made a line (in the scale) in order to know the place, where (the

accused) was sitting at the time of being weighed (for the first

time), he shall make him to descend.

*Then the accused, having named the place and the time (where and

when the ortleal takes place), and having vowed, ‘ In order to prove

my innocence, [ will undergo this ordeal,” shall elect, by presenting

clothes and the like, besides the Pradvivaka four priests (to perform

the following sacrificial ceremonies).

The great doctors in Smriti lore say, that also the Svastivaécana

should be performed. The Pradvivika, standing with his hands joined,

shall bring Dharma to the scales (pronouncing the following prayer),

accompanied by the sound of musical instruments, ‘‘ Om, come, come,

divine Dharma, approach this ordeal together with the guardians of the

worlds, the Vasus, Adityas, and, the flocks of the Maruts.”’ Afterwards

he shall bring the subordinate deities.

He uses for bringing Indra (near), “‘Omindramvieva” (R. V. I. 11-1,)

which verse (was seen by) Madhuchandas, (and has for its deity) Indra,

(and for its metre) Anushtubh. The application (of the verse remains)

everywhere the same. (Having muttered) “indramvicva, ete.”

(and having with these words) ‘‘ Indra come, mayest thou stand here,”’

brought Indra to the eastern (corner of the place), he should meditate

on the yellow colour. (He then speaks the verse) ‘“‘ Yamaya somam,”

(R. V. X. 14-13) (of which) Yama (is the Rishi), Yama (the deity),

and Anushtubh (the metre). (Having muttered the verse) ‘ Yamaya

somam,”’ (and having by the prayer) “‘ Yama come hither, mayest thou

stand here,” brought Yama to the southern (corner), he should medi-

tate on the dark-blue colour. (He then recites this verse) “‘ Tvamnah,”’

(R. V. IV. 1, 4 of which) Vamadeva (is the Rishi), Varuna (the

deity), and Trishtubh (the metre). Having muttered “ Tvamnosgne

30 On Ordeals. [ No. I,

varunasya,’”’ (and having with the prayer) “‘ Varuna come hither, mayest

thou stand here,” brought Varuna to the western (corner), he should

meditate on the colour of crystal.

Having brought Kuvera with the prayer from the Yajurveda

“ Rajadhirajaya” (and with this prayer) “‘ Kuvera come hither, mayest

thou stand here,” to the northern (corner), he should meditate on

the colour of gold. (He then recites the verse) ‘“‘ Agnim,” (R. V.

VIII. 44, 3) (of which the) Rishi is Medhatithi, (the deity) Agni,

(the metre) Gayatri. Having muttered ‘Om agnim dfitam” (and

having brought Agni (with the words) “ Agni come hither, mayest

thou stand here,” to the corner sacred to Agni (south-east), he should

meditate on the colour of gold. (He then recites the mantra), “‘ Moshuw”’

(R. V. I. 38, 6), (of which the Rishi is) Ghora of the race of Kanva,

(the deity) Nirriti, (the metre) Gayatri. Having brought Nuriti (by

muttering) ‘ moshunah,”’ (and) “ Nirritt come hither, mayest thou stand

here,” (to the south-western corner), he should meditate on the dark-

blue (colour).

(He then recites this mantra) ‘‘ Tavavayo” (R. V. VIII. 26-21,) of

which the Rishi is) Vyacva, the deity Vayu, (and the metre) Gayatri.

Having brought Vayu (by muttering “ Tavavayav,” ete. and, “ Vayu,

come, etc.” as before (to the north-western corner), he should meditate

on the brown (smoke) colour.

(He then recites), ‘‘tamicinam,” etc. (R. V. I. 89, 5) (whose Rishi

is) Gautama, (whose deity is) Ic4na, (whose metre is) Jagati. Having

brought Icana by muttering “tamicanam,” etc. (and) “ Icana come,”

_ ete. as before (to the north-eastern corner), he should meditate on the

red colour.

To the right of Indra he should bring (the eight Vasus (with this

verse): “ Imaydtra vasavah” (R. V. VII. 39, 3), (whose Rishi is)

Vasishtha, the son of Mitra and Varuna, (whose deities are) the

Vasus, (whose metre is) Trishtubh. He should mutter.“ imaydatra, ~

etc.” (and the invocation) ‘‘ Vasavas come hither, stand here.”

The eight Vasus are declared to be; Dhara, Dhruva, Soma, Apah,

Anila, Anala, Pratyaisha, Prabhasa.

He places between Indra and Icdna the twelve Adityas (with this

Mantra); ‘‘tyamnu”’ (R. V. VITL. 561) Qvhose Rishi is) Sammada

Matsya, (whose deities are) the twelve Adityas, (whose metre is the)

Gayatri. (He should mutter) ‘ tyam nuxatriya, ete,”

1866.] On Ordeals. 31

Dhatri, Aryaman, Mitra, Varuna, Amea, Bhaga, Indra, Vivasvat,

Pishan, Parjanya as the tenth, next Tvashtri, then Vishnu last not

least, these are declared to be the twelve Adityas, by their names.

He brings to the western side of Agni the eleven Rudras (by this

verse) “arudrasah” (R. V. 5. 1.), Gwhose Rishi is) Gyavacva, (whose

deities are) the eleven Rudras, (whose metre is) Jagati. (He should

do so by muttering) ‘‘arudrasah” (and the prayer,) ‘ Rudras come

hither.” As the eleven Rudras are recorded Virabhadra, Q@ambhu

and the glorious Girica, Ahir-budhnya, Aja HEkapad, and the uncon-

quered Pinikin, Bhuvanadhi¢vana, and Kapdalin, the lord of men,

Sthanu, Bhava, and Bhagavat. Between Yama and Nirriti he places

Brahman (masc.) (with this verse) ‘‘ Brahma yajnénim”’ (whose Rishi

is) Vamadeva, Gotama’s son, (whose deity is) Brahman (masc.), (whose

metre) Trishtubh. (He should do so by muttering) “ Brahmayajna-

4m” (and this invocation, ‘‘ Brahman come) hither.” (And he

brings tothe same place) the mothers (with this verse) ‘‘ Gaurirmi-

maya,” (R. V.I. 164, 41) (whose Rishi is) Dirghatamas, (whose deity

is) Uma, (and whose metre is) Jagati. (He should do so by mutter-

ing) “ gaurirmiméya,” (and the invocation)’’ O mothers, come hither,

stand here.”

The seven mothers are Brahmi, and Maheevari, Kaumari, Vaish-

navi, Varahi, Indrani, Camunda. To the north of Nirriti he places

| Ganeca (with this mantra), “ Ganandmtva”’ (R. V. IT. 23, 1), (whose

Rishi is) Gritsamada, (whose deity is) Ganidhipati (the lord of hosts),

and the (metre) Jagati.. (He should do so by muttering) ‘‘ Gana-

namtva”’ (and the invocation “ O Ganapati, come) “hither, ete. etc.”

To the north of Varuna (he places) the Maruts (with this mantra),

“Marut yasya”’ (R. V. I. 86, 1), (whose Rishi is) Rahugana, (deity)

the Maruts, (metre) Gayatri. (He should do so by muttering) “ Marut

yasya’’ (and the invocation, ‘‘ Maruts, come) hither,” etc.

The Maruts are declared to be seven, viz., Gaganasparcana, Vayu,

Anila, Maruta, Prana, Praneca, Jiva.

At the north side of the scales (he places) Durg4 (with this mantra)

“* jatavedase,” (R. V. I. 99, 1, (whose Rishi is) Kacyapa, (deity) Durga,

(metre) Trishtubh. (He should do so by muttering) “ jatavedase”

(and the invocation “ Durga, come) hither,” ete.

When thus he has placed these deities, he should worship them

32 On Ordeals. [No. 1,

(saying) “TIT give the Arghya to Dharma, adoration.” Having in this

manner and the like, at every new gift, repeating these words, given to

Dharma the Arghya, water for the feet, water for rinsing the mouth,

the honey-mixture, water for rinsing, a bath, clothes, a Brahmanical

cord, water for rinsing the mouth, and finally ornaments, such as a

crown, bracelets, and having presented the gifts beginning with the

arghya and ending with the ornaments (as above) to Indra and the

rest, (pronouncing) their respective names preceded by the word Om,

and standing in the dative case (Om indraya arghyam prakalpayami-

namah, etc.) according to the fit time for giving the gift, and having

(then) presented to Dharma perfumes, flowers, frankincense, lamps

and eatables, such as curds, cakes, unground rice, he shall also present

perfumes, etc., to Indra and the other gods in the manner before

described. And the perfumes, flowers; etc. must, when Dharma is

worshipped at the ordeal of the scales, be coloured red: to Indra

and the other (gods) they may be offered in the state in which they are

obtained. The judge shall perform the ceremony which ends with

this (act just described).

Then the burnt-offerings are to be offered by four priests, after

common fires have been kindled in the direction of the four points of

the horizon.

Then having pronounced the Gayatri together with the word Om,

(and) again Om followed by the word svaha, they shall offer of each

of (these, viz.) clarified butter, boiled rice and firewood, one hundred

and eight oblations to Savitri. Then the accused shall write the

matter he is accused of, on a scroll and the prayer “ Sun and moon;

wind and fire, heaven and earth, the waters, the heart and Yama,

day and night, and the two twilights and Dharma know the acts of

man.” Then he (the judge) should correct (the writing) and place

the scroll on the accused’s forehead ; and these ceremonies which begin

with the placing of the gods and end with placing of the scroll on

(the defendant’s) head, are common to all ordeals.

Then the Pradvivaka shall address the scales with this prayer :

“Thou, O scale, art created by Brahman in order to examine the

evil-minded. Because (thy name contains) the letter dh, thou a

Dharma. Because through that letter, thou causest constantly to be |

known (to men) a bad man, therefore thou art called dhata. Thow |

}

1866.] . On Ordeals. 83

knowest the good and evil deeds of all creatures. Thou alone knowest

everything which men know not. ‘This accused wishes to be cleared,

therefore deign to save him, according to justice, from the suspicion

(cast upon him).”” Then the accused addresses the scales in the follow-

ing manner) :

“Thou, O scale, art the abode of truth, having been made (so)

formerly by the gods. Therefore, O good one, speak the truth and

free me from suspicion. If, O mother, I am a sinner, then make me

descend ; if I am innocent, let me rise upwards. —

Then the Prédvivika makes the accused, to whose forehead the

scroll has been tied, reascend the scales in (exactly the same) place,

and sitting (in the same manner) as (at the first weighing), and remain

there (on the scale) for the space of five Palas. In that time (the

accused’s) innocence or guilt must be examined and announced by

holy Brahmins to the king and to the members of the court. Then

he descends and gladdens the Pradvivika, the Brahmans and the priests

(who have officiated) by rewards. Then, having dismissed the gods

(with these verses) ‘‘ Brahmanaspati arise” (Rigveda I. 40, 1) and “ go

ye crowds of gods,” etc., he gives everything (the presents offered to

the gods) to the judge. ;

Now (follow) the rules for (the ordeal by) fire.

Pitémaha (says) : |

*“* T will declare the rules (for the ordeal) by fire, as they are ordained

by the institutes of law. Let him order to be drawn eight circles, and

also in the eastern (direction) a ninth. The first circle is declared to

be sacred to Agni, and the second to Varuna, the thirdto Vayu, the

fourth to Yama, but the fifth to Indra, the sixth to Kuvera, the seventh

to Soma, the eighth to Savitri, and the ninth to all the gods: thus

know those, who know the Vedas.”

But Madana has declared: ‘‘ They know that the eighth is sacred

to all the gods, but that which is the ninth (drawn in the eastern

direction) (should be) great and sacred to the earth; they should be

smeared with cow-dung and sprinkled with water.”

_ The same declares the size of the circles.

_* (Measured by) thirty-two fingers should be the distance that sepa-

rates circle from circle. The space occupied by the eight circles should

e 256 fingers,”’

34 Cn Ordeals. [No. 1,

Mandalat, ‘‘ from circle’ (means) from the beginning of the circle.

The space occupied by a circle and the intervals between it and the

next, should be thirty-two fingers; that is the meaning (of the pas-

sage).

Amongst these the circle occupies (a space of) sixteen fingers, and

the interval between two circles as much, because Yajnavalkya says;

“it ought to be known, that (each) circle occupies sixteen fingers, and

the interval (between two) as much.”

Ii the foot-print of the person who is to be cleared (by the

ordeal) (occupies) more than sixteen fingers, then the distance be-

tween the two circles should be made less than sixteen fingers. Ifthe

(foot-print) of the person who is to be cleared (by the ordeal)

(occupies) less than sixteen fingers, then another circle, just as broad

as his foot-print, ought to be drawn inside the circle occupying sixteen

fingers.

But if Narada has written (these words), “thus two hundred, ex-

ceeded by forty (should be the measure), if (one) measures the

space by fingers,’ that is to be understood (of the first eight circles),

leaving out the portion of ground between the eighth and ninth circle,

because it is not necessary for the.accused to step through that.

If the reading of the Kalpataru is; “the ground prepared is thus 4%

said to be (two hundred) and twenty-four (fingers), the number of the #

fingers must be added up, leaving out the first circle, where the accused —

stands (and takes the fire on his hands).

“‘ Blades of Kucga-grass ought to be placed in every circle, according

to the injunction of the institutes of law, and the accused should place

his foot on these; that is the rule.”’

In the Mitaxara and in the Madanaratna (we read) :

“He should offer in the fire one hundred and eight oblations of

clarified butter, in order to propitiate (it).” |

And Vijnanec¢vara (says), that this burnt-offering should be offered

with the prayer, “To Agni, the purifier, Svaha.”’ )

Narada (says) :

‘A man who is by caste a smith, or expert in working with fire,

or otherwise acquainted with the proceeding, should heat the iron im

the fire—a ball of iron (heated till it becomes) of the colour of fire,

throwing sparks, well prepared.”

}

1866.] Gn Ordeals. 85

Pitimaha (says) :

“Having made a ball of iron, without corners, (perfectly) smooth,

equal to eight fingers (in circumference) and to fiity palas (in weight),

he should heat it in the fire.”

In the Kalika Purana (we read) :

“The king should give to the accused an iron (ball), weighing fifty

palas, twelve fingers in circumference, consisting (as it were) of fire only,

(heated by) blowing (with bellows).

But Gankha and Likhita declare that the ball must weigh sixteen

palas, (in the passage) beginning thus :

“ But having taken, into his joined hands, a fire-coloured ball sixteen

palas in weight, enveloped in seven Acvattha-leaves.’’ And this (ball

weighing sixteen palas) is for a weak man.

The ball should be heated three times, because Narada says: ‘ this

(ball) being heated for the third time.”

There (at this ordeal) after the ball has been heated for the first

time), it is thrown into water ; when it has been heated (for the second

time), it is (again) thrown into water; and whilst it is again being

heated the Pradvivika should perform (the ceremonies), beginning

with the bringing near of the gods, and ending with the placing of

the scroll on the forehead (of the accused).

Then (at this stage of the proceedings) Pitéimaha mentions a pecu-

liarity in the worship of the fire:

“Then the king should order the fire to be worshipped with red

sandy ointment and perfumes, and also with red flowers,”

Harita (says) :

““He (the accused) should then place himself, facing the east, with

outstretched fingers, in wet garments, clean, having tied to his forehead

the scroll.”

The words “‘ the accused’’ must be understood.

Pitémaha (says) :

_“ He shall place himself in the first circle, facing the east, with his

joined handsgstretched towards the) east, being pure,”

_ Narada (says) ;

“Tn all wounds or contusions (which he may happen to have) in

his hand, let him make’ (marks in the shape of) swan’s feet ; and he

should look at them again (after the ordeal) (and he should make)

36 On Ordeals. [No. 1,

the hands variegated by dots (with a coloured substance).”

YAjnavalkya (says) :

“Having marked his hands, by crushing (in them) some rice, he

should place (in them) seven Agvattha-leaves and tie them as often

with a string.”

(The word) tavat, “‘ often,” qualifies the action.

Vijnanecvara means to say therefore “‘ he should tie it seven times.”

Madana (on the other side) says :

“'Tavatsutram, ‘so much string’ means a collection of strings by so

much, therefore he should tie (the leaves) once with seven strings

taken together.” .

Pitdémaha (says) : A,

“Let-him place in his hands seven Pippala- sewed unground rice,

flowers, curds, and tie them there with a string.”

The verses with which the Pradvivaka addresses, on this occasion,

the fire contained in the ball, will be declared in the Prayoga.

YAjnavalkya (says) :

“¢< Thou, O Agni, goest into the interior of every creature, O purifier,

O sage, speak the truth in regard to my good and bad deeds, like a

witness.’ He shall place into both the hands of the accused, who has

thus spoken, a fire-coloured, smooth iron ball, fifty palas in weight.”

Pitamaha (says) :

* Then the king, who is intent upon exercising justice, or a (man) —

ordered (to do so), shall place it (the ball) with pincers in his hands,”

Narada (says) :

“‘ Having taken it (the ball) into his hands, being ordered (to do so)

by the Pradvivaka, (and) standing in one (of the circles) he shall

walk over seven others, walking straightforward.” .

Pitamaha (says) :

“‘He (the accused) should not walk quickly but steadily and slowly,

he should not overstep (any) circle, nor should he place his foot into

the intervals, and having reached the eighth circle, he shall throw it

(the ball) down into the ninth, (if he is) a wise man.” »

But the ball must be thrown down into the ninth circle, which 1

covered by Kuca-grass.

For thus the Kalika Purana (says) :

ff And he should walk (through) seven circles, each sixteen finge

1866.] On Ordeals. 37

by measure, and (over) as much (distance) in the intervals. Having

walked (this distance), he shall throw (it) down on fresh Kuga-grass

(which is strewn in the ninth circle).”’

Pitdmaha (says) :

“Then he should place in his (the accused’s) hands, rice with its

husk, or barley (yava). But if he rubs them to pieces without hesita-

tion and shows no change (then in his hands) at the end of the day, he

shall declare him to be innocent.”

Katyayana (says) :

“Tf the accused stumbles, or is burnt anywhere else (than in his

hands), the gods do not consider that burn (as a proof of guilt) ; he

shall allow him (to perform the ordeal once) more.”

Yajnavalkya (says) : 7

“Tf the ball falls from his hands, or a doubt (arises whether it has ©

been done properly), he should take it (the ball) again.”’

Now (follows) the manner of proceeding.

After the place has been purified in the morning, the nine circles

should be drawn in the evening. Having made the first amongst these

sixteen fingers broad, he divides a space of thirty-two fingers (just)

before (the first circle) in two parts. The second part (of these) he

makes of the size of the (accused’s) foot, the rest becomes the interval.

And having finished in this manner, beginning from the third and end-

ing with the eighth circle, and having before (the last) left a space

of sixteen fingers in breadth, he makes a ninth circle of an un-

defined size. And thus the space (occupied) by the eight circles

and (eight) intervals together, is two hundred and fifty-six (fingers).

Hight grains of (yava) barley measured across their thickest part,

-or three rice grains in their husks measured from top to end, are

declared to be equal to a finger.

_ A span (vitasti) contains twelve fingers. <A hasta ‘ell’ (or ‘ cubit,’

trom elbow to top of fingers) is (equal to) two spans. A Danda, ‘ yard’

as (equal to) four ells. Two thousand yards make one Kroca, and four

_Krocas make one Yojana.

_ The span and the other (measures) will be used (in passages occur-

ring) below. |

Then the judge, after having worshipped, in their order, the gods

presiding over the nine circles, of which the western is the first, viz.

38 On Ordeals. [No. 1,

Agni, Varuna, Vayu, Yama, Indra, Kuvera, Soma, Savitri, and all the

gods, (and) having kindled a common fire in a place that lies to the south

of the space occupied by the circles, offers one hundred and eight

oblations of butter, (saying): ‘To Agni the purifier, svaha!” (This

is done) in order to propitiate (Agni).

Then having placed into that fire a round, smooth, iron ball, with-

out corners, eight fingers in circumference and weighing fifty palas,

he performs, whilst it is being heated, the ceremonies described in

the rules for the ordeal by the scales, beginning with the bringing near

of Dharma and ending with the burnt-offering ; (and) when it is being

heated for the third time, the Pradvivika should address Agni, who

dwells*in the iron ball, with the following verse :

“ Thou, O Agni, art the four Vedas, thou art called at the sacrifices,

thou art the mouth of all gods, thou art the mouth of all speakers of

divine knowledge, thou livestin the bellies of the creatures, therefore thou

knowest (their) guilt and innocence. Because thou purifiest from sin,

therefore thou art called the purifier. To the guilty show (thy power),

O purifier, shine with brilliancy.

‘“‘ But be propitious to those who are of innocent mind, O thou who

eatest the oblations.

“Thou, O Agni, walkest in the interior of all creatures as a witness.

Thou, O god, knowest what men do not know. This man, who is

accused, wishes to be cleared, therefore deign to save him from

suspicion, according to truth.”

In order to clean the iron, having thrown the heated iron-ball into

water, it should be again heated and again thrown into the water,

and then again heated,—it is the third heating.

The judge, after having taken up the well-heated, fire-coloured

iron-ball, which has been thus addressed, with a pair of pincers,

and holding it before the person, who undergoes the ordeal, who

has fasted, bathed, is in his wet garment, wears the scroll on his

forehead, and stands in the western circle, he places it into his

hands. |

The latter (before taking it) addresses it with the following (verse) :

‘Thou, O fire, dwellest in all creatures, O purifier, speak thou the —

truth in regard to my guilt or innocence, O sage !”’

The “ preparation of the hands” consists, in crushing rice in them

1866.] | On Ordeals. 39

and joining them, in marking the black and red spots, the wounds and

weals in them and the like with lack-juice and the like, in placing in

them seven equal Acvattha-leaves, or (on failure of them) seven Arka

leaves, or seven Vami-leaves or seven Dirva-leaves, rice grains, 7. e. rice-

grains wetted with whey and flour, and in tying up (the whole) seven

times with seven white threads. Then the person who undergoes the

ordeal, should walk through the circles, beginning with the second and

ending with the eighth, and having thus made seven steps, throw the

iron-ball, which he holds in his joined hands, into the ninth circle.

Then he should again crush rice (in his hands), and if his hands are

not burnt he is innocent.

Now follows (the rule for the ordeal by) water.

Pitaimaha (says) :

“ Now I willdeclarethe rule (for the ordeal) by water, the eternal law.

A wise (judge) should order to be made a place (purified by the

application of cow-dung), then he should devoutly worship arrows with

lamps and incense, and a bow made of bamboo, with auspicious flowers

and incense, and afterwards perform the ordeal.”

The construction is; ‘ he should worship the arrows with lamps

and flowers.”

The worship must take place in the (purified) space.

Narada describes the size of the bow:

“The strong bow ought to be understood to be one hundred and

seven fingers long, (the bow of) middling (strength) one hundred and

six, and the weak bow one hundred and five; this is the rule regard-

ing the bow. But let a wise (judge) shoot three arrows with the

bow of middling (strength), having made a target at the distance of

one hundred and fifty hastas.

Saptacatam (lit. seven hundred) means one hundred and seven fingers

long. In the same manner must be interpreted the expressions shat-

-gatam (six and hundred), pancacatam (five and hundred),

Katyayana (says) :

_ “And he should make the arrows (used) at the ordeal without iron

tops, only consisting of a piece of bamboo; but the bow-man should

shoot strongly.”

Narada (says) :

- “But going to a place full of water, he should make an arch, as

40 On Ordeals. [No. 1,

high as the ear of the accused, on even and pure ground. He should

first worship Varuna with perfumes and fragrant garlands, with

honey, milk, -clarified butter, etc., being of collected mind. <A Bra-

hman, Xatriya or Vaigya, who is neither a friend nor a foe (of the

accused), should be placed in the water where it reaches up to his navel,

(and he must be) a man strong like a post.”

Pitaémaha (says) :

‘‘ Hirst the king should place in the water a man, (strong) like a post,

and then having ordered the person who undergoes (the ordeal) to go

into the water, facing the east, he should then bring near (by invoca-

tion) the gods, and address the water.”

The gods, i. e. Dharma and the rest (see above).

That he should perform the (ceremonies), beginning with the bring-

ing near of the gods and ending with the placing of the scroll (on the

accused’s forehead), this and the like (and) the verses addressed (to

the water) must be looked for im the (description) of the manner of

proceeding.

Vyasa (says) :

“By truth protect, O Varuna;’ having conjured the water (thus),

and taking hold of the thighs of the man who stands up to his navel

in the water, he (the accused) should enter the water.”

Xam means water; abhigdpya (lit. having conjured) means having .

addressed.

Brihaspati (says) :

‘When he has made the (accused) man enter the water he should

discharge three arrows.”

Pitaémaha (says) :

‘¢ The bow-man should be a Kshatriya or a Brahman, who follows his

(a Kshatriya’s) occupation, (who is) not hard hearted, of subdued _pas-

sions, dressed and pure.”

Katyayana (says) : |

When (the arrows) have been discharged, the submerging ought to

take place, and at the same time the starting (to fetch the arrows.)

The meaning of the word samakdlika “at the same time,’ is that

(it is to take place) at the same time as the submersion.

Narada and Pitémaha (say):

“A young, swift man should go according to his utmost power from ~

BERT HAM a mse

asaigy

1866.] On Ordeals. 41

the place of shooting to where the middle arrow (lies). Another man

of the same qualities, having received the middle arrow, should quickly

go back to the place, whence the (first) man came. But if the

arrow-bearer, arriving, sees him not, and (he is) in the water, then he

shall declare him to be cleared, otherwise he shall be guilty, though

he may show only one limb, or if he has gone to another place from

that where he entered before. ‘ One limb’ means the ear.

And Katyayana (says) :

“Of whom he does only see the (top of the) head, and neither the

ears, nor the nose, at his entering in the water, him also he should

declare to be innocent.”

Pitamaha (says) :

“The (place where) the arrow falls is to be used (as the starting

point for the second runner), and not a (place to which the arrow may

have glided).”

Narada (says) :

“Those two runners who are the swiftest among fifty, should be

appointed there (at the ordeal) in order to bring the arrow.”

Now (follows) the manner of proceeding.

The place of (the ordeal by) water (is described as follows).

A river, the ocean, a lake, a natural water-course, a pool or a tank

jand the like (places) containing quiet water, should be used. One

| should avoid a small or unclean (place), and one that is full of grass,

reed, waves, mire, alligators, leeches, fish and the like, one which is

quick-flowing and the like. There, in water which reaches up to the

navel, a pillar for (fulfilling) the law should be made from a tree whose

wood can be used at the sacrifice. Near this, on the western bank an

arch, reaching up to the ear of the accused, should be made. .

A bamboo bow of one hundred and six fingers length, and three

arrows made of bamboo, without iron tops, should be placed near this,

A target is to be placed on cleared ground, one hundred and fifty

ells from the arch. Then after having worshipped the bow and the

arrows with white sandal-wood and garlands, having brought Varuna

(by invocation) to the water and worshipped him, and having com-

leted the above described (ceremony), which begins with conveying

{ Dharma to the bank of the water and ends with the burnt-offering,

42 On Ordeals, [No. 1,

and having tied the scroll with the accusation to the forehead of the

accused, the judge should address the water as follows:

“‘O water, thou art the breath of living creatures, thou wast first

produced at the creation, and thou hast been declared to be a means

of purifying things and living beings, therefore show thy (power) in

discerning between guilt and innocence.”

The person who is to be cleared also should address (the water) :

“Through truth protect me, Varuna.’”’ Then the accused should

approach a very strong man, who supports himself by the pillar of

the law, who has his face turned to the east and stands in the water

up to his navel. Then a Kshatriya or a Brahmana, who follows his

(the Kshatriya’s) occupation, should vigorously shoot the three arrows —

without iron tops towards the target. |

Then, whilst one swift man has- taken up the middle arrow, and,

having left the place where it rolled to (on the earth), placed himself

on the spot where it fell, another swift (man) must stand at the foot

of the arch whence the arrow was discharged.

And the swift (one) must be the swiftest amongst fifty runners.

Then, when the judge, who stands at the foot of the arch, has

clapped his hands three times, the accused must submerge himself and

the swift man, who stands near the arch, must begin to run very

quickly. And the submersion has to take place by catching the

thighs of the (man) who supports himself on the pillar of the law.

Then when he (the first runner) has arrived at the place where the

middle arrow fell, the man who stands there and took up the arrow

runs very quickly towards the arch. If he finds the accused sub-

merged, then he is innocent. He is also innocent, if the top of the head

only is visible ; (but) not Gnnocent), if his ear or any other member

is visible, or he has moved from where he had dived to any other

place.

Now follows the rule for (the ordeal by) poison.

In (regard to) this, Narada (says) :

‘A Brahman (the judge) with collected mind, turning his face to

wards the north or east, having fasted, should give the poison, befor

gods and Brahmans, after having worshipped Mahegvara with incense,

food and Mantras, (to the accused) who stands before the Brahman

facing the south,”

1866.] On Ordeals. 43

The same declares the quantity of the poison.

“Tn the rainy season the measure is recorded to be four barley

grains, in the hot season five, in the cold season seven, in autumn

even less than that.”

Less (means) three barley grains.

The cold season indicates also the dewy season, because these two

(words Hemanta and Cigira) are always used as a compound.

But the spring is fit (for this ordeal) because it is common to all

ordeals.

Vijnanecvara declares that the measure (of the poison) is also then

seven barley-grains.

The poison should be given (mixed) with thirty times as much

ghee. Because Katyéyana says, “ but the poison should be given to

men in the forenoon in a cool place, mixed with thirty times as

much ghee, well pounded.”

Yajnavalkya (IJ. 110) has declared the address to the poison: ‘“ O

poison, thou art Brahman’s son, firm in the duty of (making known

the) truth, save me, according to truth, from this accusation ; become

ambrosia to me.”

Narada (says) :

“ Sitting down in the shade, he must be watched the rest of the day,

without taking food. Manu says, that if he overcome the force of the

poison, he is innocent.”’

In case of excess of the measure of the poison the same ordains

another interval of time:

Tf he remains healthy for 500 Palas (about 500 seconds), then he

is innocent and may take medicine.

And the symptoms of (the working of) the poison (have been de-

scribed) in the Vishatantra.

_ “he first attack of the poison causes the erection of the hair (on

the body), (then follow) sweat and dryness of the mouth, after that

arise (frequent) changes of colour, and trembling of the body. Then

the fifth attack causes the immobility of the eyes, loss of speech

and hiccoughing. The sixth, hard breathing and loss of conscious-

ness, and the seventh, the death of the person. There (at this ordeal)

he (the accused) should take the poison, after it has been oa

before Mahadeva, by the judge, who has fasted.”

44 On Ordeals. [No. 1,

Now (follows) the rule for (the ordeal by means of) water taken

from the bath of a god. es

Pitamaha (says) :

“He (the judge) should make (the accused) drink the water (from

the bath) of that god whom (the accused) worships especially, but if

he worships (all) the gods equally, he should make him drink (the -

water from the bath) of Aditya. Thieves and people who live by

the sword, he should order to drink (the water from the bath) of

Durga; but he should not make a Brahman drink the water from the

(bath) of Aditya.”

Brihaspati (says) :

‘“‘ The (bathing water of the god) whom the accused worships exclu-

sively, is his (the gods) weapon; having sprinkled the god he

should make the accused drink three handfuls of the water.”

Narada: ‘ Having called the accused and placed him in the circle

(drawn at the beginning of the ceremony) facing the sun, he should make

him who has bathed according to the beforementioned rule, is dressed

in his wet garments, and is pure, drink three handfuls of the water.”’

Narada :

“¢ Having worshipped that god (who is especially addressed at the

ordeal), and sprinkled him with water, and told (the accused) the

(greatness of the) sin (in case he lies), he should make him drink

three handfuls (of the water).” }

There (at this ordeal) the judge, having fasted (from sunrise)

and worshipped the god in the forenoon, and having taken (the god’s)

bath, and performed (the ceremonies) beginning with the bringing

near of the gods and ending with the placing of the scroll on the fore-

head of the accused, should address the water with the Mantra

prescribed at the ‘ordeal by water.’ Likewise should the accused’

address the water with the formerly-mentioned (Mantra), and then

drink afterwards.

Brihaspati (says) :

“ He who does not suffer any misfortune in regard to children, wives

or property within a week or a fortnight, shall doubtlessly be (consi-

dered.) innocent.”’

Now (follows) the rule (for the ordeal by) rice grains.

In regard to this Pitimaha (says) :

1866.] On Ordeals. 45

“‘ T will declare the rules for the (ordeal by) rice grains, as it is

described by its particular characteristics; but the maxim is, that

the ordeal by rice grains should be allowed in case of theft only, not

otherwise.”’

He should order grains of Gali, not of any other (kind of rice), to

be made white. Unsullied (by impurities) he should expose them in

an earthen vessel to the sun, and should keep them mixed with water

from the bath (of the god) for one night, and should perform the

ceremonies beginning with the bringing near of the gods according to

the rule during the night.”’

Katyayana also (says) :

“ At the eating of rice grains mixed with the water of the god’s bath,

he (the accused) shall be considered clean, if he spits them out clean

(not mixed with blood, etc.) ; he (who does) otherwise (is) guilty, and

should be punished.”

Pitéimaha (says) :

“* He should declare that man guilty, who is seen to bleed, whose jaw

or palate is torn, or whose body trembles.”

Now (follows) the rule for (the ordeal) by hot misha—grains (made

of metal).

Pitimaha (says) :

“T will declare the rule for (the ordeal by) hot mishas (which is)

good for (the judge) clearing (mer). He should have made an iron or

copper vessel of sixteen fingers (in circumference) and four fingers deep,

or an earthen round (vessel). He should have it filled with clarified

butter and oil (to the weight of) twenty palas. Then he should

place into it, (when it is) well-heated, a golden maisha—grain.

(The accused) should take out the hot masha, with the thumb and

(first) finger. If he does not move the ends of the fingers, or no

blister comes, he whose fingers are not hurt is (considered) innocent

according to the law.”

The same describes another mode (of undergoing this ordeal). Being

pure, he (the judge) should order clarified butter prepared from cow’s

(milk) to be heated in a golden, silver, copper, iron or earthen (vessel),

and he should throw a beautiful golden, silver, copper or iron coin,

which has once been washed with water, into the (liquid). When it

is full of small and great gyrating waves and cannot be touched with

46 On Ordeals. [No. 1,

the nails, then he should examine it on a wet leaf, whether it makes

loudly the sound Churu, and then he should address it once with this

Mantra : ; |

‘Thou, O ghee, art the best means of holiness, and ambrosia at the

sacrifice ; O purifier, burn thou the bad man, be cool like snow to the :

innocent.”

Then he should make (the accused), who must come, after having

bathed, in wet clothes, without having eaten or drunk, take that coin

which lies in the ghee. The examiners (Brahmans appointed thereto

as in the ordeal by the scales) should examine his first finger. If there

are no blisters, he is innocent, otherwise guilty.”

Now follows the rule for (the ordeal by) the ploughshare.

Brihaspati (says) :

“The ploughshare must be made of iron, twelve palas in weight.

Hight fingers be its length and four its breadth. A thief should once

lick strongly that with his tongue, when it is heated to the colour of

fire. If he is not burned, he shall be innocent, otherwise he is guilty.”’

Now (follows) the rule for the (ordeal by) lot.

Pitaémaha (says) :

“* Now I will declare the examination of murderers, persons who raise

(unjust) claims, and of persons who refuse to perform a penance for a

crime of which they are accused, by means of (lots bearing the

figures of) Dharma and Adharma. He should cause to be made (one

lot) of silver, bearing the figure of Dharma; and one of lead, bearing

the figure of Adharma; or he should draw on (two) pieces of the

inner bark of the birch-tree Dharma and Adharma in white and

black. Having sprinkled (the two lots) with the five products of the

cow, he should worship (them) by presenting sandal-ointment and

flower-wreaths. But to (Dharma) white-flowers (should be presented),

and black flowers to Adharma. Having performed this and smeared

(the images with cowdung), he should place the two (lots) in two

heaps (of cowdung). The two heaps must be made round, of cowdung ~

or (clean) earth, and must be placed in a new earthen jar, without

being marked. In a clean place, smeared (with cowdung) in the

presence of (the images of) the gods and of Brahmans, he should

then bring near the gods and the guardians of the points of the

horizon, as formerly (described), But before bringing Dharma near, ©

1866. ] On Ordeals. 47

he should write the Pratijnapatra, (a paper declaring the resolution

of the accused to perform the ordeal and the crime of which he is

accused.) Then the accused (saying,) “if If I am free from guilt, may

(the lot of Dharma) fall into may hand,” should take one (of the heaps)

without hesitating. If he has taken “the lot of Dharma” he shall

be cleared, but if he has taken the lot of Adharma, he loses his cause.

Thus has been declared in short the examination of by the two (lots

symbolising) innocence and guilt.”

Brihaspati (says) :

“ Figures of Dharma and Adharma must be drawn on two leaves

(in) white and black. Having addressed (Dharma and Adharma) with

the verses which convey life to them and others, and with the

Séma-melodies beginning with the Gayatri, he should worship them

with perfumes and white and black flowers. Having sprinkled them

with the five products of the cow and placed them into two heaps of

earth, and made (the heaps) equal in size without marks, he should

place them in a jar. Then (the accused) should take one heap out of

the jar without hesitation. If he has taken ‘“ the lot of Dharma” he

shall be considered free from guilt, and is to be honoured by the

persons conducting the ordeal.

Now (follows) the manner of proceeding.

Having drawn a white figure of Dharma and a black figure of

Adharma on two leaves, and having given life to the image of Dharma

by this (mantra): ‘Am, hrim, krém, ham, yam, ram, lam, vam, cam,

sham, sam, ham; I (am) he (Brahma); may breath come here (to this

image) and remain long and happily, Svaha ;”’ he (sings) the Sémans

beginning with the Gayatri-siman if he knows the Samans.

(Then) he again pronounces this Mantra (Am, etc.) (and substitut-

ing for the word Dharma’s breath, etc.), ‘‘ Dharma’s soul is here.”

(Afterwards) he pronBunces the same once more, substituting for the

words ‘‘ Dharma’s breath,” etc., “‘ Come hither, Oh mind, Oh eyes, Oh

ear, Oh nose, O breath, (come hither) all ye organs of Dharma, remain

here, Svah4 !” Having thus given a soul to the image of Dharma, and

having uttered the Gayatri-siman, if he knows the Sdman-melodies,

if not, the Gdyatri-verse preceded by Vydahritis and the syllable Om,

he performs the ceremony of bringing near (the gods) and the rest.

Having honoured the (images of) Dharma and Adharma in their order

48 On Ordeals. [No. 1,

with white and black flowers, and having taken the five products of

the cow, (pronouncing) the syllable Om, and sprinkling (the images),

he lays each of the images, Dharma together with white flowers and

Adharma together with black flowers, into a heap of earth and places

(these two heaps) in a new jar. The judge then performs the ceremonies

beginning with the bringing near of Dharma and ending with the

burnt-offering, prepares a Pratijnapatra on which also the Mantras

are written, and ties this leaf to the forehead of the accused. The

accused saying, “If I am pure of guilt, may (the image of ) Dharma —

come into my hand,” takes one of the two (heaps) in the jar. If he

has taken the image of Dharma, he is to be considered innocent. After-

wards he should give a present (to the Brahmans),

Now (follow) the oaths.

Manu : ‘“ Let the judge make a priest to swear by his veracity ; a sol-—

dier by his horse, or elephant, and his weapons; a merchant by his kine,

grains and gold; a mechanic or servile man by (imprecating on his

own head if he speak falsely) all possible crimes.”’

Brihaspati (says) :

‘“‘TIn small causes oaths by (the aecused’s) veracity, vehicles, arms,

kine, grain, or gold, by the feet of the gods or Brahmans, by the

(accused’s) sons’ or wives’ heads are prescribed, but in accusations of

crimes attended with violence the other ordeals are declared to be the ~

means of proving (the accused’s) innocence.”

Yajnavalkya (says) :

‘He shall be considered innocent, without doubt, to whom within

a fortnight (after his taking the oath) no dreadful misfortune, caused

either by the king or the gods, happens.”

Dreadful (ghora) means great, because a small (misfortune) is”

unavoidable for men ; thus (it is written) in the Mitaxara.

Katyayana also (says) : ad

“He, to whom within a fortnight no dreadful misfortune from the

king or from gods happens, is to be considered cleared by the oath.”

Vyasana means apat, misfortune. Ghora (dreadful) means exceedingly

painful, because small (misfortunes) are incidental to all creatures

possessing a body.

Again Katyayana (says) :

“ But now, if a misfortune coming from god happens to the accused

1866.] On Ordeals. 49

within a fortnight, he (the judge) should anxiously make him pay the

property (disputed) and also a fine,—if (the misfortune) befalls him

alone, and not all the people (at the same time). Sickness, a confla-

gration (of accused’s house, etc.), the death of relations, heavy fever,

eruptions, and deep-seated pains in the bones, disease of the eyes or OF

the throat, madness, disease of the head, and the breaking of an arm, are

the diseases which befall men, (coming) from god.” Misfortunes coming

from the gods (are) such as the death of relations. By the (words) .

“(Ti it befalls) him: alone,” epidemics, such as cholera (mari), are

excluded. As in this (passage) by the (word), ‘ his” the before-men-

tioned accused is referred to, sickness and the like are a sign of a

false (oath), only (if they befall) the accused, and not (if they happen)

to his sons or other (relations). And such (illness) ought, as before

mentioned, to be grave, not trifling. With reference to this (last

point) Vacaspatimigra (gives us) the meaning (of the passages) :

“Uncommon sickness (which befalls) the accused is a sign of a false

(oath). Therefore it is also declared that the death, not the sickness,

of relations (is a sign of the accused’s perjury).”’

_ Rough Notes on some of the Antiquities in the Gayd District, ~

By W. Prrrn, Esq.

[Received 20th November, 1865. ]

About 11 miles from Gayd, on the Patna road, there is a small

village and bazar called Newree ; on the right of the road there is a small

temple on a mound with one or two large pepul trees round it. There

are several figures lying about, and there is a slab on the pucka

terrace of the temple, representing a prince on horseback with attend-

ants, one holding an umbrella or chatta over him ; others are carrying

various articles ; one has two vessels slung on a pole, much in the same

way as pilgrims now carry the Ganges water ; another has a pig on his

shoulders, as far as I can make out ; it would seem to represent some

notable person performing a pilgrimage, (see Photograph, 9 a.*) and may

have been executed to commemorate the pilgrimage of some prince.

The villagers state that this slab has only been in its present place but

short time, and that it was found in a village about a mile to the

* The photographs alluded to in this paper may be seen in the Asiatic

ociety’s Library.—Ebs.

50 Antiquities of the Gayd District. [No. 1,

east, but it most likely came from the Burabur hills, which are only 6

miles from here.

The little temple or “ Muth”’ is i 100 years old, and is said to

have been built by a Mussalman Zemindar, a singular instance of toler-

ation, if true.

Bela.—A mile further on is the village of Bela; there is a dak bun-

galow here, and it is the point where the main ve is left by visitors

going to the Burabur hills.

To the north of the village are extensive mounds of brick rubbish,

several large tanks and the ruins of several temples (judging by the

number of Lingams) dedicated to Mahadeo; they lie to the east of

the large mound, through and over which the main road hes. To the

south of this there is a modern temple dedicated to Kalee, built by the

Tikaree family, in the Adytum of which there are a number of figures,

principally in fragments : there are several of a Buddhist character.

Palee.—About two miles further on at a village called Palee, there

is a large tank, now nearly filled up, to the north of which there are

several life-sized figures standing on the road side, but of no interest,

and of the kind so very common in this district.

Nar.—About four miles further on is a village called Nair ; to the

east of the village through which the road runs, is the ruin of a tem-

ple, with the pillared portico still standing ; (see Photographs Nos. 10

and 11, Plate I.) The pillars are of granite in one block; the temple

itself would seem to have been of brick, but is now only marked by

a mound of brick rubbish: its internal chamber is still standing, and

now contains a lingam. . |

There are several statues lying about, mostly in a mutilated condi- —

tion, but none of them are of much interest. There are several large

tanks in the neighbourhood, both to the east and west of the road,

with several lingams in situ. -

Returning to Bela and leaving the Patna road there, after going

about six miles to the east, is the isolated peak called Kowa Dhol, but

as this has been so fully described both by Major Kittoe and Col. Cun-

ningham, I need only describe the plietes raphs from this and adjacent

localities. 7

No. 12. View of Kowa Dhol from the east, showing the site of the

ancient village on the right.

GL NONE a oR OE

Calcutta

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1866.] Antiquities of the Gayd District. 51

No. 13. The Gigantic Boodh mentioned in Col. Cunningham’s

report.

No. 14.. A view of the Great Gurha caves, showing the entrances to

the Lomas Rishi to the right and the Ladama cave to the left, and the

huge block of granite, out of which they have been chiselled at the

expense of so much labour: the crack or flaw in the rock which arrest-

ed the work in the Lomas Rishi is also seen to extend to the outside.

No. 15. A new view of the entrance to the Lomas Rishi cave,

showing the frieze of elephants, the drawing of which will bear com-

parison with that of the best artists of the present day.

No. 16 is a view of the Nagarjun hill, with door-way and ascent

to the Gopi cave.

No. 17 is a view of a huge boulder supported by others, forming

a natural cavity or grotto which had been built up into a small cham-

ber or cell; the only part of the work now remaining is the mass of

_ brick rubbish on the top, which has been kept in its place by the roots

of the plants growing out of it. It is immediately alongside of the

Vapiya caves, a view of which I did not obtain.

Proceeding on to Durawuth—

No. 18 is a view of the Dandoker Tal from the north-west, showing

the little temple on the bank of the Tal and the hills in the background.

Nos. 19 and 20 are views of the twelve-armed figure mentioned by Col.

Cunningham ; I have only met with one other example of this figure.

There are several figures and sculptures of interest in this neigh-

bourhood ; one is a seated figure of Boodh, surrounded by a seven-

headed snake; it is called Nagjee by the natives. I also found

several slabs with quaint representations of the worship of the

solid temples or chaityas, see Photograph No. 21.* These came

originally from the small hill tp the south of the tank. These little

hills have been covered by little buildings, the character of which I

have not been able to make out ; I counted some 15 or 16 on one little

hill ; they were mostly built on the highest peaks and also crowned ~

every projecting spur; all that remains of them now are small plat-

forms of rough stones and mounds of brick. What their outward forms

were, cannot now be guessed, nor for what purpose they were built ; but

jmost probably they were cells for the abode of recluses. I have met

* The base of pedestal of a figure of Buddha, has the creed in Kutila characters.

52 Antiquities in the Gayd District. [ No. 1,

with these little buildings in several localities, and will refer to them

again in noticing those I found in better preservation at Cheon.

Genjun.~-Referring to the map,* you will see that there is a village

called Genjun, about 6 miles distant, west of the Patna road, in a direct

line with Durawuth. There are very extensive mounds at this village,

and several large and interesting figures, one of which is represented

in No. 22. It is well executed and, with the exception of the fracture,

in good preservation ; the figures surrounding the Boodh are represent-

ations of events in the life of Sakya Singha, with the Nirvan at the

top. The figure is called Byro by the Brahmans of the village. The

pedestals of several large figures as well as the lintel of a sculptured

Buddhist doorway have inscriptions, but they are defaced, from the

villagers having used them as whet-stones. I was informed that these

figures were exhumed when the mounds were dug into for the erection

of a small mud fort which adjoins these mounds: no doubt these

mounds are the sites of large buildings, and their excavation would

bring to light may other interesting figures. -

To the north-east also a number of figures have been collected in a

small brick enclosure, but they seem to be of more modern date; a

figure of Gunesh is the principal one.

Kispa. About two miles to the south-west is a village called

Kispa, where there are some very fine life-sized figures; qne in

the middle of the village to the east is a fine standing figure of —

Boodh, in capital preservation, with an inscription; near it are |

slabs and pillars of granite shewing that a temple had existed at —

this spot ; the whole village stands on high ground formed of brick

rubbish. To the south of the village are extensive mounds, and to

the north of this there is an old mud fort. On the west side of the —

ditch surrounding the fort there is a twelve-armed figure, the same as

the one at Durawuth, and has evidently been found when digging the |

fort ditch. Close by these mounds, to the south, is a small temple dedi-

cated to Tara Devi, and a number of figures are collected in and

around it; the temple itself is of the common kind seen in every i

village. Tara Devi is a standing figure of a Buddhist character, but it —

was so covered by drapery, that I could not make it out. A little tothe —

north of this temple, and on the opposite side of a ditch cut as a water= |

* Preserved in the Asiatic Society’s Library. pbs.

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, = =<

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Journal: As: Soc: XXXV PL.

PR LARUO Ne Pn Uther OR RN IR NORMS

Draun on Stone by Kristo Hort Das Stadent Govt: School of Art Caleutto.

STONE: FIGURE AT SENJUN,

Lith: by H. Niven $.G. 0. Calcutta May 1866.

1866.] Antiquities in the Gayd District. 53

course by the villagers, is a very singular figure, and the only one of

the kind I have hitherto met with : see Photograph No. 225 (Plate IT.)

It represents two figures, life-sized, one seated on the shoulders of the

other. From the ornaments and style it is evidently Buddhist, but I

am completely at a loss as to its meaning. To the north of the village,

there is another little temple in a mangoe grove, with a number of

figures, more or less mutilated, collected around it. I noticed a nicely

sculptured Lingam of a square form, and the only specimen of the kind

I have met with.

Kutangee.—About five miles west of this place is a village called

Kutangee. There is in it a large mud fort of some pretensions, and

‘numerous mounds of brick rubbish, some figures in fragments, but

none of any interest.

Mujheawan.—About a koss further north, there is another large mud

fort at the village of Mujheawan, and nearly every village about this

have mounds and small mud forts, but I saw no figures of importance

or interest.

_ Kyal.—About eight miles west of Mujheawan, there are large tanks

and mounds, but no other features of importance.

Deokund.—South of Kyal on the borders of an extensive tract of

land covered with shrub jungle is a place called Deokoond, which seems

to have possessed a Buddhist temple or monastery. There is a fair held

here in the month of Fagoon, when great numbers of people assemble

to bathe in the tank or koond. On a former visit, I observed a num-

ber of broken Buddhist figures and miniature stupas collected under

the trees : these have since been covered with a coating of mud. The

temple itself is in the centre of a mass of brick rubbish, through which

a road has been cut to give access to the interior chamber which is

now occupied by a Lingam. A rude sort of dome has been erected

immediately over the central chamber. See Photograph No. 23.

~ No, 24 is the gateway of a fortified serai in the old village of

Daoodnuggur, so named from Daood Khan the founder, who died

some 200 years ago.

Konch.—On. the road Fait Daoodnugeur and Gays, about 16

miles from the latter, is the village of Konch; I have already noticed the

temple at this place, but the following notes may not be unacceptable.

|The present village consists of two parts, the bazar on both sides of

54 Antiquitees in the Gayd District. [No. 1,

the road, and the village proper, which is about 100 yards to the north

of the road. Between the two villages there are several extensive

mounds of brick rubbish, and a number of scattered Buddhist figures.

On the right there is an old mud fort, and it would seem that in digging

the mud for its erection, the larger figures were found; the principal

one is life-size, highly finished, but wanting the head; see No. 25. This

is placed upright ona level with the path. Higher up on the mound to

the west are the Buddhist figures with inscriptions shown in Photograph

No. 26. To the south are two figures (see Photograph No. 27) of the

form I have already referred to, as being the most general all over this

district, and which are named according to the fancy of the Purohit, who,

provided with a few of these figures only differing in the execution, has

the range of the whole of the Hindoo Pantheon, and names them at his

own discretion, or according to the wishes or wants of the community.

Passing through the village proper, you come to the temple men-

tioned by Buchanan, and of which a drawing is given in the first volume

of Martin’s India. Photograph No. 28 (Plate XII) is a view of the

front of the building from the east with the opening above the entrance,

leading into the upper chamber. Photograph No. 29 isa view from the

southwest. The accompanying ground plan (Plate III) will give

the reader some idea of its structure, and the section will show the

superstructure with the arched lower chamber, and the interior recess

over the entrance which resembles that in the Boodh Gay4 temple.

Nothing but mud has been used to cement the bricks, but the latter have

been so well prepared that they fit together most accurately. There

would seem to have been a coating of plaster on the outside, but this

has nearly entirely disappeared. A porch had been added with an ©

arched roof, but it has fallen in, the only arch in the original building

is that of the lower chamber which is painted.

In the centre of the lower chamber there is now a lingam, and in

the porch there are a number of figures. Photograph No. 30 is a slab

let into the wall with a representation of the avatars. Photograph No.

31 are other figures in the same enclosure. Photograph No. 32 is a

nearer view of the entrance and opening above the doorway.

Immediately outside, there are a number of granite pillars, and from

their number and situation, they seem to have formed an enclosure —

round the temple.

Journal As: Soc: XXXV. p-l.

ise

aly

TEMPLE OF KONCH FROM A PHOTOGRAPH BY -J.H. Perre ESO RE

Drawn on stone at the Govt: School of Art Calcutta by Kristehurry Dass, Student.

LITH: BY H.M. SMITH, SURVEYOR GENERAL'S OFFICE CALCUTTA MARCH 1!866,

Plate. XVII.

ROUGH SECTION OF TEMPLE AT KOCH

———

PLAN OF TEMPLE AT KOCH.

Lith by H: Niven §.G6.0.Calentia May

3868

Plate IIT.

a Feet

Seale

20 Feet

1866.] Antiquities in the Gaya District. 55

In a corner of the village near the temple, there are a great number

of lingams collected, of all sizes, many with 3 and 4 sculptured faces.

To the east of the temple there is a small tank ; on the banks there are

several sumadhs or tombs, of the form which is so common at Boodh

Gaya.

Palee.—Four miles nearer Gayaé is another village called Palee, which

seems to have had several temples ; one at least was Buddhist, and of

the same form as the one at Nair and at Poonawa. Judging by the few

pillars still standing (see Photograph No. 33, ) a great number of pillars

have been removed. When I last visited the place, quarrying for

bricks was being actively carried on, Several large lingams had been

dug out of the mass of rubbish, and also a bull of the usual form, so

that the temple, which was most likely originally Buddhist, had subse-

quently been converted into a Hindoo one. A few paces to the west

close to the road théte is a large lingam in situ, with a peepul tree

growing in the interstices : see Photograph No. 34. Close by is the lintel

of a Buddhist temple door, and the side posts are a little distance apart

under a peepul tree : see Photograph No. 35. For some distance round

there are traces of temples, but those described seem to bave heen the

_ only ones of any size.

Almost directly south from Konch is a large village called Kabur,

and adjoining it is a rather large fort marked Mudun in the maps, but

I could find no local name for it. From the extensive mounds in every

direction, and the appearance and size of the fort, it is of much earlier

date than the generality of the mud forts so common in this district.

It is attributed to the Kole Rajahs by the natives, and this is the case

with everything which is earlier than the advent of the Mussulmans.

I was disappointed in not finding any figures or inscriptions in the

neighbourhood. There are one or two pillars of black chlorite which

must have belonged to some old Hindoo Temple, but the natives in-

formed me they had been collected for the building of a mosque by

‘some former inhabitant of the village. There is a granite stone, itself

originally a part of a pillar, inserted in a large well, but which has

proved to be the dedication of the well by some obscure individual : see

Photograph No. 36.

~ About 6 miles to the south-west is a large village and bazar called

Chirkawan ; it is the principal place in the Pergunnah of that name, It

56 Antiquities in the Gaya District. [ No. 1,

is built-on the site of an ancient village, and there is an old mud _ fort

adjoining. <A large tank to the south-east of the village has a stone ~

pillar in the centre, but with no inscription; it is one block of granite

rudely sculptured, and is now only about 10 feet above ground. Another

pillar of the same kind occurs at a village called Belar, with extensive

mounds about 5 or 6 miles to the south. Two miles to the south,

there is a cluster of small detached hills at the foot; almost easterly

there is a village called Cheoii (pronounced Cheo). To the east of this

village, on a small eminence, there is a ruined temple still partly

standing: see Photographs Nos. 37 and 38: the first shows the appearance

of the temple from the south, and the second gives a nearer view of

the doorway. The temple is built of squared granite blocks, with little

cement or iron bands, and is evidently of the same age as those at

Oomga. There isa lingam in the interior, but no other figures, and

there are only a few figures about. I failed in finding any inscriptions.

Some little distance to the north, near the hill, there are several

large figures all more or less mutilated, and a great number of squared

granite blocks, from which it would seem that another temple existed

here; and the base of the hill on the west, north and east, is covered

with brick rubbish in mounds of more or less distinct shapes. The hill

runs down into a low spur on the west side, and every available spur

and ridge had been covered with buildings. Some of the mounds to the

south are both large and high, so that there is little doubt that this

must have been the site of a considerable settlement in former days;

and that it was a Buddhist community, may be inferred from the pre-

valence of figures of a Buddhist character.

To the west is another little hill called Puchar, which is also cover-

ed with the remains of little buildings; and on the south side,

half way up, there is a small cave temple with the doorway and passage

still standing: see Photographs Nos. 89 and 40. The doorway is

supported on pillars with the usual bracket capitals, and the roof of the

passage is made with slabs of the same granite. The caveis only some

ten by twelve feet, of an irregular form, as it is a natural cavity between

the huge boulders, with some addition in the shape of a few bricks to

close up the interstices ; one of these communicates with other cavities

in the hill, as a strong current of air was found to be passing into the

interior, so much so that a light was extinguished, but as the opening

1866. ] Antiquities in the Gayd District. 57

was so narrow, there could have been no cave beyond, else it would

have been widened. The roof is a boulder supported oy others at each

side.

There are several fragments of images, but only two are perfect ; one

is a seated figure of Boodh about 3 feet high, but it is partly imbedded

in the accumulation of rubbish on the floor; it has the same canopy

of a seven-headed snake which I observed at Durawut, where it is

called Nagjee; here it is called Langa-beer! The other figure is a

female, one which, Babu Rajendralala Mitra says, represents Mayadevi,

Mother of Boodh. ‘

Outside, there is a small platform, in front of the entrance, of undress-

ed stones, and a series of rude steps leads up from the foot of the hill.

I may mention that there is a story current amongst the natives here,

that a party of strangers arrived at this place, ostensibly as a marriage

procession, that they encamped at the foot of the hill, and that in the

night time they dug up a quantity of treasure which had been buried

at the foot of a large detached boulder: the hole which they had dug

was pointed out. They say that they were Coles or people from the

South, and it was explained that these people were formerly in pos-

session of this part of the country, and this was how they came to

know that there was treasure buried here.

- About a mile to the north there is another little hill which was

originally crowned with a temple, judging by the number of squared

granite blocks which lay strewn about, and by the stones made use of

in erecting a Durga over the tomb of some Mussulman Saint.

To the south of Cheon, at the distance of a mile, there is another

cluster of hills ; the nearest village is called Deokillee ; the easternmost

pinnacle of the hill is crowned by a mass of brick rubbish. In the centre

of this mound, facing the east, the internal chamber is intact, but the

entrance was nearly blocked up. By dint of squeezing, however, a

native managed to get inside, but there was no figure; the little

‘ chamber was only some 10 by 12 feet long, but the rubbish filled

a to within two feet of the roof, so that it is possible there may

be some figures buried in the rubbish. Tothe north on the same space

of the hill is a small cavity amongst the boulders which had been

built up and thus formed a small chamber, and in front there is a

natural basin in the rock which had been added to, and thus formed a

58 Antiquities in the Gayd District. [No. 1,

small tank or reservoir. Lower down on the north side there are two

more of these cavities; in both cases the doorway is formed of granite

pillars with bracket capitals,—the entrances are blocked up with

rubbish. There are several others on this side of the hill, and on the

connecting spur between this hill and the next, there is a small temple

or altar, with a roof of granite slabs supported by 6 granite pillars

with bracket capitals; there seems to have been a superstructure of

brick, but very little of this now remains; there are no figures or in-

scriptions from which the age may be deduced, but it is probable that

they werg Buddhist, for the style is exactly the same as at Cheof in

which Buddist figures are found, and it is most likely that all

these hills, and also those at Durawut, were the abode of numerous

Buddhist ascetics, and Fa-Hian states that the hills at Raggae contain-

ed several hundred grottos inhabitated by devotees.

Some distance to the south-west there is another cluster of hills, and

near a village called Chain there are several very large mounds cover-

ing several acres, and great numbers of granite blocks are lying about

in every direction, but there are no figures or inscriptions, and it is

quite impossible to guess at the age or description of the buildings

which must have existed here. At the mouth of a small valley, partly

where it runs into the plain, a dam had been erected for the water.

About four miles west from this isa large village, called War. There

are extensive mounds to the south of the village, and there is a mud

fort with a pucka citadel in rather good preservation; the wall is of

brick, loop-holed all round ; a range of rooms runs round the enclosure ;

and underneath there is another range of rooms evidently intended as

store rooms and as a refuge for the families of the garrison during an

attack.

About five miles to the south-east is a small village called Mudun-

pur, on the Grand Trunk Road, and near it, about a mile and a half

to the west, on a spur of the hill is Oomga temple, which has already

been described by Major Kittoe in the 16th Vol. of the Asiatic Society’s

Journal. Photograph No. 41 (Plate IV.) will give some idea of its

appearance from the south, and of the rock on which it is built; the

temple faces the east. See Photograph No. 42, which shows its front.

Higher up and on the same hill is another temple, but now in ruins:

see Photograph No, 48. Scattered all over this hill and the adjoining

Journal As: Soe: XXXV Plate. IV.

ELLE EOS D ALY LENE DE ETAL Cal ID TS itis te mre btn pe Fedo ones - . on mal

ime se a sh vt em pharmeinlnpnblil iin

DI EE temo cern tas hase rhe viet fies inten = to Pennant penny, Se

4 7

pes

ae VAs

‘ apm

Lh MTS

essoe

Boz

NAGI eS PERC we CTC Lee

Drawn 7 Stane by Kristo Hari Das. Student, bovt: School of Art Calonite.

OOMGA TEMPLE

Lith: by H Niven 8S. G.0. Caleutla May 1866

eri

‘

i“?

“JA,

1866. ] Antiquities in the Gayd District. 59

one, are a great number of little temples and altars, all of them built

of dressed granite, anda great profusion of figures, principally of

Gunesh and lingams, of every conceivable shape and size. There is an

entire absence of Buddhist figures, which shows that these erections

are of amore recent date. From the translation of the long inscription

given by Major Kittoe, it would appear that the temple was erected

A. D. 1439. The Bamboos, which he bewails as having all died off,

have sprung up again, and are as vigorous as ever.

Deo is distant about 10 miles from this. To the south-west the

temple has a very strong resemblance to the Oomga one: see Photo-

graph No. 44. It is of much the same size, and in capital preservation.

The village of Poonawa, visited by Col. Cunningham, is about 14

miles from Gaya to the eastward, on the Nowaderle road. Photograpy

No. 45 is a view of the pillared temple from the north-east. There is a

strong resemblance between this temple and the one at Nair. The

door is a very finely sculptured one (see Photograph No. 46), and is

almost a facsimile of the one at Palee: see Photograph No. 35.

At Koorkihar there are a great number of figures ; the principal one

is a Boodh with representations of events in the life of Sakya Singha

round the margin (see Photograph No. 47), but it is much inferior to

the same figure at Genjun, (see No. 22.) No. 48 is a group of figures

outside the little temple to the north of the village.

The remaining photographs are from Rotasghur in Shahabad. No.

49 is a distant view of the palace from the east side of the ravine.

No. 50 is the elephant gate or.principal entrance to the palace from the

court-yard.

No. 52 is a view of the Mausoleum over the tomb of the chamberlain

of one of the former Governors.

No. 51 is a view of the interior of the Palace.

Gayd, 9th November, 1865.

60 -— Lnterary Intelligence. —

Luterary Intelligence.

Mr. E. B. Cowell has sent to press the Yoga Aphorisms of Patan-

jali, with the commentary generally ascribed to Vyasa. The work»

we understand, is to appear under the auspices of the Sanskrit Text

Society.

Major Henry Dixon, H. M.’s 22nd Reg. M. N. L., has just published

a large quarto volume containing Photographs of 113 Canarese and

10 Sanskrit inscriptions. They are from the districts of Chittledroog,

Davenghiri, Hurribur, Ballagamee, Taldagundee, Sooroob, Annant-

pur, Shemogah, Taicul, and Beygoor in the Mysore Territory, and

contain records which will prove of great interest to the historian of

the Indian peninsula. The Canarese inscriptions are taken mostly

from Sati stones of the Saiva period, and a number of them have the ~

figures of Siva and his attendants carved on the top. The Sanscrit

ones are title deeds of grants of land made by the former princes of

Mysore, Canara and the Carnatic. We hope some enterprising

scholar in Madras will, by translating these records, render them

accessible to European scholars, and Major Dixon will meet with

sufficient encouragement from the Government of Madras and the

public to rescue from the ravages of time other documents of the kind

of which there are a great number in Mysore.

The following is an extract from a letter from Dr. R. Rost of

London.

‘“‘T mean to take an early opportunity of drawing attention to some

rare Sanscrit MSS. in our possession, which are in Grantham characters,

and have never been looked into. Amongst them are the Rik,

White Yajur, Sama and Atharva Vedas; Kumarila, Miménséatantra-

vartika, the Sinkhya Saptati with commentary (2 copies), the Maytkha-

maliké on the Sastradipika, Mananam (Vedanta), and Bharata’s

Natya S’astra. Of the last mentioned work, there are several copies

in the Brown collection at Madras; but all of them being, like our

copy, in Dravidian characters, they are sealed books to the intending

editor, Mr. Hall. We have altogether nearly 200 Sanscrit MSS. in

the Grantham character. I wish Mr. C. P. Brown had deposited his

large collection of Sanscrit MSS. (above 2300) in London; im Madras

no one cares for them.” ‘

JOURNAL

OF THE

ASIATIC SOCIETY.

ae eae

Parr L—HISTORY, LITERATURE, &e.

——

No. I1.—1866.

‘_/-”

PLLLPL LLM

Description of Ancient Remains of Buddhist Monasteries and Temples,

and of other buildings, recently discovered in Benares and its vice-

_ nity.—By the Rev. M. A. Suurrina, L. L. B., and Cuarces Horne,

Esq., 0. 8.

[Received 20th November, 1865. }

In a former paper on the Buddhist Remains found at Bakarya

Kund, Benares, which we had the pleasure of communicating to the

Asiatic Society last year, it was shown how that at this spot extensive

traces still exist of ancient edifices, for the most part of the Gupta

period, consisting of remains of several Buddhist temples and of one

vihar or monastery. It is our purpose in the present paper, to give

the results of further investigations into the antiquities of this city.

Fully satisfied, as we believe most persons are, that Benares is a

city of extreme antiquity, we have endeavoured to ascertain to what

portions this epithet will apply. And by the term ‘ old’ we mean not

a few hundred years merely, although a city six or seven hundred

years old is generally regarded as an ancient city. But we must re-

member that Benares lays claim to an antiquity of several thousands,

of years, and undoubtedly it is referred to in various ancient Hindu.

and Buddhist writings. Consequently, we are not satisfied with dis-

covering in it edifices erected half a dozen centuries ago, any more

than we should feel satisfied with discovering edifices of a similar date

in Jerusalem, or Damascus, or Rome, The terms ‘ ancient’ and ‘ old’

62 Description of Ancient Remains of [No. 2,

as used in this paper, will therefore not be applied to buildings erected

500 or even 800 years ago, but to those of a previous period.

That wonderful mass of lofty houses separated by narrow lanes and

packed together in such wild disorder, appearing in fact like one

immense structure of gigantic proportions, which extends along the

banks of the Ganges for more than two miles, and has a circumference

of at least six, although built for the most part of solid stone, and

presenting largely the aspect of hoary age, has no right to the epithet

of ‘ancient.’ Some of the buildings of which it is composed, have been

standing fully five hundred years, yet there are very few indeed which

have not been erected since the commencement of the Mohammedan

period in India. But speaking generally, this, together with a part

of the northern boundary of Benares, is the oldest portion of the

present city, while that large extent of buildings lying south and

west beyond it, and occupying four or five times its area, is chiefly

of recent date.

The question which we have attempted to investigate, is, what

is there in Benares more ancient than, say, the epoch of Mahmud

ot Gazni, who invaded India in the year of our Lord 1001? Are

there any remains of the preceding Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist

periods? And is there any remnant whatever of the first Hindu

period before the rise of Buddhism in the sixth century B. C.,, or

even before it became paramount in the reign of Asoka, B. C. 250 ?

When, after diligent search and careful scrutiny, we endeavoured to

find proofs of the existence of Benares during these earlier periods,

we soon ascertained that they were scanty, and with a few exceptions

unimposing. The debris of ancient Benares may be traced in the

multitude of carved stones, portions of capitals, shafts, bases, friezes,

architraves, and so forth—-inserted into modern buildings in the nor-

thern and north-western quarters of the city. These fragments exhibit

a great diversity of style, from the severely simple to the exceedingly

ornate, and are in themselves a sufficient proof of the former exist-

ence of buildings, of styles of architecture corresponding to themselves,

yet differing in many important respects from the styles of modern

Hindu and Mohammedan structures, and coinciding with those of

ancient temples and monasteries of the Gupta and pre-Gupta periods,

the ruins of which are still existing in various parts of India, Were

1866.] Buddhist Monasteries and Temples. 63

these the only remains found in Benares, they could not fail to

awaken much curious interest in the mind of the antiquarian ; and he

would naturally carry on a process of induction in regard to them,

and would say to himself, ‘here are the stones, but where are the

buildings? What was their form? What their age?’ And with the

help of the ruins of other places, he would be able to answer most of

these questions satisfactorily, and would, to a large extent, describe

the buildings, to which the stones at one time belonged, and would

determine the epoch of their erection. Our belief is, that the most

ancient ruin yet discovered in India, exhibits nothing older than some

of these Benares stones, now embedded in modern walls and parapets,

and scattered about in divers holes and corners of the city.

The fact that such old fragments are found in Benares, united with

the cirenmstance that such an exceedingly small number of structural

remains of any pretensions to high antiquity are traceable in it, goes

far to prove that the city has been not once, but several times, de-

stroyed, until, except in rare instances, and these chiefly consisting

of foundations and basement mouldings, not one stone of the ancient

city has been left upon another, and the foundations of its temples

and its palaces have been torn up, so that their places are no larger

known. Moreover, there is no manner of doubt, that the site of

Benares has considerably shifted, and that at one time it came quite

up to the banks of the river Burna, which flows into the Ganges on

its northern boundary, and from which it is now distant nearly half

a mile, and stretched beyond the opposite bank, until perhaps it

coalesced with the ancient city which, if we may believe the Ceylon

historians, encompassed Sarnath in the age when Sakya Muni arrived

there to “turn the wheel of the Law,”

true, the Hindu pilgrim who performs his wearisome journey of

perhaps mapy hundreds of miles, with the object of reaching holy

Kashi, and dying in the city of his fathers, is labouring under a prodi-

gious delusion, for the city which he visits, has been chiefly erected

under Mohammedan rule, and on a spot for the most part different

from that which his fathers trod; and the fanes in which he worships,

are not the spacious temples which his ancestors built, but either the

or previous to it. If this be

pinched and contracted cage-like structures, which Mohammedan em-

_perors just permitted their idol-loving subjects-to erect, or modern

jmitations of the same,

64 Description of Ancient Remains of [No. 2,

We shall now proceed to describe such ruins and remains of ancient

edifices, whether Hindu or Buddhist, which we have discovered in

Benares or in its immediate suburbs.

Buddhist Vihdr—No. I.

The remains of this vihar are in the interior of the fort at Raj

Ghaut, in the outskirts of the city on its northern boundary. There .

is a small tongue of high land, about fifty feet above the plain below,

extending to the junction of the Ganges and the Burna, which, in the

mutiny, was strongly fortified, and has been styled ever since, the

Raj Ghaut Fort. There is a tradition amongst the natives, that this

spot was selected, ages ago, for a similar object by the famous Rajah

Bandar. It is probable that formerly the whole of this elevated tract

was inhabited, and that the Rajah governing the city had his chief

residence there. It is the natural key not only of modern Benares,

but also of the country for several miles around; and a well-equipped

force in possession of it would, with difficulty, be approached and

dispossessed. The Government has lately abandoned this grand

strategical position on the ground of its alleged unhealthiness.

A short distance to the right of the main road leading into the

Fort, may be seen the remains of the vihar, which I will now describe,

and which, next to the Buddhist temple at Bakarya Kund, are the

most complete, and certainly are the most beautiful, of any ancient

remains yet discovered in Benares. They consist of two cloisters in

a continuous line, each being sustained by a quadruple colonnade, but

differing both in height and in length. The smaller cloister is 66

feet long, and the larger 84 feet, and therefore the entire facade is

exactly 150 in length, whilst the breadth of both is uniform, and is

25 feet. There are 8 columns in each row in the one room, or 32 in

all; and in the other, there are 10 in each row, or 40 in all; so that

the number of stone pillars standing in the entire building is 72.

Those in the smaller cloister are barely 9 feet high, and are all square

and of a uniform pattern, a slight difference only being traceable in

the capitals, which are of the old cruciform shape. There is not

much ornamentation on these pillars, but the chess-board and serrated

patterns are abundantly carved upon the architraves. The pillars in

the larger cloister, including the capital and base, are 10 feet in

JOURNAL AS: SOC: XXXV. PI PLATE VI.

BUDDHIST VIHAR RAJ GHAUT FORT.

RAK RRA

Ss RAW

}

(TLE (CON VAANANN

YO ADOVDIOVOOISO DOE

Ordinary bypy eae awe: Sak

Scroll aon pittars Certres otf Ser

TOK ory p |

Bakaiiw hunda. Ray -ghaut.

von |

Lower cotster basement

Ral- gheut Mouldaey Bag gikduts

‘oe Puc eee rreouddireg mene 7

WAMU Mh 10" by 1

; fe Orltvrn of ; :

pittar, not to Scale

& Scrolls or Hee shaft Section’

2 6 ee Gg

Base & capital te Scale’ dinary beam’

V Black’ &C? Cal:

1866.) Buddhist Monasteries and Temples. 65

height, but the architraves above the capitals are of the same height

as those in the smaller cloister, namely one foot. These pillars differ

greatly both in shape and ornamentation from those just described.

Some of them are covered with profuse carving cut deeply into the

stone, which in many instances is so sharp and well-defined as to give

the appearance of having been recently executed. The lotus plant—

pod, leaf, blossom and stem—forms a conspicuous object in many of

the designs, all of which are striking, but some are exquisitely chaste

and élegant. The chakwa or Brahmani duck is represented in various

attitudes on the noble scroll-work extending along the square

sides of several shafts from the base to the capital. These scroll bas-

reliefs equal the carvings on the Sanchi pillars in richness, whilst the

designs are much more free in their conception. There were formerly

human figures, probably of a grotesque form, carved upon some of

the pillars, as traces of them are still distinctly discernible, but these

were defaced and almost obliterated by the Mohammedans, on taking

possession of the edifice and appropriating it to their own uses. The

pillars are regularly arranged with regard to the Singhasan, and the

finest pillars are in the centre of the cloister, in the direction of its

depth ; and above them, near the inner wall, the stone ceiling in two

divisions of the roof is singularly carved, and, strange to say, is of

the kind described by Fergusson as Jain architecture. One of them

is Alhambric in character, while the other is covered with lotus

blossoms carved in relief.

There is not the smallest doubt that these cloisters have been much

altered from their original condition, and that principally by the

Mahommedans who transformed them into a mosque, in which service

they were employed even as late as the mutiny in 1857, and were

regarded with peculiar sanctity by this people. On closely examining

the columns, architraves and cielings, it is plain that not only has

there been a good deal of shifting of places, but new pillars carved

in recent times have been added to the old, and some of the old have

been cut up for repairs, and their separated portions have been

scattered amongst several pillars and joined on to them. The inner

massive stone wall running along the entire length of the building,

is evidently unconnected with the original structure, as also is the

present stone floor which is a foot and upwards higher than the old.

66 Description of Ancient Remains of [ No. 2,

A trench having been dug on the east side, it was discovered that

the bases of many of the columns were embedded deep below the

modern stone pavement, while in the front of the smaller cloister, at a

depth of about a foot, the outer moulding of the ancient floor could

be traced continuously from one end to the other. Notwithstanding

all these extensive alterations which the building has undergone

from time to time at the hands of different masters, we cannot but

think that many of the columns are standing on their proper sites,

and that the edifice, although greatly changed, is still in its “main

features a Buddhist structure. The cloisters were transformed into

their present condition as a mosque some 80 years ago, and the

modern pavement was then put down.

There is reason to believe that a third cloister, corresponding to the

smaller, formerly existed at the southern extremity of the larger

cloister ; and this supposition is greatly strengthened by the circum-

stance of a Singhdsan or throne of Buddha, already referred to, being

still standing by the wall in the centre of the latter, but altered

from its original form, having been used by Mohammedan Mullahs as

a rostrum or pulpit. The vihdér, when complete, was in all likelihood

a square, each side being at least the length of these three cloisters,

and the chief Buddha was exactly opposite the centre of the square.

What other buildings were formerly here, in addition to those now

visible, can of course only be conjectured. It is probable that on

three sides were cloisters, and on the fourth, namely that to the east,

was a row of temples, the largest containing the principal figure of

Buddha. That other buildings were once here, is certain from the

various sculptured stones found near by. We observed seven pillars,

sixteen isolated capitals, and four large carved stones used for archi-

traves, some of which support a recently erected structure attached

to the smaller cloister.

The venerable ruins described above, present a very remarkabl

appearance. In the year of the mutiny, barracks for European troops

having been erected in their neighbourhood, they were converted into a

vast cook-room or kitchen. Tires were lit inside on the stone floor

from one extremity to the other, and consequently the roof, walls,

and columns, were charred by the heat and blackened by the soot,

so that now the interior of this grand edifice is most dismal and

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JOURNAL AS SOC: XXXV. PI.

BUDDHIST CHAITYA

N.W. OF RAJ-GHAUT FORT.

OLD CHAITYA CEILING.

Scale 2 fee tolineh.

Ue Za

Pil Lok

2 feet to Linch.

1866.] Buddhist Monasteries and Temples. 67

forbidding. Mr. Horne spent a few rupees in cleaning the building,

and in removing, as an experiment, the encrusted soot from some of

the carvings. Fortunately the Mohammedans or the British Govern-

ment authorities, we know not which, in their care for these beautiful

works of art, have embedded them in mortar from base to capital,

so that many of them might be restored. The removal of the en-

crustations, however, will have to be accomplished with the greatest

care, or else the surface stone, rendered friable by the heat to which

it has been subjected, will come away with the superimposed mortar,

thereby destroying the delicate edge of the carvings. We trust the

Government will not grudge a few hundred rupees for the thorough

cleaning of this fine specimen of Buddhist architecture. The inner

stone wall and the modern pavement should also be removed.

Besides these remains, there were, until quite recently, hundreds of

stones lying about in the fort, bearing traces of great antiquity. In

the mutiny, many of these were collected, and: were made use of for

the foundations of temporary barracks which were then erected.

These stones may have once belonged to the vihar just described,

when it existed in its integrity, but may also have been portions of

other contemporaneous buildings situated in its vicinity.

During the mutiny, Mr. Tresham, by Government order, blew up

some ancient buildings standing near the vihar, and there are yet

the foundations of one, which defied all attempts at its destruction.

Mr. Horne also remembers a chaitya which was removed to afford

space for barracks.

Buddhist Chaitya No. I.

A few hundred yards due north from the old gateway leading into

the Raj Ghaut Fort is a mound of circumscribed extent, now used

as a Mohammedan burial-ground, on the summit of which are the

remains of an old Buddhist chaitya or temple. They consist simply

of four pillars, richly carved with scroll-work, sustaining an ancient

roof. At the corners of the shafts is the ordinary ornamentation

resembling a chain of lotus seed-pods. The capitals are cruciform

and the bases are square with embellished faces. The ceiling is very

beautifully sculptured, and is composed of slabs over-lapping one

| another, with the centre stone crowning the whole, according to the

eS —————— = i

68 Description of Ancient Remains of [No. 2,.

primitive mode of Indian roof-building. This latter stone exhibits

the out-spread petals of a lotus blossom, while eight out of the twelve.

triangular spaces formed by the intersection of the slabs, are freely

carved with the scroll-pattern. A few sculptured stones lie about the

mound; amongst them is an erect figure of Buddha with garland

and armlet, much mutilated. There are also three stone beams or

architraves bearing the chess-board and spear-head patterns. In the

small terrace likewise on which the chaitya stands, are inserted four

carved stones, taken doubtless from some ancient building formerly in

the neighbourbood. The occurrence of three or four plain cloister

pillars of the usual form, adapted by the Mussulmans as head-stones

for graves, together with the carved architraves already alluded to,

would seem to indicate that a small cloister for monastic purposes

must originally have stood upon this mound, which was then terraced,

the stones of which have been by degrees removed both for building:

Mohammedan graves, and also for repairs in the Fort.

Small Mosque in the Budaon Mahalla.

Tn the Budaon Mahalla near the Raj Ghaut Fort, a short distance

south of the high road, there is a small mosque in an enclosure, made.

up to a great. extent of ancient remains. The building seems to have

been curtailed from its original dimensions, leaving a ruined portion:

still standing on its southern side. The entire structure contains —

seventeen stone pillars, eight of which exhibit ormmamental carvings

and probably belonged to a Buddhist chaitya. There are also eight.

capitals inserted in the walls without shafts and bases, and in addition

there are fragments of other capitals in various places. None of these

old remains are in situ. They were brought, most probably, from —

some temple in the neighbourhood, perhaps indeed from the mound

occupied by the ruins of the Buddhist Chaitya No. L, which is not:

far off.

Ancient Mound or Ridge running from the Burna, near its confluence, |

into the Adampura Mahalla.

This very remarkable ridge extends for a long distance, and com-)

mences at the river Burna when at its flood. In the dry season

therefore there is a stretch of low land lying between its extremity

SHON ROKOKS EA PLATE VIL@

JOURNAL A

PRT,

L Black: Co Dithrs:Caleulla’

lographed by We Grant Lsqre

VIEW OF BUDDHIST VIHAR-—RAJ GHAUT FORT.

1866.] Buddhist Monasteries and Temples. 69

in that direction and the bed of the stream itself. The ridge is

manifestly an artificial work, and was originally intended either as a

wall to the ancient city, or as a rampart thrown up against it and the

neighbouring fort of Raj Ghaut. The latter supposition was that

held by Mr. James Prinsep, who imagined that it was cast up by

the Mohammedans in their attack upon Benares, and was specially

directed against the fort. This supposition may be true, although

it is difficult to perceive how it could have been of much service

either in an attack on the fort or on the city, especially in a period

when artillery was not in use. Had it reached as far as the river

Ganges, we could understand how, by severing the fort from the city,

it might have been a source of damage to both, but the south-western

extremity is not near the Ganges by a third of a mile or perhaps

more. We are inclined to think, however, that this extremity was

once connected with that river, but at a time far more ancient than

the Mohammedan conquest of India. On the whole, it appears not

unlikely that this long embankment was the old boundary of the city

in the early periods of its history, which was possibly employed for

offensive purposes by the Mohammedans on the extension of the city

to the south and south-west, and the consequent abandonment of

this means of defence by the inhabitants. The embankment may

have been originally carried on to the Ganges in a straight line with

its present direction; or, making a short circuit, may have entered

it by Tilia Nala, on the banks of which are the remains of a Buddhist

temple, which will be hereafter described. In this case, a portion of

it must have been thrown down and swept away to make room for

the growth of the city, and there is good ground for supposing that

the city extended in a narrow band on the banks of the Ganges,

about as far as the Man-mandil observatory, even before the Christian

era. Should this idea be correct, it would follow that the most

ancient site of the city of Benares was situated within the limits of

this wall, stretching across from the Burna to the Ganges, cutting off

a tongue of land as far as the confluence of the two rivers, and

including the high land of the Raj Ghaut Fort, which was, in all

“probability, once well populated. The city must have been then of

small extent, as compared with its existing dimensions, unless, as we

70 Description of Ancient Remains of [No. 2,

believe, and as it is almost indisputably certain, it crossed over to the

right bank of the Burna.

That both sides of the river Burna were in former days better

inhabited than at present, is somewhat corroborated by an examin-

ation of the ground on both sides. Brick debris is scattered about

among the fields on the right bank of this stream, and old coins and

broken stone images are occasionally found by the people, or are

dug up by the plough ; while on the other, or Benares side, not only

are old remains found in the fort, but also below it on the lowland

already referred to, blocks of stone, some of which are carved and

exhibit ancient mason marks engraved upon them, are still to be seen:

Moreover, it is stated in the Ceylon Annals that formerly the city

surrounding Sarnath, (about three miles from the right bank of the

Burna,) coalesced with or was a part of Benares, which, if true, must

have been at a period of remote antiquity. Indeed, the allusion in

these records is to an epoch long anterior to that of the historical

Buddha or Sakya Muni, and therefore prior to the sixth century

before Christ. This account must of course be received with much

caution, and not as absolutely authentic’ history. At the same time,

it is manifest that there was a tradition amongst the Buddhists of

India, conveyed thence by their missionaries to Ceylon, that in

remote ages the city of Benares extended to Sarnath.

In visiting this ridge or embankment, it will be observed that the

high road leading to Raj Ghaut cuts right through it, the earth of

the cutting being used to raise the road above the level of the country,

It is well to remark too that where the road passes under the fort

to the ghaut, the soil has been cut away to make room for it, so that

formerly we may suppose that instead of a steep and almost preci-

pitous wall which the elevated land to the east of the road now

exhibits, the mound of the fort in this direction dimirfished in a

gradual slope, terminating perhaps not far from Tilia Nala. °

The ridge is in one part formed of three terraces, the uppermost

being perhaps thirty feet above the land, upon which elevated spot

is the tomb of Mira Sahib. In the mutiny a large portion of the

mound opposite the Fort was cut away for strategical reasons, although

what is left is sufficient to prove of great service to an enemy

attacking the fort.

1866.] Buddhist Monasteries and Temples. 71

On the south side of the ridge, in sight of Mira Sahib’s tomb, is

an Imambara, a modern edifice, built altogether of new materials ;

and a few paces distant from it are two small structures, one in front

of the other, which, although of recent erection, are partly composed

of old materials. Each building possesses four ancient pillars of the

Buddhist type, and lying about in various places are four pillars more,

five kulsees, two architraves, and seven bases, one of the latter being

richly carved. All these are the spoils of some ancient temple or

monastery.

Remains of Buddhist Chaitya, No, IT., and Buddhist Monastery,

No. I1., at Tilia Nald and Magdum Sahib.

We have chosen to unite these remains, and to speak of them under

one head, because, although separated and standing in different

Mahallas, yet they are near enough together to give rise to the sup-

position, that they may have been at one time connected. There is

no question in our minds that at least one monastery stood in this

neighbourhood, which is very rich in old carved fragments of stone

scattered about amongst the walls and foundations of dwelling-houses

and in divers other places. Perhaps it may be questioned whether

the ruins at Tilia Nalé, now forming part of a deserted mosque, were

originally a portion of a monastery or a portion of a temple, but our

own opinion is in favour of the latter ; yet even though this conjecture

were true, it would still be probable that the temple was within the

precincts of a large monastery and was considered to be a portion of it.

The remains at Tilia Nala are immediately above the Nala on the

high ground of its left bank, a very short distance only from the

point where it runs into the Ganges, and close to the main street

under which the stream flows. The ruins not only overhang the

brook, but there is no doubt that at one time they must have extend-

ed nearly, if not entirely, across its present bed. They consist of

Seventeen massive square columns in three rows, namely four double

columns in the front row, four single ones in the second, and five in

the third or innermost row. Between the third and fourth pillars of

the last row is the Singhasan of Buddha, an immense slab of stone,

nine feet three inches in length and five and a half in breadth, retreat-

ing beyond the boundary wall behind, into which all the pillars of

72 Description of Ancient Remains of [No. 2,

this row are inserted. There can be no dispute that the Singhasan

was in the centre of the building, that is to say, that as there are

three pillars to the right of it, there were as many to the left, in

each of the three rows, the front row being of double pillars through-

out. Re-constructing the edifice as it originally stood, therefore,

there were one row of six double pillars, and two rows of six single

pillars, or twenty-four pillars in all. Each capital is ornamented with

the bell pendant, of which the Buddhists were so passionately fond,

and which was after them much used by the Brahmins. ‘The double ~

columns are surmounted by one huge capital, five feet and a half in

breadth, each of which possesses a long arm for the eaves stone. Over

the two inner rows are two domes, one of which is above the

Singhasan, and is more ornamented than the other. There must have

been originally a third dome to the left of the central dome, corre-

sponding to that on the right. Outside the building there is a fine

basement moulding which doubtless belonged to the primitive struc-

ture. Hstimating the building as it once stood, it was fully fifty-four

feet in length and about twenty-four in breadth. The Mussulmans

may have altered it considerably in transforming it into a mosque,

but we apprehend that not a little of the old temple still remains.

Some ofthe large stones have fallen into the Nala or upon its banks, and

others have not unlikely been made use of in the repairs of the

bridge, and of its adjoining stone wall, so that we believe it would

not be a difficult task to find nearly all the missing pillars and capitals.

The Maqdum Sahib is a square enclosure in the Gulzar Mahalla

near to Tilia Nalé, used by the Mohammedans as a cemetery. On

its northern and western sides are cloistered pillars, partially in situ,

with portions of ancient stone eaves overhanging their capitals,

presenting on their upper surface imitations of wood-carving. There

are twenty-five pillars on the western side, and twenty-eight, or, if all

could be seen, probably thirty-two, on the northern side. Several of

the pillars are carved ; while some of the capitals are ornamented, and

some are double. There may be seen also handsomely carved stone

brackets for the support of the eaves above alluded to. The eastern —

wall bounding the enclosure is evidently composed, to some extent, g

of cut stones of an ancient date. The entire court is one hundred feet

long from east to west, and sixty feet broad from north to south,

’

OURNAL AS: SOC: XXXV. PI. PLATE VI

ROUGH PLAN

TILIA NALA VIHAR CHAITYA

Seale 12 feet =1 inch.

eR. Oe to

STAMOING

pot :

Enelosing-wall SB thick with 9 inches of each~pillar butt into tt.

Outside measurements 54-. 5". 0. by 24. Belween sh afte of colemne Bf”

Double colurmns capitals with’ long arn for eaves store 5. 6 "in one/

pee, Suge of all shafts 78 unches SIUATE.

PORTION OF CAPITAL

SCROLL ON CAPITAL. LONG ARM OF DOUBLE CAPITAL,

SECTION OF BEAM

TO GcCait.

ae ep ee ER =e oie A,

1866.] Buddhist Monasteries and Temples. 75

Site or Bupputist Vinar—No. III.

Ldit Bhairo.

At the junction of the old Ghazeepore road with the Raj Ghaut

road, to the north of the latter, and about a short mile from the fort,

is a large square tank, on the left bank of which, as on a terrace,

stands the /dt or pillar, which gives the name to the spot. It is pro-

bably not more than three or four feet high inside, and is covered

with copper sheeting. We endeavoured to prevail on the faqir resid-

ing here to permit us to lift up the copper cap, by removing the plaister

which connects it with the flooring below, in order to gain a view of

the stone pillar which it now conceals; but so great is the reputed

sanctity of this object, that our united efforts were entirely fruitless,

and had we persisted in them, a disturbance might have been oceasion-

ed. The original stone ‘column, of which the concealed pillar is

doubtless a small fragment, was about forty feet high, and, it is re-

ported, was covered with ancient carvings, which were most probably

inscriptions. This was thrown down by the Mahommedans during a

terrible conflict with the Hindu population in the early part of the

present century, when Mr. Bird was magistrate of the city. The

natives say, that the pillar was thrown into the Ganges, but as that

stream is half a mile off or more, this must have been done piecemeal.

In all likelihood it was destroyed by fire, the action of which on

sandstone soon causes it to crumble to pieces. As there is strong

reason for believing that this was one of Asoka’s pillars, it would be

exceedingly interesting to inspect the remaining fragment, which we

may fairly suppose to belong to the original column, and in that case

to possess a portion of an inscription sufficient to verify its connexion

with Asoka, or with the Guptas, or with the monarchs of any other

era by whom the column was erected,

It is important in our present investigations to know that the

pillar once stood in the midst of a temple, that is, in its courtyard,

which temple was destroyed by Aurungzebe, and on its site a mosque

was erected, the courtyard of which enclosed the pillar. On examin-

ing the terrace where the Lat stands, it is exceedingly manifest that

the upper portion has. been thrown up in modern times, and that the

ancient level of the ground was some six or eight feet lower than

74 Description of Ancient Remains of , [Norz,

what it now is, and indeed was even with the soil of the Mahomme-

dan cemetery close by, in the midst of which are a few Buddhist

remains in the shape of pillars and architraves made up into a

Mahommedan sepulchre. What this so-called temple was, admits of

very little question, inasmuch as the boundary walls of the terrace

and of the neighbouring cemetery and garden exhibit a considerable

variety of isolated carved remains, sufficient to afford abundant attes-

tation to the supposition that formerly a large Buddhist structure,

most probably a monastery with a temple connected with it, stood on —

this site, covering the whole extent of the ground elevated above the

tank on its northern side. Some of the carvings are in excellent pre-

servation, and are worthy of being removed to the archeological

collection in the Government college grounds in Benares. There are

several pillars embedded in the brickwork, and also a stone seven feet

in length and one and a half in depth, which is deserving of special —

remark, as on its face are projected four magnificent bosses, each ten

inches in diameter, with a projection of two inches from the surface

of the stone. These bosses must have formed part of the decoration —

over the main entrance to the monastery.

Below the upper terrace on which the Lat stands, is, as already

observed, a Mohammedan cemetery with a Rauza or tomb in the

middle. This building rests upon sixteen pillars, each being eight

feet two inches in height, and the architraves between their capitals |

being one foot two inches in thickness. In addition, there are five

pillars in the verandah to the south. Some of the pillars are orna-

mented with scroll-work and the lotus plant, while their four corners ©

are deeply cut with representations of the lotus seed-pod. One pillar —

has eight sides in its lowest division and sixteen in its upper, and has

also a band of four grinning faces connected together, and under them

a row of beaded garlands. The pillar is crowned with a round stone.

projecting two inches, on the face of which is a curious assemblage

of thirty-two grotesque faces all round the edge of the stone, with

beaded garlands and tassels depending, issuing from their mouths.

It should be mentioned, that if our conjecture, that the upper ter-

race has been only recently thrown up, be correct, then on the suppo-

sition that the fragmentary pillar on its summit is part of the original

pillar which in ancient times stood here, it would follow that the

1866. ] Buddhist Monasteries and Temples. 75

length of the existing fragment is equal to the depth of the terrace

above the foundations of the neighbouring cemetery, in addition to

its present elevation above the terrace, and to the extent of insertion

of its lower extremity in the primitive but now subjacent soil. In

this case, it would be not less than from fourteen to sixteen feet in

length.

Buppuist Cuartya—No. III.

Battis Khambha.

About a third of a mile to the east of the Bakarya Kund Remains,

is a beautiful little structure called by the natives Battis Khambha or

thirty-two pillars. It is a very picturesque object as seen from the

Raj Ghat road, from which it is some four hundred yards distant. It

consists of a dome sustained by twenty-four square pillars, standing

in pairs at intervals all round. Formerly each corner had four pillars,

thus increasing the present number by eight, and then, of course, the

entire number was thirty-two; but two from each corner have been

removed, leaving the spaces occupied by them empty. All the upper

part of the building is Mohammedan, while all the lower part is

indisputably Buddhist in its style of architecture. On the western

side is an abutment for the Singhasan of Buddha, similar to that

which exists in the Chaitya at Bakarya Kund, and indeed, so far as

our knowledge extends, in all bond fide Buddhist temples. The

pillars stand upon a platform raised above the ground, and in the

interior of the building is a Mohammedan tomb.

_ It is remarkable that there should be so many ancient remains lying

almost in a straight line from Bakarya Kund to the Raj Ghat fort,

yet most of the remains hitherto referred to, lie in this line. We

have no doubt that formerly a large number of Buddhist buildings

existed between these two extremes, and that the foundations of some

of them might be discovered, if a keen search were instituted, in addi-

ion to the more prominent remains already brought to notice. It

seems evident therefore that there was a road here during the Bud-

dhist period, not far removed from the track of the present one.

This road was at right angles to another proceeding from Bakarya

Kund in the direction of Sarnath, which still exists. Search might

be made along this road for the foundations of ancient buildings and

76 Description of Ancient Remains of [No. 2,

for Buddhist relics, as there can be no doubt that constant commu-

nication was kept up by the monks of Sarnath with Bakarya Kund,

in both which places there were vast monastic edifices and numerous

temples. |

Near this Chaitya and between it and Bakarya Kund is a small

building standing by the road side, in which are several pillars of the

most ancient type inserted into the containing walls. They have been

very probably brought from Bakarya Kund. The building has an

unpretending appearance, and is kept whitewashed by the Moham-

medans, its proprietors.

Buppuist Vinar—No. IV.

Arhai Kangura Mosque.

It is not our purpose thoroughly to describe this handsome struc-—

ture, which is one of the finest mosques in the whole city, and is —

situated in the Mahalla bearing its own name. Its magnificent and

lofty dome, as well as various parts of the mosque itself, unquestion-

ably exhibit a Mohammedan style of architecture, but we have no -

hesitation in saying that by far the greater portion of the building, ©

and certainly five-sixths of its materials, belong to an epoch far more

distant than the Mahommedan invasion. The numerous square

columns with their cruciform capitals, and also the screens between

some of them in the upper story, are of Buddhist workmanship ; but

we are inclined to think that both Buddhists and Hindus have made

use of the same materials in different eras, and that in fact the mosque

is a mixture of three styles, namely Buddhist, Hindu, and Moham-

medan. The first edifice was, we believe, a monastery, with (most

probably) one or more temples attached ; but it is hard to say whether

any portion of the original building exists in situ, and we have not

sufficiently examined it to be able to pronounce a decided opinion on

the point. Our conviction, however, is that certain leading character-

istics of the first structure were perpetuated by the Hindus in that

which they raised on the departure, or rather expulsion, of the Bud-

dhists from Benares. It is not easy to determine accurately what

this Hindu building was, but perhaps it is more likely to have been

a math or a sort of monastery or religious house for Hindu ascetics,

such as exist in the land at the present day, than a temple. In the

1866.] Buddhist Monasteries and Temples. 17

roof of the second story of-the mosque a slab was discovered bearing

a long Sanscrit inscription, towards the end of which is the date 1248,

which, regarded as Sambat, is equivalent to A. D. 1190. The inscrip-

tion itself is of no particular importance, except that it abounds with

references to the Hindu religion, showing that it belonged to a build-

ing erected by a Hindu, and therefore subsequent to the Buddhist

period. It alludes also to certain tanks, temples, and maths, erected

and embellished in and about Benares, which of course were all in

honour of Hinduism. It is not unlikely indeed that these structures

were erected and this inscription was written with somewhat of a

religio-political object, to testify to the triumph which Hinduism had

then recently gained over Buddhism; for there is good ground for

believing that the buildings at Sarnath were not burnt, and the monks

were not expelled therefrom, till about the twelfth century of our era.

We have obtained a copy of the inscription in Sanscrit, with a trans-

lation into Hindi, through the kindness of Babu Shio Parshad, Joint

Inspector of Schools, whose intelligence, enterprise, and extensive

knowledge place him in the front rank of native gentlemen in these

provinces.

We would direct especial attention to the small side door or postern

with its massive wall, to the right of the building, which has a great

appearance of originality, and also to two noble capitals of gigantic

dimensions, lying in the court-yard in front of the mosque and turned

into small cisterns. They are the largest carved capitals we have

found anywhere.

Hinpv Tempe or Kirt Bisnesnwar.

Alamgiri Mosque.

Near the temple of Briddhkal, one of the very few Hindu temples

of the earlier Mohammedan period still standing in Benares not

appropriated by the Mussalmans, and a few paces from the well-

known shrine of Rattaneshwar, is a mosque spoken of in the neigh-

bourhood as the Alamgiri Masjid, which was erected during the reign

of Aurungzebe or Alamgir, and was designated after that emperor.

Upon it may be read the following inscription in Arabic :—

ply | ome | 2.0 Sha 3 J?

Care” [eV aie

u :

18 Description of Ancient Remains of [No. 2,

The translation of which is, “Turn your face towards the sacred

mosque. 1077 Higira,” or A. D. 1659.

The mosque is built, tradition states, from the materials of the Hindu

temple of Kirt Bisheshwar, and has three rows of lofty stone pillars,

eight in each row ; but the pillars at both extremities are not single,

but three-fold. The capitals are large and massive, and are cruciform

in shape. In the centre of each shaft, upon all the four sides, is the

boss ornamentation, each boss being fully afoot in diameter. The

pillars have a double base, a false and a true, the one consisting of the

lower end of the shaft, the other, the true base, of a separate stone.

Both are covered with carvings. Some of the architraves also bear

upon them the boss pattern; but it is possible that these were

formerly shafts of pillars. The inner wall of the mosque is likewise

of stone. Viewed from behind, many of the blocks display various —

mason marks inscribed upon them.

From an examination of the marks or symbols, and of the archi-

tecture represented by the remains now briefly described, there is no

reason for supposing that the temple which once stood here, and

which was levelled to the ground by Aurungzebe, was of great

antiquity. The style of architecture has a Buddhist basis, yet is not

purely Buddhist, and the symbols are not necessarily Buddhist at all.

We should be inclined to fix the date of the Hindu temple at some

five or six centuries ago. It must have been a place of great sanctity,

as many Hindus still visit the spot on pilgrimage, and instead of an

image (which we suppose the Mohammedans would not allow them

to put up) worship the spout of a fountain rising up in the centre of

a small tank in the court-yard of the mosque. It is not improbable

that the tank is the site of the old temple; but if the temple was a

large one, as is likely, it must have occupied not only a considerable ©

portion of the present courtyard but also some. ground in addition

on either side. A few persons perform their devotions in the tank

daily, but the grand festival is at the Shio rdt mela, for one day i

March, when crowds throng reverently around the sacred spout, and

present 2¢ (or perhaps regarding it as a god, they would say him, or

her,) with abundant offerings, all of which, down to the last rupee,

are received by the Mullah of the mosque, who thinks, we suppose,

that if he winks at the idolatry, which in fact he cannot put down,

he may as well be paid handsomely for it,

1866. ] Buddhist Monasteries and Temples. 79

Attached to the mosque is a corridor, built a few years later, on

the inner wall of which is the following inscription :—

ee b lay od) Uy

BhuKete AHA cory aliot wo

sine Bi yg) lyreinls

fost SY 0 MEY, se GidS uly HS 0 pd

(sre? 194 die

In noticing the remains of the Kirt Bisheshwar temple, we are

cil wleaT oles

coils hells le dea”?

acs slp" oT? 5,6

IOI reetd slQild sly

- # * *

aware that they do not come under the designation of “old” or

“ancient,” as applied to other remains described in this paper, and

yet, as they are not without interest, we have given them a place in it.

, Buppuist Caarrya—No. IV.

Chaukhambha Mosque.

The long Chaukhambha street in the city of Benares, in or about

which most of the great bankers have their houses of business, takes

its name from four low massive pillars of modern erection, standing

in the lowermost story of a lofty building, the weight of which they

entirely sustain, situated towards its north-eastern extremity. There

is a narrow court running out of this street, which terminates in a

small enclosure, on the further side of which is a mosque. The

entire enclosure has a very remarkable appearance, and, for the

archeologist, is a place of considerable interest. The entrance is by a

doorway let into a huge breastwork or wall formed of blocks of stone,

which is twenty feet long, thirteen feet high, and four feet thick,

and is constructed for the most part systematically, as is evident

from the ornamentation on one stone answering to that on the stone

contiguous to it. Over the doorway is an inscription in Arabic.

But with the exception of this doorway and the castellated appear-

ance crowning the wall, there is nothing Mohammedan in its archi-

tecture.

The mosque and corridor adjoining it are supported by twenty-four

pillars, of which six are double. The capitals are of the simple

eruciform pattern, and their outer limbs are decorated with the dwarf

bell ornamentation. To the south of this building is a staircase

80 Description of Ancient Remains of [No. 2,

leading up to the roof, built of heavy stones; and along the south side

of the enclosure, for the space of about twenty-five feet, is a low

stone wall six feet in height, and, attached to it, a peculiar ledge three

feet from the ground. It is known that a similar wall exists on the

north side also, but hidden from view.

In our judgment most of the pillars are in situ, and originally

formed part of a Buddhist structure, but whether of a temple or of a

monastery, it is difficult to say. Our opinions are divided 6n the

subject, and the former has been assigned to the building by way of

a heading to this chapter. The wall with the projecting bench is

very curious. The latter may have been used by the priests or

monks for reclining upon.

Bouppuist Vindr—No. V.

Aurungzebe’s Mosque near Bisheshwar Temple.

The mosque built by the emperor Aurungzebe on the foundations

of what is commonly regarded, though erroneously, as the old or

original Bisheshwar temple, is of interest not for its own sake—for —

notwithstanding its lofty appearance, it is a a structure without any

striking beauty in its own right—but for the sake of the ancient

buildings with which it is associated, and with the materials of which

it has been largely constructed. The courtyard consists of a terrace

raised some five feet above the level of the temple quadrangle, in the

centre of which it is situated, and occupying a large portion of the area.

On walking round the quadrangle and examining the retaining wall

of the terrace, one’s attention is arrested by peculiar openings or

niches in the wall, in which architraves, and capitals, and parts of

pillars on which they rest, are visible, but in some places the openings

are filled with earth almost up to the level of the capitals. Proceed-

ing from west to east, the ground gradually declines, until, after

descending four steps and arriving opposite a large stone bull or Nandi,

the opening in the terrace becomes clear, and.a cloister, such as

surrounds a Buddhist vihar, comes into view, and reveals the character

of the entire series. It consists of a small chamber sustained by

genuine Buddhist pillars, severely simple in their type, and without

doubt of great antiquity. Formerly a succession of such cloisters:

encompassed not less than three sides of the existing terrace, which

1866.] - Buddhist Monasteries and Temples. 81

must consequently date from the same epoch. It would be desirable,

if the consent of the Mohammedans could be obtained, to remove the

external wall by which these cloisters have become almost completely

hidden, in order to ascertain what is their extent and condition.

This series of cloisters formed the lowermost story of a large

Buddhist monastery, which once enclosed the entire space occupied

by the terrace, and rose to the height of probably two or three stories

above it. On the southern side stood the chief chaitya or temple,

which, on the suppression of Buddhism, passed into the hands of the

advocates of another religion, who transformed it according to their

own tastes. The mosque on this side is altogether composed of the

remains of an ancient temple of large dimensions, and of very

elaborate workmanship. The high pillars, moreover, on its northern

face have been abstracted from the same spacious building. These

remains are partly Hindu, and it is unquestionable that the edifice

which was destroyed in order to make way for the mosque, was an

old temple of Bisheshwar. An excellent ground plan of this temple,

prepared from a minute examination of the existing remains, was

drawn by Mr. James Prinsep, and published by him in his “ Views

of Benares.”’ These remains, however, are only partially Hindu.

Some portions, judging from the elaborate ornamentation of certain

details which it was the custom of the Buddhist architects to leave

plain, seem to be of Jain origin, and to have been appropriated by

the builders of the Hindu temple. If this supposition be correct,

the mosque with its terrace exhibits a singular architectural ano-

maly, and presents us with no less than four styles, namely Bud-

dhist, Jain, Hindu and Mohammedan. Indeed it would not be

wrong to add a fifth style, for the square terrace pillars with their

cruciform capitals are so simple in structure, that, compared with the

highly carved and decorated pillars of medieval and later Buddhist

history, they belong to another style, which may be called early

Buddhist or Hindu, according to which of these two ancient religious

communities is supposed to have invented it. It is not our object to

discuss the interesting and also important topic, who were the first

Indian sculptors and builders of permanent works, yet it is one which

must one day, when materials have been sufficiently accumulated,

which they have not been at present, be thoroughly investigated.

82 | Descrption of Ancient Remains of [No. 2,

When this is settled, the antiquity and origin of these terrace pillars

will be settled likewise.

Buppuist Vinkr—No. VI.

Ad-Bisheshwar Temple and neighbouring Mosque.

Ad-Bisheshwar is the name of a lofty temple situated a short

distance from Aurungzebe’s mosque just referred to, and in sight of

it, and is held to be, by some persons, the original or most ancient

temple of this deity. The derivation of its name only bears out

this supposition, for the temple itself, from the pinnacle to the base,

has nothing really ancient about it. On the eastern side of the

enclosure the ground takes a sudden rise of eighteen feet, forming a

terrace manifestly of artificial construction. On this side there is a

retaining wall of stone masonry, which is wanting on the southern

side of the terrace, where there is only an earthen bank. The other

two sides of the terrace are covered with - buildings, which prevent

the exact ascertainment of its boundary in these directions. On that

flank which is contiguous to the Ad-Bisheshwar enclosures, stands a

mosque erected some eighty years ago or less, but not finished then,

for want of money. It was built of stones found on the spot, with

new Chunar slabs added. The terrace existed before with the but-

tress, and is evidently of ancient construction.

The building is in two divisions, each of which is 232 feet in

length, connected together by a massive wall 53 feet thick, composed

of large blocks of stone. This wall projects considerably beyond the —

building into the courtyard to the east, and has the appearance of a

huge buttress; but what its object is, seeing that the mosque, which

is entirely of stone, is amply sustained by its columns and walls, and —

requires no such additional support, it is hard to say. Possibly the

buttress is pierced with a staircase, leading formerly to an upper story

which the buttress supported, and the Mohammedan architects, not

caring to remove the massive prop, have retained it in the mosque. —

They appear, moreover, to have confined themselves chiefly to mate-

rials lying upon the spot, as in three places carved pillars, similar to

those sustaining the centre aisle, have been adopted as architraves. —

There are fourteen columns in the interior of the mosque, which are

peculiarly but not extensively carved, and are crowned with orna-—

1866. ] Buddhist Monasteries and Temples. 83

mented capitals. The western wall is strengthened externally by

three rounded buttresses, which are of the Pathan dynasty, like those

found at Jaunpore, and were built at the same time. They did not

exist in the Buddhist period, and were added as much for ornament

as strength. All the mosques about old Delhi have them.

There is no doubt in our minds that the Ad-Bisheshwar temple

stood on this site, and was destroyed by the Mohammedans, who, as

usual, transferred its stones to their own mosque. The neighbouring

temple bearing this name, the Hindus built, with the kind permission

of their friends, the Mohammedans, of course, for the purpose of

perpetuating the worship and the honour of their old idol, Ad-Bish-

eshwar. Yet, while allowing that the edifice standing on the site of

the present mosque when the Mohammedans took possession of it,

was the temple of Ad-Bisheshwar, we are nevertheless equally certain

that the primitive building was of a Buddhist character. We were

inclined at one time to imagine that, from its proximity to the

Buddhist Vihar No. V., it must have been a part of that monastery,

but two reasons have led us to abandon that idea. One is, that a

separate terrace of extensive dimensions .was appropriated to this

structure, whatever it was, and that between this terrace and that of

No. V., the ground is depressed corresponding to the depression of all

the neighbouring soil; and the second is, that the style of architecture

of the ancient buildings upon or around the two terraces, differs

exceedingly. We are led to conjecture, therefore, that the original

structure was a Buddhist monastery, but later in date by several

hundred years than the first monastery erected on the terrace No. V.

It was of course a quadrangle, encompassing the four sides of the

terrace. Nothing remains of it except the massive transverse wall

with the buttress, and the lower portion of the retaining wall. The

mosque has been erected perhaps on the site of the principal cloister

of the monastery, its second division occupying the position of a

Smaller cloister. The amount of stone material expended on the

present comparatively small building is preposterously great, and in

itself is a proof that an edifice of much larger dimensions formerly

stood here.

84 Description of Ancient Remains of [No. 2,

Stone Prupar.

Sond-kd-Talao.

Before closing this paper, we would direct attention to a stone

pillar standing in the midst of a tank between the city of Benares

and the Buddhist remains at Sarnath. The tank is called Sond-ké-

Talao, or the Golden Tank, and is situated on the opposite side of

the river Burna, near the road which branches off from the high road.

leading to Ghazeepore, and almost close to the point of its junction

with several other roads. The road is a portion of the Panch-kosi

or sacred boundary of Benares. Proceeding along it for somewhat

less than a mile, you arrive at the tank, which is to the right of it,

and is approached by a strong and well built ghaut, on which are

several Buddhist figures, brought most probably from Sarnath. It

is three hundred yards in length, and one hundred and forty in

breadth. In the midst of it is a round pillar, eighteen feet high and

upwards of nine in circumference, composed of great blocks of stone

cut in quadrants and put together without cement or mortar. There

is no inscription on the pillar, and no mason marks, so that we have

been totally unable to assign any date, even approximately, to its —

erection. Its base is always, we believe, surrounded by water; yet it

would be worth while to ascertain whether any inscription exists

below. We probed it to its foundations, but found no face for an in-

scription. Itis likely that both the pillar has somewhat sunk, and that

formerly the tank was less choked with mud than it is now. In

appearance therefore the pillar was once higher than at the present

time. It was probably surmounted formerly by a lion or some other

_ figure, and on close examination bears marks of extreme old age.

Besides allusions to a few other ancient structures, we have in

this paper traced out remains, more or less abundant, of six

Buddhist vihars or monasteries and four Buddhist chaityas or tem-

ples, still existing in Benares, and have pointed out the sites

on which they stood or are still standing. Add to these the

remains at Bakarya Kund already described in a former paper, and

we have the remains of seven monasteries and at the least seven

chaityas. The monasteries are doubtless- a portion of the thirty

- monasteries and upwards which Hwan Thsang, the Chinese traveller

1866.] Buddhist Monasteries and Temples. 85

of the seventh century, said existed in Benares in his day. In con-

clusion, we may remark that we are much inclined to believe that

many of the ancient Buddhist monasteries; and of the temples also,

were on a line of road leading from Bakarya Kund to Raj Ghaut

Fort in one direction ; on a second line, at right angles to this, ranning

from Bakarya Kund to Sarnath ; and on a third, proceeding from the

site of Aurungzebe’s mosque and joining one or both the others, possi-

bly, at Bakarya Kund, and that hereabouts most of other remains of

such buildings, if found at all, will be discovered.

Note by the Rev. MW. A. Sherring.

Since the above was written, I have visited and examined the

country lying on the banks of the Ganges to the north of the river

Burma. To my utter astonishment, though I must confess, not con-

trary to my anticipation, I found brick and stone debris scattered

over the fields for, as far as I could conjecture, five miles or there-

abouts. In many places the rubbish lies thick upon the ground, chok-

ing up the soil, and to a large extent the deposit can be traced con-

tinuously. Here and there small bits of sculptured stone are visible,

and occasionally, where the broken bricks and stones are in very great

abundance, they have been collected into ridges or small mounds.

This is especially manifest at the termination of the deposit at a spot

called Patharaké Siwdu, where, in ancient times, doubtless stood a

large fort, of which the foundations may even now be partially traced.

Although the fields beyond this point seem to be clear of rubbish, yet

further on, at Muskabad, at the distance of a mile, it recommences and

becomes as thick as in any other place. Perhaps this latter was the

site of an outlying town.

But what are we to say of these remains? They lie immediately

on the great river’s bank, and never retreat from it more than three

quarters of amile. It is, I think, very evident that all the way from

the mouth of the Burna this bank has been, with the lapse of cen-

turies, considerably cut away. Indeed, I believe, that as much as a

quarter of a mile may have gone into the river. In all probability

therefore the space covered by debris was much broader than it is at

present. There can be no question, however, that here a great city

once stood. I have no hesitation in expressing my belief that in the

86 Description of Ancient Buddhist Remains. [No. 2,

entire absence of any bond fide Hindu remains in the present city of

Benares, dating from even the Buddhist period, not to speak of the

pre-Buddhist epoch, when we know from historical records that

Benares was in existence, the ancient city of the pre-Buddhist and

early Buddhist eras must have occupied this site. Beyond the north-

ern extremity of the remains of the ancient city is a series of mounds

also covered with debris, tending in a north-westerly direction, where

formerly forts or towns existed. I think it not unlikely that in a far

distant age the connexion of the ancient city of Benares with Sarnath

was along the course of these mounds. Sarnath is spoken of in the

Ceylon records as though it may have been a city of itself ; and there

is no doubt that it is referred to in ancient documents as a part of

Benares. Now, modern Benares is at least one-third of a mile to the

south of the Burna, whereas Sarnath is out in the country about three

miles to the north of that stream. If we suppose, however, that

Benares, in its most ancient period, was mainly on the north side of

the Burna likewise, and if such supposition is corroborated by exten-

sive remains of ancient buildings m the shape of brick and stone

debris stretching over several miles of country, as already shown, and

terminating in mounds lying in the direction of Sarnath, the proof

approaches to demonstration that in that early epoch a union, more or

less intimate, existed between Sarnath and Benares, as stated by histo-

rical records. JE had no opportunity to examine thoroughly the coun-

try lying between these remains and Sarnath, but I feel satisfied that

at some point in these remains a line of debris would be found con-

necting the two spots, with only a few breaks in its course, the debris

indicating the former existence of solid buildings and being the

broken remains of the same. This point must not be searched for at

the southern extremity of the ancient city, but at the northern extre-

mity ; and- perhaps the line of junction may be the line of the mounds

just now referred to; but of this Tam not able to speak positively.

Tf these observations respecting the site of the early city be correct,

it would follow that the derivation of the word Benares, as the city

lying between the Burna and the Assi, is utterly absurd, as applied to

the most ancient city. That it is a correct derivation of the word, as

denoting the city of modern times even as far back as the Gupta

dynasty, and perhaps somewhat further, I have not the smallest

1866. ] A ssyo-Pseudo-Sesostris. 87

doubt. But Bandr-assi has nothing whatever to do with ancient

Benares, and as applied to it would be a ludicrous misnomer. It

seems, indeed, probable that the Buddhists were the first people to

occupy to any extent the southern side of the Burna, and such a

notion is remarkably substantiated by the existence of various Bud-

dhist remains there, as described in this paper; but none of them, so

far I know, date from earlier than the Gupta period. The Panch-

kosi road or sacred boundary of modern Benares, nearly fifty miles in

extent, and regarded by many natives as of immense antiquity, 1s no

older than the city which it encompasses, and must also be assigned

to a comparatively recent date. Many pleasant and perhaps hallowed

associations connected with Benares, as it now stands, will in the

minds of multitudes be in danger of being snapped asunder, when

they discover that the Benares of to-day: was not the Benares which

their forefathers knew.

Assyro-Pseudo-Sesostris.—By Hypr Criarge, Esq. Member of the Ger-

man Oriental Society, of the Society of Northern Antiquaries of

Copenhagen, of the Academy of Anatolia, of the Institution of

Engineers of Vienna, Local Secretary of the Anthropological Society,

[Received 13th July, 1865. Read 2nd August, 1865. ]

As the monument near Ninfi (the ancient Nympheum), and

twenty miles from Smyrna, has of late years become a subject of some

controversy, I have been very desirous of getting it photographed,

and at length this has been effected (Plate X XI.) by the zeal and

ability of Mr. Alexander Svoboda, an artist doubtless remembered

by many members of the Society for his paintings of Indian scenes,

and his having first photographed the caves of Elephanta and the

monument of Ctesiphon, as he has latterly those of Ephesus.

Herodotus, in his second book, as is well known, speaks of the foreign

wars and expeditions of Sesostris, and says that he erected various

monuments of his victories, of which Herodotus had seen one in Syria,

and there were two others in Ionia, one on the road from Sardis to

Smyrna, and the other on the road from Ephesus to Phocwa, and that

88 Assyro-Pseudo-Sesostris. | [No. 2,

the figures, four cubits and a spathamus high, held a bow in one hand

and a lance in the other. .

The words of Herodotus are :—

“The pillars which Sesostris erected in the conquered countries,

have for the most part disappeared, but in the part of Syria called

Palestine, I myself saw them still standing, with the writing above-

mentioned, and the emblem distinctly visible. In Lonia also, there

are two representations of this prince engraved upon rocks, one on the

road from Ephesus to Phocea, the other between Sardis and Smyrna.

In each case the figure is that of a man, four cubits and a span high, —

with a spear in his right hand and a bow in his left, the rest of his

costume being likewise half Egyptian, half Ethiopian. There is an

inscription across the breast from shoulder to shoulder, in the sacred

character of Egypt, which says, “‘ With my own shoulders I conquered

this land.” The conqueror does not tell who he is, or whence he

comes, though elsewhere Sesostris records these facts. Hence it has

been imagined by some of those who have seen these forms, that they —

are figures of Memnon, but such, as I think so, err very widely from

the truth.” r q

Diodorus Siculus repeats the like, and says there was an inscription

in hieroglyphics on the monument,.of which he gives the trans-

lation. a

As the monument near Ninfi agrees with the description of Hero-

dotus, it is generally believed to be Egyptian, to bear a hieroglyphic ~

inscription, and to be the Sesostris. As will be seen, there arettraces of

characters on the right hand corner, though what, cannot be made out,

They are exceedingly unlike any hieroglyphic inscription, which will

carry the meaning of Diodorus, and the rock is too soft for the minute

characters of the hieroglyphic ever to have been caryed upon it. It

would not bear even the ring of the cartouche.

Who first doubted its Egyptian character, we have not the means

here of knowing, but at any rate the geographers Kiepert and Carl

Ritter have done so, and in their works the monument is figured aS

** Pseudo-Sesostris,”’ and is placed with the Assyrian class.

Unaware of this, some years ago, I visited the monument and

arrived at the same conclusions, and I have since endeavoured to

obtain the opinions of competent authorities in Europe. This corre=

Journal As: Soc: Vol XXXV. Pl. Plate.XX.

ACG: eae abe ay eee a, ey, y sa

Nrawn.on Stone atthe Gov School of Art, Caluutta hy K

FIGURE OF SESOSTRIS AT NINPI

LTH BY H.NWVEN SURVEYOR GENENALS OFFICE CALCUTTA AUGUST Ig66

amakha Uhurn Ghose, Student.

1866. ] Assyvo-Pseudo-Sesostris. 89

spondence made me more urgent to get it correctly reproduced, and it

is satisfactory that at length it can be examined by all interested in

the subject, instead of the very few who could reach Ninfi.

It is reasonably to be doubted whether Herodotus ever saw this

monument, because he has not described it with absolute accuracy.

The monument is quite off the road or any Nigh road, and is a very

unlikely place for.a public monument of Sesostris. It is on a friable

rock, and it is a miracle it has been preserved so many centuries. It

was perhaps attached to the country palace of some king or satrap,

or it may commemorate a battle fought in the glen. It does not bear

the appearance of having been an object of adoration.

Its class is not distinctly Assyrian, for it wants the sharp touch

of those workmen, and it must always have been of rude appearance.

It is allied to the Assyrian, and is the production of some people of

Assyrian character.

The question arises, whether this monument and the neighbouring

Niobe, and the other rock-cut pictures, are the works of settled inhabi-

tants, or of an invading or conquering race. The -latter seems to be

the preferable hypothesis, because in this district, even in the time of

Herodotus, there cannot have been more than three, and there are few

scattered over the country. Those in this district most probably

belonged to some petty kingdom.

With regard to their epoch, they are certainly as old as the Egyp-

tian cities in their neighbourhood. ‘These cities there form a close

group, Smyrna, Tantalus, Sipylus and Nympheum, attesting at one

time a population of large and strong cities and a relative civilization.

These cities, as well from identity of remains with those in the

South of Europe, as well from the identity of names with those of the

Tberian nations, as well as from the fact of their population having

endured beyond the Hellenic invasion, I place as anterior to that

epoch, and as Iberian in character. This subject I have treated at

length in a detailed memoir read before the Academy of Anatolia, the

Kthnological Society, and the British Association.

The rock-cut monuments must, to some extent, have preceded the

Iberian occupation, or may have been the result of an invasion during

that period, proceeding from Cilicia and the south east, that 1s, from

the Semitic district,

90 nies A ssyro-Pseudo-Sesostris. _[No. 2,

As yet the elements for the determination of these pre-historical

questions are very few. They are indeed hardly known, and we are

not yet in a situation to judge of the ethnology, the monuments, or

the mythology either of an earlier or a later age.

There are two elements in particular that exercised a great influence

over this region, that "have not been adequately studied, the Iberian

and the Caucaso-Tibetan. The remarkable discovery of Mr. B. H-

Hodgson, communicated to your Society, of a connection between the

tribes of the Caucasus and those of the Himalaya and its valleys,

opens up new views as to the history of Central and Western Asia,

and will in time afford one of the keys for unlocking their secrets, not

less valuable perhaps than those applied to hieroglyphics or cuneiform.

I was led by a like train of investigations with Mr. Hodgson to the

like results, and Iam glad to find that what I have done, has been in

confirmation of such an authority. I lately communicated a paper on

this subject to the Asiatic Society of London, with the hope of

inviting other inquiries.

It is perhaps by means of the Caucaso-Tibetan, that we shall

obtain a knowledge of the early history of Iranistan, of the influences

which have affected so peculiarly the early Indo-Huropeans, the

Armenians, the Ossetes and the Koords, of the third arrow-headed,

and the Lycian.

It is here we shall perhaps find another element in the determin-

ation of mythology, though so far as the mythology of these regions is

concerned, and particularly its local character, Iberian sources must be

searched. It is there we must seek for the explanation of much of

the mythology, and not in Sanskrit sources, however plausible such

explanations may appear.

The Hellenes found a mythology ready made for them in the

Iberian countries, in which they settled, and they adopted Iberian

terms. To a certain extent, they brought with them Indo-European

dogmas, and here Sanskrit philology will help us; but the local

colony is Iberian. This western country of Asia Minor was, in fact,

the seat of mythology and the land of the gods, before the Hellenes

appeared. In some cases an Indo-Huropean legend may have been

attached to a local site, but the Hellenes borrowed more than they gave.

The Sesostris I propose to designate Assyro-Pseudo-Sesostris,

{

1866.] Notes on some of the temples of Kashmir. 91

Notes on some of the temples of Kashmir, especially those not de-

scribed by General A. Cunnineuam, in his Essay published in the

Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal for September, 1848.—

By W. G. Cowiz, UW. A., Chaplain on duty in Kashnttr, during

the summer of 1865.

[Received 1st December, 1865. ]

In these notes I have followed as nearly as possible the wording of

General Cunningham, in his description of the different temples,

which he visited in Kashmir.

The temples of Bhaniyar, Waugat, Manusbal, Narayan Thal,

Futtehghur, Dyamun, and Lidar do not seem to have been described

before. What I have said about those of Pandrethan, the Takht,

Pathan, Avantiswami, and Marttand, is meant to be supplementary

to General Cunningham’s accounts of those temples.

BHANIYAR.

The buildings at Bhaniyar consist of a lofty central edifice, standing

in a large quadrangle, surrounded by a colonnade of fluted pillars

with intervening trefoil-headed recesses.* The ground plan of the

temple is a square of 264 feet with pilasters at the corners, 4 feet in

thickness. The interior is a square of 13} feet, and the walls are

therefore 64 feet thick, which proportion may be considered a strong

proof, according to General Cunningham’s} theory, of the antiquity

of the building.

The roof was pyramidal, and the total height of the temple,

estimated at twice its breadth, would be 53 feet. The lowest stones

of the pyramid remain in some places, and their external slope is

parallel to that of the sides of the pediments over the doorways. The

only entrance to the temple is gained by a broad and lofty flight of

steps to the N.N. W. On each of the other sides there is a porch

containing a closed doorway.

These porches are just the same as that of the entrance, each being

163 feet wide, with a projection of one foot in advance of the corner

pilasters.

* See Photograph, No. I.* + See Cunningham, p. 249, para. 6.

* The photographs referred to in this paper are by Messrs. Sheppard and Bourne of Simlah.—Eb,

92 Notes on some of the temples of Kashmir. [No. 2,

The doorways are surmounted by trefoiled arches, 23 feet high ;

and the latter are covered by pyramidal pediments, resting on in-<

dependent pilasters. Within the large trefoiled arches, there are

smaller pyramidal pediments, of which the tympanum is occupied

with the trefoiled decoration, like that at Bhaumajo,* resting on the

architrave covering the pilasters of the doorway.

The pilasters at the corners of the building sustain the entablature,

and give a look of strength and solidity to the walls, which was

absolutely required for the vast and massive roof.

In the interior the walls are plain, except that (as at Narayan

Thal) a sort of string-course projects all round, about 123 feet from

the floor. It is about a foot high, flat above, and rounded below.

Over the string-course and resting on it, there is, on each side, a

semicircular headed recess, about 3 feet high, 2 feet wide, and 14 feet

deep. Only the one at the back of the building, that is, towards the

S. 8. E., is pierced for a window, the opening being rectangular, and ©

about 2 feet high by 1 foot in width. The roof is hollowed out

into a hemispherical dome, of which the centre is decorated with an

expanded lotus flower, as in the Payach{ temple. The spandrels of

the dome are too much injured to show any trace of figures, if any

ever existed; but the dome looks as if it were a modern restoration,

and the whole is overlaid with thick whitewash, concealing the

material of which it is constructed. There were, however, no figures

in any other part of the building, except the tympanum of each

smaller pediment over the architraves of the doorways; and there the —

remains of heads (for such I took one of them to be) are now so much

worn away, that it is impossible to say exactly what they represented.

The colonnade had no such ornaments.§ (Plate XX.)

The basement of the temple is very fine. It is divided into two

portions, each having the same style of moulding as that of the

Bhaumajo|| basement ; but they differ from it in being further pro-

jected beyond the face of the wall.

The lower portion is 47 feet square and 5% feet high; and the

upper portion 844 feet square and 6 feet high, with a projection of 4

feet. Hach division of the basement has a massive filleted torus as

* See Cunningham, plate X.

+ See below, § See photograph, No. IT.

{ See Cunningham, plate XI. || See Cunningham, plate VIII.

1866. ] Notes on some of the Temples of Kashmir. 93

the crowning member, with a straight fillet above and below. Under

this is a dado, or plain straight face, which is a little higher than the

torus itself. Beneath the dado, is a quirked ovolo of bold projection

surmounted by a straight fillet, and under this is the plinth, of which

(as at Bhaumajo) the lower stone projects beyond the upper one. As

at Payach too, there is a stone drain or water-spout, open at the top,

for carrying off the water used for the service of the temple. It

emerges from the building on the W. 8. W. side, and projects slightly

beyond the upper basement; the termination of the drain or spout

being made to represent the open mouth of a large snake or some

other animal.

The temple is approached by a flight of twelve steps,* the lower

six being 11 feet in width, and the upper six 10 feet, enclosed between

sloping walls one foot in thickness. Besides the sloping walls, the

lower 6 steps are further supported by flanking walls} (as at Avantis-

wara,) nearly 6 feet high and 3,5 feet thick.

The temple is enclosed by a pillared quadrangle (Plate [X.) measur-

ing inside 145 feet by 1195; feet, the longer sides being to the W. 8. W.

and KE. N. E., containing 54 fluted columns. In the middle of the longer

sides of the colonnade, and of that in rear of the temple, there is a

pair of large fluted pillars, 12 feet in height and 15 inches in diameter,

and 10 feet apart, advanced beyond the line of the peristyle a little

more than the corresponding pillars at Marttand. On all these columns

the transverse architraves, connecting them with the walls of the

peristyle, are still standing. The central porticoes, to which these

large pillars belong, are not gateways, but lead only to small chambered

recesses, similar to, but a little deeper than, those between the other

pairs of pillars. There is, however, one flank entrance to the

quadrangle, viz., between the third pair of pillars on the EK N. E. side,

to the south of the central porch. This has always. been, as it is now,

closed with a wooden door.

The quadrangle itself originally contained 48 round fluted pillars

(of which all but three are still in their places) and six square parallel

pillars (disposed in the corners, and on each flank of the gateway) ;

which, together with the six pillars of the central porches and the

two of the gateway, made up 56 in all. None of the pillars now

* See Photograph, No. I. + See Photograph, No. I.

13 |

94 Notes on some of the Temples of Kashmir. [No. 2,

standing seem to have been injured otherwise than by the wear of

time and the elements; but from these causes, many of them have

now lost all trace of fluting. Lach pillar of the peristyle is 10 feet

in height and 13 inches in diameter, with an intercolumniation of 72

feet. Immediately behind each pillar there is a square pilaster %

engaged, of the same height as, and with mouldings similar to those

of, the square corner pillars. The pilasters are 94 inches distant from

the pillars. Between every pair of pillars there is a chambered recess

7 feet by 4 feet, with a trefoil-headed arch covered by a pedi-

ment, (which pediment) is supported on small pilasters, or rather

upon half* engaged pillars, as at Avantiswémi. The general style of

the pillars is similar to that of the Marttand colonnade; but it is

impossible to say whether the pedimental pilasters of the intervening

recesses were ornamented or not. The trefoiled heads of the recesses

are joined to the side mouldings of the openings by short horizontal

returns (as at Avantiswami). Hach pillar is connected with its

“pilaster and with the main wall by a transverse stone beam, which,

being broader at top than at bottom, bears the appearance of an upper

capital to the pillar.f ‘‘ The greatest and most characteristic distinc-

tion,’ therefore, as General Cunningham says, “‘ between the Arian ’

and Classic orders, lies in the disposition of the architrave. In the

latter it lies immediately over the line of pillars, whilst in the former

it is placed over the transverse beams.” Nearly all of this entablature

still exists, but the building has been so much injured by the weather,

that its character can only be conjectured. It seems to have been

much the same as the upper part of that given in No. 2, plate VIII. of

General Cunningham’s Essay. The upper part of the roof of the

quadrangle has entirely disappeared, but there can be little doubt that

it was triangular in section.

The outer walls of the quadrangle are ornamented by fine deep

horizontal bands,§ the intervals being occupied by rectangular figures

18 inches high, 13 inches wide, and 4,5 feet apart, the whole being

surmounted by an entablature of the same design as that of the

peristyle. The base of the wall is buried deep in accumulated earth

* See Cunningham, plate XVIII.

+ See Cunningham, plate XVIII, and ante Plate IX. p. 92.

+ See Photograph, (of Marttand colonnade), No. XXIV.

§ See Photograph, No. III

1866. ] Notes on some of the Temples of Kashmir. 95

and rubbish ; but to the S. W. of the gateway, and on a level with

_ the bottom of the fluted torus which crowns its basement, is part of a

similar torus,* or string-course, projecting from, and running hori-

zoutally along, the face of the wall. This torus no doubt ran along

the exterior face of the whole quadrangle, and is probably still in good

preservation below the ground. Lastly, the front wall is ornamented

at each extremity with a trefoil-headed} recess covered by a pediment,

the latter resting on half engaged pillars, which are flanked by square

pilasters 4 (one-eighth) engaged, in every way like those of the

interior. The quadrangle has had two large wells in the W. S. W.

and EK. N. E. corners, probably to supply water for flooding the

enclosure; and half way between the steps of the gateway inside and.

the steps of the temple there is a square structure of stone, cut away

in the centre as if to receive the end of a prop to a raised pathway,}

such as that suggested by General Cunningham as the probable con-

nection between the gateway and the temple at Marttand. The object

of erecting temples in the midst of water appears to him to have been

“‘to place them more immediately under the protection of the Nagas,

or human-bodied and snake-tailed gods, who were zealously worshipped

for ages throughout Kashmir.”

The entrance or gateway§ stands in the middle of the N. N. W.

side of the quadrangle, and is 255 feet in width, nearly that of the

temple itself. Outwardly the gateway somewhat resembles the

temple, in the disposition of its parts and in the decorations of its

pediments and pilasters. It is open to the N. N. W. and 8. 8S. E.,

and is divided into two distinct portions by a cross wall 3? feet thick,

with a doorway in the centre closed by a wooden door. These inner

and outer porticoes of the doorway are each 163 feet wide and 6} feet

deep. Their side walls are decorated each with a miniature temple

having a square-headed doorway, surmounted by a pyramidal pedi-

ment representing a double roof. The tympanum of each compartment

of these roofs is occupied with the trefoiled decoration, common to

the Kashmirian buildings, resting on the architrave, as in the door-

way pediments of the temple itself. The pediment of the gateway,

| * See Photograph, No. III.

+ See Cunningham, p. 270, para. 25 and Photograph, No. IIT.

t See Cunningham, page 273, para, ine and page 287, para, 8,

§ See Photopraph, No, III,

96 Notes on some of the Temples of Kashmir. [No. 2,

outside and in, is supported on half engaged fluted pillars, 16,5, feet

high, and 14 inches in diameter. As at Bhaumajo, the base of the

tympanum* is reduced to two short returns of the horizontal mouldings

of the pediment, eagh of which serves as a sort of upper abacus to the

pedimental pilasters. The doorway pilasters, supporting the archi-

trave (24 feet high, and broken through as usual in the temples of

Kashmir), are as high as the base of the main pilaster capitals, and

41 feet higher than those of the quadrangle. Besides the doorway

pilasters, there are two fluted columns of the same height (including

a sort of second capital) and 18% inches in diameter, one on each side

of the entrance, 72 feet apart, supporting the architrave. The second

capital corresponds to the transverse beam of the peristyle connecting

the pillar with its pilaster; but here it is detached on all sides. It

is cruciform,t and so projects on each side of the capital proper.

These columns are distant from the square doorway pilasters respec-

tively about one diameter. The roof of the gateway, like that of

the temple, has perished; but it was evidently pyramidal, for the

corners of the base of the great pediments (outside and in) remain,

and their angles are equal to those at the base of the doorway

pediments.

The basement of the gateway is approached on either side by a

flight of six stepst 7% feet wide, supported by flank walls 7# feet in

length, and terminating in upright stones,§ each separated by an

interval from the main wall, and ornamented with a standing figure,

said by the pundits to represent a servant of Siva.

The material of which the buildings are constructed, is a pale,

coarse granite, of which there seems to be no quarry within reach on

the left bank of the Jhelum. This circumstance is remarkable,

considering the enormous size and weight of some of the stones

employed. Mr. Drew, a geologist in the service of H. H. the

Maharajah, thinks that the blocks of granite must have been carried

down some of the valleys on the opposite side into the river bed,

whence they were brought for the construction of the temple. Mortar

has been used in all parts of the buildings. Opposite the gateway,

* See Photograph, No. ITI. is

+ See Photograph, No. III. and Cunningham, pp. 269-70, para. 24,

t See Photograph, No. III.

§ See Photograph, No, III,

, 1866. | Notes on some of the Temples of Kashmir. 97

across the road, there is a large cistern, (like that attached to the

central temple of the second group of buildings beyond Wangat*), cut

out of a single block of granite. It is 6,4 feet long, 5 feet wide, and

2% feet high. There is another cistern} of the same kind, but of smaller

dimensions, close by.

The Hindoos residing on the spot say that the temple was built by

one Bonadutt (hence the name Boonyar), whose brother built or

began a temple at Venapoora beyond Sopur. The situation is very

fine, in a deodar forest on the left bank of the Jhelum, which roars

below as it descends in foaming cataracts. Immediately behind, the

pine-clad hills rise precipitously to a great height. About one-third

up, there is a strange formation of rock, resembling a human figure,

which is said by the pundits to be the petrefaction of an evil spirit,

who formerly devoured men and women passing that way. A very

holy fakir, they say, fixed the man-eater for ever where the figure is

now seen,

After carefully examining every part of the Bhaniyar buildings, I

am inclined to think that they are older than the quadrangle at

Marttand}, and of about the same age as the temples beyond Wangat.

They probably owe their escape from the hand of the destroyer to

their secluded situation, which is quite off all the old thoroughfares

leading from the Punjab to Kashmir, about three miles lower down

the Jhelum than Nowshera, on its left bank.

I found no trace of an inscription on any of the buildings.

TEMPLES AT LIDAR.

About half a mile beyond Ladoo, and two miles to the left of the

road leading from Pampur to Awantipore, there are two temples, one

surrounded by water, (Plate XIV.) and a smaller one, close by, a little

higher up the hill side.

The ground plan of the former is a square of 24 feet, with corner

pilasters 34 feet thick and 6 inches projected. There is only one

doorway, to the W. 8. W. Its head is semicircular, with a pyramidal

pediment slightly projected and divided into two portions, of which

the upper one is plain, and the other is occupied by a semicircular

* See below, p. 106. + See Photograph, No, III,

t See Cunningham, p. 263, para. 10, *

98 Notes on some of the Temples of Kashmir, [No. 2,

ornament. The apex of the pediment reaches to the top of the cornice,

which runs round the top of the wallson the outside. The roof is

entirely gone.

The interior is a circle, the diameter of which diminishes from the

ground upwards. Four feet from the floor it is 17, feet. There

is a cornice 20 inches high, 95, feet above the floor. Its mouldings

are the same as those of the lowest course of the cefling of the small

temple,* viz. three fillets, like those of the Payach dome,; but that

the edge of the middle one is round instead of square.

The diameter of the circle formed by the projecting edge of the

cornice is 15 feet. The thickness of the wall at the doorway is 32

feet. The wall on the inside shows signs of fire having been oo

perhaps to destroy the roof, which may have been of wood. The top

of the doorway inside is formed by the underside of the course from

which the cornice of the interior is projected.

There is a drain on the south side, as at Payach, for carrying off

the water used in the services of the temple. The height of the

wall outside from the top of the cornice is 104 feet. The corner

pilasters stand on a basement 2,5, feet high, and are 63 inches pro-

jected beyond the face of the alr (See Plate XIV.) This basement is

carried all round the building, except where it is broken by the door-

way ; the bottom of the PEAwene being on a level with that of the

doorway.

The uppermost course of the basement is nearly flush with the

corner pilasters, but the next two courses project 55 inches beyond

the uppermost one.

The basement of the temple stands on a platform 48 feet square,

faced with stone walls, forming a sort of lower basement, as at

Bhaniyar.t ;

The whole stands in the middle of a tank of very clear water?

which issues from two springs in the N. E. corner. The tank is

now 8 feet deep, but I could not ascertain whether there was a stone

bottom below the accumulated mud. The tank has been a square of

about 70 feet, with stone walls supporting the bank, now 2 feet above

* See below, p. 100.

i See Cunningham, Plate XI. and page 258, para. 10,

ft See Photograph, ‘No. L, and ante, p. 92,

Journal As:Soc: XXXV, au Plate. XIV

On stone by KristoHari DasStudent Govii School at art Calcurta

TEMPLE AT LIDAR: (IN WATER )

LITH: BY H.NIVEN SURVEYOR GENERAL'S OFFICE CALCUTTAJULY 1866.

awnbyR ‘T.BurneyEsq™ C.S.

1866.] Notes on some of the Temples of Kashmir. 99

the water line, but much injured. Round the tank there are the

foundations of walls,* which seem to have formed a square of 100 feet.

There is an ancient looking lingam 41 feet high, 14 feet in diameter,

with 8 flat faces, of dark limestone, standing in the water near the

springs which supply the tank. It probably once stood in the centre

of the temple, like that at the Takht.

The round head of the doorway outside has a sort of keystone

(Plate XIV.), being a projection from the lower face of a stone of the

course next above, as in the entrance to the temple at Marttand,+

and other Kashmirian arches.

The smaller of the Lidar temples stands a little above and behind

(i. e. to the north of) the first. Its ground plan is a square of 104 feet.

It has only one doorway, viz., to the west. All the walls have corner

pilasters 15 inches thick.

The doorway has a square top covered by a pediment, which rests

upon the jambs of the door, the tympanum being occupied by the

trefoiled ornament. The trefoil contains a niche which once held

a figure. This pediment is covered by another, having a trefoiled

tympanum. The trefoiled arch rests, as usual, upon small pilasters

on each side of the door, but the pediment is supported upon bold

square pillars, which are attached to the building by walls of less

breadth and 8 inches long. The temple in front is a plain copy of

that at Pandrethan,} or perhaps the original from which zt was taken.

The capitals of the corner pilasters are ornamented with two animals

(I think Bulls) standing back to back; and those of the square

pillars, supporting the principal pediment, are decorated with a bold

flowered ornament. The roof of the building is pyramidal, but its

outer facing of stone has disappeared. The walls are 23, feet thick.

The basement is buried. ‘The interior forms a square of 6 feet, the

walls being 7 feet high and plain.

‘The ceiling is formed of 9 blocks, four of which rest over the

angles of the walls. The same process is again repeated with an

upper course of four stones, by which the opening is still further

narrowed to a square of 2,45 feet ; and lastly, the opening is closed by

* See Cunningham, p. 288, para. 11.

+ See Photograph, No. XXIII.

* See Photograph, No. V.

100 Notes on some of the Temples of Kashmir. , [No. 2;

a single stone without ornament. The edges of the lowest course have

=o.

,a plain moulding of three straight edged fillets,

(Vide woodcuts) and the upper course a similar

Ri one, except that the central fillet is rounded.

N To the east and west of the temple are rec-

tangular foundations, of the same width as, and

continuous with, that of the temple itself; but

there is no trace of surrounding walls. There

are, however, numberless hewn stones lying about

in all directions. From the position of the

building, the ground being high on three sidess

if may once have stood in water, like the other temple. The pedestal

of a lingam remains in the centre of the interior.

Buaumagso.*

At Bhaumajo (pronounced Bhoomzoo by the natives) there are

two temples, besides that described by General Cunningham. The

larger of the two has been appropriated by the Mahomedans for

a tomb, and disguised as much as possible; so much so, indeed,

that when first I visited the cave temple, I did not think it worth

while examining this other close by, on account of its new and

plastered appearance. It is, however, in a very perfect state of preser-

vation, but its. details cannot, at present, be seen on account of the

thick plaster with which the building is in most parts overlaid. The

pyramidal roof is probably uninjured, but it is buried in a mound

of earth surmounting the square Mahomedan roof, which now disguises

the nature of the building. Withsome difficulty, I obtained admission

to the interior, which I found to be a square of 8 feet. The ceiling

is like that of the smaller temple at Lidar.f There is a door on the

north side, but the other walls are covered with plaster, rendering it”

impossible to see whether they once had doors or not. The third

temple, however, on the west of the tomb, has only one door, viz.,

to the north. ;

The exterior is a square of 164 feet, with corner pilasters 2 feet

14 inches thick. There are porches with high trefoiled arches on

* See Cunningham, page 251, and the Bishop’s letter to the Asiatic Society,

1865. |

~ See ante, p. 99.

1866. ] Notes on some of the Temples of Kashmir. 101

all the sides. I could not find out how far the porches project beyond

the walls, owing to the plaster; but the one on the river side (where

the door is) projects 3 feet beyond the small pilasters which support

the doorway pediment.

The intervening spaces between the sides of the porches and the

corner pilasters are filled in with mortar.

The small pediment of the doorway within the trefoiled arch is

like that of the cave temple,* but is supported on independent

pilasters of its own. The porches are 11 feet one inch wide.

To the west of the temple above described, also on the bank of

the river, are the remains of a smaller temple of the same kind. Its

interior is a square of 7 feet, with a roof like that of the smaller

temple at Lidar.; Below the roof is a cornice of three square edged

fillets, like those of both courses of the ceiling.

The building has, I think, had no corner pilasters. It has porches

on all four sides, 5 inches projected. The only opening is on the north

side: the other porches containing closed doorways, which, like the

porch pediments, are an exact copy of those of the cave temple.{

The exterior of the roof has been destroyed.

TEMPLES NEAR WANGAT.

About 3 miles above Wangat, on the right bank of the river

Kanknai, are two groups of temples of all sizes, more or less in

a state of ruin.

The first group, viz., that nearest to Wangat, consists of six tem-

ples,§ with a gateway and an enclosing wall. (See woodcut, p. 102.)

The ground plan of the principal building is a square of 25 feet, with

pilasters at the corners 33 feet in thickness, and having a projection

of two inches beyond the temple walls. There are four porches 143

feet wide, with a projection of 23 feet beyond the corner pilasters. On

two sides they contain closed doorways, the recesses of which (like

those at Pathan||) once held Jinga, whose pedestals are still in their

places.

The porches were all surmounted by pediments of high pitch, covering

trefoiled arches, which rest on } engaged square pilasters. Over each

* See Cunningham, plate X. + See ante, page 99. { See Cunningham, plate X.

§ See Cunningham, p. 273, para. 31. || See Cunningham, p. 283, para. 1.

102 Notes on some of the Temples of Kashmir. ~ [No. 2,

References.

A. Massive wall forming facing to hill. | J. (On top). Steep mountain side co-

B.B. Foundation of original wall of vered with jungle.

enclosure. J.J. (On sides). Dense jungle.

C. Gateway. K. Temple to west.

D. Base of lingam. L. Temple to east.

EK. Road to second group. N. Road to Wangat.

H. Teniple to west. R.BR.R. Kanknai river.

doorway, within the large trefoil arch, is a pyramidal pediment, of which

the tympanum is occupied with the trefoil ornament, resting on the

’ architrave which covers the pilasters of the doorways. The base of the

great pediment of the porches is on a level with that of the capital of the

corner pilasters, but the upper portions of these pediments have

disappeared. ‘There were two entrances, to the E. N. BE. and W.S.

W. respectively. The former has the remains of short flanking walls —

(afterwards added, it would seem) projecting 2,3 feet beyond the

porch. They do not appear to have risen higher than the base of

the capitals of the porch pilasters. The roof is still standing, and is —

pyramidal, but its outer facing of stone has fallen, forced out, probably,

by the expansion of the roots of a tall fir and other trees, which grew

out of the pyramid. The interior, which has been much injured by —

fire, is a square of 17 feet, the walls below the cornice being 134 feet —

high, and plain; but the roof forms a hemispherical dome, 17 feet a

in diameter, of which the centre has been decorated by a large —

expanded lotus flower. The cornice is one foot high, witha moulding

of three bands; the upper two projecting each beyond the one below it. — ;

1866. ] Notes on some of the Temples of Kashmir. 103

The stones of the interior of the dome diminish in size, from about

1} feet long and 6 inches wide in the lower courses, to squares of about

six inches near the centre. The foundation of the dome is formed of

large blocks of stone, about 2 feet high, decorated with three straight

edged fillets as at Payach,* the two upper ones broad and projecting

each beyond that immediately below it, and the lowest narrowest.

The spandrels of the dome are plain and horizontal.

Within a few yards of the principal temple, to the north, there are

the remains, more or less ruined, of five small temples, three to the

east (L), and two to the west (H and K). All but one of them are

built on the same general plan as the temple already described, but —

have only one door each. The two to the west have their doors to

the east and south respectively. The doorway of the latter (H) is

like that of the temple A of the second group, described below. The

other three sides of H are decorated each with a miniature double-

roofed temple, but without an enclosing porch like those of A. It has a

water-spout on the north-west side. The other temple on the west (K)

has been a copy of the principal building, without the second doorway.

Of the other three small temples, that corresponding in position

to the one nearest the central building on the west, has its door to

the south east, and is built on the same plan as H. So has the next

one to it’(almost touching it) on its north-east side. Its walls have

been plain on three sides, and there is a waterspout on the west. The

third of these temples, almost touching the first (on its north side), has

four doorways; that on the east being larger than the others, with

(I think) a flight of steps to the east.

(L) ’ It has a stone water-spout

projecting on the N. W. W. side.

In the interior the walls are plain.

The ceiling (as in the Pandrethan

temple,t Plate XVIII.) is formed

of 9 blocks, four of which rest over

the angles of the walls and reduce

the opening to a square. The same

process is again repeated with an

upper course of four stones, by which the opening is still further nar-

* See Cunningham, p. 258, para. 10. + See Cunningham, p. 288, para. 10,

104 Notes on some of the Temples of Kashmir, [No. 2,

rowed to a square of 21 feet ; and lastly this opening is covered by a

single stone, decorated with a large expanded lotus surrounded by a nar-

row square moulding, whose angles bisect the sides of the upper open-

ing of the ceiling. All the angles are occupied by a flowered ornament

of three leaves, something like that of the upper part of the tympa-

num in the niche of the upper roof at Payach.*

The gateway, about 224 feet wide, is to the N. N. E. of the

principal temple, almost in the N. EH. corner of the enclosing wall,

and about 30 feet from the nearest of the smaller temples. It was

divided into two chambers, and had two columns on each front; one

on either side of the entrance and supporting the architrave, as in

the Bhaniyar gateway.t The surrounding wall formed on two sides

a facing and support to the platform, on which the temples stand.

On one of these sides, viz. that to the east, the wall is over 20 feet

high in some places, and is built of small thin dark-coloured stone

without mortar. On another side, viz. that on which the gateway is,

and the furthest from the river, only the foundation remains; but

14 feet beyond it there is a second wall, very massive, built of rough

blocks of stone, and forming a facing to the hill. It has evidently

been erected at a later date, to protect the temples and the gateway

from a landslip (probably), which threatened to bury them all in its

descent towards the river.

There is built up in this wall a fragment of the ee of one af

the smaller temples. At the S. W. corner of the enclosure there is .

the base of an enormous lingam, 54 feet in diameter.

From the N. H. corner of the first group of temples there was a

road-way flanked with large stones, leading down to the second group,

afew hundred yards distant. Half way down, a little to the right

of the road, are the ruins of a small solitary temple, but so much —

injured that it is impossible to make out the original form of the —

building. Close to it is a block of granite (measuring 10 feet in ©

length, 16 inches in height, and 26 inches in thickness) which seems

to have formed part of the facing wall of a resting-place just above it,

where the base of a small column is still in its place, at one corner of —

a rectangular platform. A little further down the road, on the same ~

side, is another rectangular platform, which seems to haye been the

* See Cunningham, plate No. XII.

+ See ante, p. 96, and Photograph, No. III.

1866.] Notes on some of the Temples of Kashmir. 105

basement of a bara durree, or some such structure, 100 feet long and

67 feet wide. It must have had a broad open verandah all round.

The bases of the pillars on one of the longer sides (viz. that to the

east), eight in number, are all but one still in their places. The

pillars were fluted and two feet in diameter, with an intercolumniation

of nearly 12} feet. Numerous fragments of them are lying about in

all directions.

The uppermost course of the basement stones (on which the pillars

stood) are 15 inches high, and project about 5 inches over those of the

second course (which is almost entirely buried in the ground). In the

centre of the platform there are the remains of what appear to have been

the walls of an apartment.

About 20 yards to the N. E. of the platform there are the ruins of the

enclosing wall of the second group of temples eleven in number, (see

woodcut below), with the remains of a gateway in the centre, about .

22,1, feet wide, similar to that belonging to the first group.* Like

TTT

i Ili

; R

References.

K. Small temple on hill side,

R.R.R. Kanknai river.

8S. Spring.

T, . Tank,

A.to G. Temples,

H. Oistern.

I. Road to first group of temples.

J.JJ. Jungle. .

the latter, it was divided into two chambers, and had flanking

pillars to the front and rear, like those at Bhaniyar.} Their

#* See ante, p. 104, + See Photograph, No, IIL.

106 Notes on some of the Temples of Kashmir. . [No. 2,

‘bases on the river side are still in their places. Immediately

inside the gateway, to the left, are the ruins of a small temple A, like

those of the first group. Its only entrance, a trefoiled arch covered

by a pediment resting on independent pilasters, looks to the N. KH.

z. e. in the direction of the central building. Over the doorway

pediment, and resting on square pilasters, is another trefoiled arch,

occupying the tympanum of the porch pediment. The square pilasters

project 15 inches, and are attached to the building by short walls, as

at Pandrethan.* The other three walls are ornamented with similar

porches, projecting about 6 inches, and containing each the front of a

miniature temple with two roofs. The recesses once held linga.t The

interior is blocked up with the debris of the roof.

Between A and the principal temple, and a little to the north of

them, are the ruins of another temple (B), of which the basement

alone remains, amid a heap of huge stones, éarth, and jungle. The

ground plan of this building was a square of about 18 feet with corner

- pilasters 22 feet thick, and four porches projecting about 14 inches

beyond the pilasters.

Close to the central and principal temple, at its N. W. corner, is a

huge cistern (like those at Bhaniyar{), cut out of a single block of

granite, 15 feet long, 74 feet wide, and 3 feet high, with a projecting

spout on the W. 8. W., one of the shorter sides. S

The central building here is much more injured than that of the

former group, and is buried half way up the porches on two sides.

It appears, however, to have been very much like the corresponding

temple of the first group, but it had only one entrance, viz. towards

the W.S. W. facing the gateway.

The interior is a square of 17 feet. The lowest course of the dome,

consisting of 8 stones, each 22 inches high, has not the mouldings —

which the other: dome has in this place, but seems to have had one :

narrow plain moulding at the edge, and above it there is a concave

course, about 18 inches high, with a moulding resembling the frieze

of entablature No. 2, (of Marttand), given by General Cunningham

on plate VIII accompanying his Essay. The entrance has the remains

of projecting walls§, like those of the large temple in the first group,

* See Cunningham, plate XXI. + See Cunningham, p. 283, and plate No. XX,

t See ante, p. 97. * § See ante, p. 102.

1866. ] Notes on some of the Temples of Kashmir. 107

The corner pilasters of this temple are 4 feet thick, the ground plan

being a square of 25 feet, as in the other case. A few yards to the

S. S. E. of the central temple is a small one (C), seven feet square,

with one round-headed doorway 53 feet wide, having mouldings the

same as those of G, and looking in the same direction as that of

the principal building. On the other three sides, there are similar

porches with closed square headed doorways. The basement (of

which part only is above the ground) seems to have been like that of

Bhaumajo.* The entablature over the doorways, beneath the base

of the pyramidal pediment, like the entablature over the corners of

the building (on each side of the pediment) is decorated like frieze

No. 2, of the Marttand entablature, shewn by General Cunningham.

The porches project 4} inches. The interior is a square of 42 feet.

The roof is constructed of horizontal courses, like these of L. (Wood-

cut on p. 102.) The uppermost stone is decorated with an ex-

panded lotus flower. “The two lower courses are ornamented each with a

moulding of three square-edged fillets, like those of the Payach dome.+

To the N. N. E. and §. 8. W. of this small temple are the ruins of

two others. That in the former direction (1)), a mere heap of ruins,

had its only entrance on the same side as that of the central temple.

’ The other (E) is a heap of huge stones, scarcely one of which is in

its original place. Hight feet behind the 8S. 8. W. temple isa fourth

small one (IF), with a square headed doorway which has plain

perpendicular and horizontal mouldings. There are similar doorways

on the other sides, but only that on the N. N. W. has an opening,

The interior is a square of 5} feet The roof has been formed of

horizontal courses, of which the lowest alone remains, forming a

square opening of about 4 feet. The walls are 20 inches thick.

There has been another small temple to the S. S. W. of that last

described, but it is now only a heap of stones; and on its N. W. side

I think there are the foundations of one, if not two, more temples.

To the N. N. E. of the central building are the ruins of a very elegant

temple (G), the interior of which formed a square of about 9

feet. The walls were plain, with a cornice of 3 horizontal bands,

the centre one having a rounded edge. The walls are 2,4 feet thick.

* See Cunningham, plate No. X. + See Cunningham, plate No. XI,

108 Notes on some of the Temples of Kashmir. [No. 2,

The only entrance is to the 8. 8. W. The head of the doorway is

round, and has a few parallel and perfectly plain mouldings, which are

joined to the similar mouldings of the sides by short horizontal returns.

To the N. E. of the last, and a few feet only distant, are the ruins of

another small temple, the ground plan of which was a square of 64 feet.

The wall enclosing all of these buildings, has been plain and very

massive. Many of the stones are still in their places on the N. N. W. _

side, some of them being 7 feet long, 22 inches high, and 22 inches

thick. The wall measures 161 feet by 118 feet, the longer sides

being towards the river and the hill respectively. On the former

side the wall forms a support to the platform on which the temples

stand; and on the latter, a facing to the hill side, which has either .

been cut away to form the quadrangle, or has subsequently come

down in a landslip, threatening to bury all the buildings in its descent

towards the river. Wherever the lower part of the wall remains and —

is visible on the outside (as it is near the gateway) ; — isastring

course, like that at Bhaniyar.*

Immediately beyond the enclosing wall, at its N. N. W. corner, is

a tank (T') of most delicious water, very cold and clear. The bottom of

the tank is considerably above the level of the quadrangle, which

might therefore have been kept flooded from the tank. The water

issues from the hill on the N. W. W. side of the tank, through the

stones of the wall, and was probably the cause of this site being

selected for all these buildings. Not only the temples, but the —

neighbourhood is now forsaken by all human beings, and there is not —

a resident Hindu for many miles.. But the spring (S) still runs on the —

same as ever, affording another instance of the temporary nature of

man’s greatest devices compared with that of things not human.

To the west of the tank, and the north of the second group of

temples, on the hill side, and almost buried in the ground, are the ~

ruins of a small solitary temple. The roof is broken into two portions —

(like that of the Payach templet), of which the upper one, a pyramid _

formed of a single stone 23 feet square, is still in its place.

The situation of the two groups of buildings is very wild and |

secluded, but not grand like that of the Bhaniyar temple.

* See ante, p. 94, and Photograph, No, III.

+ See Cunningham, plate No. XII.

1866.) Notes on some of the Temples of Kashmir. 109

They are on the right bank of the Kanknai river, about 3 miles

above Wangat, and not on the Brahimsur stream, where the latter

place is incorrectly marked in the trigonometrical survey map. The

Kanknai is nearer to the temples than the Jhelum is to that of

Bhaniyar, and is quite as noisy as the latter river, but its dimensions _

are much less. The mountains on both sides of the stream above the

temples rise to a great height and are very steep. They are covered

with forests of pine and fir; and, not far distant tothe N. N. &,,

the head of the valley is closed by a bare, dark green hill, with the

snow still remaining in its clefts on the 27th of July. The temples

are built of a coarse, pale granite, like that used at Bhaniyar, and

mortar is found in most of the buildings. There are tall firs growing

out of the roof of the principal temple of each group, and many of

the smaller temples have been much injured by other trees forcing

their way through the wails.

The best way to the temples from Srinagar is by Gundurbul,

Kuchnungul, and Wangat.

Dyamun, Between Nowsuera Anp Unt.

On the left bank of the Jhelum, between Nowshera and Uri, and

about 34 miles from the latter place, are the ruins of a fine temple and

gateway, similar to those of Bhaniyar.* There has been also a sur-

rounding quadrangle, but very little of it remains.

The ground plan of the temple is a square of 23 feet, with corner

pilasters 28 feet thick and six inches projected beyond the walls of

- the building. The porches, of which three contain closed doorways,

are each 16 feet wide, with a projection of 1# feet. The doorways

have square heads with plain straight mouldings, and are surmounted

by pediments containing the trefoil ornament. The pediments are

supported on half engaged fluted pillars. The only entrance, viz. to

the W. N. W., is approached by a flight of steps like that of

Bhaniyar.+

The interior is a square of 12 feet, but is nearly filled up with the

debris of the pyramidal roof. The interior walls had a cornice of

three plain mouldings, like those of one of the larger temples at

Wangat.t Part of the pyramidal roof is still standing. It has been

* See ante, p. 91, and Photographs, Nos, I. IJ. HI. and XIIT.

® + See Photograph, No. I. ft See ante, p. 102.

410 Notes on some of the Temples of Kashmir. [No. 2,

very massive, but hollow. The basement of the temple is like that

ef Bhaniyar,* but a good deal of it is concealed by earth and jungle.

The steps of the temple are about 193 feet from those of the

gateway, but the latter are covered with earth and fragments of stone.

The exterior face of the surrounding wall has been ornamented

‘like that at Bhantyar,t and there were two recesses in the corners of

the front wall, like those at Marttand and Bhaniyar. The colonnade

of the interior has entirely disappeared, if any ever existed. I found

no fragments of small columns, like those of the Bhaniyar peristyle;

but the quadrangle is so filled up with earth, fragments of stone,

trees and jungle, that whole pillars may be concealed from view.

I think there was a peristyle; because behind the temple I found

part of a basement, like that on which the columns of the peristyle

stand at Bhaniyar.{

The gateway is built on the same plan as that at Bhaniyar,§ and

is 23} feet wide. It is divided into two compartments, each 17 feet

by 53 feet. The short side walls of each compartment are decorated

with two trefoil headed niches, one above the other, with pyramidal

pediments. The upper part of the gateway has disappeared, but

fragments of the four large fluted columns which supported the

architrave, are lying about in the neighbourhood, and also the capital

of one of these columns, elaborately carved with small figures and

flowered ornaments. Nearly the whole of the outer wall of the

quadrangle is still standing, but its character is concealed, in most

parts, by the earth which on three sides is up to the top of the wall.

The whole of the ruins are.so buried in jungle that I passed along

the road, on my way to Kashmir, without noticing them at all. The

material is black stone (I think limestone), streaked with veins of

white marble. .

The situation is wild, like that of the Bhaniyar temple, the hill

rising to a great height immediately behind the ruin.

Manvs Bat.

At the S. E. corner of the lake of Manus Bal, there is a small

temple, of which the roof only was above the water on the 9th of

* See Photograph, No. I. £ See Photograph, No. II.

+ See Photograph, No. III, § See Photograph, No, III,

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1866.] Votes on some of the Temples of Kashmir. 111

August. (Plate XIX.) In the winter, I was told, the building

stands on dry ground. At other seasons the whole is sometimes below

the surface of the lake.

The roof is very like that of the Payach temple,* being broken into

two distinct portions by an ornamental band ; each portion being

formed of a single stone. The upper stone is 5 feet square at its

base, and is plain on all sides. The ornamental band} is like that of

Payach, divided into spaces alternately projecting and retiring. The

latter are square and occupied by the lotus; but the projecting ends

are carved into upright mouldings, slightly rounded at top and

bottom, and surmounted by a straight and horizontal band. The

north, south, and east sides of the lower portion of the roof are

plain. The top seems to have been crowned by a melon-like

ornament, of which the base only remains.

The temple appears to be a square of about 6 feet, and has only

one doorway, to the west, covered by a pyramidal pediment, which

is divided into two portions by a horizontal return of the side

mouldings, as in the case of the Marttand colonnade.f The upper

portion is occupied by the head and shoulders of a figure holding a

sort of staff in the left hand, and with something, which I couldnot make

out, under the left arm. (See Plate XIX.) In the niche (like those at

Payach§) formed by the trefoil over the doorway, there is a sitting

figure, holding a sort of club in the left hand. The angles of the lower

portion of the doorway pediment, below the horizontal moulding and

above the trefoil, are occupied each with a naked figure leaning against

the head of the trefoil, and holding up over the arch a sort of waving

scarf, which is passed on through their other hands.

LANKA,

Gn Lanka island there are the ruins of a very fine temple. Its

ground plan appears to have been a square of 344 feet, with a sort of

antechamber to the §. HE. E., which is 11 feet wide, including the

walls. The latter are 2%, feet thick. This antechamber projects

53 feet beyond the walls of the Naos. The exterior walls of the

temple are ornamented with two rows of deep niches with cinq-foiled

* See Cunningham, plate No. XII. t See Cunningham, plate No. XVI.

+ See Cunningham, plate No. XII, § See Cunningham, plate No. XII,

112 Notes on some of the Temples of Kashmir. [No. 2,

heads, flanked by half engaged fluted columns. The wall on each

side of the antechamber has three of these niches in each row, ?. e,

12 niches in all. :

There are many small pillars lying about, almost uninjured, and

more fragments of similar pillars. The columns measure 8 feet 64

inches, including base and capital, the latter being like that of the

small pillars of the Marttand* peristyle, but with beading between

the egg-shaped ornaments. The capital of these pillars is 143 inches

in height. They have 6 flutes, and their diameter is 164 inches.

The exterior face of the walls of the antechamber have only one of the

niches in each row.

The doorway is tothe 8 S. E., but I did not feel sure that there

had not been doors on the other sides also.

On the 8. S. E. side of the island there is a flight of steps with

flanking walls; and close by, in the water, a large

lingam. There are heaps of hewn stone on all sides

of the island at the water’s edge, including frag-

ments of square headed doorways, pyramidal pedi-

ments, &c., and I think the island must all have

been surrounded by a quadrangular wall, with a

= peristyle and recesses on the imterior, as at Mart-

"| 10 ¢in tand.

. Near the steps are the remains of a cistern like

the smaller one} at Bhaniyar. The building stands

ona basement, of which a woodcut is given in the

margin,

Narayan THAL.

This temple stands in a small tank{ on the right hand side of the

road, going from Baramula to Mozufferabad, and about 24 miles to

the 8. W. of the former place. It is situated in a hollow at the foot of

the hills, and is buried in trees; and it may, therefore, easily escape

the notice of travellers who are not looking out for it. The temple

is a square of 131 feet, with plain walls. There is only one doorway

3,5, feet high, and 3 feet wide, on the east side, its top being formed

* See Cunningham, plate No. XV, and plate No. VII, fig. 6.

+ See ante, p. 97. { See photograph, No, XVII.

i. re? Ce

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1866. ] Notes on some of the Temples of Kashmir. 113

by the ends of two stones, whose lower corners are rounded off,

forming an arch one foot high. The walls are formed of eight courses,

of which two are below the surface of the water.

The roof of the temple is alow pyramid, also formed of eight

courses, of which the lowest projects a few inches beyond the face of

the walls. The second course from the top of the roof is formed of

one stone, 4? feet square at the bottom, and 14 feet high. Over it

are three small stones, forming the uppermost course, of which the

centre is pierced with a hole, 6 inches in diameter, apparently made

to receive the end of a finial that is wanted to complete the pyramid.

The interior is a square of 7} feet, and is 9,5, feet high. The floor

was in July more than a foot below the surface of the water. The

inside walls are formed of horizontal courses, each consisting of four

stones only, one on each side of the building. The course over the

doorway is slightly projected and rounded, forming a sort of string

course along the walls. Above it are eight courses; the sides of the

building diminishing in length as they near the top, and the slope of

the walls being straight,

The uppermost course of the interior walls, forming a small square

opening, is crowned by a single flat stone.

There are a great many stones lying about the tank, but I could

not find the foundation of an enclosing wall,* and, owing to the rushes

and other weeds which abound in the water, I could not ascertain

whether the bottom of the tank had been flagged or not. I did not

find any part of the pedestal of a lingam in the temple.

The tank is fed by a running stream, which comes from a spring

in the side of the hill immediately behind.

Some of the stones of the temple walls are 91 feet long and 13

inches high.

Fourrrnenur, Kasumir.

After crossing the hill at the end of the valley, about two miles

from Baramula, on the way to Nowshera, a short distance off the

road, to the left, towards Gul-murg, there are the ruins of a grand

temple, in a village called (since Runjeet Sing’s conquest of the

country) Futtehghur, Runjeet had a fort built round the temple,

* See Cunningham, p. 288, para. 11.

me. Notes on some of the Tenples of Kashmir. [No. 2,

using the stone of its pyramidal roof, and probably of its enclosing

quadrangle, for the construction of his walls of defence. The ground

plan of the temple is a square of 462 feet. There weré four porches,

each 274 feet wide, with a projection 84, feet beyond the temple walls.

The only door was on the W.N. W. side, the other three porches con-

taining closed doorways, like those at Bhaniyar.* The doorways had

pyramidal pediments, the tympanum being occupied by the trefoil

ornament, and were supported on half engaged fluted columns, with

capitals decorated with the egg-shaped ornament.+ ‘The doorway

pediments were surmounted by those of the porches, with noble trefoiled

arches occupying the tympanum ; the principal pediments being sup-

ported on fine square pilasters, and the arches resting, as usual, on

half engaged square pillars of their own. The corner pilasters are 74

feet thick, and 43 inches projected. The capitals of the square pilasters,

like the entablature of the exterior walls, were ornamented with small

trefoil-headed niches, containing naked human figures standing ; and

over them was a row of lotus flowers in small square panels. The

interior measures 29 feet across, and seems to have been octagonal,

the four principal sides measuring each 184 feet, and the other four

each 9 feet ; but the whole building is buried in earth and the debris

of the roof nearly up to the top of the doorways, and it, is consequently

not possible to take all the measurements accurately. Some of the

stones (black limestone ?) are very large, measuring 10,4, feet in length

3% feet in height, and 3 feet in thickness. From the exterior face

of the porch to the back of the recess formed by the closed doorway is

84 feet.

TEWAN.

About a mile to the left of the road beyond Bimbaga, at a village called

Tewan, near the foot of the hills, there are the ruins of a temple built —

after the plan of the principal temples beyond Wangat, but of smaller

dimensions. It has only one door, viz. to the south ; but there are por-

ches, similar to that on the south, on the other three sides, containing

closed door-ways. The roof is entirely gone, and the walls look as if —

they would very soon topple over. The basement is buried. The

* See photograph, No. I.

+ See Cunningham, plate VIII. fig. 6,

1866. ] Notes on some of the Temples of Kashmir. 115

interior is a square of about 11 feet: The temple seems to have stood

in a tank, and to have had an’ enclosing wall. Immediately behind

is the steep hill side, covered with fine spreading cedars.

TemMPLes AT PATHAN SUGANDHESWARA.*

The inner chamber of this, the smaller of the two Pathan temples,

is, as Cunningham says, ‘‘ quite plain,” except that in the west wall

there are four small niches in a line, 54 feet from the floor, two with

trefoiled heads and two square-headed. ‘To the right of the gateway

ruins there is a fragment of a fluted column, one foot in diameter, like

those of the Avantiswami peristyle, and, a little further to the front,

a fragment of a larger fluted column (having 20 flutes) 12 feet in diameter.

Down each flute there is a flat band, one inch

wide, slightly projected, Near the latter frag-

ment there are pieces of two trefoil-headed

arches, and the capitals (with parts of the

shafts) of two of the colonnade pilasters.

There is also, on the same spot, the base (22

220 inches square) of a small column, cut on three

sides only.

: SanKARA GAURESWARA.

Nearly opposite this, the larger of the two Pathan temples, on the

left hand side of the road in a bagh of cherry trees, there is a fragment

of a small fluted columnt (having 16 flutes), one foot in diameter,

similar to that of the Pampur peristyle. The fragment measures about

3 feet in length, and is standing up out of the ground, marking the

site of a Mahomedan grave. And ina field to the east of the temple, there

is another fragment of the same or a similar pillar. In the village of

Pathan, I found the base of a small column like that described near

Sugandheswara, and another of a larger column. In and about the

village, there are numberless huge stones, squared and otherwise carved,

which probably belonged to the enclosure of one or both of the temples.

To the east of the entrance porch of the larger temple, at 90 feet

distance, there is the foundation of a wall of squared stones, and I

thought I could trace the foundation of a gateway.

* See Cunningham, page 281, + See Cunningham, page 283,

116 Notes on some of the Temples of Kashmir. [No. 2,

Koni.

At Kohil, between Awantipore and Payach, there is a miniature

7 temple, cut out of one stone,

standing near a Mahomedan

tomb, within an enclosing

wall of recent construction.

(See woodcut.) The interior

of the temple is a cube ‘of

15 inches, with the centre

of the roof hollowed out into

a dome; and the walls are

5 inches thick.

The exterior walls are 2

feet long without corner

aon 2in 3tm _ pilasters, and there is only

one entrance. On three sides there are closed doorways, with pe-

diments like that of the entrance. The apex of the doorway pedi-

ment is on a level with the top of the lower division of the roof, as

at Payach,* and projects 5 inches beyond the roof at the same level.

Ag at Payach, also, the pediment is unbroken, and contains the trefoil

ornament. The doorway pilasters project one inch beyond the face of

the wall. The basement of the temple, and the upper division of the

roof are missing. |

At the same place there are the bases of 3 small columns, whose

diameter has been 8 inches. Of their bases, the plinth is 7 inches high

and 114 inches wide. The upper member also is square, and somewhat

like that of the Marttand peristyle columns,+ 3 inches high.

3in

DrusegaMa.

Between Ramoo and Shapuyon, a few yards from the road, on high _

ground, near Drubgama, is a miniature temple, like that at Kohil, cut

out of a single block of stone 2 feet 8% inches square, and 4 feet 54

inches high.

It has one door to the south, with a horse shoe-shaped arch, covered —

by a pyramidal pediment, broken into two portions by a return of the 4

* See Cunningham, plate XII.

+ Ibid, plate XV.

1866. ] Notes on some of the Temples of Kashmir. 117

side mouldings. The upper portion is occupied by a small trefoil

ornament, and the lower one contains a small ronnd ornament, resting

on the base, thus :

The width of the porch on the south side is 2 feet. Onthe north

side there is a recess like those of the Pathan temples,* with a cinq-

foiled head, covered by a pyramidal pediment broken into two portions

of which the lower one is occupied by a flowered ornament. A larger

pediment supported on half engaged pillars surmounts the former one.

The east and west walls have porches very slightly projected, with

pyramidal pediments resting on the jambs of square-headed doorways.

The tympanum of the pediment is occupied by a large trefoil ornament.

The roof of the temple has been formed of two stones, of which the

upper one has disappeared, as is the case in the Kohil model.

The temple seems to have stood in a very small tank faced with

stone walls. I could not find any trace of a basement. In front of

the temple there are stones which I took for the foundation of a small

rectangular building.

PANDRETHAN.+

The floor ofthis temple on the 7th of August was 3,3, feet below the

surface of the water, and above it there were 511 feet of wall. The

opening on the south} (differing from those on the other three sides)

appears to have been made subsequently. Its sides are not splayed

_ like those of the other doorways, and seem not to have been regularly

cut, but rudely broken away. In fact, one stone on the west side of

* See Cunningham, p. 283, para. 1.

+ Idem, page 283.

{ Idem, p. 287, para. 9,

118 Notes on some of the Temples of Kashmir. [No. 2,

the opening is not flush with the rest, but projects a couple of inches

or so beyond the general level of the face of the wall. I think there

had been originally a closed doorway outside on the south, like those

at Bhaniyar* and that the interior of the wall on that side was Saeed

built up and plain.

General Cunningham’s drawing ofthe ceiling of the temple is not quite

complete. From the accompanying very accurate sketch made by Mr.

R. T. Burney of the Civil Service, (Plate XVIIT.), it will be seen that

the angles of the square in which the beaded circle is, are occupied by

naked human figures, as well as the angles of the other squares. These

innermost figures have both arms outstretched, like those at Payacht

seeming to hold up the circle. They have drapery about their shoulders,

resembling light scarfs. The brackets supporting the cornice were

once ornamented, and show marks of great violence having been used

to destroy the carving. Each appears to have represented a human

head ; for on several of them there still remains on both sides what looks

like plaited hair, The pediment pilasters project 5 inches beyond

those supporting the trefoiled arches. The corner pilasters of the

building are 1 foot 102% inches thick. I found what I took for mortar

in all parts of the building.

Marrranp. I

The middle chamber of the centre edifice is 14 feet by 64 feet ;

and the innermost one, the naos of the Greeks, is 18 feet by 134 fect,

having the remains of a cornice, about 18 inches high, in the S. E. corner,

I could find no trace of trefoil-headed panels or any other ornament on

the outer walls of the quadrangle.

The large pillars at the extremities of the wall (in which the

gateway is) outside, have, I think, supported the pediments of cells

like those in the front wall at Bhaniyar.§

The leading feature of the entablature of the middle chamber is

the cingfoiled headed arch, resting upon small half engaged hexagonal

pillars. See woodcut on next page, |

;

* See ante, p. 92.

¥ Cunningham, plate No. XII.

{ Ibid, page 258.

§ Ibid, p. 270, para. 25, and Photograph, No. XXIII.

Plate XVII.

RS S}c Reb =H

7 fing

Drawn by R.T. Burney Esq? C S. = ‘On aa ay ee an ay Student Govt: Schoolof Art Calcutts,

ROOF OF PANDRETHAN TEMPLE

LTH) 8Y 5 NIVEN SURVEYOR GEMEAAUS OFFICECALCUTTA JUNEINGC

wer

ao are ae Api te als Sara ED gr

- # &

‘ ee ee ok. ie Di agate

1866. ] Notes on some of the Temples of Kashmir. 119

The soffits of the arch, leading from the arddhamandapa or porch,

to the antarala or mid-temples, is highly decorated. (See Cunningham,

plate XVI. and woodcut overleaf.)

Lf |

Taxkut-1-SuLIMAN.*

With all deference to General Cunningham, I should call the ground

plan of this temple a square} of 142 feet, with projections on each side.

The diameter of the interior of the temple is 151. The thickness of

the wall on each side of the door is 5& feet, and the doorway is projected

2 feet.

Only one side of the enclosing wall is perfect; and it contains 14

rectangular recesses. The wall on another side is partly standing, and

‘seems to have contained 13 recesses. These walls each measure 22

feet in length on the inside. The outside of the wall is quite plain.j

* Cunningham, page 247.

+ Ibid, p. 270, para. 25, and Photograph, No. <0

{ Ibid, p. 250, para. 18,

120 Notes on some of the Temples of Kashmir. [No. 2,

The basement of the wall is 2,4 feet thick, projecting on the inside one

foot beyond the wall itself. The height of the basement is 10 inches.

(Soffits of entrance arch of Temple. Marttand.)

The sloping walls, flanking the steps leading from the entrance, are

23 feet thick. The surrounding walls and the entrance are in much

better preservation than the temple itself. The entrance has a round

top (like those of the arched recesses in the rectangular panels*), whereas

the doorway of the temple is narrow and pointed. For these and other

reasons, I believe the surrounding wall and the steps to be much more

recent in date than the temple.

* See Cunningham, p. 250, para. 8.

1866. | Notes on some of the Temples of Kashmir. 121

I was assisted in taking the above measurement by W. Elmslie, Esq.,

M. D.

To the north of the temple, a few feet distant, there is a small

rectangular building. Its interior is 11 feet by 10% feet, and the

L1hin walls are 2,% feet thick. The

otin ae roof is formed of large plain

Stin Ven / slabs, supported on four hori-

in ‘Ta @i4in. zontal stone beams, 15 inches

wide, and 64 inches high.

Kach of these beams is formed

of two stones. These beams

Bi fs . again rest, in the centre, on

another stone beam (formed of

2 pieces) 10% feet long, 11

inches high and 16 inches wide,

and supported on two stone pillars (of 8 flat faces each) without

bases. Including the capitals, the pillars are 4 feet 10} inches high

and 23% inches thick. (See woodcut.) The capitals are not alike.

There is one entrance to the east, as in the temple close by. It is

round headed, with plain mouldings parallel to the sides and top.

The walls outside and inside are plain. The exterior of the roof is

gone.

AVANTISWAMI.*

Though the Dewan at Srinagar readily consented to my opening

up the ruins of Avantiswami, I experienced great difficulty in

obtaining bildars and coolies for the work. For some weeks I could

not get any at all, and most of the work was done by very old men

and children.

_ Texcavated the whole of the peristyle on the south side of the

quadrangle and the part of it between the S. W. corner and the

gateway. At first I hoped that the displacement of the entablature

over the colonnade was only local; but, on continuing the excavation,

* See General Cunningham’s Hssay, p. 276, and the Bishop’s letter to the

Asiatic Society, 1865.

1866.] Notes on some of the Temples at Kushmir. 123

I found that the whole of the entablature on the south side had been

thrown down before the silting up of the quadrangle. Notwith-

standing this circumstance, the pedimental pilasters of the recesses

have scarcely been injured at all. This is specially remarkable in the

case of one pair of pilasters, which are ornamented with figures .

representing Siva or some other divinity. The woodcuts on page 122,

from a drawing by Mr. H. Wilson of the Civil Service, give a very

faithful representation of four of these pilasters.

Kunamon, &o.

At Kunamoh and Kroo, beyond Pampur, to the left of the Islama-

bad road, there have been temples in the middle of small tanks, which

(latter) still remain. At Tapur also, between Pathan and Baramula,

there are the foundations, if not the entire basements, of two fine

temples; and near Woossun, on the right bank of the Sind, there

are likewise extensive ruins of similar buildings.

- About one mile from Baramula, on the left bank of the Jhelum, are

the foundations of a wall 90 yards square, enclosing a small tope.

This is probably the ancient Jayendra Vihar. .Near the wall there

dre the foundations of a large village or city. Stones of all shapes

are strewn over the ground to the extent of some acres. In one place

| there is a heap of huge blocks, which are evidently the debris of a

| temple long ago overturned. There is also a small mound resembling,

}a Buddhist tope, also covered with loose stones. Near its top isa

| very large lingam. <A few hundred yards from this mound, in an

“orchard, there is another and larger lingam, measuring 17 feet in

| circumference near the base, and 9 feet in height.

. PLPLLL SLPS III IP PIII LPL LIP

124 Meynard’s Ibn Khordddbeh. [No. 2,

Remarks on Barbier de Meynard’s edition of lbn Khordddbeh and on

the Land-tax of the empire of the Khalyfs—By Dr. A. SPRENGER.

[Received 23rd February, 1866. |

Le lwre des routes et des provinces d’ Ibn Khordddbeh, texte arabe

publié, traduct, et annoté par C. Barbier de Meynard. Paris, 1865.

Monsieur Barbier de Meynard is known to us as the author of the

Dictionnaire Géographique de la Perse, and as the editor and translator

of the Travels of Ibn Batita and of the Golden Meadows (or more

correctly, as Gildemeister explains this book title, “‘the gold washings)

of Mastidy. ‘To these important publications he has lately added that

of Ibn Khordadbeh, and at present he is engaged with Moqaddasy.

As soon as he has completed this work, we may say that he has done

more for oriental geography, than all Arabists past and living together.

Barbier de Meynard has visited the Hast, and he is an ’Alamdyda and

a man of vast erudition. His way of working differs essentially from

that of his confréres of the old rotten school. He gives us good texts

and close yet elegant, translations, and does not waste his time in

puerile notes, replete with philological subtleties and nonsensical ex-

planations, in which men whose ideas do not extend beyond the

narrow limits of the school, delight so much,

, he most ancient MS. of the geography of Ibn Khordadbeh is that

of Oxford, which has hitherto been considered as unique. To the

zeal of Monsieur Barbier de Meynard and to his knowledge of the ©

Hast we owe the discovery of another copy, which was found at Con-

stantinople. Notwithstanding this important discovery, it was an —

extremely difficult task to establish a good text of Ibn Khordadbeh,

I do not maintain Barbier de Meynard has succeeded in every in-

stance to fix the correct reading, but I assert, without fear of contra-

diction, that no Orientalist could have done more for amending the

text than he, for no man has a better knowledge ofEastern geography, —

The editor suffered under one great disadvantage : he could not con-

sult the MS. of Oxford, whilst the work went through the press, and

the transcript which he made use of was not taken by himself, The

Oxonians are as jealous of their literary treasures as an eastern prince

of the hundreds of ladies in his harem, and as they have no particular

1866. ] Meynard’s Ibn Khordddbeh. 125

predelection for Eastern lore (they have in fact better things to do),

they derive about as much advantage from them. I copied the

Oxford MS. for my own use, and in some instances I prefer my own

reading. Baron de Slane published in the “ Journal Asiatique” an

account of Qodaéma’s work on the Kharéj, a book which I shall fre-

quently quote in this paper. I might probably have avoided many

mistakes arising from the incorrectness of my extracts from Qodéma,

if 1 had had the good fortune to consult the Baron’s remarks, but

unfortunately I do not possess the Journal.

- Ibn Khordadbeh wrote about A. H. 250 (A. D. 864.) His geography

is small, and fills only 127 pages octavo, but it is of immense importance,

inasmuch as it consists almost exclusively of official documents, and

contains the caravan and dawk stations of the whole empire of the

Khalyfs, and the amount of revenue of every district. I have inserted

his itineraries in my ‘‘ Post-und Reiserouten des Orients,’”’ and some of

them will be taken from that compilation and embodied, as Mr. Hyde

Clark witites to me, in Murray’s Guide for the East. I therefore give

here a short account of the revenue of the Khalyfs, extracted from

Ibn Khordadbeh.

I must premise a few remarks on the weights and measures of the

Arabs, making use of the researches which I made on the weights in

my Leben und Lehre des Mohammad, Vol. III. p. 141, and in an essay

on the Wegmasse und Gradmessung der Aegypter, Griechen und

Araber, which is not yet published.

The standard of the Musulman weights is the Aureus of Constan-

tine: 72 Aurei = 1 Roman pound = 5256 English grains Troy accord

ing to Gibbon, = 6165 grains de Paris according to Béckh. The

Aureus, considered as the unit of weight, is called Mithqél, and may be

taken = 4.6 Grammes or somewhat more. This weight of pure gold

is according to the present value of the precious metals = 15.97

Francs. The Musulman Dirham is in weight = {% Mithqél, and if

consisting of pure silver, its value is = 72 Centimes. 1 Baghdadian

rofl pound (the one mentioned in law-books) = 1284 Dirhams =

90 Mithgals = 14 Roman pounds = 409.536 Grammes = 1.1 pound

Troy (nearly).

_ All other Musulman weights we must reduce, if possible, to the

Mithqél (= Dyndér = Aureus); for there existed various systems :

126 Meynard’s Tbn Khordadbeh. [No. 2,

the grain and the weights, calculated by the number of grains which

they contain, had, in some parts of the empire, and at one time, a

greater or lesser value than in other parts and at other periods.

There is a grain of which 72 make a MithqAl, there is a grain (3)4**)

ef which 100 make a Mithqdl, one of which 96 make a Mithqal, one

of which 684 make a Mithqél, and one of which 60 make a Mithqal,

but this grain is called Habba and not Shayra. The fact seems to

be that the Persians, and after them the Mohommedans, found that

the Roman Aurei are more equal in weight than any other coin, and

for this reason they used it as standard, calculating the value of their

own weight by Aurei. In some cases, slight alterations m the value

of their own weights seem to have been made in order to adapt them

better to this foreign standard. The apothecaries’ weight, as we learn

from Avicenna, was Greek, but not without some alteration,

According to the Dictionary of Techn. Terms, p. 176, there existed

m the early ages of the Islam the same system as was in later times

preserved at Samarqand. It may be expressed as follows :

Mithqal. Daneq. TZasstj. Habba. Grain (Shayra.)

1 6 24 48 96

1 4 8 16

1 2 4

1 2

Another system or Ganja we find in the Qamts under Makkuk, it

may be expressed as follows :

Mithql. Dirhem. Déneq. Qyrdt. Tassij, Habba

(grain.)

1 3 84 172 342 684

bt jot

p= oS

pent

| NS)

m= bh. pe

me Nh Re CO

This system is in the Qamis continued beyond the Mithqdl, as

follows ;

1866. ] os Meynard’s Ibn Khordddbeh. 127

Makkuk. Kaylaja. Mana. Rofl Ounce. {star. Mithgal.

(pound.)

1 3 53 li} 135 225 10124

1 1Z 32 45 75 3374

1 2 24 40 180

1 12 20 90

1 12 73

In this table three systems of weight are brought together : the

Roman monetary, the Greek apothecary, and the Persian heavy

weights. I ought to observe that the grain of §,4% in Herat was,

even in later times, so small, that 100 such grains were required to

make up a Mithgal. In some places 3 Habba made a TZ'assiij.

I now insert an abstract of the calculations of ’Alyy Hasany, who

wrote at Murshidébad in A. H. 1164, transcribed from his autograph.

1 grain of barley = 2 grains of riye = 4 grains of mustard.

1 Masha = 8 Raty = 36 grains of barley = 72 grains of riye.

1 Tola = 12 Mashas = 96 Raties = 9 Dirhams of the law-books

= 6,3, Mithqals.

A Paysa (copper coin) of ’Alamgyr has exactly the weight of one

Tola, but the Paysa of Bengal, current in 1164, weighs 10} Baties.

1 Sér of ’Alamgyr = 60 Tolas.

1 Man of ’Alamgyr = 40 Sérs.

1 Bengal Rupee = 10 Mashas and 2 Raties.

1 Delhi Rupee = 10 Mashas.

1 Ashrafy = 9 Mashas and 6 Raties.

1 Qyrét = 35 of a Mithqal of the traditions = 32 grains of

barley = 2 Raty and 2 grain.

1 Déneq = } Dirhem = 8 grains = 1 Raty and 33 grains.

1 Dirhem = 6 Daneq = 48 grains = ,7, Mithqal = 102 Raties.

1 Mithqal = 684 grains = 20 Qyrat = 13 Dirhams = 14 Raties

and 1,4, grains.

1 Rofl of "Iraq = 130 Dirhems = 91 Mithqals = 6240 grains =

2 Rotl of Madyna = 13802 Raties.

1 Rotl of Makka = 2 Iraqy Rotls = 182 Mithgals = 260 Dir-

hems = 12480 grains = 2773} Raties,

128 Meynard’s Ibn Khordddbeh. [No. 2,

1 Modd = 2921 Dirhems = 2042 Mithqals = 14040 grains =

24 Traqy or Baghdadian Rotls = 14 Rod] of Madyna = 3120 Raties.

According to some, one Modd = 257+ Dirhems.

1 Ca’ = 4 Modd = 1170 Dirhems = 819 Mithqdls = 56108

grains == 12480 Raties.

1 Korr = 1200 ’Iréqy Rotls = 53384 Modd = 1834 Ca’ =

156000 Dirhems = 109201 Mithqals = 7488000 grains = 207032

Bérs.

1 Wisq = 60 Ca’.

The values of Arabic weights reduced to Indian weights in this

table, is certainly wrong. It is incomprehensible, how a man in his

senses could believe that one Paysa is as heavy as 63, Dynars or 9

Dirhems. This error seems to arise from the supposition that an

Jndian grain is exactly equal to the largest Arabic grain, of which 684

are sufficient to make a Mithgé4l, and 49371 one Roman pound. Some

other data of this table are probably equally incorrect, yet it contains

some information which may be useful.

The value of cubic measures for grain is expressed by the Arabs in

the weight of the quantity of barley which they contain. At this

moment I have no book in which they are explained, and I must refer

to dictionaries. Their explanations unfortunately do not square,

because the Qa’ and the Mana have different values in different

authors. According to Abii Hanyfa 1 Ca’ of Barley = 8 Roéls; ac-

cording to Shafi’y = 54 Rodl; according to the Shy’ites = 9 Roils;

and according to Kolyug = 1170 Dirhams = 9,, Roéls. On the

Mana Meninsky says: apud Arabes Hispanos duas bras, apud Asiatas

260 Drachmas appendebat. Mana egyptiaca, pondus sedecim uncia-

rum ; mana greca, pondus 20 unciarum; mand alexandrina pondus 30

unciarum. (Casiri Bib. ar-hisp.)

The measures of importance for our present purpose are the Qafyz,

the Korr and the Jaryb.

1 Qafyz = 8 Makkuk (which is not the name of a weight, but of

a cubic measure). Consequently 1 Qafyz = 8100 Mithqéls = 90

Roils. According to Golius, 1 Qafyz = 12 (a's; or if we take the

C4’, with Aba Hanyfa, to 8 Rotls = 96 Roéls.

We find in the Qémis also the following explanation of the

Qafyz, OFLA Oot Oe Shey Son L995 Smtr arr g Sty al

1866. ] Meynard’s Ibn Khordddbeh. 129

“1 Makkik = 4 Wayba; and 1 Wayba = 22 or 24 Modds, that is

to say Modds of the prophet.” And under Modd he says: ‘“‘ Accord-

ing to the people of ’Iraq, the Modd is equal to two Roéls, and accord-

ing to the people of Hijaz to 14 Rofl; ” and lower down he states

the value of the Modd of the prophet at one-fourth of a Ga’. Now if

we take the (a’, with Abi Hanyfa, at 8 Roéls, the Modd has as in

’Traq 2 Roils, and if we take the Ga’, with Shafiy, at 54 Rodls, the Modd

holds as in Hijaz 54: 4 = 14 Rofls; and I therefore suspect that in

one place two Rofls, in another place 14 Rofls, were called Modd of

the prophet. If we take the Modd at two Roftls, we have for the

value of the Qafyz 24 &* 2== 24 Roéls.” It isimpossible to reconcile

this statement with the preceding one.

There are in the Qamits two other definitions of the Makkak,

eight of which make one Qafyz. According to the one, a Makkuik

weighs from six to eight ounces, that is to say, half a Roél or %

Rotls. It is impossible that this be the value of the Makkuik in

question. According to the other statement, 1 Makkuk = 1} Ca’ or

12 Rolls, if we give to the Cd the value of 8 Roils.

From a passage of Qodéma, it appears that any small measure of

corn was called Makkik-bushel, and that the Makkik was dif-

ferent in different countries. In the definition of the value of the

Qafyz, I think the large Makkik is meant, and I therefore assume 1

Qafyz = 96 Rofls or Arabian pounds.

The Korr. At this moment I have no access to the Arabic text

of the Qamis, but to judge from the Persian translation and from

the extracts found in Golius and Freytag, it seems that the Qimis

contradicts itself. Freytag, without stating the authority, says, 1 Korr

== 12 Wasq (camel-loads) and every Wasq = 60 (4. The value

of the Wasq or Camel load depends upon the value of the Ga’; it

_ may therefore be 320 or 480 or 540 Ro/ls. A camel may carry

rather more than two hundred weights on either side, and I therefore

take 480 to be nearest to truth. A Korr would therefore be equal to

.5760 Roils.

According to the Persian translation of the Qamis, 1 Korr = 6

ass-loads, and one ass-load = 60 Qafyz. Now a donkey carries

about half as much as a camel or less, but according to the above

statement, 6 ass-loads are = 12 camel-loads. Moreover 60 Qatlyz

130 Meynard’s Ibn Khordddbeh. [No. 2,

weigh 5760 Roils, a burden which no beast is able to carry. It is

therefore clear that one Korr contains 60 Qafyz or 12 camel loads

ef 480 Rodls each. Another statement of the Qamus says, 1 Korr

== 40 Irdabb. The Korr is an ’[raqian (Babylonian), and the Irdabb

an Egyptian measure. One Irdabb = 24 Ca’ or 6 Wayba. If the

Wayba is taken at 24 Modd, and the Modd at 14 Rodls, these two

valuations agree ; for 24 *X 8 = 24 * 6X 14 = 192 Rotls = 1

Irdabb. Consequently the weight of a Korr = 7680 Rofls. We

must bear in mind that this is a reduction of the largest Iraqian

measure of grain to Egyptian measure, and it is very likely that the

value of the Irdabb is stated in Egyptian Rofls, the weight of which

I do not know; we can therefore make no use of this definition of

the Korr. Golius gives the value of the Korr, on the authority of the

Destir alloghat, at 7100 Rotls. This approaches to the result which

we have just found; the question is only, what kind of Roél is meant,

and by what means did the author arrive at this result.

The Jaryb is defined in the Qémis as follows: 1 Jaryb = 4

Qafyz; 1 Qafyz = 8 Makkik; 1 Makkik =3 Kaylaja; and 1

Kaylaja = 1% Mana. We see that this statement is a continuation

of the one given above in a tabular form; and it seems to be an

abstract of a systematical comparison of ’Iraqian weights and mea-

sures; and we therefore keep to it. Consequently 15 Jaryb = 1

Korr. I now continue the above table taken from the Qamis.

Korr, Jaryb. Qatyz. Makkak.

1 15 60 480

1 4 32

1 8

Consequently one Korr is equal in weight to 486080 Mithgals or

6750 Roman pounds. I ought to observe that Abii Yusuf mentions

a Jaryb of 7 Qafyz, and that he as well as Ibn Sad say that a man

may live on a Jaryb of grain one month. I should think that fifty

or sixty Roman pounds would be sufficient for the support of a man ;

and as the Jaryb of 7 Qafyz contains 7874 Roman pounds, I am

at a loss, how to explain this statement.

The linear measures of the Arabs are probably not essentially

different from those of the Greeks, 1 Haschimite or Royal cubit =

1866. | Meynard’s Ibn Khordadbeh. 131

2 Greek feet = 32 Arabic inches = 273.32 lignes de Paris. The

Arabs have besides a cubit of 24 inches (the oJ gS), and one (the

black eubit) of 27 inches; the proportion of the former to the Haschi-

mite cubit is as 3: 4.

Regarding the square measures I am in the dark. According to

an extract from the Akhwinal¢afa, inserted by Dieterici in the Zeitsch.

d. D.M.G., 1 Jaryb of 10 Qafyz = 3600 MHaschimite square

cubits. I suspect that there must have existed a Jaryb of + of this

value or = 6300 Haschimite square cubits = 22700 OQ Pieds de

Paris. This is, however, a question which ought to be further inves-

tigated by those who have better sources.

The history of the finances of the Hast, as handed down by the

Arabs, begins with the Sisanians, but the two accounts which we

have of their revenue, are extremely difficult to be reconciled with each

other. Ibn Khordddbeh, p. 42, says : ely> we 52271! cern cst> WS 9

walt. wIyne Jlaxe wo} sii &asyf diLe uy Kans wled dive i biSLy.0

wyited y Raed g GU) HI) Blo ame a! wip? SS wy lide GU}

Jie LB I) Killen aiSl wo He cath 9d GU) Ll]

Qodama, in my incorrect extracts from the corrupted text, says:

9 Aho Gyo Fhe eles Ke (09 ML} Saal (as! Say! eye yt J

wd ale sole y alpelt igo Mee! line 9 x55 le yoy ct olf Lt

us? yt Cyr shige bo lf 9 EHe GIT Wf sda WY Geel lor!

yy! we” w9Kt Jake 9) eryine 9 wa} EB pinnae At] (0 ey! seat

or LADS] Lda

There is no doubt that both accounts refer to the same fact, yet

there is only one figure ‘600 millions of Dirhams” in both identical.

This figure appears to me to express the amount of revenue in Musul-

man Dirhams. Ten Musulman Dirhams are in weight equal to 7

Mithq4ls, consequently 600 millions Dirhams = 420 millions Mithq4ls

or 5,833,3334 Roman pounds. The first figure of Ibn Khordadbeh is

consequently to be read 420 millions instead of 24 millions. At the

time of Qodama 15 Dirhams (silver) had the value of one Dynér or

Mithqal (of gold) ; consequently gold was only 93 times more valuable

than silver. It seems, however, that gold had at times a higher rate,

and that a pound of gold was equal in value to 10 pounds of silver.

420 Mithqils of silver were therefore equal to 42 Mithqdls or Dynars

oi gold in value, I consequently propose to read in Qodama 42 mil-

1382 Meynard’s Ibn Khordadbeh. [No. 2,

lions instead of 720,000,Dynars. The’only difficulty is caused by the

figure of Ibn Khordadbeh, 795 millions Mithgéls (of silver). It is clear

that the author wants to say, that after the eighteenth year of Perwyz

the revenue increased, and as 795 is a higher sum. than 600, I take that

this is the highest figure to which the revenue rose during his reign.

After these observations I change the figures, and translate the passage

of Ibn Khordadbeh as follows: ‘The Kheraj of the whole kingdom

which was gathered for the Chosroes Parwyz in the year 18 of his

reign amounts to 420 millions Mithqdls (of silver, read 0) S342 yf

HI] OBI} wy nthe 9 L8!). This makes, reduced to the weight of Musul-

man Dirhems, 600 millions of Dirhems. Subsequently the revenue of

his kingdom rose to 795 Mithqals.”’

The passage of Qoddma I translate: “It is asserted that Chosroes

Parwyz counted in the year 18 of his reign the revenue (for ho

read 44a) of his kingdom. He possessed all the provinces which I

have enumerated, the Sawad and the other districts, with the excep-

tion of the western part of the Musulman empire ; for the frontier of

his kingdom was Hyt, and the country west of it belonged to the

Greeks. He found that the revenue amounted to 42 millions Mith-

qals (of gold), this makes 600 millions of Musulman Dirhams (of

silver ).””

The Musulman Dirham was not known to the Persians, they count-

ed the revenue, as it seems, in Dirhams which had exactly the weight

of a Mithgal or of an aureus of Constantine of which 72 made a

Roman pound, and for this reason, in the original accotint which was

used both by Ibn Khordadbeh and Qoddma, the sum was stated in

Mithqdls. The money was weighed, and of course, if it contained alloy,

deduction was made. We are therefore able to calculate the income

with great accuracy, it is equal to 172,800,000 Rupees in value. Hf

we reduce it to English money, we must bear in mind that the pro-

portion of the value of gold to that of silver was not the same as in

our days. In the Greek empire, it was fixed by law as 142: 1, and

gold was the standard. In the Persian empire, the proportion was

probably as 10 : 1, and I am inclined to believe that in the document

which Qodama and Ibn Kordadbeh used, the amount of the revenue

was stated both in gold and in silver. I have already observed that

at Qoddma’s time the proportion was 93: 1, and I haye shown (das

1866. ] Meynard’s Ibn Khordddbeh. 133

Leben des Moh., Vol. 3, p. 1386) that in Mahommedan law, it is as 83

: 1 and even as 7: 1.

In Persia silver was the standard, in the Byzantian empire gold.

The Musulmans made no change : in the provinces which had belong-

ed to the kingdom of the Sasanians, silver remained the standard, and

in Syria, Egypt and other provinces which they took from the Greeks,

gold continued as the standard. In Makka and Madyna, silver became

the standard as early as Omar I., but in southern Arabia the revenue

was calculated by Dynars (Aurei.) The great difference of the value

which gold had at Constantinople under Constantine, and which it

had in the Sasanian and later in the Arabic empire, throws an unex-

pected light upon the relative prosperity of the two countries. The

fact requires no comment for those who know the elements of Political

Economy.

Ibn Khordédbeh begins his geography with a description of the

Sawad—Babylonia, Immediately after the Musulmans had conquered

that country, Omar I. sent ‘Othman b. Honayf to survey it for the

sake of assessment. It appears that he measured the cultivated land

of every district, and also for the sake of control the whole country

en bloc. He found that it is from Hadytha in the north to ’Abbadan

in the south 125 farsangs long, and from Holwan in the east to

’Odzoyb in the west 85 farsangs wide. The whole surface of culti-

vated and waste land (,«ls 5 ols) amounts therefore to 10625 a far-

sangs or 1386607143 Jaryb. Ibn Khordadbeh (MS. of Oxford) and

Qodama calculate the surface in round figures at 136 millions of

Jaryb.

Under the Sasdnian king, Qobad b. Fyrdz, the revenue of the Sawad

amounted to 150 millions Mithqals (of silver or Persian Dirhams) =

more than 2 millions Roman pounds of silver -= more than 214

millions of Musulman Dirhams. After the Musulman conquest,

*Omar I. derived a revenue of 120 millions Dirhams from it. This

sum is named by Ibn Khordadbeh and Qoddma. Ibn: Séd includes

the revenue of Jebel and mentions a higher sum, but as two figures

are wanting in his text, we cannot make out what he means, his words

ATE LRO3, eo (31) Sylly (J 5! cot) Cas] wig ne 9 LI} 8} &5 Le

I shall speak on the assessment of Omar lower down. Here I will

only observe that the 120 millions are made up by the land-tax and

134 Meynard’s Ibn Khordddbeh. [No. 2,

capitation. The latter may have amounted to 7 millions: the male

population of full age consisted of 500,000 souls, and the poorer classes

had to pay 12, the middling classes 24, and the rich 48 Dirhams;

supposing one in a thousand paid the,highest, and one in a hundred

the middling rate of capitation, this tax yielded 7,000,000 Dirhems

and the land tax 113,000,000 Dirhems.

We see that the total income which ’Omar I. derived from the land

of the Sawéd is little more than half of that which it yielded under

Qobad. It is not unlikely that ’Omar assessed it somewhat lighter,

but the main cause of the diminution of revenue was the decay of the

country. Babylonia has some resemblance with Holland, and the

Sunderbunds, being the Deltaof the Kuphratesand Tigris; andit appears

that great efforts have been made in former times to drain it and to

protect it from inundation by dykes, and in measure as they were neg-

lected, the land was converted into swamps. We find paludes in the

map of Ptolemy, but they seem to have been of no great extent.

The Tigris carries much silt, which is partly deposited in its bed,

where it slackens its course, and consequently in the progress of time

the bed became higher and threatened to inundate the country. To

prevent this calamity, it was dammed in below Bacra, and the course

was regulated : it was made straight, so that the water might carry off

the deposit. During the reign of Qobad (probably after the time at

which he derived so high a revenue from the Sawad) the dyke was

broken through below Kaskar, and the neighbouring country was

inundated, but the government took no notice. Anushyrwan had the

dykes restored and much of the land was recovered. In the year 6

of the Hijra (A. D. 628) both the Euphrates and the Tigris swoll

amazingly, and destroyed many of the dykes. King Parwyz showed

great energy, and it is asserted that in one day no less than 40 gaps

were filled up; yet though he granted great sums from the public

treasury for the repairs, he was unable to remedy the evil. A few

years later, the Arabs waged war against the Persians. The dykes —

were in consequence completely neglected, and the swamps gained in

extent. The Musulmans, after they had conquered the country, seem _

not to have paid any attention to the matter, and the Dihqians—heads

of districts—were unable to repair the dykes. Mo’awiya I. sent his

ehent ’Abd Allah b, Darrdj to Babylonia as collector, and he seems

1866. ] Meynard’s Ibn Khordddbeh. 135

to have been the first Mahommedan who recovered some land. Much

greater efforts were made by the Nabathean Hassan, who was collector

under the reigns of Walyd and Hischam b. Abd al-Malik, and cut two

canals to carry off the water. In A. H. 75, Hajjaj was appointed

governor of Babylonia. He represented to Walyd IL., that the drain-

age of the country would cost three millions of Dirhams. The Khalyf

thought he could spend the money more pleasantly on eunuchs and

singers, and refused to grant solarge a sum. Moslima b. ’Abd al-

Malik, a relation of the Khalyf, proposed to him to drain part of the

swamps, under the condition that he should draw the revenue of the

recovered land. The Khalyf accepted the offer, and Moslima cut the

two canals called Saylaya, and raised dykes. He succeeded in recover-

ing a great extent of land, and the peasantry flocked to him to culti-

vate it. His family continued to derive the revenue from it up to the

time of the overthrow of the Qmayide Dynasty. The ’Abbaside

Khalyf granted it to one of his relations, Dawud b. ’Alyy b. ’Abd

Allah b. ’Abba&s. His heirs remained for some time in possession of it,

but eventually it was considered as one of the crown-lands ra lal}

Ky bbe

In A. H. 75 Hajj4j was appointed governor of Babylonia, and he

ruled 20 years over that country. Ibn Khordadbeh says of the finan-

cial condition of the country during his sway: ‘‘ The revenue gathered

by Hajjaj did not amount to more than 18 millions Dirhams, and there

was consequently a diminution of one hundred (and two) millions. This

‘was owing to his burning down villages, and to his oppression. More-

over he was obliged to give advances to the cultivators to the amount

of two millions, so that only 16 millions reached the public treasury.”

It seems that the peasantry fled, for under the just Omar II. who

ruled in A.H. 99, the revenue of the Saw4d suddenly rose to 124

millions.

It is a very unexpected fact that at the time of Ibn Khordadbeh

not only the limits, but also the names of the districts were in the

official language precisely the same which had been in use among the

Sasinians, nay some of them seem to be even more ancient than the

S4s4nians ; for we neither find a district called Baghdad, nor one called

Madayin (Ctesiphon). The province in which these two cities lie, is

called Shad-Hormuz and the district Kalwadza, from an ancient town

hali way between Baghdad and Madayin.

136 Meynard’s Ibn Khordddbeh. [No. 2,

The Sawad is divided into 12 Kur, provinces, and originally it con-

tained 60 Zasdsyj, districts, but at the time of Ibn Khordadbeh only

forty-eight. The whole province of Holwan, containing five districts,

was added to Jebel. We have seen that Ibn Sad includes in refer-

ence to the time of "Omar I. the revenue of Jebel in that of the

Sawdd. He probably means that of Holwan only, which at the time

of Omar and of the Omayyids may have belonged to the Sawéad.

The province of the Tigris, containing 4 districts, was given to the

Government of Bacra; and it is very likely that the crops which it had

to supply to the State, were destined for the support of the troops

stationed there. This, however, can only apply to the time of the

’Abbasides, for in former days they received their supply from Mah-

Bacra in Persia, which under the Abbasides was placed under another

Government. One whole district had become a swamp and disappear-

ed altogether. Two districts (one of them is lower Behqobad) had

‘been converted into crown lands after the system of Khorasan. In

this manner, the Sawad was shortened by 12 districts and reduced to for-

ty-eight,

T insert here a detailed account of the revenue of the Sawad, according

to Qodéma, and also (distinguished by asterisks) one according to Ibn

Khordadbeh. Ina very few instances I deviate from Barbier de Mey-

nard’s text, and follow my own copy of the MS. of Oxford. Qodama

says of his account, it contains the income as it stands at present. I

take the mean since the year 184, this being the first year of which

documents are found in the public offices at Baghdad ; for the earlier re-

cords were destroyed by fire during the disturbances which took place

in 183 under Amyn, known under the name of Ibn Zobayda.

Western side of the Sawdd watered No. of No. of

by the Tigris and Euphrates. Villages. Barns. Wheat. Barley. Dirhams.

Anbér and Nahr-Ma’rit, — —118,000(2)6,400 4,000,000

*Anbar (alone), ... .- 5 250 2,300 1,400 150,000

Qotrobbol, ... ou: 2000-1000 S000

*Ditto, ... 0 ... 10 220 2000 1,000 300 (sic!)

Maskan, vy ws las eT 8000-10007

*Ditto, ... is .. 6 105 3,000 1,000 300,000

Badiiryya, ... vs ony |= 8,500 1,000 00

1866.]

*Badiryya,

Nahr-Shyr,

* Ditto,

Riimayan,

* Ditto,

Kiuthé,

* Ditto,

Darqyt,

=Ditto, ...

Jubara,

* Ditto, es

The ike Tabs, vos

AD ItGO, ...

Babel and Rie ieiniira:

* Ditto, rae

Upper-Faldja, bea

a Ditto, ...

Lower-Falija,

* Ditto,

The two Canals,

*Ditto,

wexyi-tamr, ,.,

* Ditto, me

Jenna and Bedat,

* Ditto,

Sura and pavyaiya’

*Ditto, ...

Banyama and King’s Canal, ...

Ditto, ...

Upper and lower Bis, ws

No. of No. of

Villages. Barns.

14 420

*Tithes of lands belonging to the

church or charities and from

lands called Sanyn situated in

yarious districts,

Forat-Badaqla, ..,

Meynard’s Ibn Khordédbeh.

Wheat.

3,500

1,700

3,300

8,300

3,000

2,000

2.000

1,500

1,700

1,400

3,000

2,000

Barley.

137

Dirhams.

1,000 1,000,000

1,700

150,000

1,700 5,000(s‘c)

3,300

3,050

2,000

2.000

2,000

150,000

350,000

2.9,000

200,000

6,000 1,500,000

6,000

7,200

5,000

5, 500

2,500

150,000

250,000

350,000

70,000

280,000

230,000

45,000

51,000

150,000

250,000

100,000

112,000

250,000

150,000

250,000

62,000

138 Meynard’s Ibn Khordddbeh. [No. 2,

No. of No. of

Villages. Barns. Wheat. Barley. Dirhams.

Forat-Badaqla, vas ass 100 271 2,000 - 2,500"5860,000

Silhayn, ... Ae a — %,-1,000- 1;5000,000 Fe

*Ditto, se eo 34 1,000 1,500 140,000 —

Rumistaén and Hideenthour —— — 500 500 20,000

*Ditto, ek SOS — 500° 500 =p ape

Nister, ... ae eo — 2,200 2,000 300,09)

* Ditto, ie sei) os SOT 1638" 1250 200 eee

Ighar of Yaqtyn, ... eo — 2,200 2,000 204,800

*Ditto, ote tees -_-_ — — 200,840

At the junction of the two rivers.

The provinces of Kesker : it is said

the revenue formerly amounted

to 90000 Dirhams, ... ... — — 30,000 20,000 270,000

*Kesker and canal of Gillah, Rig:

qat and Reyan, the Kherdj and

all other taxes yield,... ... — — 3,000 20,000 70,000,000

(and vice)

Nahr Cilla, af: _— — 1,000 38,121 59,000

Eastern side of the eas

Buzurg-Sabur,... —~ — 2,500 2,200 300,000

*Ditto, 9 260 2,500 2,200 300,000.

The two Radan, Bras Tee — 4800 4,800 120,000

“Ditto; ee aie .. 19 362 4800 1800-12008

Canal of Big, ... — 200 1,000 100,000

*Ditto, — — 200 1,000 10000mm

Kalwddza and oa of Bae — — 1,600 1,500 330,000 %

*Ditto, 3 34 1,600 1,500 330,000

Jadzer, old town out) Big _ — 1,000 1,500 240,000

*Ditto, fa 9 116 1,000 1,400 250,000

Galtilé and Halils, — — 1,000 1,000 100,000

*Ditto, 4) 76 1,020 1,000 100;00058

Desyn, — — 1,900 1,300 40,000 ©

*Ditto, 4 230 700 1,300 40,000

Deskere, BSA Oe — 1,800 1,400 60,000

*Ditto, «... ts -. - J 447) 1,000 1,000- 7Oeee

* Barley and rice, a

1866.] | Meynard’s Ibn Khordddbeh. 139

No. of No. of

Villages. Barns. Wheat. Barley. Dirhams.

Beraz alrud, ... eS Te — 3,000 5,100 120,000

Mavitto, ... Re .. 6 267?) 38,000 2,000 120,000

Bandanjayn, ... a — 600 500° 35,000

i — ; eo 54 600 500 100,000

*The three Nahrawdn, ... ... 21 3880 — — —_

Upper Nahrawan, ... eo — 1,700 1,300 53,000

*Ditto, oy ie ae pf — 2,700 1,800 850,000

Middle Nahrawin, ... ... — — 1,000 500 100,000

Seto, -... sive oo — 1,000 500 100,000

Lower Nahrawan, five in aie ree — 1,000 1,200 150,000

Baduraéy4é and Baksaya, — — 4,700 5,000 33,000

*Ditto ditto, ... Ma accede NE — 4,700 5,000 830,000

Rustuqbad, we ake? Le — 1,000 1,400 246,000

Silsyl and Mahrid, ith epee — 2,000 1,500 150,000

The Kira (provinces) of the Tigris

yielded in A.H. 260 (266?), — — 9,000 4,000 430,000

Land-tax of the Kura (provinces)

of the Tigris, —_— —_- — — 8,500,000

In reference to the Tehae of Yaqtyn, mentioned in the preceding

list, Qodéma says, no mention was made of it in the days of the

Persians, nor was there such an Ighar existing in their times.

Yagqtyn had claims on the government, and he received as payment

lands in various districts, subsequently they lapsed to the government,

and they were called Ighar of Yaqtyn. The canal of Cilla was dug

by order of Mahdiy in the districts of Wasit, and thereby a good deal

of waste land was reclaimed. The produce (of the Ighar and of the

reclaimed land) was destined for prayers and defraying other expenses

in the two holy places (Makka and Madyna). It is said the arrange-

ment was made that two-fifths of the crops were to be given up by the

cultivators for this purpose. This settJement was to last fifty years,

alter the lapse of which a new settlement was to be made.

Ighar ()! ) is correctly explained by Barbier de Meynard,

dict. geogr. de la Perse, p. 65, “‘ I s’ applique & une ville ou & une

propriété qui, moyennant une certaine somme stipulée une fois pour

toutes, et payée chaque année directement au soulthan, est exemptée

de la visite et du contréle des percepteurs du fisc.”” Qodamé defines it

140 Meynard’s Ibn Khordddbeh. [No. 2,

in the same mannerr oa! gldos wl Gro Kanal! Cod) wl 92 jet

Lo} Kilt ec? Coog2 beat? (5% ed) Gro & plod! oly be ‘latigigleelteie

shan! cy Kae 3! J lads ass us?

“ Tehar (protection against danger) means, that a landed tenure is

exempt from the visits of the collectors and from what is connected

with them (rapacity and oppression), in consequence of an order of

the head of the State which fixes a certain annual quit-rent to be

paid either into the public treasury, or into the treasury for the support

of a military cantonment.” The principal advantage of an Ighar

consisted in being free from those harpies, the Omlas.

The provinces of the Tigris which form the last and largest item,

may be those which were ceded to the Bagra government, and they

seem to answer to those enumerated by Barbier de Meynard, p. 133,

under Nos. V. and VI.

Some of the figures in the preceding table, taken from the very

incorrect copy of Qodéma, are certainly erroneous, and may be corrected —

by comparing them with those of Ibn Khordadbeh. It must, however,

be borne in mind that the data reported by the two authors are not in

all instances the same. At the time of Ibn Khordadbeh, for instance,

the whole of the revenue of the Tigris provinces seems to have been

levied in cash, at the time of Qodama partly in cash and partly in

kind. For us the sum total alone is of some interest, and this is given

by Qodaéma, who says, bist 0 Bras] worl Cogs otgend! ¢ Ry U3,

WS pds ASVOAS® Bt er 9 FS VIVE pee! Cpe 9 OS EP VEee

pana] 9 &bict (yo Lydd yell or SI bent 25 yhaww Si blew sl wilt ase

Peer rt Aseslisas lady y _yine Kmod i y-0, helS yy Catt] uy gD 9 tlds epdhes

e233 Fa) Sow Sih yg [eateavse+ Grol! sl VS gree” 9 yo

Kiired| he she EprtedS] Cy? Gpds bo uw ¢ IRs) eie=” Yoseces Kiel &s

| pro Liiieoy1e*

“The revenue of the Sawad, exclusive the poor rates of Baera,

consists of 117,600 Korrs of wheat, 99,721 Korrs of barley, and

8,095,800 Dirhams of silver. The grain at the mean market price,

that is to say at the rate of two Korrs, one of wheat and one of bar-

ley at 60 Dynars, taking one Dynar at the present rate of exchange —

equal to 15 Dirhams, is worth 100,361,850 Dirhams. Adding thissum —

to the cash payments, there results a total of 108,457,650 Dirhams.

The poor rates of Bacra amount annually to six million Dirhams, the

1866.] Meynard’s Ibn Khordddbeh. 141

average revenue is therefore (some words unintelligible) 114,457,650

Dirhams.”’

These data enable us to calculate the price of grain at the time of

Qodama. We convert the 100,361,850 Dirhams into Dynars, by

dividing the number by 15, and we obtain 6,690,790 Dynars. With

this money we purchase all the barley, and as many Korrs of wheat

as there are Korrs of barley. Our expenditure amounts to 99,721 &

60 = 5,983,260 Dynars to spend and 17,879 Korrs of wheat to buy.

Ii we divide the former number by the latter, we find that the Korr

of wheat costs 194 (z. e. 839 Dynars and 10 Kirats), and consequently

the Korr of barley 203 Dynars. The result cannot be far from the

truth ; for at the time of Mohammad wheat was at Madyna twice as dear

as arly (comp. my Leben des Moh., Vol. 3, p. 140), and consequently,

if one Korr of wheat and one Korr ol barley together cost 60 Dyniars,

the price of wheat ought to be 40 and that of barley 20 Dynars.

But there remains much too great a cost in the division than that

Qodama should have neglected it. I therefore propose to read 117,691

Korrs of wheat instead of 117,600. If we adopt this reading, a Korr of

wheat cost 39 Dyndrs and 7} Kirdts (20 Kiréts = 1 Dynar) and a

Korr of barley 20 Dynars 124 Kirats. A pound of bread (English

weight) may have cost about 3 farthings.

In Qodaéma occurs the following passage regarding the assessment of

’Omar I, Wastin ww wlais re 7) vlb=| ryote Wl @ alae er aitia Jls

wu le @dyd ry > w9S) BS) wails Sha B29 Slow] mad cs baid

Siah, URS) ee) pola Jls leds 9 ae sled Bilis yolby pole Kd ye

urls=" cpieeiya eo! ree) ust JS8s Cleves seo ac) Kho wly

Qasim b. Sallam asserts that ‘Omar, ‘the son of Khattab, sent

‘Othman b. Honayf of Madyna, and that this Othman measured the

Sawad, and found that it contained 36 (sic) millions Jarybs, and he

imposed upon every Jaryb of land, cultivated or fallow, provided it

could be irrigated, a tax of one Qafyz and one Dirham. Qasim

says, I have heard that this Qafyz was a cubic measure then in use in

the Sawéd, and that it was called Shabirqany. Yahya b. Adam says

it is identical with the Makhttim of Hajjaj.

- This account differs from that of other authors, who record that

’Omar I. assessed the Sawad as follows :—

142 Meynard’s Ibn Khordddbeh. [No. 2,

Every Jaryb of Barley, ...¢.0.-0e03++2ess0s'0,/ | 2; Dirhams,

99 PY] td Wheat, @ecreseeoe asereceses 4 9

. 59, Wineyards and orchards, 6 3

rs 9 @ gnc bbateplantatiompr 5.055240 8 5

The assessment of Omar was according to a tradition of Jabir by

himself called Tasq (36 Freytag considers this term cognate with

the expression of the Arabic Christians J’aqs (»*b, and it is perhaps

also related with gist. No doubt itis derived from the same Greek

word from which our tax comes. I believe, but am not sure, it was

a permanent settlement, though owing to the disposition of the rulers

and to circumstances, changes have taken place. The term tasq is

applicable only to taxes levied from conquered land.

It is pretty certain that the land-tax amounted to about one-

half of the value of the produce. Qodama speaks of the tithes, and

then he continues @453 wlewlast| me cole wrardy beild Symbait lef

Bi) GUS cle Ula, Sicligl Islive wyySy bo ime che thee Garb

ont or) ures who Gab ewe S81 Coy! pated I crlat (he

The taxes on conquered land have been fixed in oi pine WR}

accordance to the annual produce (of several years); consequently —

the tax of a district has been fixed agreeably to justice. In proof

thereof we may mention that in case it be necessary to convert tasq-

land into tithe-land, one-fifth of the original tasq of the district is

taken, because”: 5 = “ (a, in the original We} means in this case

the value of the produce.)

I believe we may safely infer from this passage that in the assess-

ment of conquered lands, the same rules prevailed as in fixing the

amount of tithe, with the only difference that one-half instead of one-

tenth was levied. The general rule was that land which was watered

without the expense of labour, paid the whole tithe.

If labour was expended, one-half of the tithe or more was taken.

Thus, if land was watered twice by a canal running through it, or if it

was three times irrigated by means of a bucket by which water is

raised from a canal, the tithe amounted not to ten, but to seven per

cent., viz. 4 per cent. for the canal and 3 per cent. for the bucket.

The ’Abbasides changed the system of revenue in the Sawad.

Qodama says: Abi ’Obayd Allah Mo’4wiyya b. ’Abd Allah, the

1866.] Meynard’s Ibn Khordddbeh. 143

secretary (Katib) of the Khalyf Mahdiy reported on the inconve-

niences which arose, if the tasq-payers were obliged to pay a fixed

sum of money, or to supply a certain quantity of grain, and he proposed

that the taxes should be calculated (annually) by the Jaryb, as there

was no telling whether the prices would sink. or rise. In the one

case the cultivator, in the other the government were in the disadvan-

tage. The best thing, he thought, would be to introduce the same

rule which the prophet adopted with regard to Khanghar : he left to

the inhabitants the land under the condition that they were to give up

to him one-half of the produce (as much the cultivators ought to

give up from irrigated land) ; but if the labour of irrigation was very

hard, they ought to give up only one-fourth; and if it was less hard:

one-third. The choice was to be left to the farmers to give up as

much straw* to government as was due to it (7. e. 4 or 4 or $ accord-

ing to circumstances), or to sell it and pay the tax according to the

market price of grain. In fixing the amount of revenue on vineyards,

trees of every description, vegetables and every kind of produce,

agreeably to the dictates of justice, the nett price which would be

realized by the sale was to be calculated, taking into consideration

what distance the land was from the market or harbour, and how

great the expense and loss of time would be for bringing it there.

After all these deductions one-half was to be charged as revenue.

This system of revenue, which was eventually introduced, and by

which the above detailed statements of Ibn Khordadbéh and Qodama

are to be explained, is called Moqasima, a term which is used up to

this day in India very nearly in the same signification as it was used

at the time of our author: ‘‘ partition of the actual crop between the

cultivator and the State, either in kind or in value.”

Certain it is that one-half of the produce was taken fram the

cultivators by the ’Abbasides; but it is not certain whether) ’Omar

-made so high a ‘settlement as to deprive the farmers of the value of

one-half, and whether the above passage of Qodama is applicable to

the time previous to’ the» Abbaside dynasty. But we may safely

assume that even at the time of 7Omar Is: the: revenue amounted to

two- fifths. Now if a Jaryb of wheat paid 4 Dirhams to Government,

the value pt the whole produce of a Jaryb could not be more than

* In the original Gy

144 Meynard’s Ibn Khordddbeh. [No. 2;

10 Dirhams. This does not square either with the prices of grain in

those days, nor with the size of the Jaryb which I have found. There

must be something wrong in my calculations, and I therefore would

call the attention of men in India, who take an interest in such

matters, to the subject. They have means of ascertaining facts con-

nected with revenue and agriculture, which are wanting in Europe.

I now insert a statement of the revenue of the other provinces of

the empire of the Khalyfs,; according to Qodama.* He usually gives

the numbers and names of the districts into which every province

was divided for the sake of administration, and states the totals of the

revenue. As the MS. is very incorrect, I omit the names of districts

and confine myself to the provinces :

Dirhams.

PNW Zio dette ols « tpcaci tees oi sishewaplos aariemnfeliod ven aaatenrd 18,000,000

pits iinet appt ciaihds lets Mele tiles bacco 24,000,000

CERAM. atta hatias iriarens smiebos mhuc a Recor « 6,000,000

Mekran, the ‘Cpanel SMO URC 4 hat we a tat donee 1,000,000

Dgpalani: Ys stax creass tyr wth des ater toes Bases . 10,500,000

Sijistan, the Tetita? revenue, secotne to agree-

ment, amounted: £0,» ; nin 0:5 200,700 eco opsdaw cdesinetaaush pl OURO

See

60,500,000

Khorasén. If Lunderstand right, this immense

province was leased to Abd Allah b. Tahir, that

is to say, he received the whole revenue, defray-

ed the expenses of administration, and kept the

surplus after having sent the tax to the treasury

of the Khalyf in cash including the value of a cer-

tain number of horses and slaves furnished to him, 38,000,000

Maile, 2.6. AAV UAWOT, ceo ce gence teweesnctio as. 1,000,000

Mah-Bagra, 2. e. Nohawand, ........secsees..2000e06 800,000

Flamadan,, 3.43.00, csnne « Re bieia [sts tes « on ake eee 1,700,000

Blastozan, coerce. Se gare Ses aes ieee ok sive «cg aisles 1,100,000

Mahrjan-Qazaq, ...... Be he g rusle press, chizie Te eee a eatery 1,200,000 —

ommmaid: QOshan es o.' whcaPeiedcoss cas ace eee « 8,000,000

* Which may be compared with that of Ibn Khordadbeh.

1866. ] Meynard’s Ibn Khordddbeh. 145

ig Ardebyl, Marand, We. 5 LP.seehsash se. 4,500,000

Rayy,... Pepatine Shines <o'8s pub . 20,000,000

sii in A. i. "937, Veta batbin caw awe eames .. 2,628,000

ERS shih bin a itw loans bidipa'ip o cwe'sd o vo wndeeptye Hite 1,105,000

Rh val sada benppides Yehiv* ova se 4s seistesaaeh 4,000,000

Taberistan and Amol in me H,,234, | ::.s0essetvis00, 163,070.)

Tikryt, Sonn and Bawazij (on the Tigris), ....... 700,000

Mosil pays into the treasury of the Khalyf, 2,750,000

But the revenue of Mosul amounts to,............. 6,800,000

Jazyra Ibn ’Omar (close by Mosul), ............ 4,635,000

Rat ifs bad beds «vias hose das SagVacta. RR. 4,100,000

Tarin in Armenia, the Moqate’a amounts to, ... 100,000

Armenia, the Intifa’ revenue amounts to, ...... 400,000

Diyér Momiur (northern Mesopotadha), ......... 6,000,000

Taryq Forat (west bank of Euphrates), ......... 2,700,000

17,935,000

Dynars.

Bleppo and Qinmesryny ....s.s cee. .0s cee see nee 360,000

ES. Foie, Pict RP EUR Neve salien ds eederweties 118,000

ee arnt arses ING. Sage dao dee eee See 110,000

a GEL ETI, 3a STS. SPUR NOES CUR EEN SY 195,000

Egypt and the coast of the Mediterranean as

POU ANG SH 2.5 14545 SOLU ARORA WO 2,500,000

Haramayn, 7. e. Northern Arabia, ............00 100,000

mouthern Arabia (Yaman), .20.c.c.secoeccsceseses 600,000

Reem DASE COOP Rites bocce pesteb else sas ve ~ 510,000

MTOR aT), Pie. voc eceits Leltaeead toes ceases 300,000

The author concludes : “

These are the provinces, as we have enumer-

ated them, and this is the amount of revenue which they yield. We

stated the average ;

less.

want of good administration.

sometimes it is In some places larger, sometimes

We pay no attention to these fluctuations, they are due to the

The reader will find that the whole

| revenue which we have enumerated amounts to about 4,920,000 Dy-

_nars, which make, at the present rate of exchange, the Dynar at 15

Dirhams, 73,800,000 Dirhams.”

146 ‘Meynard’s I bn Khordddbeh. [No. 2,

This sum represents 68,347 Roman pounds of gold, and does not.

amount to much more than two millions sterling, but thisis only the_

revenue of the western provinces where the Dynar was the currency.

It is true, if we cast up the above items, we obtain a‘sum which falls

short by 127,000 Dynars of the sum stated by Qodima. ‘This, how-

ever, is evidently owing to an omission or a mistake in the text.

If we omit in the item Tabaristan, the two hundred millions as

being evidently too large, the revenue of the eastern provinces includ-

ing the Sawad amounts to 223,487,320 Dirhams, or 2,171,404 Roman

pounds of pure silver, or about 162 millions of francs. The income

of the whole empire, as it was at the time of Qodama, did not there-

fore amount quite to 82 million pounds sterling. But we must

recollect that a great. proportion of it was the nett income, after all

expenses of administration had been defrayed, and may be considered

as the civil list of the Khalyf.

The study of the finances of the glorious Khalyfs se be edifying

for discontented Musulmans in India. The Khalyfs, like Indian princes,

squandered away-the money in debauchery, ground down the people

to the dust, surrounded themselves with Tartar mercenaries, who soon

became a pretorian guard, full of insolence and insubordination, These

deposed or put to death the Khalyi at pleasure, and no longer content

with putting on the. screw as tightly as. possible, they plundered the

provinces; and now those countries are so completely depopulated,

that many a district, which at the time of Qodama yielded a revenue

of more than a million of Dirhams, cannot. pay. as many cowries.

There is much .good in the Islam and in the Musulmans, but

they have a great deal to learn, before they will be able to administer

their own affairs,

LDL PPIPLIPIFLYVIPUPY PAU

; hg aactes SF ince dl

1866. | Interary Intelligence. 147

LiveRARY INTELLIGENCE.

The learned Professor Mahes’achandra Nydyaratna, of the Calcutta

Sanskrit College, has just brought out a new edition of the Kdvya

Prakds'a, a treatise on Sanskrit Rhetoric by Mammata Bhatta. It is

illustrated by a number of explanatory notes by the editor, and has

an excellent introductory essay. The last is a new feature in a

Sanskrit book edited by a modern Pundit. It gives a summary of the

principal works on Rhetoric in Sanskrit, their ages and characteristics,

the relation which the work of Mammata Bhatta bears to them, the

number of manuscripts used in printing it, its contents and age, and a

yariety of other interesting literary and critical notices.

The Professors of the Benares Sanskrit College have started a

monthly journal devoted to Sanskrit Literature. It is named Tue

Ponpir, and is intended to serve as a vehicle for the “ publication

of rare Sanskrit works which appear worthy of careful editing here-

after ; to offer a field for the discussion of controverted points in old

Indian Philosophy, Philology, History and Literature ; to commu-

nicate ideas between the Arian scholars of the Kast and the West ;

between the Pundits of Benares and Calcutta and the Sanskritists of

the Universities of Europe.” The first three numbers, already

published, contain, among other articles, two cantos of the second half

of the Kumara Sambhava, short notices of topics on Indian Astronomy

and Logic, anda reprint of the late Dr. Ballantyne’s essay on the

Nyaya.

Pundit Rangichari Swami, of Brindébun, has published, for gra-

tuitous distribution, a Sanskrit pamphlet entitled Durjana-kari-pan-

chainana. Its object is to prove the authenticity of the present form

of Vaishnava worship, and to refute the opinion of the court pundits

of Jaipur, who maintain that there is no ordinance in the shasters to

justify the worship of Govindaji, the great idol of that place, and

accordingly recommend that it should be cast out of its temple. The

author, in his little book, displays consummate polemical powers, and

a thorough knowledge of the literature of the Vaishnavas.

~NN

hie > Oe ; A be J ke ,

+ v7 - % © | A A

en: # a : \ Np

ey - . Fr ‘ ‘or a

. bi / Bs o A yap» Sieh eeay's bn Ts = 44

le. - re = =e Tea a

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‘ rat

ees _ Pa “ Rie a thay eae Hist:

: d S94 OLMIS DEL YRARATI

: kD Ae eciaes Reb. i ae el es Thee

é : eit wha a by io i fhe Esk Ki arene TO pals ot herein ey: 4

Re HED tits eel ech Drab sla ii Oe in

g saad 7 : +,

t ; ‘ aba sy Ket ea) 4} viednanlay 4tee Mes of Tita a nytbhoi ined

a pticandaait! Yep oe BUGREY Seine eerie nena

- auiieintsalecaastaiee ~ 5oe io OT cent ther a ortin otek

: \ -ese-tah bo! one aeysiee ioe Seong na ae tale tha

ati th. eialteben Ms: Fo, kaw jk ha ‘beter:

j ti atao wiod aigth palintiats Lap qbep ngs me rors

S34 ti 9 horter ROM e xn ait ‘at eps -oieade

; ae: : i ry a a “oveonatl para ten Porn, .

fang Pvt =—<8ite , chy cree iL ar {isci« O83 haveveh jot 5 ; ghia.

k , relies ts Oeea th an erioasa) "hehasdar ee eae

oe . Tes Tete Ws wr sews cuore shot eerie itotanet etary

hid) ct@titon heavens inanowth- sti aOFSblbRAa —

<1 “oy Ot Spe hue herbert , } int a AE tsar

; | oat) ei dteodk acl Even Be afb

. (is infnO . soem Sb te Betis ihe wag

. | edriht. iio al B.D pera eiskaguanell

Oo) au iri POW, need ifPrix fot Ye) } ) BATS (aay 0% DSits

j 45> i +i), to 2m: Ste L3tC fa ows aod wea :

wisn aoa duadinth: tre sink ort Sioa gpa ira aes

fe ry: , ise oad Aled

: sili set wainibainkdo sari ok iAdystal iL ihn

act » yo fe es yedad cadr diede BO ihn ee af

Tehee % Teese na_gd | an doerde ail ot a

“io ott 16 mobtiga aid siulet OF baa. .qilaiom arena

OF af i rauifiecom etait? dadt atetoteor OW ae

bifid loo lob? deere dé -Jiebrivot Jo qitietomiaimm

’ - -olvgyad adrto- ino teas oil “hiznoila or idadd base (oS Yat

lain praplig Insinislng otemtannenos venlgeily clocd offi im

JQ URN AL

OF THE

ASIATIC SOCIETY OF BENGAL.

VOL. XXXV.

PART. LL.

Nos. I. ro III.—1866.

AND A

SPECIAL NUMBER ON INDIAN ETHNOLOGY,

EDITED BY

THE NATURAL HISTORY SECRETARY.

Lee

“T¢ will flourish, if naturalists, chemists, antiquaries, philologers, and men

of science in different parts of Asia, will commit their observations to writing,

and send them to the Asiatic Society at Calcutta. It will languish, if such

communications shall be long intermitted: and it will die away, if they shall

entirely cease,”

Sir Wm. JONEs,

ewer eee

CALCUTTA :

PRINTED BY J. WENGER, BAPTIST MISSION PRESS.

1867.

CONTENTS.

No. I.

(Published 15th June, 1866.)

Physical Characters of the Karens.—By the Rev. F. Mason, D. D.,

Contributions to Indian Malacology, No. VI. Descriptions of new

land shells from the Nilgiri and Anamullay Hills, and other

places in the Peninsula of India.—By W. T. "BLANFORD,

Meg. A. R.S. M., E.G. S., ¥

Catalogue of the Specimens of Meteorie Stones and Meteoric

Irons in the Museum of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Cal-

cutta, corrected up to January, 1866.—By Dr. F. SToLrozKa

and H. F. BuanrorpD, Esq. F.G.S., ...

Observations on the Astronomical points determined by the

brothers Schlagintweit in Central Asia.—By Captain Gouv-

BIEF,

Comparative hypsometrical and physical Tableau of High ‘Asia,

the Andes, and the Alps.—By Roserrt pr ScHLAGINTWEIT,

Professor at the University of Giessen, oe

Notes and Queries,

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observa-

tions taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta, in

the month of August, 1865, . a

Meteorological observations taken at Gangaroowa 1 near Kandy,

Ceylon, in the month of May, 1864, se

No. II.

(Published 14th November, 1866.)

Russian Geographical Operations in Asia.—Communicated by

Lieut.-Col. J. T. Watxnr, R. E.,

Kashmir, the Western Himalaya and the Afghan Mountains, a

geological paper by AtBert M. VercuErs, ‘Esq., M.D. al

Medical Service ; with a note on the fossils by M. Epovarp DE

VERNEUIL, Membre de I’ Académie des Sciences, Paris, Pt. L,

Contributions to Indian Malacology, No. VII. List of species

of Unio and Anodonta described as occurring in India, Ceylon

a Burma.—By Wiu1am T, Buanrorp, gia A. B.S. M.,

G. :, a=

Scientific Intelligence, :

Abstract of the Results of the Houly Meteorological Observa-

tions taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta, in

the months of September, October, November and De-

cember, 1865, 507 oes eee aA ve

Page

ic WH

, be

. 134

156

1V Contents,

Page

No. III.

(Published 22nd February, 1867.)

Kashmir, the Western Himalaya and the Afghan Mountains, a

geological paper by Atpert M. Vercuire, Esq., M.D. Bengal

Medical Service; with a note on the fossils by M. Enovarp

pE VerNevIL, Membre de l|’Académie des Sciences, Paris,

Part IL. continued from page 1388, —... 159,

EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS connected with the ‘supply of

WATER from the Hooghly to Cancurta, by Davin Watpiz,

Hisq., Ci, ee ae een 203

Mee of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Obser-

vations taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the months of January and February, 1866, 433 i

SPECIAL NUMBER,

HiTHNOLOGY.

(Published 22nd November, 1866.).

The Ethnology of India.—By Mr. Justice Camppett,.. 1

The “ Kols’” of Chota-Nagpore,—By Lt.-Col. E. T. Darron,

Commissioner of Chota-Nagpore, ? 153

Apprenpix A.—List of words and phrases to be noted ‘and used as

test words for the discovery of the radical affinities of lan-

guages, and for easy comparison, by Mr. Justrcn Campsrtn, 201

AppENDIx B.—Comparative Table of Aboriginal words, do., ... 204

ApprnpiIx ©.—Comparative Table of Northernand Arian Words, do. 207

Avprenpix D.—Kashmiri Vocabulary and Grammatical Forms,

by L. Bowrtye, Hsq., . 225

APPENDIX KH. —Language of Dravidian Aborigines. N otes on the

Oraon Language.—By the Rev. F. Barseu,... , 255

Apprenpix F.—Brief Vocabulary of the Moondah and cognate

Languages of the Kolarian type.-—By Lieut.-Col. E. T.

Darton, 266

Apprnpix G.—Grammar of the Ho Language. (Kolarian Abo-

rigines.)—By Lieut.-Col. Ticxutt, &., oF -. 268

PLB PPO ae

-- INDEX TO PART IL.

The numbers with an asterisk belong to the Special Number on Indian

Ethnology.

) Page

Acanthocladia, ... ade i caoee sae

Achatina anamullica, n 8., aan 37

— beddome?, n. 8., ove me ai 41

= testudo, 1. 8., ‘see a spoepyge

— textilis, nie 41

Aconcagua peak, nha ie 55

Aigialites ruficapillus, (Goa, o ee yee ys

Agricultural tribes, be *19

Aha Tung Limestone quarry, 193

Alexandrowskiia chain, °%:. is

Alto de Toledo Pass, ‘a, sas te 54

Ammonia in the Hooghly water, we re IE er

Analysis of tank water, ... sos as tg ates

| — of the river water, . . 219

Anamully land shells, 31

Andria and Ariana, <n : al

Animal life in Ceitral' Asia, eo 70

Animal life in High Asia, : 70

| Anodonta solenifor'ines, (Bens. : rs ‘ ~ 150

| Arckbal peak, 20s eee Seif pipet es.

| Arrah River, the,’ ain ‘ oan ee ee

Artisans, moe occ oss Preah i 4,

Athyris POUssy? § 2 ‘Vernl., a ose <<. 18d

‘Sp. (subtalita, Hall), oe oe Ce

Augite of the Kaj'Nag, ... ae iis va. LOE

Aviculo-Pecten dissimilis, (Flemming), mM 5

n. s. (allied to A. circularis, Ver chére), ops, eee

n. 8. (allied A. testado, Verch. ¥ sie gee

. .8.? (AY gubbosus, Verch,), ‘sda Oke

Awans, 4% jee yt ee

| Axinus, nl. 8. (allied to A. obscur us,) wy iat Loe

| Bag’ dees, he ata 7 a jan.

| Baidyas, sere Ae * *119

vi Index,

Bainjagas, oon ee ae

Baloon ascents, one i

Balteers, Rae

Banteng, Domestication of the, us

Bara Lacha Pass,

Baramoola the extremity of the Kaj Nag Range,

Barhuis of Khelat, = ane

Barhui and Panjabi examined, owe

Barns Speers, cee

Bashia, Longitude of the Village of,

Batgool and Boorwag summits,

Batsch (The Rev. F.) On the Oraon language,

Bedars or Beders,

Bedas or Beders,... a4

Beloochees, eee

Bengali Brahmans, coe

Behai or Pieya, ih ose

Bhandari, or the Collector of rents,

Bheels, Se. ae

Bhoomiz, Ba

Bhoonhars or based Brahmins, aa

Bhooteas, . Mare

Bhooyas of Bengal, : —s

Bhurs and Cheroos of Oudh, wee

Black tribes of the Hills, .

Blanford and Stoliczka’s Catalogue of meteoric stones,

Blanford’s (W. T.) Contributions to Indian Malacology,

ee eee 31,

Nos. VI. and VILI.,

Bodos,

Bokhara, Routes across the Tian Shan to Little,

Boksas, Dr. Stewart on the, eg

Borahs, apy ant

Borderers, aaa

Buddhist ruin at Buniar ne OTL Ss

Buis and Bustars, oe

Bulimus nilagaricus, (Pir. a: eee

— physalis, (Bens.),

— bengalensis, oy

as — trutia, n. 8,

Buniar Buddhist ruins, ...

Bunneahs, ae vee

Burghers, ... cee oe

Campbell’s (Mr. Justice) Ethnology of ae

Carpophaga cuprea, (Jerdon),

—_——-— insignis, (Hodgson), ..,

—_———— pusilla, Ae ove

Index.

Carambers, Att

Caspian Sea, Variations of the ieval of the,..

Cataulus recurvatus, (Pis.),

Caucasian race, Physical leas of ne,

Chamars, oe

Charadrius pusillus, (Hor sfield),

Chenchwars, ae

Chermars, “¥

Cheroos, bah ite

Chimborazo peak,

Chinar lake near Sunager, rau

Chota Nagpore, Extent of,

Constituents of river water,

Coour and Cole languages compared,

Cyclophorus jerdont, (Bens.),

— deplanatus, (Pir.),

————-- sp. near ravidus, ove

Dapsang peak, ... |

Wards, ...

Destal, Glacier lake in Garhval,

Dhanuks, | ne

Dhoonds, oa

Dimals, ...

Djungaria, Points determined by the J esuits in,

Domestication of, wild cattle in India,

Dosads, ae

Dravidian Aborigines, ome

Hllichpur Coours,

Ethnology of India by Mr, J ustice 2. Campbell

Everest, Mount,...

Falco babylonicus, ote

- peregrinordes,

Fossiliferous rocks in Kashmir, ee

Fauna of the Weean bed, .

Felis macrocelis, ..,

—— temmincku, (Vigors),

—— swinhoet, 4. dee

—— diardi, beast,

—— charltont, i. ues

| Felis marmorata,

Felstone on the varia of the Jheelum,

———- and porphyry of: the mountains South- West, South

and West of Cashmir, ...

Vill Index.

Page

Fenestella sykesii, Koninck, ane ous ent... Lads

ene Megastoma, Kéninck, ep thepag

Fireflies, Simultaneous flashing of, ae ain 73

Gaémin Pass, eae ar en 53

Gardening tribes, , ieee a oa, eee

Garnets of the Kaj Nag, ... “A AS De

Garrows of Assam, *53

Geographical CoE oH of High Asia, the Anes, and the

Alps, wise 52 et seq.

Ghatwals, The half bred, bigs est eee

Glaciers of High Asia, | “A 61

Golubief’s (Captain) Observations on the Astronomical points,

determined by the Brothers Schlagintweit in Central

Asia, bas 46

Gond language, Dravidian origin of the, me

Goniatites. sp., like G. henslowii, ... aie

Goojars, he eve

Goozrati Brahmans, oy wae oe

Gourisunkar or Mount Everest, oa one .

Gours of Udeypore, a aie 3 = Sens &

Grauculus layardi, ie ia ose =

Grave stones of the Oraons, ak pe eos b.

Gukkurs, Gale | eee . “.

Gurang ‘and Magars, ove eee “=

Gwallas of Orissa, ves os

Gyal and the Gow, domestication of the, i vas

Hapatikri, oa *° he ove

Harees, soe eve ove

Hazarehees of Ghuznee, a ove Ts

Helix anax, (Bens.), woe vee

- basilessa, (Bens.), ... toe coe r

- monticola, (Hutton), ee =

Helots, ... *120

High Asia, the Andes, and the me Hypsometrica Tableau

of, 51

Himalaya, Plateaux in oe eee aes .

Hodgson’s Himalayan tribes, ... ree Be

Hooghly. water, Ree matter in the, fe |

Hos, i ae nen —

Harri Purbut, ee . awa

Hydrography ‘of High Asia, ase iv sed

Influence of the tides in the Paes = BES

Islamabad Hill, 33 one ses aa

Issyk-Kul, Position of, soe rae NOR ee ; ees

Index. 1X

- Page

Janguas of Cuttack, eee er as .. 136

Jatras among’ the Oraons, iY 4 dee HERS

Jats and Zemindar equivalent terms, «ail ode és *4,

Mafirs; ... : ies e'e tte weno CLAD

Kafir Kote mountains, re tee ... 184

Kai, Gaikho or Prai-Ke-Young, sas aye ee 5

Kailas range, wad ass saa) RA

Kaj Nag, a, of the, fis ihe a, 20

Kamlawan hill, as sda al saan DES

Kanouj Brahmins, ae re aA aia 65

Karabougaz, gulf, ... dis bia wih 83

Karakoram Pass, Position of the, dee aot a / 46

Karakoram Pass, Longitude of the, aa Jag ee 46

Karens,_... ¥ vi. a iz tala 1

Kashmiri Brahmans, ta ie eae ime

Vocabulary, edi aa a atta o: *22E

Kashmir, Geology of, 89

Kashmir, the Western Himalaya and the ‘Afghan Mountains

Geology of, fac yt ¥ ae _ 89

Kaurs, ae as eae ade dds c0

Kayasthas, i. ie. i whe Aes sien CMLL

Kaya or Red Karen, vr sea fis dik t

Kazalks of Central Asia, si ine he 2a /ii* 28

~ Kazi Kourt chain, a — oe Oni 79

Kharwars of Rewa, “oF duce fe 23h) Tene

_ Khatrees, ... Seis até bie dat geo RLM

\ Kheriahs, f. sit goa RSD

Khokandian ruins near Baildyr Tuga, a di sha 86

Khonds, i evel |! De

Khotan, Cartographical position of, i re 48

_ Kol, Derivation of the berm, 48 a tbe don. * LBS

Kola or Kolar, iss wie *28

Kolarian Aborigines, Language ‘of the, ... 8 *268 et seq.

Koles, the generic name of the "Aborigines of Chota-

Nagpore, aa = one wn)! 3 FOF

Koonbees or Koormees, eb Sie sin) OD

‘Kotahs, kon oa ie. od Petia tae

Kothair Ded, san Bek ee ain ple

— Fauna of the, aSe Jent, asi oe

| Kours of Western frontiers of Chota-N agpore, a Beri

Kumoun Hindus allied to the Bengali, ... jib FOS

| Kiinlun and the Karakorum Pass, Plateaux between, is a2

Kurrals, : ee ae

) Kashgar, Cartographical position on we ee ce 48

S| Ban Lun-or Ser and Mer Peaks, ... - .«.. Jet (SA

x Index.

Lagunillas, The pass of, oa ous

Lakes in the Himalaya, ie,

Language of the Aborigines, Turanian, as Je bal niga

Lé in Ladak, Determination of the position of,

Lepchas,

Light, Exclusion of, from specimens in Spirits,

Lunar and Solar Rajpoots % “i Pet

Lurk Coles, ce a es ves

Macnamara’s (Dr. F.) estimate of Organic matters in the

Hooghly water,

Magnetic iron ores in the Sub- Himalayan Valleys, mH

Mahratti paxgbaane, - UR

Mairs, Bb.

Malacology, Contributions to Indian, No. VL, mee ane

aan —— "No. VIL, band :

Maleasur, ...

Mallees,

Manikarn, the hottest. spring of High Asia,

Mankees, - ; ore! ese

Marang Booroo or the Landorians,

Mason’s (the Rev. F., p. pb.) physical character of the Karens,

Max Miiller on the language of savage tribes, i se

Mechis of the Doars, Bae EE ate

Meenars of Rajpootana, a 5a 4,

Mercantile class,

Meteorie stones and i irons, Catalogue of, in n the Asiatic Society’: S

Museum, site on a

Mhairs of the Aravallee range, oe ees iF gt

Modelliars, ve’ ae sie .

Modern Indians, : ie oe hi

Monocondylea crebristriata, (Anthony), “ Jee $33

—___—.—— peguensis, (Anthony),

vondenbuschiana, (ea), isi

Mont Blanc, a ve at exe As

Mont Rosa, ee ee see bi

Moondahs, ... pes aes

Moonda and Oraon customs compared, $3 ss

Mopgha or Plau, ek ae Be a.

Moplas, bs te ame bt est

Mountain ascents, iG Pa Fa x

Mustagh Pass, she se

Mya radiata, (Chem.), 28 Let

Nagas, oe Phe sie bre

Miah Tal Lake, oo at am

Index.

Namberee Brahmans, i ig “es

Namtso or Yinam in Lahol, the tt ie

Nanina acuducta, (Bens.),... ier sin

ammonia, (Vallenciennes), Pr Mee

ampulla, (Bens.), a ti

(ariophanta) intumescens, 0. 8., be:

auris ? (Pir.), ao aoa ote

—— bajadera, (Pir.), :

basileus, (Bens.), ... see

carneola, (Pir ) ons re

chenur : 2” sae

indica, (Pir ae, 2

(macrochlamys ?) hebescens, nies. T. Blant. )s

(macrochlamys ?) infausta, n. s. (Ww. T. Blanf.),

(macrochlamys ?) lixa, n. 8., (W. qT, ey

—— orobia, (Bens.),_... os

shiplayv, (Pir.),

(hemiplecta ?) sisparica, n. re (Ww. 'T. Blanf. ),

subgesta, (Bs.), _ ... ene

travancorica ? (Bens.), ... sé’

vitrinoides, (Desh.), one

Nausherra and Ori felstone,

Neemchahs,

Neophron gin yinianus, “(atham),

Neritina perrotettiana, pay ba

Niti Pass, eee eee eee

Nitrates in river water, a:

Nitrogenous matter in river water, vee

Opisthoporus Jerdoni, (Bens.), a

Oraons, is a es

~ language, “ae one ve

Orenburgh, Topography OF dit

Organic remains in the Hooghly water,

Orthis crenistria, (Phill.),

Otocoris penicillatus,

longirostris,

Otopoma hinduorum, (W. T. Blanf. ve ak ic sie

Paban or the ate fruits,

Pallers,

« Pampur det”? >. ote ase

Parang Pass, eis ie sed

Deatiahs, ... so, ae aa

Pasees, ... oa “ae ai se

Pastoral tribes, 7 = vee

Pasture ground i in the Himalay Si aaa

Xil Index.

Page

Pathans or Afghans, : pe hss

Perovski Fort, Rear admiral Boutakof’s expedition to the, ... 84

Pir Punjal chain, sists ae re fe 111—114

Plateaux, : =

Porphyry of Buniar,

Productus semi-reticulatus, (Martin),

— costatus (Sow.), ins ats ee

cora (D’Orbigny), + toe

humboldtic (D’ Orbigny), ota dy

— flemingw (D’Orbigny),

longispinus, (Verneuil), ies

Pterocyclos nanus, (Bens.), Ee wie

Pterocyclos cual, (Metcalfe),

Purbhoos, ... Saig wee Fs

Puttoons, The leafclad, id ets eke ee

Pwo or heu- phlong,

Pycnonotus jocosus, (l.)

Rajpoot Brahmans,

Rawats or Rajis of ‘Rohileund, .

Reechpoora Spurs,

ron, ;...:

Russian Geographical operations in Asia,.

Sansees, se ee

Saij Aha hills, oe soe xs

Saraswata Brahmans, See *.. ae

Sarhools’ feast of the Oraons, Res

Sarry-kul, the source of the Amu, Determination of,

Schlagintweit’ S ge Tableau of er Asia, the "Andes, and

the Alps,

Scindees,

Serairkilla and Thakoors of Khurswan

Sgau or Pgha-Knyan,

Shan Karens, oe

Shanar, ee ate

Sheri Bal mountain,

Sherrias, The wild, of Bundelcund,

Shinku a Pass,

Shokum Spring,

Singbhoom Ho or Lurka Kols,

Snowfall ; in the Himalaya, tee ol

Snowline, The Himalayan,

Solenopsis embricata ? tis aa a sae

Sontals;. ... 4 : sh sine sas

Spor aculum hispidum, de rae

— beddomit, ni. 8.,

5) eoe

Index.

Spirifer verchervi, (Verneuil), ses

Spiriferina octoplicata ? (Sow.),

—— stracheyt, (Salter), ...

St. Theodule Pass,

Stoliczka’s (Dr. EF) Catalogue of Meteoric stones,

Strophomena analoga, (Phill.), . -

Symphonota bilineata, (Lea),

Syrdaria, ... see

Tanaolees, ie

Tank water, Composition of,

Taru or Plu, as

Teers,

Tehon, Investigations beyond the,

Tertiaries near Ori Fort,

Thames, and New River, Quantity of solid matter in n the,

Than Karens, ,

Tharoos of Goruckpore,

Todas, Peculiarities of the,

Total nd matter in river water,

Toungthu or Lau,

Towns and villages i in High Asia,

Tukt-i-Suliman,

Turkistan and Western Thibetan lakes,

Unio anodontinus, (Lam.),

bengalensis, (ea),

—— bilineatus, (Lea), ...

—— ceruleus, (Lea),

—— corrianus, (Lea),

cor rugatus, (Miull.), .

favidens, var. marcens, (Bens. Se

favidens, es :

favidens, var. trigona,

—— favidens, var. delte, :

favidens, var. chrysts, ... ne

—— favidens, var. viridula,

favidens, var. densa,

—— involutus, (Bens.), Ee eee

—— lamellatus, (Lea),

macilentus, (Bens.),

marginalis, (Lam.), dele

merodabensis, (Busch.),

nagpoorensis, (Lea),

— nuttallianus, (ea),

—— olivarius, (Lea),

—— rugosus, (Gmelin),

X1V Index.

Page

Unio rajahensis, (Lea), — rae Ja a, co teed

—— sikkimensis, (Lea), mas baie she ee a eh

—— theca, (Bens.), .. ie ot yee ac - 444

—— wynegungaensis, (iea), 46 + aes sat ». 145

Vegetation of Central Asia, ... oa aaa bas 69

Velmas, i PLLA

Verchares’ (Dr. A. M.) Geology of Kashmir ée. “00s ggg Op ebnseRs

Vernag spring in Kashmir, mak 56

Vincularia multangularis (Portt), os es o. dbl

Vitrina auriformis,.n. 8., vs ig ot dn 36

gigas, (Bens.),... «+» Bas ie a 37

membranacea, (Bens.), ... as ae eae 37

Waldie’s (Mr. D.) Investigations connected with the Water

Supply to Calcutta, 203

Walker’ s res? J. T)R Russian Geographical operations in

Asia, woot) ileetisegh

Wastarwan, 172

Water Supply to Caleutta, Investigations connected with the, 203

Water, Constituents of River, os a Sure)

Water at ebb and flood tide at Baranagur, ie a BOe

Water, Amount of solid matter in the, “of the Hooghly, e--/208

Weean and Kohew valleys, Lar «ania SLbg

Western Thibet, Plateaux in, eas me aes 52

Wokuls,, 42:2 ‘ she ac Ay ancy Fag

Woolar ‘Lake, sue “ae a de we 20%

Yarkand, Cartographical position of, ee sive a 48

Zebanwan spur, aR aes S5 bes sven) ag

Zebanwan, < aes ee a eax. \, alli

JOURNAL

OF THE

meLALIC. SOCIETY.

—)-—

Part IL—PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

— eee

No. I.—1866.

ONIN NLL LCLLN LOLOL ITT TE ee es

Physical Character of the Karens.—By the Rev. F, Mason, D. D,

[Received 7th January, 1865, |

KareEns.*

The name Karen has been adopted from the Burmans, who apply

it to various uncultivated tribes, that inhabit Burmah and Pegu; but

it is used, in these notices, as designating a people that speak a lan-

guage of common origin, which is conveniently called Karen ; embracing

many dialects, and numerous tribes. These tribes, though speaking

a common language, have no common name with which to distinguish

themselves; but in this respect, they do not differ from our own

ancestors. Cesar found some twenty or thirty different tribes in

Britain, but it does not appear that they had pany common name by

which they designated themselves.

* The following pages are offered as answers to “Queries respecting the

human race addressed to travellers, by a Committee of the British Association

for the Advancement of Science,” at the request of Col. Phayre; and embrace

all the writer has to Say on the general division of the Queries, entitled “‘ Phy-

sical Characteristics ;”’ from Query 1 to Query 49.

No answers are given to Queries 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, and 30, relating mainly to

anatomy, because “satisfactory ones have not been obtained, Nor are answers

given to Queries 13, 14, 15, 16, because the writer has already published on the

subject of Language i in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, and in his

work on “ Burmah.” To write again on the subject, would necessarily compel

him to repeat considerable of what is already in print, which seemed un-

desirable.

2 Physical Character of the Karens. [No. 1,

The word Karen has been supposed to signify aboriginal, from yen*

“first,’’ and ka} a formative particle ; but the derivation is European,

not Burmese. The Burmans have never been so recondite in naming

wild tribes. When the Buddhist missionaries landed at Martaban, they

denominated the aboriginal inhabitants Beloos, or ‘‘ Monsters,” and

the Burmese still retain the name for a tribe of Karens on the borders

of Karenee. The subdued Bghais they dispose of as Loo-Yaing,}

“wild men; while the more civilized Mopghas that bring honey and

bees’ wax for sale, they call Zaubya,§ “ wild bees; and they find in

the dress of another a distinctive name, and call them ‘‘ Red Karens.”’

The word Karen is probably a Karen word. One of the northern

Karen tribes, with which the: Burmans must have held most inter-

course before they conquered Pegu, call themselves Ka-yong, which is

sufficiently near the Burmese to be the same word. Then we have a

precisely parallel case in the name they give this tribe, which is

Gai-kho,|| a Karen word that is manifestly identical with Kaz-khen,

the name the other Karen tribes give them.

Hight distinct Karen tribes are known, who speak dialects so diverse,

that they cannot understand each other; and yet, on examination, the

larger proportion of the roots of each dialect are of common origin.

These tribes have often several names, and not only are travellers

misled by them; but residents often take up wrong impressions and

give, for distinct nations, names that refer to the same tribe.

A few of the tribes only have distinctive names for themselves, and

all, when speaking to each other, use the word for man to designate

themselves ; precisely as the Hebrews use the word for man as the

proper name of the first man, Adam. Were these terms for man

adopted in English, the tribes would be much more accurately distin-

guished than they are at present. Thus we should have

Pgha-knyan for Sgau.

Pie-ya os Bghai.

Pra-ka-ya, or Ka ya ___,, Red Karen.

Heu-phlong 5 Pwo.

Peu pe Taru.

Plau . Mopgha.

eo) ils hee ai ag Ace § CODD qs sil oy) a

/_»pa

1866.] Physical Character of the Karens. 3

Pray-ka-yong for Kay or Gaikho.

Lau re Toungthu.

Sgau, or Pgha-knyan.

This tribe is known by a diversity of names.

Sgau, the name the tribe give themselves.

Burmese Karens, thus designated by some English writers.

White Karens, the name given them by English travellers to distin-

guish them from the Red Karens.

Myeet-tho, so designated by the Burmese.

Shan, the name the Pwas give them.

Pa-ku, the name by which they are known in Toungoo, and to the

Red Karens ; but it more properly denotes a sub-tribe of Sgaus.

Shan-ne-pgha, a name given to another sub-tribe of Sgaus.

We-wa, a small sub-tribe of doubtful origin, but probably originally

Sgaus.

Bauat, or Pin-ya.

The Bghais have no distinctive name for themselves, besides Pie-ya.

Bghai is the name the Sgaus give them, and they recognise the

mame so far as to apply it with an adjective to sub-tribes among

themselves.

Bghai-ka-teu, ‘ Bghais at the end,” is the name of the Tunic

Bghais, as used by the Pant Bghais ; because they live at the extre-

mity of the tribe nearest Toungoo.

_ Tunic Bghai is the name given to the above sub-tribe, by English

writers, because they wear tunics or frocks.

- Bghai-ka-hta, ‘ Upper-Bghai.” The Pant Bghais are thus de-

nominated by the Tunic Bghais, because they live on the streams

above them.

Pant Bghai is the denomination by which all the Bghais that wear

pants are known to English writers.

A-yaing, or Ka-yen Ayaing, ‘“ Wild Karens,” is the name the

Burmese give to nearly all the Pant Bghai.

Leik-bya-gyie, ‘‘ Great Butterflies” is the Burmese name of a por-

tion of the Tunic-Bghai.

_ Leik-bya-guay, °‘‘ Little Butterflies” are other villages of Pant

Bghai., .

4 Physical Character of the Karens. [No. I,

Pra-pa-ku, is the name given by the Red Karens to the Bghais

that live near the Pa-kus. ;

Manu-manau is a Burmese name given to a mixed sub-tribe of

~ Bghais.

Pray is the Red Karen name applied to the Manu-manau and to

some other clans related to the Bghais.

Lay-may is Burman for a sub-tribe of Bghais, called Pray by the

Red Karens.

Shan-kho is a name given to a Bghai clan in the north-eastern part

of Toungoo. ;

Rep Karen, or Ka-ya.

The Red Karens have no name for themselves, except Ka-ya, or

Pra-ka-ya.

Ka-yeu-nie, “‘ Red Karen” is the name given them by the Burmese,

on account of the red-striped pants they wear.

Bghai-mu-hta, Bghai-mu-htay, names given them by the Bghais,

signifying ‘‘ Hastern Bghai.”

Yang-laing, ‘‘ Red Karens” is their name among the Shan tribes.

The-pya the name by which the Kay people designate them.

Ta-lya a small sub-tribe of Red Karens, are thus denominated by

the Red Karens themselves.

Yen-ka-la, the Burmese name of the above clan.

Tha-vie, or Tha-vie-la-kha is a Red Karen name for a people of

their own tribe living ten days’ journey above them, on the Salween,

and who were separated from them when driven from Ava, sixteen

generations ago.

In 1861, our Assistant in Karenee reported a singular letter that

was sent by them to Karenee ; the object of which was not stated dis-

tinctly, but it was understood as a challenge to fight. The following

is a translation:— _

‘‘ Now, the words of God and his commands have come to us. Let

all men give up the customs of their ancestors, and offerings to spirits,

and live in peace. As for us in the land of Tha-vie, we will dwell

in peace and obey the commands.

“* Nevertheless, at the proper time we will make a feast; and this

feast is not a woman’s feast, but a man’s feast ; and when the time

arrives to dance, we will dance. And the shades of the dead, and the

1866.] Physical Character of the Karens. 5

spirits will look on. We say to you, if you wish to look on, come and

look, and bring sword and spear. We have appointed the month of

March for the time of holding the feast.”

Pwo, or Hrvu-putone.

The Pwos call themselves Sho.

Pwo is the name given them by the Sgau.

Meet-khyen is a name given them by the Burmese, signifying

“ River-khyens.”

Talaing-Karens is a designation they have in some published papers,

and they are sometimes thus designated by the Burmese, because they

are principally found among the Talaings.

Shoung is a name given to a small sub-tribe of Pwos in the north

of Toungoo.

. Tarv, or Piv.

Taru is the name given to a tribe nearly related to the Pwos by

the Red Karens.

Khu-hta is the name they give themselves.

Be-lu or monsters is the name by which they are characterized by

the Burmese. <A part of the tribe shave the whole head excepting

two tufts of hair, one on each temple, which gives them a sufficiently

frightful appearance to account for the name the Burmese have given

them. ;

Be-lu-ba-doung is the name given them by the Kay tribes.

Mo-pena, or Prav.

Mo-pgha is the name of one of the villages, from which the mission-

aries have named the whole tribe ; but it is a name they do not recog-

nise themselves. Neither do all call man Plau. Small as is the tribe,

there are two or three different dialects among the people, and we

have Pie-zau, and Pie-do for man, as well as-Plau.

Tau-bya, ‘‘ Wild Bees” is a name the Burmese give them in some

| settlements.

Bgha-Pwo is a designation sometimes given them.

. Kar, Garxno, or PRaI-KA-YOUNG.

The Kai, or Kay, or Gaikho have no distinctive name for them-

selves, beyond Pra-ka-young, or Ka-young, their word for man.

Ka appears occasionally as designating the people, but it signifies

land in their dialect, and properly denotes the country.

6 3 Physical Character of the Karens. [No. 1,

Kai, or Kay is the name given them by the Bghais, but they never

use it alone. They make three divisions of the tribe.

Kai-kheu “‘ Upper-Kai,” often applied to the whole tribe.

Kai-la ‘“‘ Lower-Kai.”’.

Kai-pie-ya “‘ Kai’s people.”

Gai-kho is the name which the Burmese give them in imitation of

the Bghai Kai-kho.

Pa-htoung is the name the Red Karens give them.

Hashwie is a small tribe related to the Kay, and thus denominated

by the Bghais.

Hashu is the name they give themselves.

Tounetuo, or Lav.

The Toungthus are related to the Pwos by their language.

Toung-thu is the name given them by the Burmese.

_Pa-au is the name by which they designate themselves.

There is nothing to associate this tribe with the Karens but their

language, excepting that the people have the appearance of being a

Shan tribe.

Suan Karens.

The generic name that the Shans give the Karens in their own

country is Yang, which is softened in Burmese into Yen, or Yein.

Hence we have of the following Karen tribes is the Shan country of

which we know little more than the names.

Yang-lang, ‘‘ Black Karens.”

Ying-ban.

Yen-seik.

Yein. ; z

Sok, or Tsok is the name the Shans give all the Karens that reside

in the Burmese territories, without distinction of tribe.

PuysicaL CHARACTERISTICS.

Though the preceding tribes are one in language, they are scarcely

one in anything else. They differ materially in their physical cha-

racteristics.

The Pwos and Toungthus, that usually inhabit the lowlands, resem-

ble the Burmese, who inhabit similar localities, in their physical

traits more than they resemble the Karens that dwell on the moun-

tains. ‘They area short muscular people with large limbs, larger than

1866. | Physical Character of the Karens. 7

the Burmese ; while the mountaineers are usually of little muscle and

small limbs. It is a popular idea that mountaineers are stronger, and

hardier than lowlanders, but, however, it may be in other lands, it is

certain that in Burmah the mountain tribes are weaker people than

those who live on the plains. The cause, however, may possibly be

other than the locality.

In stature, all the Karens, excepting perhaps the northern tribes, are

shorter on an average than Europeans. In a promiscuous assembly of

one hundred men, embracing several tribes, two were jive feet seven

inches high, eight were five feet siz and a half inches, and all the rest

were shorter. An intelligent man that measured five feet five inches

and a half, was confident that he was taller than the average of

Karens. I should fix the average at from jive feet four and a half

to five feet five. The shortest man I have measured, is a Bghai chief,

who was only four feet eight inches high ; and the tallest Karen I have

seen, was not quite six feet.

_ A company of one hundred Karen women had only two that were

five feet one inch high, eight were about four feet ten ; and the rest

shorter. The average cannot be more than four feet nine. The short-

est woman I have noted, was four feet five.

In different villages, the average would vary considerably from the

above. A village of Mopghas, on the hills, that can be seen with a glass

from the city of Toungoo, is remarkable for its short men, especially

the younger ones. I doubt there being one over five feet high. On

the contrary, the northern Bghais and Gaikhos are comparatively tall,

perhaps as tall, usually, as Europeans ; but they are a small minority ;

and I attribute their superiority, in part, to the higher and cooler

region that they inhabit.

_ Though small in stature, the Karens appear to be tolerably well

proportioned. No prevailing disproportion between different parts of

the body has been noted.

In those parts of the body which are not exposed, the northern

Karens, at least, are as fair as the Chinese. The young people, both

male and female, among the Gai-khos and northern Bghais, often

show red and white in strong contrast on their countenances; alto-

gether unlike the uniform clay colour of their more southern relatives.

Ihave met with individuals, who, if seen alone, would be pronounced

8 | Physical Character of the Karens. [No. 1,

part European. Indeed, if not exposed to the sun, some of them

would be as fair, I think, as many of the inhabitants of Northern Eu-

rope.

The yellow tinge of the Chinese is very distinctly seen on many of

the Karens, particularly the females ; and yellow, as well as white, is

considered handsome, by Karen connoisseurs of beauty.

The hair is straight and coarse, usually jet black ; but a few have

brownish hair.

The eyes are commonly black, but as we proceed north, many hazel

eyes are met.

The head is pyramidal, the breadth of the face across the cheek

bones wider than across the temples, and the bridge of the nose rises

only slightly above the face. Occasionally a decided Roman nose is:

seen, but there is still a depression between the eyes not possessed by

the Romans. The face is lozenge-shaped, and the whole countenance,

in typical specimens, is Mongolian. There is a great diversity in indi-

viduals, and these traits are less developed in the more civilized Sgaus

and Pwos than in the wilder Pakus and Behais.

It is not easy to describe the characteristic countenances of the

different tribes, yet there are characteristic differences, which the ex-

perienced eye detects. There is considerable too in locality, which

affects the countenance, apart from the difference of race. Thus the

Sgaus of Tavoy and Mergui can usually be distinguished from the

Sgaus or Pakus of Toungoo. Hducation also affects the countenance.

The Karens that have been educated in our Mission schools look like

quite a different tribe from their wild countrymen on the hills.

The Karens rarely marry with other races ; but among those who are

settled near the Burmese, a Burman is sometimes found with a Karen

wife, and in every instance that has come under my personal observa-

tion, the children have had a strong Burmese cast of countenance.

There in a village near Toungoo where there are several of these mix-

ed families; Huropeans do not distinguish them from Burmans. Still,

persons acquainted with the Karens, readily recognise them as a mixed

race. There is a village, however, on the mountains called “Village

of Talaingings,” that tradition says was settled by a company of

Talaing men who fled into the jungles during some of the wars in

Pegu two or three centuries ago; but there is very little in the coun-

1866. | Social Customs of the Karens. 9

tenances of their descendants to distinguish them from other Karens.

Their faces are a little longer, their cheek bones not quite so widely

expanded, and their faces have a little less of the lozenge shape.

Birrus.

When a child is born, in some clans the mother, in others the mid-

wife, cuts the umbilical cord, and puts the placenta into a joint of a

large bamboo, and wraps it ina rag. The father then takes it and

hangs it up on atree. An abortion is treated in a like manner, but

the tree selected is a species of Ficus, and the abortion is supposed to

become one of the Cicade that are so often heard singing at evening.

On returning to the house, if the child be a girl, the father goes

through the pantomime of performing a woman’s labours, beating

paddy in a mortar, and the like. Ifa boy, he spears a hog, and, seizing

the first man he meets, wrestles with him, to indicate what his son

will do when he comes to manhood.

The knife with which the navel string is cut, is carefully preserved

for the child. The life of the child is supposed to be in some way

connected with it, for, if lost or destroyed, it is said the child will not

be long lived.

About the third day, when the navel string sloughs and comes

away, the father takes his net, and, with a few friends, goes out fish-

ing and hunting. ‘The success of the party is deemed prophetic of the

character of the child. If much fish or game is obtained, he will be

prosperous ; if little, he will be unfortunate.

On the return of the party, a feast is made, the friends are invited,

and the child is purified and named. Children are supposed to come

into the world defiled, and unless that defilement is removed, they will

be unfortunate, and unsuccessful in their undertakings.

An Elder takes a thin splint of bamboo, and, tying a noose at one

end, he fans it down the child’s arm; saying :

“ Fan away ill luck, fan away ill success ;

Fan away inability, fan away unskilfulness :

Fan away slow growth, fan away difficulty of growth:

Fan away stuntedness, fan away puniness :

Fan away drowsiness, fan away stupidity :

Fan away debasedness, fan away wretchedness :

Fan away the whole completely.”

10 Social Customs of the Karens. [No. 1

The Elder now changes his motion and fans up the child’s arm ;

saying :

“Fan on power, fan on influence : |

Fan on the paddy bin, fan on the paddy barn :

Fan on followers, fan on dependants :

Fan on good things, fan on appropriate things.”’

He next takes a bit of thread that has been prepared for the pur-

pose, and tying it round the child’s wrist, says: ‘‘ [name thee A. B.;’

using the name that the parents had previously determined upon.

Sometimes a name is selected from among their ancestors, or other

relatives ; but in such cases they are always careful to select one whose

bearer was rich, or valiant, and prosperous; ever avoiding the poor

and unfortunate, as they suppose the name influences the character of

the man.

Often a name is selected indicative of the state of the parent’s mind

at the time the child is born. A man rejoices at the birth of a son,

and he names it “ Joy.”’ A mother is suffering, and she calls her

daughter, “‘ grief.’’ Another has a son born when he is hoping for de-

liverance from Burmese oppression, and the advent of White Foreign-

ers, so he names him “‘ Hope.”

Frequently a child is named from some circumstance connected with

its birth. One is called: ‘‘ Father-returned,’’ because the father re-

turned from a journey just as the child was born; and another is nam-

ed ‘ Harvest,’’ because born at harvest time. For like reasons we

_ have, “‘ New-house,”’ “‘ Sun-rise,”’ ‘ Kvening,” ‘‘ Moon-rising,” “ Full-

moon,” and ‘ February.”’

Sometimes the child is named from its appearance, and hence we

meet with the names ‘“‘ White,” “ Black,” and ‘ Yellow.” ‘ White’

is about as common a name in Karen, as Smith or Jones in English.

The animal, vegetable and mineral kingdoms all occasionally furnish

names. There are “Tiger,” “Yellow-tiger,” “ Fierce-tiger,” “ Gaur,”

and “ Goat-antelope;”’ ‘‘ Hornbill,” “ Heron,” ‘“ Prince-bird,” and

‘“ Mango-fish ;” “‘ Hugenia,” “ Job’s-tears,” “ Cotton,” “ Gold,” “ Sil-

ver,” and “ Tin;” with many others of a like character.

When the child grows up, and developes any particular trait of

character, the friends give it another name, with “‘ father’’ or “ mother”

attached to it. Thus, a boy is very quick to work, and he is named

1866.] Social Customs of the Karens. ue

“Father of swiftness.” If he is a good shot with a bow and arrow,

he is called “ Father of shooting.”” When a girl is clever to contrive,

she is named “‘ Mother of contrivance.” If she be ready to talk,

she becomes “‘ Mother of talk.”

Sometimes the name is given from the personal appearance. Thus,

a very white girl is called “‘ Mother of white cotton; ” and another,

of an elegant form, is named “‘ Mother of the pheasant.”’

Occasionally, the name refers to locality. Thus, one living near the

Sitang, is “‘ Father of the Sitang;” and another, on the borders of

the Thoukyekhat, is “‘ Father of the Thoukyekhat.”

Frequently a second name is given without ‘ father” or “ mother’

being attached to it. Thus, a handsome young person is denominated

“Yellow-rising sun ;” and one with remarkably long hair, “‘ Horse-tail.”

When a man is married, and has a child born to him, his name is

changed again to the father of that child. The mother’s name is

changed in like manner. Thus, I have a Bghai writer called Shie-mo,

and his father is known as the “ Father of Shie-mo; and his mother,

as the “‘ Mother of Shie-mo.”

Where there are two persons of the same name, they are distinguish-

ed by appending to their names the names of the villages where they

reside ; analagous to the Norman de followed by the name of a place.

The Red Karen ceremonies, at the birth of a child, differ consider-

ably from those noted above. With them, after the child is three days

old, the time at which the mother is deemed convalescent and able to

walk out, a feast is made by the parents, and the house is open for all

to come and eat and drink who choose. All who come are treated as

brethren. After the feast, the mother takes the child in a wrapper,

on her back, and goes down out of the house. She is then supposed,

by a legal figment, to proceed to the paddy field, but in fact she goes

out a few yards, digs the ground a little with a hoe, or spade, pulls up

a few weeds, and returns to the house. These are symbolical acts, by

which the mother pledges herself to labour for the support of the child.

The mother next’ carries her babe to the houses of her near relatives,

where the people visited present the child, if a boy, with silver or iron;

ifa girl, with beads, or a chicken, or a pig.

After these preliminaries, the child is named; often after some per-

son that has been visited who made handsome presents ; and always

12 Social Customs of the Karens. [No. 1,

after some relative, that the memory of their ancestors may ae pre-

served.

Infanticide is rare. Occasionally, when the mother dies, the infant

child is killed and buried with her; and I have known a woman con-

fess that she killed her little sister, soon after her birth, because it was

ugly ; but such things are not common. Children are not exposed.

No measures are taken to alter or modify the form of a child, or

any of its limbs. It is carried about in a wrapper, naked, till it can

walk, when it is sometimes clothed in a loose tunic ; but more often,

it is allowed to run about naked. No modification of the limbs is

practised.

Among no people are children taught so little as among the Karens ;

and nothing is taught them to modify the character. They grow up

like weeds, and are remarkable for nothing so much as for their wilful-

ness and disobedience. Yet the Sgaus have a very stringent injunction

to obedience to parents. The Elders say :

“ Q children and grandchildren ! respect and reverence your mother

and father; for, when you were little, they did not suffer so much as a

musquito to bite you. Tosin against your parents, is a heinous crime.

“Tf your father or mother instruct or beat you, fear. If you do |

not fear, the tigers will not fear you.”

They are also taught to obey kings; another of the commands of

the Elders being: ‘‘ O children and grandchildren ! obey the orders of

kings, for kings in former times obeyed the commands of God. Ii

we do not obey them, they will kill us.”

There is nothing remarkable in the sports of the child.

The age of puberty may be set down at from twelve to fifteen years.

The people not having had the means of keeping their ages, nothing

precise can be affirmed that depends on a knowledge of the age. The

Karens consider fifteen as the marriagable age.

While writing, six Karens came in, and on inquiry, one says his

mother had five children, two say their mothers had eight, two be-

longed to families of twelve children, and one man of about fifty years oy

of age is the last surviving child of thirteen by one mother. Women : ‘

that live to forty-five years of age probably bear on an average from

nine to ten children. The Karens consider ten as the proper com-

plement. Z|

1866. ] Social Customs of the Karens. 13

A verse from an old song intended to teach the duty of children

taking due care of their aged mothers, says :

‘“‘ A mother can bear ten children,

A child cannot bear ten mothers :

A mother bears ten children

And her strength is exhausted.”

Twins are very uncommon; much more so than among European

nations; and I never heard of more than two at a birth.

A large family is deemed a great blessing. When seated around the

fire at night, they sometimes sing :

“‘ People’s Kyee-zees many, I covet not,

People’s money much, I covet not,

I covet young paddy ten cubits high,

Good children and good grandchildren.”’

The proportion of sexes among adults is remarkably equal, for it is

very rare to find either man or woman over twenty-five years of age

that is not married or has been married. The proportion in infancy

cannot be very diverse.

Children are reared with difficulty. Large numbers die in infancy

from want of care, and from ignorance of the proper way to manage

the diseases of children.

Nothing remarkable in their senses has been observed, excepting

that their eyes are uncommonly good in seeing objects at a distance ;

but which may be the result of habit. When I have shown them the

villages on the distant hills through my glass, and asked if they did

not see them plainly; the reply has often been: “ Yes, but I can see

them about as well without the glass.”

The women bear children to quite as late an age as Huropeans.

Women, that I should judge to be between forty and forty-five, may

be often seen with children at the breast.

Three years is the period for which a child is deemed entitled to

his mother’s milk; but they are oftened suckled longer. It is not

uncommon to see a woman suckling her babe at one breast, and its

_ elder brother or sister at the other.

14 Social Customs of the Karens. [No. 1,

BEtTROTHAL.

The Karens go on the principle that marriages are made in heaven.

They believe that parties who marry do so in accordance with an engage-

ment into which their sentient spirits entered in the presence of God,

before they were born. :

It is a very common practice among all the tribes, except the Red

Karens, for parents to betroth their children while young, if not in in-

fancy. They have an idea that children are benefitted by it. If a

child is sickly, the parents say, ‘‘ We had better seek a wife for this

boy. A wife may invigorate him and make him stronger.”

Some one then who has a daughter is selected, and if the parents

are agreed, and the fowl bones give a favorable response, a feast is

made, and the children are betrothed. The feast is provided by the

parents of the boy, and one of the Elders offers the prayer of betrothal,

saying : ‘‘ Lord of the land and water, Mokhie of the land and water ;

these two are engaged to be united in marriage. May they have long

life, may they produce seed, may their shoots sprout forth, may they

grow old together !

After a boy and girl have been betrothed, should they, on coming to

marriageable age, be unconquerably averse to the union, the parents

say: “ Ah! their spirits did not consent, their guardian angels did not

make the agreement.”

The young people sing :

“God and the spirit ;

Without their consent,

No marriage is made.

God and the spirit,

_ And with their consent

No marriage is staid.” :

Should there be a mutual desire to sever the engagement, the pa-

rents of the youth go to the friends of the girl ; and after the introduc-

tory remark that the union does not appear to have been agreed to in

heaven, they say: “‘ They were not planted together, they were not —

sown together, and they do not love each other. Water spilt, leaves

the vessel empty ; flour thrown out, leaves the basket empty. There

must be the loss of half, and the paying of half.” Then the parents |

of the girl pay half the expenses of the feast at the betrothal. |

1866. ] Social Customs of the Karens. 15

ENGAGEMENT.

When a young man wishes to take a girl for a wife, the first persons

to be consulted are her parents. Ii they make no objections, he em-

ploys a go-between to transact the business for him.

The go-between takes a fowl and gives it to an Elder who consults

its bones, and if the response is unfavorable, the match is broken off

and no further proceedings taken.

When the fowl’s bones are read as approving the marriage, the

go-between goes to the parents of the girl, when, in some sections, the

following form of dialogue takes place :

_ Go-between.—“ Now I will creep up thy stairs, I will tread on the

steps of thy ladder. Thou plantest up large house posts, thou flattenest

out wide bamboo planks. Thou callest thyself the master of the

house, a good man. When the sun rises, it shines upon thee ; when the

moon rises, it shines upon thee. Thy head is as large as a still pot, thy

tongue as long as the gigantic bean pod. How wilt thou reply? The

children lift their eyes on each other. They lifé their hearts on

each other’s heart. Wilt thou approve?”

Girl’s Guardian.—“ Man is the horse’s tooth ; the elephant’s tusk.

Woman is a tree, a bamboo. We are the woman, the female. We

cannot reach distant waters, nor arrive at far off lands. We dare not

seize those who seize us, we dare not strike back again. The man can

reach waters, and arrive at distant lands. Can he take upon himself

the charge of a house and a field ? ”

Go-between.—‘‘ Fear not, be not anxious, for the house and the field.

Mother dying, occupy mother’s chamber; father dying, occupy father’s

hall, By day, there is one sun; by night, there is one torch. Fear

not, be anxious for nothing.”’

Girl’s Guardian.— Ii thy word is true to thyself; if thy language is

faithful to thyself; if thy word is one, thy foot-print one—Let not the

tree depart from its shadow, let not man leave his place—very good,

Thou art a hunting dog, thou scentest the covert ; thou trackest the

game. Art thou satisfied?”

Go-between—“T am a hunting dog, ana in scenting the hiding

place, and tracking the game, I have got to thee.”

Girl’s Guardian.— Thou art a hunting dog. What ornaments hast

thou brought ? Let me take a look at them.”

16 Social Customs of the Karens. [ No. 1,

When the work of the go-between is done, the friends of the young

man take a hog, an ox, or a buffalo, according to their circumstances,

and, leading it to the dwelling of the parents of the girl, they kill it

and examine its gall bladder. If the bladder is full, they say the

omen is favourable to the union ; but if flaccid, containing little liquid,

it is deemed unfavourable. Still, a feast is made, but it is eaten in

sadness, and the people murmur, ‘“‘ If they are married, they will have

no children; they will be unsuccessful in their undertakings, and they

will die young.” Sometimes the marriage is broken off, and sometimes

it proceeds.

If the gall bladder be plump, there is great rejoicing, and all say,

the couple will live to old age, and have a numerous posterity. Be-

fore partaking of the feast, an Elder takes a bit of the liver and viscera

of the animal together with boiled rice on a plate, and, pouring them

out on to the earth, prays; ‘‘ Lord of the heavens and earth, Lord of

the lofty mountains and high hills, we give thee food and drink.

May these two persons prosper and be successful, may they have a

posterity, may they live to old age, that they may bring up sons and

daughters.” After the prayer, the elders eat, and then all the people

eat after them. After eating, they drink spirits, beat kyee-zees,

dance, and sing songs.

After this engagement feast, sometimes the marriage takes place in

a few days, but frequently, for various reasons, it is delayed for a con-

siderable period, sometimes for years ; and when the delay is protract- —

ed, it is not uncommon for the engagement to be broken off.

Should the girl refuse to fulfil her contract, she must pay all the

expenses of the engagement feast with interest. “ If a hog was killed,

she must repay a buffalo. If a horse was offered, she must spay an

elephant ; and there is the shame besides.” :

These exaggerated demands are never exacted to the letter. In

general terms it is said: ‘“‘ If a man breaks his engagement, he loses

his outlay ; if a girl breaks her engagement, she must pay a fine.” |

If a young man wishes to break the engagement, he publicly de- —

clares that he will sacrifice all the affair has cost him, and ask no ¥:

return: ‘“‘ Let the fowl be,” he says, ‘‘ as if the hawk had taken it. 3

Let the food I furnished the parents be as if the tiger or leopard had

devoured it, Let the presents I made her relatives be as if sunk in § |

1866. ] Social Oustoms dc. of the Karens. 17

the water, or destroyed by fire.” After this public declaration, the

girl is considered at liberty to receive proposals from others; which,

without it, she is not.

MARRIAGE.

If there are no obstacles to an immediate union, after an interval of

two or three days, the relatives of the bride conduct her to the house

oi the bridegroom’s parents, with a procession of her friends blowing

trumpets. When the bride ascends the ladder into the house, water

is poured on her abundantly from the verandah, till her clothes are

wet through. She then eats with the bridegroom’s relatives, and, at-

tended by her female friends, she goes into the chamber. The young

man’s friends make presents to all the party, giving the most valuable

to the relatives of the bride.

When the time for the company to separate approaches, two of the

Elders take a cup of spirits, which is called “‘ the covenant drink,”’

and one speaks for the bride, and the other for the bridegroom.

One says; “ Now the woman is thy wife, thy daughter-in-law,

thine own daughter, thy own wife who will live with thee. Should

she be drowned, should she die by a fall, should she be bitten by

a poisonous snake, we can say nothing. But should she be killed

in a foray, should she be carried into captivity, should she be put

in bonds, thou must purchase her freedom, or obtain the price of her

blood.”

The other Elder then says: ‘‘ What thou sayest is true. She is not

the child of another, she is my child, my wife, my daughter-in-law.

Should she die by accident, I can do nothing. I will lay her out, put

food in her mouth, drink by her side, make a funeral feast, and bury

her. But should she be carried into slavery in a foray, I will carry

a kyee-zee for her redemption, and thou must demand a fine. I will

carry spirits to drink, thou must spread out food to eat. We together

will purchase the woman. But if we cannot obtain her if she has

been killed or is lost, we will demand her price. If I ask her price in

kyee-zees, thou must demand it in slaves. We together will make it

a reason for making reprisals ; and if I am the father of the foray, thou

shalt be the mother of it. If Iam the head of the foray, thou shalt

call the army; and if I call the army, thou shalt be the head of the

18 Social Customs &c. of the Karens. [No. 1,

foray ; and we will work together. If I go first, thou shalt come last ;

and if I come last, thou shalt go first.”

Each one then gives to the other to drink, and each says to the

other : ‘‘ Be faithful to thy covenant.”

This is the proper marriage ceremony, and the parties are now

married.

Now, the people say, they are man and wife and may live where they

choose, with the parents of the man, or with the parents of the

woman, or may live independent of both. “ They may have food or

no food; clothes or no clothes ; may live in peace, or fight and quarrel.

No one will interfere. It is nobody’s business but their own. No

one has any right to control them.”’ As a matter of fact, however,

the young man usually goes to live with the parents of his wife, and

remains with them for two or three years.

Marriage ceremonies among the Red Karens differ materially from

those described above. They never betroth their children in infancy,

but leave the young people to make their own engagements.

When the parties have agreed to marry, the man kills one or two

hogs or fowls in his own house, and makes a feast. To this the

friends of the bride, male and female, conduct her; and she eats and

drinks, and spends the night in the house with her companions.

In the midst of the feasting, and in the presence of the whole com-

pany, the bydegroom offers a cup of spirits to his bride, who drinks it —

up; and then he asks her: ‘Is it agreeable?’ To which she replies:

“ Very agreeable.” |

The next day the bride returns home and makes a similar feast, to

which the bridegroom and his friends go. It is now her turn to q

offer the cup to him, and when he replies to her question: “Is it

agreeable?” that it is “ very aeteayele} ” the two are regarded as”

married.

Often, however, the reply is playfully given: “ Not agreeable,” and _

then the feasts have to be repeated till the favourable response is ob-—

tained. 4

Marriages, according to the Bghais, ought to be always contracted —

among relatives. First cousins marry, but that relation is considered j

undesirably near. Second cousins are deemed most suitable for 2

marriage. Third cousins may marry without impropriety, though that

1866. ] Social Oustoms &c. of the Karens. 19

relation is considered as undesirably remote. Beyond third cousins

marriages are prohibited.

CHASTITY.

Among the Red Karens, chastity, both with married and unmarried>

is reported as remarkably loose. The commerce of the sexes among

young people is defended as nothing wrong, because “‘ it is our custom.”’

The Sau-bwakepho has a regular rule to give six rupees damages in

cases of rape ; but these are the only cases of crim. con. that he enter-

tains in his courts.

Chastity is cultivated, however, by the other Karen tribes; and one

‘means by which it is preserved, is early marriages. The great majo-

rity are married soon after the age of puberty. Still, while the young

_ people are as chaste as most people in Christian nations, lapses among

the married are not uncommon; but illegitimate children are very

rare.

The Sgaus at least are not wanting in good precepts, notwithstand-

ing, for a contrary course. The Elders say :

“O children and grandchildren ! do not commit adultery, or forni-

cation, with the child or wife of another ; for the Righteous One looks

down from above, and these things are exposed to him. Those that

do thus, will go to hell.

“Tf you meet the wife of another, avoid her, and pass on the lower

side of the road.” .

Though the Bghais do not appear to have precisely the same form

of command, yet they regard adultery as particularly offensive to God,

and as being the cause sometimes of bad crops.

Human nature is the same everywhere, and the betrothal of child-

‘ren in infancy often results in unhappy marriages, and unfaithfulness

to the marriage tie.

_ Sometimes the parties, on becoming of marriageable age, so dislike

each other, that they rebel against the authority of the Elders, and

form connections for themselves more congenial to their tastes.

PoLyGamMy.

Polygamy is neither permitted nor practiced by any of the Karen

tribes; but Karens who live in the neighbourhood of the Burmese

20 Social Customs é&c. of the Karens. | [No. 1,

sometimes adopt the Burmese custom of taking an additional wife, as

they do that of worshipping idols. The Sgau Elders charge their

children :

‘‘Q children and grandchildren! If you have one husband or wife,

lust not after another, male or female; for God at the beginning

created only two, one male and one female.”

Divorce.

Divorces are not unfrequent, arising often from marriages being

made by the parents of the betrothed in infancy, and the children

grow up without any love for each other.

If a man leaves his wife, the rule is that the house and all the pro-

perty belongs to her. He is allowed no claim on his money and

valuables that may be in the wife’s possessions, after he has left her.

Nothing is his but what he takes with him.

If a woman forsakes her husband, it is usual to allow a share of the

property, but no more than the husband consents to allow.

Wipows.

Widows retain their husbands’ fireplace, and endeavour to support

themselves. When young they usually marry again; but if old and

unable to support themselves, they look for help to their own rela-

tions, and often suffer from neglect. The obligation to treat widows

kindly is recognised in theory, but often neglected in practice. “The

following story from the Bghai gives a too true picture of this

matter.

“Formerly, there was a woman whose husband died, and left her to

get a support as best she could. All her children were small. Their

father had forsaken them, and the mother took care of them in any

corner or interstice she could find.

“She had no relations of her own in that country. She had none

but her husband’s relations, and her husband was dead, and his rela-

tions would not help her. She could not therefore get curry to eat, |

and she fed her children on the sheaths of the blossoms of the wild _

plantain flowers: these she called to the children “ brains,” and they q

~ knew not, but that was the proper name.

‘When the neighbours heard the children say they lived on brains, |

they said: ‘The woman is a witch! Morning after morning it is

1866. ] Social Customs dc. of the Karens. 21

brains; evening after evening it is brains. It must be she goes and

gets human brains to eat. We cannot get so many brains: and they

have no father. Where can so many brains come from?’

“ After awhile they concluded they would kill her for being a

witch, and they made known their intentions to an uncle of hers. He

said : ‘ Wait till I can go and see her.’ When at leisure, he went to

see the family. He killed a deer, took the head to the children, and

showed the brains to the children, asking: ‘ Does your mother feed

you with brains like these?’ They all replied: ‘ No, uncle, mother

feeds us with brains that are bright red.’ There are no fibres in them

like these.’

“The uncle then repeated his enquiries successively with the heads

of a horse, an elephant, a bear, a goat-antelope, a bison, a barking deer,

a porcupine, a bamboo-rat, a squirrel, a tupai, a rat, a bird, a fowl, a

snake, a frog, a fish, and every kind of animal known in the country ;

but the children said to all, ‘ Uncle, our mother feeds us with no such

brains as these.’

“ He thought to himself; ‘It is not this, and it isnot that. Surely

the woman is a witch, for there is no other kind of brains it can be,

but human brains.’ So he concluded it was best to kill her.

** However he went out hunting one day more, and all day he met

with nothing; so on his return home he plucked two sheathes of wild

plantain blossoms, and bringing them into the house, he laid them

down by the wash stand. One of the children saw the bright red

sheathes ; ‘My uncle has brought me some brains, I will eat them al)

myself, I will not give a taste to any one else.’ All the children

rejoiced greatly, and said ‘ These are the brains on which mother fed

us.’

“When the uncle knew that his niece was not a witch, he

almost fainted at the thought of having so nearly consented to her

death.”

Foop.

A Karen is a most omnivorous animal. Always excepting the

feline race, he eats every quadruped from a rat to an elephant; and

there is scarcely a reptile unacceptable to his palate, from a sand lizard

to a crocodile, and from a toad to a serpent. Flying ants and crawl-

ing grubs are in his bill of fare; and there is no bird too tough, no fish

22 Socral Customs &c. of the Karens. [No. 1,

too bony for his table. Dogs are not eaten by the Southern Karens,

but they are as great delicacies in the Bghai country as they are in

China.

To this great mass of animated nature, the whole vegetable king-

dom is made to serve as greens. Nearly every weed is a vegetable,

and the young shoots of the largest trees serve as spinage. They are

so careless about what they gather for greens, that one of our young

teachers poisoned himself, not long ago, by the vegetable curry he

made by the way, while travelling.

Besides game, the Karens raise hogs and fowls for home consump-

tion as well as for sale, and on festive occasions, those who are able,

purchase and kill a buffalo or ox; so they do not seem to lack for

animal food. Still, they may be often seen sitting down to rice and

vegetable curry, with perhaps a taste of dried fish, and they certainly

do not eat as much animal food as Kuropeans. They live much like

the wild beasts of the forest. When chance, or something very like

it, sends them a whole beast, they eat meat to surfeit; and then they

live on vegetables and rice, till the wheel of fortune turns round

again.

The meat is often cut into small pieces and boiled in curry; but it

is also frequently roasted or grilled. Fish is often dried, as is also the

flesh of game sometimes ; but dried so imperfectly, that it usually has q

a very bad odour.

The Karens distil from rice or millet a kind of whiskey, of which

men, women, and children often drink to intoxication. But, like their —

meat, this too they have not on hand constantly ; and they are sober —

a great part of the year, because they cannot get anything to drink to |

be intoxicated. x

In the matter of quantity, they take more food at a meal than — P|

Kuropeans ; and yet, if labouring hard, require to eat more frequently: a

I have often walked with them, up hill and down; and though I

could walk all day, from sunrise to sunset, after an early breakfast

with a couple of crackers, and water from the brook by the way; the

Karens were always knocked up by noon; and had to stop and eat a -

hearty meal, before they were able to proceed. This is true of all the |

natives in the country ; but is not quite understood by some of our

medical men. Natives are sometimes taken into the hospitals, and |

1866. ] Social Customs &c. of the Karens. 23

actually starved to death by not having food enough allowed them to

keep up their strength.

Dress.

The dress of Karen men, south of Toungoo, is a tunic, or frock, and

a wrapper ; the latter serving for a sheet to sleep in at night. Hach

one, too, usually carries a bag slung over his shoulder.

The tunics of different tribes and clans are distinguished by the

peculiar embroidery of each.* The Sgau tunic has red horizontal

parallel lines on a white ground. The Bghai tunic, on the contrary,

has the red lines perpendicular. The Pgho tunic has a broad belt of

embroidery at its base, and the Pahu tunic has a narrow band, and the

figures varied for every village, originally distinct families, so the

markings are equivalent to coats of arms.

One clan of the Bghais wear tunics, but by far the larger portion of

the tribe wear pants, and no tunic; and all the tribes beyond them, as

the Gaikho, Tarus, and Red. Karens wear pants; but each tribe or

clan has some variation in the stripes of figures worked on them, so

that, like those who wear tunics, they can be distinguished at a

glance.t

Excepting the Red Karens, all the women wear a short gown, petti-

coat, and large turban, all variously omamented. The Red Karen

women have corresponding articles of dress, but each one is merely a

rectangular piece of cloth.

_ The dresses are made of cotton, which the women usually plant,

gather, clean, spin into thread, and weave into cloth. The Northern

Bghais and Gaikhos, who raise the silkworm, adorn their dresses with

a profusion of silk embroidery.

In some of their clans, the Elder who officiates as high priest in

their offerings, or sacrifices, has a longer and more ornamented tunic

presented to him than ordinary, but nothing in their traditions has

been found to explain the reason.

To describe the different modes of ornamenting their dresses, would

require a long article by itself, and a series of drawings.

* There is one exception. The Mopghas wear the same tunic as the Tunic-

Bghais, but why, no reason is known. They speak widely different dialects.

+ There is one exception, The Northern Bghais, and the Gaikhos wear the

same pants,

24 Diseases of the Karens. | [No. 1,

Tattooing is a practice quite foreign to all the Karen tribes, except-

ing the Red Karens, who are all tattooed across the back with a figure

resembling the rays of the rising sun. They can give no account of

the origin of the custom. Karens who are brought in contact with

the Burmese and Talaings, often adopt their customs, so that Karens

are often found, especially among the Pghos, tattooed and dressed like

Burmans.

No characteristic mode of amusement has been observed. The

Karens dance, wrestle, and show their agility much like the other

nations around them.

Games of chance are not unknown to the people, but they are little

addicted to them, and never bet on them, unless they have been cor- —

rupted by the Burmese or Shans.

Every village has a good complement of old people in it, and I have

met with two men, who considered themselves a hundred years of age.

Every village has persons over sixty, seventy is not uncommon, eighty

is rare, but ninety is met occasionally.

No marked difference has been noticed between the sexes in respect

to longevity.

SICKNEsS.

Where diseases are not deemed contagious, ordinary attention is”

bestowed upon the sick by their friends and relatives; but when conta-

gious diseases appear, like the small-pox, the whole population seems —

struck by a panic, and they abandon their houses and scatter into the

jungles, where they build booths, and remain till they consider the

disease to have passed away. They deem the cholera as contagious

as small-pox, and though husbands and wives, parents and children

will unite and watch each other to the end} yet all often run away, as

soon as a person is dead, and leave him unburied. It is extremely

difficult to get people buried in times of cholera. .

The Karens attribute diseases to the influence of unseen spirits, an

hence, to cure them, they resort to making offerings to appease the

spirits that are supposed to be offended. They have twenty or thirty —

distinct names for different offerings that are made for the sick. They q

do not, however, exclude the use of medicine altogether ; and the | g

Karen Elders have a large Materia Medica, consisting of roots and

1866.) Diseases of the Karens. 25

herbs, leaves and bark, to fall back upon when the offerings do not

prove efficacious.

From satisfactory statistics the annual death rate of the Mountain

Karens has been ascertained as a little over two and a half per cent.,

or about the same asin London. The same years that these statistics

were collected, the death rate among the acclimatized European

soldiers in Toungoo, was only one per cent. The difference should be

attributed, it is believed, to difference in constitution, difference in

habits, and difference in treatment of the sick; and not to locality.

The Karen Mountains appear as healthy as the Scotch Mountains, or

the Mountains of Pennsylvania. That something does affect the death

rate besides the locality, is manifest from the deaths in the Toungoo

jail. The very years that one man only in a hundred was dying in

Cantonments, from eight to seventeen in a hundred were dying in the

jail. :

Karens lack vigour of constitution, and therefore present a weak

resisting power to disease. They are subject to intermittent fevers

throughout life. I have prescribed to shivering infants at the breast

and to shaking old men of threescore and ten. An European does not

escape them, but he has a strong constitution, which struggles hard,

and if it comes off victor, it is a victor for life. For the first four

years of my jungle travels, I had fever every year, but for thirty

years since, with one slight exception, I have been entirely exempt.

Bites from land leeches often result in bad sores on Karens; while

an European will sit down and pick off a dozen from his legs after

a walk, without the slightest subsequent inconvenience. In some

localities, there is a species of gad fly that bites severely, and its

bite is often followed by an ulcer on a Karen; while I have had

the backs of both my hands dotted all over with blood spots from

their bites, without suffering anything beyond the temporary incon-

venience.

The Karens are a dirty people. They never use soap, and their

skins are enamelled with dirt. When water is thrown on to them, it

rolls off their backs, like globules of quicksilver on a marble slab.

To them, bathing has a cooling, but no cleansing effect. Dirt is

death’s half brother, and is the father of a host of skin diseases to

which the Karens are subject. About half of them have the itch, and

26 Diseases of the Karens. [No. 1,

many in the form of dreadful sores. Shingles, and fish-skin, and ring-

worm are nearly as common as psora.

Many diseases, common to all nations, are much more fatal to Karens

than to Europeans. The measles are as fatal as the small-pox in

Hurope, and the hooping cough often makes sad havoc among children.

I have known more than twenty die of this disease in a small village

of some two hundred inhabitants.

Consumption kills a few, dropsy more, dysentery many, and occa-

sionally considerable numbers are reported to me as dying of fevers;

and yet I have never met with a single case of fever among the

Karens, that did not yield to medicine. Enlarged spleen is very com-

mon, and is sometimes fatal. Ulcers do not kill, but they are as com-

mon as skin diseases, and are in great variety.

There is a disease very prevalent among the Sgau tribes, in which

large ulcers appear on the,limbs. I have had patients brought to the —

towns, where they have been sent to the hospitals; and sometimes

they have been slightly benefited; but in no case has a cure been

effected by European treatment ; and I have never found a Surgeon —

who understood the nature of the disease. One said: ‘‘ It is not

leprosy ;”’ but I think it is a kind of leprosy. Another remarked on the

cases submitted to his treatment: ‘I cannot help thinking there is some-

thing venereal in it.” This the Karens uniformly deny, but I have

certainly seen cases in which both legs were masses of what appeared

to be incurable sores completely cured, by severe salivation administered — }

by a Burmese doctor; which favours the idea of the venereal character

of the disease ; but [ have seen others die under the same treatment. _

The disease is hereditary in most instances, but whenever an ulcer

appears, the Karens consider it infectious, and will not have the

patient in the same house with them. They insist on his living in a 4

separate house, as much as they would a leper. The Burmese, how- aa

ever, do not consider the disease infectious, in which they are partly |

correct. The Bghais say it is a foreign disease, and some call it “the + |

2 ) 5 66 = . a

Paku disease,” and others the “‘ Burmese disease ;” while the Burmese -

in some sections call it “the Martaban disease,” and in others “the |

Toungoo disease.”

Goitre is common on the hills in special localities. It abounds in —

one village on the granite mountains, while villages three hours’ walk

1866 | Diseases of the Karens. 27

distant are nearly eXempt, though located on the same hills, with the

same geological formation. Three or four days’ journey beyond this,

in an extensive region, where the rocks are exclusively secondary

limestone, goitre is again found in excess, while other villages, on the

same limestone range, are quite free from the disease. In neither of

these districts has any metallic mineral been: found. Still, there must

be something special in the localities where it abownds to produce it ;

but what that is, remains to be discovered. All that can be said of it

with certainty is, that it is a disease of the hills, for it is not found on

the plains ; nor did I ever meet with it on the hills in the 'Fenasserim

Provinces. The Karens attribute it to the soil, and say that the dis-

ease is caught by eating beans, pumpkins, and other vegetables raised

in the infected locality, and by drinking the water that runs through

it. Their theory has probably some foundation in fact.

Fowls and hogs that the Karens raise, are occasionally attacked by

a violent disease by which they die off as if they had the cholera ; and

buffaloes on the plains are subject to a like complaint,

Worms.

Entozoa are very abundant. The round worm, ascaris lwmbricoides,

is often vomited up by Karens, both children and adults. The com-

mon tape worm, tenia solum, is a common inhabitant of the bowels, as

are also thread worms, ascaris vermicularis.

Derara.

When an elder among the Bghais, with a large number of descend-

ants, dies, the people build a place in the hall for the deposit of the

corpse, and they hew a coffin out of the body of a tree, and hew a

eover for it, like the Chinese coffins.

The body lies in state three or four days, and during the time men

blow pipes, and the young men and maidens march round the eorpse

to the music. At night, the piping is discontinued, and singing is

substituted.

When the piping and marching is not going forward, the exercises

are diversified by weeping and mourning; or by the men knocking

pestles together, and others showing their dexterity by putting their

hands or heads in between, and withdrawing them quickly before the

missiles come together again.

28 Burial rites among the Karens. [No. 1,

and the fragments gathered are looked upon as charms to prolong life.

When about to bury the corpse, two candles made of bees-wax are

lighted, and two swords are brought. A sword and a candle is taken

by the eldest son, and a sword and a candle by the youngest ; and they

march round the bier in opposite directions three times, each time

they meet exchanging swords and candles. After completing the

circuits, one candle is placed at the foot of the coffin, and the other at

the head.

A fowl or a hog is led three times round the building in which the

body is placed, and on completing the first round, it is struck with a

strip of bamboo once; on completing the second round twice; and at

the third round it is killed. Ifa fowl, it is killed by twisting its

head off. The meat is set before the body as food.

Young people are buried in a similar manner, but with some

abridgement of the forms.

When the day of burial arrives, and the body is carried to the

grave, four bamboo splints are taken, and one is thrown towards the

west, saying : ‘‘ That is the east.”” Another is thrown to the east,

saying: ‘‘ That is the west.” A third is thrown upwards towards the

top of the tree, saying : “‘ That is the foot of the tree; ” and a fourth

is thrown downwards, saying: ‘‘ That is the top of the tree.” The

sources of the stream are then pointed to, saying: “‘ That is the mouth

of the stream ;’’ and the mouth of the stream is pointed to, saying :

‘‘That is the head of the stream.’ ‘This is done, because in Hades —

everything is upside down in relation to the things of this world.

The body is then buried, and the grave filled in without further B

Before the burial, an elder opens the hand of the dead man and

puts into a bangle or some other bit of metal, and then cuts off a few

particles with a sword, saying: ‘‘ May we live to be as old as thou

art.” Each one in the company goes through the same ceremonials,

ceremony, and when the top of the grave has been neatly smoothed _

off, a little fence of trellis work is built around it. Within this fence,

boiled rice and other food is placed for the dead.

On returning from the grave, each person provides himself with e |

three little hooks made of branches of trees, and calling his spirit to

follow him, at short intervals, as he returns, he makes a motion as if —

hooking it, and then thrusts the hook into the ground. This is done

1866. ] Karen feasts for the Dead. 29

to prevent the spirit of the living from staying behind with the spirit

of the dead.

After the funeral, the grave-digger washes his clothes, or the neg-

lect to do so renders him unfortunate. Married children may dig the

grave for a parent, but young ones are prohibited. They must hire

some one to do the work, and give him five rupees.

Feast ror THE Dean.

Like the Chinese, the Bghais make annual feasts for the dead, for

three years after a person’s death. The feast is made at the new

moon near the close of August, or the beginning of September; and

all the villagers that have lost relatives, partake in it.

Before the new moon, they prepare food, plantains, sugar-cane,

tobacco, betel nuts, betel leaves, and other articles of consumption. A

bamboo is laid across one angle of the roof of the room, and on it are

hung up new tunics, new turbans, new petticoats, beads and bangles ;

and at the appropriate time, when the spirits of the dead are supposed

to be present, having returned to visit them, they -say: ‘“‘ You have

come to me, you have returned to me, It has been raining hard, and

you must be wet. Dress yourselves, clothe yourselves with these new

garments and all the companions that are with you. Hat betel

together with all that accompany you, all your friends and associates,

and the long dead. Call them all to eat and drink.”

After dark, all the people eat bread made of boiled rice beaten in a

mortar. The bread is spread down, and the people are invited: “ All

who are hungry, eat bread here.”’

Next morning, the first day of the moon, which is deemed the

proper feast day, the previous last day of the month being regarded as

the day of preparation, all who have Kyee-zees hang them up, and

beat them. Then they kill a hog, and make thirty bottles of bamboos.

Into one bottle, they put honey, into another water, in a third whis-

key, in a fourth salt, in a fifth oil, in a sixth chillies, and into the

seventh tumeric. The other twenty-three are laid aside. Loopholes

are made to each bottle through which a string dyed yellow is tied.

After setting apart the seven bottles that have been filled, the re-

maining twenty-three are filled with food indiscriminatively. Some

with pork, some with boiled rice, some with bread, some with whis-

key, and some with betel. When these are filled, xice bread is rolled

30 Karen feasts for the Dead. [No. },

up in leaves, and the rolls piled up together ; and then a large basket

of open work is woven, into which all these bamboo bottles and the

rolls of bread are put.

When the rice and meat is cooked for the feast, after the above

arrangements have been made, the food is placed on kyee-zees, or

little bamboo stools, if they have no kyee-zees; and they have to be

very particular to spread out all the food at the same instant, lest

some of the spirits of the dead, being delayed in eating, should be left

behind by their companions.

So soon as the food is arranged on the tables, the people beat the

kyee-zees and begin to cry, which they say is calling the spirits to

come to eat. Each one calls on the particular relative, for whom he

has prepared the feast, as father, mother, sister or brother. Ifa

mother, he says; weeping : “O prince-bird mother, it is the close of

August, Oh! It is the new moon in September, Oh! You have

come to visit me, Oh! You have returned to see me, Oh! I give

you eatables, Oh! I give you drinkables, Oh! Eat with a glad

heart, Oh! Hat with a happy mind, Oh! Don’t be afraid, mother,

Oh! Do not be apprehensive, Oh!”

After the weeping exercises are over, the spirits are supposed to

have finished their repast, and then the people sit down to eat what is

left.

More food is then prepared and put into the basket with the bam-

boo bottles, that the spirits may have food to carry away with them ;

and at cock-crowing next morning all the contents of the basket,

including the bamboo bottles, are thrown out of the house on the

ground ; when the same scene of crying and calling on the spirits of

the dead is repeated, as detailed above.

They do not weep long, because it is related that in ancient times —

a woman had a daughter, whom she loved much, and after her death

she made this annual festival for her and wept long; when a prophet

reproved her, saying: “‘ That is enough. Your daughter says : ‘ My

companions have left me. They have all gone on before.” Then |

the mother said: ‘ Seize her for me,” and the prophet attempted to 4

grasp her, but he got only a single hem from her garment. Hence

the people never weep long, that the departed spirits of their friends

may not be left behind by their companions.

—

eel

1866. | Contributions to Indian Malacology. 31

Contributions to Indian Malacology, No. VI. Descriptions of new

land shells from the Nilgirt and Anamullay Hills, and other places

in the Peninsula of India.—By W. T. Buayrorp, A. &. S. I,

B. G..8.

[Received 3rd February, 1866. ]

Of the shells described in the following pages, the greater portion

were collected by Captain Beddome, Deputy Conservator of Forests,

in the Madras Presidency. This is the case with all the shells from

the Anamullay hills, and also the remarkable species of Spiraculum

from the neighbourhood of Vizagapatam. The Nilgiri Hill shells

were found by myself in a recent visit, and H. intwmescens was given

to me some years since by Mr. Theobald as AH. Bajadera, Pir.

I have since collected the shell myself living at Mahableshwar.

1. Sprracutum Beppomet, n. s.

Shell very broadly umbilicated, depressed, sub-discoidal, smooth, (?)

solid, white with transverse chesnut zigzag stripes. Spire flat or sub-

convex, suture deep. Whorls 5, rounded, the last cylindrical, de-

scending gradually towards the aperture, and furnished, 7-10 milleme-

tres behind the peristome, with a short open sutural tube, projecting

forwards and upwards, not touching the penultimate whorl. Aperture

diagonal, circular, peristome double, both lips continuous, the inner

slightly expanded, curved back into a shallow angular sinus at the

suture, the outer expanded, and inverted upon the upper and dextral

margins, rising near the suture into a compressed wing, which is at-

tached throughout on the left side to the penultimate whorl. Opercu-

lum horny, concave within, convex without, flattened near the centre,

2 or 3 outer whorls furnished with a free spiral testaceous lamelliform

border.

Millem. Inches.

Major diameter, ............ bani 27 1.12

PRIROTOUUUG, nececds vqaccdtcescass, 20 92

PEM rel cee anintsiaeses ~ LO A

Interior diameter of aperture,.. 8 O2

Habitat. Kimery Hills near Waltair (Vizagapatam), northern divi-

sion of the Madras Presidency.

32 Contributions to Indian Malacology. [No.3

This species is of about the same size as Sp. hispidum, Pearson,

which it closely -resembles in many particulars, though differing in

several essential characters. Of these perhaps the most remarkable is

the forward direction of the sutural tube, which, in all the previously

described species of Spzraculum (even if the Moulmein Opisthoporus

Fordont, Bens. be included), is retroverted. In several forms of Opis-

thoporus, however, the spiracle projects forward, as in the present

species. ‘The wing of Sp. Beddome: is much more distinct, higher

and more pterocycloid than that of Sp. hispidum ; the inner peristome,

(which is deficient in the last named species), is angularly sinuate

beneath the wing, but there is no approach to the deep sub-circular

opening of the Indian species of Pterocyclos. All the specimens pro-

cured by Captain Beddome were dead and weathered, and had lost

their epidermis, but the traces which remained, shewed no approach

to the hispidity from which the Khasi hill shell derives its name.

The operculum has even more resemblance to that of Pterocyclos

tenuilabiatus, Metcalfe, than has that of Sp. hispidum.

This is the first discovery in the peninsula of India of a species of

Spiraculum, that genus having hitherto only been met with to the

east of the Bay of Bengal, in Assam and Burmah, while the sub-

generic form Opzisthoporus occurs in the Malay countries and Borneo,

In a country like India, which intervenes between two great zoologi-

cal provinces, the Malayan, and the Africano- Asiatic, such exception-

al occurrences are natural, and instances are known not merely of out-

lying species, but of genera, such as Cataulus and Cyclotopsts, peculiar

to the Indian peninsula or to Ceylon, though belonging to Malayan or

African families. The presence of a Spzraculwm on the eastern coast

of India, is a parallel case to the existence of Otopoma Hinduorum, —

W. Blanf. in Hattiwar. It should also be noted that the discovery of —

specimens of the two Burmese helices, H. Castra, Bens. and H. lewi-

cula, Bens., on the hills of Orissa, shews that some few Burmese

species even have extended their range down the western side of the —

Bay of Bengal.

2. Nanina (ARIOPHANTA) INTUMESCENS, 0. 8.

Shell sinistrorse, narrowly and sub-obtectly umbilicated, globose,

thin, finely, subplicately, transversely striated with obsolete decussating

1866. ] Contributions to Indian Malacology. 33

sculpture, dull fulvous brown, horny, rather lighter in colour just

above the periphery and around the umbilicus... Spire convexly

conoid, apex very obtuse, suture scarcely impressed. Whorls 43,

slightly convex ; the last bluntly carinate, descending very little near

the aperture, tumid beneath, compressed around the umbilicus. Aper-

ture large, diagonal, truncately sub-circular; peristome white, sub-

expanded, margins approaching each other, columellar margin nearly

vertical, rather broadly reflexed, partly covering the umbilicus.

Millem. Inches.

PavOr CIAMGLCL,- 50.2. .ccccccetsses 32 1.3

Mumor ditto,......... Aestere gang he 26 1.05

le epee enate 22 0.9

Habitat. Mahableshwar. Western Ghats of Hindustan.

This fine species of Arzophanta has long been confounded with

Nanina Bajadera, Pir. which is, however, although a_ variable

shell, easily distinguished. N. Bajadera is more globose and thicker,

being at the same time more transparent, it has much stronger sculp-

ture (and deeper sutures) and is always rounded at the periphery near

the mouth, and frequently throughout, while in N. cntumescens, the

blunt angulation is persistent. N. Bajadera too has a fine vitreous

lustre, while cintwmescens is dull, and the former shell is usually of a

greenish olive colour, though varying in this character and sometimes

resembling the latter. The animals also shew a difference in colour,

that of N. intwmescens is uniformly, so far as I have seen, dark cine-

rous, while that of Bajadera is much lighter, but very variable. The

latter shell is found mostly on shrubs, the former on the ground, and

while zntwmescens has as yet only been found at Mahableshwur, 4,500

feet above the sea, Bajadera (which is rare at Mahableshwur) abounds

on the equally or nearly equally high hills of Singhur and Poorundhur,

and along the summit of the Western Ghats at about 2,000 feet. It

abounds at Khandalla at the top of the Bhore Ghat.

Ihave already mentioned, in a previous paper, (An. Mag. Nat. Hist.

for February, 1863) that an examination of the type specimens of

N. Bajadera, Pir. and N. ammonia, Valenciennes, has shewed these

two supposed species to be identical. I long doubted the distinct-

ness of the species now described from N, Bajadera, but although

34 Contributions to Indian Malacology. [No. 1,

I have specimens of the latter from many different places, they are all

easily distinguished from NV. intumescens.

3. N. (Hemzplecta?) Stsparica, n. s.

Shell openly perforated, subumbilicated, depressed, rather thin,

striated, white with a yellowish brown epidermis, having a rather dull

oily lustre. Spire convex, apex obtuse, suture flat, linear, submargi-

nate. Whorls 4, very flatly convex above, apical whorl marked with

very fine decussated plicate striation, the last not descending distinctly,

but bluntly angulate above the periphery, convex beneath. Aperture

oblique, semiovally lunate, white and pearly within, the breadth ex-

eeeding the height, peristome thin, margins distant, united by a thin

callus, columellar margin very oblique, and triangularly reflexed close

to the perforation.

Millem. Inches.

Major diameter, Wilt. seen 37 1.5

var dito: 7 ee a 31 1.3

Se has eC er ee cs Fae aes 18 15

Habitat. Sispara ghat, Nilgiri hills, 8. India, rare.

I know of no near Indian ally of this species. N. Orobia, Benson,

from Darjeeling, which approaches it in some respects, is more globose

and more solid, and has impressed sutures. The Ceylonese NV. Chenu,

however, closely resembles the species above described in form, though

it is easily distinguished by its peculiar impressed sculpture. I ob-

tained but two specimens, one of which was living, near the top of

Sispara ghat. It is remarkable that so fine a shell should have escap-

ed detection before.

The animal differs in no essential character from those of the sinis-

trorse Ariophanta section. It has a large mucus pore at the end of

the foot without any lobe above, the mantle is of moderate size, the

head and neck granulated, the caudal portion of the body marked by | ¢

oblique parallel, impressed wrinkles, and broadly margined near the

sole with a double, impressed line.

4, N. (Macrochlamys ?) Husescens, n. s.

Shell scarcely perforate, inwardly depressed, yellowish or fulvous,

thin, horny, dull, marked with very close microscopic impressed

1866.} Contributions to Fndian Malacology. 35

oblique lines above, more polished and radiately striated below. Spire

low, apex rather acute, prominent, sub-acuminate, suture deep.

Whorls 54, rounded, the first narrow, the last much. broader, very

bluntly sub-angulate at the periphery, and tumid beneath. Mouth

large, nearly vertical, lunately sub-ovate, breadth exceeding the

height ; peristome thin, straight, margins sub-distant, united by a very

thin callus, columellar-margin nearly vertical. above, very briefly. and

broadly reflexed, nearly covering the perforation. \

Millem. Inches.

Major diameter, ....... aaa As te 0.6

DNs set Gi Hd i cciags enw sins bmn ntash) LO 0.5

a 84 0.33

Habitat. Anamullay hills. S. India.

This species resembles the Bengal N. subgesta, Bs., and the Cey-

lonese N. carneola, Pir. (as figured by Reeve) in form, but has

a duller lustre and deeper sutures, resembling in the latter character

some of the Ceylon Nanine of the same section.. The microscopic

sculpture is peculiar, the impressed lines being very close, but some-

what irregular and wavy. They cause the dull appearance of the

surface. An ordinary lens is insufficient to shew them: under a

microscope with a 14 in. objective they are very. distinct.

5. N. (Macrochiamys ?) Lixa, n. si

Shell obtectly perforate, rather depressly turbinate, very thin, ful-

vous, horny, dull, obliquely striated and marked with very fine and

close impressed lines, also oblique, only visible under the microscope,

polished beneath. Spire conical, apex acute, suture impressed.

Whorls 53, convex, gradually increasing, the last much broader, obso-

letely sub-angulate at the periphery, tumid beneath. Aperture nearly

vertical, roundly lunate, breadth very little exceeding the height.

Peristome thin, straight, margins sub-distant, columella nearly vertical

and very briefly reflexed above, almost concealing the perforation.

Millem. Inches.

Major diameter, ......000.0....... 134 0.54

MiMondithe, «aigelenAudesoaen! 12 0.48

BEMIS: (0. sce ul dite Sodanite roi OR 0.38

Habitat. Anamullay hills. HH. side.

36 Contributions to Indian Malacology. [No. 1,

This is a shell with a similar dull greasy lustre to the last and

owing it to the same cause, viz, microscopic sculpture. It is a well

marked species. Very possibly, however, intermediate varieties may

be found connecting it with N. hebescens.

6. N. (Macrochlamys) Inrausta, n. 8.

Shell openly perforated, convexly depressed, very thin, fulvous

horny, obliquely finely striated, spire convex, apex distinct, suture

scarcely impressed. Whorls 6, flattish above, gradually and regularly

increasing, the last not descending, depressed, swollen beneath, obso-

letely sub-angulate above the periphery. Aperture oblique, lunate,

breadth exceeding the height ; peristome thin, margins distant, united

by a very thin callus, columellar margin vertical above, briefly and

triangularly reflexed.

Millem. Inches.

Major diameter... ene 23 0.92

Rhinor ditto 2h ache 20 0.8

ABE). 5k. ie La 0.5

Habitat. Anamullay hills, S. India.

Three specimens of this species occur amongst Captain Beddome’s

Anamullay collections. The above dimensions are those of the largest

and most perfect specimen. In both of the smaller specimens which

measure respectively in their major and minor diameters and axis 193, 3

18, 10, and 17, 15, 9 millemetres, there is more or less descent of the —

last whorl at the aperture, but both specimens have a stunted appear-

ance, and irregular descent of the last whorl is very common in abnor- _

mal individuals of all forms of Helzx.

This species has no very marked character. It is very near N. wi-

trinoides, Desh., but may be recognised by its smaller and rounder —

mouth, narrower last whorl and more convex form. In shape it re-

sembles H. monticola, Hutton.

7. VITRINA AURIFORMIS, 0. 8.

Shell very depressed, irregularly ovate, ear-shaped, very thin, striat-_

ed, polished, with a membranaceous epidermis, greenish or brownish

yellow in colour, paler at the nucleus. Spire flat, suture slightly

impressed. Whorls 13. Aperture oval, occupying the whole under

1866. ] Contributions to Indian Malacology. 37

part of the shell, and exposing the interior to the apex ; peristome

membranaceous.

Millem. Inches.

REED LS AOI S APs. cod edee cadence 13 0.52

Breadth, ......:.. sdctar at eens os OF 8 0.32

Height, ...... Pere ee 24 0.1

Habitat. Sispara ghat, Nilgiri hills, Southern India.

_ This species is very near V. gigas, Bens. and still more closely allied

to V. Peguensis, Theobald, being, however, a more depressed species

than either, and more open. It is also less solid than the last named

species. I have not met with the animal, avhich may possibly differ

from those of other Vitrine.

If the animal resemble those of V. gigas and V. Peguensis, the oc-

eurrence of this mollusk on the western flank of the Nilgiri Hills:

' will be one of the most anomalous with which I am acquainted

amongst the land-shells of India, since I know of no other instance of

a Malayan type, unrepresented on the Himalayas, of which species

occur on the hills of Southern India. A small auriform shell such as

this may, however, have been easily overlooked, and the Himalayan

Molluscan fauna is, probably, far from thoroughly known.*

The animal of V. Peguensis has been partly described by Mr. Theo-

bald who, however, has unfortunately not mentioned the form of the

mantle, the presence or absence of lobes covering the shell, nor the

existence of a caudal gland, unless by the expression ‘‘ caudali papilla

nulla” is intended to imply its absence ; more probably Mr. Theobald’s

| meaning is that the overhanging lobe, so conspicuous in some forms of

Nanina is absent, the gland existing, as in Ariophanta &c.

This Vitrina is not the only south Nilgiri species. A larger mem-

branaceous form also occurs, which requires comparison with Mr.

Benson’s V. membranacea from Ceylon.

8. AcHatina ANAMULLICA, N. 5.

Shell turrito-ovate, thin, finely striated, horny with high vitreous

lustre. Spire turrited, sides convex, apex obtuse, suture impressed.

__ * Mr, Theobald (J. A. S. B. XXXIII. p. 244,) includes V. gigas in his list of

Himalayan shells, but the species is found on the Khasi hills, the fauna of which

differs widely from that of the Himalayas.

38 Contributions to Indian Malacology. [No. I,

Whorls 8, scarcely convex, the last rounded beneath. Aperture

oblique, peristome thin, columella moderately arcuate, obliquely trun-

cated below.

Millem. Inches.

eneth; > gs. ieaeeeee Meee veer ents 27 kA

Diainébercor eer need Wet 12 0.48

Aperture 10 millemetres high, 64 broad. Habitat. Anamullay Hills.

Intermediate in its characters between A. Nilagarica, Bens., and

the oblong ovate, Achatina of Ceylon.

Captain Beddome’s Anamullay collections comprise the following

species in addition to those above described :-—

Nanina vitrinoides, Desh. var.

N. Shiplayi, Pfr.

N. Indica, Pfr. var.

N. Travancorica ? Bens.

N. Basilens, Bens.

N. ampulla, Bens.

N. auris ? Pfr.

Bulimus Nilagaricus, Pfr. var.

B. physalis, Bens.

B. sp. near B. trifasciatus, Rv., one imperfect specimen.

Cyclophorus Jerdoni, Bens.

C. deplanatus, Pir. 1

C. sp. near C. ravidus, Bens. (or possibly an immature Aulopoma.) —

C. sp. (apparently near C. Shiplayi, Pir., but finely costulated, |

possibly the young of an Alycceus. )

Pterocyclos nanus, Bens.

Pt. rupestris, ?! Bens.

Paludomus, sp.

Neritina Perrotettiana, Recleiz. 7

To which there only remains to be added Cataulus recurvatus, Pir., 4 |

to complete the list of known shells from the Anamullays. I add a a

few remarks upon the species above quoted. =

But one specimen occurs of the shell which I am acid to con-— =

sider a variety of Nanina vitrinoides. It is small, measuring only 183 4

millemetres by 16 in its two diameters, and 83 in height. It is de- %

pressed in form, and of a greenish tinge, but appears to differ in no

1866. ] Contributions to Indian Malacology. 39

essential particular from the Bengal variety. The species has not

before, so far as I am aware, been found in Southern India. N. Ship- |

lay, Pir. inhabits the eastern base of both the Anamullays and the

Nilgiris ; on the latter hills I have found it at the foot of the Coonoor

ghat. The animal is a Nanina, closely resembling N. indica, Pir. and

NV. acuducta, Bens., having a large mucus pore at the caudal extremity

of the foot without an overhanging lobe, or with but a very rudimen-

tary one. The mantle lobes are small, and the animal in all respects

closely resembles that of the sub-genus Ariophanta. A solitary speci-

men of NV. indica from the Anamullays is very solid and rather strong-

ly marked, the sculpture being less regular than in the common

Nilgiri form, and scarcely granulate, the last peculiarity being perhaps

due to weathering, as the specimen is decorticate and somewhat

bleached. It is a dwarf form, less depressed than the type, and mea-

sures 17 and 15 millem. in its two diameters, and 10 in height. The —

shells found on the Nilgiris vary considerably.

N. Basilens, Bens. (H. Titanica, Pir.), I learn from Captain Bed-

dome, is far from scarce in the teak forests of the Anamullays, a tract

2,000 to 3,000 ft. above the sea, where N. ampulla, Bens. also occurs.

_ The range of the latter shell extends a considerable distance to the

north in the Wynand district, where it was found by Dr. Jerdon, if

not to the base of the Coorg hills, while N. Baszlens does not appear

to be found north of the remarkable gap in the Western Ghats at

Paulghat cherry, which, traversing the very highest portion of the

whole chain, divides the Nilgiris from the Anamullies, and through

which the railway from Madras to Beypoor passes. Both VN. ampulla

and N. Basilens have only been found west of the Hills.

I have not had an opportunity of comparing the shell referred

doubtfully to Mr. Benson’s recently published N. Yravancorica with

the full description, and the identification is therefore unsatisfactory.

The shell referred to N. awris, Pir. is identical with a species found at

Neddiwuttom on the Nilgiris, and corresponding closely with Reeve’s

figure of that N. auris in Conchologica Iconica.

The little shell which I have called Bulimus Nilagaricus, I was at

first disposed to consider a distinct species. It is only 14 millem. in

length, and base by 6 in diameter. But some specimens from the

Nilgiris are no larger, and there are graduations in size from these to

40 Contributions to Indian Malacology. [No 1.

the typical shells. The solitary specimen of B. physalis has only

traces of spiral sculpture, but it appears to agree in every other respect

with Mr. Benson’s description.

A dwarf form ef Cyclophorus Jerdont, only 29 millem. in diameter

and 19 high, and 2 species of Pterocyclos, one of them unquestionably

identical with Pt. nanus, Bens., are also comprised in Captain Bed-

dome’s collections. The second species of Pterocyclos of which a

single weathered specimen was found, shews no essential distinction

from the Bengal Pt. rupestris, Bens., but it appears improbable that

that form should really exist so far to the south.

Cyclophorus deplanatus, Pfr. some decorticated specimens of which

were amongst the Anamullay shells, occurs abundantly on Sispara

ghat, at the western extremity of the Nilgiri plateau. A small shell

in Captain Beddome’s collections, with more colouring than C. ravi-

dus, Bens., and ornamented with zigzag transverse stripes, may possi- —

bly be a young specimen of that species, but its thin and continuous

peristome recalls that of some forms of Aulopoma, and the possibility

of its belonging to that genus is strengthened by the deficiency of the

epidermis close to the peristome. As the Anamullays have already

furnished a Cataulus, the occurrence of a species of Aulopoma is by no

means improbable. .

The Paludomus is perhaps a variety of the species common near

Bombay. The little Neritina Perrotettiana was previously unknown

except in the Pykara river on the Nilgiris.

We have evidently, as yet, only an instalment of the molluscan

fauna of the Anamullays. None of the shells above specified are from.

the higher ranges. So far as they have been collected, there is, as

might have been anticipated, a general identity with Nilgiri shells,

but at the same time a somewhat closer approximation to the Cinga-

lese fauna. 7

P. S.—The above paper was written six months ago, and would

have been sent for publication in the Society’s Journal at once, but

that I hoped to be able to procure drawings of the shells for the pur-

pose of illustrating it. In this, I have again been disappointed, and I

am compelled a forward the pes: of the shells by thenivolyaam .

A) omy

several additional shells me the sahil hills collected by him 7

a ellen EE PLL OF Fe

1866. ] Contributions to Indian Malacology. 41

during the past year. Besides several new species, the collection com-

prises Helix Anax, Bens., and a fine large Nanina resembling N. Cy-

sis, Bens. but dextrorse, and which is very possibly a large variety of

Mr. Benson’s H. Basilessa. It occurred at a height of 7,000 feet

above the sea. I append descriptions of 3 of the new species sent.

9, AcHatina Buppomet, n. s.

Shell turrito-ovate, solid, finely and closely sub-costulately striated,

dark purplish brown, epidermis in parts having a tendency to assume

a dirty cream colour, especially in dead specimens. Spire convex

below, slighly acuminate above, apex obtuse, rather inclined to the

right, suture impressed. Whorls 74-8 convex, the last 2 of the entire

length, rounded at the base. Aperture nearly vertical, sub-pyriform,

milky within; peristome thickened, white, outer margin rather

straight, not arcuate, columella deeply curved, lined with callus, sub-

obliquely and rather broadly truncated at the base.

Millem. Inches.

ESS dhe ee 30 Lo

i oe ae tu ee oS A5

Aperture 10 millem. long, 6 broad.

Habitat. Anamullay Hills, 5,000 to 7,000 feet (Beddome.)

This is a more solid form than any of the Nilgiri species, and it

differs from all of them, and also from the solid Ceylonese forms, in its

sub-acuminate apex. It is a well marked species.

10. ACHATINA TEXTILIS, n. s.

Shell ovate-oblong, rather solid, translucent, striated near the

suture, smooth, polished, dark chesnut with close vertical and horizon-

tal lines of a greyish yellow colour, varying in breadth and resembling

the threads of an irregularly woven cloth. Spire elongated, conoidal

with convex sides, apex obtuse, sutures impressed. Whorls 7, convex,

_ the last about 2 of the entire length, rounded beneath. Aperture ver-

tical, truncately semioval, milky within ; peristome slightly thickened,

white, right margin slightly sinuate toward the base, columella deeply

curved, obliquely truncated beneath, margins united by a thin callus.

- 42 Contributions to Indian Malacology. [No. f,

Millem. Inches.

Length23% Lyte PRC 26 1.05

Diameter; (sigs ade 2: Lee ore 0.52

Aperture 104 millem. long, 7 broad.

Habitat. Anamullay Hills, 6,000 feet, (Beddome.)

This is the only indigenous Indian Achatina with which I am ac-

quainted, possessing coloured markings. In form it approaches some

of the Ceylon Achatine, and also an undescribed Deccan species.

11. Buuimvs trurra, n. s.

Shell perforated, conically ovate, thin, finely striated, light yellowish,

with two spiral rows of sub-distant chesnut spots, sub-quadrate in

form, on all the whorls, and two spiral chesnut stripes, the lower

sometimes very faint, upon the last whorl below the periphery. Spire

conical, apex acute, sutures impressed. Whorls 53, convex. Aper-

ture nearly oval, slightly oblique. Peristome thin, margins united by

a thin callus, columellar margin vertical, narrowly reflexed, the reflexed

portion meeting the penultimate whorl at an angle.

| Millem. Inches.

Lengthy: .::.22%: Pare eee » ae 335)

Dianienet, (25. <0 oe ds weston nace 89

Aperture 7 millem. long, 43 broad.

Habitat. Anamullay Hills, (Beddome.)

There is some doubt whether the shells above described be adult.

They have a somewhat immature appearance, but all the specimens

sent, four in number, are of precisely the same size, and the thin

peristome is characteristic of the group of Bulimus Bengalensis, to

which the present species belongs. From that species and its allies, it

s easily distinguished by its short conical form. |

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46 On the Schlagintweits’ [No. 1,

Observations on the Astronomical points determined by the brothers

3 Schlagintweit in Central Asia.*—By Captain GOLUBIER.

From the Journal of the Imperial Russian Geographical Society. Part 4th, 1861,

[Received 11th January, 1866. |

During the current year, the first volume of the Narrative of the

Scientific Expedition of the brothers Schlagintweit to India and High-

Asia, extending over a period of four years, from 1854 to 1858, has

made its appearance. This remarkable production is all the more

valuable, inasmuch as it will not only embrace the results of the ex-

plorations of the brothers Schlagintweit, but likewise those of many

learned travellers who were their predecessors in this field of inquiry.

The first volume contains a collected series of astronomical and mag-

netic determinations. The number of the points for which geographi-

cal co-ordinates are given is 112, but the degree of their exactness

differs considerably. Many of the points for which co-ordinates are

given were obtained from Indian triangulations ; but many others were

determined from march-routes alone. The determinations which are

less exact, belong naturally to the northern portion of the journey, to

Tibet and Turkestan. The corrections which it would be necessary

to make in the existing maps, in consequence of the Schlagintweits’

determinations, would be very considerable, particularly in longitudes.

Thus, for instance, Lé, in Ladak, is alleged to lie 44’ more to the West

than was originally supposed, and altogether the whole of western

Tibet would have to be removed about 20° to the westward. The

changes in the latitudes are less extensive, the highest do not exceed

10’, as in the case of Balti. The Karakoram pass, the highest point

attained by Europeans who had preceded the Schlagintweits, lies more

northwards by 11’, and the same distance farther to the West than

marked on any previous map.

* This paper was read at a general meeting of both sections of the Russian

Geographical Society. The president of the section of physical geography, M.

Seménof, who had only just returned from abroad, took occasion to express his

own doubts as to the correctness of some of the determinations and conclusions

of the brothers Schlagintweit. He communicated to the members present that

these results, which bear evident traces of haste, are regarded with equal doubt

by the learned in Germany. The extensive range of the labours, the multipli-

city of the collections and observations which devolved on the celebrated tra-

vellers, produced the confusion and irregularity apparent in their observations

and collections,

1866.] Astronomical points of Central Asia. 47

The weight which is to be attached to these corrections, must de-

pend on the degree of exactness which regulates the scientific labours

of the brothers Schlagintweit ; but unfortunately, in the volume that

has been issued, this consideration is not dwelt on, that is to say, the

probability of errors in the determinations is nowhere alluded to. The

determinations themselves are not particularised minutely enough, to

enable us to estimate their value.

In order to judge of the correctness of these labours, we bring for-

ward some examples. Thus, in the determinations of Lé in Ladak,

the error which should be expected in the latitude would amount to

30’*. The longitude of Lé was determined by the transfer of one

chronometer which was rated at Simla on the 15th May, at Lé on the

17th September, at Srinagar the 24th October; the longitudes of

Simla and Srinagar are known. ‘The rate of the chronometer should

have been deduced from the longest transfer occupying 162 days, from

which, in the main result, a considerable error was to be expected}

amounting to no less than 7’.5. Further an error has crept into the

calculations of the brothers Schlagintweit which, when corrected, will

alter their result by 8’ (instead of 77° 14’ 6” it should be 77° 22’ 5”

east of Greenwich). The correction of the chronometer was determined

on the Karakoram pass on the 9th of August; by its action from

Simla (15th May) to Srinagar (24th October) the longitude of the

pass was determined at 77° 30’ 4". But corrections of the chrono-

meter at Lé were also obtained on the 11th July and 17th Septem-

ber, according to which the determinations of the Karakoram pass is

found to be 77° 39’ 5” or, otherwise, differing by 9’.

* The latitude of Lé was determined twice by polar heights.

Mieniiy ste, of ct eee Ll eae Ms

Hote Septembers., .ilway.c wise dese sess ab) | 92

Meath WON scredste se sel 84 8%3

According to Cunningham, .......... 34° 9’1

” Moereratig: pi aads cess tok | joo

+ The chronometer was rated in the Observatory of Calcutta in March,

- 1855 and April, 1857 (pp. 98 and 102). From this it must appear, that the

probable 24 hourly disturbance of the chronometer on the spot would not be

less than +s. In the longitude of Lé, also, one can suspect an error of at

+s. 125.37

162

Lé to Srinagar 37 days; whole duration of the journey 162 days,

least = 29s. From Simla to Lé is a journey of 125 days, from

48 On the Schlagintwerts’ [No. 1,

But the Schlagintweits express their doubts as to the correctness of

the determination of time at Lé on the 11th July, and, therefore, do

not take it into account. Nevertheless, an error of no less than 10'

must, in all probability, be suspected in the longitude of the Karako-

ram pass as well as in the longitude of Lé. It remains, consequently,

open to doubt, which longitude is to be accepted, that given by the

Schlagintweits, or that previously adopted by Humboldt, which

Thompson, who visited this pass in 1848, found to be quite accurate.

Up to this point, the corrections are less than $°, and applied to the

map attached to the description of their journey, they excite curiosi-

ty, but not surprise ; but the upper portion of the map representing

Central Asia puzzles every one, by its marked difference to every

thing that has hitherto been known of these countries. It is sufficient

to say that the position of the three bases of the cartography of this

part of Asia, namely the towns of Khotan, Yarkand and Kashgar,

disagrees with those hitherto generally accepted, by nearly 180 versts,

for all the three points nearly equally lie 10’ in latitude, and 130’ in

longitude, more southward and westward, according to the dictum of

the Schlagintweits.

At the same time, the determinations of little Bokhara, which

belong to the Jesuits, cannot call forth strong doubts ; on the contrary,

there is strong reason for believing, that if these determinations are

not altogether correct, they are but very slightly incorrect. In Djun- ~

garia, there are several points determined by the Jesuits, and some sub- —

sequently by me in 1859. From a comparison of these determina- —

tions, it becomes evident that the latitudes given by the Jesuits are —

correct to a minute. But the astronomical observations in Djungaria 3 |

were, in all probability, not made by the Jesuits themselves, but by :

Chinese whom they had instructed. It must therefore be supposed,

that the points in little Bokhara, where the Jesuit fathers worked —

themselves, are equally correct. As regards the longitudes, it is well *|

known that the existing itineraries coincide perfectly well with the x

determinations of the Jesuits, though it must be acknowledged that — |

the marche-routes having almost a meridional direction, cannot point |

out any appreciable error in the longitudes. Generally speaking, the :

better acquainted we become with Chinese Turkestan, the more con- i |

vinced we are of the accuracy of the determinations of the Jesuits.

1866. ] Astronomical points of Central Asia. — 49

In support of this, we shall here bring forward the following example.

There are two routes, besides others, across the Tian Shan leading’ to

little Bokhara; one from Kuldja to Aksu, the other from the south-

ern shore of Lake Issyk-kul by way of the Fatki pass; to Ush.

Until the astronomical labours of 1859, both these routes presented

on the map considerable angles with the axis of the mountain range;

the first one of nearly 45°, and the other that of 30°, but according

to the astronomical results obtained in 1859, it was found that the

inclination of routes from Kuldja to Aksu, to the axis of the range,

did not exceed 30°, while the route to Ush intersects the ridge in a

direct line, and runs north and south. It appears strange then after

this, if, seeing the great inclination of the transverse routes to the axis

of the mountains, that Issyk-kul, with the neighbouring countries on

the northern side of the Tian Shan, had not been before removed to

the west, as was done subsequently in consequence of the astronomical

determinations; or that all the series of points in Little Bokhara were

not removed to the east, and in every case not to-tle west. Facts

like-these, speak in favour of the positions of Ush and Asku, and other

towns of Little Bokhara determined by the Jesuits ; and it must be

observed, that up to the present time no one has had the same means,

as possessed by them, of determining the relative positions of these

towns. The last point that the Schlagintweits determined instru-

mentally, is Suget, a halting place for caravans, proceeding from

Ladak to Yarkand. This route is marked on a very rare map, which

is a direct copy of an original one compiled by the Jesuits and trans-

lated by Klaproth ; a point on this road under the same latitude with

Suget, as determined by the Schlagintweits, has nearly one and the same

longitude. Beyond Suget, all the other points on the Kuen-lun and

in Turkestan, are determined by the marche-routes ; the most northern

of these and nearest to Khotan, which the two brothers Herman and

Robert succeeded in reaching, is the village of Bashia. This point is

also given on the map of the Jesuits, its position being fixed by

marche-routes, not by direct determination. The difference in the

positions of Bashia, as given by the Jesuits and the brothers Schla-

gintweit, amounts to 6’ in latitude, and 47’ in longitude. How is it

then possible, after this, to accept the position of Khotan, and with it

that of the other towns of Turkestan, as given by the Schlagintweits,

| 7

50 On the Schlagintweits’ Astronomical pornts. [No. 1,

differing as it does by 130’ in longitude from the astronomical deter-

minations of the Jesuits, when neither Herman nor Robert visited

Khotan, while the papers of Adolph perished with him in Kashgar ?

But how are we to regard the more recent labours in the country

adjoining Little Bokhara, which cannot be reconciled to the points of

the Schlagintweits ?

Thus Sarry-Kul, the source of the Amu, which was determined by —

Wood, the Schlagintweits could not place on their map, according to

the determination of Wood, but were obliged to remove it nearly 2°

to the westward.

Issyk-kul is also marked on the map 2° more to the west than it

should be, according to the last Russian astronomical determinations

in 1859. And if this Lake be marked in its true position on the

map of the Schlagintweits, Sarry-kul would then fall back on Yarkand,

and the western extremity of Issyk-kul will appear above Asku,

which, of course, would be impossible.

Petermann, in his notice of the labours and researches of the Schla-

gintweits, is of opinion that a review of their determinations in Little

Bokhara is premature, more especially as the marche-routes by which

they were guided, are not yet published. But the astronomical re-

sults of 1859, which so distinctly contradict the determinations of the —

Schlagintweits, belong to the Russian Geographical Society, and this —

is our excuse for expressing our doubts of the correctness of a certain _

portion of the results of the brothers Schlagintweit, before receiving —

the data on which they are based. |

TTT

1866 ] Tubleau of High Asia. 51

Comparative, hypsometrical and physical Tableaw of High Asia, the

Andes, and the Alps.—By Rosert pe ScuwuaGintweit, Professor

at the University of Giessen.

Contents—I. Geographical configurations. 1. Plateaux. 2. Passes

3. Peaks.

II. Hydrography. 1. lakes. 2. Springs.

III. Physical phenomena. 1. Snow-fall. 2. Snow-line.

3. Glaciers.

IV. The varieties of habitation. 1. Towns and villages.

2. Pasture grounds.

V. Extreme heights visited by man. 1. Mountain-ascents.

2. Balloon-ascents. 3. Effect of height.

VI. Limits of vegetation and animal life.

~ Remarks.—1. Drawings.of many of the objects (plateaus, peaks,

towns, &c.) mentioned in this Tableau, as well’as panoramic pro-

files and maps, are contained in the Atlas to the “ Results of a

scientific mission to India and High Asia,” by Hermann, Adol-

phe, and Robert de Schlagintweit.

2. The heights, given in English feet, are absolute, referring

to mean sea-level.

Transeription.—V owels and diphthongs sound as in Italian and Ger-

fan: & —u in bat +” 4 = an in the French “ gant +” a’ — ‘il

in German.— Consonants as in English. The sign ‘ marks the

syllable to be accentuated.

The materials, upon which this comparative tableau is based, are :

For High Asia, viz—The Himalaya, Western Tibet, the Karakorim

and Kiinliin, our own travels and observations, combined with the

valuable data of the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India, and

with those of our predecessors.

For the Andes.—The celebrated ‘‘ Voyages aux régions équinoctiales,”’

by Alexander de Humboldt, which possess to this day the high-

est value and importance ; in his recent publications,* the newest

contributions of science have been added with a master’s hand.

* Kosmos.—Ansichten der Natur, 3rd edition.—Kleinere Schriften,—I always

quote the original, German edition.

52 Tableau of High Asia. | {No. 1,

For the Alps.—The two volumes “ Untersuchungen iiber die physi-

calische Geographie und die Geologie der Alpen,” published by

my brothers Adolphe and Hermann.

I. GkoGRAPHICAL CONFIGURATIONS.

1. Plateaua.

Plateaus, in consequence of their being more or less intersected by

deep and broad valleys, or from being covered with ridges, are so

variable in their form, that the use of the name, in many instances,

appears to be somewhat arbitrary. I prefer not to extend the meaning

of the name too far, and in so doing diverge from the practice of

earlier travellers, who commonly applied the term to every mountain-

ous region of great general elevations—as the natives of the Himalaya

have a tendency to do—irrespective of its form.

In the Himdlaya, which is composed in almost every direction of

lofty and irregular ridges, and intersected by numerous valleys of

inconsiderable width, no plateau ef any extent has been discovered as

yet, nor is it at all probable that one exists.

Western Tibet was for a long time supposed to be little else than a

country of plateaux—an erroneous impression emanating from the first

observers, though Humboldt had early pointed out the error of this

belief,* as well as later travellers (the Stracheys, Cunningham, and —

Thomson). Plateaux certainly do occur in Tibet ; they are, however,

much less numerous and considerably smaller than I had been led to

expect. In Balti, the plateau Deosai is 14,200 ft. high.

Between the Karakorim and Kiinliin, especially near the western

crest of the former, several well-defined plateaux of extraordinary height —

occur. Some of the highest are called: Dapsang (17,500 ft.), Billu

(16,883 ft.), Aksée Chin (16,620 ft.), and Vohab (16,419 ft.) In

summer, no snow covers these plateaux, but also no vegetation : in the

far distance there are some isolated, lofty, snowy peaks, besides which

the eye discerns nothing but barren rocks, and extensive sterile plains,

all well watered by streams, to which the glaciers covering the flanks

of the peaks afford an ample and lasting supply. If water was want-

ing to these plateaux, they would be a complete desert, as uninhabita-

ble to man as to any animal.

* Ansichten der Natur. Vol. L, p. 104.

1866. ] Tableau of High Asia. 53

In the Andes are to be found, if not the highest, at least the most

extensive plateaux of our globe, which generally lie along the very

ridge of the mountains, and on which large towns are situated, as

Cerro de Pasco (14,098 ft.), Potosi (13,665 ft.), and Cuzco (11,380

ft.). There is also a large plateau surrounding the elevated lake

Titicaca (12,843 ft.).

In the Alps, plateaux occur only at their base; the Swiss plateau

having a mean height of 1,460 ft., the Suevo-Bavarian plateau of

1,420 it.

2. Passes.

The mean of a sufficient number of such passes, which lead over the

principal crests, is particularly to be taken into consideration, it being

approximatively proportional, or, to express it more clearly, equal to

the general mean height of these crests. The passes situate in the

lateral ramifications of the principal crests—though they are numerous

—cannot be included in these general means, being geographically

of subordinate importance.

The mean height of passes in the three principal mountain-chains

of High Asia is as follows :

A. For the Himdlaya (mean of 19 passes,)...... 17,800 ft.

From Sikkim to Kishtvar: Bhutan and Kashmir being excluded :

the former for want of materials, and Kashmir on account of the

Himalaya there losing the character of one well-defined and predomi-

nant chain.

: B. For the Karakorém (mean of 3 passes,)...18,700 ft.

From long. E. Gr. 76° to 792°, the heights in the eastern continu-

ation being quite unknown.

C. For the Kiinliin (mean of 2 passes,) ......... 17,000 ft.

As the two passes are situated in parts not differing in any particu-

lar from the general mean of this chain, they may be looked upon as

" representatives of the other.

From these numbers it appears, that the Karakoram has by far the

greatest mean height of passes ; but the one pass which we must still

consider the highest, is situated in the Himalaya. This is the Jb:

| Gdmin pass (20,459 ft.) leading from Garhval to Gndri Khérsum,

which my brother Adolphe and I myself crossed as the first, and as

| yet as the only Europeans, Aug. 22, 1855. The pass next in height

54 Tableau of High Asia. [No. 1,

is the Mustagh pass in the Karakorim chain (19,019 ft.), the third the

Changchénmo, or Yéngi Davan (about 18,800 ft.), in the same chain.

None of these passes are generally used as commercial roads. The

highest pass as yet known to be regularly crossed with horses and

sheep, for the purposes of commerce, is the Pérang pass (18,500 ft. ;

Mr. Theobald, Jr. makes it 19,132 ft., which seems too high—); and

between this height and 18,000 ft. are situated several of the most —

important and frequented passes, as the Mana (18,406 ft.) the Kara- :

korim (18,345 ft.) and the Kidbrang (18,318 ft.). The lowest passes

in the Himalaya chain are the Shinku La (16,684 ft.) and the Bara

Lacha (16,186 ft.); the well known Niti pass reaches 16,814 ft.

In the Andes, the general mean elevation of the passes is, according

to Berghaus :

For the Western Andes, |.ues)..2800. 2.09.06 is ee EE:

For the Eastern Andes,...... . Pod cat LE eae 13,500 ft.

The highest passes are: Alto de Toledo (15,590 ft.), Lagunillas —

(15,590 ft.), and Assuay 15,526 ft.). The latter pass attains, accord- —

ing to Schmarda, only 14,517 ft.

In the Alps, the mean of the passes is ............ 7,550 ft.

The highest pass, at least in former times not frequently used for —

commercial purposes, is the St. Théodule (11,001 ft.), upon which ©

the brothers Platter have now erected a meteorological observatory.

3. Peaks. ‘

In the beginning of this century, the Andes were supposed to con- }

tain the highest peaks on our globe, and Chimborazo to rise supreme .

above the rest. Though as early as 1816 this was proved by Captain |

Webb’s measurements to be incorrect, yet some time elapsed, before

the superiority of the Himdlaya above the Andes was generally |

admitted. Now we know, from the valuable and accurate observations |

of the G. T. Survey of India, that Gaurisénkar, or Mount Everest _

(29,002 ft.) is the highest peak of the world. The memoir of Major |

J. T. Walker in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1862,

No. I., pp. 832—48, gives a detailed enumeration of the peaks hitherto

measured in the Himalaya; this memoir, as well as the publications |

of Captain Montgomerie and private communications kindly received |

from the Surveyor General’s Office, enable me to state, that 216 peaks.

are now accurately measured in the chain of the Himilaya. Among

1866.] Tableau of High Asia. 55

these 216 peaks, 17 exceed the height of 25,000 ft., 40 the height of

23,000 ft., and 120 the height of 20,000 ft.

In the Karakortim, peaks have lately been discovered, which are

scarcely inferior in height to the loftiest in the Himalaya, though

only its western part has as yet been explored. With regard to the

heights of its eastern continuation, there is not enough known to

allow even of an estimate being made.

The highest peaks of the Karakorim are the Dapsang (Ko of the

G. T. S. 28,278 ft.), the Diamar (26,629 ft.), and the Masheribrim

(25,625 ft.)

With reference to the Kiinliin, we can only mention the peaks that

we saw and measured between the Yurungkash pass and the western

termination of this chain; our idea about the general height is the

more limited, as we have not even itinerary reports of former travel-

lers to assist us. None of the peaks seen there by ourselves exceeds

22,000 ft.

In the Andes, important alterations have very recently been made

with reference to the succession of the peaks, when arranged according

to height, and, even now, the same amount of accuracy cannot be

ascribed to the hypsometrical determination of its principal peaks as

to the trigonometrical operations in the Himalaya. The highest peak

in the Andes is the Aconcagua (23,004 ft.) in Chili (Pissis gives

only 22,451 ft.): and there are as many as five peaks higher than

the Chimbarozo (21,422 ft.). In High Asia, forty-five peaks are

known, which exceed in height the dominating peak of the Andes,

the Aconcagua.

In the A/ps, Mont Blanc (15,784 ft.) and Monte Rosa (15,223 ft.)

are well known to be the highest peaks. Other high peaks are ;

Taschhorn, or Lagerhorn (14,954 ft.), Weisshorn (14,813 ft.), Mont

Cervin (14,787 it.), and Dent Blanche (14,305 it.).

Il. Hyproarapnuy.

1. Lakes.

In the Himdlaya, there are but very fewlakes. That of Nainital

| (6,520 ft.), in Kaméon, the Villar lake (5,126 ft.), and the Chinar

lake near Srindgar in Kashmir, suffice to exhaust the category of those

deserying mention.

56 Tableau of High Asia. [No. 1,

Glacier lakes.—Accumulations of water formed by one glacier ob-

structing the outlet of a higher one—are of much more frequent occur-

rence. At times, the wall of ice breaks away before the pressure of

the swollen waters, when the lower lands become suddenly inundated,

and the torrent rushes on with uninterrupted violence for miles, exer-

cising a marked influence even down to the lower parts of the river.

Similar inundations, some of them of a most destructive character,

have several times occurred. Two of the most elevated glacier-lakes

are the Destal (17,745 ft.), in Garhval, and the Namtso, or Yanam

(15,570 ft.) in Lahdl.

Western Tébet and Turkistén possess many lakes, all of which are —

situated in great heights; they are, however, gradually drying up, as

becomes apparent by the unmistakeable marks of larger suriaces re-

maining from former times. They contain a greater quantity of salt

than lakes in general, and most of them to an amount which renders

them more or less brackish.

= following are the names and the heights of the principal :—

Lakes = Western Tibet and Turkistan.

Aksae Chin, e . 16,620 | Nima Kar, ... sa ee 1508

Tso Gyagar, es 15, 693 | Haule, ... Ae ..- 14,600 ©

Tso Kar, or Khauri Talau, 15,684 | Tso Gam, _ ,.. .. «. 1400mm

Mire Tso, ste . 15,517 | Fso Bul, oe eo. 14,400

Kitk-Ki6l, at 15; 460 | Tso Mitbal, ove aes 14,1608

Mansaraur, or Tso Mapan, 15, 250 Upper Tsomognalari, .. 14,050 —

Rakus Tal, or Tso Lanag, 15, 5250 | Lower Tsomognalari,... ... 14,010

Tsomoriri,. set ~ #LS, 130 q

In the pik the most remarkable lake is that of ‘Titicaca

(12,848 it.) :

The foot of the Alps is adorned with a great many lakes, all in lows

elevations of from 600 to 1,600 ft.

2. Sprengs. ;

Springs of an ordinary, mean temperature, commonly called cold

springs, are of frequent occurrence in High Asia; the finest and most

copious springs are to be found in Kashmir, as the spring Vérnag,

Vétur Villar, Kékar Nag, Achibaél, A’nat Nag and others. The

spring Sonda Bréri, also in Kashmir, situate about five miles south-

east of Shahabad, is the only intermittent spring as yet known in

High Asia.

* According to Mr, Theobald, Jr. (see Journ. As. Soc., Beng , 1862, No. Ve

p. 513) only 14,272.

1866. ] Tableau of High Asia. 57

In Western Tibet, where rains in the higher parts are rare, and

where the dryness in summer is so excessive that even the formation

of dew is scarcely perceptible, cold springs are comparatively rare.

In Turkistén, in Balti, and Haséra, we find a greater number of

springs, a fact intimately connected with the sii meteorological

conditions of these provinces.

With reference to the limit, at which springs are to be found still

in High Asia, I give the following data, derived from our own obser-

vations. The greatest height, at which we found a spring in the

Himalaya, was 15,920 ft.; this spring was situated on the slopes of

the Kyingar pass. In Tibet, we discovered a real spring on the

slopes of the Ibi Gamin peak still at a height of 17,650 ft.; this

spring is probably the highest spring hitherto found.

As the highest spring in the Andes, Humboldt names the one

called “Ladera de Cadlud,” at a height of 15,526 ft. above the level

of the sea; in the Alps, Adolphe and Hermann have found the high-

est cold spring at 10,440 ft.

Hot springs occur in High Asia in a surprisingly great number,*

from the sea-level up to heights of more than 16,000 ft. The highest

hot springs of High Asia are at Murgai, (16,382 ft.), in Nubia, at

~ Momai (about 16,000 ft.), in Sikkim, at Paga (15,264 ft.), in Ladak,

near the lake Aiikkio (15,010 ft.), in Turkistan, and at Chagrar

(about 15,000 ft.), in Pangkéng. As a curious and remarkable fact I

may add, that the highest hot spring in India, at Hazaribagh, in

Bengal, is only 1,750 ft. above the level of the sea,

The hottest spring of High Asia is at Manikarn (temp. 202° Faht.)

in Kalu (this is the hottest spring as yet found all over Asia), at

Jaimnétri (temp. 193° Faht.) in Garhval, and at Chorkénda (temp.

190° Faht.) in Balti, The hottest springs of the world (if we

exclude those, which rise in the immediate neighbourhood of volca-

noes) are to be found in the Andes. There ‘‘ Aguas de Comangillas,”’

near Chichemequillo and Quanaxuato, at a height of about 6,200 it.,

in latitude north 21°, show a temperature of 205°.8 Faht.;+ and the

springs “Las Trincheras’”’ between Porto Cabello and Valencias, in

*See the “Enumeration of the hot springs of India and High Asia, given

by me in As. Soc. Journal, 1864, No. I., p. 49.

+ Humboldt’s “ Essai pratique sur la N ouvelle Espagne.” 2nd Ed., Vol. III.

(1827), p. 190.

58 Tableau of High Asia. [No.1

Mexico, have increased, between the years 1806 and 1823, from 195°

Faht. to 206°.6 Faht.,* thus exceeding at present the temperature of

the “‘ Aguas de,Comangillas” by 1°.3 Faht.

The hottest known spring of Europe, unconnected with present

volcanoes, is that of Chaudes Aigues in Auvergne (temp. 176°

Faht.).+

IUI. Puystcat Poenomena.

1. Snow-fall.

The lowest height at which snow has fallen in the Himdlaya

during the winter, is about 2,500 ft., but such cases are extremely

rare, having occurred in Kamdon and Girhvél only twice (in 1817.

and 1847), since the British took possession of the country.{ Snow

has fallen in the memory of man only once in Nahdn§ (8,207 ft.), in

the province of Simla. The snow, which falls once within several

years in the Kangra valley, down to heights of 3,000 and 2,700 ft.,

disappears almost immediately. At Haribégh the snow melts away

on the day it falls, or at least within thirty-six hours. During my

travels in Kalu, I was informed by the natives, as well as by several —

gentlemen who knew this part of the country thoroughly, that the

village of Mandi (2,480 ft.), is below the limit of snow-fall.

At an elevation of 5,000 ft. scarcely one year passes by without —

snow-fall; but, even at this height, the snow disappears after afew

days, and sometimes even hours. ‘‘It snows, but one does not see

it,” the natives of Kathmandu (4,354 ft.) very significantly use to

say, meaning, that the rare nightly snow-falls are melted away by the

earliest rays of the sun. 6,000 ft. may be assigned as the limit in

the Himalaya, where snow regularly falls in winter, with the proba-

bility of remaining some time upon the ground.

In Western Tibet and in the Karakorém, the general elevation of

the country is so great, even in its lowest regions, that no part lies |

below the limit of hibernal snow-fall. But the quantity of snow |

actually falling is inconsiderable, and this circumstance it is, which |

forms one of the chief causes that the passes of the Karakorim, even — |

* Humboldt’s “ Kosmos,” Vol. IV., p. 246.

+ Newbold, in “ Philos, Transactions,” 1845, p, 127.

} Colonel R. Strachey, in this Journal, Vol, XVIIL, Part L., P 309.

§ This Journal, Vol, III, p. 367,

1866.] Tableau of High Asia, 59

the highest, remain open throughout the year. In some parts of

Tibet the winter is the only season, when atmospheric precipitation

at all takes place.

In the Kimliin, even on its southern slopes, a greater amount of

snow is precipitated than on the northern side of the Karakorim,

whilst its Turkistani (northern) slopes differ still more from the

Karakorim in this respect, they being visited by very heavy rains and

great snow-falls. Even at Kashgar (about 3,500 ft), in Turkistan,

there are said to be several snowy days every winter.

The data, which I was able to collect on snow-fall in the Andes, are

so few and vague, that I could not draw any conclusion from them.

Also for the Alps, I could not bring forward any new facts with

reference to the snow-fall.

2. Snow-line.

The snow-line, or the average height where snow remains perpetu-

ally throughout the year, has offered unexpected difficulties in its de-

termination for the Himdlaya. When Webb and Moorcroft first

pointed out the general heights reached by the snow-line, when they

first discovered the remarkable fact, that, in spite of the influence

arising from exposition, the snow-line of the Himalaya descends lower

on its southern (Indian) than on its northern (Tibetan) slopes, the

statements of these travellers, now proved to be correct in all material

points, were discredited by men of science both in Hurope and in

India. Humboldt, however, was among the first who endeavoured

to remove the distrust with which these discoveries were received ;

he also gave an explanation* of the causes which were possibly suffi-

cient to originate so remarkable a phenomenon as this of the unlooked-

for differences existing between the snow-lines of the Tibetan and

Indian slopes. He considers it ‘‘ the results conjointly of the radiation

of heat from the neighbouring elevated plains, the serenity of the sky,

and the infrequent formation of snow in very cold and dry air.” Of

all these causes, however, the last is the most important. The direct

insolation, being less interrupted on the Tibetan side, has also its

share of influence ; but the effect is comparatively small. As the best

corroboration of the quantity of snow-fall being the principal cause of

the depression on the southern (Indian) slope of the Himalaya, may

* “ Asie Centrale,” pp. 284, 327; “ Kosmos;” Vol. I. p, 358,

60 Tableau of High Asia. [No. 1,

be adduced the fact, that we found the isothermal lines for the year

and the summer, which coincided withthe snow-line on the Indian

side, decidedly warmer than those on a level with the Tibetan snow-

line. The fact, moreover, of the Karakorim—though on an average

three degrees farther north —having the snow-line so excessively high

on both its slopes, offers another instance of the influence of limited

precipitation.

In the Kiinliin, the meteorological conditions also become apparent

in the different limits of the snow-line on either side ; but here the

effect is the reverse of that perceived in the Himalaya, the greater

precipitation on the ‘‘ northern” slopes (towards the plains of Turkis-

tan) lowering the snow-line on that side to a considerable extent.

Although, in the Himalaya at large, the snow-limit of the Tibetan

side does not descend so low as that of the Indian, yet the influence

of exposition at once becomes apparent in the ordinary sense, corre-

sponding to these latitudes, if we examine the slopes of a crest or

mountain, of which, by the nature of its position, both slopes belong

either to the Indian side of the ridge in general, or to the Tibetan

side. The many and vehement disputes upon the much-discussed

subject of snow-limits have chiefly arisen from the entire neglect of

this modification.*

The values we obtain for the height of the snow-line on the three

mountain chains of High Asia are :

Feet.

A. Himdlaya. Southern (Indian slopes), ... sae de ee

Northern (Tibetan) slopes, ... ... 17,400

B. Karakorim. Southern (Tibetan) slopes, 35 PTO Ee

Northern (along the Turkistani plateaux), 18,600

C. Kiinliin. Southern (facing mountainous ramifications), 15,800

Northern (facing the Turkistani plain),+... 15,100

For the Andes, the snow-limits are, according to Humboldt and

Pentland :

* See Batten, in the “ Calcutta Jour. of Nat. Hist.,” Vol. IV. p. 537; Vol. V.

p. 383. Capt. T. Hutton, “ in the same Journ.” Vol. IV. p. 275; Vol. V.

p. 379; Vol. VI, p.56; and Capt. A. Jack, “in the same Journ.” Vol, IV.

. 455.

‘ + Asie Centrale,” 1847, Vol. II. pp. 165 and 177.

1866. ] Tableau of High Asia. 61

Feet.

Kastern Andes of Bolivia,... eh te CLE O6O

Western Andes of Bolivia, us ... 18,500

Andes of Quito, ... _ Se 2 AES TOO

For the Alps, my brothers obtained :

Southern slopes, i a Zt (S20

Northern slopes,.. oe tie HES

Extremes (near i Mont a and Monte

Rosa group), 78 = sentOjsae

3. Glaciers.

The existence of the glaciers of High Asia was first made known

for Western Tibet, by Vigne, who alludes to them repeatedly in his

“Travels in Kashmir,’ London, 1842. Colonel Richard Strachey

was the first* who (in 1847) proved their existence in the Himdlaya.

The recent date of this discovery will appear the more surprising,

when the immense number of glaciers now positively ascertained to be

in this region is taken into consideration. The great amount of ice

to be met with, even in lower elevations of the Himalaya, could not

of course escape the observation of previous travellers; these masses,

however, they used to designate as ‘‘ hard, frozen snow-beds,” and to

consider them as local phenomena, analogous to remains of avalanches.

On both sides of the Karakorim and the Kiwnliin, we also found

glaciers, having forms identical with those of the Alps, and following

the same laws of motion. Some of them are considerably larger than

the glaciers in Hurope. The Aletsch glacier in the Alps extends a

little over fifteen miles in length, whilst some of the glaciers, surveyed

by Captain Montgomerie and his party in Balti (on the southern side

“of the Karakorim)” boast of no less than thirty-six miles in length,

with a breadth of from one to two and a half miles. The Bidfo

glacier forms, with the glacier on the opposite slope towards Miggair,

a continuous river of ice of sixty-four miles running in an almost

straight line, and without any break in its continuity beyond those

of the ordinary crevasses of glaciers. The Bidfo glacier is supplied in

a great measure from a vast dome of ice and snow, about one hundred

and eighty square miles in area, in the whole of which only a few pro-

jecting points of wall are visible. The Balsoro main glacier, thirty-

* See this Journal, Vol, XVI., part II. p. 794; Vol. XVII. part II. p. 203.

62 Tableau of High Asia. [No. ],

six miles in length, and with fourteen large tributary glaciers of from

three to ten miles in length, would form a study in itself, and give

employment for several summers, before it could be properly examin-

ed.’’*

In the Himalaya, the lowest glaciers go down to 11,000 ft. and even

10,500 ft.; the Pindari ending at 11,492 ft., the Timtimna at 11,430

ft., the Tsoji at 10,967 ft., and the Chaia a 10,520 ft.

ih Western Tubet, die descend to about the same elevation ; thai

the Mustégh 11,576 ft., the Tapto 11,508 ft., the Tami Chitet to

10,460 ft., the Bépho (Biéfo of Capt. Montgomerie ?), near Askoli,

even to 9,876 ft. The latter is worthy of notice as a remarkable case

of low termination.

In the Kiinliin, the glaciers end probably at heights not much differ-_

ing from those in Western Tibet ; at least so we infer from the gene-—

ral appearance of the upper part of the glaciers we saw during our

travels in these regions. The glaciers on both flanks of the Elchi

‘pass presented, however, no instances of particularly deep descent.

In the Andes, no glaciers are as yet known to exist,; and they do |

not occur in tropical America, from the equator to 19° latitude north.

In the Alps, the lowest glacier is that of Lower Grindelwald, end-|

ing at 8,290 ft, but in general 5,000 ft. must be considered as a

rather low end of a glacier.

IV. Tue Varietres or Haprration.

1. ZYowns and Villages.

The Himdlaya rises, in general, so abruptly above the plains of

India, and the latter, particularly in the western regions, are in them-

selves of such an elevation, that even in the lower parts of the valleys

there are but few, if any points of less height than 1,000 ft. above the

level of the sea. Two causes more especially have tended to displace

the order of population in these districts, the lower parts being almost —

deserted in favour of the lands lying immediately above. In the first —

instance, the prevailing steepness of the country hereabouts, which is

* Montgomerie, in “ Journ. As. Soc. ae 1862, No, IT. p, 210.

+ Humboldt, “ Asie Centrale,” Vol. II. p. 167,

1866.] Tableau of High Asia. 63

ted plains of India are converted, wherever they touch the southern

foot of the Himalaya, into swampy and marshy lands, called the Tarai,

which in some parts form but a narrow strip or belt, whilst in others,

as in Nepal, they attain a breadth of thirty to forty miles. The Tarai

abounds with large and lofty forest trees. Owing to the swampy and

malarious character of the Tardi, which skirts the extremities of the

valleys, the neighbourhood is rendered as uninhabitable to the tribes

of the Central Himalaya as to the highly susceptible and less seasoned

visitor from European climes. Consequently (from all these reasons

stated), in the inferior stratum of heights, ranging between 2,000 and

3,000 ft., the number of places inhabited by the natives is compara-

tively insignificant; while population reaches its maximum in the

rich belt of life rising from 5,000 to 8,000 ft., the traces of man and

his dwelling-place begin rapidly to disappear at 11,000 ft., and

even before.

The highest limits of habitation, however, very often present them-

selves under a form which almost excludes the possibility of strictly

comparing them as dependent upon climate. It is a remarkable fact,

that in some provinces of the Himalaya, especially in Nepal, Kaméaon,

and Giarhvaél, many villages are deserted in winter, though as far as

regards their elevation and the solid construction of the houses, they

might very well be inhabited throughout the year. The natives, how-

ever, prefer removing to villages less elevated, where they spend the

colder months. In the Himalaya west of Garhval, such modifications

do not occur; at least we are not aware of the existence of villages in

Simla, Kulu, Kishtvér &c., where the inhabitants follow regularly

the nomadic example furnished in other parts of the hill country.

‘The-Alps of Europe also present instances of this kind in Findelen

(7,192 ft.), Bresily (6,594 ft.), and many other summer villages of

greater or less elevation on the French side of the Alps.

Western Tibet is a country of such general elevation, that only in

the province of Balti villages are to be found below a height of 6,000

ft. Some of the chief towns are built at considerable elevations ;

Leh, the capital of Ladak, lies 11,527 ft. above the level of the sea.

The highest permanently inhabited places are, however, Buddhist

monasteries, the most elevated being probably that of Hanle, (15,117

ft.), in Ladaék, I state it positively as my conviction, that nowhere in

64 Tableau of High Asia. [ No: 1,

the world there exists a permanently inhabited place at a height ex-

ceeding 15,600 ft. Paul de Carmoy’s ‘‘ Pueblo de Ocoruro,” in the

Sierra Nevada, 18,454 ft. high, will prove, on a closer examination, to

be a temporarily inhabited place, similar to the swmmer villages of

Tibet, of which I name Gartok (15,090 ft.), Norbu (15,946 ft.), and

Piga (15,264 ft.) |

In the Kiinlin, even the foot of its southern (Tibetan) slopes is so

elevated, that no villages exist at all. By combining with our own

observations a variety of reports received, I obtain for its northern

slopes 9,400 ft. as the limit of permanently inhabited villages; sum-

mer villages reach about 10,200 ft.

In the Andes, large and important permanently inhabited places

have been built at great heights (Cerro de Pasco, 14,098 ft., Potosi

13,665 ft.); they are generally situated on plateaux. Santa Barbara,

a mine with solid houses, about three miles south of Huancavelica, is

situated at a height of 14,508 ft.

For the Alps, I have already had occasion to mention their summer

villages. The highest permanently inhabited villages are in the

valley of Avers in Graubiindten, where Juf lies at an elevation of

7,172 ft., and that of Cresta exceeds 6,700 ft. But the roads leading

across the passes have rendered it necessary to construct houses near

the top which are permanently inhabited; the highest of these at

present being the well known monastery of St. Bernard (8,114 ft.)

As long as the road over the Stelvio or Stilfser Joch was kept up,

Santa Maria (8,146 ft.) was also inhabited throughout the year.

2. Pasture-grounds.

In the Himdlaya, pasture-grounds “ Karik,” for sheep and bovine

cattle, are for the most part in low elevations, and at no great dis-

tance from the villages. The Karik Biterguar, in Kamdon, must be

mentioned as an exception to this general rule, it being situated at .

an elevation of 14,594 ft. Nowhere are there built on these pasture-

grounds chalets (Alpenhiitten), which are as little used in the Himé-— ,

laya as tents in the Alps. -

Dairies, which are dispersed all over the Alps, and which form the

source of a profitable income under an able management, are quite

unknown in the Himalaya, even in those parts, as Kashmir and Nepal, |

1866. ] Tableau of High Asia. 65

where ample tracts exist extremely favourable for erecting such estab-

lishments even on a large scale.

The pasture-grounds of Z7bet, to which the numerous herds of sheep

are driven in summer, reach an elevation from 15,000 to 16,349 ft.,

beyond which the Tibetan shepherds, who sometimes remain upon the

mountains from June to September, cannot be supposed to make any

permanent residence. The most elevated pasture-grounds of Tibet

are, Larsa (16,349 ft.), Zinchin (16,222 ft.), Kydangchu (15,781 ft.),

Riukchin (15,064 ft.), Amlung (15,300 ft.), and Juigta (15,058 ft.)

Though many cloudless days succeed each other in these loity

regions, thus leaving the power of direct insolation unimpaired, the

climate always remains bleak; while the prevailing winds not only

aggravate the effects of a low temperature, but also that of a low baro-

metrical pressure, thus presenting a remarkable modification of cli-

mate, of which I shall hereafter give some detail in the considerations

upon the influence of height in general. The shepherds with difficul-

ty provide themselves with a sufficient supply of fuel for cooking pur-

poses; sometimes they contrive with much labour and pains to erect

rude stone walls, behind which they may take shelter during the

night. These walls are usually circular in form, from four to five

feet high, and without a roof,

In the Kiinliin, the slopes on its southern side are so elevated, that

there exist no pasture-grounds at all; on its northern slopes, they do

not occur above 13,000 ft.

For the Andes no data with reference to pasture-grounds are at my

disposal.

The pasture-grounds in the Alps, which are generally in the neigh-

bourhood of Chalets, may be met with at heights of 8,000 ft. and

upwards : the Fluhalpe (8,468 ft.) on the Findelen glacier near the

Monte Rosa, and the Torrenthitle, in the Anniviers valley, being

instances of the greatest elevations.

VY. ExTrEME HEIGHTS VISITED BY MAN.

. 1, Mowntain-ascents.

Temporary habitations, frequented for some months, as we have

seen from the discussion of the highest pasture-grounds, sometimes

reach a height of nearly 16,300 ft. As far as my experience goes, I

66 Tableau of High Asia. : [No. 1

may state, that for short periods of ten or twelve days, man may con-

siderably exceed this height, not without suffering, but at least with-

out positive injury to himself. During our explorations of the Ibi

Gémin glaciers, August 13th to 23rd, 1855, we encamped and slept

during these ten days in company with eight men at very unusual

heights. During this period, our lowest camp was pitched at 19,326

ft.—the greatest height at which we ever passed a night : — another

was at 19,094 ft.; two camps exceeded 18,300 ft., and the remainder

ranged between 18,000 and 17,000 ft. Apart fru the extreme ele-

vation and consequent cold, the bodily exertions imposed upon us

during our stay, proved a great tax upon our powers. Once we cross-

ed a pass of 20,439 ft., and three days earlier, August 19th, 1855, we

had ascended the flanks of Ibi Gamin to a height of 22,239 ft. This,

as far as we know, is the greatest height yet reached on any mountain,

though considerably below that to which man has arisen in balloons. _

On the Sassar peak we attained (August 3rd, 1856) an elevation of

20,120 ft. As early as 1818, however, the brothers Alexander and

James G. Gerard ascended (October 18th) a peak in Spiti 19,411 ft, —

high, not fat from the Porgyél, or Tazhigang. Subsequently, August |

31st, 1828, Dr. James G. Gerard reached 20,400 ft.

From Captain T. G. Montgomerie we learn, that a station of 19,979

ft. has been reached twice by Mr. W. H. Johnson, and another of —

19,958 ft.* in height by Mr. W. G. Beverley. Mr. Johnson took,

besides, observations in Ladak at one station more than 20,600 ft, —

high, the greatest altitude yet attained as a station of the Trigonome- —

trical Survey of India.f A trigonometrical mark has even been erect-—

ed on a point 21,480 ft. above the level of the sea, ‘‘ but unfortunately

there was not sufficient space to put a theodolite on it.”

In the Andes, Humboldt ascended the flanks of Chimborazo (June

28rd, 1802) to a height of 19,286 ft. ; this being the extreme elevation —

attained at that period. Some years cae aede (December 16th, 1831), :

Boussingault reached, on the same peak, a height of 19,695 it.4 :

In Wes alps, my brothers Adolphe and Hermann once remained in 5 4

* See this Journal, 1861, No. II., pp. 99, 110.

+ See this Journal, 1863, No... pi ti:

t Humboldt’s “ Kleinere Schriften,” p. 157,

1866.) Tableau of High Asia. 67

height of 10,374 ft. The well known English Professors Tyndall and

Frankland even passed the night of August 21st, 1859, on the top of

the Mont Blanc (15,784 ft.)

2. Balloon-ascents.

In the free atmosphere the greatest height was reached by Mr.

Glaisher in a balloon, which was directed by Mr. Coswell ; he ascend-

ed, September 5th, 1862, the extraordinary height of at least 30,000 ft.,

but, as he was unable to make any observations above that height,

being suddenly overtaken by sickness, it is supposed that the balloon

rose as high as seven miles — 36,960 ft.

Not less remarkable than this ascent was the one performed by

Gay-Lussac, as early as the beginning of this century (September

16th, 1804), when he rose to 23,020 ft, Between Gay-Lussac’s and

Mr. Glaisher’s ascent, several attempts have been made to reach great

heights in balloons, especially in England, during one of which the

late Mr. Welsh reached (November 10th, 1852) 22,930 it.* The bal-

loon-ascents made in England were all combined with experiments of

a highly interesting nature, and instituted by a scientific committee,

among whose members it is sufficient only to name Sabine and Sykes.

Previous to Mr. Welsh, Messrs. Bixio and Barral rose (July 27th,

1850) to a height of 23,009 ft.

As a balloon-ascent, remarkable not only on account of the height

Teached, but on account of the horizontal distance performed, I must

mention the one made by Mr. Nadar, in company with eight persons,

October 18th, 1863. Mr. Nadar rose from Paris and let himself down

—or he rather fell down—near Rethem, a small town on the river

Aller, in Hanover. The direct distance between these two towns is

about 395 miles, and as it took 15 hours, 47 minutes to travel

through this distance, the balloon flew 2,227 ft. per minute, or 37 it.

per second. But, as the balloon was far from going in a straight line,

it has been computed, that the greatest velocity attained by it

amounted to 50 ft. per second.

3. Lffect of height.

The effect of height is chiefly perceptible in the decrease of tem-

perature and barometrical pressure. According to our observations,

a * “ Philosophical Transactions,” 1853, Part IIT., p. 320.

68 Tableau of High Asia. [No. 1,

the atmospheric pressure is, at a height of about 18,600 or 18,800 ft.,

one-half of that at the level of the sea. At an elevation of 22,200 ft.

(so trivial a height when compared with the extreme upper limit of the

atmosphere), we observed a barometrical pressure of 13.364 inches, so

that nearly three-fifths of the weight of the atmosphere lay below the

point reached by ws at the time.

It is evident that there must be a limit beyond which the degree of

rarefaction is incompatible with the conditions of human existence ;

but it will ever remain extremely difficult to determine the line of

demarcation, with any approach to scientific precision.

The influence* which height exercises upon man, varies with

the individual ; a man in good health having the chance of less suffer-

ing. The difference of race has apparently no appreciable importance.

Our Hindu servants suffered far more from the cold than our Tibetan

companions, though not more from the diminished pressure. For the

generality of people the influence of height begins at 16,500 ft., a

height nearly coinciding with that of the highest pasture grounds

visited by shepherds.

The complaints produced by diminished pressure are,—headache,

difficulty of respiration, and affection of the lungs, the latter even pro-

ceeding so far as to occasion blood-spitting, want of appetite and even

sickness, muscular weakness, and a general depression and lowness of —

spirits. Bleeding of the nose we experienced ourselves, though very

rarely, the loss of blood on such occasions being insignificant ; but

bleeding of the ears and lips we neither experienced personally, nor

observed in others during our travels in High Asia. Humboldt,ft

however, states, that on the Antisana, at a height of 18,141 ft., his

companion, Don Carlos Montufar, bleeded heavily from the lips, and

that during the ascent of the Chimborazo, every one suffered from

bleeding of the lips and even the gums. i

The effects here mentioned, which disappear in a healthy man

almost simultaneously with his return to lower regions, are not sen-_

sibly increased by cold, but the wind has a most decided influence for

* Notices and remarks on this subject are to be found in “ Gleanings in|

Science,” Vol. 1., p. 330; Gerard’s “ Koonawur ;’ Hooker’s ‘“ Himalayan Jour-

nals,’ Vol. II., p. 413; Thomson’s “ Western Himalaya and Tibet,” p. 185 and

+ “ Kleinere Schriften,” Vol. I., p. 148. a

1866.] Tableau of High Asia. 69

the worse upon the feelings. As this was a phenomenon we had not

hitherto found mentioned by former observers, we dfrected our parti-

cular attention to it, and remarked instances where fatigue had abso-

lutely nothing to do with it. In the plateaux of the Karakorim, it

was a common occurrence, even for the sleepers in the tents, where

they might be considered as somewhat protected, to be waked up in

the night with a heavy feeling of oppression, the entire disturbance

being traceable to a breeze, which had sprung up during the hours of

rest.

The effects of diminished atmospheric pressure are considerably

aggravated by fatigue. It is surprising to what a degree it is possi-

ble for exhaustion to supervene; even the act of speaking is felt to be

4 labour, and one gets as careless of comfort as of danger.

VI. Limits oF VEGETATION AND ANIMAL LIFE.

1. Vegetation.

In India, the vegetation is not limited by climate in the elevations

existing ; the highest peaks, as the Dodabétta (8,640 ft.), in the Nil-

giris, the most elevated plateaux are covered with trees, shrubs, and

in fact a luxurious vegetation, not only along their slopes, but even

on their top.

In the Himdlaya, trees grow very generally up to heights of 11,800

ft., and in most parts there are extensive forests covering the sides of

the mountains at but a little distance below this limit. Those forests

are especially beautiful in the higher valleys of Kaméon and Garhval,

in the Bhagirathi valley.

In Western Tibet, though we did traverse it in various directions,

none of us found anything at all corresponding to a forest. Apricot

trees, willows, and poplars are frequently cultivated on a large scale;

poplars, indeed, are found at Maéngnang, in Gnéri Khérsum, still at

a height of 13,457 ft. ; but they are the objects of the greatest care

| and attention to the Lamas.

Tn the Kiinliin, we found the trees on its northern side not to grow

above 9,100 ft. On the northern side, we saw no trees at all; here

the considerable height of the valleys we passed excluded them.

In the Andes, trees end at about 12,180 ft.; in the Alps on an aver-

age at 6,400 ft., isolated specimens occurring, however, above 7,000 ft-

70 Tableau of High Asia, [No. 1,

The cultivation of grain coincides, in most cases, with the highest

permanently inhabited villages: but the extremes of cultivated grain

remain below the limit of permanent habitation. In the Himdlaya,

cultivation of grain does not exceed 11,800 ft., in Z%bet 14,700 ft.,

and in the Kznlin 9,700 ft. For the Andes, the limit is 11,800 ft. ;

in the Alps, some of the extremes are found near Tindelen, at a height

of 6,630 ft., but the mean is about 5,000 ft.

The upper mean limit of grass-vegetation is, in the Himdlaya, at

15,400 ft., in Western Tibet at 16,500 ft. ; in the Kianlin, grass is not

found above 14,800 ft.

Shrubs grow, in the Himdlaya, up to 15,200 ft., in Western Tvbet, as

high as 17,000 ft. On the plateaux to the north of the Karakorim,

shrubs are found at 16,900 ft., and, which is more remarkable, they

occasionally grow there in considerable quantities on spots entirely —

destitute of grass. As an example, I mention the Vohéb Chilgane —

plateau (16,419 ft.) and Bashmalgtn (14,207 ft.)

In the Kiinliin, the upper limit of shrubs does not exceed 12,700

ft. ; above this height grass is still plentiful; and shrubs being here,

as generally everywhere else, confined to a limit below the vegetation

of grass, the range presents an essential contrast in this respect to the

characteristic aspect of the Karakortm. ~

In the Andes, shrubs grow up to 13,420 ft., in the Alps, their upper

limit is at 8,000 it.

The very extreme limit of phanerogamic plants appeared in 7%bet ;

at the north-eastern slopes of the Ibi Ga&min pass, at a height of —

19,809 ft.; next in order came those of the Gunshankar peak, in —

Gnéri Khorsum, at 19,237 ft. In the Himdlaya, the highest plants —

were found by us at 17,500 ft., on the slopes of the Jante pass, in

Kaméon.

In the Andes, Colonel Hall found the highest phanerogamic plants”

on the slopes of Chimborazo, at 15,769 ft., consequently 4,040 ft,

lower than the [bi Gamin plants in Tibet.

In the Alps, my brothers found an analogous extreme on the south-

ern slopes of the Vincent pyramide at 12,540 it.

2. Ammal life.

Monkeys appear to frequent, in the Himalaya, regions exceeding

11,000 ft. in height ; the Semnopithecus schistaceus, Hodgs. ascending

1866.] Tableau of High Asia. 71

higher than others. These monkeys, called “ Langirs” by the natives,

have been frequently seen at 11,000 ft., while the fir-trees among

which they sported were loaded with snow-wreaths. This species is

not known in India, whilst the Macacus Rhesus is met with in India,

as well as in the Himalaya.

In Western Tibet, and farther to the north, no monkeys have yet

been found, TZ%gers ascend to 11,000 ft. in the Himalaya; they are

not, however, seen in Western Tibet or the Kinliin.

Leopards may be met with, in the Himalaya and in Tibet, even at

13,000 and 14,000 ft. The dion, though intimately connected with

the mythology of High Asia, has been forthcoming, in historical

times, only in Kashmir. In India, the lion occurs at the present day

only in Guzrat, and there only in very small numbers.

Jackals were found by us in the Karakorim between 16,000 and

17,000 ft. Wolves are not known to frequent the Himalaya Proper,

but they are found in Tibet, where we saw of traces of them in sand

close to the Karakoréim pass (18,345 ft.)

Various species of beautiful wild sheep and ibex, together with the

Kyang and the wild yak, are met with in large herds on the highest

plateaux between the Karakorim and the Kinliin.

The cat is common in Tibet ; dogs are the companions of the Tibet-

an shepherds, whom they follow over passes exceeding 18,000 ft.

Some species of bats are seen in the Himalaya up to 9,000 ft.; and

the Tibetan hare occurs even in heights exceeding 18,000 ft.

Migratory birds are not known to cross the Himalaya, as many

birds of Europe cross the Alps. Doves were seen by us at very great

heights in the Karakorim and Kinlin; this was the most surprising,

as other birds were very rare.

The domestic fowl has recently been introduced with great success

by Gulab Singh into Balti, Ladak, and Niubra.

Fishes were found by us in some rivulets of Tibet exceeding 15,000

ft. In the Alps they cannot live beyond 7,000 ft.

Of reptiles we found snakes and saurians as high as 15,200 ft. In

| the Alps they go up to 6,000 ft., in the Pyrenees to 7,000 ft. In the

Andes, snakes were found by Schmarda at about 11,500 ft.

For butterflies we found in the Himilaya 13,000 ft., in Tibet and

Turkistén even 16,000 ft. as localities of permanent habitation. Bee-

72 Tableau of High Asia. [No. 1,

tles probably follow the highest formation of grassy turf in the Himé-

laya, as well as in the Andes and the Alps. Mosquitoes go up to

8,500 ft.; and peepsies make themselves very troublesome during the

rainy season as high as 13,000 ft.

The'existence of infusoria seems as little subject to limitation by

height in High Asia, as in the Andes and Alps. In a few fragments

which we chipped off from the rocks of the Ibi Gamin pass (20,459 —

ft.) Prof. Ehrenberg of Berlin detected their presence, and found —

them not insignificant in quantity ; he discovered twelve species new —

to science.

1866.] Notes and Queries. 73

(Notes and Queries.)

[Received 20th December, 1865. ]

Camp, near Myanoung, November 22nd, 1865.

During a visit to Calcutta a few months ago, Mr. Grote drew my

attention to a sort of controversy which had been started at home,

touching the habit, which fireflies were stated to exhibit occasionally,

of a concurrent exhibition of their light, by vast multitudes acting in

unison ; a statement which appeared to have been somewhat sceptically

received. Mr. Grote does not appear to have ever witnessed this

phenomenon in Bengal, and questioned me if I had ever observed any

confirmatory instance. Jireflies are tolerably well known, of course,

to the resident in Bengal, but I had never there observed any such

habit among the countless fireflies, which form such fiery-like orna-

ments to the shrubberies about Calcutta. In Pegu, however, I have

witnessed the exhibition in question; myriads of fireflies emitting

their light, and again relapsing into darkness, in the most perfect

rythmic unison. I much regret, that I did not secure specimens, but

the circumstances were as follows. I had halted my boat for the

night, alongside a small clearing in the low lying tract of country,

forming part of the Irawadi estuary (Delta), east of the Bassein

river, where the water was salt, and the entire country not more than

a foot, if so much, above the floodlevel. Night had closed in, and my

servant, who brought in the tea, asked me to step out of my tent and

see the fireflies which, he said, he had never seen the like of before.

‘On stepping out of the tent, a truly beautiful sight presented it-

self. In front was the broad and deep river sweeping on, vu«rt

€ouxos, with its indistinctly seen background of primeval forest on

its opposite bank. Around me was the recently-formed clearing, with

its two or three huts and my own camp, as the sole proof of man’s

occupancy, for miles and miles, but, for all the wildness and almost

desolation of the scene, the bank on which I stood was a glorious

spectacle, and those acquainted with the class of native servants

will well understand that it must have been at once unusual and

beautiful indeed to rivet the attention of a listless khitmutgar !

' The bushes overhanging the water were one mass of fireflies,

though, from the confined spacg available for them on low shrubs, the

74 Notes and Queries. [ No. 1,

numbers may not have been actually more than are often congregated

in Bengal. The light of this great body of insects was given out as I

have said, in rythmic flashes, and, for a second or two, lighted up the

bushes in a beautiful manner; heightened, no doubt, by the sudden

relapse into darkness which followed each flash. These are the facts

of the case (and I may add, it was towards the end of the year), and.

the only suggestion I would throw out, to account for the unusual

method of luminous emanation, is, that the close congregation of large

numbers of insects, from the small space afforded them by the bushes

in question, may have given rise to the synchronous emission of the

flash, by the force of imitation or sympathy.

Mr. Montgomery, of the Survey Department here, also fully corro-

borates the habit of our Pegu fireflies simultaneously emitting their

light, but adds, he has only remarked it under conditions similar —

to those described above, in low swampy ground. It still remains,

therefore, to be decided if the insect is different from the ordinary one,

or if, as I am inclined to think, the simultaneity is produced by sym-

pathy and great crowding of individuals. 3

Whilst my pen is in my hand, I would add a few words on the

address of Dr. J. E. Gray to the Zoological Section of the British —

Association, printed at page 75 of the Notices and Abstracts appended

to the Report of the Association for 1864. .

The excellent remarks on the aim and arrangement of Public

Museums will, it is to be hoped, not escape the attention of those

interested in our own Calcutta Museum, and the especial stress he lays —

on the exclusion of light from collections on spirits, is what I urgent-

ly brought to the notice of the Society but a short time since. It is

not, however, to this portion of Dr. Gray’s address that I would now

refer, but to the statement at page 82 that, ‘ the natives of India and

of the islands of the Malayan Archipelago have brought into a semix

domesticated state various species of wild cattle, such as the Gyal, the

Gour, and the Banteng.” 4

Of the first of these, the Gyal, we know that such is the case, but

I should much like to know in what part of India or Malaynesia the

Gour or the Banteng are “‘ semi-domesticated,” certainly, the feat has”

never been performed by any “ native of India,” of whose geography —

and powers incurably lax notions appeag to be stereotyped in England,

1866. ] Notes and Queries. 75

from the ablest downwards. I would enquire, therefore, through the

pages of this Journal, to what instances Dr. Gray can allude, as the

fact is certainly novel to those in India. The Governor of Rangoon,

at the time of the last war, I am told, had a pair of Gour sufficiently

tame to be yoked in a cart, but this is quite insufficient to establish

their claim to be viewed as semi-domesticated. In India, the difficulty

of rearing the calves is notorious.

Again, immediately before the passage I have quoted above, Dr.

Gray remarks, ‘‘ In the lower and warmer region of Central and South-

ern Asia, the Zebra has been completely domesticated.”

In the passage, Dr. Gray is alluding to wild species brought by

‘man into a state of domestication, and I confess to some curiosity as

to the wild stock of the domesticated Zebra. There is, I fancy, some

little confusion, however, in Dr. Gray’s ideas here, as, on the previous

page, he tells us, ‘‘ the oxen” “ are never found truly wild.”

The distinction, too, which Dr. Gray draws (loc. cit.) between the

“truly domesticated” animals, the ox, the sheep, the horse, the camel,

the dog and the cat, and the ‘‘ semi-domesticated,” as the buffalo, the

goat, the pig, the rabbit, the reindeer, the yak Gc., appears forced

and to a great extent imaginary.

The distinction between these two classes of animals is more due to

the efforts of the Breeder than to mere domestication, and I should have

thought, that the highest triumphs of some of our rabbit fancies and of

our breeds of pigs merited quite as much as our “‘sheep” to be con-

sidered as ‘‘ truly domesticated,” if thereby is intended an unnatural

deviation from the wild stock, solely produced by the art of the

Breeder.

I cannot enter at greater length on this most interesting question,

| but I hope that some of the readers of this Journal who have perused

Dr. Gray’s report, will be able to furnish some explanation of the

points indicated above.

Another query I would ask is, to what race of Calotes mystaceus

can Gunther refer to, when he states that ‘an old male measures

nearly 24 inches, the tail taking 19 inches?” Now Calotes mystaceus

is common in Birma, and more than a score have passed through my

hands, but no specimen that I ever saw attained to even 12 inches of

total length !

76 | Notes and Queries. —

Are not two races or species here united, a smaller one from Birma,

and a larger one from Camboja or elsewhere south? —

The type in the Paris Museum, Gunther says, is “‘ not full grown,” —

but it was from Birma, and is probably the size of ordinary Birmese

specimens. pag

W. Tunopatp, Jr.

JOURNAL

mera PO SOCTETY.

Part I1—PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

No. I1.—1866.

aad

Russian Geographical Operations in Asia.—Communicated by Lreut.-

Col. J. T. Watxes, R. L.*

[Received 8th March, 1866. }

TRANSLATION OF A Portion or tue ‘ Compre Renpvu pe La Socirre

IMPERIALE GeoGRAPHIQUE DE Russtz” For 1864.

| The Society has never failed to profit by every opportunity that

| “has presented itself, for extending our geographical knowledge of

the countries bordering on Central Asia; consequently, in the month

of February last year, M. Severstow, a matin waited Naturalist, who

was accompanying an expedition into the countries beyond the Ili

and the Tchou, was charged to collect information, with a view to

Preparing a physico-geographical description of all the countries through

which the expedition would pass.

# Of the two accompanying papers, one is a translation of a portion of the

7 Compte Rendu de la Société Impériale Géographique de Russie,” for the year

1864, while the other is a translation from the 4th yolume of the Journal of the

Russian Geographical Society for 1864.

in the first the names are spelt as in the original French memoir.

78 Russian Geographical Operations in Asia. [No. 2,

The Society has just been enriched by highly interesting geo-

graphical materials, thanks to the cordial co-operation of its honorable

members M. Milioutine, the Minister of War; M. Duhamal, the

Governor-General of Hastern Siberia, and Admiral Boutakow.

We have been furnished with a very interesting manuscript chart

prepared by the Staff Major. It represents, on a scale of 40 verstes

(27 miles) to the inch, the southern portion of the Kirghiz Steppe,

or, approximately speaking, the region between the Eastern shore of

the sea of Aral, and the Chinese frontier, extending from 76° to 102°

of longitude, and from 40° to 50° of latitude, and comprising the

northern half of the district called Touran. On this map we have the

result of all the geographical operations of the past few years

represented for the first time. Until now they had remained isolated,

and almost unknown to the scientific world. They greatly modify

the general geographical aspect of this region. There are now

determined a sufficient number of astronomical points to serve as

a basis for an exact cartographic representation of the region above

mentioned. We must observe, however, that the fixed astronomical

_ points are as yet very irregularly distributed. They are comparatively

numerous in the western part of the map, along the road from Oren- —

burgh to the Syr-Daria, and along the lower course of that river, also

along the Chinese frontier in the Eastern part of the map, but, about

the middle, they are very sparsely scattered. _ =

We now possess many orographic and hydrographic data, thanks .

to the military expeditions, and reconnoissances of 1864, and to the

operations carried on for several years in the basin of the Syr-Daria

by Admiral Boutakow. These data serve to correct the hitherto

confused notions of the countries situated within and around this

region. We have also received more accurate information regarding

the races that people these countries, their mode of life, their migra-

tions, the remains and traces of their ancient condition, and the

possibility of their future civilization. We can here only point out the

most salient geographical features of the mass of materials we have

received, and of which the Society will avail itself for its future publica-

tions. The geographical position of all the region above mentioned

will have to be considerably altered, more especially as to western

Turkestan, andthe Khanat of Khokan. For instance, Aouliéta, a town —

1866. ] Russian Geographical Operations in Asia. 79

of Khokan, ought to be shifted, on the map, half a degree towards

the south, and one degree towards the east ; the town of Turkestan at

least a degree and a half towards the south, Ge. Similar changes are

equally necessary for many other points. The eastern part of this

region is essentially mountainous. The principal chain of mountains

is found to be a western branch of the Tian Chan; its direction is

from east to west from the lake Issik Koul, down to the lower course

of the Syr-Daria; these mountains were vaguely known under the

general name of Karataou. They may be divided into three groups,

_ the chain of the Kentchi-Alataou, the chain called Alexandrowskaia,

_and that of Kazikourt.

The Kentchi-Alataou consists of two parallel chains, which follow

_ the northern bank of the Issik Koul; they are separated (on the east

of the Issik Koul) from the Tian Chan by the Pass of San Tasch ;

their greatest height is 14,000 feet. From this range, a lower range

. trends in a north-western direction, separating the waters of the Ili

~ from those of the Tchou.

{

The second group, the Alexandrowskaia, or the Alataou-Kirghisnyn

_ chain, whose summits are covered with perpetual snow, joins the first

at the defile of Baoum, on the western extremity of the Issik-Koul ;

thence it stretches due west towards Aouliéta, separating the river

Tchou from the river Talas; its greatest height is 15,000 feet. To

the west of this chain, other hills, rising not higher than 5000 or 6000

- feet, stretch as far as the Syr-Daria, following the direction of that

_ river down to Djoulek, and forming, so to say, a prolongation of

the Alexandrowskaia chain. It is to these hills that the name of

mount Karataou, which has been wrongly given to the whole system

“of mountains in this country, properly belongs.

Lastly, the third group forms the Kazikourt chain and lies to the

8c th of the Alexandrowskaia, from which it is separated by the

= of Talas. The Kazikourt mountains appear to be a continu-

ation of the principal branch of the Tian Chan; winding along the

southern bank of the Issik-Koul, they fill the territory of Khokan

‘with their southern ramifications. The disposition of these chains of

itains fixes the watersheds of the basins of the Tchou and the

‘Syr-Daria, the two principal valleys of this country, lying almost

parallel to each other, The valley of the Syr-Daria trends, with many

80 Russian Geographical Operations 1m Asia. [ No. 2;

windings, from the south-east to the north-west. The Tchou flows

in the same direction. Conformably with the general disposition of

the whole mountain system of this region, these great basins are

much narrowed towards the east, near Issik Koul, where all the above

mentioned ramifications of the Tian Chan are concentrated. It must

be observed, that the predominant direction of these chains of moun-

tains, not only in this country, but in all mountainous parts of Central

Asia, is always to the north-east. We now have more accurate data

concerning the course of the Tchou, especially about its various

sources, also its relation to the Issik Koul, from which it does not

take its source, but with which it is connected by its affluent, the

little river of Koutemalda.

The central portion of the basin of the Syr-Daria has been explored

in detail, and with much success, thanks to the expeditions made

during many years by Admiral Boutakow, who has qfiite recently

communicated to us the general results of his enquiries, but especially

of his late explorations between Fort Perowsky, and the locality called

Baildir Tougai. :

It is impossible to set forth here all the accumulated data of dead

countries of Central Asia, but seeing the interest that they excite, we

must adda few more words about their population. It consists

chiefly of nomadic Kirghises, and a rather restricted number of”

Khokans. Their mode of life and degree of civilization correspond —

with those of the Kirghises who inhabit the country north of the

Syr-Daria and the river Tchou. J

Their chief wealth consists in cattle, horses and camels. They —

also cultivate their land and sow wheat, barley and tobacco. .

After the military expedition of 1862, a great part of these Kirghise

wanderers, from beyond the Tchou, passed into our territory.

To retain these tribes in subjection, the Khokans constructed forts,

ealled Kourgans, in great numbers. Tho four chief ones were

Pichpek, Merké, Aouliéta, and Souzak. Aouliéta on the Talas

(between the valley of the Tchou, and the chain of mountains which — |

trend from Issik Koul towards the west) has an important position,

for it is situated on the grand commercial road from Tachkend and

Turkestan, towards the fortifications of Vernoi, Kouldja and Sémi-

palatinsk. It is by this road that the caravans come from the southern |

1866. | Russian Geographical Operations in Asia, $1

regions of Central Asia to go to China, as well as to Russia. Ona

branch of this road, which stretches towards the north-west, at a

junction of the roads of Orenbourgh, Troitsk and Oufa, is situated

the town of Turkestan which encloses within its walls a sacred edifice,

the mosque built over the tomb of Azret Sultan.

Passing now to the topographical operations executed in these Kir-

ghise steppes of Siberia, we will mention the surveys that were effected

on the western borders of China, under the direction of Colonel Babkow.

These operations embrace two distinct circles,—the northern parts of

the Tarbagatai mountains, and the valley of the river Borokhoudzir.

In the first of these circles, Captain Nifantiew of the Topographical

Corps, surveyed the region that is bounded on the west by the road

which crosses the Khabar Assou Pass, and by the course of the river

Tamyrysk ; on the south, by the chain of the Tarbagatai; on the east,

by the line of the Chinese posts, and on the north, by the Kitchkiné

Taou mountains, branches of the Manak, and of the Tarbagatai. This

" region includes an area of 5,270 square verstes.

In the country beyond the river Tchou, the topographers who

formed part of the detachment with the expedition, surveyed the

following localities. 1st, From the post of Kastek, by the pass of the

same name, to the mouths of the little Kebin, and thence re-ascending

the river Tchou, to the mouths of the great Kebin, then 40 verstes

of the lower course of this last river. Then again, from the mouths

of the little Kebin, along the river Tchou, to the ford of Tchoumitch.

All these surveys have been mapped on a scale of 250 sagénes (or 1750

feet) tothe inch. 2nd, From the river Talas, crossing mount Kara Boura,

to the river Tchotkala (Tchirtchik). 3rd, The marching roads along the

valley of the Arys, and those from Tchemkent to Aouliéta, also from

Teholak Kourgen to Aouliéta, have been drawn on the scale of 5

verstes to the inch. 4thly, Plans of the forts of Tokmak, Merke and

Aouliéta have been drawn out, on a scale of 250 sagénes to the

inch.

We have received from M. Bésae, the Aide-de-camp General, a

map of the topographical operations, executed and projected in the

country of Orenbourg, from the year 1861 to 1865, with a Memoir.

The total survey is 17,687 square verstes done in detail, and 3,928

In half detail ; 168,178 reconnoitered, and 2,100 triangulated. During

82 Russian Geographical Operations in Asia. [No. 2,

a period of four years, the total amount of survey operations 1s

‘212,019 square verstes.

These surveys embrace the following localities ; 1st, the two banks of

the river Yany Daria; 2ndly, the left bank of the Syr-Daria, from

the fort Perowsky to Yany.Kourgan, a destroyed fortress belonging

to the Khokans, and thence to the place called Baildyr Tougai ; 4thly,

the northern and southern slopes of the Karataou chain; 5thly, the

mouths of the river Emba, and the Bay of the Caspian Sea at the

mouth of this river. Among the newly made maps, the principal are, —

the map of the country of Orenbourg, on a scale ‘of 50 verstes to

the inch ; anew map of Central Asia and the country of Orenbourg, .

200 verstes to the inch; and 24 sheets of a special map of this —

country, on a scale of 10 ee

The Society is continuing the publication and translation of the 7th |

Vol. of Ritter’s Geography of eastern Touran. M. Grigoriew is —

compiling and making the necessary additions for completing this —

work, and is carrying on his labours with such activity, that we my

look for the first part of his work during 1865.

However short our account may seem of all the important geo-

graphical operations in Asia, it is nevertheless sufficient to show that

they embrace a large extent of this part of the world, and give rise to

questions of both local and general interest. The several expedi- —

tions and explorations, in which our Society has taken part, form an

uninterrupted chain which extends along our Asiatic frontier, from —

“the Pacific Ocean to the Caspian Sea; from the valley of the Onssouri

and the peninsula of Corea to the Oust Ourt, Turkestan and Khoras-—

san. With the exception of some conflicts with the Khokans, our

enterprises along the frontier have been of a strictly peaceful, scienti-_

fic or commercial character, and our commerce has been considerably

developed. These friendly relations are strengthened by an event

of great importance which marks the past year, viz., the final pacifi-

cation of the Caucasus, the point of our Asiatic frontier that is

nearest to Europe. | .

We must now pass on to the hydrographic operations executed in

the Caspian Sea, which have always greatly interested our Society.

Last year, our honorable member, M. Ivachinzew, who is the chief

of these operations, read out to the Society, at a public meeting,

1866. ] Russian Geographical Operations in Asia. 83

a remarkable Memoir on the question of the variations of the level

of the Caspian Sea. The same persons who carried on these hydro-

graphic operations in 1863, continued them in 1864. At the begin-

ning of the year, the Surveyors were concentrated in the southern

parts of the sea, between Bakow and Lenkoran, a region bristling

with rocks and volcanic islands. From January up to May, they

explored and fixed the positions of several isolated volcanic reefs,

which, as they undergo frequent change from the action of subterra-

nean forces, often become very dangerous to navigators, and conse-

quently require frequent soundings and examinations. The materials

thus collected, regarding this volcanic region, may some day serve as

valuable contributions towards the composition of a complete mono-

graph of this extremity of the Caucasus.

In the month of May, the hydrographic expedition crossed over to

the eastern shore, between Tub-Karagane and the gulf of Karabougaz.

_ During the subsequent five months, an extent of more than 200

verstes was surveyed and sounded, chiefly between the isthmus of

-Manguich-lac and the gulf of Krasnovodsk, under the command of

Lieut. Phillippow and Lieut. Dournew of the Pilot Corps. Sound-

ings were also taken by Lieut. Onlsky, in the middle of the Caspian

Sea, with an apparatus specially constructed for bringing up specimens

of the different soils, and the fossil and’ animal life they contain.

In June and July Captain Phillipow’s party explored the entrance

to the gulf of Karabougaz. At the same time, Lieut. Staritzki made

some interesting observations on the speed of an uninterrupted current

of water directing its course through the Gulf towards the Sea.

= The object of these observations was to determine the quantity of

water which enters the gulf of Karabougaz, and the quantity of saline

“particles which is brought there. The exploration of the mouth of

the Karabougaz will serve as a basis for a complete study of this

interesting gulf. It is the opinion of M. Baer, the Academician, that

this study will lead to a solution of the question regarding the varia-

| tions of saltness in the Caspian Sea. No one will doubt the economi-

cal importance of this question, which is intimately connected with

the future fisheries of the Caspian. The results .of the hydrogra-

phie operations are developing gradually, and are partly published.

Tn addition to the maps and plans of different parts of this sea

84 Russian Geographical Operations in Asva. [No. 2,

that have already appeared, a report of the astronomical and magnetic

operations is being actually printed. ,

In speaking of the favourable results that have been obtained by the —

activity of our Society, we have not had the least intention to attribute

it to one more than to another of its functionaries. Among us,

individuals change and succeed each other so rapidly, that we cannot

say the progress and strength of our institutions rest with them. It

is the general conditions of our activity, and the liberal spirit by

which they are pervaded, that unite and attract a constant succession

of individual labourers. Besides the actual operations of the Society

during the past 20 years, a vast amount of labour has been undertaken

voluntarily, and without remuneration, by members of the Society,

as well as by strangers, in private and in official capacities. Such ~

are the public lectures, which many of our colleagues have delivered

without any remuneration, and which have attracted large audiences

to our reception Halls. We need not mention, in this place, the

number of persons who, during the past and many preceding years,

have disinterestedly brought accounts of their labours to the Society.

It is doubtless through the liberal spirit which unites and animates

all our members and constitutes our strength, that this great amount

of work has been accomplished. Religiously to preserve this spirit —

should be our first duty, and our most sacred obligation.

TRANSLATION OF A PORTION OF THE JOURNAL OF THE RussiAN GEO-

GRAPHICAL Society, Vou. tv. 1864.

At a meeting of the Society on the 2nd and 14th December, 1864,

Rear Admiral Boutakof read a paper on the subject of his last explora-—

tion on the Syr-Daria, between Fort Perovski and Baildyr-Tugai

(a locality in the Tashkened territory). In 1863 Rear Admiral

Boutakof steamed 538 miles up the Syr-Daria, from Fort Perovski.

This officer has now explored, determined astronomically, and mapped

1003 miles of that river’s course, beginning from its mouth. He

expresses his conviction that the river is nayigable still higher up

although, for want of fuel, he could not this time proceed further. The

general ascending direction of the river from Fort Perovski is towaré ;

the south-east as far as the parallel of 48° of latitude; thence it is

directly to the south. Throughout the whole distance of 538 miles,

1866. ] Russian Geographical Operations in Asia. 85

from Baildyr-Tugai to fort Rerovski, the river flows in a magnificent

mass of water between. depressed banks of an argilo-salinous and

sandy character, for the most. part inundated at high water; there

was nowhere either a break in the banks, or a stone, forthe observa-

tion of the geologist. The swamps,.after the subsiding of the waters,

afford excellent pasturage whereon numerous-Aouls of Kirghizes settle

for the winter. In the midst of these meadow patches there occur

here and there like islands, sand hillocks differing in height, from 30

to 40. feet, and overgrown with. tamarisk, &c. The dry argilo-

salinous banks rise from 7 to 10 feet above the level of high water,

and are covered with tamarisk bushes with thorn (growing high and

thicls), and. in some places with the ‘‘ Turanga” and “ Djida.” Nearer

to our own possessions, large tracts are eovered with the “ Saxaul.”

Vegetation is most abundant on the islands, many of which-are two

miles long. Upon these the “ Djida” grows 4 fathoms high, and the

thickness of the “ Turanga’”’ reaches 10 inches in diameter, Almost

all the islands are covered with a dense, almost. impassable brushwood,

where the Kirghizes declare there are tigers, drawn thither in pursuit

of wild boars. The breadth of the river is from 150 to 400 fathoms;

the depth from 3:to 5.and 6 fathoms; the current ran at: a speed of

7 verstes (42 miles) an hour, the average being from 4} to 6 verstes (3

or 4 miles) ;. the water was of a-dirty yellow colour, but when allowed

to settle, was very soft: and agreeable to the taste. Admiral Boutakof

found no evidences of a settled life throughout the. whole of the river’s

course. Patches of soil, cultivated by the. poorest of the Kirghizes,

occurred at extremely rare intervals; and these were irrigated by

water from canals replenished by hand from the river. The Kirghizes

generally sow millet, sometimes barley, water-melons, and musk

melons in their fields. There are two principal reasons for the absence

of population along the banks of this river : firstly, the absolute want

of any guarantee for personal security and for the protection of

| property and labour inthe face of perpetual disturbances in Turkestan,

| Pashkend and Khokan; and secondly, the greater advantage of settling

| along the rivulets running from the Kara-tau mountains ; these afford

| better facilities. for irrigation than the Syr-Daria, which inundates

and washes away its banks, and consequently demands an enormous

| amount of labour for the construction and maintenance of the necessary

86 Russian Geographical Operations in Asia. [No. 2,

embankments. This splendid water-course, navigable to Fort Djulek

(the extreme eastern fort on the Syr-Daria line of frontier) which would

be a picturesque feature in any other place, is surrounded by a bleak

desert, and is now only occasionally enlivened by migrating hordes of

Kirghizes, whereas the remains of the ancient towns of Otrar (where

Tamerlane died) and of Tunent (destroyed by Tamerlane) which were

seen by Admiral Boutakof, and the traces of a once extensive system

of irrigation surrounding the ruins of these places, and occurring also

in many other parts, are evidences of a once numerous, industrious, and _

settled population. The shores of the Syr-Daria, above and below Fort —

Djulek, present a striking contrast. Above Djulek is a howling desert ;

below, and particularly commencing from Fort Perovski, all is life and-

activity along the banks. Corn fields and melon fields occur conti- —

nually, with populous Aouls of well-appointed tents, animated by the |

presence of herds of cattle. The Kirghizes assemble by hundreds to

dig fresh canals for irrigation. Vast tracts of swamp and reeds, which

were impassable in 1848, have been protected by embankments

against the overflowing of the river and converted into corn fields

which now engage the labour of thousands: and all this is exclusive

of the localities within 50 or 100 miles of our Forts, especially the

neighbourhood of Fort No. 1, where, in the excellent gardens surround-

ing the Cossack settlements, grapes are grown, and cotton has been-

sown not without success. Kirghizes and sometimes Karakalpaks

constantly migrate from the Khivan territories to the lands under

Russian protection, so that they at length find themselves cramped

for space. The Khivan and Khokandian forts which stood on the

grounds now occupied by the Russians, were the centres of the most

merciless and barbarous persecution. The Russian forts, on the other

hand, are now guarantees for security, and serve to promote traffic and

the general well-being of the natives. .

The advent of the Russians did certainly produce a most beneficial

crisis in the condition of the Kirghizes of the Syr-Daria. K

Within 8 miles of Baildyr-Tugai, Admiral Boutakof’s highest |

ago. Ata distance of 40 miles higher up, on the left bank, are the —

remains of the town of Tunkat (rased by Tamerlane). This place in

1866. ] Russian Geographical Operations in Asia, 87

now called Tskilleh, after a saint of that name whose tomb is close

by.

There are more Kirghizes grouped about Tunkat than over the

entire extent of country traversed by Admiral Boutakof; and to all

appearances these were opulent, being possessed of immense studs

ef horses and camels, and of droves of horned cattle and sheep.

Above that place, 7. ¢. nearer to Tashkend, he fell in with two rich

migrating Aouls, one encamped by the side of the river.

_ Descending the Syr towards the river Arys, an open space becomes

visible beyond the zone of reeds, at 4 or 5 miles from the river,

studded with clayey sand mounds that are covered with a scanty

and low brushwood. Some of these mounds are evidently artificial.

On a sort of tableland, within 7 miles in a direct line, and almost

due north from the mouth of the Arys, are seen the remains of what

may have been the citadel of the ancient town of Otrar,

. From the mouth of the Arys to the little fort of Utch-Kayuk,

abandoned two or three years ago by the Khokandians, and built on

a marshy soil, the distance is 843 miles. The character of the river

here is still the same, the same bends and islands, the same depressed

banks, mostly flooded, the same vegetation along the shores and on

the islands. The forts Utch-Kayuk, Din-Kurgaon, Yang-Kurgaon,

Djulek and Ak-Mechet, (now fort Perovski), Kumysh-Kurgaon, Chin-

Kurgaon, and Kash-Kurgaon (the three latter below fort Perovski,)

were the rallying points of the Khokandians, for the subjugation of

the Kirghizes, and the centres for the collection of tribute and the

general merciless oppression of that people. Yang-Kurgaon, raised

by the Khokandians in 1857, and Din-Kurgaon, erected in 1860, were

the last points of Khokandian resistance against the spread of Russian

influence ; here also the last attempts were made by the Khokandians

to retain under their yoke the Kirghizes who passed over in masses

to place themselves under our protection. Yang-Kurgaon fell in 1860

to the Russian arms; Din-Kurgaon in 1861. Utch-Kayuk is the

‘nearest place to the town of Turkestan; it was visible from the

river, being situated in a hollow of the foreland of the Kara-tau

mountains.

_ The only affluents of the Syr seen by Admiral Boutakof are the

rivers Arys and Sauran-Su, falling into the Syr on its right bank

88 Russian Geographical Operations in Asia. [ No. 2,

opposite the An-djar settlement, 82 miles below Utch-Kayuk; other

rivers emerge from the Kara-tau mountains, namely the Tuitchke

whereon Turkestan is situated, the Karaichik, 6 miles lower down,

and the Sart-Su; these do not reach the Syr-Daria, but lose them-

selves in the marshes formed by its inundations.

- Below Utch-Kayuk the country at first is inundated, and large

wet meadows, or more correctly morasses, extend along both banks of

the river, but further on, especially on the right bank, land is firmer.

Nearer Djulek the trees en the banks are higher and thicker than

along the whole remaining portion of the river’s course. In the

immediate vicinity of this Fort, there is a very pretty avenue of tall

and thick willows, looked upon by the Kirghizes as a sanctuary

(Aulie). :

Between Djulek and fort Perovski the banks are generally firm and

salinous, but not elevated. The ‘‘ Saxaul” is very abundant at the

Kasakty-Syra, Chagouon and Kushsant settlements, and opposite

Burinbai. The islands and the continuing banks are covered with

the “djida,” ‘turanga,” and eccasionally with willows, and the

margins are usually clothed with high dense thorn and reeds. Sandy

hillocks occur beyond the saline plains, and in many places Kirghiz —

tombs and the remains of long neglected irrigating canals are met

wath. |

From the 14th July, when the expedition was proceeding upwards —

and was within 67 miles of Utch-Kayuk, the waters were visibly —

subsiding, and daily decreased, though the heat continued to be great,

up to 380° R. in the shade. This was doubtless owing to the exhaus-

tion of the supply of snow which accumulates on the mountains, —

where the river takes its rise. At fort Perovski the water began to

fall only from the 30th of July, and at Fort No. 2 from the 5th of ©

of August (N. 8).

Notwithstanding that Admiral Boutakof’s expedition had to halt

at night close to marshy lands, there were no cases of ague, and so

far as he was able to judge, the climate on the Syr-Daria, in its upper —

as in its lower course, was healthy. His astronomical observations :

disclose great inaccuracies in this portion of the map of Central Asia

which is founded on the determinations by the Persian Missionaries a

of the 18th century, :

1866.] Geology of the Western Himalaya, &c. 89

The communication made by Admiral Boutakof, who has long

distinguished himself by many years of labour in this region, was

listened to with great attention, and received with great enthusiasm.

We could not give here more than the mere outlines of the paper,

which he is now preparing for the press, and which will appear with

a map of the Syr-Daria. There is no doubt that Admiral Boutakot’s

work will be an agreeable acquisition for modern geographers.

Kashmir, the Western Himalaya and the Afghan Mountarns, a geological

paper by Ausert M. Vercuern, Esq., Bengal Medical Service ; with

a note on the fossils by M. Epovarp pr Vernvurr, Membre de

l Académie des Sciences, Paris.

[Received 11th March, 1865. ]

INTRODUCTION.

Of all the great chains of mountains on our Planet, the most

stupendous is, singularly enough, the least known to the geologist.

Many fossils have indeed been collected by travellers in the Himalaya,

and a few have been determined ; but satisfactory sections and careful

descriptions are very scarce, and it has not yet been found practicable

to attempt any general grouping and arrangement of the rocks and

beds of these mountains. Jacquemont’s researches in Kashmir have

not, I believe, much advanced our knowledge of the geology of the

country. Mr. Vigne was no geologist, and his observations were not

sufficiently accurate for scientific purposes; the same remarks apply,

more or less, to most visitors who have published what they saw

amongst the higher ranges. Captain R. Strachey, R. EH. in his papers

on the geology of the Himalaya, between the Sutlej and the Kali

rivers, gives a map and two sections which are of great interest; they

do not, however, refer to the portion of the Himalaya which I have

studied, and they leave yet a vast field for more precise investigations.

I regret not having been able to consult Capt. H. Strachey’s paper

90 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 2,

on the physical geography of Little Thibet, and Dr. Thompson’s work

on the same country ; neither have I had the benefit of Mr. Medlicott’s

Memoir on the southern ranges of the Himalaya, between the rivers

Ganges and Ravee, nor any of the other papers which have been

written on the Sub-Himalayan ranges.

Of the geology of Kashmir especially, I believe that very little

indeed has ever been published, and that not even a geological horizon

has been discovered. Mr. Vigne and Dr. A. Fleming reported having

found in Kashmir “ Nummulitic limestone disturbed and calcined by

greenstone ;” this was an error of some importance, as it gave a false

datum from which to fix the age and relations of the Azoic rocks.

Dr. A. Fleming, in his report on the Geological Structure of the Salt

Range, published in Selections from Public Correspondence of the

Punjab Administration, Vol. II., 1855, has the following passage :—

“From Kashmir, too, Mr. Vigne obtained limestone containing

“nummulites. This we have seen in situ on the side of a mountain

‘at the upper end of the Manus Bal lake, where it is much disturbed

‘and calcined by greenstone. It probably forms the summit of —

“many of the higher hills on the northern side of the Kashmir valley, |

“a district fraught with interest to the geologist and hitherto quite —

** unexplored.”

When I arrived at Srinuggur, Mr. Drew, who had visited Manus —

Bal, showed me some specimens of the limestone of that locality, and.

expressed a doubt about the markings seen on the rock being nummu-

lites ; he considered their markings to be the result of crystallisation —

and weathering; but I could not accept this view, and regarded

the little marks as indications of organisms. I was unwilling to

believe that Dr. A. Fleming could possibly have made a mistake

about nummulites, after the experience he had had of their appearances |

in the Salt Range and the Bunnoo district ; and, as Mr. Drew ac- |

knowledged that he was not familiar with the nummulitic formation,

and the specimens shown me were very bad and ill-preserved, indeed |

merely faint marks in a coarse limestone, I temporarily admitted

Dr. Fleming’s view. I was, at the time, unable to visit Manus Bal,

or to absent myself a single day from Srinuggur, owing to great 3

sickness amongst the visitors; but I had the good luck to discover —

abed of fossiliferous Lailisbinio and shales within a few miles of |

1866.] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. / oe

Srinuggur. These beds were near enough to enable me to ride to,

them in a few hours, and I soon found that they contained the same

forms as were known to occur in the dressed blocks of limestone

(obtained from Buddhist ruins) of which the river-walls and river-

stairs of Srinuggur are built, and I also found the remains of one of

the antique quarries near my favourite locality. Ultimately, the

rocks reported to be nummulitic were found to be carboniferous, and

the so-called nummulites, rings of Encrinite-stems ; the volcanic rocks

were also ascertained to be paleozoic in age and not intrusive. (Sce

para. 53, where the Manus Bal limestone is described in detail.)

To my friend, Captain Godwin-Austen of the great Trigonometrical

Survey, I owe my best thanks. I had wished that this paper

might have been written in conjunction with that gentleman, and it

would have been well for the reader, if it had been so; but as Capt.

Austen went to Bhotan and I to Bunnoo, such a hope had to be

abandoned,

In drawing up the map, I have used for its topography whatever

materials J could procure, but I have not had the benefit of many

recent discoveries and surveys. The compilation was made from works

of very different values. Kashmir, Hazara and the British Trans-Indus’

districts are, I believe, tolerably accurate; the Salt Range is less so;

whilst the Korakoram Chain, the Hindoo Koosh, Kaffiristan, Chitral,

Kabul, etc. only lay claim to give a general outline and direction of the

ranges, valleys and rivers. About the Hindoo Koosh, I much regret

not having been able to avail myself of the maps of Kaffirstan lately

published in the office of the Surveyor General of India.

It may appear, on seeing how little of the Afghan mountains is

geologically coloured, that there was no necessity of extending the

map as far as the Hindoo Koosh, but I hope that the advisability

of having sketched in this chain will be acknowledged, after reading

the fourth chapter of this memoir.

The geology of the map is partly from my own observations and

partly from information obtained from friends and travellers; I have

endeavoured to enter nothing which did not appear pretty certain.

I have been able to sift satisfactorily a good deal of the information

obtained, by means of specimens which were either shown or given

to me,

92 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 2,

T have added a few sketches of fossils which, I hope, will be found

sufficiently well done to enable the organisms to be easily recognized.

The forms sketched are those which have appeared to me most

characteristic of the beds met with.

The two parts of which this paper consists are nearly separate

memoirs. In the first, chapters 1 and 2, a description of the mountains

of Kashmir is given in some detail. In the second theoretical views

are discussed; but as Kashmir is merely a small portion of the

Himalaya, it was found impossible to understand many fossils without

taking such general views as referred to the whole mass of the

chain; and, further, as the Himalayan chain is supposed by me to be

intimately connected with the Afghan mountains, these mountains

had also to be considered. In order to be intelligible, it became

therefore necessary to write a cursory survey of the Afghan-Himalayan

regions ; this is done in the 3rd chapter. It is of course very superficial

and incomplete ; yet I hope that it may not be without some interest.

On the data furnished by the first three chapters, the hypotheses

advanced in the fourth are based.

I have not entered into many details on the eocene and miocene —

formations (except incidentally), as it would have lengthened to undue

proportion this already too long paper; these formations deserve to

be studied by themselves. The same remarks apply to the Jurassic —

and Saliferian rocks. In chapter 3, however, a few words will be

found on the nature and relations of these beds. The principal object

of this paper, in its descriptive portion at least, has been a study of

the older rocks, viz. Silurian and carboniferous, together with the

volcanic and metamorphic rocks.

I trust that the many imperfections and errors which cannot fail to

occur in a memoir of this nature, will not be too severely criticised.

My excuse is that this paper was prepared at one of the out-posts of

the Punjab Frontier, where I had not the usual assistance of a Museum

and a Library. Such as it is, I hope that it may not be without

interest to some of the members of the Society who are fond of

geological researches,

1866. | the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 93

Cuapter I.—Felstone and Porphyry.

The mountains South-West, South and West of Cashmir.

Baramoola is a small city, well known to the tourist in Cashmir

and to the pedestrian coming from Murree; it is a haven of rest, for

here boats may be hired to take him to Srinagar, the very heart of

the valley. From the heights above the town the traveller gets his

‘first view of the celebrated vale, and in the spring of the year it is

difficult to imagine any more beautiful landscape than it affords. It

is here also that disappointment or enthusiasm commences, according

to the traveller’s disposition: for to many Cashmir is an overrated

Jand, whilst to the scientific man, to the artist or the antiquarian it is

a mine of great wealth.

The town is built at the foot of a hill which has a direction west

to east, and is cut in two to give a passage to the river Jheelum. It

is approximatively in N. Latitude 31° 13’ and HE. Longitude 74° 23’,

Its southern view is limited by a small hill, the Atala, and on

the west a mountain of 8,467 feet, the Shumalarum, also confines

the horizon. Thus, placed in a cradle of hills, on the banks of the

Vedusta, it has a picturesque aspect, a damp cold climate, a celebrity

for rain and storms, and a great name for earthquakes.

The hills at the foot of which Baramoola is built are the extreme

eastern extension of the great Kaj Nag Range, which, proceeding

from E. to W. for 20 miles, bifurcates into a huge north-westerly

branch (which I shall leave alone for the present, as I know nothing

about it), and a southern branch which, proceeding S. S. W., divides

again, one arm going west towards Mozofferabad, whilst the other,

the Kiren or Kirna range, crosses the river at Ori (or rather the river

crosses it) to be continued with the Kandi range in the direction of

the Pir Punjal chain.

2. The whole range of hills near Baramoola dips 8. by a few

degrees H., and in describing the rocks from 8. EH. to N. W., we shall

therefore proceed from the more superficial to the deepest.

On the left bank of the river, we find a clinkstone or felstone of a

dark grey colour and slaty texture, and an appearance as if it had been

drawn while in a viscid state. It has a sandy feel to the hand; it

breaks into long narrow flags having a close resemblance to pieces of

94 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 2,

pine wood which have been cut and prepared for burning, and have

weathered grey by exposure. It has a well marked stratification,

which is cut obliquely to its plane by a slaty cleavage which forms with

it an angle of about 113°. It has also a series of parallel joints,

about 2 or 3 feet apart, and which cut the stratification at right angles —

but form with the cleavage an angle of 67°. The joints are usually

lined by a coating of quartzite, and both quartzite and felstone are

occasionally stained by iron. |

The felstone appears to be entirely composed of elongated and

flattened granules of felspar or albite, which has a sub-vitreous lustre

when closely examined ; it has a dark bluish-grey colour, but weathers —

ash-grey and even dirty white and some pieces which are very fissile,

assume somewhat the silky appearance of amiénthus. The colour of —

the paste appears to be due to augite; this, by decomposition, lets free

a certain quantity of iron which causes the surfaces of cleavage and ©

stratification to be covered by a powdery, rusty incrustation. Sparingly

disseminated in the mass are seen minute fusiform nodules of dark

shining augite; these nodules are never crystalline. Some strata

are extremely thin-bedded, like sheets of paper, and fall to pieces very

easily, ultimately decomposing into a brownish earth. Other strata

present an alternation of very thin lamine of nearly white and dul

albite, and a dark grey shining mixture of felspar and augite, so that,

when the rock is broken vertically, it appears striped white and grey.

8. The above beds dip S. and a few degrees E., with an angle of

60° near the Atala hill, but the angle diminishes as we go towards

the N. W., being no more than 45°, near the river at Baramoola,

For two miles along the left bank of the Jheelum, this felstone was

observed with, here and there, a band of amygdaloid interbedded.

But I made too superficial an examination of the Atala to enter here

into detail. Crossing the river to the right bank, we find that felstone

also forms the hills which overhang Baramoola. Just over the city,

it is similar to that of Atala, but as we proceed towards the N. W,

and therefore see deeper beds, the character of the beds changes

considerably, There is a beginning of separation of the minerals of |

the felstone, the dull white albite forming by itself innumerable

penicilli having the shape of extremely elongated spindles which —

are imbedded in the grey felspathic paste. The rock has still

:: a

1866.] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 95)

however, a well marked stratification which is rendered very conspicu-

ous by the white penicilli being parallel to it. There are also

cleavage and joints as before, but a great deal more quartz in the

latter.

The next beds, lower down, are much lighter in colour and more

compact in structure. The paste is ash-grey, felspathic and dull

looking, but instead of the penicilli noted before, we have here regular

almond-shaped masses of white saccharine albite, usually about one

inch long and two-tenths of an inch across, but often made larger

and with the albite in the state of a fine incoherent sand. Then

rocks, like the one with penicilli, but bluer in tint and interbedded with

amygdaloidal greenstone and felspathic ash, containing oval nodules

of augite, extend to the west, as far as the Shumalarum which they

appear to entirely compose.

The angle of dip, on the right bank of the river, is again very

great, being about 60°; and the beds are a good deal faulted. One

fault has a direction N. E.—S. W. and the river runs in it at

Baramoola, It is continued in a ravine on the right bank of the

river, about a mile below the town, The angle of dip is not the

same on both sides of the fault, and there has been a slight down-throw

on the south. The Jheelum, while in the fault, is narrow but

navigable ; at the ravine, it turns suddenly to the south, quitting the

fault and passing over a band of rock which stretches from W. to E.,

thus forming a small rapid. From this place to Ori, where the

Jheelum enters the Sub-Himalayan tertiary sandstones, the Vedusta

follows its course across the much up-tilted beds of felstone, changing

its character of a winding, placid, broad and shallow river into that

of a boiling, rapid, deep and narrow torrent, and forming, as it were, a

succession of small falls and cascades all the way down. The thick-

ness of the felstone near Baramoola is enormous. I can form but a

mere appreciation, not having followed the beds sufficiently far to

the west ; but I am certain that it is much above 5,000 feet. |

4. The following section (marked I. on the map) is merely a

diagram to enable the reader to understand the position of the beds,

It is oblique and not at right angle to the dip.

96 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 2,

WNW

about 5100 ft. R

above Sea level.

ja]

tk mm

oO oe ee

‘ Ly * Ts

wi “i NY ON AEN A NNR

eeonieut?? A) B

A. Dark grey felstone, slaty, stratified a with a cleavage and

joints. Fusiform, elongated, minute granules of augite. Many

thin beddadisiratany sic. RE aie cdde. oadles Be eee about 400 feet.

B. Felstone like A, interbedded with strata of felspathic ash

containing nodules of augite, ....... adcensebioe han? dee $26 380

C. Rough trachytic clinkstone or felstone, breaking in elongated

containing nodules of augite,

slabs terminated by oblique, clean joints generally lined with

GATE ZIG, Oo cc esis vs ence siews'son Joho Gesiewaavinn ean: On aph eee 500

D. Bluish grey felspathic paste with innumerable penicilli of

white powdery albite, ic .cclesccscctesccsbas cos devon eed rete ama ve 500

E. Pale grey felspathic paste with almond-shaped masses of

albite, either powdery or compact and saccharine. Beds of

ash interstratified, . eh eneipnaetents = sets s ecisteiens eel ea

F. A succession of beds ae to D. on ‘E. “injerstratiae with bands of

amygdaloid and of felspathose ash containing oval nodules of augite.

This rock appears to form the whole of the Shumalarum, and was seen,

as far as I could see, towards the west. i

G. Shumalurum, 8467 ft. ;

River Jheelum or Vedusta.

Baramoola.

The dotted line is the Atala. .

. Lacustrine Clay and Boulders.

5. The rocks, which I have endeavoured to describe, are continued

along both banks of the Jheelum as for as the fort of Ori, about twenty ~

five miles south of Baramoola. Following them on the left bank,

(Murree Road) we first cross the Atala, and can observe, near

the village of Mihrur, very fine narrow slabs of felstone, twelve feet

long, used as rafters to support a roof over a holy well or spring:

Proceeding 8S. W. we cross a small marshy valley, and near the

village of Ghaut Mullah we meet a succession of spurs directed

towards the N. W., and which are the extreme north-western

extension of the Pir Punjal Chain. These spurs are also made up

completely of felspathic flagstone, identical to that which I have

described above, but the dip and strike of the beds are different

from that of the beds near Baramoola: the dip is W. with a

AUS Bf

1866.] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 97

very high angle; but the rock is much decomposed, the vegetation

rich, and little is seen until we reach Nausherra. Thence, the beds

are well exposed, forming lofty cliffs over the path, of a grand and

picturesque aspect ; they are often quite vertical and seldom form an

angle with the horizon of less than 85°. But the same force which

has made those strata stand on end, has also broken them and

wheeled round enormous sections of the beds. Hven a superficial

examination shows that portions of the hills, some thousands of

yards long, caught as it were between two faults and thus set free

in their movements, have been made to rotate on themselves, the

strike changing its direction from a few to ninety degrees. Thus,

near Buniar, the strike is N.—S.; a little further south it is W.—E. ;

four miles before we get to Ori it is W. 15° N.—E. 15° S. and the dip

is southern and only 45°. At Ori the strike is again about N. W.—

S. E. and the dip northern and 80°. But it is often difficult to see the

stratification in these laminated rocks, as cleavages and’ joints are

generally better marked than the stratification. The general strike,

however, is from N. a few degrees W., to 8. a few degrees H., and the

dip is northern.

Between Nausherra and Ori, the felstone presents several ap-

pearances. The bulk of the hills is made up of a pale grey and

extremely laminated felstone, having much the appearance of slate,

and being crossed by numerous veins of opaque quartz. These

veins are sometimes so thick that they form bands of quartzite.

Near Ori, some beds are seen having the appearance of metamorphic

- chloritic slates. Others are made up of very thin-bedded felstone of an

| earthy appearance, and are wonderfully wavy and crimpled, whilst the

beds above and below them are but gently undulated. It appears

probable that these thin-bedded layers were deposited by water

during periods of volcanic inaction, and that when the covering

felstone contracted in cooling, the aqueous deposit was gathered in

zigzag folds. They ought, therefore, to be considered either as an ash

arranged by water, or as a laterite derived from the surface of decom-

posing felstone, and having the same composition as its parent rock.

6. About half way between Buniar and Ori, is a small Buddhist

ruin concealed by brambles and wild roses, and built of a dark grey

rough trachy-dolerite. This rock was obtained from a thick band

98 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 2,

which is well seen close to the ruin. It is divided into somewhat

prismatic blocks by joints; it is generally compact, but sometimes

scoriaceous, and it appears to have had some influence on the cooling

of the felstone above and below it, this being much more compact

near the trachy-dolerite, and becoming gradually more laminated and

slaty as we get further off. I cannot say whether the trachy-dolerite is

intrusive, or interbedded; but it is perfectly conformable to the felstone.

7. At Ori, we find a small valley sunk between high mountains

and crossed by a tolerably big ravine and by a torrent flowing from

the 8. E. to N. W. This torrent divides the hills on the 8. W. which

are miocene sandstones and shales, from the mountains on the H. and

N. E. which are volcanic. The Jheelum describes a semi-circle

round the extremity of the Kiren range, the beds of which cross the

river to be continued with those of the Kandi or Kanda Range, which

are the link between the Kirna Range and the Pir Punjal Chain. The

river runs for a little while between the volcanic rocks of the Kirna

and the miocene sandstones, but it very soon leaves this bed, and

cutting a canal through the tertiary sandstones and clays, bids farewell

for ever to rocks of a volcanic origin.

8. Iwill not enter into a description of the tertiaries in this

paper, though we shall have to see much of them incidentally, but

as it has been said and written by many persons that the miocene sand-

stones and clays dip under the volcanic felstone (generally described as

metamorphic schists or quartzose mica-slate), I must correct the error, —

while we are at Ori. Both the volcanic and miocene beds are nearly —

vertical, but not quite, and dip northernly, and there is therefore an —

appearance of the miocene dipping under the felstone. On examin- —

ing the high bank of the Jheelum, however, not far fromthe fort, I

could see the miocene beds bend backwards, thus showing that they

FELSTONE

Pea

MIQCENE

| | UE OOK ee

\ iK

TERRACE J/[ Ni!) Mea et oe, ae

pli tf aft!

ane = Mi AN 7 i “i

R, JHEELUM ( Aone UD HZ Yi Mga yg

ORL’ FORT

fig.d.

are superior to the volcanic rocks, but have been dressed up against va

them by a lateral pressure. The diagram (fig. 1.) shows well the folded -

1866.] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 99

disposition of the miocene and the bending backwards of the beds in

contact with the felstone. These beds are partially concealed by a

very high river-terrace of conglomerate, but this has been washed off

in many places and the rocks are left uncovered.

There is, in the Sub-Himalaya, sufficient evidence of miocene

sandstone having been mostly raised by a lateral movement; there

appears to have been a reflection, a refowlement of the miocene

beds towards the S. and the W., as if the enormous masses of the central

chains had surged up through a chasm of the earth’s crust and forced

the sandstone aside, instead of lifting it up. And thus the volcanic

rock of my diagram would have pressed against the miocene, and

curbed up and bent back the yielding plastic beds of sandstone and

clay.

9. Returning now to Buniar, half way between Ori and Baramoola,

we cannot fail to admire the remains of a Buddhist temple of con-

siderable size and great beauty. It is built of a white porphyry,

and of this porphyry we must now speak in detail.

The stones of the temple were obtained from huge blocks which

are strewed on the river terraces on both sides of the Jheelum, in the

neighbourhood of Buniar. Some of these blocks are of enormous

size: one I noticed is about 20 feet above ground and nearly as thick

and broad as it is high. No water-power could have moved such

enormous masses, and they have evidently been brought down by

glaciers. I have been told that Mr. Vigne supposed them to have been

brought by icebergs floating on a huge Kashmir lake, but we need

not go so far for their origin, as the Kaj Nag peaks, seven miles to

the north, and the Sank or Sallar, eight miles to the south, are mostly

composed ofthis porphyry. A glance at the map will easily demon-

strate how glaciers, filling up the narrow valleys of the Harpeykai and

the Khar Khol, brought down to the river-terraces blocks of porphyry

detached from the summits of Kaj Nag and Sallar (13,446 ft.

and 12,517 ft.). I had not time to visit these valleys and look

for ancient moraines, but some blocks show strix and scratches such

as glaciers alone can produce. These glaciers no longer exist, but their

disappearance is only the result of a change of climate of the Himalaya,

+ which is abundantly proved to have taken place at a very late

100 Myr, Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, — [No. 2,

geological epoch by the river-terraces, raised lacustrine deposits and

other indications of diminished rain-fall.* :

10. Examining the porphyry of the Kaj Nag mountains in hand

specimens, we find it composed of the following minerals :—

a.—Paste of granular, white, opaque albite, fusing before the

blowpipe without much difficulty or = 44 of Von Kobell’s scale of

fusibility.

b.—Small transparent crystals of quartz-like rock-crystals. <

c.—Large crystals of glassy shining albite, with a vitreous lustre

and a lamellar cleavage. Sections of the crystals are sometimes as

much as five inches long.

d.—Plates of white mica; sometimes grey. .

e.—Dark augite (or Horneblende ?) with an Iodine lustre and a dark

greenish grey colour. It fuses = 4, without swelling or boiling.

f—Garnets ; red, brittle and cracked.

g.—Grains of magnetic iron ore ; metallic lustre ; black.

~ h.—Gold ; in invisible scales.

The paste of granular albite is hardly to be seen in the most.

crystalline specimens of the porphyry; but it increases very much as —

the several crystals are less abundant and less well defined, forming —

rocks in which we see, beside it, only a few specks of dark augite and

spangles of white mica; even these occasionally disappear, and- we

have a rock having a saccharine appearance, and entirely composed of —

minute shining grains of albite. Specimens are found in all the

stages of transition, from the highly crystallized porphyry ‘to the

saccharine rock. | .

The quartz is not very abundant in the most perfect porphyry, —

but it increases in some specimens, rows of small rock crystals appear-

* The diminished rain-fall is the result of the filling up with diluvial deposits

of the great troughs situated between the Himalaya, the Affghan mountains —

and the mountains of Central India once covered by the sea, and now repre-

sented by the valleys of the Ganges and Indus. This filling up of the

sea-communication once existing between the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian’

Sea, converted the Himalaya’s climate, then insular, or at least littoral, to an —

eminently continental one. The tremendous rain-fall at Cherra-Poonjee

(503 feet during S. W. Monsoons) enables us to form an idea of what the

snow-fall must have been on the high summits of the Himalaya in the days

when the Bay of Bengal extended to the foot of the Siwalik hills, and the

Arabian Sea bathed the Salt Range.

1866. | the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. | 102

ing in the map. It becomes also amorphous and forms bands of

considerable thickness of opaque quartzite, crossing the rocks in the

same manner as similar bands often cross beds of shales or other

stratified rocks.

The mica is also scarce in some specimens, small spangles being

occasionally imbedded in the substance of the large crystals of albite

“of the porphyry it becomes very abundant, forming tufts of plates

which resist decomposition better than the other minerals, and stick

out of the rock where this has been worn and rounded by exposure.

These tufts of mica often form irregular bands.

The augite varies from a few specks to laminar masses of

considerable size. It is often found associated with felspar alone, the

_ other minerals having disappeared, and it thus forms a rock composed

of amorphous grains of albite and lamellar masses of augite. Before

the blowpipe it fuses only in places, small globules of a shining black

glass appearing on the assay.

The garnets are sometimes wholly wanting and sometimes very

abundant. It is very difficult to extract them from the mass, owing

to their brittleness. They are mostly found where the porphyry is

well crystallized and the mica abundant.

The large crystals of albite vary in size from half an inch to five

inches. They have two cleavages, one nearly at a right angle to the

surface of the plate, or forming with it an angle of about 95°. The

other cuts the first cleavage obliquely with an angle of about 115°.*

The form of the crystals is, I fancy, uncommon, and I will describe

one of them with its dimensions, in order to give an idea of the

proportions of the crystals. .

The crystal is always twin or composed of two hexagonal plates

(fig. 2) two and half inches in diameter between opposite angles, and

0.4 inch thick. Hither four or the six edges of the plate are

bevelled by oblique facettes, which form with the plane of the surface

an angle of about 138°, so that one surface is considerably smaller

* The angles of these crystals were measured with strips of paper and

a graduated half circle; the crystals were also much weathered ; the results

are therefore mere approximations. If I had had the means of measuring the

angles with precision, I would have figured the crystals.

102 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 2,

than the other. Two such plates are applied one against the other

by their greatest surface, but one of the plates has (apparently) rotated _

half a turn, so that A of one plate is opposite B of the other.

Fig. 2.

This rotation is of course only apparent, but it appears to have taken

place from the cleavage of the two plates being opposite, so that when

we look at a section of the double crystal (fig. 2), one side presents

the shining’ striped surface of a lamellar cleavage, whilst the other

shows the dull rough surface of a fracture across the grain. This

opposition of cleavage is probably due to a play of opposite electricity

generated during crystallization, but it gives the idea of one of the

plates having made half a turn before applying itself against its

fellow. % .

The perfect crystal is rarely seen; it is generally broken across,

and the section (fig. 2) is conspicuous on the surface of the rock,

so that, at first sight, one may fancy the crystals to be prisms,

and a little trouble is necessary to understand the arrangement of the

twin plates. This macle is therefore, to all appearance, a twin crystal

of one of the numerous modifications of triclinic albite.

1866.] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 103

of albite sometimes become loosened in their matrices, and, falling

out, leave angular cavities on the face of the rock. The rock,

when fresh and well crystallized, is however very hard: some

varieties appear to crumble much more quickly and completely than

others.

IJ.—The grains of magnetic iron ore and the gold I have not seen

in the porphyry,* but they are found in the sands which, I will now

endeavour to prove, have been formed by the decomposition of these

volcanic rocks.

Gold is washed in most of the rivers which traverse the miocene

sandstones and conglomerates of the sub-Himalaya, and is always

found associated with grains of magnetic iron ore. Let us examine

one of the districts where the washings are, I believe, most abundant,

the banks of the Soane river, in the districts of Jheelum and

Rawul Pindee, especially near the villages of Pindeh Geb, Kothair

and Mukud. Let us therefore go to Rawul Pindee and travel towards

the 8. W. along the road to Kalabagh. We find that this dreary

road, about 120 miles long, crosses obliquely from the N. N. E. to the

$. 8!’ W. the great plateau of miocene sandstone, conglomerate

and clay (Sect. G.).

There is a thick bed of miocene sandstone and conglomerate,

above 2,000 feet thick, which might be called the upper miocene

formation of the Sub-Himalaya (contemporary of the Sewalik hills

and containing the same Mammalian fossils), whilst the sandstone

and shales of Murree and adjacent hills, about 5,000 feet thick and

without fossils, might be regarded as the inferior miocene. These

two divisions of the miocene are not exactly one on the top of

the other, but rather the upper bed thinning towards the north,

covers in the southern edge of the lower bed in an intricated

* A similar granitoid porphyry exists in Portugal, in the hills near Cintra

about five leagues from Lisbon. It is there very variable in appearance and

consistency, and is generally made up of large grains of felspar and of quartz,

and of large plates of mica. It contains grains of magnetic iron ore, but I am

not aware whether it contains the large twin crystals of felspars seen in the

Kaj Nag porphyry. The Portugal rock is generally described by travellers as

granite, but is considered by geologists as decidedly volcanic. It presents

the character of crumbling easily after a certain amount of exposure,

104 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 2, —

pene PeanexOare SS

" MAAS oy oe Var

Re Res NOGA a

o UY Girgse.

Fig. 3.

manner, as represented in the accompanying diagram (fig. 3): 1, Upper

Miocene with Mammalian Bones; 2, Lower Miocene without fossils

(excepting a few roots and stems and imprints of leaves) ; 3, Porphyry

and Felstone,° &.

The upper bed is therefore not seen near Murree, whilst the lower bed —

is equally absent from the great plateau of Rawul Pindee, where the

fossiliferous sandstone is always seen to rest directly on the Nummulitic —

formation, wherever this breaks through the miocene. The bed we -

have to deal with here is, therefore, the upper miocene only. It is

much folded and faulted, forming stray folds and many faults at both

extremities of the bed, and rolling in broad undulations in the centre

of the plateau. Now, if we examine the much up-tilted beds near

Futteh Jung, Nusrulla, or else close to the Salt Range near Kalabagh,

we find them composed of a grey or greenish calcareous sandstone, of

conglomerate and of sandy indurated clays containing nodules of

kunkur. These beds look like inclined and parallel walls sticking

out of the alluvium, and separated one from the other by open spaces

or intervals; and one may at first sight fancy that the several strata.

~ have been wrenched apart at the time they were upheaved. But if

we examine the beds where they are nearly horizontal, as in the

neighbourhood of the Soane river near Kothair or Jubbie, we find

that they consist of a hardly cohesiye sand, very white and composed of

minute grains of albite and quartz, with black grains of augite and

spangles of mica. I have been in the habit, in taking notes, to ca

this sand, Pepper and Salt sand, and I shall here make use of this |

term, as it is a convenient one. Interstratified with this sand we find —

‘ the beds of grey or greenish sandstone, of conglomerate and of sand al

clay noted at Futteh Jung ; and it becomes evident that at the places |

where we first observed the beds, and where they are much tilted up, |

1866. | the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 105

the pepper and salt sand has been washed out from between the harder

beds, whilst in the horizontal strata, the sand has been protected by

one of the strata of harder rock which acted as a roof over the sand

underneath.

Now this pepper and salt sand is the one washed for gold. The

washings are done during and after the rains, asthe swollen waters of

the torrents bring down to the beds of the rivers a large quantity of

fresh sand. It is washed in the usual manner, and gives a residue of a

black sand which is composed of shining grains of magnetic iron ore

and grains of augite. A little more washing in a smaller vessel

removes the augite and a great part of the iron; and the gold, which

is rarely visible with the naked eye, is picked up by mercury.

If we examine the pepper and salt sand in situ, we shall very soon

become convinced that it is nothing but the porphyry of the Himalaya

ground down to powder, for we find in it numerous pieces of the

porphyry not quite crushed to sand. I have found some of these pieces

half an inch long and composed of a hard fragment of albite supporting

specks of augite. Pieces of the large felspathic crystals I have

seen also, and the smaller crystals of quartz are frequent and hardly

altered and rubbed. The sandstone consists mostly of undecomposed

albite and augite. It is not easy to describe in words the great

similarity between the porphyry and the white sand, but their

complete identity strikes one at once when we study the beds.

Dr. Fleming made therefore a good guess when he wrote the following

passage: ‘‘We have been quite unable to trace the source whence

the gold has been derived, and are not aware that amongst the

quartzites and quartzose mica slates (felstone is meant,) which are

much developed in the Punjal Range, near the Baramoola Pass into

Kashmir, and stretch west into the northern Hazara mountains, the

metal has ever been detected in situ. From similar rocks there can

be little doubt that the auriferous sands have been derived.’’*

And again he writes: “In the neighbourhood of the Salt Range

the scales of gold are small and almost invisible, but we have heard

from natives, that, in Hazara, grains of gold are sometimes found of

a size such as to admit of their being picked out of the sand. If

* Report on Geological Structure of Salt Range ; Selections, P, Govt. Vol. II.

1859, page 342,

106 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 2,

this be true, we may infer that the auriferous source is somewhere to

the north, and that by tracing the gold stream, so to speak, we might

arrive at a point where the drifted materials become coarser, and

where the gold, from its high specific gravity, has been deposited in

larger quantity.’’*

That the miocene deposit of the Sub-Himalaya has been derived

from the mountains situated N. or N. E. of it, is evident from the

boulders contained in the conglomerates of the formation, these

boulders being mostly volcanic rocks, such as we have seen in the

mountains near the Baramoola, and such as we shall see in other parts

of Kashmir. We will see, by and bye, that these volcanic rocks extend

to the west, along the northern boundary of the Peshawur valley, as

far at least as Jelalabad, and to the east as far, at any rate, as 80° east

long., and probably much farther, though it appears from Captain R.

Strachey’s memoir on the geology of part of the Himalaya mountains,}

that the volcanic rocks in the eastern portion of the Himalaya are

more intrusive than they are in the western extremity of the chain.

If it is indeed true that grains of gold of some size are picked out

of the sand in Hazara, some valuable diggings might yet be found —

in the valleys situated between the spurs of the Kaj Nag range or its

extension to the west. But I cannot help thinking that, with a ~

population everywhere anxions to wash gold even in very poor wash<

ings, auriferous sands of any economical value would have been worked

long since, especially as the sands formed by the decomposition of a

porphyry, similar to that of the Kaj Nag chain, and situated on

the eastern frontier of Kashmir are searched for garnets only. |

The magnetic iron ore is tolerably abundant in the pepper and salt

sand, and is at present wasted by the gold-washers of Kothair and

Mukud: but it has not been always so. In traversing the great ©

miocene plateau of Rawul Pindee, I noticed for many miles along |

the road, between Pindeh Geb and Jubbie, small pieces of black ‘a

slag, often in some quantity and evidently very old, as many

pieces were seen where ravines had cut the ground, buried a foot

* Ditto ditto, page 344. i ; i

+ On the Geology of part of the Himalaya Mountains and Tibet, by Captain |

R, Strachey, Bengal Engineers, F, G. 8. Proceedings of the Geological Society of —

London, 1851, |

1866. ] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 107

and half below the surface. Knowing nothing then of the magnetic

iron sand, I could not conceive whence the slags came, but on seeing

the large quantity of iron ore which is washed out of the sand by the

gold-diggers, I was forced to conclude that a time had been when the

iron powder was saved and smelted. It is not such a poor under-

taking as it might appear to wash iron from sand, especially as the gold

alone would pay the men 3 or 4 annas a day, and a very little arrange-

ment would save the iron. It contains about 70 per cent. of metal

of the very finest quality and the very best to make steel. It resembles

Swedish iron, and it is the same as the Kangra iron which has been

proved to be of excellent quality by experiments in England. It

is very dear, selling at £14 a ton. It is probable that the smelting

of this iron sand was discontinued from the want of fuel, which is now

very scarce on the plateau. That fuel was once more abundant, is

sufficiently proved by the amount of travertin seen in many places where

no springs exist now-a-days; and these fossil springs, if I may call the

travertin by that name, tell us of a time when a higher jungle on the

plateau and forests on the hills arrested a good deal of moisture, and

wrung from the humid monsoons a portion of the rains which are

now poured on the Himalaya. It would be, I imagine, easy for the

local government to find out whether the magnetic iron ore is still

smelted in some localities in the district, or when the smelting was

discontinued, and to resuscitate the trade, the iron ore being brought

to Mukud from the neighbouring villages, and there smelted with

charcoal brought down in boats from the Akora Kuttuck hills or

from Hazara. Excellent limestone is abundant near the banks of the

Indus ten or twelve miles above Mukud. It is also abundant in the

conglomerate on which Mukud is built.

The smelting of this iron sand would not, of course, give profits or

yield a quantity of metal worth mentioning in comparison to the

| results of European industry, but it might be a valuable enterprise for

natives possessing some little capital, and might much ameliorate the

miserable condition of the gold-washers.

12.—Returning now to Buniar and the Kag Naj range, I must

insist on the very changeable appearance of the porphyry. We have

seen that it consists of a granular mass, with large crystals of albite,

small crystals of quartz, crystals of garnet, plates of mica and lamellz

-108 Myr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 2,

of augite, and that any of these crystalline minerals or all of them

may disappear, leaving a rock entirely composed of a saccharoid paste

of albite. At other times the quartz becomes very abundant, and :

thick bands of white quartzite traverse the mass. Again, the augite, —

which is sometimes wholly wanting and at others in very minute

specks only, may increase and at last predominate and form dark

rocks with a semi-metallic lustre, the augite being generally collected

in masses of aggregate plates having the lustre of iodine. It very

often happens that the minerals are arranged in bands or layers as in

gneiss, and this apparent foliation also varies much, and often it does

not exist at all, whilst in other instances it is extremely well marked,

thus gradually forming a passage to the clinkstone, described in the —

beginning of this paper.

13.—I have not visited the high summits of the Kaj Nag: indeed,

I have only seen a few spurs of this enormous centre of mountains ;

but, from the road between Nausherra and Ori, one can see on the

other side of the river, towards the tops of the hills, immense masses

of the white porphyry glaring in the sun through the underwood which ~

covers these mountains ; and Captain H. Godwin-Austen, G. T. S.,

who assisted in the survey of this district, informed me that the white

_ porphyry of the Buddist ruin at Buniar forms the summits and

all the central system of the Kaj Nag range. From a coloured sketch

kindly made *for me by this officer we are enabled to see that the

porphyry forms the whole of the main chain of the Kaj Nag, a portion

of the huge North-Western branch, and extends along the western

or Mozufferabad branch towards Hazara. The rock passes gradually

from the granitoid porphyry I have described to less and less erystal-_

lized rocks, until it becomes the pencillated white and blue felstone

which we have seen at Baramoola, and finally the earthy, slate-like

felstone of the Atala mount.*

The summit of the Sank or Sallar, on the left bank of the Jheelum,

I have also painted as volcanic porphyry, from my observing that the —

valley of the Apaikey is strewed with blocks of porphyry to a —

* Captain Austen described the felstone asa hard slate, but as he said

that this slate was identical with the “hard slate of the lofty cliffs over the —

road near Nausherra,’ it is evident that what was taken for slate, was an

earthy slate-like felstone. At the time Captain G. Austen observed —

isis ke had not yet begun to study geology.

1866.] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 109

considerable height, and disposed in such a manner that they cannot

have been brought from any other locality but the summits above.

When I visited the Apaikey valley, the summits on both sides were

covered with a thick mantle of snow, but the very shape of the peak,

a smoothly rounded boss, was suggestive of a hill composed of

materials which wear quickly and round easily under the influence

of atmospheric vicissitudes.

_ 14—We must now endeavour to ascertain the extent of country

covered by volcanic rocks similar to those I have described, and I am

again indebted to Captain H. G. Austen for the following information :

“The so-called granite, or, as you say more properly, volcanic por-

phyry, of the Kaj Nag is quite unlike the granite of the Deosais or

, Ladak, which is pure granite or syenite. This Kaj Nag rock is seen

again in the mountains bounding the south-east end of the valley

(of Kashmir) and in Kistwar; and the whole length of the Chota

Dhar range, bounding Badrawar to the south, is of it ; I have seen it

nowhere else. It is so strikingly peculiar that I should certainly have

noticed it, had I come across it in other parts of Kashmir.”’

How far the porphyry of Kistwar and Badrawar extends to the

east, I have no means of judging ;* but we have seen that the Kaj

Nag extends towards the west into the upper part of Hazara; and

I have had described to me some “‘ granite” seen a few miles north

of Mauserah, near the entrance into the Kaghan valley, which

appears to be a volcanic porphyry similar to that which we have seen

at Buniar.+ But it extends still further west: Dr. Costello informs

me that a great deal of “granite” and quartz occurs in and near the

Umbeyla pass, lately occupied by the troops under General Sir Neville

_* The “ granitic” belt between the Sutlej and the Kali rivers, lone. 77° to

80° 15’, appears to be a continuation of the porphyry of Kaj Nag, Kistwar and

Badrawar. In Sirmoor, Garhwal and Kumaon it forms the centres of moun-

tainous systems such as Chor, Dudatoli, Binsar, &c. Capt. BR. Strachey

describes it as “often porphyritic and much subject to decay.” It passes into

“mica-shist showing a distinctly laminated structure,’ (felstone ?) and also

into greenstone.

7 Also “a place on the road (to Mausera) as it passes along the eastern

edge of the Pukti valley gets its name of Chitti wat (white stone) from several

large blocks and hillocks of white felspathic rock containing large crystals, the

same as that of the blocks on the ridge of Buri a few miles to the 9. W., and

like them visible “from a great distance.”—Jowrnal of the Agricultural and

Horticultwral Society of India, Vol. XIV. Part I.

110 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 2,

Chamberlain. The General himself, in one of his dispatches, describes

some of the hills as “ granite,” putting a note of interrogation after the

word, and thus showing that the granitoid rock he noticed was

sufficiently peculiar in its appearance to make it doubtful whether it —

was really a granite. From specimens of the mountains near the Pass,

kindly given to me by Dr. Costello, I have no doubt that the

so-called granite is one of the varieties of porphyry described in

paragraph 12. It passes into a felstone composed of very elongated

and large spindles of opaque, dirty white, and somewhat granular

felspar and bluish semi-translucent glassy felspar, and in the

spare felspathic paste which cements the spindles together, a few

irregular grains are seen of a mineral having a metallic golden lustre,

and which is probably Diallage or Bronzite. The rock has a great

resemblance to, and is indeed identical with, the most compact sort of

felstone seen at Baramoola. Bands of quartzite, of which I have

seen very beautiful specimens as clear as Wenham lake ice, are also

extensively developed, as well as enormous masses of compact gypsum

and tabular selenite.

Dr. Bellew, in his ‘‘ Report on the Yusufzaies,” describes a variety

of volcanic rocks occurring in the ranges which separate British

Yusufzaie from Chumla, Buneyr and Swat: ‘ Feldspar grit” an

‘‘ various combinations of mica and felspar,” “ porphyry in a variety

of forms,” “ trap-rock in great variety,’’ quartz, mica and clay-slate,

hornblende-rock, felspar-rock and amygdaloid; ‘‘ hard trap” (green

stone?) ‘loose, friable and crumbling” ditto. (ash?) He also des

scribes granite and gneiss; but he adds that the gneiss is quarried for

mill-stones, and, if these mill-stones, (which is very likely) are similar

to the mill-stones of Jellalabad, they are a coarse gneissoid felstone,

and not a gneiss. The granite again is a whitish rock, and we find |

Gt connected with and surrounded by, rocks undoubtedly volcanie.

I have no hesitation therefore in regarding it as a granitoid porphyry, |

similar to that of the Kaj Nag. A great deal of slate and “ promotie |

limestone’’ is also mentioned in these mountains.

that they are of Ener origin. ;

These volcanic beds in Yusufzaie are capped, in some places, by bedsot

1866. ] the Western Himdlaya and Afghan Mountains. til

limestone, and these again by sandstone. No fossils have yet been dis-

covered in either the limestone or the sandstone, and the age of these

strata must therefore remain unknown for the present. Near Jellalabad

beds of gneissoid felstone appear. This rock is quarried to make hand-

mills which are brought down by the Povindahs and sold in Peshawur

and the Derajat. These hand-mills are made of a coarse trachyte which

has begun to effect a partial separation of minerals, and these minerals

are arranged in streaks of white, granular felspar, greyish-blue

felspar, with here and there a grain of augite. It is, therefore, again

one of the varieties of felstone seen at Baramoola, and provably the

same gneissoid variety quarried in Yusufzaie.

15.—By reference to the map we observe that the Pir Punjal chain

is the first great parallel of the Himalaya, between the long. 73° 30’

and 76° E. It isa great chain, forming a belt of high mountains

between the miocene districts of Jummoo, Rajaori, Poonch and Ori

and the Kashmir valley, and at both ends of this great chain an

immense accumulation of porphyries and other volcanic rocks, rising

to tremendous heights, and covering some thousand square miles of

country, are placed like two bastions at the extremities of a centric

wall. What rocks then compose the connecting chain, the Pir

Punjal? The reader will easily conceive how vexed I am that I was

prevented visiting this range, more especially as the information

I obtained from travellers is most conflicting and unsatisfactory. Mr.

L. Drew, who has traversed the chain three or four times, was especially

struck with the enormous development of a great slate bar of un-

known age. We shall see in the next chapter, how very thick and

| extensive courses of slate are interstratified with beds of trachyte,

| ash and agglomerate, in the mountains bounding the Kashmir valley

to the North. These slates are completely devoid of fossils, but as

LT hope to be able to fix the age of the volcanic rocks with which

they are interbedded and contemporaneous, we had better reserve

the discussion of their age until after the examination of the fossili-

ferous strata of Kashmir. |

But the slates form only a band or bar in the Pir Punjal chain,

and not the whole of it. I believe, that the remainder of the rocks

of this range are mostly volcanic ash, felstone and agglomerates. A

friend of mine and a very trustworthy observer, in the following passage,

~~ 2”,

112 Mr. Verehére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. Z,

from a letter to me, is describing, I think, volcanic rocks, especially

——

agelomerates and ash full of lapilli and volcanic conglomerates. “ It

(the lacustrine deposit of the valley of Kashmir) rests unconformably —

on trapean rocks, quartzite, quartz conglomerate, very hard and

forming a compact mass.’”’ And again, further to the S. W. on the road

through the Pir Punjal Pass, he says: ‘‘ The rocks are principally

mica-slate, with thick beds of a hard conglomerate having a very fine

dark blue matria ; this, im some places, was a mass of water-worn

pebbles ; but in most of 2 these are scattered through the mass, and are

often in that case angular and small. Upto the Pir Punjal Pass the dip is -

N. with a high angle; having crossed the ridge N. E. this continues”

all the way to Barangulla, giving these altered sandstones, slates and

conglomerates an enormous thickness.”* The excellent observer who

wrote the above remarks did not think, it appears, that the rocks -

were mostly volcanic in origin, but I cannot help imagining that }

his description applies, in great part, to stratified ejecta of volcanic

eruptions, and the passage I have put in Italics is, I think, a very

fair description of ash with lapilli. Again, I must also remark that

the felstone of Baramoola has always been described’ by travellers,

and by geologists also, as mica-slate, though it contains no mica

and is nearly wholly made of felspar; what has been taken for mica,

being minute spindles of glassy albite. It certainly has a slaty ~

cleavage, and the most earthy varieties have a close resemblance to

metamorphic slate, and it is probably this fact which has misled most

people as to the nature of the rock. It is not therefore impossible that

some of the “‘ mica-slate,”” mentioned above, is in reality earthy felstone,

16. The position of the Pir Punjal chain is rather peculiar, abut-

ting as it does at both ends against enormous centres of volcanic rocks,

and being separated. by a great fault (the valley of Kashmir) from moun- |

tains also composed of the same rocks. In the enormous accumulation |

of amygdaloidal ash, agglomerate and conglomerate which we sha |

see, by and bye, on the other side of the valley, there is abundant ~

proof of the existence of open volcanoes in this part of the Himalaya, |

at the time the porphyry was in a fluid or viscid state. The extreme

* JT do not give the name of the person who kindly gave me the information —

quoted, as I do not agree with him on the origin of these rocks, and believe

that he missed appreciating their true value, though his description i$

accurate. id

1866.] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 113

regularity and evenness of the stratification of these cinder beds

renders it highly probable that the showers of ejecta fell in a shallow

sea in which the volcanoes formed islands. It appears to me, that we

cannot refuse to admit that the porphyry was the base of the vol-

canoes, and indeed the matter which failed to escape through the

vent in the earth’s crust, whilst the felstone or clinkstone and varieties

of trachytic rocks into which the porphyry always passes, are lavas

which have flowed under the pressure of the sea. If these views

are admitted, we have a series of volcanoes beginning at the Kaj Nag,

and forming an are along the north-east boundary of the valley of

Kashmir, down again to the mountains of Badrawar: of this arc of

volcanoes the Pir Punjal chain is the chord. Can we wonder, huge

though the chain is, at its being in a great measure formed by ejecta

of volcanoes received in a sea gulf and there arranged in conformable

layers ? The slate, as we shall see in the next chapter, was formed

during the intervals of volcanic activity, and it is not improbable that

the continual shower of ashes and hot stones into a shallow bay kept

the water at a temperature too high for the development of animal

or vegetable life.

Since writing the above paragraph, Capt. G. Austen has informed

me that beds of unmistakably volcanic rocks, such as amgydaloid

and coarse greenstone, are interbedded with the slate and other rocks

of the Pir Punjal. This is precisely what occurs in the hills north

of the valley of Kashmir, we may therefore regard the Pir Punjal

as a mass of volcanic ejecta interbedded with slate which was

deposited during the periods of volcanic tranquillity.

_ Cuaprer Il.—TZhe Mountains North and North-East of Kashmir.

17. By referring to the map, we observe that the Kashmir valley

is an elongated trough with its longer axis directed S. E—N. W. The

Jheelum has a similar general direction, as far as the Woolar Lake,

and the smaller stream which drains the north-western end of the

valley flows from the N. W. to the S. KE. To the north-east of

this axis, we notice long spurs of hills which descend to the water-

114 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 2,

edge of the Woolar Lake, the Manus Bal and the Dal and to the

lacustrine plains of Pampur, Avantipoor, Bij-Behara and Islamabad.

These spurs are the extreme south-western ends of a labyrinth of

mountains which forms a barrier, nearly forty miles across as the crow

flies, between the flat plain of the Kashmir valley and the chain of

mountains which separates Kashmir proper from Drass, Sooroo and

Ladak. If we consider the Himalaya as a series of parallel chains —

and valleys, we should have the Pir Punjal chain as one of the

parallels ; traversing the valley of Kashmir and the labyrinth of moun-

tains to the north-east of it, we meet another great parallel chain, —

which has unfortunately no general name. It has been called by ©

Col. Cunningham the Western Himalaya, but the name is evidently —

objectionable, as we want the term ‘‘ Western,” to designate the

whole of the Himalaya between the longitudes east 73° and 79°, or

between the Indus and the Sutlej. It has also been called the Central

chain of the Himalaya by several authors, but the great quantity

of snow which covers its peaks is merely the result of its being so

placed, that it collects and condenses nearly all the remaining mois-

ture contained in the south-western winds, and sends these winds

perfectly dry to the Kailas and Karakoram ranges. The beautiful

series of snowy summits presented by this chain is therefore no claim

to its being the central chain of the Himalaya. I am afraid no other

rule, but that of the division of drainage, can be considered safe in

estimating which of the many parallel chains of a same system of moun-

tains is the central one; and if we conform to this rule, the Kara-

koram range is to be regarded as the central chain of the Himalaya,

It is therefore preferable to name the chain under consideration by _

the name of one of its great peaks, and as the Kun Nun or Ser and

Mer Peaks (23,407 feet) are well known and very conspicuous

in the western portion of the Himalaya, I shall make use of the

term “Ser and Mer chain” to designate the great parallel range

which separates the basin of the River Jheelum from that of the

Indus. "4

Between the Pir Punjal and the Ser and Mer chains, we have not

only the valley of Kashmir, but a number of independent and, as it

were, isolated centres of mountains which, as I have said before, form

a complicated labyrinth of hills and valleys to the north and north-

1866. | the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 115

east of the Jheelum. If we travel, on the map, from the N. W. to

the S. E. of the valley of Kashmir, following the banks of the Jheelum,

we shall notice a series of mountains of moderate height, encroaching

into the valley, and separated one from the other by broad lateral

valleys more or less filled with lacustrine deposits. The first mountain

we meet ison the eastern side of the Woolar lake, and is called the

Safapoor (10,309). Its foot is bathed by a small but exquisitely

picturesque lake, (Pl. 6) the Manus Bal. The next is close to

Srinagar and is the Zebanwan (8813). Ten miles to the south-east,

the Wastarwan, near Avantipoor, is the next summit; then, after

erossing the valley of Trahal, we meet the hill of _ Kamlawan (8601),

over the village of Murhama, and the Sheri Bal close to the Kamla-

wan. Crossing the broad valley of the Lidar River, we find the

Hapatikri, a mountain which sends a spur-to the 8. W. to form the

small hill of Islamabad at the foot of which the town of that name

is built. Crossing the valley of the Arpat river, we meet with the

Dhar (8146) and the Nawkan (9207). We have therefore, from

the eastern shore of the Woolar lake to the extreme south-east of

the Kashmir valley, a catenated chain of mountains composed of

isolated summits, whilst their relations are covered by the diluvial

and lacustrine deposits which fill the Kashmir valley, and the

lateral valleys which open into it. This chain is therefore presented

to us as a series of summits and not as a regular chain.* Its

direction is that of the general parallelism of the Himalaya, viz.

from N. W.toS. E. Ten miles, as the crow flies, to the northeast of

this chain there is another similar one, that is to say a series of

summits, apparently somewhat detached one from the other, but being

in a line with the parallelism of the Himalaya. These mountains are

from the 8. E. to the N. W.—the Liwapatoor, the Wokalbul (14,310)

the Girdwali (14,060), Batgool (14,423), Boorwaz (13,087), Handil

(18,278) Saij Aha (11,334). West of the Saij Aha, this catenated

* T need hardly say that the catenated appearance of the chains described

in the text is in great part due to erosion, and that this great erosion is only

what was to be expected, if we remember that the whole rain-fall of the

southern slope of the Ser and Mer chain has to find its way to the valley of

Kashmir across these catenated chains, and that the Ser and Mer chains re-

ceive a tremendous snow-fall. I use the word “catenated,’ in the same

sense as it is used in Anatomy, to designate the arrangement of the lymphatic

glands of the neck, viz, like the beads of a necklace or rosary,

116 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [ No. 2,

chain becomes blended with the first one I have indicated. Ten miles

again to the north-east of the series of peaks just enumerated, is

another chain of detached peaks or centres of mountains, arranged

along a line parallel to the two others and to the general direction

of the Himalaya. From the S. E. to the N. W. we have the follow-

ing summits or centres of mountains: the Rajdain (15,389), the

Gwasbrari (17,839) the Harbagwan (16,055), the Basmai (15,652),

the Kotwul (14,271), the Haramook (16,903) and the numerous

peaks which, with their complicated spurs, separate the valley of

Kashmir from Gurais and Tillail.

Between all these catenated chains, connecting spurs or branches

are to be seen spreading in all directions, and it is extremely difficult

to give the direction of the resulting masses of mountains. But the

geology of these mountains will help us a good deal to understand ©

their topographical grouping. As we see these mountains on the map,

we should be disposed to consider them as long spurs of the Mer and

Ser chain descending towards the S. W.; but we shall see that all,

or at least most of these summits, are composed in their centre of

rocks which have once been in a fluid or viscid condition, that is of

porphyry, greenstone, basalt and amygdaloid; that these melted —

rocks are covered by enormously thick layers of ash, agglomerate

and slate interbedded, and that on the top of these beds of ejecta

fossiliferous strata rest quite conformably. It becomes therefore

evident, that the summits represent separate and isolated centres —

of volcanic action, no doubt much displaced by the last upheaval of —

the Himalaya, but yet preserving their relations to the beds of ejecta ;

which were collected around their feet and on their slopes. We have

therefore a linear arrangement of volcanoes, or at any rate of volcanic —

fused matter, or some of the collections of melted minerals may not

have reached the surface and never had a vent), this linear arrange- _

ment forming three parallel lines, and these lines being parallel to the =

eneral N. W.—S. E. direction of the Himalaya. I believe that |

similar lines of volcanoes or collections of volcanic matter are to —

be found between several of the great parallel chains of the Himalaya, |

but whether they are thus general or not, the ones in Kashmir are |

sufficient to prove that during the Palexozoic epoch, the volcanoes of

the Himalaya had an arrangement more or less linear, and that the |

1866. | the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 117

great lines of fracture on which these volcanoes were situated, had

the same direction as that of the Himalaya of our time.

18. Beginning with the southernmost line of summits, I will

now describe in some detail the hills which compose it. I shall begin

with that nearest to Srinagar, viz. the Zebanwan.

The Zebanwan is a mountain of 8813 feet at its highest point, witha

general direction from E. to W. (Map B). Its eastern portion is nearly

due H.—W., and is 24 miles in length. It then turns to the 8. W., at

the same time throwing out long spurs to the N. W. to embrace the

eastern shore of the Dal. The Zebanwan keeps its N. E.—S. W.

direction for 3} miles, when it bifurcates into two branches, a southern

one, small and short, and a W. N. W. one, 24 miles long. It is at

the end of this W. N. W. branch that the Tukt-i-Suliman rises, a very

conspicuous little hill, seen from nearly every part of the valley.

Still further to the W. N. W., 23 miles from the Tukt, the hillock

of Hurri Parbut rises out of the lacustrine alluvial. It is evident

that the Tukt-i-Suliman and the Hurri Parbut are only continuations

of the W. N. W. spur of the Zebanwan, and appear as detached hillocks

on account of the thickness of the lacustrine deposit. (Sect. A).

The following detailed section of Hurri Parbut, the Tukt-i-Suliman

and the W.N. W. spur of the Zebanwan is at a right angle to the

axis of these hills. It will give, I hope, a good idea of rocks which

we shall meet again and again, and which I will, therefore, endeavour

to describe now with some precision, as they are nowhere better seen

or more conveniently studied.

Section of Hurri Parbut, Tukt-i-Suliman and W. N. W. spur of

the Zebanwan. (Sections A, B, &c.).

Direction of chain: §. 65° E—N. 65° W. General strike of beds S. E.—

N.W. General dip of beds, north-easterly. The Section follows the direction

of the range and consequently cuts the dip at an angle of about 65° instead

of 90°. (See Sect: A). (Section II, of General Map). See also Map B.

Hwrri Parbut. This hill is a succession of hard layers of trachy-dolerite

and soft layers of other rocks. The trachy-dolerite is rough, compact, very

hard and dark; I have never seen it scoriaceous. It is sparingly amygda-

loidal, containing sometimes a few large geodes filled with white quartz.

These beds are nearly vertical, with a dip east-north-easterly, forming with

the horizon an angle seldom under 75°. The most westerly beds are nearly

vertical, whilst the most easterly layers are more sloping, There are seven or

~ 15

118 Mr. Verehére on the Geology of Kashmir, ‘[No. 2, :

eight thick beds of this trachy-dolerite separated one from the other by the

following rocks: (a) A slaty basalt, hard when fresh, but very soon falling into

—

foliated debris, It reminds one somewhat of the earthy variety of the felstone

of Baramoola. It is grey in colour. (b) an ash of a dirty-looking felspathic raste,

full of rounded or oval nodules of dull augite or hornblende. These nodules

are probably amygdaloidal in origin, being due to a bubbling of a hot paste —

of ash and water. It desintegrates very quickly into a yellow earth or a grey

gritty soil on which grass grows well, soon concealing the rock below.

These beds of slaty basalt and ash are well stratified, and fill up all the

spaces left between the layers of trachy-dolerite ; this last rock forms promin-

ent ridges or saddles om which the several works of the fort are built.

A marshy alluvial plain intervenes between the Hurri Parbut and the ;

Tukt-i-Suliman,

Tukt-i-Suliman. The western extremity of this hill (as it appears above

the lacustrine deposit) is a little knoll which has received the name of Rustun —

Ghurree.

1. Rustun Gurree: Compact greenstone either greenish or bluish; hard ;

fracture conchoidal. Hither no amygdala or a few large ones, about the size

ofa pigeon’s egg, often irregularly shaped, composed of white opaque quartz —

arranged in concentric layers and never crystallized.* Strike S. E.—N. W.;

Dip N. E. = 50°. This is a hard rock and forms a prominent boss of a barren

eharacter, It is quarried for building purposes, but is too hard to be dressed,

and as it breaks in angular pieces, it is altogether a very unsatisfactory building

material. This bed has a thickness of about ............+:0:00:00sesesves 60 ft,

2. A dirty yellowish-grey felspathic ash, full of geodes of dark augite.

It decays fast, the nodules of augite, after partially decomposing and

eolouring the whole mass ochre-yellow, drop out of their niduses and leave

a spongy mass of yellow earth somewhat resembling pumice, but not in its

hardness. It is used as a good clay for pottery. It is much better developed

on the northern than on the south-eastern side of the hill. Im one section

It is-mo amore than ice. ccc 0. c sei'ene's 4! aneonn ahlese dye souk) Renee aes een rr

3. Resembling greenstone but much more amygdaloid. It is hardly seen on

the southern aspett of the hill, where it is covered by vegetable earth and a

cemetery ; but it is well seen on the lake side near the water gate,... 20 ft.

4, Tukt-i-Suliman: A mass of amygdaloidal greenstone, sometimes

compact, as at the base of the Rustun Gurree, but more generally showing ;

dark specks of augite or hornblende in the mass. The amygdala of white ;

quartz invade it, either as large and searce geodes disposed here and there

* These amygdala of white quartz occasionally fall out of their matrices —

and are to be seen in numbers, half-buried in the soft silty mud of the lake near ;

the village of Drogehand. Should this mud one day dry up intoarock, a false ©

amygdaloid will be produced, all the more difficult to distinguish from fused —

amygdaloid, as the mud of the lake is entirely formed of the debris of voleanié

rocks,

1866. | the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 119

irregularly in the rock, or as smaller geodes mixed among long cylindrical and

twisted branches of quartz running through the mass. (See figs. 1, la. plat. X.)

I must confess, I had some difficulty in understanding these branches; they look

precisely like the arms of a cana! or like small rhizomes, and they sometimes

have the form of worm-burrows ; they begin with thick branches or trunks about

the size of the finger and throw out smaller twigs ; they are often 6 or 8 inches

long, and are cut obliquely by both stratification and cleavage, I have come to

the conclusion, after examining a great many of these cylinders, that they are

gas-vents, similar to the amygdala in origin, the imprisoned gas, in its efforts

to rrach the surface, having had sufficient strength to force a long passage

though the viscid paste.* Dip 55° to 60° ...........cc cece eee ce about 600 ft.

5. Amygdaloidal greenstone, graduating to trachyte; with innumerable

small geodes, rounded and pressed together. The greenstone becomes rough

and gritty and passes into a trachyte, it is much less amygdaloidal; and on

the other hand, where the rock is excessively amygdaloidal, the paste is a

dark brownish black rock, which is cleaved into. well defined slabs, and breaks

easily into prismatic fragments, This bed forms a depression between harder

layers. The stratification is easily seen by the several courses of the rock

superposed one on the other; but of course it is not seen in the thickness of

ee cece cacuccdsysscccegnen tenssatsvsep saronsees BOUL 200 ft.

6. Pale bluish greenstone, hard, compact, with conchoidal fracture ; it is

closely spotted with irregular dots of hornblende. At the base of each compact

layer, there is a margin 1 orl} foot thick and very amygdaloidal, the

geodes being filled with quartz. It is a very hard stratum .., about 150 ft.

7. Closely set amygdaloid. The paste is a greenish felspar, sometimes

very “compact and then dark, and cleaved into slabs half an inch thick,

sometimes light in shade and with the amygdala rather irregular and nearly

touching one another. In many specimens, the felspathic paste shows

@ division of the felspar into a bluish or greenish mass and patches of white

felspar; but there is no crystallization. Dip 70° nearly due E. The fels-

pathic paste decays pretty quickly and thus this bed forms a depression

ER cin taal eai oc rut sathbon Shades hip olay 50 ft.

8. This is the stratum on which the celebrated Buddhist ruin is built; it

is the highest summit of the Tukt-i-Suliman (6263 ft.) It is composed

of very hard, dark greenstone, with amygdala of white quartz, occurring

sparingly. Beds of lighter coloured greenstone, with specks and nodules of

augite are interstratified. A great many well defined long cylinders of quartz,

either white or black or smoky, such as I have described as gas vents, are

seen here. This stratum is a hard saddle or ridge; nearly vertical, and

eco Shs ALM abe ea oeiiie stciesytoe Ihc ceavenece) GOEE.

* I have since read that Dr. MacCulloch observed in Little Cambay, one

of the Western Islands of Scotland, amygdaloid containing elongated cavities

| Similar, I believe, to those which are here described,

120 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 2,

So far, the rocks have been purely igneous. We now meet an

alternate succession of igneous rocks produced by the decomposi-

tion and arrangement under water of volcanic minerals. Ash,

agglomerate and other strata of volcanic ejecta become also much

more abundant.

9. A dark blue slate, in places clayey, in others calcareous, and effervescing

slowly and feebly with acids. It decays soon and forms a depression. It

contains no trace'of organism..." ..00.) 5.000 activ Raeeatee eee ae

10. A lumpy brown rock coiaceeal of a coarse 6 félapatllie paste which

weathers chocolate-brown and contains a great number of lapilli, mostly black

and basaltic-looking. It shows thin, lenticular beds of pale grey felspathic —

ash containing innumerable geodes, filled, some with quartz, some with dark

augite (?) This stratum is not very hard, and rounds by weathering, so that it

forms a smooth round boss and not a sharp saddle. Itis about ... 30 ft.

11. This bed is interesting and presents a very peculiar appearance.

The rock is a pale grey trachyte in which crystals of dull white _

albite have imperfectly formed and arranged themselves in tufts

of imperfect crystals forming more or less a star or section, (see

fig. plate X.) When the rock is polished, (such as is seen in the

pavement of Srinagar where it is polished by people walking over

it*) the starry disposition of the crystals is evident enough, though

in the fresh broken specimen it is rather confused. The rock is e

passage between a trachyte and a felspathic porphyry. I have

never seen or read a description of this variety of volcanic rock,

and I therefore propose to call it ‘‘ Soolimanite.” On the north.

western flank of the hill, this bed of Soolimanite is better seen tha

on the other side, and there presents some layers which show well th

nature of the rock. Some of these layers, rather darker than those

we have seen on the other side of the hill, contain the starry crystals”

well developed in the centre of the beds only, whilst above and-

below, that is near the lowest and uppermost parts of the beds, the

* The stone is not abundant, and very few pieces of it are seen in the pave-

ment of Srinagar. I have seen two however, one in the vegetable market

near the great Musjid, and the other between the first bridge and the gated “a

the Shere Ganie on the left bank of the Jheelum.

1866. ] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 121

Fig. 4. | crystals disappear and are replaced

OOO eS ee by amygdala filled with quartz

x : a i a -

Me He Ad 4 ee *e (fig. 4.) Other beds again of compact

cate as Ww KX a, “x trachyte show neither starry crystals

nor amygdala in their centres, but

have their deepest layers invaded by

large amygdala, and their upper-

"9 OteE eS TeL ISS =? most portion full of small geodes,

having besides a scoriaceous aspect

Fig. 5. In the middle of this bed of Sooli-

manite, some of the cylindrical tubes of quartz described before as

gas-vents are well developed, branching in all directions through the

rock.—Dip EH. 70° ........... Dn tae estes Roeeeerats = about 30 feet.

. 12. Slate of various colours, laminated and very false-bedded, often squeezed

and twisted. It has been folded, the lower part being nearly vertical with a dip

westerly, whilst the upper part dips east 65°. The centre of the fold is much

contorted and gathered in zig-zags, and in these contorted parts a great nfany

gas-vents (branching cylinders of quartz) are well seen; some as large as the

finger, others of the usual size, viz. a crow’s quill. ...... TN at 200 ft.

13. A band of Soolimanite like 11. The slate of No. 12, has evidently

been metamorphosed by the action of heat emitted by the band of Soolimanite

which covers it. There must have been a considerable period of inaction

between the two out-pours of Soolimanite to enable the slate to become collect-

ed, and it is evident that the slate was yet in the state of a silty mud at

the time of the second eruption and was set bubbling by the heat of the

Soolimanite.

I may here remark that I am satisfied that many of the layers

of laterite, cellular slate and ash, which we shall see in this

Section, are nothing but true sedimentary deposits metamorphosed

and rendered amygdaloidal by the bubbling or boiling of the

waters which covered them. I had thought at one time, to try and

distinguish the beds of ash and volcanic mud which were probably

formed as I have just explained ; but I found the work too uncertain

and requiring too much time to be worth prosecuting. But no doubt

can be entertained that, besides the slate and laterite, many of the

beds of the mountains of Kashmir which appear to be volcanic ash

or dust, are in reality metamorphosed sedimentary layers.

122 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashnur, [No. 2,

The Soolimanite has a thickness of ..,........ atlas os gutta igen 9 et

14. The band of Soolimanite gradually passes into a felspathic ash,

often friable, but often also hard and compact and full of oval nodules of —

dark augite, varying in magnitude from the size of a pea to that ofa pin’shead.

Occasionally the ash passes, along the strike, into a hard compact quartzite.

;

The whole bed appears irregular and lenticular, and has been probably formed

by ejecta falling into shallow pools of Water .........scsecseseveeseeeeenes 15 ft.

. 15. A calcareous rock which is not seen on the hill side, but gives

out, on the brow of the hill, a good deal of nodular muddy carbonate

of lime (kunkur). Here and there a brown ferruginous rotten ash (or

metamorphosed calcareous shale ?) crops through the grass on the top of the

hill. It effervesces feebly with acid, and is probably the rock which gives

out the kunkur. This layer, which is probably squeezed out of its place near

the foot of the hill by the gradual curving of the strike of the harder rocks,

is, at the top of the mount, at least .. aed sedisnnsing bia do's paleo A etena ab |

16. <A thin band of amygdaloidal soeoanaee ae i

17. Slate, grey. On the western side of the bed it dips W. N. W. 65°.

In the centre it is much folded; on the eastern side it dips H. S. E. 75°.

This angle, however, diminishing quickly to 65° ........ccesceereceeeses 20 ft.

18. Greenstone alternately coarse and fine ........ecssseeseesessersee 20 ft.

19. Slaty basalt, dark bluish black, fracture conchoidal. It dips H. a few

degrees S. 70° .........00 ee So veu sso raete Keenan ote

20. A sciaubting va! anes Prrenerrs te aaa slightly amygdaloidal,

It decays rapidly into a dirty yellow coarse gravel. It is interbedded with bands

of agglomerate, the lapilli being mostly basalt ..........cc.cesceeee esses 50 ft.

21. Sandstone, hard, rough, quartzose and micaceous; apparently much |

altered by heat. No organisms’ 7../..¢)....citaves sssscouse tae ee. Capea eee

22. Coarse quartzose grit, very hard san rough. It appears to be composed

up of angular grains of quartz, variously coloured, cemented together by a

siliceous paste. It may be a siliceous deposit in which crystallization of the

purer quartz has begun to take place .. chsit's Ramon endian . 15-ft.

23. Sandstone like 21. Dip. S. E. PT ee

24, Blue compact slate, becoming seer ae first coarser and more like a

shale, and then more silty or like yellow and grey clay-slate. The stratification

is best seen by the coloured markings which indicate it to be only 25° and E,

The bed has probably been squeezed out of its place ............... eee 150 ft. @&

25. Coarse yellow sandstone with a calcareous cement. Cleavage well

miarked ».- NQ Or MaBigMsS..,.(. sepince- as enw cadsensen causes den demanbingpeesyleneie ey lean .

26. Slate, thin nedded. and falling into sed faa It is mostly

deep blue with bands or ribbands of yellow and grey. The dip is more regular i

. than that of the slates seen before. It is nearly due EH. with an angle

OF SOMME iS ling tts vicses calllerernnedes ae aiedliol ete rr ¥ :

1866. ] the Western Himalaya and Afyhan Mountains. 123

27. Slate, fissile. It differs from the preceding by decaying much more

quickly by exposure, the whole bed being covered by small débris. It dips

W. on its western side, and EH. on the eastern, whilst the centre of the fold ig

256. inc ak coe nns dae sane pushin natant ae 30 ft.

28. Slate, compact and dark blue ..... 0.0... coco ceccccccecee 8 ft.

29. Slaty shale, grey and dark, dipping W. a few degrees N. at an angle

of 55°, Itis continued (underneath) by coarser shales which form an anti-

clinal (not easily seen on account of débris and of the decayed state of the

shale). On the other side of the anticlinal the dip is nearly due E, 60°. The

extent of outcrops of this layer (not its thickness) is about...... 5 to 600 ft,

30. Metamorphosed slate, fissile and greyish blue ; much jointed ; the joints

are yawning, sometimes a foot apart; they strike W. E, vertically. The stra-

tification dips E. S. E. with an angle of 50°, but that is much falsified by the

stratum inwrapping the end of the spur. This bed presents in its middle,

thin layers as follows :

a. Soft, yellow quartzose sandstone, nearly friable, 8 inches. b, Dirty

quartzite, 8 inches. bb. Do. with veins of pure white opaque quartz, 1 foot,

¢. Ahard, brown, baked quartzose with spreading veins of quartz, 6 inches,

Total 3 feet. The whole outcrop of the bed (not its thickness) is about 130 ft.

Here ends the Tukt-i-Suliman, and between this hill and the foot

of the W. N. W. spur of the Zebanwan passes the road from Srina-

gar to the Nishat Bagh. (Sect. A).

The W. N. W. Spur of the Zebanwan. Ascending this spur in the

continuation of the section, we have the following beds :—

1. Slate more or less laminated, with large yawning joints striking W—EH.

The stratification is well shown by the colouring of the slate; it dips W, 45°;

inwrapping the end of the spur.

_ It may be here remarked, that the beds of slate, ash and fossili-

ferous rocks nearly always present this inwrapping arrangement

at the end of spurs and when they cross a spur; it appears that

these beds had plasticity enough to bend all round when upheaved by

inferior rocks. A fine example of this inwrapping arrangement is

Seen in the limestone which terminates the spur of the Zebanwan

over the village of Zeeawan: the limestone, in endeavouring to

airange itself around the band of volcanic rock which upheaved it,

has split into slices from 5 to 15 feet thick, diverging like an open

fan. (Sect. C).

To come back to our section, the slate has a tendency to break into

prismatic pieces, and the joint-surfaces are coated with a yellowish or

124 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, — [No. 2,

dirty white quartz. This bed is evidently a continuation of the last

bed of the Tukt-i-Suliman (80 of section A), and the road passes over

a synclinal, which would be very evident, were it not for the inwrap-

ping arrangement of the slate at both extremities of the bed. As we

go up the hill, we observe that the bed forms a small eminence of its

own, being separated by a fault from the western beds which have a

general south-easterly dip. It extends for about a thousand yards

along the southern aspect of the hill, wheeling round and, as it were,

lining the foot of the spur, its dip becoming gradually more southerly

until it is S. W. | |

2. Following our section, we find, after the fault, the same alter-

nate disposition of felspathic ash with nodules of augite, of dark

slate more or less laminated, baked and metamorphosed, and of vol- —

canic agglomerate full of dark coloured lapilli. It would be tedious and

unprofitable to give a minute description of each bed, especially as

the enumeration would be a long one, each bed being seldom more

than 10 feet in thickness. No greenstone was seen for more than

half a mile; the ashes are always tolerably compact when not in a de-

composed state, and always invaded by innumerable nodules of augite. —

They are always well stratified, and it appears therefore evident that

the whole of the ejecta fell into water, by which they were arranged

in well defined strata. The amygdaloidal condition of nearly all

the rocks, whether ash or slate, seems to indicate that the water was

raised to a high temperature during the volcanic eruptions ; and the

want of animal remains in the slate beds and amongst the agglome

rates is in accordance with this hypothesis.

It goes on, as I said before, for above half a mile, alternating ash

and slate, with occasionally a dirty-brownish bed of rotten and cal-

careous ash decomposing very fast and throwing out, on its surface

and also between its joints, a large quantity of kunkur. The strike

of the beds turns gradually to true N. 8. and the dip is H., the angle |

with the horizon being between 60° and 70°. Beds of laterite now

begin to appear, of a yellowish grey colour and resembling indurated

clay. They are a little harder than slate, sparingly amygdaloidal, —

and the geodes are very small and filled with quartz. They break

into small cuboid fragments. These laterites are interstratified with j

1866. | the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 125

w. A band of greenish-grey trachyte with small rounded geodes of chall-

white albite. It weathers somewhat reddish on its outside and wears in

rounded masses. It reminds one very much of some of the felstone of Bara-

moola, Strike N. 15° W.—S. 15° E. Dip Easterly 40°. But this stratum

varies very much along its strike, becoming in places a ferruginous, rotten,

augitic amygdaloid; in others a sandstone made of big rounded grains of

quartz, of hornblende and of other volcanic minerals, with a calcareous cement

which effervesces powerfully with acids, This sandstone forms slabs 1 to 15

inch thick, and superposed one over the other like bricks ina wall. Again a

little further on, it is a fine, very compact, smooth laterite, passing gradually

into a more sandy variety containing very minute spangles of white mica

hardly visible in the day time, but which shine well by candle light, and also a

few small rounded nodules of a pale green semi-lucent mineral. The variations

of this bed along the strike seem to indicate a very shallow shelving shore or

a pool of water, the bottom of which had been frequently disturbed by the

appearance of lavas or other heated matter. The bed is about 15 feet thick

at the outcrop.

a. Then the slate, blue and compact, comes again, with occasional thin

beds of sandstone or dark-stone: a coarse grained highly ferruginous amyg-

daloid, a sort of peperino, forms a bed 15 feet thick, and on the top of this,

here and there, are patches of grey laterite. The slate and the sandstone

_ alternate repeatedly in beds of more than five feet each, and this goes on for

a thickness of about 160 feet.

ik, A ridge of coarse, brown, slightly micaceous sandstone, in superposed

slabs like a built wall, now makes its appearance. It strikes S. W.—N. E. and

dips easterly 45°. This strike S. W.—N. E., meeting the strike of the preceding

layers » and wi which is N. 15° W.—S. 15° E., leaves an open angle or yawning

on the northern flank of the hill, and this is filled up by laminated slate, much

broken and of various colours, a good deal of it being yellow. It is the yielding

of this soft slate which has allowed the hard and unyielding sandstone to take

‘a direction to the S. W. instead of to the S.

The thickness of this sandstone ridge is about 45 feet, and that of the slate,

‘which fills up the gap or yawning on the flank of the hill, about 40 feet.

wivi. Slate, hard but much cleaved ; about 80 feet.

. wiv. A-ridge of very compact and massive baked clay, having a conchoidal

- fracture and large distant joints. It is yellowish grey in colour, with bands of

lighter yellow: one would take it for a light-coloured basalt, if it were not for

its trifling hardness, which is about that of slate. It appears to be a clay

made up of silty mud, derived from basaltic and other volcanic rocks and

‘baked after formation. Perhaps it would be best named “ Massive Laterite.”’

The joints and the surface are covered with a rich brown iridescent oxide

of iron or a black crust of the same material, This rock is nearly vertical,

‘and is neara fault of considerable extent which cuts the hill right across;

126 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmar, [No. 2,

and this proximity to a large fault might perhaps account for the metamor-

phosed appearance of the clay.

FAvLt. The fault is about 500

feet wide, and is filled with

zig-zagged slate, ash and

laterite. A very great deal

of kunkur is found all over

the ground. This fault goes

right across the hill, from

near the ruin of Pari Ma-

hal to the small spur over

the village of Pandrettan.

1. Slate. 2. Massive Laterite or Baked Clay.

3. Slate, Ash and Laterite in the fault.

4. Amygdaloidal Greenstone.

East of the fault, the rocks are very different; they are rocks similar to

those we saw at the foot of the Tukt-i-Suliman ; viz. greenstone and amygda-

oid, and there has been therefore a downthrow on the west of the fault. The

strike is very different on both sides of the fault. We have seen that on the

west side it is S. W.—N. E. with an eastern dip; the greenstone and amyg-

daloid strike S. H.—N. W., dipping to the N. EH.

There is no occasion to describe these greenstones and amygdaloids

again, as I have done so before at the foot of the Tukt-i-Suliman. But —

we must notice here a very great quantity of what I have called gas- 7

vents ; the amygdaloidal greenstone is in some places completely per- —

forated by these vents which are sometimes filled with quartz,

sometimes with augite, and sometimes left empty. (See figs. 1. la,

Ps ey)

20. Crossing the broad ravine above the village of Pandrettan, a

ravine in which once flourished a Buddhist city of which the ruined

walls are still to be traced, we notice a spur composed of dark and

brittle basalt, much jointed but not columnar. It is interstratified —

with a volcanic ash, similar to that seen in the Rustun Gurree. The q

end of the spur presents a fine example of beds of ash and latent .

inwrapping or infolding subjacent beds: the spur is narrow and the if |

layers of ash and laterite are bent down on each side of it, just as a layer

of paste laid across a ruler would by its weight bend on each side of a

the ruler. The dip of the beds is N. E., and consequently the strike

is obliquely across the spur which has a W. south-western direction, —

1866.] = the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains, 127

and forming arches along the strike. This curvature of course falsi-

fies the dip on both flanks of the hill, the dip becoming northern on

the south eastern flank of the spur, and south east on the other

flank.

The lowest portion of the spur forms a little mound on which may be

seen the remains of a gigantic Buddhist figure. The figure is that of

a woman, but it is now prostrate and headless. It is a huge block of

limestone. There are many other Buddhist remains at Pandrettan,

all built of that rock: amongst others, a small temple in a tank is

well worthy of a visit.

From Pandrettan to Panchhooka, we have a succession of thick

beds of dark basalt, cleaved and jointed but never columnar, and

greenstone and amygdaloid, with a few beds of compact ash

containing oval nodules of augite. The basalt is the only rock

which has not been described before. It is best seen in a little spur

which descends to the Jheelum, hardly half a mile east of the

Buddhist figure on the little knoll. It has sometimes a very black

and conchoidal fracture, and at other times a pale pitch and bluish

colour. It breaks into prismatic blocks which are quarried at the

place where the spur hangs over the river. It does not appear

to be amygdaloidal, but the greenstone into which it passes is.

sparingly so, the geodes being large and filled with quartz. It is

difficult to ascertain the stratification or superposition, owing to the

well marked cleavages and joints, but by observing the beds of com-

pact ash occasionally met with, it is found to be easterly at a very

high angle with the horizon. All the way from the stone quarry, at

Alwajin, to that portion of the village of Panchhooka, designated on

the map as “‘ Large Cheenar Trees,” there is a succession of these beds,

but the angle of dip diminishes gradually as we travel eastwards and

is only 45° at Panchhooka. There we find the following beds :—

A slaty basalt, dark and heavy, dipping to the E, a few degrees S, at an

angle of 45° with the horizon. It has a cleavage dipping due W. with an angle

of 45°, and vertical joints striking S. W.—N. H, It is succeeded by a coarse

trap, a sort of trachyte showing a certain amount of crystallization, the

rock having a granitoid or rather gneissoid appearance. The augite and the

glassy felspar are the only minerals tolerably crystalline, the remainder

being a paste which is sometimes nearly white, or yellow and rough;

Sometimes greenish-grey and conchoidal in fracture, or blue, indigo-blue and

128 - Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, ~~ [No. 2,

French grey. There is much in these strata to remind one of the starry

trachyte or Soolimanite of the Tukt-i-Suliman, but the starry arrangement

of elongated crystals of albite is never perfectly seen, :

A layer of amygdaloid covers in the trachyte.

From Pandrettan to Panchhooka, we have been examining the beds

of the southern spur of the Zebanwan. The W. N. W. spur may be

considered to end or rather to begin over Pandrettan, and from thence

eastwards we cross the digitations of the southern spur. A glance at

the horizontal section (Map B) will render any further explanation

unnecessary.

- Here ends our section through Hurri Parbut, the Tukt-i-Suliman

and the W. N. W. portion of the Zebanwan.

21. We will now examine the south-south-eastern flank of the

Zebanwan, following a section from near Panchhooka towards

the EH. N. E. (See Map B.) (Section III. of General Map or

Map A.)

- We meet first a long slender spur proceeding from the main range —

of the Zebanwan to the 8. 8. H., and as this spur is very interesting, —

I have called it the Zeeawan spur from the name of a village situated —

close to its extremity. (Sect. A, B and C.). .

* The Zeeawan spur is composed, high up the hill, of the same

basalt, amygdaloid and greenstone which we have seen in the preced- —

ing spur, but towards its end it is made up of enormously thick beds

of volcanic agglomerate. This agglomerate is composed-of a cement

having the shining appearance ofa slag, but not in its vesicular arrange- —

ment. It contains lapilli of nearly all the rocks which we have seen

before, viz. greenstone, basalt, amygdaloid, slate of various sorts, and

pieces of both felspathic and augitic ash. These lapilli are quite

angular and crammed together so close that in some places the cement

can hardly be seen. This cement appears to have at first coated the

fragments with a thin layer of a dark shining paste, and then elued

them together with a coarser material ; or it is very possible that this |

coating is a superficial melting of the lapilli, and that the cement is ;

a lava. However this may be, this agglomerate forms the greater F

portion of the spur. A confused stratification is discernible, dipping

to the H. 8. KH. at a higher angle, and cut at right angles by well —

marked joints; thus huge blocks are separated from the mass and

1866.] the Western Himalaya and Afyhan Mountains, 129

strew the ground at the foot of the spur. Towards its end, the spur

bifurcates into two digitations, the most westerly being entirely made

up of agglomerate, whilst the most easterly presents the following

section : — |

Section of the end of the Zeeawan spur above the village of Zee-

awan. (See Sections B. and C.)

1. Volcanic agglomerate with a shining, dark, semi-vitreous cement, It is

interstratified with bands of amygdaloid and thin layers of peperino.

2. Quartzite, white, opaque, stratified; it breaks into cuboid fragments;

owing to numerous well-marked joints. It igs sometimes yellowish, but

usually quite white. It is a conspicuous layer and deserves to be remembered,

as it always occurs between the volcanic rocks and the beds of limestone to be

Meereaicer described.* ... ........ccccsc.cesseesed s+ ae Sénisas hun ves aiciacen dS sonnel WALD ‘fb.

3. Compact basalt, of a dark colour and breaking in prismatic pieces. It ig

often scoriaceous on the surface of AVOUT conc cieps tacts «x the'geniccrcae AU) TG,

5. Greyish-blue basalt ; heavy ; much fissured. Han nas'dersenhaxcp¥ikes |... E Et,

6. Coarse yellow sand, with numerous water-worn pebbles of the basalt

No. 5 imbedded in the sand. The pebbles are lenticular in shape, such as are

Seen on the shores of lakes and sluggish rivers, and unlike those rounded

by torrents. ............., BONA SA Sn sip dnp a ah Sots sn ap Binigd nin diuaisirds ns Ree su esas 6 ft.

Y. Sandstone, grey and bluish, but weathering to a fawn-colour. It containg

a few water-worn pebbles similar to those seen in the preceding layer, 3 ft.

8. Slate, greyish-blue ; fissured and foliated. Masa IGee awewhies ane > | CO Lb

9. Sandstone of rolled grains of MOREEL Aras ai Bee sek std occas) SRR:

a0, Slate, as before. ..........020. see sese sas Net ani sedh avin tevivaie bnnade |e eCEes

11. Compact and dark rock, much jointed and breaking in flat square

pieces. Hither a baked clay or a laterite. It is all broken to pieces on the sur-

ee ee ft.

"A conglomerate of water-worn pebbles of trap united by a calcareous

cement. The pebbles are not lenticular, but rounded.................. 2 ft.

13. Dark shales containing débris of fossils not determinable. .. 10 ft.

_ 14, Limestone; dark greyish-blue; coarsely crystalline ; In places very

impure, argillaceous and shaly, It is a mass of fossils. .....660...... 5 ft.

‘4. Compact amygdaloidal greenstone. .......,

tial

' * Having now reached the fossiliferous strata, I shall not, in charity to the

reader, give the section of the spurs of the Tukt-i-Suliman and Zebanwan

which face the little lake or Dal. But the map (see Map B) will enable

any one wishing to know the geology of these spurs, to satisfy his curiosity.

Ihave indeed to apologize for the minutéhness of the section of the Tukt-i-

uliman, &c. But ina country new to the geologist, a section, I think, cannot

be too minutely detailed. bens

130 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 2,

. 15. Dark brown calcareo-ferruginous shales, exfoliating in thin plates and

undergoing quick PEON; It weathers nearly black. Extremely rich in

HOSSUS. | .5. . +s cam cogine operas spade dey ipas bills eject pepe eRe paiseee eabcas @aRana tena

16.) — Limestone, seek soca sao + 00 tbant 9 Sate ae Ra a

17. Dark brown eet donates chats us asieaeleenisnoe een sens Sb.

US... Taisho’. 7. Hiertsiele crus seca acicine <4 nes eelaeetnn caterer e eee 10 ft.

19. Sandy shales, very all eee black ; do not efferrasee with acids; —

MO een tl es

very rich in fossils. ... nana spiNieh ia aepinae te roe

20. Limestone; less coarse ae Eee ay very 7 foasilitende, ce wee

21. Limestone; hard and arenaceous; separated by thin layers of shale

which weather dark brown and appear in relief on the section of the .

WEG. 48 Boe tia. aT cotta ek wa rectenoeptes deve desnys 8s 63.0) Scien aa) ele

Any further bed which may exist is concealed under Hboulis.

22. When I first met with this bed of limestone, I was particularly

delighted, as I had seen no limestone in Kashmir, except the huge

carved blocks of the Buddhist ruins near Srinagar and at Pandrettan. —

I was told that the fine bluish-grey limestone of these ruins ©

was no longer to be found in the country, and that nobody could

guess whence the stone had been obtained. Even some of the Sur--

veyors of the Kashmir Series, G. T. S. corroborated this opinion,

which appears to be the received one amongst the natives. I could

see at a glance that here I had the very stone, and in examining the ~

bed I came across the remains of an old quarry. I subsequently found

some much larger Buddhist quarries of limestone, as we shall see by

and. bye. 3

Misled by Mr. Vigne and Dr. A. Fleming, who, as I have said,

stated that they obtained nummulites from the Kashmir valley, I

began to look diligently for these foraminifers. I found indeed a few

rounded bodies which might be taken either for nummulites or

rings of crinoid stems. I did not at first hit on a very good

portion of the bed for fossils; those I found were extremely weather-

ed, and I could only pay flying visits to Zeeawan. But I tried once 4

more to discover nummulites, when lo! I came across a Productus!

The following genera were found to be abundant: Productus, a

Athyris, Orthis, Strophomena or Leptena, and Spirifers amongst —

the Brachiopods. Very few lamellibranchiates and gasteropods

were seen, but- an immense number of Bryozoa, especially two or

three genera of Fenzstellides—viz. Acanthocladia and Fenestella and

1866.] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 131

innumerable inviduals of what has been called Vincularia multangu-

laris (Portlock), but which some say is not a Vincwlarva at all.

Some gf the fossils are familiar to every body: the Productus

semi-reticulatus (Martin), P. costatus (Sow.), the Athyris Rovssyt

(L’Eveillé). Other fossils are interesting on account of their rarity,

and first amongst these is the claw of a crustacean, the pincers of

which are two and a half inches in length. Though the pincers are

neither teethed internally nor flattened into organs of natation, we

may, I think, refer the fossil provisionally to the genus Lurypterus,

if it is not even a true Limulus. (See Pl. V. fig. 4.)

23. We have therefore, resting on the volcanic rocks, beds of

carboniferous limestone. These beds are of great thickness, and they

change their characters very considerably as we follow them

upwards. I have divided them into three great divisions, and I

have called these by the names of the localities where they were

found to be well developed. The lowest bed, which we have just

seen, I have called the Zeeawan bed, from the village of Zeeawan.

The next above will be called the Weean bed, from the village of

Weean near which it is well developed ; and the uppermost division

Ihave named the Kothair bed,* from the name of a small district

at the foot of the mountains where this upper bed is well seen.

I have preferred adopting these names to the plan of using the desig-

nations of Lower, Middle and Upper, as further observations’ may

render it desirable to sub-divide any division into two or more sec-

tions, in which case the terms lower, middle and upper would become

inconvenient. In the present state of our knowledge of the geology

of Kashmir and the N. W. Punjab, we may nevertheless remember

with advantage, that the Zeeawan is the lowest, the Weean the middle,

and the Kothair the upper bed of the mountain limestone.

24. To come back to our section near Zeeawan: we must first

notice the inwrapping disposition of the beds around the end of the

spur. The general strike of the volcanic rocks is N. N. H.—S. 8. W.

__* So few fossils were found in the Kothair bed, that it is not possible to

place it, with any certainty, in the carboniferous; the same reason prevents

its being placed in the Permian or Triassic. The place of this bed as the

uppermost carboniferous is therefore only temporary. See the remark after

the list of fossils found in the Kothair bed, Chapter II., para. 50,

132 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashir, [No. 2, }

and the dip E. 8. EK. High up the spur, this dip forms a considerable

angle with the horizon, but it diminishes gradually as we descend

towards the plain; at the bed of quartzite it isabout 45% and at

the limestone it is generally 40°. But these rocks, that is from the

quartzite upwards, appear to have been upheaved by a narrow band of -

hard rock catching them in the centre and pressing them upwards in

that central point, whilst the sides of the beds were unsupported.

Instead of yielding softly and shaping themselves into a carapace-

like coating, as slate and ash would have done, the limestone and the

shales have separated into thick bands or slices, and these bands have

spread themselves out like a fan. At the small end of the fan there

has been a considerable crushing of the beds one against the other,

and enormous blocks, indeed whole pieces, of the limestone courses

have been squeezed out of place; whilst, at the circumference of the

fan, the beds have been parted from one another, and in some place

we can see the layers of limestone separated by open intervals two or

three feet wide. (See horizontal section, Sec. C.)

25. I will now try to define the character of the Zeeawan bed of

carboniferous limestone :—Its lithological characters are, that it is a

rough, coarse and semicrystalline limestone of a dark bluish-grey colour,

weathering a rich grey. If we break it, we find it made of innumerable

irregular grains of a darker limestone united by a lighter cement more

or less crystalline. It is full of debris of fossils ; indeed I am not quite

‘sure that the darker grains are not the debris of the organisms ot

excrements of animals. It is fetid. Portions of it are arenaceous of

rather shaly, and these, when exposed to the air, decompose partially |

becoming soft and crumbling. ‘The stone is soft to work and cutg |

with great ease, except where there are too many large fossils. I

contains an immense number of minute crinoid-stems converted inté

spar: it breaks obliquely to the surface and gives flashes of light

at certain angles. It is interstratified with courses of rich-browa |

calcareous shale, often of a bright rust-colour, and generally much |

decomposed and with bands of a black, not calcareous, sandy shale:

it is also full of fossils, these being apparently converted into oxide of

iron. Finally, it contains limited short lenticular layers of a much

paler limestone, in thin-bedded and false-bedded patches hav ng

somewhat the appearance of a fine mortar or cement. :

1866. ] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 133

The characteristic fossils of the bed are the following :—

Productus Costatus (Sowerby).

4 Semireticulatus (Martin).

a Cora (D’Orbigny).

a Humboldti (D’ Orbigny).

. (D’Orbigny).

‘a Longispinus (Verneuil).

Athyris, Sp. Pl. IL. fig. 1 & la. <A. Subtilita (Hall)?

» Roissyi? (Verneuil) Pl. II. fig. 3 & 3a.

» sp. Nora (A. Buddista, Verchére) Pl. IT. 2, 2a 2d.

Spirifer (Sp. Verchériz (Verneuil) Pl. I. fig. 1, la & 10.

Sowerby, Pl. I. fig. 2, &e.

Spiriferina octoplicata ?

Orthis Crenistria, Phill. ——-——

Strophomena Analoga, Phill.? Pl. II. fig. 4.

Fenestella Sykesit (Koninck).

J Megastoma (Koninck).

= Sp. — Pl. V., fig. 1.

Vincularia Multangularis (Portl.)

Acanthocladia, Sp. —- Pl. V. fig. 4.

We shall have therefore no difficulty in identifying this bed wher-

ever we meet it, as the Bryozoa make a great show and immediately

attract attention. The coarse granular limestone is unlike that of

the other beds we shall see hereafter; the rich brown shales are also

peculiar to the Zeeawan bed, and even the position close over the

glaring white quartzite would assist us, if necessary.

}

PPL PLPSLVPVLLPALAL ALI AOASAA

134 Contributions to Indian Malacology. [No. 2).

Contributions to Indian Malacology, No. VII. List of species of

Unio and Anodonta described as occurring in India, Ceylon and

Burma.—By Wi11am T. Buanrorp, 4. R. S. W., FG. S.

[Received 5th September, 1866. ]

There are few genera in the whole range of natural history more

puzzling than Unio and Anodonta. Every naturalist who has at-

tended to them has been struck by the great variation of which the

different species are susceptible, though it is to be regretted that this

knowledge does not appear to have had much influence in restraining

some naturalists from recording as distinct species isolated specimeis

which reached them from distant countries, and which only differed

from other specimens in characters of very doubtful specific value.

Although the Unionide of the Indian waters are far behind those

of some countries, and especially of America, in the amount of vari-

ation which they exhibit, amply sufficient is shewn to render them

very difficult to classify. And as the question of variation is one of

the most important, especially at the present day, in the whole range

of zoological science, those animals which, in the wild state, exhibit

the greatest amount of variation, are peculiarly worthy of study.

In endeavouring to classify the Indian shells, one great difficulty -

that Ihave found, has been the determination of described types.

Descriptions of Indian Unionide are scattered through many works,

not easily procurable in India. There are, probably, yet a few to

which I have not had access, but as I have been able to compile a

list, comprising, I believe, a very large majority of the published

forms, I think that I shall be aiding any one who, in India, may be

engaged in the same study, by printing the list, with references to the

original descriptions and to figures, whenever such exist, and by

adding such remarks as appear to be nécessary. :

I also hope to be able to publish figures of a considerable propor-

tion of the species named ; in some cases, copies of the original illus-

trations; in others, drawings of authentic specimens. I shall feel

greatly indebted to any one who will aid me in this endeavour by

furnishing me with typical forms, or with any specimens from distant

parts of the country. ‘In all such cases, a small series of the varieties

and different ages is desirable.

1866.] Contributions to Indian Malacology. 135

The present list, therefore, is merely an instalment of what I hope

may be an illustrated monograph of Indian Unionide.

It is not my intention at present to enter at all fully into the

question of the limitation of specific forms. I would merely point

out, that some of the described species are certainly within the ordi-

nary limits of variation of others described as distinct. Thus out of

one tank in Calcutta, I have taken specimens unquestionably belong-

ing to U. Corrianus, Lea, others which were nearer to U. lamellatus,

Lea, and young specimens representing U. bilineatus, Lea, whilst

other forms again appeared to appertain to U. anodontina, Lam., (or,

at least to the species figured as such in Kiister’s monograph) which

by Lea is classed as a variety of U. marginalis, Lam. Yet all these

forms were unquestionably identical, being united by numerous inter-

mediate varieties, all living together in the same small pond.

Lea’s figures in the Journal of the American Philosophical Society,

and the Transactions of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadel-

phia, are so good and characteristic, that the difficulties which might

otherwise exist in identifying forms discriminated by such minute

and variable characters are obviated. Benson’s species, of which only

descriptions exist, are far more difficult to identify, and Gould’s,

which are but briefly described, still more so. Kiister’s monograph,

in Martini and Chemnitz’s Conchylien Cabinet, contains figures of but

few Indian and Burmese Unios, and of those, several are incorrectly

named.

For convenience sake, the species of Unio inhabiting India proper,

Ceylon, Assam, and Burma will be separately enumerated. The

species referred to Anodonta are so few that subdivision is unnecessary,

especially as none occur in India or Ceylon. No typical form of the

genus is known to exist in the Indian or Burmese area.

_ ‘The following works are referred to in the ensuing pages by the

abbreviations appended in each case.

Mill.—O. F. Miller, Historia Vermium, 1774 (not procurable in

Calcutta).

Chemn. Conch. Cab.— Martini and Chemnitz systematisches Conchy-

lien Cabinet. About 1780? (not procurable in Calcutta).

Gmel.—Caroli a Linne Systemata nature. Tom. I, Pars. VI, 1789.

Lam.—Lamarck, Histoire des Animaux sans vertebres, Vol. VI. 1819.

136 Contributions to Indian Malacology. [No. 2,

Gleanings in Science, Vol. I., Calcutta, 1829. .

Kiister, Mart. and Chem.—Systematisches Conchylien Cabinet von

Martini und Chemnitz, 2nd edition, by Dr. H. C. Kiister and others.

Vol. IX. Part 2, commencing in 18438 : unfinished.

Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist—The Annals and Magazine of Natural

History, London, 3rd series, Vol. X. 1862. j

Trans. Am. Phil. Soc.—Transactions of the American Philosophi-

cal Society held at Philadelphia, new series, Vol. IV. 1834; Vol. V.

1837 ; Vol. VI. 1839; Vol. VIIT. 1843. .

Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil.—Journal of the Academy of Natural

Sciences of Philadelphia, Vol. IV. 1858-60; Vol. V. 1862-63.

J. A. S. B.—Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. III.

1834 ; Vol. ITV. 1835; Vol. V. 1836.

oe Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist.—Proceedings of the Boston Society of

Natural History, Vol. I. 1843-44, (not accessible in Calcutta).

Gould, Ot. Conch.—Augustus A. Gould, Otia Conchologica, de-

scriptions of shells and mollusks from 1839 to 1862, Boston, 1862. —

S. Hanley, Supp. to Wood’s Ind. Test—Supplement to Wood's

Index testaceologicus, 1855 (not accessible in Calcutta). .

Genus UNIO, Retzius.

I.—Inp1a.

No. 1.—Unio Corrvuaatus, Mill. sp. Rivers of Coromandel.

Mya corrugata, Mull., p. 214, No. 398.

Unio corrugata, [a.] Lam., VI., 78, No. 34.

U. corrugatus, Kiister, Mart. and Chem., p. 289, pl. 97, figs. 3, 4.

There is the greatest conceivable confusion about this species and

the next one, and it is far from clear what Miiller’s type was. I

cannot obtain access to his work in Calcutta, but Kiister copies the

description thus :—

Testa rhombea, viridescens, tenera, pellucida ; (umbonibus corruga-

tis ;) valvulee intus striis radiantibus subtilissimis notantur.

The figures are, I suppose, those of Chemnitz’s types; they are

1866. ] Contributions to Indian Malacology. 137

thick form, with strong lateral teeth. The first shell is subalate pos-

teriorly, and the posterior margin is very bluntly biangulate, the

anterior margin is rounded at the end, but the slope thence to the

umbo is almost aright line ; the second shell is perfectly rounded both

before and behind. The shell of which the interior is figured corre-

sponds so ill with Miiller’s description, being neither rhombic nor

thin, that it may certainly be neglected. The figure moreover is ill-

executed.

Lamarck’s description is a little different from Miller’s : “‘ Unio testé

ovato-rhombed, tenui, viridi, wmbonibus rugosis, rugis undulato-flexuosts

sublongitudinalibus. Of the variety a he adds testa viridis, pubis

carina levigatd. His variety b is said to be the next species, U.

TUgOSUS.

The type shell in Mons. de la Serre’s cabinet in Paris, which, by

the politeness of M. Chenu, the Curator, I was enabled to examine in

1862, is a thin broadly ovate form with small teeth, and a well

marked posterior wing. It measures 40 mm. from -anterior to pos-

terior margin, and 33 from the umbo to the ventral margin, the latter

diameter being thus much greater in proportion to the former than

in Kiister’s type. The valves are inequilateral and much broader

behind than before, the anterior margin rounded, sloping away below

to the ventral side; posterior margin bluntly biangulate, the two

angles rather wide apart. The form is common in Southern India

and Ceylon, and appears to have been generally accepted as the type.

Both Lamarck’s and Chemnitz’s types are quite distinct from

Benson’s U. favidens, which has been confounded with them.

No, 2.—Unio rugosus, Gmelin. Rivers of Coromandel.

| Mya corrugata magna, Chemn. Conch. Cab. X. 346, Pl. 170, f. 1659.

M. rugosa, Gmel. p. 3222, No. 32.

Unio corrugata, [b.], Lam. VI., 78, No. 34.

Unio rugosus, Kiister, Mart. and Chem. p. 290, Pl. 97, f. 5.

Both this and the preceding species probably inhabit the Cauvery or

neighbouring streams. Kiister’s figure represents an elliptical sub-

equilateral shell, with strong angulate sulcation at the umbones,

| extending to within no great distance of the ventral margin. Gmelin’s

original description is the following :—

138 Contributions to Indian Malacology. [ No.2,

M., testé ovali rugosd, extrinsecus virescente, intus margaritaced :

cardinis dente primario crenulato, laterali longitudinali, alterius

dupireato.

No. 3.—Unio mareinauis, Lam. Bengal. |

Lam. VI. 79, No. 41.

Kister, Mart. and Chem. p. 239, Pl. 80, f. 4. :

This species is probably the most widely distributed of all the |

Indian forms. It is extremely variable, and I am inclined to believe |

that many of the species to be hereafter enumerated are merely

varieties of it. I have examined the type and compared a shell from

Pegu with it, which will be figured. It agrees very well. Kiister’s

figure represents a variety with unusually prominent umbones, and

rather longer from the hinge to the ventral margin than usual.

U. marginalis is by no means confined to India. It abounds, as I have

already mentioned, in Pegu. One of Lamarck’s forms came from Ceylon,

and Kuster appears much disposed to unite to it a species from the Nile

in Egypt. Lamarck’s type was said to inhabit rice-fields in Bengal.

No. 4.—Unio anopontinus, Lam. Bengal.

U. anodontina, Lam. VI. 80, No. 47.

U. anodontinus, Kuster, Mart. and Chemn. p. 240, Pl. 80, f. 5.

Lea has classed this shell as identical with U. marginalis, Lam.

If Kiister’s figures in the Conchylien Cabinet can be trusted, the two

shells differ more than any one of Lea’s three species, bilineatus, lamel-

latus, and Bengalensis do from each other, or from marginalis. Most of

the Bengal specimens of marginalis, however, are intermediate between —

the two forms figured by Kister as marginalis and anodontinus.

The locality given by Lamarck for this species is Virginia. y

I unfortunately omitted to examine the specimen when I had the

opportunity of doing so. There is, I believe, no question but that —

the shell was really from India. :

valley, Assam.

Benson, Gleanings in Science, I, Pl. 8, f. 1.

» Ann, Mag. Nat. Hist. 1862, 3rd Ser. X. 188.

No. 5.—Unio Faviprens, Bens. Ganges valley and Bushampooter |

be.

This species has been frequently confounded with U. corrugatus,

1866. ] Contributions to Indian Malacology. 139

Lam. It differs totally from all the shells referred to that species,

and all its numerous varieties are easily distinguished both from

Lamarck’s and Chemnitz’s types of corrugatus. _U. favidens is more

inequilateral, it is a thicker shell with much stronger and broader

cardinal teeth. The type, too, is more angulate, both anteriorly and

posteriorly. The following varieties of U. favidens, with their

localities, are described by Mr. Benson in the Ann. and Mag. Nat.

Hist. Vol. X, pp. 188, 189.

Unio favidens, type. Bhitoura on the Ganges between Cawnpore

and Allahabad.

1 var. marcens,.........Burhampooter river, Assam.

MeEErtGONG, ......... Nujeebabad in the north-west of Rohilkund.

MEEDICICE, .....0..4.. Jellinghy river, Bengal.

4 ,, Chrysis, .........Dojora river, Kareily Ghat near Bareilly.

5 ,, viridula, .........“‘Jheel” between Humeerpore and Someer-

pore, Bundelkund.

0 ET Ganges river above Chunar.

_ No. 6.—Unito Camrutevs, Lea.—Hoogly river, 100 miles above

Calcutta.

Lea, Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. IV, 95, Pl. 13, f. 25.

Benson, J. A. 8. B. IV. 450.

Kiister, Mart. and Chem. p. 228, Pl. 77, fig. 4

The two figures agree perfectly. The type is a yery thin shell,

mith fine lamellar teeth. Specimens exist in the Asiatic Society’s

Museum, brought from Bhagulpoor. The form is widely distributed

in N. India; I have even a variety from Sind.

No. 7.—Unto sinineatus, Lea. Hoogly river with the last.

Symphonota bilineata, Lea, Trans. Am. Phil. Soc., IV. 98, pl. 11, £. 19.

i Benson, J. A. S. B. IV. 452.

Benson, (Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. Ser. 8, Vol. X., pp. 187, 195) shews

that this is merely the very young form of U. marginalis, Lam. He

is unquestionably correct. The “two delicate lines passing from the

beaks to the posterior region” are, like many other umbonal mark-

ings, characteristic of young shells, and disappear gradually with age.

The remains of them, much blunted, are often to be detected on

adults. |

140 Contributions to Indian Malacology. [ No. 2,

No. 8.—Unto oxtvartus, Lea. Ganges valley.

Lea, Trans. Ann. Phil. Soc. IV, 108, pl. 16, f. 38.

Benson, J. A. 8. B. IV. 463.

Kiister, Mart. and Chem., p. 244, pl. 82, f. 2.

The locality given by Lea is Burrill river, India. Kiister, who

appears to be indebted for all his Indian species described by Lea to

Dr. von dem Busch, gives Burrill river, Indiana (!), North America,

as the locality. Mr. Benson says—“ It. is widely distributed in the

Gangetic region, and is most abundant in the Rohilkund streams.”

The variety figured by Kuster differs from Lea’s type is being more

inequilateral, much shorter anteriorly, and more obtuse posteriorly,

and of a light green colour instead of pale olive. Indeed, it is by no

means clear that the specimen figured is not a variety of U ceruleus.

Ido not know if there be such a river as the Burrill, but the locality

for the original type is very probably the neighbourhood of the Burail

Range, north of Cachar, as the shell was received by Lea from a :

Dr. Burrough who collected extensively in Assam, and who supplied -

the original specimens, from which Hylobates Hoolock was described,

to Dr. Harland.* This is not far from the localities whence the closely

allied U. Nuttallianus, Lea, and U. involutus, Benson, were obtained. —

No. 9.—Unio Corrianus, Lea. Calcutta.

Lea, Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. V. 65, pl. 9, fig. 25.

Kiister, Mart. and Chem., p. 229, pl. 77, fig. 5 |

Two completely distinct shells are figured by the two authorities

above referred to. lLea’s original type is a young form of one of the

common varieties of marginalis, approaching U. anodontina of La

marck ; Kiister’ s, on the contrary, is a form allied to U. ceruleus, but

ne and with broader hinge teeth than that species, so that it is

more diverse from U. marginalis than even ceruleusis! Kiister 3

specimen was derived from Dr. von dem Busch, who, in this and

other instances, appears to have utterly confounded different forms.

* See Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. IV. p 52. Ti

is a disgrace to the science of England as represented in British India, and a

lasting memorial of the disregard of natural history which has always been a

characteristic of the British Government of India, that so remarkable an an

mal as the Hoolock should have been first recognised by an American nat

ralist at so late a date as 1834. Had India belonged to France, the Un

States or Russia, the study of its fauna would not have been left to ik

unaided efforts of private individuals,

1866.] Contributions to Indian Malacology. 141

No. 10.—Unio Brneatensis, Lea. Bengal.

Lea, Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. VI. 3, pl. 2, f. 8.

Kiister, Mart. and Chem., p, 228, pl. 77, f. 2, 3.

In this case again, two totally distinct shells are figured, and again

the authority for Kiister’s appears to be Dr. von dem Busch, whose

collection furnished the specimen figured in Martini and Chemnitz.

Lea’s type is a very peculiar variety of U. marginals, very much

“longer” (that is wider when measured from the umbones to the

ventral margin) in proportion to the breadth than usual. I have not

met with it. It was obtained by Lea from Dr. Burrough who pur-

chased it in Calcutta, and believed that it inhabited the Ganges, It

has better claims to distinction than most of Lea’s “ species.’’*

Kiister’s type is a much thicker, more tumid shell, with far

stronger teeth and impressed cicatrices, much more inequivalve and

different in almost every character. I cannot recognise it as any

form with which I am acquainted, and I much doubt its being Indian

at all. At all events it is nearer to U. corrugatus-than to U. mar-

ginalis.

No. 11.—Unio tametiatus, Lea. Bengal.

Lea, Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. VI. 19, pl. 6, f. 16.

This is another variety of the U. marginalis type, perfectly inter-

mediate between the two last named, and approaching the type more

nearly than either. Lea’s shells were probably immature. In the

younger shells of marginalis, the hinge teeth are more lamellar than

in the adults, and the principal character of this ‘ species” and of the

two preceding is the lamellar teeth.

Ihave not met with the exact type of this shell, but it doubtless

inhabits the neighbourhood of Calcutta. Specimens resembling it in

every way except in being rather less long (in the dorso-ventral dia

meter) in proportion to their breadth are common.

No. 12.—Unro Razanensts, Lea. Rajah’s Tank, Calcutta.

‘Lea, Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. VIII., 239, pl. 28, fig. 53.

The above is the locality quoted. Iam unable to discover what

*In a letter to my brother, Mr. Benson suggested a doubt as to whether

this species were Indian. Taking into consideration the circumstance that

nearly all the shells in the Calcutta bazar are foreign, this suggestion appears

highly probuble.

142 Contributions to Indian Malacology. [No. 2,

tank is referred to. The shells inhabiting the Seven Tanks shew a

considerable difference. The shell is a small, subrotundate, thick

form, approaching some of the varieties of U. favidens, Bens., and has

much the appearance of being stunted and distorted, a very common

occurrence in tanks, and especially in those of Calcutta, probably in —

consequence of their being slightly brackish at times. ‘Two speci- :

mens, agreeing well with Lea’s figures, exist in the Asiatic Society’s

Museum. A very similar shell inhabits the Nerbudda.

No. 13.—Unio Suurtierrranus, Lea. Sina River, India.

- Lea, Jour, Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil, III., 302, pl. 27, f. 17.

The Sina river runs past Ahmednugger in the Deccan. It is an’

affluent of the Bheema, one of the principal feeders of the Kistna.

This shell has somewhat the form of Unio ceruleus, but is thicker.

Unfortunately the volume containing the description of this shell does

not appear to exist in Calcutta, so I cannot tell whether specimens,

which I possess from the neighbourhood, belong to the type form-or

not. In such extremely variable shells as Unio this is a matter of

considerable importance.

No. 14.—Unio Meropapensis v. d. Busch, Province of Merodab in

Bengal. (!)

v. d. Busch. MS. in Kuster, Mart. and Chem., p, 233, pl. 78, fig. A,

I give the locality of this ridiculously named species as it is

quoted in Kiister. The locality is doubtless Moradabad in Rohilcund. —

Kiister gives as a synonym ? U. flavus, Benson, and adds the remark: —

‘Whether this species be Benson’s described U. flavus, I cannot

ascertain, as I have not access to Benson’s work. The name would be —

ill-selected, as the shell is by no means yellow.”

Of course Benson’s species thus referred to is U. favidens, of which :

the present appears to be a variety, very close to Mr. Benson’s var.

trigona. The name Merodabensis is so utter a barbarism, that it will be

satisfactory to be rid of it. For the little series of blunders attending

the description of this type, Dr. v.d. Busch again appears to be

responsible.

No. 15.—Unio S1xximensts, Lea. Sikkim. Hy

Lea, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci, Phil. 2nd Ser, IV. 251, pl. 39, f. 131. :

[have some doubt about the locality assigned to this species. te

1866.] Contributions to Indian Malacology. 143

approaches the S. Indian forms of the corrugatus type (amarck’s) in

outline, and is barely distinguishable from two shells in the Asiatic

Society’s collection, which are labelled from Ceylon. It is a stouter

shell than the Lamarckian corrugatus.*

No. 16.—Unio Nagpoorsnsts, Lea. Ambajiri tank, Nagpoor.

Lea, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil. Ser. 2, IV. 270, pl. 45, f. 150.

This species is barely separable from some varieties of Unio favidens,

Bs. It is, however, a rounder, thinner shell, forming a link, both in

character and locality, between that species and Unio corrugatus.

No. 17.—Unito Wynuaunearnsis, Lea. Wynegunga river, east of

Nagpoor.

' Lea, Jour. Acad, Nat. Sci. Phil. 2nd Ser. IV, 271, pl. 45, f. 151.

Except in greater thickness, and stouter hinge teeth, there appears

no distinction of the slightest importance between this “ species” and

the last. The type abounds in the Godavery and “its feeders, and

is, as usual, variable. The locality given by Lea is Wynegunga

river, East of Nagpoor in the Deccan, Bengal, which is equivalent

to talking of Philadelphia in New England, Virginia. However it is

hardly fair to expect American naturalists to have accurate information

on Indian geography, when an English naturalist of repute confounds

the Khasi hills in N. E. India with the Nilgiris in the S. W., and

when a second, in a work solely devoted to Indian zoology, perhaps

the most important work on any branch of Indian Natural History,

exclusive of botany, ever published in England, confounds Saharun-

_ poor with Serampoor on the Hooghly. After this, the discovery made

by the Z%mes newspaper, a few years ago, that a spur of the Hima-

layas is visible from Calcutta is not so surprising. A distinguished

French naturalist, five or six years since, placed Kattiawar in Cochin

China, but it is only fair to add that this was before the French expedi-

tion to the latter country. and that French naturalists have already done

not a little towards making us better acquainted with the Molluscan

fauna of that little known region.

_® Since writing the above, I have learned that the locality is correct, The

shell was collected by Dr, Bacon.

144 Contributions to Indian Malacology. [No. 2,

No. 18.—Unio Tueca., Bens. River Cane near Banda, Bundelcund.

Benson, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. 1862, 3rd Ser. X. 186.

Ihave not seen this form. It belongs, according to Mr. Benson,

to the Corrianus type of Unio marginals.

No. 19.—Unio macttentus, Bens. Choia Nuddy, near Bijnore,

Rohilcund.

Benson, Ann, and Mag. Nat. Hist. 1862, 3rd Ser. X. 187.

A rather thin species resembling ce@ruleus, but with stout hinge

teeth, resembling those of U. favidens. Iam unacquainted with the

type, but a very similar form is common in the Damuda and its

tributaries in Bengal.

No. 20.—Unio triempoits, Bens. R. Ramgunga, near Moradabad.

Benson, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. 1862, 3rd Ser. X. 190.

A thick shell with large hinge teeth. A massive species which

inhabits the Nerbudda, and the shells of which are found fossil :

associated with the bones of extinct mammalia in the gravels of the —

river valley, may be a variety of this species. I have never seen the —

type. |

No. 21.—Unio pragiosoma, Bens. River Cane near Banda, Bundel-—

cund.

¢ A

Benson, Ann. and Mag. Nat, Hist. 1862, 3rd Ser, X, 191.

No. 22.—Unio tavirostris, Bens. Near Chunar, in streams and

tanks.

Benson, Ann, and Mag, Nat. Hist. 1862, 3rd Ser. X. 191.

No. 23.—Unto Pinax, Bens. Gungun stream, near Moradabad,

Rohilcund.

Benson, Ann, and Mag. Nat. Hist. 1862, 3rd Ser. X. 192,

The three abovenamed species appear all to be allies of U. favidens

They probably pass into each other. |

No. 24.—Unto Luroma, Bens. Deccan? near Bombay. . E |

Benson, Ann. and Mag, Nat. Hist. 1862, 3rd Ser. X. 192.

The locality of this shell is uncertain. I have no species from —

Western India which agrees with the description. a

1866. ] Contributions to Indian Malacology. 145

No. 25.—Unto ocoatus, Lea. Bengal.

Lea, Jour. Acad. Nat, Sci. Phil. 2nd Ser. V. 398, Pl. 50, fig. 304.

A compressed form, with strong teeth, fairly intermediate between

ceruleus and favidens, and allied to U. macilentus, Bs. and U. plagzo-

soma, Bs. but more compressed than either. It especially requires

comparison with U. macilentus, of which it may be a compressed form,

No. 26.—Unio Gersipont, Eydoux. Coromandel.

Said by Lea to be the same as Unio ceruleus.

No. 27.— Unto Bonnuaunr, Hyd. South India.

No. 28.—Unio Gaupicnuavn1, Hyd. Bengal.

No. 29.—Unto Keravuprenu, Hyd. Chandernagore.

I am indebted for all my information as to the above four species

to Mr. Benson. I have not access at present to the work in which

they are described.

In Kiister’s monograph of Unio in Martini and Chemnitz another

species is described from the “‘ East Indies,” U. Exanthematicus, Kister,

p. 243, pl. 81, fig. 2. The authority, however, for the locality is Dr,

v.d. Busch, whose general accuracy, after the instances given above,

may be open to doubt; the “‘ Hast Indies” in a Natural History sense,

not many years since, denoted any country between Africa and

Kamschatka, and the peculiar pustulated surface of the shell, from

which the name is derived, is unknown in any Indian species. I

think it is probably not a native of the Indian Peninsula.

U. discus, Lea, Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. IV, 74, Pl. 18, f. 57, was at

first stated to be from India, on, however, palpably insufficient

grounds, the original specimen having been purchased from a dealer

amongst a lot of shells from India. The shell is so distinct from any

known Indian species, that I had concluded that the locality was

assigned to it in error, before I found that in a subsequent volume of

the Trans. Am. Phil. Soc., Vol. VIII, p. 234, note, Lea mentions

his having ascertained that the locality was the River Moctezuma. in

| Central America. ,

Mr. Benson mentions (Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. 1862, X., 195,)

| his having received from the Malabar Coast a shell which he refers to

U. consobrinus, Lea,

146 Contributions to Indian Malacology. [No. 2,

Unio spuria is said by Lamarck to be from Southern Asia. Mr.

Benson states (Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. 1862, X., 189,) that the

young of U. favidens approaches the figure given by Wood of Mya

spuria, which is, I suppose, the same species. It is not clear that

Lamarck’s type was Indian. Mr. Benson also (1 c. p. 189) refers to ©

Mya radiata, Chem. as being from Malabar. Mya radiata, Gmelin is

by Lamarck, Lea and Kister, said to be American, and even in

Kiister I can find no allusion to Chemnitz’s species.

It is only right to add too that some of what Woodward most

justly terms “the worthless fabrications of Rafinesque”’ (Man. Mol. —

p. 136, note,) came from India. No scientific purpose can be served by —

recalling the names from the oblivion in which they are happily buried. —

II.—Assam.

No. 80.—Unio 1nvotutus, Benson. Assam.

S. Hanley, Supp. to Wood’s Ind. Test.

I only know of this and the succeeding three species from reference

being made to them by Mr. Benson in the Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.

for 1862, 3rd Ser. X., 186. The work in which they were originally

described is not procurable in Calcutta. U. involutus is said to be

thin and tumid and to represent U. olivarius, Lea, in Assam. q

No. 31.—- Unto Corsis, Bens. Assam.

S. Hanley, Supp. to Wood’s Ind. Test.

No. 32.—Unito Raputa, Bens. Assam.

S. Hanley, Supp. to Wood’s Ind, Test,

No. 83.—Unto Scostna, Bens.

S. Hanley, Supp. to Wood’s Ind. Test. .

VU. fluctiger, Lea (teste Benson) Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil. 2nd Ser. IV. 250)

pl. 39, f. 130.

2 Kuster, Mart. and Chem., p. 237, pl. 80, fig. 1.

Mr. Benson (in Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. 1862, X., 186) states

that U. fluctiger, Lea, is a synonym of U. Scobina. Kiister’s figure

of flucteger differs from Lea’s type, and the shell is stated to be from

S. America. As, however, Kiister’s specimen was from Dr.v. d. Busch’s |

cabinet, very little rehab can be placed upon the assigned locality,

especially as Lea, who did not know whence the shell came, sug>

gested that it was, possibly, South American.

1866.] Contributions to Indian Malacology. 147

Kiister’s type is narrower anteriorly and has rather different, coarser

plication posteriorly, than Lea’s. It may be a different shell.

* No. 34.—Unio Nourtautianvs, Lea. Assam, teste Benson.

Lea, Jour. Acad, Nat. Sci. Phil. IIL; 310; ply 80;.f, (25.

_ The locality is simply stated to be India by Lea. Benson, Ann.

and Mag. Nat. Hist. 1862, X., 194, states that he has received speci-

mens from Assam. The volume containing the description of this

shell is not procurable in Calcutta.

No. 35.—Unto Jenxrysranvs, Bens. Burhampooter River, Assam.

_ Benson, Ann, and Mag. Nat. Hist, 1862, 3rd Ser. X., 185.

_ An ally of U. marginalis, distinguished by “the very tumid form,

the sloping posterior end, absence of a wing, the short ligament, and

the nature and position of the teeth.” (Bens. 1. c.) In the Asiatic So-

ciety’s collection there is a shell from Bhagulpoor perhaps referable as

a variety to this species,

No. 86.—Unto pacnysoma, Bens. Burhampooter River, Assam.

Benson, Ann, and Mag. Nat. Hist. 1862, 3rd Ser. X., 186.

“An inflated form of the ceruleus type.” (Bens. 1. c.) Mr. Benson

also states that he has received a distorted variety from Calcutta. A pe-

euliar tumid form which is not uncommon in Calcutta tanks is doubt-

less referred to. It agrees generally with the description given. This

form therefore adds one more to the Bengal list.

No. 37.—Unto SmaRaepitEs, Bens. Burhampooter River, Assam,

"Benson, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist, 1862, 3rd Ser, X., 190.

q A shell allied to U. favidens,

_ Besides these forms a variety of U. Javidens, Bens. (var. marcens) has

already been quoted as occurring in Assam. Mr. Benson also records

the receipt of a variety of U. ceruleus (J. A. S. B. VI. 750) and of a

small variety of U. marginalis (Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. 3rd Ser. X.

186) from that region.

| 7 e III.—Cryvton.

No. 38.—Unto Lavarpt, Lea. Ceylon.

Lea, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil. 2nd Ser, IV., 243, pl. 36, f. 122.

| _ This is a shell of the margimalis type with a convex dorsal margin,

jand generally rounded outline. It appears to be a fairly distinguish-

jable form, though very close to Bengalensis and lamellatus.

148 Contributions to Indian Malacology. [No. 2,

No. 39.—Unto Tuwarrtest, Lea. Ceylon. —

Lea, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil. 2nd Ser. IV., 246, pl. 37, f. 125.

This shell only differs from the last in having a rather straighter

hinge line, and being slightly more inequilateral. If such differences

are to rank as specific, half a dozen “ species’ might be manufac-

tured out of any tank in Calcutta. The separation of these two forms

is perfectly unjustifiable in a genus like Unio.

The above are the only species that I can trace specially described

from Ceylon. amarck’s variety 6. of Unio marginalis described as

var. testd minore, breviore, and 75 millimetres broad was also from

Ceylon (Lam. VI. 79). Sir Emerson Tennent, in his work on Ceylon,

‘enumerates only U. corrugatus besides U. marginalis. He, however,

adds that Mr. Cuming possessed six species from the island, which

had been sent to Mr. Lea. U. Thwaztesic and U. Layardi are doubt-

less two of these, as they were from Mr. Cuming’s cabinet, but no

mention is made of the others by Mr. Lea.

IV.— Burma.

No. 40.—Unio Tavoyrnsis, Gould. Tavoy,

Gould, Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. I., 140.

,, Ot. Conch, p. 190.

Kiister, Mart. and Chem., p. 166, pl. 48, f. 2.

“Closely allied to U. corrugata, Lam. which is less rounded and

less corrugated” (Gould, 1. c.) More nearly allied to Lamarck’s than

to Chemnitz’s type of U. corrugatus. Kister’s figure agrees well with

Gould’s description, but represents a young shell, not mature. The

specimen figured was from the collection of Dr. Sturm (and not from

that of Dr. v. d. Busch).

No. 41.— Unto crispatus, Gould. Tavoy.

U. crispata, Gould, Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat, Hist. I,, 141.

Ot. Conch. p. 191.

9? 39

No. 42.—Unto routaceus, Gould. Tavoy.

U. foliacea, Gould, Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat, Hist. I, 141.

Ot. Conch. p. 191.

An ally (variety ?) of U. marginalis, Lam. ‘“ Closely allied to Tie

Bengalensts and Corrianus, Lea.” (Gould, 1. ¢.)

1866. ] Contributions to Indian Malacology. 149

No. 48.—Unio Exonyscens, Gould. Tavoy.

Gould, Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. I., 141.

»- Ot. Conch, p. 191.

Apparently, from the description, another ally or variety of the U,

margmalis type.

No. 44.—Unto eenrrosus, Gould. Tavoy.

Gould, Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist, II., 220.

» Ot. Conch, p. 201.

I believe I possess this species. Specimens were sent to me by Mr.

Theobald from Pegu, which agree with the description fairly, except

that they are smaller than the type.

No. 45.— Unto tutus, Lea. Newville, Tavoy.

Lea, Jowr, Acad. Nat. Sct. Phil, ITI., 302, pl. 27,17.

Thave not access to the description or figure of this species.

_ No. 46.—Unto crispisuncarus, Bens. Bangong R. near Thayet

Myo, Pegu.

_ Benson, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 1862, 3rd Ser. X., 193.

I am indebted to Mr. Theobald for specimens of this shell. It ap-

pears doubtful whether it be more than a variety of U. erispatus,

Gould, to which Mr. Benson does not refer in his description, and

with which he was possibly unacquainted. Gould’s description is very

brief, and gives the idea of a more coarsely sculptured shell ( “ rugis

angulatis radvantibus undique erispata’”’) besides being somewhat

shorter (from the dorsal to the ventral margin) in proportion to its

breadth, but these are not necessarily specific distinctions.

No. 47.— Unto Pvato, Bens. Ava and Pegu.

Benson, Ann, and Mag. Nat. Hist., 1862, 3rd Ser, X., 193.

A solitary valve was sent to Mr. Benson by Mr. Theobald, who gave

the locality as Ava. Isubsequently found the same form in the Mya-

noung district of Pegu, and Mr. Theobald has since obtained larger

| varieties, I believe from Prome. It is a well marked type, extremely

inequilateral, and with a peculiar acuminate form posteriorly.

As already observed, the type form of Unio marginalis, Lam.

abounds in Pegu. I found unusually fine specimens in large swamps

about Henzada and Myanoung in the Irawady valley. The type gra-

|dually passes by insensible gradations into a much less transverse

150 Contributions to Indian Malacology. [No. 2,

form, almost subquadrate. The posterior portions of the valves were

often covered by the remarkable fresh water Bryozoon Hislopia of

Carter, apparently a new species.

I have other species from Pegu, but [ am unable at present to com-

pare them with the numerous named forms described by Lea from

Siam, many of which probably extend to Burma.

Genus ANODONTA, Brugiere.

No. 1. —Awnoponta soLENiForMIs, Bens. Assam.

Benson. J. A. 8. B, V., 750.

The type specimen is in the Asiatic Society’s Museum (now the —

Imperial Museum). There is also an A. soleniformis, D’Orbigny, but

Mr. Benson’s name is the oldest, as it was published in 1836.

Mr. Lea has described a species from Siam, evidently very closely ©

allied to this, as Mycetopus emarginatus, Lea. (Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. —

Phil. 2nd Ser. V., 398, pl. 50, £. 805). As the animal has not been

observed, it may be doubtful if it is really a Mycetopus. At the same

time the character of both the Siam and Assam shells are so distinct

from those of any true Anodonta, that perhaps the best provisional.

classification is that adopted by Mr. Lea. Specimens of A. solensfor-

mis with the animal living are a peculiar desideratum. ~

No. 2.—Anoponta Satwenrana, Gould. Salween R., Burma.

Gould, Proc. Bost, Soc. Nat. Hist. I., 158.

Ot. Conch. p. 193.

A very peculiar broad shell, belonging to Monocondylea. (See

next species.) I have never seen this form.

No. 3.—ANopDonTA INoscuLARIS, Gould. Salween R., Burma.

Gould, Proc, Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. I. 158.

Ot. Conch. p. 193,

: Subsequently in the same volume, p. 161, Dr. Gould suggested

that this species might be the type of a new genus which he named

Pseudodon, This name is by Adams quoted as a synonym of Anodonta, —

the genus, adds in brackets “ perhaps equivalent to Monocondylea,

D’Orb.”” So far as the shell is concerned, this is undoubtedly the

1866. | Contributions to Indian Malacology. 151

correct position of these species, if the hinge teeth are trustworthy

indicators of generic affinity. H. and A. Adams, in the Gen. Rec.

Moll., include under Monocondylea, M. Vondenbuschiana, Lea, from

Java,* described by Lea as a Margaritana (Baphia of Adams) and

several species of the genus have been described from Siam and

Cochin China by French and American naturalists.

I have received from Mr. Theobald fine specimens obtained in Pegu

which correspond admirably with Margaritana Vondenbuschiana, Lea,

and unquestionably belong, I think, to that ‘species; and also shells

which appear to belong to a variety of Anodonta inoscularis, agreeing

with the type in size, shape and every character of importance; and

not only are the two forms unmistakeably congeneric, but I even

think it probable that specimens might be met with to unite them

specifically, as they differ in no essential character, except the very

different degree of development of the cardinal tooth, which in

Vondenbuschiana is scarcely raised, while in the specimens which I

refer to inoscularis it is sometimes nearly a quarter of an inch high.

_ There are in the Asiatic Society’s collection, also, two forms which

appear to me certainly varieties of M. Vondenbuschiana. One of them,

however, agrees more closely with the figure of M. Cuming, Lea

(Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil. 2nd Ser. IV, 235, pl. 33, f. 114) a Ma-

lacea shell, which only differs from Vondenbuschiana in unimportant

minutie.

_ M. Vondenbuschiana is described and figured by Lea in Trans. Am.

Phil. Soc. VIII, 222, pl. 18, f. 39, and also in Kuster.

- Were there nothing but the form of the hinge teeth to connect the

South American species of Monocondylea with the Burmese and Java-

nese Pseudodon and Margaritana, especially having regard to the very

diverse form of the shell, I should suspect them to be in reality distinct

types. But there is one little peculiarity which appears to tend to

unite them. At the termination of the portion of the hinge line in

which, by close inspection, flattened obsolete representations of the

lateral teeth may be seen, there is a very peculiar expansion of the

end of the ligament which covers a small sinus in the inner surface of

both valves. This is very well shewn in Lea’s figure of Margaritana

_ * Yet they state, “ All the species of this genus known are from the rivers

of South America.”

152 Contributions to Indian Malacology. . [No. Z,

Vondenbuschiana, and also in both Adams’s figures of different species

of Monocondylea from §. America. The same occurs in Anodon and

in the type species of Margaritana of Schumacher,* (YW. margaritsfera,

L.). I have not had an opportunity of examining the animals of the

Burmese species of Monocondyl@a, and therefore cannot say if the

gills are free or not. }

Besides the above forms, a minute species of Anodon is stated by ~

Mr. Benson to inhabit ponds in Bundeleund, J. A. 8. B., V. 750.

P. 8. No. 2a.—Unio spurtus, Gm. Tranquebar.

Mya spuria, Gm, vol. I, Pt. VI, p. 3222, No, 16.

Unio spuria, Lam, VI, 80, No. 45.

Mya spuria, Wood, Ind, Test. p. 12, pl. 2, No. 35.

Since writing the note on this species at p. 146, [ have found that it

was described originally as from India. Gmelin refers to Schroeter

Kinl. in Conch. II, 617, No. 9, pl. 7, f. 5, so perhaps the name may

have been given by Schroeter, though that by no means follows from

the reference. The description is very brief: “ I. testd rhombea viridt, ©

natibus glabris’’ and the shell is said to be like corrugatus, but near-

ly twice the size and perfectly smooth in front of the beaks (“‘ praete

vulve regionem tota glabra,” Gm. l. c.). Wood’s figures are all poor.

The shell can scarcely be a young form I think, if a oa larger’

than corrugatus.

_ Mya radiata,} I find, is attributed to Malabar by Gmelin, an 3220.)

fabri whom Wood appears to have only copied his localities. The species

is, | think, correctly attributed to Chemnitz by Mr. Benson, although

other authors give Gmelin as their authority. Gmelin’s description

runs thus—‘‘ WM. testa equivalvi pellucida tenuissime transversim stri-

ata viridi flavicante livido radiata ; valvis altero latere latissimis, altera

angustissimis.” I know of no ca of Indian Unio to which this de+

scription would be applicable, and I cannot help suspecting that the

writers who have applied the name to an American species may very

possibly be right. Wood’s figure, also, does not recall any Indian

* It is by no means clear that Margaritona and Monocondylea are more than

subgenera, or even artificial sections of Anodonta. M. Vondenbuschiana is inter-

mediate between the second and last in characters of the shell, and there is n

known essential distinction in the animal.

+The Linnean genus Mya, like most Linnean genera, was an artificial group _

to some extent. Besides Mya as now understood, it comprised Unio and. seve=

ral other genera. _-

1866. ] Contributions to Indian Malacology. 153

species ; for it is evident from the above description that the radiating

lines shewn do not refer to strie but to coloured markings. Mr.

Benson’s shell from Malabar was striated.

Good collections of the Unios of both Coromandel and Malabar are

greatly needed to determine all these doubtful species.

Monoconpyta cresristriata, Anthony. Pegu.

American Journal of Conchology, I., 205, pl. 18.

MonoconpyL“#A Prcauensis, Anthony. Pegu.

- Am, Jour. Conch, I., 205, pl. 18,

I am indebted to Mr. Theobald for the above quotations. The

shells are the two Monocondylea above referred to, the first being

that referred by me, though with some doubt, to Anodonta (Pseudo-

don) inoscularis, Gould, the second to Monocondylea Vondenbuschiana,

Lea. So long as it is the practice of naturalists living in foreign

countries, and, necessarily, imperfectly acquainted with the fauna of

distant regions, to give a “specific” name to every animal or frag-

ment of an animal which reaches them, lists of synonyms must multiply;

and as everybody will contend for the distinctness of his “ species,”

false notions as to the nature and value of specific distinctions must

prevail. Thus, in the same paper, one of the numerous varieties of

Melania variabilis, Benson, is called MM. gloriosa, Anthony. Now it

is worthy of remark that Mr. Benson, who has examined far more of

the Mollusca of Burma than Mr. Anthony can possibly have seen, has

not for years described a single Melania from that country as new,

and has only described two species of Unio, although he had speci-

mens of all Mr. Anthony’s supposed new species. I can only add

that it would be easy for me to describe, from the materials I possess,

20 or 30 forms of Unio (and nearly as many more of Melania) with

as good claims to distinction as one-half at least of those already pub-

lished from India and Burma; but were I to do so, I cannot help

thinking that, while burdening science with additional names, I

“should have added nothing to the knowledge of the fresh water mol-

lusca of India. Amongst fresh water shells I am convinced that

forms pass into each other far more than amongst land shells, that

“species,” in the usual definition of the word, have no existence,

that all the characters relied upon for distinguishing ‘‘ species” of

Unionide in especial, the form and thickness of the hinge teeth, form

154 Contributions to Indian Malacology. [No. 2,

of the shell, prominence of the umbones, shape of the muscular im-

pressions, colour of the nacre, characters of the epidermis, &c. vary

ad infinitum—-in short that species must be described like genera and

grouped around types, not distinguished by characters.

I see from a notice in the Paris Journal de Conchylrologie that, in

the same volume of the American Journal of Conchology, Mr. Conrad

proposed a new genus Z'rigonodon for Monocondylea crebristriata of

Anthony, from which, as [ have stated above, Anodonta inoscularis,

Gould, is at the best but dubiously separable specifically. But the

last named shell is the type of Gould’s genus Psewdodon, and Gould

himself suggested the identity of that genus with D’Orbigny’s Mono-

condylea.* Unless Mr. Conrad has procured the animals of the Pegu

forms, and shewn them to be distinct from those of South America,

(and I scarcely think he can have done so,) I cannot believe that any

useful object is attained by inventing these generic appellations. Even —

if Trigonodon be not Pseudodon over again, (Mr. Conrad appears to —

have already furnished one synonym before for Pseudodon, viz.

Monodontina,) there has been no distinction of any generic value

shewn between the shells of Burmese and Malay species of Monocon- —

dylea and those of 8S. America; and bearing in mind that there are

some genera of more restricted distribution than those belonging to

the Unionidae, e. g. the Tapir, and amongst Mollusks, Cyclophorus

and Megalomastoma, common to the two regions, it would, I think, j

be more scientific to examine the animals of the Burmese shells allied

to Monocondylea, before founding new genera to comprise them.

There is of course the possibility that Mr. Theobald may have been

misinformed as to the respective names of the two species, and that —

the type of Zrigonodon is the form I have referred to Monocondylea :

Vondenbuschiana. I can only add that the specimens of the same shell —

from the same locality sent to me by Mr. Theobald, do not differ j

more from Kiister’s figure of V. d. Busch’s original specimen of M.

Vondenbuschiana in Martini and Chemnitz, than that figure does from —

Lea’s. ;

Unio Pra@urnsis, Anthony.

American Journal of Conchology, Vol. I.

I cannot learn what species has been thus named _ I hope to be

* Ot. Conch., p, 194,

155

1866. | Contributions to Indian Malacology.

Two Indian species of Unio in the Musée d’ Histoire Naturelle at

Paris have received MS. names from Valenciennes. I am unable to

ascertain at present if these names have been published or not.

Corrigenda in Contributions to Indian Malacology, No. VI., in this volume:

P. 31, line 2, from bottom, for Kimery read Kimety.

32, ” ae top, » Fordoni » Gordont.

ye » 98, >, bottom, ,, Hattiwar » Kattiawar,

8 ad » inwardly » conoidly.

en ato, . top, » subgesta » subjecta,

ists, 22; 5, bottom, supply “it” after nulla,

a i Pp omit the word South.

Mera 20, 4, top, » oblong ovate, Achatina read oblong ovate

Achatine.

” TS eae » Basilens ;, Basileus.

- » 12, ,,- bottom, ,, Alyceus » Alyceus.

a a y » Recleiz » Recluz.

39, lines 21, 16 & 11, from bottom, for Basilens » Basileus.

,» line 17, from bottom, for Wynand » Wynaud.

~ <i te » Paulghat cherry » Paulghatcherry

* ee - » of that N. auris » of N. awris.

- ae i » base by » barely.

eet kt, 4, top, » Sslighly » slightly.

_ In the previous number V. of the Contributions, an important error occurs

N. conv, n. s. for N. Conutus (J. A. S. B. XXXIV, 73, 1865).

In the same page, Phoung ditto, Arakan, should be Phoung Do, and three

pages further, p. 76, line 12, a semicolon is omitted, altering the sense. The

passage should read “ a vertical lamina in front, and a second, slightly oblique,

_ just behind ; the first giving out” &c. instead of “just behind the first.” The

only other erratum of importance is in page 81, line 20, where “ re-entering

Jamellar parietal” should be “re-entering parietal lamella,”

156 Scientific Intelligence. [No. 2,

Screntiric INTELLIGENCE.

The following is from Mr. Blyth :—

I have already elucidated* sundry species of Aigialites (or Ring

Plover) and may now further add that I have since made out the

Charadrius pusillus of Horsfield to be the same as 4. ruficapillus, Gould,

figured in his Birds of Australia: Horsfield’s specimen being in winter

dress, and his name of course standing for the species. .

The Indian Neophron (281) will have to rank as N. ginginianus,

Latham. The Spilornis of Ceylon and of all S. India is the same as S.

Elgin, Tytler, and will bear my prior name Spzlogaster (J. A. S.

XXI. 351) being distinct from the Malayan S. bacha, with which Pro-

fessor Schlegel identifies it. alco babylonicus is the F’. peregrinoides

apud G. R. Gray, as suggested in p. 282. The Cat noticed as Felis

macrocelis in p. 283 seems, after all, to be of a different and smaller race

than one received from Asdm also in the Zoological Gardens. It has

now been more than three years in the garden, and has only a slight

fulvous tendency even yet, while the other is much more fulvescent,

and is also of heavier build. I think that the larger only has the very —

elongated canine teeth. Neither seems to be the true Diardzi (vel

macrocelis) of Sumatra and Borneo; and I suspect that the larger and

more fulvous animal (which the Society’s Museum has from Sikhim) ~

should rank as F. nebulosa, C. H. Smith, figured in Griffith’s English

edition of the Régne animal. There is also great variation in the F.

aurata, Tem. (murmensis, Hodgson, and the young F. Temminckiz,

Vigors.) A rufous specimen in the India Museum has strongly deve-

loped body-markings, akin in type to those of the macrocelis group;

others (alike from Sikhim, Malacca and Sumatra,) are deep rufous

without trace of body-markings ; and thirdly, there is the blackish

race, which is designated /. nigrescens, Hodgson, in the second edi-—

tion of the British Museum Catalogue of Mr. Hodgson’s collections.

These Cats would seem, in fact, to be in process of specialization, ;

which is carried on a further stage in the F’. Swinhoet of Formosa, as |

compared with the other races akin to £, Diardiz. Lastly, F. Charl- a.

tont may be a race not strongly specialized apart from F. marmorala,

* Asiatic Socicty’s Journal, vol. XXXIV. p. 280.

1866. ] Seientific Intelligence, | 157

The whole of these constitute a group of E. and 8. EH. Asiatic Cats

per se, which have not the peculiar clubbed tail of FF. wncva, with

which Dr. Gray associates them. To the species of birds to be ex-

punged from Jerdon’s Indian series (p. 282), may be added Otocoris

penicillata, for which O. longirostris of Kashmir, Kooloo, &., has

hitherto been mistaken. O. penicillata of W. Asia is smaller, with

much longer ear-tufts, and the black of the cheeks is continuous with

that of the breast. Have I told you that Carpophaga cuprea, Jerdon,

is well distinguished from C. insignis, Hodgson, having the neck and

lower parts much more ashy, while both differ from C. badia,

(Raffles), of Sumatra? Of C. pusilla, nobis, I have seen more spe-

cimens from §S. India, where perhaps it co-exists with the large C.

@nea; and both cuprea and pusilla are very likely to inhabit the

mountains of Ceylon. Grauculus Layardi, nobis, (papuensis apud

Sykes,) of S. India and Ceylon, is very distinct from G. mace? of

Bengal, &c., much smaller, with the wings strongly banded under-

neath. The Malayan G. javensis is a miniature of G. macez, of the

same small size as G. Layardi. As many as four races have been

confounded under Pycnonotus jocosus, (.,) a name which must be

retained for that of China, which I have not seen. The Bengal bird

will stand as emeria of Shaw (pyrrhotis, Hodgson). The Tenasserim

and Penang race is monticolus, M’Clelland. That of S. India will be

named by Gould, and it has no white markings on the rectrices. In the

Zoological Gardens are apparently two new species of Pheasant. One

is a female, of a duplicate race to nycthemerus, being of the true silver

Pheasant type. The other isa male; very like lineatus of Burma;

but the markings of the upper parts more resemble those of nycthe-

merus; it has no white along the ridge of the tail, and no white

streaks on the flanks. Some think it a hybrid; but, if so, it can

| only be between lineatus and nycthemerus. The tail, however, is

shaped exactly as in the former, whereas it should be considerably

| more lengthened, if the bird had nycthemerus for one parent ; and its

legs also should in that case be larger, and shew some trace of the

crimson colour of those of nycthemerus. I am, therefore, disposed to

| consider it as a true wild race of Kallij, probably from some more

eastern part of the Indo-Chinese peninsula.

—_~_ eee eee

270.0 RN tees

OF THE

ASIATIC SOCIETY.

—_&—

Part II.—PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

No. IfI.—1866.

Kashmir, the Western Himalaya and the Afghan Mountains, a geological

paper by Ausert M. VercueRre, Esq., Bengal Medical Service ; with

a note on the fossils by M. Epovarp pe Vurneuit, Membre de

- PAcadémie des Sciences, Paris.

(Continued from page 133.)

Leaving with regret the Zeeawan spur, we will continue onr

examination of the Zebanwan mountain along its southern aspect.

(See Map B.) (Section IIL. on General Map.) ,

We first cross a considerable mass of volcanic rocks, well stratified,

and which we will not stop to describe, as they are similar to the

felspathic ashes, black slates and the amygdaloid seen before. They

present, however, a few layers of a coarsely crystalline limestone,

without fossils and interbedded with layers of ash ; some of this lime-

stone is quite black and remarkably well crystallized in small crystals

of jet-black spar. It would be a valuable ornamental marble, if found

im some quantity. Ihave only seen it in thin and small patches,

accompanying an amygdaloidal dust-stone of fine texture, but much

decayed and nearly as black as the limestone. These patches of black

rock are well seen on the slope of the long spurs which descend

towards the 8. E., from the highest summits of the Zebanwan. These

voleanic rocks dip easterly, and their inclination is not more than 20°

to 25°. :

160 Mr, Verchére on the Geology of Kashmuar, [No. 3,

Having crossed a ravine, we arrive at the spurs over Zowoor, where

we find the following beds along one section, from W. 8. W. to

EK. N. E. We begin with No. 4 of the Section: the Nos. 1, 2 and 3

refer to the volcanic rocks and black limestone just described.

1. ......... Amygdaloidal greenstone, dips H. S. EH.

f2 PIR st Ash interbedded with thin beds of highly crystalline azoic limestone,

Saye tece aa Ash interbedded with black crystalline limestone in thin patches.

4, Amyedaloid; dip H. S. EH. 20°.

5. Quartzite, white and stratified. It becomes gradually sandy and coloured

blue, yellow or grey’an’ Places, ~..<1.do. tected wees Wane teak = ome ieep ale eeean 15 ft.

6. Crystalline limestone with the debris of fossils, undeterminable, 5 ft.

7. Lenticular beds of coarse granular limestone, full of Athyris sp.? (see

Pl. II. fig. 1 and la) and Productus Flemingty.......i00.+0ceccersensensanne 1 foot.

8. Limestone; grey, weathering brown, si gacianig abundant sections of

Orthoceras and a few Fenestellides, .......ccccccedescesensceot ets eaeememaeien 10 ft.

9. Coarse limestone ; Fenestellides, Producti, &c. passes into.

10. Calcareo-ferruginous, brown shales with some fossils: 9 and 10,

610, en iE RM MD ee NT ME SB oe AO ft.

These beds 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10 are therefore the same beds as there seen at

Zeeawan, or they are in other words, Zeeawan limestoile. They all dip E.S.H. 20°.

11. Limestone, thin bedded and shaly: no fossils, *.............0.0 © ft.

A fault occurs here, and the following beds are seen on the eastern side

of it.

12. Limestone of the Zeeawan bed brought up again. It presents the

same succession as above, viz. an Orthoceras bed, a Fenestellide bed, and a

brown shale bed; the Fenestellide beds are, however, less abundant, and

the lenticular Athyris ones were not SCED, .........ssscccanesersetceesarces 40 ft.

27. Resting on this limestone, we find other beds of limestone

having a very different aspect. In fact we have the beginning of the

Weean bed of carboniferous limestone. The fauna changes consider-

ably : no Produete are found, no Fenestellides, no great flat Orthide,

but instead a very great number of small bivalves, much broken and

comminuted, and here and there in lenticular beds, where fossils of

one or two species have been heaped together, some small Brachio-

poda of the genera Spiriferina and Terebratula ; some large mussel-

Shaped bivalves which are probably Anthracosie or some other near —

sub-genus of Cardinia ; some large and sometimes extremely gibbose

Aviculo-pectens ; some Pectens four inches across; Coniatites and

an innumerable variety of Hncrinite stems of all sizes. The appear-

ance of the rock will be noticed as we get on with our section.

1866. | the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 161

13. A light blue limestone, argillaceous and compact, weathering rugose

like frosted glass, but without losing its fine, lustreless, clay-like, pale blue colour.

It contains many remains of fossils in a bad state of preservation,... 30 ft.

A fault from N. N. W.—S S.E.; downthrow 8S. W. The fault is met near

the end of the spur by another running W. 8. W.—E. N. H. The end of the

spur, detached, as it were, by these two faults, strikes S. H.—N. W. and dips

N. HE. 20°. The rock of this detached bed is a shaly limestone ; the fossils are

small and ill-preserved ; they occur in patches, one or two feet of the bed pre-

senting a great number of remains, whilst hardly a trace of organisms is to be

seen for some yards, It is about 50 feet thick,................ccccs scene 50 ft.

Another fault from N, N. W.—S. 8S. E.; downthrow 8. W. The effect of

this fault has been to bring up again the bed of Zeeawan limestone, and we

therefore have the following bed to the N. E. of the fault.

14, A coarse micaceous marly slate, without fossils, and passing gradually

upwards into sandy shales of a dark brown colour and containing Producti,

Orthide and Spirifers in a very bad state of preservation, These dark shales

are identical in appearance and in some of their fossils with the brown shales

of the Zeeawan bed, but the Bryozoa, so extensively developed in other

localities, appear to be totally absent, and some small bivalves, which are

found in the Weean bed and have not been seen in the Zeeawan bed, were

discovered here.* These differences however may be easily accounted for by a

difference of depth of the sea at the time the Zeeawan limestone and shale

were deposited. The sandy and coarse micaceous slates seem to indicate a

‘shallow sea with a drifting current on a shelving coast, a physical arrangement

which may be a tolerable habitat for the large Brachiopoda, but unsuitable to

the delicate Bryozoa.

This Zeeawan bed is succeeded by a shaly limestone, similar to that

which is seen before the fault, that is to say Weean limestone. It

has a well marked cleavage, due probably to its argillaceous impurities,

and this cleavage is not unfrequently more conspicuous than the stra-

tification.

The end of the spur is, like the preceding spur, cut off by a

transverse fault W. S. W.—E. N. E. and the detached end dips

H. N. E. 20°, whilst the body of the spur, above the transverse fault,

dips H. §. HE. 20°, the cleavage noted above dips N. W. 70°.

_ The thickness of these two beds together is about 100 feet ; they form the

whole of the spur above the village of Koonmoo, ............seeecsssees 100 ft.

28. Above Koonmoo, in the angle formed by the divergence

of the two arms of the spur, is a spring with a Zyarat called Shokim.

* A similar mixture of Zeeawan and Weean fossils is found in some parts of

the Rotta Roh in the Punjab. See Chapter III. para. 60.

162 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 3,

The rocks which are above this spring form a little knoll very insigni- —

ficant geographically, but interesting for its fossils. These are often

converted into hematite, sometimes crystalline, sometimes powdery.

The rock of the bed is mostly a- hard, cherty, pinkish limestone, and —

in this are lenticular beds of a soft, granular, pale french-grey lime-

stone, with innumerable minute black dots which are the crystallized —

stems of a very slender crinoid. These minute rings are sometimes a

round plate and sometimes a five radiated star. The rock is sometimes —

coloured pink by iron, and then the crinoid-rings are dark red instead —

of black. It is foetid and it contains the large Anthracosie (Pl VI.

fig. 8,) and the Aviculo-pectens mentioned before, and also the

little shell Pl. VIII. fig. 5. This spur contains also a very com-~

pact, dark, nearly black limestone, with a very fine grain, but with

only a few fossils and encrinite-rings. It is a similar bed which has_

furnished the blocks of which the beautiful black marble pillars

of the Shalimar Bagh are made of. It takes a fine polish, and is

evidently very durable. It is probable that this bed of black

limestone crosses over to the valley of the Arrah river, and has been

quarried there for these pillars.* |

The remainder of the little spur is made up of calcareous, micaceous sand-

stone without fossils (?). The thickness of the beds forming this spur, is

DOUG ee. Saaaece sede sce ve vien'ccelse tied deals eet esilelgnce’ nakite date anes tn =n 60 ft.

Then we have again beds of limestone, shaly and sandy, much cracked and

fissured, and with only the debris of fossils. The harder portion of the rock is

blue, and is traversed by innumerable white lines cutting one another in all

directions. It dips H. S. H. 20°.

It is succeeded by a bed of blue argillaceous limestone, weathering rugose,

and traversed by thin streaks of yellow, ochrous limestone, and containing

fossils in abundance, amongst others a plaited Spiriferina which appears

common in some layers, whilst it is rare in others. Crinoid stems are also

very abundant, occurring as it were in patches.

The above mentioned bed is covered in by a grey micaceous sandstone,

weathering pale brown and containing the fragments of fossils, but no Spirifering,

The total thickness of the three last beds mentioned is above ... 150 ft. ©

Crossing the dry bed of a torrent and a great deal of rubbish which

apparently covers a fault, the sixth spur is reached, and presents the |

following layers : i

* These pillars are generally described by travellers as black porphyry, @ ;

mistake which a very little attention would have prevented, as the sections of

fossils are to be seen on the polished surface of the columns.

1866. ] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 163

a, The bed with the spur brought up again after the fault, ...... 20 ft,

b. The micaceous sandstone, thin and false-bedded, with well marked

lh cnacitcas ar origyade xn anon: Ba CAG olds ciel lage Sp MRI MARL dae. 16 ft.

c. Foetid pale brown, calcareous sandstone, viz. false-bedded; no fossils;

dips. E. 8. E. 30°.. Petr keh nahi ade te ibels ait wus \nae +> won vddecuaaeageamanes Ue Le

d. Shales; no fossils,. 5¢SGhN CORAL CAN nN nan ous va cos soadeescarvgnes eer ok LOS

e. Limestone, oa Aa aud Henk grey, ne Wenthching How It is much

shivered, and is divided by innumerable white lines crossing each other. No

fossils except what appear to be worm-burrows filled with sandy ochre, 15 ft.

f. Very argillaceous limestone of a pale blue colour, with patches of a dirty

MEOW OQLOUT, 5p coe oak ast cae icy taaas+hegnnsatinnpenyecsecsccp use, 2 tbe

29. I consider that these beds are the top of the Weean division of

the carboniferous limestone of the Himalaya, as the following beds

show a very great difference in their fauna, which is nearly entirely

confined to gasteropods and corals, the gasteropods presenting a great

variety of shape and size, The corals of the Cyathophyllide are

abundant and of considerable dimensions. The crinoid stems, some of

them minute and starred, continue to be seen everywhere. The beds

characterized by gasteropods and corals form the Kothair bed, which

we shall see better developed elsewhere.

Continuing our section, we have therefore, resting on the argilla-

ceous limestone, the following layers :

g. Limestone, fine grained, blue, compact and argillaceous, with patches of

_ dirty yellow. It contains many fragments of fossils, nearly entirely gasteropods.

Some of these are two inches in length. Starry rings of crinoid stems

a abundant. The limestone becomes gradually of a richer blue colour, some

portions being indeed light blue; it weathers rugose like frosted glass. The

upper part contains no gasteropods, but fossil roots and rootlets the size of

the finger. It is about 25 feet thick, . lotsa Md supe ebiiekeke die aN Ebe

This is all we see here of the Kothair bed, as a fault running N. S.

brings up again the’,Weean bed; but this patch of the Kothair

is interesting, as showing its relation to the Weean bed, a relation

which I have not been able to trace so well anywhere else. The

Weean and Kothair beds are quite conformable.

On the other side of the fault we find :

a A limestone, bluish-grey and compact; weathering sandy and dull

grey. Itis divided in layers by several sandy partings. It contains only

a few encrinite stems and dotted white patches which are probably decomposed

fossils. It is shivered and traversed by innumerable white lines,..,... 20 ft.

164 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 3,

b. Brown foetid limestone, full of a transverse species of a plaited Spiri-

ferina and a globular Terebratula. It is probably a lenticular bed, and takes

the place of the Spirifer bed noted. above, ......se.swessersssosesseseaesens 8 Lhe

c. Limestone like a.

The end of this spur is cut by a transverse fault in the same manner

as we have seen in the preceding spurs. The cut off beds are much

disturbed, being vertical at the tops of the ridge, and dipping N. E. at

high angles along the slope.

Beyond this is I have not examined this fine section of the lime-

stone of Kashmir. I was never allowed to visit it again, as I was

suddenly ordered away from Srinuggur, my professional services being

required elsewhere. Had I had time, I intended to follow the section

across the range into Nawan and down to the bottom of the Harrah

Valley.

30. From the brow of the last spur which I have visited, a fine

view is obtained of the next spur, which is remarkable for a great

twist of the strata which compose it. The limestone is extremely

white and resembles chalk-cliffs at a distance. We shall, however,

see this white limestone at Manus Bal, and find that it is probably

a portion of the Weean bed altered by heat. We shall find it similarly

altered at Islamabad.

The whole mass of hills of Nawan appears to be limestone. The

summits of Boorwaz and Batgool appear behind the range, present-

ing high rugged peaks of porphyry. To our right, the limestone

forms a small chain which advances for some miles into the Pampur

valley, and behind this chain a long line of mountains, also entirely

composed of limestone, runs N.—S. to join the Wastarwan. (See

maps B. and C.)

31. The little chain which descends into the Pampur valley

terminates over the village of Weean. At its extremity, the Weean

limestone, or middle bed of carboniferous limestone of Kashmir, is

well developed, and we will now proceed to examine this locality.

It is, to me, the classical ground of the Weean limestone, as the

Zeeawan spur is that of the Zeeawan Bed.

1866. ] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 165

Section of the hills above the village of Weean in the Pampur valley.

(See fig. 7.)

The little hillocks above the villages of Weean and Kohew, are

separated from the main hill by a fault running W.—E. The beds

have moreover been folded on themselves and dip due W. (at Weean),

with an angle of 55°, whilst in the main hill the dip is to the N. E.

with an angle between 20° and 30°. This does not, however, prevent

the section of the little hill near Weean being a very good one for

study. We shall proceed from E. to W.

1. Impure arenaceous limestone with fine spangles of mica. It is very

shaly in the centre of the bed and there very much decayed. It

changes its aspect repeatedly, adding here more sand and mica, there more

a giaaciyni's oe ads as bain aie bee eee +09 v90 apeeen's chats a uk siaas Sa ID She;

_ 2. Limestone, sratigadate: in ie ae eile sti SP rere A ft.

_ 3. Blue limestone, weathering brown and rough. It is arenaceous near

- its upper part. It contains a very few fragments of fossils, ......... 20 ft.

i 4. Finely crystalline limestone; nearly saccharine; grey and

zz EI dist ncce hain} cajeh' as prin Sind. Shari web anid pasts nanSRE TEs wdaidacide avai 15 ft

ia ak dings ole concep ods wp nines watsiadieplnd obowasie <d'es@%e ineived sin 8 ft.

_ 6. Limestone in blue and dirty yellow patches; fossils much

broken, a autor Tacos poland ys Ae PRD aa CRSA Paes 4 Vesa ax MABE.

7. Flesh colour limestone ; hard, oReae ad magnesian, ......... 4 ft.

8. Sandstone, micaceous, grey, calcareous and muddy. It decays faster

than the other beds and forms a depression on the hill-side, ......... 2 ft.

9. Limestone, patchy blue and brown. The hardest and roughest por-

tions are full SPEC GUIS OL LOSMIG, 5.0. .scaceet leet ccnstevsrncaceeresers 20 £0.

p10. Sandstone, soft and wearing off quickly, Pings a isto 20 ft.

ii. Limestone, hard and grey; it is brecciated and weathers

ie 2 a AES asm vce evita tsaievinndereuadow i+ wewangd sain 30 ft.

ey Marly and sandy limestone, compact and hard, dark grey and weather-

ing into a granular surface, having the appearance of a sandstone. The debris

Moon occ <cettcnsctiaddndguiageaerrcacneewaierss“omanesee AO Lb,

13. Fawn- — heaiduane! very Gnas ; it aoe ochrous and decays

fast, forming a depression on the hill side, . Sbaev es Zk daa, Ae Es

414, A wall of very hard, crystalline, faa One blue limestone with

166 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmar, [No. 3,

_ patches coloured brown. It weathers a dirty dark yellow, and becomes extremely

rough and pitted by exposure. The organisms it contains are quite indistin-

guishable, sad soe pedsgsdan ecu sbsledhedtnwe dosbfelseenenabulqna)+S=nmaues otales eam cime mene 3. ft.

15. Fawn-coloured limestone like 18, .............06. ok. ee di. ‘OnE:

16. A wall of very hard and compact limestone, grey and very arenaceous,

Where it is tolerably free of sand, it is bluer and contains the debris of fos-

GEIS, cos css sesesveed tu adtictwenovte see renaes carbons sosenaens ;nemsn sys .es) ian ee mau 15 ft.

17. Sandstone, pale and calcareous, with bands of crystalline carbonate —

of lime. It decays fast and forms a depression, .....-..sseeseeeseeee ees 10 ft.

18. A well marked wall of dark greyish-blue limestone, very rough and —

pitted; it is arenaceous and in places cherty, ............--+eresssseree 5 ft.

19. Sandstone, micaceous, very false-bedded and very muddy. It efferves-

ces with acid along the scum-markings of the false bedding only,... 15 ft.

20. A very arenaceous and argillaceous limestone, extremely variable in :

its appearance, but being generally of a pale clayey yellow. It is formed of

extremely thin layers of two distinct rocks, one being a yellow marl, and

the other a bluish grey arenaceous limestone, and these thin layers are also

very false-bedded. When we make a vertical section of a hand specimen, we

have a striped rock; and in a horizontal one, a succession of regularly round-

ed patches of bluish grey and sickly yellow. This alternation of very thin and

very false-bedded layers of rocks of two different colours is the cause of the

patchy appearance of many beds of the Weean group. But it is rarely

so welldefined as in this present layer. In other places, the bluish limestone

forms irregularly-rounded balls or nodules cemented together by the yellow

marl, or the marl forms lumps imbedded in the limestone. Then again mi-

caceous sand forms, here and there, small false-bedded layers or bands in the

rock: and lenticular beds of a hard, brittle, pale yellowish, limestone, full of

the fragments of bivalves and of small crinoid stems, are also found. But all

these varieties of rock constitute a thick course of impure limestone, 60 ft.

Total ... 425 ft.

We have now arrived at the little ravine which indicates the centre

of the fold of the beds; on its other side the same beds are repeated in

an inverse manner as far as the bed 16 of the above section; the ‘re

maining beds have been denuded from the western branch of the fold

This fold deserves notice, as showing well how completely beds may

be reversed in their position. It is probable that the beds nearest

to the ravine are the deepest or oldest, whilst the bed which we have

numbered No. 1, in the section, is the most superficial. If the hill

had been denuded to half its present height above the village, the beds |]

Fig, 7.

Sketch Section of the hills above Weean and Kohew, bearing N.; to illustrate the descriptive Section of these mountains. (Not drawn to scale.)

w, Boorwaz Batgool

(14.423)

Limestone hills, (Zebanwan) dip §. Easterly. (13087)

CG. oe

\ Nw LX

Xs LOasy :

wa QQ SSS ;

— =

KOONMOD, = SS

—_————

ee)

1M.

wae

SF / /}

PHM SEAN |

1017 181920 201918 171615 141812 11109 8 7 65 4 3 8

Sketch-Seclion of the Hapatilri and Saijnanh Mountains, bearing N. LE. as seen from the top of the Ishlamabad Hill. (Not drawn to scale.)

Beds not visited. Saijnarh Mt, Niltopa (14538)

. ae te)

<, PORPpYRE

1235

—————

WAaTAND

= Murron

FACUGTRINE PLATEAD

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1866.] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 167

would appear to succeed one another with considerable regularity

from W. to H., and one bed, No. 1, would appear the deepest ; but

the top of the hill having been preserved, the beds can be seen plainly

bending and folding themselves in two. There is a circumstance which

renders it extremely easy to follow the beds along the hill-side and

it is this, that the layers 16, 17 and 18 forma sort of broad ribbon at

their outcrop ; 16 and 18 being composed of dark grey walls of Hme-

stone which, from their hardness, are prominent 2 or 3 feet over

the general surface of the slope, whilst 17, the layer between them,

is a pale sandstone, decaying fast and forming a sunken furrow be-

tween the two walls. This broad ribbon, about 30 feet wide, can

be followed with the eye for miles. The layers 7, 8 and 9 also form

a ribbon, but less well marked than the other, being paler and not

so sharp. Now, these two ribbons are of the greatest assistance

in following the twists and foldings of the beds. We have seen

that the ribbon 16,17 and 18 ascends the eastern branch of the fold

over Weean and curves over at the top of the hill, where its beds are

perfectly horizontal, and then descends along the western branch. We

see the two ribbons forming near the village of Kohew an anticlinal

similar to that of Weean, but not quite so sharp, and the description

of the ribbon also shows us plainly that the beds of the Weean

hillocks are reversed. There isa great fault between the main hill

and these two little hillocks of Weean and Kohew; on the north

of the fault, the beds dip to the N. HE. at a high angle, and all the

soit and marly layers have decayed and tumbled down in ébowlzs,*

but the hard ribbon has remained, and can be traced along the

hill showing the outcrop of the beds. All the way up to Nawan

we can see the beds of limestone dipping N. E. and we can infer the

existence of many faults across the range from the reappearance of

the ribbon on the top of each small spur which descends in the

Kohew valley. We sce these pieces of ribbon plunge under the soil

of this small valley to emerge on the other side (fig. 7), giving us

the strike of the beds of that long chain of limestone hills which

connects Nawan with the Wastarwan Mountain ; but although I have

* The French word is so convenient and expressive, that I do not hesitate

to use it, as no English.word expresses equally well the broken materials of

beds which have slipped.

168 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 3,

not visited that long chain of hills, and have not travelled up the

Kohew valley, I was. enabled in following these ribbons, to see

that it is composed of the variety of limestone which I have called

the Weean Bed.

We shall observe these ribbons wherever the Weean hmestone

is well developed; they are to be seen in the section I have

given, between Zeeawan and Koonmoo, on the southern aspect of

the Zebanwan. I did not mention them there, because they

make but little show near these localities; but we shall see them

well marked near Mutton, in the eastern portion of the valley of

Kashmir.

32. I will now try to characterise the Weean Bed of carboniferous

limestone.

It is a very arenaceous and argillaceous limestone, the sand being

either in thin grey bands, or mixed with the general paste of .

the rock. A sandy, marly clay, yellow, dirty-yellow, pale brown

or brown, forms thin and very false-bedded films in the rock, so

that this is striped when bisected vertically, and patchy bluish and

yellow when divided horizontally. The hardest beds are brittle, flesh-

coloured and generally full of bright red minute crystals of hematite,

and the fossils are here replaced by a powdery or cena :

hematite which, however imperfectly, preserves their outlines. The ‘

harder rock is never blue, and the blue variety of rock is suffici-

ently muddy to have a soft, velvety, lustreless appearance like 5

fine clay, and not the clean brittle fracture of a pure and hard —

limestone. It has in places all the appearance of a very dirty dark-

grey mud dried up, and it is then full of fossils and extremely fetid.

It contains lenticular beds of a very pale, nearly friable limestone, |

containing black specks which are the rings of stems of very minute

crinoids, and this variety of soft limestone is the habitat of large

bivalves. One single bed of limestone may be mistaken for Zeeawan —

limestone, bluish-grey, coarse hard and_ semi- -crystalline, but it

contains innumerable Foraminifere transformed into yellow ochre;

very large Pectens, and an incredible quantity of fragmentary

Crinoidea. Indeed, it is the great number of those small rings of |

crinoid stems, always crystallized, which causes the rock to resemble

the limestone of the Zeeawan Bed.

1866. ] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 169

Everything in the Weean bed tells of a shallow sea formation.

The rocks in some localities, to be described hereafter, have been

much altered by heat or other forces soon after their formation. We

shall see them thus altered at Manus Bal and at Islamabad, and

also at the Kafir Kote in the Punjab district of Bunnoo. It appears

that considerable disturbances occurred while the Weean Bed was

still in a soft state. But this subject will be examined more carefully

in another paragraph of this paper.

The fossils differ a great deal from those of the Zeeawan Bed. In

most layers they are mere debris hardly to be recognized. When

they do occur, they are always crowded together in limited beds.

The Spiriferine and Terebratule appear to have lived in shallow

lagoons, in creeks in the sand, in pools on a flat marshy shore,

and the large bivalves on sandbanks and shallows. The following

fossils appear to be characteristic of the Weean Bed, as they

are not found either in the Zeeawan Bed below or the Kothair bed

above.

Spiriferina Stracheyii (Salter) ?

- Stracheyw (Salter)? var. altior, (Verch.).

Solenopsis imbricata ? (Koninck).

Fl Vig ee. ©.

Cucullea ? sp. - Pl! Vii tig 4.

Anthracosia ? (King)—Cardinia, sp. Pl. VI. fig. 3.

_ t Cardinia ovalis ? (Martin) Pl. VI. fig. 3.

Axinus, sp. n., allied to A. obscurus.

Solenopsis sp.

| Aviculo-Pecten dissimilis (Fleming).

vi gee. (A. circularis, Verchére,) Plat. VII.

[fig. 1, la, & 1b.

i, a SD: ? Pl. VL. fig. 6, 6a, 6b.

i Adem) PPE VES Res Te Ta:

Mi me) sip PPI VE ie Tee, Fh:

5 » Sp. n. ——?(A. Testudo, Verch.) Pl. VIL. fig. 3, 3a.

P » 8p n.? CA. Grbbosus, Verch.) Pl. VII. fig. 4, 4a,

Goniatites, sp.

like G. Hensloww (Sowerby).

Entomostrace. ~Cypridinie ?

Foraminifere,

Crinoidea ; Cyathocrinites and Pentremites.

170 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [ No. 3,

A small bivalve, giving on section the appearance of a pair of

spectacles is also found, but I never could detect the shell entire,

although it is often the only fossil to be discovered.

33. But to the positive evidence afforded by these fossils, we

must add the negative evidence: 1 mean we must remember that

this is a bed of carboniferous limestone, and that notwithstanding

we have no examples of the genera Productus, Orthis, EHuomphalus

Bellerophon, and Orthoceratites, and that there are no large Spirifere or

Frenestellides. Neither have we the Gasteropods and Cyathophyllides

which- characterise the uppermost or Kothair bed, more by their

number and variety, than by any species well defined by me. Iam

anxious to insist on the absence in the Weean group of these fossils,

which are generally regarded as eminently carboniferous, because

it has been found difficult to determine the age of rocks belonging

to the Weean bed, when seen apart from the Zeeawan Bed; thus

the limestone of Manus Bal, which belongs to the Weean group, has

been twice reported to be nummulitic.

34. The next mountain to examine is the Wastarwan. It is

a fine hill, its summits rising above Avantipoor, a small city on the

Jheelum celebrated for its Buddhist ruins. An inspection of the

map will be better than any description I can give of the position and

relations of this mountain. It is a centre of elevation, with spurs

descending in all directions, like the spokes of a wheel. I never

ascended it, but I travelled along its northern and its western sides,

and the following is a description of what I saw.

Section from Reechpoora towards the EH. as far as longitude 73° 5’.

across the northern spurs of the Wastarwan : (See Map C.)

The spur which descends to near Reechpoora is entirely composed

of Zeeawan limestone with the characteristic fossils. The bed forms

a sharp anticlinal of which the two arms slope or dip N. EH. and 8. W.

respectively, striking N. W. to 8. E. The beds of limestone inwrap

the end of the spur, the layers seen above the little Buddhist

ruin dipping nearly due N. The anticlinal is so sharp that the

courses of rock have separated, and caves, now converted inio holy

quarters for a few fakirs, are to be observed on both sides of the

anticlinal.

35. Proceeding eastwards, after crossing the bed of a stream, we

1866. | the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 171

observe near Banda, a small Zyarut up the ravine above Ladoo,

some very fine beds of limestone of which the following is the

section.

Proceeding from the bottom of the ravine up the side of the spur

we find.

1. Slates, so much decayed and broken that it is impossible to see their

dip and strike, They are identical with those which we have seen inter-

bedded with volcanic ash and agglomerate in the Tukt-i-Suliman and the

Zebanwan, and they are very extensively developed in the Wastarwan, They

are, as we have seen, more or less metamorphosed, often slightly amygdaloidal

and always devoid of organisms, akcniopaconstsaa xis eames ee . very thick,

2. Augitic ash, very amyg -daloidal, the wont tasoted filled sometimes with

dark augite, sometimes with bluish-white opalescent quartz, It strikes N. W.

ey W. and dips north-easterly, About .......ccsccsecccsseccsssessecsesvees 20 ft.

3. Trachyte, sparingly amygdaloidal ; coloured are outside by

Se sical sehen kadteapnes $0. ERs

4., Be cephosed poe foliated, jointed, fi se Sl <efitsent. ¢ aU: Uls

BE TIGEELG, isan ose cnn v's coe san ens'cee ven sevesesassevecsereassessee 4 InChES,

The debris of volcanic rocks form a een over the basalt ; but this bed

is very irregular and lenticular, The basalt is replaced in some places along

the strike by a dull, light-olive-coloured laterite or baked clay, about one foot

+ thick,

- 6. Quartzite, sometimes pure, opaque, white; often translucent, bluish or

smoky ; never crystalline, It gradually invades the laterite mentioned above,

and forms ribands of dull olive and pure white quartz, .........0.. 2&3 ft

4%. Zeeawan limestone with usual fossils; dips N. 15°, ............ 40 ft.

SEPATIOOTOWD. SHALE, .....cccccccdecccnvecccrvenceccssnccncstonsessas LO ft,

9. Fine blue clay-slate; calcareous a ae in large thin slates. It

Rvtains no fossils, Cee coer et eestor ereeees SCHOTT EHH SEHR Hee eee eee eee eee Eee eee 10 fit.

Extensive old quarries remain here, showing how fine and free

a limestone the Zeeawan bed can give, when quarried in portions of

rock which are not weathered. The quarries are far from exhausted,

or rather the amount removed is insignificant compared to what

remains; blocks of any size and very sound could now be procured

easily from the old quarries. It is a great pity that the Maharajah’s

government do not work this and other quarries for the limestone they

want, instead of destroying the interesting Buddhist ruins which

cover the valley, especially as the style of architecture now in favour

in Kashmir is perfectly hideous.

172 Mr. Verchere on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 3,

Traversing a ravine we meet the spur which descends towards the

village of Mandikpal, and the following section is met with :

1. Amygdaloidal greenstone.

2. Amygdaloid,

3. Quartzite,

4, Rotten Augitic ash.

Some of the ground is covered with ths debris: of the ash, so that its relation

to the next bed is not seen,

5. Limestone, argillaceous, pale bluish-grey, weathering fawn-coloured : after-

wards patchy blue and brownish. Itis thin-bedded and breaks in slabs about

one to one and a half inch thick. It contains an abundance of Goniatites of 2 or

3 species. The bed is about.. Ses -« ose taniesenpae, AB.

. The dip of these several agers of iti is ee N. E. “25°,

This is the only locality where I have seen Weean limestone resting

immediately on volcanic rocks.

From Mandikpal, our section goes through a succession of limestone

ridges which, from the appearance of the ribbons described at the

hillocks over Weean and Kohew (para. 31), are conjectured to

be Weean limestone, but I had not time to visit them. The general ~

dip of their beds is north-easterly.

36. The western aspect of the Wastarwan I shall describe from |

S. to N., that is from Avantipoor to Reechpoora. It is a series”

of spurs with a general westwardly direction, and at the end of one

of these spurs is a little knoll which I shall call for convenience sake ~

the “ Pampur knoll.”

The following its the section of dies spurs Bei: S. to N. (see

Map C.). .

1. The whole of the spurs between Avantipoor and Tangur are composed

entirely of volcanic rocks, viz., amgydaloidal greenstone, coarse basalt and

ash, and black slate without fossils, The limestone is first seen about three

quarters of a mile south of Barus, where two spurs approach very near the

river Jheelum.

3) ig eo eat nen sce en 11 ada ganipaiccesiclib aoeleds Eee mre tt,

A fault N. N. E.—S8. 8. W. It opens Be. the northern Ley whilst the

edges of it are crushed one against the other at its southern extremity. On

the northern side of the fault we find :—

1866. ] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 173

1. Quartzite, bluish grey, gritty and rough, ..........ccceseeseeeee ees 2 ft.

2. Trap, having a shaly appearance, A great deal of kunkur is seen along

the line of fault, seeteeeaee egaaesee ces seeeecercerseesercreseesaceseseeee L ft,

38. Quaritzite, Soe e chy co wii. 3 isios a very peculiar appearance :

it is divided in meshes like a very coarse travertin, or rather like lead which

has been dropped in cold water while in a melted state. There is however a

’ certain pretty well marked stratification or superposition of courses. The

rock looks like a siliceous paste which had solidified suddenly when in a sate

of ebullition, It first dips W. about 50°, increasing gradually to the vertical

and ten inclining the other way, dipping S. E. 80°. It, however, soon becomes

‘vertical and gradually dips again W. 50°,............ gabase dak Wate Miedet 02 40 ft,

4, Pale trachyte. Dips W. 50°, . Clk guide Snapdve Sighee Ga area Reeen! EG Ets

5. Limestone, crystalline and wehinieboae: no organisms. Weathering

rough ; emer sonltiod, by ION-OXYAC,......icvecesesieed vcd ssukadhewscadenseiyes 3 ft.

6. Zeeawan limestone with the usual fossils; dips W. 40°,......... 50 ft.

. 7. Zeeawan brown Bhalesiess cx'nk cis Goa ee aatd nial LOO £RS

8. Slate; coarse, micaceous. gc caer’ ak siciialses to a fault; no fossils P

A fault, from N, E.—S. W. with a downthrow or the southern side. The

slates are partially in the fault,

—; =

_ 37. If we ascend the next spur, Barus spur, from the south, pretty

high up the little ravine, and make our way to the monumental

“Ling” which crowns the hill,* we see nothing but trap and

‘ashes which have been brought up again on the northern side of the

: The top of the hill is covered with grass and debris which

prevent the rocks being seen in situ, but many pieces of ash, amyg-

‘daloid and white quartzite are seen loose on the earth, showing that the

‘us al quartzite bed exists here. On the western and north-western

| aspect of the hillock, the rocks are uncovered and we have the follow-

re two beds are oo ae be Piaabie earth, as mentioned above.

Zeeawan limestone with usual fossils. Dips W. 50°,............ 40 ft.

$. Greyish- mine limestone without fossils,..........0..sscecccseesssses 15 ft,

Beds concealed by vegetable earth and om eorbite trepsonith 30 ft.

Shaly limestone with few and broken shells..............0000.005 vs 40 ft.

Beri. is, I believe, one of the largest, if not the largest “ Ling” or “ Em:

blem_ of Creation.’ It measures 14 feet in circumference and was about 20

teet high, The base is hexagonal; the preputial line is in relief, and appears

to have been carved. This monster ling is now broken in two or three pieces,

and the upper half is prostrate on the ground; the hexagonal base and about,

6 feet of the body of the ling are still standing. .

174 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 3,

5. Limestono, very impure and containing immense numbers ofa Spirifer of

large size, very similar to Spirifera Verchéri, De Vernueil Pl. I. (fig. la. 1b. 4 ft.

6. Limestone with a few fossils, ......cseceeseeoes wie ely Sty enema a ie

7. Limestone, filled with Productus rotate 8. W. ) en extremely depressed

by pressure. Many other fossils associated with the Productus, ‘such as Athyris —

Spirifera, and a species of Chonetes, &c. The limestone is arenaceous and mica-

ceous, often so much so that it passes into a calcareous sandstone. This passes

gradually into the next bed, the fossils becoming less frequent and the rock

less sandy.

8. Shaly limestone. The beds 7 and 8 are together about, ...... 60 ft.

All these beds are evidently, from their fossils, members of the Zeeawan

group. The series is continued by beds of the Weean limestone.

9. Sandstone, grey, then pale brown, It contains lenticular beds of lime< —

stone. The bed is much disintegrated and overgrown with grass

Goniatites,.....0re0res wish gay ena/on's tekso'e bas'oms eat Gomes * een ?

10; iii loses sete pan of a pluish grey colour. ‘Divided by

pastings of shale, thin and irregular, It weathers rugose and contains no ~

dees ee ee

11. Calcareous ane thin- bedded and exfoliating, coves gaa teeeear) at fides

12. Flinty limestone like 10, ..........cese0eee wee 3 ft.

fossils, weet vee Peereerene eee eee seeeoene es eeereeseon eeercs . ee ves teeta

A lacustrine deposit covers any further bed which may exist.

The total thickness of this section is about 260 feet. The Zeeawan

bed is nowhere so thick as it is here, being about 220 feet thick from:

stratum 1 to 8.

The remainder of the section is Weean limestone, but only partially

seen here.

38. The end of the spur, immediatly north of Barus, presents also

some Zeeawan limestone, but it was not examined. The two following

spurs are entirely composed of volcanic ash and agglomerate.

39. Then comes the long spur which ends in the somewhat

detached hillock which I have called the Pampur knoll. We find

in this spur the beds we have just seen above Barus, precisely in the

same position and relation. The similarity is so complete that it is

evident that the Barus beds once extended to the Pampur knoll with

out a break, but phos a great portion of this limestone has been

denuded.

thin-bedded as they approach the limestone. They dip W. N. W. :

with an angle of about 45°. The Zeeawan bed rests on quartzite

1866. ] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 175

and presents the same beds full of the gregarious fossil Spirifera trigona-

lis (?) and of Productus Costatus : the distance between these beds is the

same as it is at Barus. On the top of the Zeeawan beds are seen

Weean beds, but they are much more complete than at Barus, having

a thickness, from the top of the Zeeawan bed to the foot of the knoll,

of about 660 feet. But I believe there are probably some faults

which cause beds to be repeated, and that the Weean bed is not quite

so thick ; about 500 feet.

- The Pampur knoll gives the following approximate section fiom

east to west. |

1. Coarse grey limestone,

2. Slaty grey limestone.

_ 8. Patchy blue and yellow or pale brown limestone.

4. Compact blue limestone, argillaceous.

5. Patchy blue and dirty yellow.

_ These beds are together about 100 feet thick, They dip W. with an angle

? 60°.

6. Filesh-coloured limestone.

*4, Shaly coarse blue limestone.

8. Flesh-coloured limestone.

_. These 3 beds are together about 80 feet. Dip as above.

_ Other layers are buried under lacustrine deposits. This little

hillock was examined very superficially, owing to want of time. No

fossils were seen except the small broken bivalves mentioned above,

and which are so common in all the rocks of the Weean group.

§ 40. The spur seen half way between the Pampur knoll and

Reechpoora, is tipped with Zeeawan limestone, but was not examined

in detail.

41. Here ends our survey of the Wastarwan. I need not say

that the central ridges and summits are entirely composed of volcanic

jaccumulations. Black basaltic rocks are abundant, and by their

usintegration, and the rearrangement by water of the black mud

| they gave in decaying, a great quantity of black slate was formed

jwhich is seen interbedded with beds of ash and agglomerate. These

voleanic rocks do not require to be described, as they are identical with

those of the Zebanwan Mountain. All the rocks of the Wastarwan

resent a stratifigation or superposition; on the northern slope it

176 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 3, ~

has a general dip to the N. K., whilst on the western aspect of the

hill its dip is generally westerly. There is therefore a sort of

anticlinal towards the centre of the hill, following a direction from :

the N. W. to the 8. E. We have seen how this anticlinal affects the —

limestone at Reechpoora, a locality which happens to be at the end

of it.

42. The next mountain we meet, travelling towards the 8. E.

along the banks of the Jheelum, is the Kamlawan (8601) which

terminates over the village of Murhamma. The mountain is com-

posed, like the Zebanwan and the Wastarwan, of volcanic rocks.

Melted rocks predominate in the centre of the system, whilst

ash and laterite compose, in a great part, the most extended spurs.

Slate is intermixed with the beds of volcanic cinders, and over

these carboniferous limestone rests conformably. But the limestone

of the Kamlawan appears to have been extensively denuded, and is

only found in a small bed which makes but little show. The follow- —

ing is a section of the spur immediately over Murhamma. Direction

of the spur N.—S. Strike E. 8. H—W. N. W.; dip S. S. W. ~

(See Pl. 11. Section D.)

1. Trachy-dolerite, coarse and dark, here and there amygdaloidal; it has

large joints regularly disposed, at right angles to the stratification and yawn- —

ing, giving it a somewhat columnar aspect. This bed appears to extend from |

=“

the top of the hill, to the beginning of the spur now under consideration, It

is of very great thickness, and, making allowance for faults, it cannot be less —

than 2000 feet.

2, Baked clay-stone or compact laterite, grey, smooth, munch jointed ; it

dips 8. S. W. 70°. It has a thickness of about .............ccceecss-eeeee 200 ft.

3. Limestone, crystalline, coarse and metamorphosed, It contains a few frag- —

ments of fossils, not recognizable and mostly transformed into spar, 3 ft,

MA EAEUL, rectotek. 2% Gace en cince ad tatemac ee <a etc olen eceen ting ane denpene ee oem Parr

4, Grey laterite or baked clay, like No. 2,...,...csscessescescscsssosses 200 ft.

& tAamyedalleids sia Bertha ie Ritdidecantede <Gad ens cea Gene eee 20 ft.

6. Sandstone, or perhaps volcanic dust-stone; no fossils, ........ ai ie Se

7, Coarse grit of rounded grains.

8. Basalt, fine and dark brown, The beds 7 and 8 are together 150 ft.

10. Beds covered with grass and earth. Pieces of white quartzite and

rotten ash seen amongst the Crass, ..¢...secsssscevsecasceceseree-cececvecess’ LOO fblumEE

11. Limestone of the Zeeawan group with Produetide, Fenestellide,

1866.] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 177

Orthide, etc. It is much fractured and fissured, and is evidently but the rem-

nant of larger beds removed by denudation, It dips 8. 8. W. 50° and it is

Any further beds which may exist are covered by the lacustrine deposit,

which is here 150 feet above the level of the Jheelum.

The Sheri Bal is a small mountain close to the Kamlawan,

to which it is united by a connecting ridge. It is entirely composed

of the same semi-columnar trachy-dolerite which forms the bulk of

the Kamlawan. The compact, smooth, grey, laterite or baked clay-

stone, described in the section as No. 2 and 4, is seen extending on the

flank of the hill, both to the west and to the east. It forms a conspicu-

ous belt along the side of the Sheri Bal, appearing, from the high

angle of its dip, to rest against the trachy-dolerite. Some of the

volcanic and azoic rocks, described in the section of the Kamlawan

as superior to the laterite, were seen on the slopes of the Sheri Bal,

but no limestone was observed, it having probably been denuded.

43. Crossing the valley of the Lidar River, we find the next

“mountains to be the Hapatikri and Saijnarh group. The whole of

this system of hills appears to be composed of limestone. It is

continued to the S. W. by a low ridge, which is mostly buried under

lacustrine deposits, but rises above these at Islamabad, forming

a small hill at the foot of which the town is built.

The following section (fig. 8) will, I hope, give a good idea of the

rocks composing these hills. The section is above the celebrated Tank

‘of Mutton, near which locality the lacustrine deposit is about 120 feet

| thick. Above the lacustrine we find :

1. A limestone, coarse arenaceous and apparently much metamorphosed.

It contains hardly any trace of fossils, excepting very crystalline rounded

bodies which are altered stems of crinoids. The rock is divided into sub-beds

by shaly or clayey partings, which are very false-bedded and very hard. Only

a few feet of this rock appear above the lacustrine.

_ 2. Limestone, jointed and cleaved; but hard specimens have a remarkably

compact, smooth appearance, like hornstone.

These 2 beds dip H. N. E. 20°.

3. The bed No, 2 becomes gradually bluer and more argillaceous and less

cleaved ; towards the top of the bed it is the patchy blue and brownish rock

which we have seen before repeatedly. It contains traces of fossils, but no

shells sufficiently well preserved to be recognized. It has an enormous thick-

173° Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashnur, [No. 3,

ness, varying however a good deal in places. There are remains of a Buddhist

quarry in this bed.

The three beds have together a thickness of about .....ssessesvevees 200 ft.

4. White and friable sandstone, apparently a compressed quartzose sand

without cement. It dips N. H. by H. 25°. It contains traces of fossils. It is

remarkably well seen near the Karaise or Irrigation Canal which is cut on the

flank of the hill.* It is a thin bed and presents variations of color and aspect.

It isenly-one andthalf foot thiek;i2, sein te ncdlgees donekaanee seus dlc 34 OCDE

5. Argillacepus blue limestone, . 52. vesiewedaeisac basses ccvseumne lee eie tine bike

6. Yellow sandstone, calcareous, not very hard, much disturbed and faulted,

the faults, which are small and short, being at right angles to the strike, The

sandstone has a thickness Of abOUG ....ccscssesversocecsvesonacnnsneepaienensyy WO aby

In this sandstone, which, by the bye, does occasionally pass into

lenticular patches of impure arenaceous limestone, a great many sections

or outlines of large bivalves and some small ones were seen; but no

shell in a tolerable state of perfection could be obtained; I, however, —

made drawings of the outlines presented by these bivalves, on the ~

weathered flank of the reck. When I first saw these outlines, I did —

not know of the large Amnthracosie, Pectens and Aviculo-pectens

which exist in the Weean group, and it appeared poor and ungrateful

work to copy them. Soon after, however, I found the Aviculo-

pectens and other bivalves represented at Pl. VI. fig. 8, and Pl. VIL. |

fig. 4, 4a, and my sketches of the sections came in very opportunely,

proving, in the absence of better fossil evidence, the Weean nature

of the Hapatikri limestone. .

7. Very hard and brilliant white quartzose sandstone, we. 10 ft.

8. Sandstone, yellow and soft, like 6,. Tg nel ssiaia sialon of eens ERE

These sandstone beds are iteaeaete wavy ane. ondilatege as if they had

suffered from lateral pressure. The limestone above and below participates

but very triflingly in these undulations.

9. Sandy limestone, blue and compact. The debris of small fossils, 10 ft,

10. Dark shales, slightly carbonaceous. In this bed, casts of roots of

trees with a concentric arrangement and, in rare cases, the vegetable cells

filled with coal, were seen. The roots are generally thoroughly petrified ; they

are numerous and mostly horizontally (to dip) arranged; they are branching |

and have generally a starry disposition like Stigmaria. Some pieces of these |

* This canal was apparently intended to bring some of the waters of the

Lidar to the Martand plateau ; but it was never finished, and it is now falling —

into ruin, It is said to have been begun during the reign a OF the Mogul Emperors |

of Delhi; it is a work of considerable extent.

1866. ] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 179

roots show a sort of epidermis, somewhat scaly like Lepidodendron. Large

trunks were not seen. The bed is very thin, only 1} foot, and is covered

by a bed of limestone 25 feet thick, It appears therefore probable that,

owing to littoral oscillations, the vegetable covering of the shale was denuded

during the progress of the sinking of the coast and previous to the deposit of

the limestone, POORER Oe EPR Hee eee eee EH EE Eee HOT EEE EEE OH Tee HEE HEH ereereeres ees 1 & $ ft.

11. Argillaceous a étdlah and ih pceic white.

Shaly partings, POC ROR oe eee tee FOE Pee eee Bee OOO Fee eee cee Hee Hee HHH HHH FOE Hee TOR TOF Hee 25 ft.

4 12, Calcareous Sabor of a compact structure anda dark blue color

_ when fresh, but weathering reddish in an irregular and patchy manner, the

vedder patches being due to shaly masses which are seen here and there

imbedded in the sandstone: these shaly masses sometimes form lenticular

thin beds, as thin-bedded as sheets of paper. No fossils, ............ 10 ft.

Semcey limestone ; TO fossils, .........secceccsescessssecccssessossersee © ft.

14. Limestone, patchy blue and pale brown, ..ccssccseesee eeveseee 15 ft.

These two beds of limestone are not quite conformable to the sandstone and

ding beds; they are nearly horizontal, with a trifling dip of about 3°

ca the HE. N. E. This is probably due to littoral oscillations or earthquakes.

% 15. Sandstones, greyish-brown and pale, ,..... TORI GAA taphagsulsba skys cals Pea

“16. Fare Gir Sa nvarinnesas nowncddaneegensenssctcscessectesxess M& 10,

17. Very arenaceous, grey limestone, ick SCING a en pcllotrish grey ;

; shows no organisms. It dips EH. N. HE. 20°. It does not appear to participate

r= kes mn "

LP ES.

a all in the faults and folds noted before. It has resisted atmospheric influence

well and forms a prominent and striking wall near the top of the hill.. It

in iai sis 256 ond coitxee shi vasuerisenoasagg sat asivcsgscsenunseacingg 20: £b.

% 18. Pale bine A ee eld Hace and. shaly, SE 5 ie ns greyish-brown and

Patchy. It decays fast into a yellow sandy marl and forms a furrow at its

Tien ses ase ves seston ee Beilin Pee avast

79. a setae very hard and eiarhes Pee is fawn-coloured, but

1etimes greenish blue, It contains no BOREL | endaas Fo diediniaee.« dies van Stile tbs

_ These three beds, 17, 18 and 19, form at their outcrop a ribbon

imilar to those described at Weean. Another ribbon is formed by the

s14, 15 and 16, which appear to be the equivalent of the ribbon

Sandstone, brown, hard and micaceous, .....c.csseessessssoesscese 2 ft.

» Limestone in blue and brown patches, wcicccccccsscssseesseenee 4 ft

2. Sandstone, shaly and much fissured. Color grey or eat eenat rte It

It has a slaty cleavage, cutting the stratifica-

|e a by striking W. EH. and dipping N. with an angle of 60°, It

ae afew fossils. This bed varies a great deal, being sometimes a pure

Janough sandstone, at other times a sandy shale, and again a coarse sandy slate.

Tt goes to the top of the cliff... COO eee Hee eee Hee eee Tee Fee Fee POF SOHO Fee HOH THEO HOE 20 ft.

180 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 3,

This section gives a thickness of Weean limestone and calcareous

sandstone, of 360 feet.

When I ascended the Hapatikri, I unfortunatly did so above Mutton,

and only carried my section as far as the top of the hill at that place,

that is as far as layer 22. A little swelling of the surface concealed —

from me the summits to my right, and I thought that layer 22 was

the highest of the hill. From the top of the Islamabad hill,

about four miles to the 8. W., I could see, while sketching fig. 8,

that the summit of the Hapatikri is considerably above the layer

22. Two dark layers or ribbons are well seen near the highest

summit of the Hapatikri, and it is not impossible that some faults

bring up again the same beds. It is, however, probable that some ©

beds of the uppermost or Kothair Bed exist near the summit of

the hill, as I found amongst ébowlis and lose stones near Martand

some corals, which are, I believe, highly characteristic of the Kothair

bed. (Pl. VIIL. fig. 4, 4a.)

44. The Sketch-Section (fig. 8) shows that all the ridges of the

Saijnarh are well and regularly stratified limestone and calcareous sand-

stones ; I did not, however, visit these spurs. Behind the Saijnarh and

the Hapatikri areseen the rngged volcanic mountains which bound Kash-

mir on the east, separating the waters of the Jheelum from those of the

Chenab. The Arpat river brings down boulders from these mountains,

and the lacustrine conglomerates, which are so extensively developed

at the point where the Arpat and other streams leave the mountainous

gorges to emerge in the open valley, give us a good idea of the

composition of these mountains. All the boulders and pebbles, both

of the bed of the river and of the conglomerates, are volcanic rocks,

of which many varieties of amygdaloid are the most frequent.

never saw a single pebble of granite, syenite or gneiss, but quartzite

is common, as well as limestone. That the pebbles and boulder:

of the conglomerate have been brought down directly from these

mountains by torrents and rivers, and have not been drifted to where

they are by the waves of the ancient great lake of Kashmir,* it

* The valley of Kashmir has been a huge lake since the appearance of mai

in the Himalaya. It is probable that a lake fillimg up the whole of the

walley existed before that period, and that it was drained or tapped by some

cause or another, allowing the valley of Kashmir to dry up nearly to the same

1866.] = the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains, 181

sufficiently proved by the shape of the boulders, these being rounded

and ovoid in form, and not worn into the flat lenticular stones which are

found on the beach of lakes, and which are so much appreciated by

persons fond of making “ ducks and drakes in the water.”

45. I have said before that a spur of the Hapatikri extends to

Islamabad, concealed under the lacustrine plateau (see fig. 8,) for

a few miles, but appearing as a small hill over the town. The

: - following i is a section of this Islamabad Hill, from the S. W. to the

N . E., beginning with the lowest strata exposed to view. The general

dip of the beds of this hill is N. Easterly.

1. Marly limestone; bright blue; debris of fossils,............44 15 ft.

BEPTPIULO CILLO s White ; MO fOSSIIS, ........cccaceseccesscecce snares ceases 20 ft.

3. Ditto ditto; grey; often reddish. Enormous number of Foraminifere

Biiing ochrous bands in the rock, ........... evsmscecase’ ok Ik

4, Arenaceous, dark grey limestone, divided ny ‘pantie of shaly pale.

yellow limestone, very false-bedded and very thin. Rich in the debris of fossils,

but very few in a good state of preservation, .........sssseecssensreneee 25 ft.

_ These four beds dip N. EH. 15°.

_ 5. Limestone having a slaty cleavage and joints, white or pale grey, cherty

in appearance, Fossils very numerous, but in comminuted fragments, 10 ft.

if 6. Marly, yellow, limestone. It is often flesh-coloured, and then shaly in

“appearance and weathering with a rough pitted surface,.............. 2 ft.

_ %. WLimestone like 4; full of the debris of fossils,...... alee caacsce’ SR atD

3 8. Limestone, brown and cherty; debris of fossils,.................. 13 ft.

9. Very pale blue limestone, often white; very hard and rough ; weathers

a ugose like frosted glass. Thin and false-bedded ; fragmentary shells, 15 ft.

| 10. Sandstone; yellowish white or greyish-white, .,,................. 6 inches

‘11. Coarse, gritty limestone, full of the debris of fossils; great abun-

dance of Foraminifere, crinoid stems, Fusus (?) and fragments of a small

72. Marly, a grey- eth Hiatt gles Aaescees Aiton 1 reat

£ as it is now, and that the valley then became populated. The lakes, how-

began to fill up again, and the whole of the valley was again converted into

immense lake. This in its turn was tapped and drained to its present

. The earthquake, which broke up the barrier or dam at Baramoola, 4s

reported by tradition to have been the beneficient act of the Hindoo god

| Kashyapa. The Mahomedans, however, say that it is Kashaf, Solomon’s

| minister, who performed the wonderful work, and it is very probable that both

doo and Musulmans borrowed the tradition from earlier inhabitants.

ashmir,” in which the proofs of two successive lakes having existed will

|¥e gs ven in ‘detail, See also my note to para 9, page 100,

- 182 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 3, |

13. Marly limestone, deep blue in colour, cherty in appearance and weather-

ing rugose; it is compact and contains no fossils,.............se0eree0. 15 ft.

14. A portion of 13, in a brecciatied state, .,...cscccsesecses cee seseee 2 ft. -

1b% Same as LOT an POE OOo FeO Cee Hee HHe HEE ETE HOHE HER HEH EEE HES FOS Oe HOH DESH OES 12 tt

16. Limestone similar to (NO. 2yrss cise ece cos sonnei Rewade casks elec eee

17. Foraminiferous limestone, similar to No. 3, ....csses..seeeeeeeee 8 INCHES

This limestone contains many small yellow rounded bodies, mixed with the

Foraminifere and appearing to have no organisation. They are perhaps excre-

tions of mollusks. Also large patches of white, dotted, chalky, limestone

which are, I believe, the remains of decomposed fossils of considerable size.

18, Argillaceous, pale grey, nearly white limestone. It gets coarse to-

wards the top of the bed, and the uppermost layer is brecciated, ... 10 ft.

19. .Indurated ‘clay, . ..cdasjsneedi cans Kasidon cus ph dod ane dae tye. s (serie

20. Limestone varying in colour, being white, aia flesh-coloured, grey

or pale lustreless blue. It is very argillaceous, occasionally sandy, The debris

of fossils mostly enerimite-BteMS,:... :. Meereaccescdises penser 0 eehinseeaeineanann Ages

21. Calcareous brown sandstone ; no fossils, oie + «cis eihuaiepieaaaaet aia eoebeadis

22. Shales, hard and without fossils. These shales are in places, fine,

silty and foliated ; in other places sandy, coarse and thicker bedded, 10 ft.

28. Sandstone lile-21, ..:.scocrosessonnns aoustesous¥eser 005 Te ae gine ea

2A, Shales like 220 von ssc cass poe ¢on.ane.oatie'en,vien 6.0.0 tcete eee ee ae

25. <A repetition of the beds 22, 93 and OA but the materials are generally

coarser, the shales never being fine and thin-bedded, but rough and thick-

bedded; and the sandstone contains so much lime that it passes in some

places into a very arenaceous limestone. It contains but little of the debris of

fossils, but shows some flat impressions like those of large flat Alga. These

impressions are, however, ill-defined and could not be identified, ... 25 ft.

26. Pale but bright blue limestone; very argillaceous and interbedded with

thin films of yellow silt,. eae ceetailsianen oo vetadenseaty her the

27. A second A aeien of the ee 22, 23 Me ‘24, A few shells, but no

imprints of alge. It becomes gradually a coarse sandy limestone, and a

the top of the bed itis an argillaceous and arenaceous limestone, pale blue or

rather French-grey, weathering rugose like frosted glass and containing:

a very few ttagments,of shelle only,’ o.5 1c. ccess ces «es'sesentees ese 25 ft.

These three beds, 25, 26 and 27, seem to resist hae ieee of exposure better

than the rocks above and below them, and they form at their outcrop a well

defined ribbon ; this, owing to the trifling angle of the dip, appears on the |

hill-side as a cliff which faces the city of Islamabad a little more than half

way up the hill. These beds are slightly wavy along the strike, as if they

had been pressed laterally. These undulations occasion trifling discrepancies

in the dips taken in different parts of the hill, Along the line of our section, —

the cliff formed by the beds 25, 26 and 27 has a strike N. N. W.—S. S. E. and

a dip HE. N. E. 15°. ‘a

1866. ] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 183

28. Limestone, patchy blue and yellow; argillaceous, ...,....... 20 ft.

29. Limestone, very argillaceous and having a pure lustreless grey colour,

and being striped on section, owing to bands of a lighter colour, The rock

is so compact and fine-grained that it resembles a fine greenstone in structure.

it is traversed by bands of rougher stone and also by bands of blue limestone.

It weathers SEIMEED, PATUGDO, «5 vnaricnidaaadaraaiias 900s0s a0) Kacceacusbiudss Wee 0! Bus

INES HERE? ZED, is oo inc ese sesichs vadiseeiesd "ad 000 ode vais sVadcevesuane “a Ibe

$1. Limestone like 29, ....... Lig th Acai thaitaliwda Sia vedvas G2dij5 lich. VIR IMs

- 32. Limestone, as white as chalk, but hard. It is fall of geodes like an

amygdaloid, the geodes being filled or lined with minute crystals of spar. The

rock weathers in rounded bosses like granite or trap. It appears to have

‘suffered a metamorphosis. It is probable that the calcareous mud which

originally composed it was thrown into a bubbling condition by the infiltration

_of heated vapours or the immersion of hot volcanic products into a shallow sea.

It presents no fossils or traces of fossils, The bed is not lenticular, but

extends regularly along the strike the whole length of the hill, being

conformable to the other beds, oe ..csscsescesvenceevesees CEE, ae eS

83, Limestone similar to 31, ws. Daeraptiesee tif Os te

34, Marly, dark bluish grey ae rough caiore, jutapaideetthesiees’, OF Xt.

85. Like 33 EEL asia Una nchiph sages cca v Heda rtiae | Lo TE.

36. Hard and cherty malisdiae rey grey or 5 seam saved. It contains

a few geodes like No, 32. It weathers pitted and rugose; no

fossils (?) PRR e eee eee eee ee Eee BOR EOE HEE OR ORE HEH Eee Hee OPT sek eee eee roeeesteeees O88 2 ft.

o7. Limestone like 34, POO OOO OE HOE FOF CHF FOE Fee Fee HOR HOH HH HOH HOE HHH Hee ree OOD 5 ft.

The last three beds are a good deal denuded, owing to their being

at the top of the hill, which is narrow and barren.

7 46. ‘There can be no doubt of the Islamabad hill being composed

| et Weean limestone; the argillaceous and arenaceous condition of

| the rocks is exactly what we have seen in other localities where this

| het of limestone is developed. The fossils are very unsatisfactory,

| being extremely comminuted. I have found, however, one Spiri/era

| cand one Athyris which are to be seen in the beds at Weean.

| I have seen also many sections and outlines of large bivalves

i / dviculo-pectens and unio-like Anthracosie) similar to those found

| near Mutton, The Foraminifere are also extremely numerous,

and the fossil shell which gives on the surface of rocks an outline

resembling a small pair of spectacles, is very common amongst

the debris of comminuted shells. The upper beds of the hill,

| from 29 upwards, contain no fossils and have a peculiar appear-

il r 23 sl

184 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmar, [No. 3; q

ance, suggestive of their having been baked, and they weather in

rounded bosses like many volcanic rocks. I have suggested that

their amygdaloidal condition and their ‘‘ metamorphic weathering”

may be accounted for by the hypothesis that hot ejecta of volcanoes,

either hot water, steam, hot ashes or a current of lava, had found their

way into a shallow sea and set it a-boiling. It might be said that

_ these very impure calcareous muds might have had gases generated

in their interior by the decomposition of organic matter or some other

cause; but many layers which are much more foetid and were there-

fore more likely to emit gases are not at all amygdaloidal, and besides,

»there is so much volcanic power manifested all over our tract of

country, that it is more natural to invoke a little steam to boil mud

with, than to look for less obvious hypotheses. But another reason

in favour of volcanic metamorphism is, that these same white

baked limestones have been observed in other localities, near Manus

Bal in Kashmir and in the Kafir Kote mountain, in the Punjab, and

in these localities they are disturbed by actions which appear to have

taken place locally and to have affected these limestones much more

than the rocks below them. The beds of Manus Bal will be de- ©

scribed hereafter in these pages, and we shall be able to observe how —

faulted and twisted are the white limestones of that place. At. the

Kafir Kote there has been a similar local upheaval, and the disorder ©

is very considerable. In this locality a felspathic sand, invaded by

quartzite in tortuous branches, is the remains of the volcanic action

which has taken place there, and the limestone, though much less

marly than in Cashmir, is filled with geodes and veins of spar. I

believe these actions to have been local and not very extensive; they

had little effect on the Zeeawan bed which had, by the time they took

place, become tolerably consolidated, and they merely fractured and

pushed aside the nearest portion of the bed; but they acted powers

fully on the yet soft and muddy Weean bed, curving it and twisting |

it in all sorts of manners and directions; and when these folds and

twists were again disturbed, probably intensified and placed in new

positions by the final upheaval of the Himalaya, they became what —

we see them now, viz. most incomprehensible doublings and reversings |

of strata. Let us also remember the beds which I mentioned as —

having been seen from the brow of the last spur of the Zebanwan

1866. ] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 185

visited by me ; these beds were the top or near the top of the series

of Weean limestone seen along the section of the southern aspect

of the Zebanwan between Zeeawan and Koonmoo. JI said, “ From

the brow of the last spur I have visited, a fine view is obtained of

the next spur, and this is remarkable for a great twist of the strata

which compose it. The limestone is extremely white, and resembles

chalk-cliffs at a distance.” Is it not highly probable that there again

we had the same altered limestone? The beds were wonderfully

twisted and folded, whilst those above and below them were hardly

affected.

I consider, therefore, that these altered limestones are portions of

the Weean group, and I believe that the alteration was produced by

bursts of water at a very high temperature, or of gases hot and

compressed ; the eruptive power of these agents being sufficiently

powerful to displace and uplift the calcareous mud of the sea-bottom,

a mud which must have been plastic, from the great admixture of clay

it contained, and which was covered by no great depth of water. It

is for such an action, as I have supposed, that Mr. Dumont has proposed

_ the term of ‘‘Geyserian”’ action, and for the rocks precipitated from these

watery volcanoes (such as the felspathic sand with quartzite of the

Kafir Kote) the name of Geyserian rocks. The name is sufficiently

suggestive and requires no explanation. It is probable that the

quartzite which we have seen placed between the volcanic rocks and

the limestone, belongs to that class of rocks.

47. The Arpat river runs through a district named Kothair or

Kotehar, and it is from this district that £ have named the uppermost

bed of the Carboniferous(?) limestone of Kashmir. We have seen

a small patch of this bed near Koonmoo, in the Zebanwan, but we

will find the bed well developed in the next hills we are about to

Visit.

_ A few miles to the S. EH. of Islamabad is a mass of well-wooded

and picturesque mountains which separates the valley of the Arpat.

river from the Nowboog valley. Arckbal, Tippoo, Karpur, Dhar and

Nawkan are summits which appear to form the centre of a small

system of hills; their height is between 8 and 9000 feet, and they

deserve careful study. I was unfortunately not able to do more than

pay the most superficial visit to Arckbal and the iron mines of Kothair ;

and the following are the notes taken during that visit.

186 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, __[No. 8,

The rocks which overhang the well-known Arckbal Garden, near

the western foot of the hill, are a rough grey limestone similar to

the grey coarse limestone seen.on the Islamabad hill, (see No. 27

of the section of that hill), full of sand and other impurities. It

dips W. by S. 52°. There appear to be beds of shales between

the limestone courses, and these shales by their decomposition

furnish the fertile soil on which grow the fine forests of those

hills.

The foot of the Arckbal hill is therefore Weean limestone and

shales.

I then proceeded to the small village of Kothair, on the eastern

side of the Arckbal hill, in a small valley situated between it

and-Karpur. The rock of the spur of Arckbal, which extends to-

wards Pahaloo, is a whitish or greyish limestone with very few fossils,

and interbedded with beds of calcareous slate, apparently belonging

also to the Weean group.

From Kothair, the path to the mines, crosses a couple of small

spurs which have a direction 8. to N. until we arrive at the ridge

which unites Dhar and Tippoo and has a direction W. N. W.—E. S. E.

The spurs above mentioned are composed of marly limestone, —

either lustreless and velvety pale blue or dark blue, weathering frosted.

The beds are very badly seen, on account of the vegetation and

humus. Where the limestone crops out, it seems to be dipping

S. E. or E. 8. E. with a very variable but considerable angle. The

beds of limestone appear to be separated one from the other by

thick beds of shales and slate. The limestone has exactly the appear-

ance of that seen a little higher up, and which we shall see contains

fossils characteristic of the Kothair bed; but I failed, however, to find

organisms, in the present beds.

48. The iron-ore is obtained from the sides of the main ridge

between Dhar and Tippoo. The ridge presents many beds of very

argillaceous limestone of a lustreless bright blue colour, dipping S. 8. W.,

with an angle of 45°. This limestone is remarkable for the large

number of gasteropods it contains; it is also rich in corals, especially

of the Cyathophyllide, but the fossils appear generally as sections

or outlines on the surface of the rock, and I could not obtain any of —

them whole. .

1866.] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 187

Between the courses of limestone are beds of slaty shales of

various colours, but generally dark grey, brown or reddish. The

outcrop of these shales has disintegrated and decomposed into a

vegetable earth of a dark red colour and covered by grass and under-

wood, and this earth has to be removed to bring the shales into view.

In these shales the iron-ore is found as flat bands or ribbons of great

tenacity and hardness, accompanied by softer ochrous clayey earth

which is also used as an ore. The richest ore is the steel grey

variety ; this is not continuous as a regular bed, but forms bands

or ribbons in the shale, sometimes thickening into a trunk a foot

thick, at other times thinning into a flat ribbon a quarter of an inch

thick.

The shales containing the iron-ore are about four feet thick, and

are between beds of an arenaceous limestone which is blue and

compact when freshly fractured, but weathers into a coarse, brown,

nearly friable sandstone in the neighbourhood of the iron-shales.

This change in the limestone (evidently produced by the infiltrating

water becoming charged with peroxide of iron in its passage though

the shale, and then acting as an acid on the limestone below the iron

bed), is the indication sought after by the miners to dig an exploring

hole; they dig above the altered limestone, and after removing a few

feet of vegetable mould, discover the iron-ore in the upper part of the

Shaly bed. They make a hole just large enough to creep in and use

a short miner’s pick; the ore is difficult to detach, and, from the

cramped position of the miner, the work is excessively laborious. The

mines do not extend any distance under ground, and are generally

}abandoned in favour of a fresh hole, when artificial light is required

to work.

| From the examination of three or four of these small mines, I feel

satisfied that the ore does not form a bed, but is arranged in a succes-

jsion of ribbons and bands which run in the direction of the dip,

sometimes anastomosing into a broad plane two or three feet across,

{sometimes thickening into a trunk or pocket, and sometimes dividing

into thin and narrow ribbons which become lost in the shale.

| The mines are all situated high up the hill (on this side of the

{ridge at least), within about 200 feet of the summit. The miner

had for a guide told me that no iron-ore is found lower down.

188 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 3,

49, The ore is carried in kilters or baskets, carried on the back,

by the means of shoulder-straps, to Kothair, a distance of two miles

ona bad hill-path. It is not smelted nearer the mines, on account —

of the want of water; though it seems that it would be very much —

easier to bring up water for the miners, who only know of that element —

asadrink and therefore require but little of it, than to take the

ore down to the village. The ore is broken into small fragments —

by children, and mixed with the ochrous earth and with coarsely

powdered limestone. These materials are piled up in a small furnace —

about two feet high, with intervening beds of charcoal, and two hand

bellows are used to create a blast ; the smelting lasts about 12 hours,

and the produce of a furnace is only a few seers. The heat is not

sufficient to make the iron run; and it remains at the bottom of

the furnace as a viscous mass, full of scoria, and very brittle when

cold, with a tufaceous aspect. The slag isa black glass, compact,

and much less scoriaceous than is customary. The iron is heated and

beaten with hammers to refine it. It is short, probably from bad

manufacture.

Two or three men and children and some women, all of one famil

working as miners, carriers and smelters, turn out about two maundsg

of iron in. the month from one furnace. There are only three |

furnaces at Kothair, giving a supply of six maunds of iron per mensem, |

There are similar mines at Loap and at Kookur Nag in the Bringh

valley, on the southern side of the same mass of mountains,

From the dip of the beds, it is probable that these works are in 2

much more favourable position than those of Kothair; they are said _

to be much more considerable ; the ore is obtained in the same manner —

as at Kothair, and there are no regular mines. The ore is the same, |

obtained much more easily and is found in thicker beds. Mr. Turner

showed me some iron from Kookur Nag, and it appeared identical to

according to my guide, a miner who had worked at Loap, but it

the pig-iron of Kothair.

The turn-out I have given of the smelting at Kothair is not to be

regarded as an indication of the richness of the mines. I believe tha

the miners only work the ore to pay their taxes to the Maharajah’s

government, and that their most usual occupation is to grow a little

rice and Indian corn. I have no doubt that the amount of ore is

1866.] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 189

considerable, and that a large quantity of iron could be obtained by

increasing the mines, and adopting better furnaces with a blast worked

by water-power, windmill or horse-power; but the miners and other

inhabitants of the villages take great care not to mention to the

Maharajah’s officials any valuable deposit of ore which may be

worked with advantage ; they pretend that the Maharajah takes away

all the iron for his arsenal and pays nothing for it, and that, when

a supply of any ore is discovered near a village, the inhabitants have

to work it by corvées, so that the discovery of a vein of valuable

mineral is a calamity to the people of the neighbourhood. But this

is probably untrue in many ways: the iron they supply is, as I have

said before, taken in lieu of taxes; the care with which many of

‘the holes are concealed with rubbish and branches, induces me to

believe that a good deal of iron is smelted in a contraband way; and

last but not least, making a secret of mineral wealth is quite consistent

with the love of hoarding riches so prevalent amongst natives. The

same concealment of ores is now going on in Huzara, where a little

iron is known to exist, and where the reason of the Kashmir miners

would certainly not avail; and it is reported by the geological sur-

veyors of the Ranigunj coal-field that it is impossible to believe

negative reports from natives. In Kashmir, moreover, the Maha-

rajah’s government entertain the same childish fear, lest the mineral

wealth of the country should become known, and I well remember

with what silly recommendations of secrecy I was shown by one of

\the Maharajah’s servants a small piece of iron pyrites of the most

insignificant value.

50. The rocks we have described form the Kothair bed (of

\Carboniferous limestone ?). They are a succession of courses of lime-

istone, shales of a dark reddish or ochrous colour, dark slates and

\caleareous sandstones. I am sorry I cannot give a section, but the

llowing remarks will, in a way, supply its want.

The limestones are of two descriptions, viz. : some coarse and very

sandy, indeed so much so, that when the carbonate of lime is removed

iby water charged with peroxide of iron, a brownish sandstone is

eft ; it contains no fossils, and passes gradually into a rough grey

andstone with a calcareous cement, The other variety of limestone is

rgillaceous, and passes into calcareous slate; it is dark blue or even

190 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir. [No. 3,

perfectly black when fresh-fractured, lustreless like a clay and with —

a strong earthy smell; it weathers much paler, becoming covered

with an incrustation which is bright pale blue, yellowish or whitish ;

the surface being at first velvety or satin-like, and so fine-grained in

some specimens, that drops of rain or of dew falling from grasses

leave small blots or stains, which after a while becoming frosted. The

fossils of this limestone are well brought out on the weathered sur-

faces, as outlines or sections which are slightly in relief. The shales

when ochrous, are very sandy. sometimes calcareous, oftener not so ;

they contain beds of clay iron-stone in irregular and wavy tabular

bands or ribbons of an iron black and bluish black colour, and also of

yellow carbonate of lime, and iron in a more or less friable condition,

These shales have a well-marked slaty cleavage cutting the strata

at aright angle. The slate is black, thick and massive and contains

no fossils. It often becomes pale green and unctuous, and is then very

thin-bedded and exfoliating. The sandstone is composed of rounded

grains of transparent glassy quartz which are brittle, and break across

when the rock is fractured, and each broken grain reflects the light

so that the sandstone has somewhat the aspect of a micaceous sand

stone.

The fauna of the Kothair bed is more remarkable for the abun-

dance of certain animals than for any species that I can well define.

Gasteropoda, generally small, and corals of the ‘ Cyathophyllidé

are nearly the only animals seen. A few bivalves, small and

thin-shelled, also occur, but they are rare, compared to the quantity

of gasteropods. A few roots and stems, generally small, have beer

observed in some beds, but could not be recognized.

The following fossils are the most usual in the Kothair bed,

Naticopsis ?

Macrochilus ?

Chemnitzra ?

Lowonema ?

Nerinea ?

The fragments of Gasteropoda in great number.

Cyathophyllum ? sp. PloV iil hia: 2.

Cel spe Pl. VIII. fig. 3.

2) Bi Ph. VTE gig Ae

re]

oP]

1866. ] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 191

It is evident that a list of fossils, such as is given here, is

insufficient to determine the age of a bed. My calling the Kothair

bed Carboniferous, is therefore only temporary, and it is possible,

and indeed probable, that the bed is either Permian or Triassic.

I have often felt inclined to regard it as Triassic ; but the total absence

of Monotis, Ammonites and other characteristic fossils prevents my

doing so. I have therefore preferred to represent the Kothair bed

as the top of the Carboniferous series, until some characteristic forms

be discovered. The Kothair bed was examined much more super-

ficially than the others, owing to want of time; yet it is worthy of

notice that I have never heard of an ammonite having been found

in the valley of Kashmir, though the mountains of Kothair limestone,

at the extreme eastern end of the valley, are very often visited by

tourists and amateur geologists.

51. The Kothair formation differs from the Zeeawan and Weean

by the great quantity of shales it contains, these being in thick

strata between thin beds of limestone. The fauna is, I believe,

strongly indicative of a low swampy shore bathed by a shallow

brackish sea. The arrangement of the iron-ore is, I fancy, to be

explained only by the hypothesis of a clayey shelving sea board: any

one who has observed hot chalybeate springs issue from the earth,

near a flat piece of ground, must have noticed the sluggish stream

divide into rills and rillets, form shallow pools here and there, reunite

and divide again, meandering over the clayey soil; he will have

noticed the oxide of iron contained in the water precipitated along

the rivulets and in the pools as a bright red peroxide, whilst the

surface of the nearly stagnant water is covered by a many-coloured

film. This, I would submit, is the very process by which the iron

of the Kothair shales has been deposited on the flat muddy shore

of the Carboniferous sea: the rills of chalybeate water have become

\the tabular ribbons of our iron-ore, and we have therefore the iron-

jstone arranged as a main flat vein, or rather in somewhat parallel

‘veins, with irregular small shoots on both sides, and occasionally

ja thickened and widened mass representing a pool or a hole in the

jbed of the stream. Many springs, such as I have described, exist

jnow-a-days in the Salt Range, near the Kafir Kote hill, and in several

ocalities in the Himalaya; the iron mud they deposit would, under

avourable circumstances, and in the course of long years, form beds

192 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 3,

similar to the iron-ore of Kothair; and when it is remembered how

essentially volcanic the Carboniferous period has been, it is no great

stretch of imagination to assume, that much of the iron contained in

the rocks of that period was derived from hot chalybeate springs, rather

than from decomposed minerals on the surface of the earth.

Here ends the description of the Kothair bed. No rocks superior

to it (excepting lacustrine and alluvial deposits) were seen in Kashmir, —

and the Kothair bed appears the most superficial stratum existing

there. In other localities, both in the Himalaya and in the Punjab, —

Secondary and Tertiary rocks cover in the Paleozoic beds, but neither —

Oolitic, Nummulitic nor Miocene are to be seen in Kashmir proper, ;

that is, between the Pir Punjal and the Ser and Mer chains, and

between the northern branch of the Kaj Nag and the chain connecting

the Ser and Mer chain to the Kistwar mountains.

52. As far as I could learn, the whole of the hills, which fill up

with their spurs the south-eastern end of the valley, are composed

of carboniferous limestone; this appears to go as far as the foot of

the range which separates Kashmir from Maroo and Kistwar, where

the limestone rests on volcanic rocks. Producti have been found —

among éboulis close to the volcanic rock high up the slopes, and it is | |

therefore probable that the Zeeawan bed reappears under the Weean —

and Kothair beds, as we near the volcanic rocks. The river Bringh, —

which drains all the S. BE. anda good deal of the east of the valley, —

carries in its bed boulders of volcanic rocks and of carboniferous lime-

stone. No granite was seen. |

As I have not visited these hills and possess only little information

on their geology, I will not enter here into any detail of what may

be inferred from reports received by travellers who are not geologists,

and I must refer the reader to the map for the probable position of —

the several rocks which compose these hills.

53. To the N. W. of Srinuggur there is one more mountain |

belonging to the same catenated chain of summits which we have 4

described in this chapter; it is the Safapoor, with its outlier, the —

Aha Tung, and the beautiful little lake of Manus Bal at its foot.

This locality is interesting, and I will describe it in detail. (See

Sections E and F; Section IV. of General Map). The Safapoor

and the Aha Tung are both composed of volcanic rocks exact |

similar to those which we have seen at the Tukt-i-Suliman and the

a é . ?

1866.) the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 193

Zebanwan. In the small valley or gap between the two hills are beds

of limestone which I will now describe. (See Section E; and also

Sketch-Section F.)

Proceeding from S. to N., we first find at the northern end of the

Aha Tung a limestone quarry. The limestone is about 120 feet

thick, and dips south with a very high angle. It appears to be cover-

ed by beds of greenstone confusely stratified; but on examining the

bottom of the quarry, the courses of hmestone are seen to bend to-

wards the N., and the limestone is therefore superior to the trap. The

me. 0 c 6d

eet

diagram here given

fig. 9, represents

the position of the

rocks. I am in-

debted to Captain

Godwin-Austen of

the Great Trigono-

7 ~

DA epee

metrical survey for

™

Se Sw calling my atten-

Pcie tion to this bend

Fig. 9.* of the courses of

limestone at the bottom of the quarry. If this curving of the limestone

was not seen, it would be nevertheless easy to understand the true

position of these beds, as they are precisely similar to those on the other

side of the road (see Section), but in an inverse position: the rock

nearest the greenstone is a glaring white and much altered limestone.

It is succeeded by a dark, greyish, argillaceous limestone, weathering

bluish and rugose. On the other side of the road, the dark limestone

appears first, and underneath it the bed of glaring white altered

limestone. There is therefore every evidence of a synclinal; but, of

course, the discovery of the bend of the beds in the quarry completes:

the evidence very satisfactorily.

Taking our Section from the S. to N., beginning at the road and leav-

ing out the beds. redressed against the Aha Tung which I have just

described, we have the following strata :—

1 Greyish-blue limestone ; marly, rugose, hard, dips S. 60°, increasing to

70°; much broken bed: about as re ... 20 ft. thiek,

* q@ White Limestone. b Dark Limestone, ce Alluvium. d Road.

é Dark Limestone. f White Limestone,

194 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 3,

2. Pale limestone, weathering glaring white ; filled with geodes, lined with

small spar-crystals. No fossils, Dips 8. 80°, ... ie og AO TEs

3. Thin-bedded, shaly, striped limestone, ... “as: , 0 Th.

Fault. It runs E.—W. and is about 10 feet wide at the al It is filled with

rocks similar to No. 3, folded in all directions.

4. Limestone like 3; vertical, nite abe dod pent Lk iF

5. Pale limestone; with geodes, like 2. Traces of fossils were observed,

but much altered and not recognizable, wat mae aos OO EE,

_6. Pale blue, shaly limestone; dips N. 80°, ... nee San Ae

7, Like5; dips N. 80°, ... Se tae aaa amas WO Gs

Fault ; it runs E.—W.

8. Same as 7, ... eat Se on ode tLe GO £6,

9. Argillaceous, thin-bedded, pale grey limestone, breaking in flat thin pieces,

like pottery, nee oe ove gee SO) ee

10. Sandy limestone, had sad saath = ~— one 20s

11. Conglomerate limestone, varying from a coarse sandy limestone to

a perfect conglomerate, the pebbles being rounded, pieces of limestone im-

bedded in a soft calcareous paste. It contains many sections of the Aviculo-

pectens and other large bivalves peculiar to the Weean bed. Portions of the

bed are white and altered, ... = ae ayo ove. LOO £5

- 12. Sandy, micaceous, limestone ; ile grey, de ae i

13. White limestone; no fossils, ... a cua i | DE a:

14. Argillaceous limestone, blue and pale; weathering lustreless

and velvety, sill see waa 4 gi hing one we abe

15. Conglomerati¢ limestone like 11, Le gee . BO Hh

16. Brecciated and sandy limestone; sometimes a coarse calcareous sand-

stone, due wide Ee ae ret A ici Sey

17. Ash-blue, pale, muddy limestone; weathering lustreless, ... 25 ft.

18. Brecciated and sandy limestone, ws vee deh fics. Sa

19, Ash-blue, pale and muddy ; weathering Iustrelegs,............ 25 ft.

All these beds dip S. with an angle diminishing gradually from 80° to 35°.

20, This bed is the top of a well defined anticlinal. The rock is a yellowish-

grey limestone, with rolled pieces of limestone imbedded. It is sandy, some :

times quite a sandstone, oftener a sandy impure limestone. It contains a great

many remains of fossils. The southernbranch of the anticlinal dips S. 35°;

the northern branch dips N. N, W. 25°. There is therefore a squeezing of the

strata at the western end of the strike, and a divergence or opening of the

fault at the eastern end, Thickness about 30 feet. .

Then we get a repetition of the beds seen before, as follows:

21. Ash-blue, lustreless muddy limestone, .., wee S 25Ee

22. Brecciated and sandy limestone, wie po wae LZ tee

23. Ash-blue limestone, .., Mer ey ee. -. 25 thes ;

24. Brecciated limestone,,,, a “. Nati va 5 ft

1866. ] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 195

25. Conglomeratic limestone, with sections of large bivalves, ... 50 ft.

26. Ash-blue, lustreless limestone, ... abe Ln Jc Me Eh.

27. White limestone, he sia i a ae

28. Micaceous and sandy limestone; thin- bedded dark grey ;

dips N. N. W. 80°, .. sal “0 Spe ee tena s

29. Conglomeratic limestone; gritty ; in places a oonpiciiennie in others

a breccia; dips N. N. W. 85° at first; then it becomes vertical and at last

dips S. 80°, at whe at a igs . 100 ft.

80. Arenaceous limestone, dark, rough and forming Team ridge ; it

dips south 80°, ar oss = acu} oh Ft

31. Thin-bedded, muddy joy ae teeabng in pieces like pottery ; dip

irregular ; bed folded and wavy, much disintegrated, snd .. SO Tt.

32. Shaly limestone, very impure ; dips N. 80°.

33. Sandy limestone, dark and rough and hard ; dips N. 70 to 75°. These two

beds together are about, vee eee ove - Jed 1BO1 RE:

34, Limestone, generally sandy and grey, but sometimes more compact and

bluer, and then showing innumerable white lines crossing each other in all

directions. It dips N. 70°, ... he ae a we LOO: ft,

35. These several varieties of limestone, viz. shaly and sandy, and blue

with white lines, repeat themselves continually as far as the top of the hill,

but the rock becomes more and more massive and presents portions of erinoid

stems well preserved and petrified into a black spar. Sometimes the rock ig

- flesh-coloured, and then the crinoid stems are lighter in colour, and weather in

relief on the surface of the rock. These are the sections of crinoid stems which

have been taken for nummulites by Mr. Vigne and Dr. A. Fleming. 150 ft.

The strike of the beds of limestone wheels more and more toa N. to §&.

direction. As we approach the volcanic rocks of the Safapoor, the dip becom-

ing more and more westerly. This wheeling of the strike is well shown by

the Sketch-Section (Sect. F), where we see the face of the limestone-courses

uncovered and exposed, and facing the W. N. W. The thickness of the Weean

bed is altogether 649 ft.

_ Alarge fault, well marked by a deep ravine, separates the limestone from the

volcanic rocks. It runs N. E.—S. W. At. the highest point the limestone is

seen to attain, the fault is a mere crack, and the limestone is in contact with

the volcanic rocks ; but at the S. W. end of the fault, it widens considerably,

and beds of limestone are to be observed on its northern side, applied against

the trap and conformable and superior to it. The trap dips S. S. E.

On the western face of the Safapoor, long beds of well-stratified laterite

and ash are conspicuous ; they dip S. with an angle of 40.

54. Our section runs through the spur of limestone nearest to

the lake; three other spurs, parallel to it, descend towards the

village of Paturmoola (see Section F.). They present very won-

196 Mr, Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 3,

derful twists and foldings, but appear less altered than the beds which

are bathed by the lake; their fossils are better preserved. I have

not ascended these spurs, but amongst the ébouwlis, I saw many

fossils characteristic of the Weean limestone, amongst others large

Aviculo-pectens and Anthracosie, of which sections only had been

discovered in the rocks in situ.

Some blocks of limestone were also found exhibiting Gastero-

poda, so conspicuous-in the Kothair bed, and it is therefore evident

‘that this bed forms the uppermost layers of the limestone of the

higher spurs. I need hardly say, that the beds of Manus Bal belong

tothe Weean group, and that they have been folded and altered in part

by volcanic action, subsequent to the formation of the volcanic rocks

on which they rest. The order of the beds is from the anticlinal

upwards on both sides of it, and the rocks nearest to the trap are the

most superficial, excepting, however, the detached beds which are ~

‘ conformable to the volcanic rocks on the northern side of the great ©

fault. If the limestone had been baked by the amgydaloid and the

greenstone, we would naturally expect to find the beds nearest to

these rocks most altered; the reverse is however the case; and we —

must therefore admit that a burst of hot gases or hot water had taken —

place at the time these limestones were still a soft and plastic mud, and

that it upheaved, folded and metamorphosed them. |

It must not be forgotten, that the limestone might have been much

less folded by this first disturbing action than we see it now, when

the last upheaval of the Himalaya took place: the beds then slightly

folded would naturally give way in the same direction as they were

already bent, especially if the space they occupied between two un-

yielding trappean hills had become so restricted that the limestone —

must of necessity either be folded or override the trap. On the appli-

cation of such lateral pressure, a straight, flat, hard bed might have

slided over the trap, but a bed already undulating would more natu- x

rally give way at the weakest parts, viz. the angles of the undulations, |

and thus become gathered in crumpling folds. Such folds are well !

shown in the Sketch-Section, (plate F). 4

55. Having terminated our examination of the several moun-

tains which form the first catenated chain on the N. E. of the valley

of Kashmir, we can now understand how this chain was once conti- _

1866.] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountacns. 197

nuous, the several summits being re-united to one another by ridges

of stratified ash, agglomerate and limestone. These connecting

ridges have been denuded by the several streams which flow towards

the bottom of the valley, and the limestone is now found only in

limited beds, which have escaped denudation from the shelter they

received of large and hard volcanic mountains. These streams and

rivers, it is hardly necessary to mention, have had a volume very

different from what we see now-a-days ; the enormous layers of lacus-

trine conglomerate, which they have accumulated near their entrances

into the valley, demonstrate plainly their former great denudating

power. The direction of these streams being from the high moun-

tains in the N. E., to the bottom of the valley in the S. W., they have

_eut for themselves channels which are directed from N. E.—S. W., and

thus bands of the ridges, which united the summits of our first chain

to those of the second chain, have remained between the channels of

these streams, and given to those mountains the appearance of being

long spurs descending from the N. E. to the S. W.

56. I shall, I hope, best terminate these detailed Sections, by

_ appending a table of the fossiliferous and other rocks in Kashmir, to-

- gether with such observations as the nature of the rocks or the fauna

; best justify.

, q

; be Masses, Beds, &c. &e. Fossils. Conditions indicated.

——— | —_—____—______ —$<$<—_— | ——____—__ ———

a. Granitoid porphyry; tra-| a... Melted masses which have not

chyte and felstone. flowed, or have flowed under

water. Centres of volcanic

. action.

b. Greenstone amygdaloid, vaenee Melted masses which have flow-

tee basalt. ed under water or in the air.

&%/|c. Felspathic and augi- dure Volcanic ejecta falling in shal-

tic ash; agglome- low water.

. rate, &c.

g d. Black slate, sometimes! sass Mud derived from volcanic

= amygdaloidal. rocks, rearranged by shallow

8 water, often heated by

b showers of hot ashes, vapours

or currents of lava.

<j le. Laterite, slate, baked casinee Same origin and same condi-

clay. tions.

- Quartzite. wenesd Geyserian action. End of the

r great voleanic eruptions ap-

; proaches.

g. Similar to e. ddekas Occasional eruptions and slight

fall of ashes and dust in shal-

low seas.

198 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 3,

Masses, Beds, &c. &c. Fossils. Conditions indicated.

ORGANISMS APPEAR.

a. Crystalline limestone, Few. Open sea coast, not very deep.

coarse and with very

few fossils.

. | |b. Massive limestone, gra-| Productus, |Open sea coast. About 50 fa- —

a | nular, or crystalline. |Orthis, Spiri-| thoms.

mo | fera, Fenes-

a | tellide, Or-

a thoceras.

N c. Ferruginous calcareous|Same fossils. |Sea coast, not distant. Heavy

. brown shales. water-fall on Volcanic islands.

| |d. Dark sandy shales. Same fossils. |Sea coast, not distant. Drift

near shore. Heavy water-fall

| on Volcanic islands. .

le. Limestone, shaly, with|Same fossils;|Sea becoming shallow; shore

shaly partings. no Bryozoa. shelving and drifty. .

Thickness = 200—260.

FAUNA CHANGES.

(ja. Shaly and sandy lime-| Encrinites; |Shallow shelving, coast line.

| stone. small

bivalves ;

Debris.

b. Black argillaceous lime-| Debris. |Shallow sea between islands.

Stone.

c. Altered, amygdaloidal|None or mere} Local volcanic action ; geyserian

limestone. traces. bursts of water or vapours.

a Earthquakes. .

4 | \d. Flesh-colored limestone; Anthracosie, |Proximity of land; banks and

“ with lenticular beds of| Aviculo-pec- shallows on a shelving coast-

S pale blue, nearly fria- tens. line.

a ble limestone. Pectens.

E Solenopsis.

)

| |e. Thin-bedded, argillace-| Goniatites. |Slow formation of fine silt in

{| | ous limestone, break- well protected creeks,

ing in slabs.

. Shaly, muddy, very foe-

tid limestone, with gre-| Cyrtia and |Warm, damp and shallow sea,

garious fossils. small swamps, teeming with life.

| Terebratule. ;

g- Argillaceous and arena-| Debris of |Very shallow sea-shore ; sublit-

ceous limestone pale-| small thin toral oscillations; frequent

less blue and yel-| bivalves. freshes of fresh water carry

low. Roots of ‘ing mud to the sea.

plants.

1866.] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 199

=] -

é ¥ Masses, Beds, &c. &c. Fossils. Condition indicated.

| FAUNA CHANGES.

a. Dark, blue or black ar-| Gasteropoda |Protected creeks,rather swampy.

gillaceous limestone. jand Cyatho-

phyllide.

4 | (>. Slate and shale. None. Rivers bringing down mud to a

P shallow sea. Sublittoral oscil-

lations.

out fossils. *

@ | \d. Shales; sandy shales;} _...... Shelving low land near sea-

: clay iron-ore in ribbons. shore, traversed by rills from

hot chalybeate springs. Sub-

littoral oscillations.

e. Limestone like a; pass-]| Gasteropoda |Shallow creeks or protected sea

ing into calcareousjand Cyatho- | coast. Swamp with grasses?

slates. phyliide. Shallows between tides ?

i Thickness — 500 feet.

_ This succession of beds shows a steady shallowing of the sea. If

we reflect for a moment how the sea bottom which received the

limestone was formed, by volcanic ash and ejecta falling into the

‘sea around the craters of numerous volcanoes, we would be led to

expect a shallow shelving sea coast. Whether the volcanoes had

existed for ages and prevented the development of life during the

Silurian epoch, or whether they broke out after the Silurian beds

had been deposited and buried these beds under their ejecta, I

‘cannot say. It appears much more probable however that the voleanoes

existed during the Silurian epoch, and prevented marine animals

| from living, by keeping the water at such a temperature or per-

‘meating it by such gases as were incompatible with life. However

this may be, there can be no doubt that the volcanic ejecta were

| disposed in very gently sloping beds all around the volcanoes which

| produced them, and, as these ejecta were arranged by water, we would

| maturally expect the beds they formed to extend far into the sea,

Hence a long shelving shallow coast would be formed, a coast which

| would speedily become more and more shallow from the enormous

200 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 3

amount of sand and clay which was washed into it from the volcanic

islands which studded it, by a rain-fall of tremendous volume.

57. We have yet to describe the second and third catenated chains

of Kashmir; the second is marked by the summits of Liwapatur

(18,012), Churn Wolkalbul (14,310), Girdwali (14,060), Batgool

(14,423), Boorwaz (13,087), Handil (18,273), Saijhaha (11,334), and

joins the first parallel at the Safapoor on the eastern shore of the

Woolar lake. On the other side of the lake, it is continued by the

Kahoota, the Manganwar (8,728), and the Sheri Bal. These moun-

tains are all composed of volcanic rocks and of azoic slate inter-

bedded with ash and agglomerate. They need not therefore be

described in detail. The Boorwaz, Handil and Batgool form

a porphyritic mass which is generally described by travellers as

granite ; it passes gradually on the west into amygdaloid and green-

stone to form the summits of Saijhaha over the village of Gunder-

bul. The transition between the porphyry and the greenstone is

a feldspathic rock of a pale colour and imbedding very numerous:

transparent crystals of quartz, a description of rock which is also

found to form a passage between the porphyry and the felstone of

the Kaj Nag. From the examination of a few specimens, kindly

given to me by travellers, I have no doubt that the whole of this mass

of mountains is composed of volcanic rocks, volcanic ejecta and slate,

I am not aware that limestone exists anywhere amongst the spurs

of these hills. Between the valley of Thral or Trahal and the river

Lidar, there is a great labyrinth of mountains with many of the

summits enumerated above, but I could obtain no informatior

regarding them. I therefore requested Captain MacQueen, of the Punjab

Irregular Force, who had arranged a shooting expedition to these hills

to be kind enough to bring me a few specimens of the commonest

rocks of the country he was about to visit, and also any rock which

appeared to him in any way remarkable. By the use of the speci-

mens thus obtained, and the examination of Captain MacQueen’s

route on the map, I was enabled to ascertain that the whole mass of

these mountains is composed of the same volcanic rocks, which I have —

described in detail at the Tukt-i-Suliman and the Zebanwan. Ashes —

appear to have been accumulated in enormous quantity; they are

interbedded with bands of black compact slate such as is so well seen

1866] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 201

in the Wastarwan and Zebanwan, and both ash and slate are occa-

sionally cellular or amygdaloidal. There is neither limestone, granite

or porphyry among Captain MacQueen’s specimens, and I believe

therefore that the two last rocks at any rate do not occur in these

‘Mountains, as pieces of granite and porphyry generally attract the

attention amongst the dull ash-rocks and would not have failed to form

part of the collection, if they had existed. It is very possible that

remains of beds of limestone are to be found amongst the spurs of

the hills.

On the north of the Woolar Lake, many mountains of no great

height form a sort of amphitheatre. They are nearly entirely

composed of amygdaloidal greenstone, ash and slate interbedded,

but near the village of Bundipoor, about two miles east of the

road, some beds of limestone are seen. Mr. Drew has kindly sent

me some specimens of it that are a flesh-coloured, sometimes

greenish, very arenaceous and argillaceous. They are not at all

‘erystalline, but contain an enormous number of encrinite stems

transformed into spar with a cleavage oblique to the axis of the

stem, so that when the section of a stem weathers, it appears striated

“across. This crystallisation has destroyed the structure of the stem,

but the central canal is seen in a few specimens. We have seen

this rock well developed at Manus Bal, towards the end of our section,

where the beds of flesh-coloured limestone alternate with grey sandy

| limestone containing crinoid-stems transformed into a spar as black

| ascoal. (See 35 of the section of Manus Bal). The limestone of

| Bundipoor is therefore Weean limestone.

- On the west shore of the Woolar lake, the Taltiloo and the

| Chralkoot present perpendicular cliffs of volcanic rocks descend-

| ing into the water. From a boat on the lake, it is easy to

observe the usual thick and confusely bedded masses of greenstone

and amygdaloid forming the centre of these hills, and the more sloping

| and regularly stratified layers of ash, laterite, agglomerate and

slate well developed, in the long spurs which descend on all sides.

| The whole mass of hills appears to be made of volcanic rocks, and the

lowest spurs which approach the shore of the lake present no fossilifer-

| ous beds. Of the higher peaks, the Kahoota, Manganwar and Sheri

| Bal, I know nothing, but there can hardly be a doubt, however, of

their being volcanic in their formation.

202 Mr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, &c. [No. 3,

58. The third catenated chain is composed of summits of great —

‘height, the Gwashbrari (17,839), the Harbagwan (16,055) the Basmat

(15,652), and the Haramook (16,903), and many other peaks which,

with their spurs and connecting ridges, separate Kashmir proper

from Tillail and Gurais. All these high summits are formed by

porphyry having a granitoid appearance, which passes, towards the

north, into felstone generally earthy and similar to the earthy fel-—

stone of the Atala Mount near Baramoola. On the north-western

extremity of the chain, this felstone becomes continued with that of

the great chain of hills which unites the Kaj Nag to the Ser and Mer

chain. This flaggy rock is continued to near the city of Gurais’

where, in the valley of the Kishengunga, beds of limestone

appear extending from about 15 miles N. W. of Gurais to Tillail.

The limestone is, after a break, continued at the Sono Murg”

and is in all probability identical to that of this locality. I have

never seen any specimen or fossil from the Tillail limestone, but the

Sono Murg limestone is Carboniferous, and it is most probable that

the Tillail limestone, which appears to be the continuation of that

bed, belongs to the same epoch.

Due north of Sono Murg, the limestone is much developed and

forms the summit of a considerable peak.

The porphyry-centres of mountains pass towards the south to rocks

of an appearance different from that of the northern spurs; while

we have seen that, towards the north, the porphyry generally graduates ©

to a felstone more or less earthy. Towards the south it changes, as we

travel from the peaks towards the end of the spurs, into trachyte,

greenstone, amygdaloid, basalt, ash and agglomerate, together with

interstratified, azoic and often amygdaloidal slate. .

The northern spurs of Gwashbrari, the Harbagwan and the Basmai

are composed of felstone, and near the road to Drass, in the valley

of the Sind Torrent, of amygdaloid and ash. On these beds of |

ejecta rest fossiliferous beds, and, near the small village of Sono Murg,

the beds of limestone are well developed. Captain Godwin-Austen

found in that locality some fossils which he was kind enough te .

show me. ‘They were identical with the forms described as charac-

teristic of the Kothair group of Carboniferous limestone, viz, the 4

Gasteropoda and Cyathophyllide which are represented at PI. VII.

1866. ] Mr. Waldie on the water of the Hooghly, &c. 203

fig. 4, 4a. They occur in a thin-bedded, dark-grey, argillaceous

limestone, having in some places the appearance of a calcareous

slate. But beds of Weean limestone must exist not far from Sono

Murg and form propably some of the beds of limestone which are

seen in the high valley between the Ambernath and the Gwashbrari,

as blocks of limestone of this description, rounded by running water,

were found in the bed of the Sind, near the traveller’s home at

Sono Murg.

To be continued.

EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS connected with the supply of watTER

from the Hooghly to Caucurra, by Davi Watpin, Esq. I. C. 8. de.

[Received 31st August, 1866. ]

The attention which of late years has been given amongst civilized

communities to the preservation of health and prevention of disease,

has naturally been directed amongst other subjects to that of the

water employed for economical purposes, and more particularly to its

purity and wholesomeness asa beverage and as the medium for the

‘preparation of food. The subject has been under the consideration

of the municipal authorities of Calcutta, who, as is well known, have

organised a scheme for the supply of the town from the river Hooghly,

for the carrying out of which arrangements are now in progress.

‘The Sanitary Commission appointed some time ago in the Bengal

Presidency, and I believe in the other Presidencies also, recommended

to the several governments of the Subdivisions, that the water of the

| various cantonments and stations should be subjected to chemical

| Boar for the purpose of ascertaining their wholesomeness, and

| these recommendations are in course of being carried out.

In England, and more particularly in the metropolis, much attention

has been given to the same subject, and also to another one closely

connected with it, namely, the disposal of the sewerage of towns. This

subject is connected with that of water supply, not only, because in

the plan generally followed for getting rid of sewerage in towns, a large

204 — Mr. Waldie’s investigations connected [No. 3,

supply of water is necessary, but also on account of the circumstance

that in many cases the readiest way to dispose of the liquid sewerage is

to turn it into rivers. And as it frequently happens that these rivers

may afford the easiest or perhaps the only practicable source of supply

of water for other towns, the pollution of their waters so produced may

be not a little deleterious. From the enormous extent and population

of the English metropolis, and the comparatively small size of the

river on which it stands, the evil in that case has become palpable and

notorious. The most eminent chemists and engineers have been

engaged in the examination of the subject as respects both the supply

of water and disposal of sewerage, and the results of their enquiries

have been published and subjected to public criticism and discussion.

So far as I am aware, nothing has yet been published of the results —

obtained by the examination of the waters of the Military cantonments

of India, nor do I know if it be intended that anything shall be.

With respect to the Calcutta supply, as is well known, a series of

analyses has been made, and a Report of results and conclusions drawn —

out, by the Chemical Examiner to Government, Dr. Macnamara.

That report, no doubt from being intended for a non-professional, and

(regarding it collectively and officially) not a professedly scientific body,

gives only results and conclusions, omitting altogether the details

of analyses and the specification of the methods employed. Dr.

Macnamara’s attention seems to have been directed chiefly to the

water of the Hooghly, to ascertain the proper point nearest to the town -

from which a supply of water of sufficient purity all the year round

could be obtained. The examinations were made on samples from

Cossipore, Pultah Ghat near Barrackpore, and Chinsurah. The general

conclusion arrived at is, that the influence of the tide is little felt at

Chinsurah at any period of the year, not much more at Pultah Ghat,

except towards the close of the hot season in May and June when it

is decidedly perceptible though not great, and not only decided but to

a large amount at Cossipore during the months of March, April, May

and June; and that the river water from its admixture with sea water

and the sewerage of Calcutta during that time is unfit for human con-

sumption. The organic matter is stated to be much larger in quantity

during these months than at other periods, and also to be highly .

nitrogenized ; the quantity amounting to 6 or 7 grains or even 10 or — /

1866.] _ with the supply of water to Calcutta. 205

12 grains per Imp. gallon during the months of April, May and

June; and this increase in quantity and deterioration in quality is

considered to be due to the organic impurity from the sewers and banks

at Calcutta. The analyses, I may observe, were chiefly made on samples

taken at high water, obviously to get the water at its worst. Analyses

are also given of the waters of two tanks inthe Maidaun or plain round

Fort William, namely Monohur Doss’s Tank and General’s Tank,

which are considered as unquestionably superior to the river water.

I may observe that, when I commenced this investigation, it was not

in connection with the water supply of Calcutta at all, or even in con-

nection with the economical use of water or its wholesomeness as a

beverage. These enquiries had been placed in the hands of others ; but

it occurred to me, that residing, as I did, on the banks of the Hooghly,

and possessing certain facilities for the purpose, it might be a contribu-

tion to science of some small value to make a minute examination of

the constituents of both the water and the mud of a great river

draining so large an extent of country as the Ganges. The investiga-

tion is as yet far from completion, but during its course, it occurred

to me that many of the results obtained might have some value in

relation to the subject just adverted to—the economical use of water ;

‘and that the local interest attached to it might render it in some

degree appropriate to publish these results, more particularly at a

time when all the knowledge attainable connected with the subject

is desirable.

This communication then is not intended to present a full statement

of the composition of the Hooghly water, but only to treat of such

: ‘points as are of more particular interest in connection with its applica-

tion to supply the wants of the inhabitants of Calcutta. And indeed

| this is all that is necessary for the purpose in view. As regards the

| general composition of the river water at different seasons of the year,

‘my own results only go to confirm those already given in Dr. Mac-

mamara’s Report, but in some particulars, not of minor importance, the

results I have obtained and the conclusions drawn from them are

somewhat different ; and in other particulars it may be found that I

have added to the stock of information on the subject.

It is scarcely necessary to allude to the course of the seasons in

Bengal and the way in which they affect the river. But for

206 Mr. Waldie’s investigations connected [ No. 3,

convenience I shall briefly state how I shall speak of them in

what follows. From the middle of June when the rains generally

commence and the river rises, till the end of October or middle of

November, when the rains have ceased and the river is rapidly falling,

I shall speak of as the rainy season; thence till the end of February

as the cold season; and thence again till the rains recommence as the

hot season. The first is identical vues is Macnamara’s “‘ Full season,”

the two latter with his ‘‘ Low season.’

During the rains, the river comes down in full sisi from the parent

Ganges through the effluents which unite to form the Hooghly, viz. the

Bhagiruthy, Matabangah and Jellinghy, with contributions from other

tributaries from the west. During that period, and more particularly

during its earlier part, the water is loaded with mud in a very

fine state of division and very slow in settling. As the season comes

near its termination, the water becomes clearer, and remains so during

the cold season, any mud in suspension rapidly settling. The water,

which during the rains naturally contained the smallest proportion of

saline matter, now contains more, the proportion gradually increasing |

till the end of February, the first increase having been more rapid at

the stoppage of the rains. All this, of course, is the natural and obvious —

result of evaporation without any rainfall to supply the place of the

lost water, aggravated by the diminished supply of water from the

Ganges caused by the bars at the entrance to the tributary effluents.

These causes operate with still greater power during the hot season, aided

by strong southerly winds and powerful tides. During this season the

mud is stirred up, and the water rendered more dirty, but the mud is

not in the same state as during the rains, and settles without difficulty.

The influence of the tides becomes increasingly felt as the season

advances, and the admixture of sea water becomes unmistakable.

The following table exhibits the results I have obtained as respects —

the amount of solid residue obtained by evaporating the water. They —

quantities per gallon are obtained.

The following Lable showing the amount of solid matter dried a 7

212° to 220° Fah. an the river water at ebb tide, at a point from two q

three nules above Calcutta.

are given for 100,000 gyrs. of water, instead of the Imperial gallon used 4

by Dr. Macnamara. By multiplying by 7 and dividing by 10, the

1866.] with the supply of water to Calcutta. 207

Tasze I.

For 100,000 grs. For 70,000 grs.

or Imp. gall.

1865

August 31st, 1865, including very fine clay,* Ebb, 12.13 8.41

December 6th, Ebb, 24.00 16.80

1866

February 25th, Ebb, 30.00 21.00

May 2nd, spring tide, Ebb, 36.20 25.34

\ Flood, 88.50 61.95

_ 24th, Neap tide, Ebb, 21.25 14.88

June 14th, spring tide, Ebb, 30.70 21.49

\ Flood, 151.90 106.33

July 6th, including very fine clay,* Ebb, 12.59 8.81

ugust 8th, clay and some silica deducted, Ebb, 8.13 5.69

ba These numbers confirm the results exhibited by Dr. Macnamara’s

: port, making allowance for difference of seasons. They shew clearly

e increase of solid contents more especially during the dry season.

nd here I may remark that samples were chiefly taken during

bb tide, as my primary object was the examination of the river water

oper, and it was only during the hot season that particular attention

Ps as paid to the state of tide, after my attention had been directed in

| part to what is the special object of this paper. And indeed, except

fein the hot season, the composition of the water is little affected by

| tides.

is "And further, as the object was to make a full analysis of the water

| ; several different seasons, I did not adopt the readiest or simplest

oe of merely comparing the water at different periods for sanitary

a oses, which would have been done, had that been my primary

i ject. The methods adopted will be noticed in due course.

ay: The preceding table exhibits a very great variation in the amount

of solid constituents during the hot season, owing to the influence of

fret tides, a subject which will be separately considered.

Che These waters had settled well—that of August 1865 for 19 days, that of

duly 1866 for about 35 days, yet by comparison with that of August 1866

it ot be observed that about one third of their solid contents was fine clay.

mt) | i}

208 Mr. Waldie’s investigations connected [No. 3,

Influence of the Tides.

It will indeed be convenient to take up this subject first in order,

Dr. Macnamara’s results exhibit very clearly the increased quantity of

saline constituents during the hot season, commencing in March, and

coming to its height just before the commencement of the rains. His

table shews as much as 77.7 grs. dry saline residue from 1 gallon of

water at high water on 12th June, 1862. I obtained from water taken at

full spring tide, on 14th June of this year 1866, as much as 106.3 grs

per Imp. gallon. This is easily accounted for when it is found, as ascertain-

ed from examination of the rainfall, that from June 1861 to end of May

1862 there had fallen 87.4 inches of rain, while during the correspond-

ing period of 1865-66 there had been only 47.9 inches: the river

must have been much lower and its current feebler, and consequently

the sea water had penetrated farther. My observations were all made on

water taken from the river near my own residence at the village of

Baranagur or Barnagore, with a few exceptions which I shall notice

alterwards. The locality is about two miles above Cossipore. But

made observations also on the effect of time of tide.

This point is also noticed in Dr. Macnamara’s report, though not

very fully. He mentions that the water varies much in the degree of

its impurity with the time of tide, falling as low during April and May

as 23° at low water, that is, 23 grains of saline matter in 1 gallon. My

observations indicate even a greater amount of variation than is by this

suggested, as will be shown by the table I have prepared. As the

evaporation to dryness and weighing the residue of numerous samples is

very tedious and troublesome, another plan was adopted for estimating

the amount of variation. The river water proper contains very little

chlorine in its composition, while in the state of common salt this is

the characteristic constituent of sea water. The quantity of chlorine

was therefore ascertained by the usual volumetric process with nitra ie

of silver, and calculated as if it existed entirely as chloride of sodium

of time, trouble, &c. that I could not devote to it. Any noon

that I did make were only confirmatory of Dr. Macnamara’s results. —

The following table exhibits the results of my observations on the

;

- -

1866.] with the supply of water to Calcutta. 209

+ . : ; ,

_ influence of the tides. The change of course is gradual, commencing

in March and increasing as shewn by Dr. Macnamara’s report. I did

not make observations until the first of May.

i - Taste II.

D : Chiorinecale. Saline matter dried

as Chloride at 220° fF.

_ To compare Ebb and Flood Tide, of Sodium. For

4866 a mile above Baranagar— For 100,000 100,000 Imp. gal.

2 gers. grs.

May Ist, second day of full moon. —“——

Low water nearly complete, .....:... 28.0 19.60

High water nearly complete, Surface, 61.55 43.08

Deep, 59.55 41.68

At Calentta—

2nd, third day of full moon,

_ ¢ About % Ebb, stream, Surface, 36.20 25.30

t Opposite Bankshall. Deep, 15.50

About } Flood, stream, Surface, 88.50 62.19

{ Opposite Hatkolah. Deep, 55.50

i a 16th, third day of new moon,

Above 1 or 13 hour Ebb, Surface, 40.00 66.40 46.48

Deep, 68.60

Above i Flood, Surface, 78.00 107.20

” Deep, 75.00 109.00 76.30

9 Newly high water complete, Surface, 82.50 104.70

; Deep, 80.00 106.20

_ To shew state at Neap tide.

2th h, fourth day of first quarter of moon.

~ Thour after beginningof Ebb,Surface, 17.50

4 Deep, 18.50

hours after do. | Surface, 12.50

ban iLbo 21.25 15.

bn shew rate of change during

| i a | Ebb and Flow.

May y 30th, third day of full moon.

Brat shore 5 h. before tide begun, ... 27.00

a MPT PeHOKe dO, 85.0)... ..besseteeesces 2ESO

2 At Baranagar—

210 Mr. Waldie’s investigations connected [No. 3,

Stream, above 4 hours flood,......... 64.00 83.85 58.7

June Ist, fifth day of full moon.

5 h. 10 m. before tide begun, .......... 35.00

1-20 ditto ditto; i220... 222 cme alte 16.50

21D altandscho,s senate ety sss 2 anunees 26.50

5-10 after ditto, Surface, 69.50

Deep, 58.50

14th, third day of new moon.*

Tide commencing about noon,

At 6h. 40 m, A. M. Surface, 63.50

_ Deep, 65.90

Lis &. 0 ‘es 12.00 | 30.7 21.49

2-20 P. M. Surface, 71.00

Deep, 85.50

4-20 P. M. Surface, 123.00

Doon 26 U0 151.9 106.33

The water was collected either by filling vessels from the surface,

or in the case of the deep water by lowering atin bucket provided with

proper valves. The much larger quantity of heavier mud brought

up by the bucket proved that it acted properly. The water was

collected in almost every instance under my own personal superinten-

dence.

The collection was made by means of an ordinary small boat

or dinghy. The changes of position which could not be avoided

account for the irregularities between the surface and deep waters

taking into account the strong currents and eddies that prevail.

The table exhibits the great influence of the tides: taking the

extreme case of 14th June after long drought, just two days before

the rains commenced, we have in 100,000 fl. grains of water 151.9 grs.

solid matter at high water, and 30.7 gr. at low water, or nearly 5 to 1

while comparing the Chlorine as Chloride of Sodium or common sal ;

the proportion is fully 8 to 1. These great differences occur chiefly at

spring tides. The results of 24th May shew how comparatively

small this is at Neap tides, 19 grains of salt at nearly high water to

12 grs, at nearly low water, 9

* Highest tides are on third day of new or full moon,

1866.] with the supply of water to Calcutta. 21T

A study of the particulars of this table shews that the period

during which the water can be obtained with the smallest admixture

of sea water is during the last three or four hours of ebb tide and the

first one or two of flood. From tables of the analyses of the waters

_ gupplied to London which [ shall have to refer to more particularly

afterwards, it appears that the water of five Thames Companies contains

at an average from 26.41 to 26.97 grs. of saline matter per 100,000 ;

and that of four other Companies,—two river waters contain about 26

_grs., and two artesian well waters contain from above 38 to 40 grains.

_ The Hooghly water at Baranagur therefore even during the hot season

at ebb tide contains little more solid matter than the Thames water,

but probably a larger proportion of this is salt.

: Constituents of River Water proper.

_ We have now to direct our attention to the river water proper, which

we may consider that we can get from the Hooghly at different degrees

of dilution all the year except three or four months of the hot season.

The water of rivers is of course in greater part generally water fallen

_ from the atmosphere. Aided by the carbonic acid of the atmosphere,

‘it acts upon rocks, even silicious rocks, producing a certain amount of

decomposition and carrying off their constituents partly in solution,

partly in suspension as mud; it carries off similar constituents from

the soil, which consists of decomposed rocks ; and also from this source

a quantity of organic matter, the result of the decomposition of vegeta-

ble and animal substances, as also the excrementious matters deposited

; there. Except in special circumstances the water of rivers generally

contains a rather small proportion of alkaline salts in the state of

Silicates, sulphates, chlorides and carbonates, with a larger proportion of

_ carbonates of lime and magnesia kept in solution by excess of carbonic

~ acic gas. They differ from spring or deep well waters and agree with

surface waters generally in containing a notable proportion of potash

is well as soda, and also more silica, phosphates, earthy carbonates

an¢ organic matter, and sometimes ammonia and nitrates, than deep

spring waters do. When brought in contact with argillaceous deposits,

_ they part with their potash, ammonia, silica, phosphoric acid and

| organic matter, while the soda, lime, magnesia, sulphuric acid and

| chlorine are generally retained, forming the usual constituents of

/ - spring waters, This subject is treated of fully in an Essay on the

212 Mr. Waldie’s investigations connected [ No. 3,

Chemistry of natural waters by Mr. T. Sterry Hunt, which will be

found* well worthy of perusal.

I am not aware whether much consideration has been given to the

peculiarities of the constitution of such surface waters in regard to

their mineral constituents and their action on the animal economy,

except in the case of the abundance of earthy carbonates. This,

however, is perhaps the least characteristic of these constituents, as

many spring waters abound in earthy carbonates, or at least in earthy

salts, sulphates and muriates of lime and magnesia. More charac-

teristic is the deficiency of muriate of soda or chloride of sodium in

the surface waters and its comparative abundance in spring waters.

Soda is the characteristic alkali of the components of the human

body, but some curious observations have been made by physiological —

chemists on the relative proportions of the two alkalies in different

parts or tissues of the system; and though it is stated in these cases

that the peculiarities exist entirely irrespective of the nature of the

food taken, it would scarcely be warrantable to assume as certain that

such differences in the predominance of potash or soda in food or

drink are entirely destitute of influence. The point is at least worth

bearing in mind,

Phosphoric acid, when present, exists in such small quantity that only

in very minute analyses is it sought for by the analyst. Silica is

found much more generally. From its neutral and indifferent

character, much attention has not been given to it in its influence

on animal bodies. But attention has been given to all of these

substances in relation to vegetable physiolog y, as plants draw their |

food directly from the soil in part at least, and the nature of its

constituents is therefore of immediate importance.

To the other constituents I have mentioned, namely organic matter

with the products of its decomposition, including ammonia and nitric |

acid, more attention has lately been paid in connection with water to

be used for human consumption. Indeed this may be said to be the

principal point to which the analysis of waters selected on sanitary

considerations has of late been chiefly directed.

The water of the Hooghly has a composition similar to that

already given as that of river waters generally. According to Dr,

* Silliman’s American Journal of Science for March, July and Sept. 1865. — '

1866.] with the supply of water to Calcutta. 213

Macnamara’s report, in the month of August there was in 1 gallon of

water 1.2 grains of soluble salts and 5.4 grs. of insoluble earthy salts,

beside silica and organic matter, and in February 1.8 of soluble and

13.4 of earthy. Or, asI prefer to express it, there was in August 1.7

_ grs. alkaline salt and 7.8 grs. earthy carbonates in 100,000 fi. grs., and

x in February 2.6 alkaline salt and 19.1 grs. earthy carbonates in the

a same volume. The first represents the water in its most diluted state

- during the height of the rains, the last in its most concentrated state

at the end of the cold season, just before tidal influence begins to be

& felt. I do not intend to give any of my own results, partly because a

full analysis of the water is not the object of this paper, and partly

~ Decause a circumstance entirely unforeseen and unexpected has thrown

Bicat on the correctness of some of those obtained, and I do not

_ wish to give them in an imperfect state, as they cannot be corrected

% until the return of the cold season gives me a new supply of water.

5 It is sufficient to say that they do not appear to differ materially

from those given in Dr. Macnamara’s report. The only point to

| be noticed is, that Dr. Macnamara, in accordance with the usual custom,

where minute accuracy is not required, assumes that the alkali is soda,

Both potash and soda, however, are present in the river water ; to what

extent they vary, I have not yet ascertained. During the hot season,

_ from the increase of common salt from tidal water, there is of necessity

| a a great increase in the proportion of soda in the state of common salt.

- The; alkaline salts consist of potash and soda in combination with

. 8 Bitpharic acid, silicic, and probably hydrochloric acid (or more strictly

their metals combined with chlorine) and perhaps some organic

| acid. The earthy salts are carbonates of lime and magnesia, kept in

solution by excess of carbonic acid. On evaporation nearly the

“whole of the lime and magnesia separate as carbonates insoluble.

Besides these there are a few minute constituents to be noticed after-

4y ards. The only™ particular now to be noticed is, the different

proportion of solid constituents in the water at the two extremes ; in

_ August thereis 9.5 grains of alkaline and earthy salts in solution in

4 100, 000 fl. grs. of water, in February there is 21.78 grs. or about two

| t da quarter times asmuch. This great difference is of course due to

% he nature of the seasons’ in Bengal, where almost all the rain falls

du ing four or five continuous months.

214 Mr. Waldie’s investigations connected [No. 3,

It may be useful to refer for the purpose of comparison to the

composition of some other waters supplied to towns, and I shall take

for that purpose one of the most recently published reports on the

subject, namely, that by Professor Frankland on the water supply of

London during the year from February 1865 to January 1866.*

The only points determined connected with the mineral consti-

tuents are the total amount of saline matters and the amount

of earthy salts as ascertained by the soap test ; this, as is well known, —

being the application of the familiar fact that hard water curdles

soap, to ascertain its purity; a solution of known strength of soap

being added to a measured quantity of the water to be examined

from a graduated tube, until the curdling effect of the salts of lime and

magnesia which cause the hardness is exhausted, and the water produces

a lather on shaking. The quantity of soap required indicates the

amount of earthy salts present; an easy and speedy means of obtaining

a sufficiently good estimate of the amount of earthy salts in water.

By deducting from the total solid matter first the amount of organi¢

matter, the total. inorganic is obtained ; and by deducting from this

the amount of carbonate of lime, the remainder will indicate, with

sufficient approximative accuracy, the amount of alkaline salts. Here

are the results of this preceeding —for the waters of

Five Thames New River Kent and 8S.

Companies and River KHssex Co.'s

average. Lea, Artes. Wells.

Total solid matters, mean 26.63 26.11 39.03

Deduct organic and volatile, mean 1.60 1.30 L734

25.08 2481 — 87.30

Carbonate of Lime 17.69 20.65 25.16

Alkaline salts 7.34 4.16 12.14 ~

It will be observed that the alkaline salts are in much larger

proportion to the earthy carbonates than in the Hoogly water, thi

being specially the case in the Artesian well waters. The waters of Ne

River and River Lea come nearest the Hooghly. The amount of soli

matter is much greater in the average than that of the Hooghly rivel

* Journal of the Chemical Society, June 1866,

“ Se

1866.] with the supply of water to Caleutia. 215

water proper, the mean indeed being nearly as much as the maximum

of the Hooghly before tidal influence begins. The amount of variation

is much smaller in these waters: of the Thames water the highest

quantity of solid matter was 32.62 grs. the lowest 18.78, and the well

waters vary less. And it was observed that the quantity of solid

matter tended to increase after heavy rain fall.

Other river waters contain more or less of such constituents, dependent

on the nature of the rocks and soil they traverse. Mr. Sterry Hunt

gives an analysis of the Ottawa water, taken before the melting of the

_ snows, containing 6.12 grs. solid in 100,000. Bischoff, in his Chemi-

cal Geology, gives a pretty large list of analyses of river waters, show-

ing a variation of from 2.61 to 54.5 grains solid matter in 100,000.

e The nature of their mineral constituents also varies greatly, but that

will not engage our attention at present as it is more a geological

question than a sanitary one. We shall proceed to the point more

immediately connected with the object of the paper.

( x The substances treated of can scarcely be called impurities with

ference to natural waters. They are rather constituents, and are

only to be considered impurities in a sanitary point of view when

_ they are excessive in quantity, as for instance exceeding 40 or even

50 grains in 100,000. The remaining substances to be noticed may

_: purely chemical point of view be called constituents also with

ite as much truth, but with reference to sanitary considerations

y with propriety be termed impurities. They were enumerated

e as organic matter, ammonia and nitric acid. It may be better

consider them as organic matter of vegetable origin and organic

| er of animal origin, with the respective products of their decom-

position.

Vegetable substances of all kinds mixed with the soil, exposed to

air and moisture or immersed in water, dead animal bodies of every

arie y in similar circumstances, all rotting, fermenting and putrefying,

with the excrementitious matters from living animals, constitute the

ms erials from which river water derives that portion of its consti-

tuents called organic matter. Its nature is so heterogeneous and its

q antity so small, that it would be hopeless to attempt to separate it

its proximate constituents. All we can attempt is to get some

Micra idea of its nature, from which to form some judgment of its

216 Mr. Waldie’s investigations connected [No. 3,

properties, especially with reference to its action on the human system.

Of late more attention has been paid to this subject, previously little

thought of.

The first point requiring attention is to ascertain its quantity as

correctly as practicable. The plan formerly followed was to dry the

solid contents of the water obtained by evaporation carefully at a

certain fixed temperature such as 212° or 250° F., or even about 300°,

till the weight remained constant ; then to burn off the organic matter

by as moderate a heat as possible and weigh again : the loss of weight

was considered organic matter. But this method is liable to great

error, and may give grossly erroneous results. Other substances may

be volatilised : salts of ammonia have been mentioned, but they may be

included amongst organic matter ; nitrates may be partially or wholly

decomposed, but they generally exist in very small quantity. Earthy —

carbonates may lose carbonic acid :—carbonate of lime will not readily

lose it if the heat be moderate, but carbonate of magnesia will very ©

readily, and moreover chloride of magnesium (or muriate of magnesia)

loses part of its acid easily. It is the magnesium salts which are the

chief source of loss, but this can be prevented or remedied. If the ©

contents of the water be not naturally sufficiently alkaline, a sufficient

quantity of accurately weighed and perfectly dry carbonate of soda is

added to the water on evaporating it; the soda combines with hydro-

chloric acid to form chloride of sodium and water, while the magnesia

remains as carbonate; and by this means, as the chlorine is not

separated by ignition from the sodium, the loss of chlorine is avoided,

The only loss is of carbonic acid, which can be restored again. This

is done by adding to the ignited residue in the platinum crucible

distilled water charged with carbonic acid and evaporating to dryness |

by gentle heat, drying again at the same temperature as was employed

at the first weighing before ignition till the weight is again constant.

The loss of carbonic acid is by this means corrected, the acid being

restored, and the difference of weight shows the quantity of organie

matter, at least more correctly than by any other method known. .

This plan is attributed to Dr. Thomas Clark, the inventor of the soa > e

test, by Dr. W. Allen Miller in a paper* to which I shall have further

occasion to refer. It is tedious and troublesome, requires a fine balance,

* Journal of the Chemical Society for May, 1865. ,

1866.] with the supply of water to Calcutta. 217

patience, and care ; but it isnot too much to say that the results obtained

without the above detailed precautions are of no value, or rather worse

than useless, asthey mislead. The results which I shall give were ob-

tained by this plan carefully carried out. It will be found that they

differ materially from those given in Dr. Macnamara’s report; and I

can only account for the discrepancy, by supposing that some precau-

tion requisite for ensuring accuracy in the process was omitted, either

from inadvertance, or because it had not at that time (1862) been

generally known to or used by chemists.

In the table in that report the smallest quantity of organic matter

entered is 0.9 grain in 1 Imperial gallon, the largest 8.3 grains, gene-

rally however 3 or 4 grains per gallon, which are equal to respectively

1.23, 11.8 and 4.3 or 5.7 grains per 100,000 grains. My own results

have yielded me only from 0.6 to 1.9 grains in 100,000 and Dr. Frank-

land’s in the report already alluded to, vary from .54 to 3.3, or average

about 1.6 for the Thames, and 1.3 for the other two river waters, The

table which will be given will exhibit the results[ have obtained,

‘Remarks will be postponed till the whole subject is considered.

The time, trouble, and care necessary for estimating the amount of

organic matter by weight is so great, that chemists have been desirous

of finding some easier and speedier method of estimating its amount.

Precipitation of the organic matter by salts of lead or reduction of salts

of silver and gold have been proposed, but never come into general

use. But another re-agent has of late been very generally employed,

“the permanganate of potash, which from the facility with which it

yields its oxygen to organic substances has been made the means of

estimating the amount of these ; and as it can be very easily employed,

‘it has come very much into favour. A good deal of difference of

“Opinion prevailed at first as to the proper method of applying it and

as to the value of its indications, but more agreement is being arrived

| atlately. It is used in the state of weak solution poured from a

graduated tube, and the permanence of a slight pink tinge in the

water to which it is added is the sign of the action being complete :

the quantity by measure of the solution required indicates what is

wanted. Dr. Letheby continues to add the solution at intervals for

24 hours: if the action was completed, then this would be very

well, but it is not, as there are different kinds of organic water, some

218. Mr. Waldie’s investigations connected [No. 3,

of which act slowly on it, others more rapidly. Dr. Miller strictly

enjoins that the water should not be warmed, without however stat-

ing any reason, and other English chemists seem also to practise it

cold; Dr. Woods, who wrote a paper on it some years ago published in

the Chemical Society’s Journal, recommends warming the water, as

also does Dr. Macnamara, and gives reasons for it. It now generally

seems to be agreed that it is desirable to restrict the use of the

permanganate to the oxidation of those substances that can be rapidly

acted on; and after consideration and experiment, I have adopted with

some small modifications the details of Dr. Frankland’s practice, except

that the water is heated to about 120° F. at the commencement.

English chemists forget that what is our natural cold here, requires

artificial heat with them, and that it is desirable to follow a plan that

can be easily made uniform for all climates. The solution of per-

manganate is added in small portions at intervals, until a perceptible

tinge of pink remains for ten minutes; when this is the case, the

quantity used is read off. I use 4000 fluid grs. of water with 80 fluid

grs. of diluted sulphuric acid, containing 1 grain concentrated acid by

weight in 5 fl. grs., heat the whole to about 120° F. and having —

removed it from the lamp, proceed to add the solution. This is made —

of such strength that each measure of the tube (it may be, each equal.

to 1 cubic centimetre or to 10 fluid grains) yields .0OL grain oxygen

as ascertained by its action on oxalic acid in solution in similar

circumstances, that is dissolved in a similar quantity of pure distilled

water with the same quantity of sulphuric acid and treated in the”

same way. As .63 grains oxalic acid requires .08 grain oxygen, the

solution will be of proper strength, if 80 measures are required for

oxidizing that quantity of oxalic acid: that is, 80 measures are equal

to .08 grain oxygen, or 1 measure is equal to .001 grain oxygen.

Although it is certain that in many or most cases the permanganate

as used in this process does not oxidise all the organic matters, and

that we cannot tell how much remains unacted upon; and though

at present at least we do not know what is the particular chemical

constitution of the matters oxidized, it is at least certain that it acts

upon those substances which give the putrid odour to stagnant water,

and renders them after a time, when the products of its action have

settled, pure and transparent and quite free from offensive smell,

1866.] with the supply of water to Calcutta. 219

Tt thus removes the matters which are actually in a state of putrefac-

tion, and I believe preserves the water from further putrefaction for

at least a considerable time. For this purpose it is advantageously

employed for the purpose of purifying water for domestic use. In such

application it is used alone, no sulphuric acid being used: a very

small quantity being, added to the water, just sufficient to give it a

very slight pink tinge, which will remain for above 15 minutes; the

water is allowed to stand till next day, and is then decanted off and

filtered and is fit for use. The minute quantity of potash salt

produced can do no harm.

_ Provided it be properly understood what the use of this re-agent

indicates, and it be not credited with more than it does effect, the

permanganate test is a valuable addition to our means of examining

the quality of drinking water. The results of my examination of

the Hooghly water by means of it, and the amount of organic matter

Dy weight, are given together in one table.

- The quantity of oxygen required is very small. ~ The results are

given as obtained, but cannot be counted on too minutely, as there is a

‘certain amount of error unavoidable, in not getting the colour exactly

of one degree of intensity, in slight difference of quantity required

dependent on rapidity of adding the liquid, and probably on other causes

“not very well ascertained. ‘The purity of the waters as respects such

offensive constituents is in proportion to the oxygen required to oxidize

pen : the purer the water the less oxygen is necessary.

bia Tasue III.

| River water taken from the Hooghly two to three miles above the north

| ig end of the town, except when otherwise specified.

| 7 For 100,000 fl. gs. water.

|. Organie

| z matter dried. at

| 4 212° to 220° Oxygen re-

m Fah. quired.

me. Grains. Grains.

6th July, 1866 Ebb, from surface, see cite 80 0375

| 10th ditto, from shore, 2a aa Sib backs .0338

h August, Ebb tide, ... nen ate bs .60 0450

ditto ditto, _ ‘3 ” 86 .03845

} Blst August, 1865, Ebb tide ; a 65004 in ae

ed bottles ten months, ei much vegetable

growth had been removed, bats Donnas 74 0225

220 Mr. Waldie’s investigations connected [No. 3,

9th December, 1865, Ebb, Surface, we: i? - auE OZ

Deépy 22. re alae .78 0175

25th February, 1866 Ebb, Surface, ae st 92 :

J Deep, ... YP TS A5

2nd May, Ebb at Bankshall, southern part of

Calcutta, aE at 4 C05 i. 0325

Flood at Hatkolah, northern - of Gatdaidter: i) Dae

30th May, Ebb, ee ey oe 90 .0238

Flood, Os See 0275

14th June, Ebb, =e vee xg .90 0250

Flood, ss Bg B28 .0225

6th June at Chandernagore, 20 miles above |

Calcutta, Ebb, Surface, iyi: poNtHRS, 5 .60 0163

Deep, La 67 0213 —

From an inspection of this table, it will ‘e observed that the

permanganate test exhibits the largest quantity of organic matter in ~

the river water during the rainy season, and the smallest quantity .

during the cold season, the hot season giving results intermediate.*

The same ratio is not so distinctly perceptible in the weight of the

organic matter. If the water at all these seasons were at the same

state of dilution as regards saline matter, there would be the largest

proportion of organic matter during the rainy season and the smallest

during the hot season. The hot season is usually associated with ideas

of corruption and concentration of impurities, the rainy season with

point of fact it is directly the reverse. The same thing has been

purification by the abundance of pure water from the clouds.

observed in England, as will be manifest from the following quotation

from Dr. Frankland’s report on the London waters. He says, “ This

* It was with considerable hesitation that I left the indications given by

the permanganate test in the table, on account of objections raised to my

determinations of the organic matter which led to a supplementary paper read

at the succeeding meeting of the Society. But after due consideration, they

were allowed to remain .as sufficient for the purpose required. The objections

will be noticed as occasion calls for it, in notes or in the Supplement.

It is to be observed also that, as reported in the Proceedings of the Society

for October, page 1866, I had stated 1.4 grains per gallon as the largest amount

of organic matter obtained, Two of the results in the table, those of 2nd and

30th May somewhat exceed this, viz. 2.7 and 2.6 grains corresponding respective-

ly to 1.89 and 1.82 grain per gallon. The correctness of these was doubted from

supposed inaccuracy in the process, but this not being certain they have beams

introduced into the table. 30th Nov. 1866.

1866.] with the supply of water to Calcutta. 221

comparison shews clearly (as might be anticipated) how closely the

condition of river waters is connected with the amount of rain-fall ;

but, in opposition to the commonly received opinion, it proves that the

waters in question are much purer in dry than in wet weather, even

if the drought occurs during a very hot summer.”’ He seems, however,

to hesitate a little about drawing general conclusions from the observa-

tions of one year; and in the report of the discussion which followed

at the Chemical Society’s meeting as reported in the Chemical News,

some of the speakers seemed inclined to attribute it to special and

particular causes. I have no doubt that it is owing to general causes,

and that when we consider the circumstances, we cannot expect any

other result.

Unfortunately in the case of the Hooghly at Calcutta, the question

is complicated by the admixture of sea water during the hot season.

This introduces two sources of error into the process of examination,

namely an increased amount of saline matter, and a difference in its

nature and properties. These will probably tend to cause indications

of an amount of organic matter in excess of the truth. The point is

under examination. There is also great difficulty in estimating

correctly the amount of organic matter during the rainy season, on

account of the impossibility of getting the water clear by filtration,

and the very long time it requires to become clear by subsidence,

This point is also under investigation.*

_ There can be no doubt also that the kind of organic matter in the

‘sea water mixture is different in some respects from that of the river

water proper. Iwas much struck with the observation made many

months ago of the difference of colour presented by the different speci-

| mens of water when highly concentrated, that of the August water

| ie so much deeper in colour than the others. On the contrary,

| % sample of water from the salt water lake to the east of Calcutta,

though indicating both by the weighing’ and the permanganate

‘processes much more organic matter than the river water, when concen-

trated, was almost colourless.

But to return to the greater proportion of organic matter during the

Tains, it seems to be nothing but what may be expected. During the

* For the reasons stated there is considerable uncertainty respecting the cor-

rectness of the weight of organic matter in the waters of July and August

222 Mr. Waldie’s investigations connected [No. 3,

remainder of the year, vegetable and animal matter of every kind is

deposited in or upon the soil in all stages of decomposition. The

amount of drainage is small and the flow of water gentle: the water

carried thus to the river is comparatively pure, and that from the

sources of the streams is from places bare of vegetation and part of

it from melting snow. But when the rains come, they wash off all the

accumulated products of decomposition of vegetable and animal sub-

stances in the state both of solution and suspension, of which the

appearance alone of the water and its flavour give ample evidence.

The increased proportion, it is true, is counteracted by the largely —

increased quantity of the water which dilutes it; for if, instead of —

looking to the proportion of organic matter to the water, we look to

its amount in proportion to the inorganic or mineral saline matter,

then in the rainy season the excessive proportion of organic matter is

rendered much more evident. After the rains the mud subsides,

which is favourable to the purification of the water, and the atmo-

spheric oxygen contained in solution in the water, as it is in natural

waters generally, acts upon the organic matter in solution, oxidizing

and destroying it. And as heat in general materially increases the

energy of chemical action, there can be little doubt that this purifying -

influence goes on more rapidly in tropical than in temperate climates,

and that this explains why the organic matter in the Hooghly water

is smaller in amount than that of the London waters, both of river

and wells in their natural state.

But we have to consider not only the quantity but the quality of the

organic impurity. We can scarcely expect to go more minutely into

this than to endeavour to ascertain the relative proportions of vege-

table and animal matter, and to get some idea of their state or of the

stage of decomposition in which they exist in the water. The

chemical constitution of these gives us some aid in this enquiry, the

main constituents of vegetable compounds being carbon, hydrogen

and oxygen, those. of animal substances containing nitrogen im

addition ; a statement which, though not strictly exact, is sufficiently

characteristic, so much so, that by azotized or nitrogenous substances

are generally understood compounds of animal origin. The ultimate

products of the decomposition of non-nitrogenous organic matter in

presence of oxygen, namely water and carbonic acid, of course give us n

help in this enquiry, nor are the intermediate products likely to be

1866.] with the supply of water to Calcutta. 223

possessed of any such striking properties as to aid us much, as they

are mostly of a neutral nature without active chemical or physical

characteristics. Nitrogenous bodies, however, yield products more

readily recognised, and as it is this class of substances which are most

likely to possess properties injuriously affecting the animal economy,

their detection is also the most important.

The ultimate products of the decomposition of nitrogenous organic

substances are, in addition to water and carbonic acid, also ammonia,

and where excess of oxygen is present, nitric acid. But there are also

humerous intermediate products, and these are often characterised by

offensive smells which give a certain character to the putrefaction of

animal substances, different from that yielded by the fermentation or

corruption of vegetable bodies. The smell or flavour then of a water

is a very good test of its purity, though it indicates rather the stage

of decomposition in which its organic matter exists than the amount

of organic matter present. And in connection with this I may

mention the test of keeping the water and observing the changes

Which take place in it, the production of animalcules or of aquatic

vegetation. Now Ihave kept samples of water taken from the river

at all seasons for many months. Those taken during the cold and

hot seasons settled easily and suffered very little further change; at

the most a little greenish deposit at the bottom of the bottle formed,

which is the case, however, with ordinary distilled water. It was very

different, however, with the water of the rainy season. Some water

taken from the river on 31st August, 1865, was kept for about two

or three weeks, then syphoned off the deposited mud into other clean

stoppered bottles in which it remained, the bottles being closed for

about four months, when the bottles were found to have their sides

covered with abundant green branching vegetation: the water was

again syphoned off quite clear to other clean bottles and kept for about

six months longer, when the same appearances were observed, though

toa much smaller extent. There was abundant proof in this case

of the presence of organic matter, probably both in the form of living

germs and of chemical compounds dissolved in the water. The water

taken during the hot season may have contained as much: possibly

the presence of the excess of saline matter may prevent such develop-

ment, but I am not prepared to give an opinion on the subject. The

224 Mr. Waldie’s investigations connected [No. 35

water of the hot season shewed more indications of vegetation than

that of the cold season, though greatly less than that of the rains.

Ammonia.

Ammonia, perhaps one of the most characteristic evidences of the

presence of nitrogenous matter, can be detected in natural waters, and

even when in such minute proportion as in natural waters, its quantity

can be estimated. Dr. Miller has given a process for doing so with

sufficient accuracy, and without the necessity of operating on very large

quantities of water, which will be found in the paper I have already

mentioned on the analysis of mineral waters in the Journal of the

Chemical Society for May 1865. It depends on the great delicacy

of the test for ammonia possessed by an alkaline solution of the —

Hydrarg-Iodide of Potassium, which produces a fine rich yellow

brown colour with a very small quantity of ammonia, or a precipitate, —

if the quantity be larger. In the weaker solutions, the colour varies’

in depth of shade with the proportion of ammonia present, and by a

comparison with another solution containing a known quantity of

ammonia the proportion is estimated. Dr. Miller attributes the plan

of proceeding to Mr. Hadow, and gives the details of procedure. He

gives the formula for the preparation of the alkaline solution of

Hydrarg-Iodide of Potassium, which I have strictly followed and

adopted. His standard solution for comparison is a weak solution of

pure muriate of ammonia of such strength that 1 fluid grain of the

solution contains .0001 (one ten-thousandth of a) grain of ammonia

or 8.17 grains muriate of ammonia in 10,000 fluid grains. I also

adopt this solution, but have modified the plan of proceeding, it

appears to me with advantage. It is thus:

A convenient quantity, 10,000 fluid grains is very suitable, of the

water, to which a small quantity of pure hydrochloric acid has been

added, is concentrated by a gentle heat to about 1,000 fluid grains:

it must of course be slightly acid. This is put into a flask, some excess

of pure milk of lime added, and the flask connected by a bent tube

with a small Liebig’s condenser, to the extremity of which is connected

a small Woulfe’s bottle, and to this another one furnished at its further

neck with a tube containing broken glass moistened with water, this |

being to prevent escape of ammonia. About half or 500 fluid grains of

1866. ] with the supply of water to Calcutta. 225

product is distilled over and emptied into a tube graduated into 100

‘divisions of 10 fluid grains each, the bottles washed out with distilled

water and added to the tube to make up 100 measures of liquid which

isto be thoroughly mixed together. Two wide mouthed bottles or jars

of as nearly the same size as possible are provided, into each of which

25 fluid grains of the Hydrarg-Iodide solution is introduced with

some distilled water. Then into one of these an aliquot part of the

distilled liquid is poured, say ;!, or 4, so as to produce a distinct colour,

and the bottle is filled up with water. Another similarly graduated

tube or burette has been prepared ready filled with the standard

solution of muriate of ammonia, and this is carefully added to the

second bottle, until the colour produced is as exactly as possible of the

same shade as that of the first, both bottles being of course made equally

full. The quantity added is then noted, and then calculated on the

whole. Thus: suppose 74 fluid grains of the standard solution of

muriate of ammonia has been required, this is equal to 74 & .0001

grains or .0074 grains ammonia. If 25 measures of the distilled liquor

has been used for trial, this is 4th of it, consequently the whole contains

0074 K 4 = .0296 grains ammonia, and as this was from 10,000

fluid grains of water, by consequence the standard quantity of 100,000

fluid grains water contains .296 grains ammonia.

The process requires great care, that there be no accidental

admixture of ammonia. The vessels must be scrupulously clean, the

distilled water and the lime used must be carefully examined to make

sure that they contain no ammonia. The plan of measuring the

distillate enables the operator to repeat the trial in case of accident

or uncertainty. It is better to work with rather weak colours, as the

eye can better detect differences of shade: .0074 grains ammonia is

too much for a 2000 grain bottle: any size of bottle may be used,

provided the two bottles be as exactly as possible alike in size, shape

and capacity.

226 Mr. Waldie’s investigations connected [No. 3,

The following table shews

6th July, 1866,

21st August,

Taste LV..

River water of

Rainy SEAson.

Average,

Coxtp SEAson.

9th December, 1865, Shore,

Ditto,

27th ditto,

30th May, ...

14th June,

Stream,

ditto,

Average, ae

Hor Season.

Ebb tide.

Ditto repeated, ...

30th May,

14th June,

Ditto repeated, ...

Average,

Flood Tide.

ece

Average,

the results obtained by this process.

Ammonia in

100,000 fl. grs.

1866.] with the supply of water to Calcutta, 227

carefully examining wherein they lie, in order to see if they can be

avoided. Yet notwithstanding these inaccuracies, it seems to me

that the general results are pretty evident, that the amount of

ammonia is greatest in the rainy season, diminishes during the cold

one, and again increases during the hot, which increase, however, is

probably not in the river water proper. One examination of water

from Chandernagore, which was very slightly if at all contaminated

with tidal water, yielded only .0118 grain ammonia in 100,000 flood

grains. ‘This conclusion is not a certain one; to make it so, it would

be necessary to have examinations of the Chandernagore water at all

seasons; but other considerations, to be afterwards noticed, render it

probable.*

I am disposed to attach a good deal of importance to the estimation

of the ammonia, not only because it helps to indicate how far the

nitrogenous matter has gone in the stage of decomposition, but because

that stage is not improbably one of importance. It has been long

known that many, I may say most, of the organic proximate principles

found in vegetables are alkaloids possessing active properties and

producing the most marked physiological effects, and that there are

many similar principles produced in the decomposition of nitrogenised

substances by destructive distillation or otherwise, which possess marked

physical properties, and probably, if they were examined, also decided

physiological actions. But by modern chemical research, it would

appear that these alkaloids are all formed on the type of ammonia,

or are ammonias having one or more atoms of its hydrogen replaced

by some other organic combination or radical. Hence it seems not at

all unlikely that such compound ammonias as they are called may be

produced at the same time and along with the ultimate or ordinary

ammonia. And even though no such compounds should exist, the

amount of ammonia would give some probable indication of the stage

of decomposition, and existence of compounds is a state of transition

| towards ammonia.

_ * The examinations for ammonia were all made about the same time in the

month of August, consequently the waters were of different ages. The samples

| had been preserved mixed with a little Hydrochloric acid and mostly in a

concentrated state. Ofcourse objections may be made to their value on this

account and possibly may be valid. This will again be referred to in the sequel.

30th November, 1866,

228 Mr. Waldie’s investigations connected [No. 8, |

I have seen few published analyses of water indicating the presence

or amount of ammonia. Such examinations have been made, but

they do not seem to be common. In the case of waters examined

for sanitary purposes it appears to me that the point should be

attended to. One observation that has come under my notice on

the subject is in a-paper by Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert on town |

sewage,* in which is mentioned the quantity of ammonia found in

the River Wandle before and after receiving the drainage water —

from the land irrigated by the sewage of Croydon. In both

instances, it amounted to .18 grain per gallon or 70,000 grains, being

therefore more than I have found at the worst in the Hooghly water

viz. .185 grains per 100,000 grains.

Nitrates.

The presence of nitrates has been more noticed than that of

ammonia, though it appears to me less worthy of attention. It is —

true that they indicate the existence of nitrogenous matter, but it is

rather as a thing of the past: the animal matter has been there, but

is no longer now, at least that part of it which now has the form of

nitric acid ; it is now fully oxydized, its animal essence and corruptibi-

lity destroyed: it ranks with water and carbonic acid, no longer an

organic substance. A process has been devised for estimating small

quantities, known as Pugh’s process, which Dr. Miller in the above

quoted paper recommends for application to water. I have not made

use of it, indeed have not had time, but have satisfied myself with

some other observations and experiments on the presence of nitrates

in the river water. In many instances indeed very distinct deflagration ©

has been observed during ignition of the residue obtained by evapora-

ting the water. This alone does not give good grounds for forming

an opinion as to the quantity of the nitrate, as it may be masked o

altogether obscured by an excessive proportion of other salts, as of

common salt during the hot season. The presence of nitrites can

also be observed by the blue colour produced with starch and iodide

of potassium by the water acidulated. But as nitrites are simply

imperfectly oxydised nitrates, the same observations apply to the

former as have been made respecting the latter.

* Journal of the Chemical Society, April, 1866,

1866.] with the supply of water to Calcutta. 229

I had intended, and still intend, to estimate the quantity of nitric

acid for the complete analysis originally contemplated ; but for the

reasons just stated, I preferred, for the purpose of this communication

to direct my attention to other points which appeared of greater

importance. That of ammonia which has been just discussed was

one of these, and a greater number of determinations of ammonia

would have been made, but time did not permit: besides I wished

first carefully to examine the ammonia process in order to ascertain

the causes of the discrepancies already referred to, with a view to

discover the precautions necessary to be taken to ensure more

concordant results.

Other nitrogenous matter.

But ammonia and nitric acid are only the ultimate terms of the

fermentative and oxydised decomposition of nitrogenous organic matter,

and there may be much more present in all stages of decomposition

intermediate between these and unchanged animal or vegetable

constituents. The amount of these could be estimated by ascertaining

the quantity of nitrogen they contain, but the operation is too trouble-

some to be generally applied to such minute quantities of matter

as exists in drinking waters. Animal matters in being ignited or

burnt, as is well known, omit a peculiar smell, different from that

produced by burning non-nitrogenous substances such as wood, and

this has been used as an indication of the presence of, and even as a

means of forming a judgment respecting the proportion of matter

of animal origin. But it affords a very uncertain means of judging,

as even corrupting vegetable matter gives a different smell from fresh,

and the peculiar animal odour may be more or less obscured by the

greater or less proportion of vegetable matter mixed with the animal.

.... the most characteristic smell given by burning animal matters

is that produced by albuminous or gelatinous substances such as

muscular fibre, blood, skin, or in short the undecomposed tissues of

animal bodies in general. But these substances are probably not to

be found in sewage except in small quantity, its constituents are

‘more nearly of the nature of urine and other excrementitious animal

matters and the sour products of vegetable decomposition: many of

jthem are volatile and evaporate by a moderate heat with a peculiar

230 Mr. Waldie’s investigations connected [No. 3,

nauseous smell, but one not so characteristic as that produced by

burning horn or wool for instance.

Nevertheless not to neglect any means of obtaining information on

the subject, I not only, in the course of ascertaining the weight of

organic matter by burning it off, paid attention to the appearances

then presented, but afterwards made a few experiments on purpose.

But with all I cannot concur in the satisfaction expressed by Dr. Angus

Smith on the results, as quoted by Dr. Macnamara in his review of the

pamphlet.* He speaks of the remarkably clear insight given by

boiling down a few thousand grains of water and burning the residue.

He says, “ We can by the eye and the smell detect humous and peaty

acids, nitrogenous organic substances, and nitrates, and estimate their

amount toa very useful degree of accuracy. We may even decide

by it the animal or vegetable origin of the matter.” Now I have ©

carefully evaporated down repeatedly quantities of 50,000 and 100,000

grains of water and attended to these appearances, and the only

conclusion I came to was, that the information obtained was very

limited and unsatisfactory. Ihave also varied the experiment and.

instead of burning the matter in an open platinum crucible have heated —

it ina glass test tube. For some of the objects in view this is a

better plan; and I compared in this way samples of water of the rainy

season, of the cold season, and of the hot season during flood tide,

For the latter, which is a mixture of river and sea water it is necessary

to mix the saline matter with some dry carbonate of soda, or better, to

evaporate the water to dryness with this admixture, in order to prevent

the evolution of hydrochloric acid vapours. The mouth of the tube is to

be loosely closed with a glass stopper which is removed from time to

time to examine the smell and try with test papers. Examined in this

way, all those samples gave some ammoniacal vapour with no very

marked difference; all gave a somewhat urinous animal smell, but

not one the characteristic smell of burning flesh or horn: there were —

slight variations, but none very distinct. The rainy season water gave —

more of the smell of burning vegetable matter than the others, this

being the most distinctive point observed ; but altogether the informa-_

tion obtained was very small. )

After the failure of all these plans, there remained but one likely to

* Indian Medical Gazette, April, 1866,

1866. ] with the supply of water to Calcutta. 231

be satisfactory, and that was to determine the amount of nitrogen

existing in other forms than those of ammonia and nitric acid, this

being the only way in which the amount of undecomposed or

imperfectly decomposed animal matter can be estimated. The way in

which this is usually done is by what is well known to chemists as the

soda lime process, and depends on the circumstance that all such

animal substances containing nitrogen (this not including nitric acid

however), when heated to redness in contact with a hydrated alkali,

yield up all their nitrogen combined with hydrogen as ammonia, and

this ammonia can by suitable arrangement be collected and its amount

ascertained. Jam not aware that this plan has been much applied

to the examination of animal matter in waters, no doubt on account of

the minute quantity of nitrogen present ; nevertheless it appeared to me

that it might be modified so as to estimate it even in drinking water.

I intended to have postponed the trial of this process altogether, as I

had not time to make proper arrangements and test the accuracy of the

plan. However I made three experiments in a rather hasty and

crude manner with such means as I had at hand. They are not at all

to be depended on, but I may give the results as obtained,

_ River water of 2nd June, Ebb, from Chandernagore, containing very

little tidal water. 100,000 grains gave .028 grains ammonia.

River water of 21st August, Ebb, from Barnagore. 100,000 grains

gave .030 grains ammonia.

_ River water of May and June, Flood tide, from Barnagore. 100,000

grains gave .010 grains ammonia.

The results, as I have already said, are not to be depended on. Yet

it cannot be denied that they are in accordance with the results

obtained in other ways, respecting the organic matter. The ready

formed ammonia existing in the water had of course been previously

removed,

' Ina practical point of view this portion of the subject. is of the

principal importance, as more than any other it bears on the question

| as to how far the river water is contaminated by the sewage of

Calcutta. Judging from the results obtained and just mentioned

respecting ammonia and fixed nitrogenous organic matter, the amount.

is not great: even at the highest tide at flood on the 14th June of

this year, after twelve months of an unusually small amount of rain-

29,

232 Mr. Waldie’s investigations connected [No. 3,

fall, it is no worse as regards ready formed ammonia than the water of

the rainy season ; and if the rough experiments on the other nitrogenous

matter are to be trusted, it is no worse or not so bad even in this

respect ; and comparing the results with the one observation quoted

respecting the river Wandle as regards ammonia, the Hooghly water

even at the worst, has the advantage. In considering this point,

it must be borne in mind that the refuse which Calcutta can yield

must bear but a very insignificant proportion to the great volume of

the waters of the Hooghly compared with that which a large English

town will yield to an English river, and more particularly London to ©

the Thames. And then the purifying influences here are so much

more active that contaminating constituents are much more speedily

destroyed ; nature with her all pervading oxygen, its power exalted

by a tropical temperature, burning all up. The water of the stream

in constant motion presents perpetually renewed surfaces to the

atmosphere to absorb the great purifying agent, and the importance

of this will perhaps be more clearly manifested by comparison with —

another class of waters with which I shall conclude this paper.

Tank Waters.

This class is the tank waters, a few of which I have made a partial |

examination of, for the purpose of comparison. These are General’s tank,

near the entrance to Park Street; Monohor Doss’ tank, near that to

Lindsay Street, both of them on the plain round the Fort; Dalhousie

Square tank, supplied by the river ; Cornwallis Square Tank, at the |

northern part of the town; a newly cleaned and dug out tank at

Dhurrumtollah (supplied by Mr. Dall); and a village tank near my

own premises, Also I have examined slightly two well waters, and —

the water of the Salt Water Lake to the east of the town; the results |

of all will be given in one table and a few remarks appended afterwards-

The water of the two tanks from the plain in May and June had @

slightly putrid flavour; in August this was much less. Cornwallis

Square tank was very low in May and putrid, had not increased very —

much in August. and was still bad. The Dhurrumtollah tank was bad —

flavoured and abounded in vegetation ; the Barnagore tank in May and —

June was covered with a thick coat of floating vegetation, and was very |

dirty and bad smelled, quite unfit for use even by the villagers, In

August during the rains its appearance improved somewhat.

1866.] with the supply of water to Calcutta.

Taste V.

For 100,000 fluid grains,

Date of col-

lecting.

1866.

General’s Tank, ... 16 June,

14 Aug.

Monohur Doss’s Tank, ...{L4 May,

6 June,

14 Aug.

Dalhousie Square Tank, .../L4 May,

6 June,

Cornwallis Square Tank,

settled and veg. matter de-

posited, ...,14 May,

not settled, . {l4 Aug.

Dhurrumtollah Tank, ... Aug.

Barnagore, .-.(L1 May,

8 June,

17 Aug

Dhurrumtollah well, oath AS

Barnagore well, ... 18 Aug.

Salt Water Lake,

from Canal at Dhappa Toll

_ House, ...|13 June,

Ditch conveying sewerage of

~ Calcutta, ...|1 June,

* Ditto, ...18 Sept.

* Ditto, .. |13 Sept.

Solid

matter,

908.00

295.80

Organic

matter.

1.35

2.00

1.50

4.40

5.15

4,25

20.00

33.10

27.33

22.25

233

Oxygen |Ammoe

reqd. to

oxidise.

nia.

.0825) .235

1225

.0913

.1000

.1400

0750

.1550

2975

3170

.2938

3379

.0725

0900

1250

5.680

.204

.237

_ Qn examining this table, it will be observed that even the best tank

| water contains more organic matter by weight, and requires more

| oxygen to oxydise it than does the river water during ebb tide; even

| Dalhousie Square water appears to deteriorate by being removed

from the running stream into a stagnant reservoir.

organic matter in the bad tanks is also very noticeable.

| well waters require more oxygen than the river water generally.

* Added since the date of the paper.

The excess of

The two

234 Mr, Waldie’s investigations connected - [No. 3,am

The Salt Water Lake water did not require more oxygen than the

tank waters.* |

I have little to add in the way of concluding remarks, as my object

was not to report on any scheme or recommend any plan, but simply

to communicate to a scientific society the results of numerous experi-

ments and observations on a subject of practical importance. Some

of these investigations are defective, but I intend to endeavour to

remedy these defects by further investigation. And even after these

are remedied, the results may indicate that there are yet other points

o examine. There is work for the naturalist in the investigation of

he animal and vegetable life in such waters, possibly exercising as

great an influence on their salubrity as their chemical composition,

Yet even this can only be aided by a full and accurate knowledge of ©

their chemical constituents. There are also questions connected with

the preservation and use of the water, and these too are more likely —

to be correctly answered, the more complete is our knowledge of the

nature of its composition. |

But I may briefly sum up the conclusions arrived at with reference

to the application of the Hooghly water to the supply of the wants of

Calcutta. As regards its inorganic coustituents,; the Hooghly water

taken near Calcutta is at least as pure as any of the waters supplied to _

London, or indeed generally more pure for about eight or nine months

of the year; during the hot season it is mixed with sea water under

the influence of the tides and thereby rendered brackish. This can_

be avoided by taking the supply of water from further up the river.

As regards organic matter, again, my results, if correct, indicate that

the state of the water seems to be worst during the rainy season, and

that notwithstanding the influence of the tides and the sewerage of

Calcutta, it is doubtful if even at the hottest part of the hot season in

June its impurity equals that of the water during the rains; and it is

* T have already stated that it was with considerable hesitation that I

left the indications of the permanganate Test in table III. on account of the.

objections raised to their value: similar hesitation was felt as to inserting

Table IV. and it was the indications given in Table V. which determined me

to retain them. The same objections indeed apply to the results shewn by it,

but this does not materially affect the purpose for which it is introduced. It —

will serve sufficiently well for purposes of general comparison, the trials for’

oxidizable matter and ammonia having been made at the same times on both ~

river and tank waters, so that generally both kinds were of the same age or ~

nearly so, More exact determinations will be made in future, 30th Nov. 1866. —

1866. | with the supply of water to Calcutta. 235

questionable if even in the nature or quality of the organic impurities

it is worse. Now as it is not likely that during the rains the water

is materially different at Barrackpore from what it is at Calcutta, there

will be little or nothing gained by taking it from Barrackpore during

these months, the chief advantage being therefore that the salt water

of the hot season will be avoided. Still even as it is, there seems to

be no better source; for the organic impurities of the tank waters,

even the best of them, seem at least equal in amount to those of the

river water during flood tide, and greater than the same during ebb tide.

And so far as a judgment can be formed from the means of comparison

within reach, the water during the rains probably contains less

organic impurity than the London waters.*

Such are the conclusions I have arrived at, some of them unexpected

even to myself, and which may be disputed by others. They are of

course open to criticism and discussion. They may be suggestive of

other things possibly of practical application, but into these I have

not yet had time to enter,

* T have much doubt upon these points, as much of the organic matter of the

rainy season is probably adherent to the finely divided mud in suspension in

the water, which is so difficult to separate. With a view to the use of the

water, the point would require to be investigated in connection with the process

to be employed for the purification of the water. Judgment may be consi-

dered suspended on them, more particularly on that of the purity of the water

of the best tanks at all seasons of the year, and of the nature and amount of

the organic matter of the river water during the rainy season. Further remarks

will be made on these subjects in subsequent communications, 30th Noy, 1866,

ao ee

‘

GEOLOGICAL MAP of the ZEBANWAN

Vol XXXV. PLT

Map B.

he Shakinen Bi

Nasech Bagh

ChenarTrces

Voleanie

Ish & Slate viterbedded

Mate (Avo) Sthaian.

| Cirboraerous Tonestone:

(/ The parallel. tines endieate

the Strike of beds.

Whe arrows trudicate the dep.

{

and Neighbouring Mountains

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Journal As. Soc.

Vol XXXV. Fl I.

Section. ©

af] Prof Hos WSC) / . :

/ a [i / / haw /* | eee Sone ee : Scale | Inch= 100 feet

a /*/ / /

on ——

Y 200 th

HORIZONTAL SECTION of the ZEEAWAN SPUR

of the ZEBANWAN

Showing the ranlike disposition of the

Gigs of lumestone and brown Shales at the expanded end of the Fan.

= a

A Crushing of the beds at the

small end: of the Far

BBR. Opervigs between the beds and. courses of racks

Scale] Inch-= 00 leet. or yobz th

100 100 77] 300

SJ OM Vous

NAN ‘

Tiel oF the Mieelume abou 246 feeb above theSea, 1

VERTICAL,

Journal As. Soc.

Zecawan

SECTION of the ZEEAWAN SPUR oi the ZEBANWAN

Vol XXXV. PL UL.

Section B.

hacustrine clay :

Jeurnal Ae. Sco

GEOLOGIGAL MAP

of the

WASTAR WAN

in Kashmir

Quartzite

Volcanic Rocks

L} Azote Slate (Silurcan)

[EN Gar sendtrous Donestone

Slate

indicate Strike of Bots

sy,

J indicate Dip

tee VS

eee

Journal As. Soc-

Vol XXXV. PI IL

Section DPD

tins

Scale: One inch =100 feet or 1200 th

AA Ae

Ieee cantare aie GO 1g0 200 300 0

9 70 60 30 10

Dip SSW

Go 0

Mah /h. Wordle

$s ; N

SS :

sue 2 _ do 1) O 8 7 a

Ash Quartile Ash; ete.

Level of the Lacustruve deposit

hevel of the Jheelum, about 5250 teet above the Sea,

SECTION acrogs the Spur of the KAMLAWAN abovethe Village of MURHAMMA,

n ives

. em is

aha? Vind y :

ined Y

A eh) eee

“=

ug Aa ec gee ah 71

Journal As. Sec. Vol XXXV. Wil wl.

5 fi ‘Secl IV of

Z Section Hi ff General Map

Scalwy One Tnch = 500 Fut. or 6000

soe foe soo 200 toe e ooo 14000 1500 2000 2500 3000

— = Stee

AN | Nee bh Pe

. fault Fault:

The Strike wheels to the’ ae eens 6

A i ‘ ae : d, eee pore ; : - Aniygialoidel Greenstone, dips 5 SE-Contisely—

WNE- SSW and the dip a

Le : H Ruin of B. j shy Boag Datum line: the level of thy Manus Bal Lake abt 51907 above the Seu

Hundabal

SECTION of the MANUS BAL LIMESTONE

between the SAFAPOOR and AHA TANGH.

Lith: by H. Niven Surv Generals Office Calcutta Augt 1866.

Scale 1 Hnglish Inch =1000 feet, or 12000

4 0 000

soon ft

4000

Mish esaiise

N 65° W

Murrey Prabut

Marshes § Gardens

The Dal or small lake

S209 abeve the Sea

\ =

Symugeur

Tourns! As. Soc, Vol/XXXV P). Il.

Ser lS Section I of

Section A ( Generot orf) ap)

Budédast Kuan

Vukht -i-Sulimnan . 6063! above the Sea

" i

STSION 1 yBHEIr ie 20 .

He Hie a ' 0 70 55% 70 '

; Dip aan E Dh

Sanwor

a Mternate 10 feet thick Beds oP brown

| Augitic Ash, often alearedis Pagglome.

| rate anu of axsio slate.

SECTON across the HURR! PURBUT, TUKT-I- SULIMAN and

WNW. portion of the ZEBANWAN

Sost E

XXXY Pl I.

a Section I of © S

eclion A ( Ginerat orf) Wap) my i

asi a * 3.8

¢ aN Ree Sanit of Lebanwan

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3 &

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ny x a8 S22

g s SS 35 SLES

§ RS Se gy S RSIS

§ xX) eg $x 7607

S| S aS ae

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x é is =

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Basalt with

Slate, Ish Laterite

he Sea

— —Frult

3 Alternate 10 feet thick Beds of brown

| dugitic Ash, oftere alewredis Pagglome.

| . -

| -rate aul of axoio slate, ANY

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wie Dip Eafew Gees

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Cheenax Trees

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W Mead to Neshert Bagh

Panchtioeka

ss the HURR| PURBUT, TUKT-I- SULIMAN and .

(NW. portion of the ZEBANWAN

Vol: XXXV. PILI.

aring due Fast)

€

Manus Bat from the Lake (

Journal As, Soc.

Section

Safapoor (10309), similarly composed. 4.The

Tang; wonderfully contorted hy

dippmmg WNW. 9 small beds of Limestone conformable

G. The bed of Limestone between the Safapoor and Aha

stone,Ash.&. 5. One of the Spurs of the

8. Face of the beds of Limestone,

ed.

5. The AhaTang, similarly compos

having heen squeezed between the iwo hills. 7. The spur of Limestone of which'a detailed seclion is given, (seeSection |i}

to the Ash,and Greenstone, dipping SSH. 10. Fault-

2. The Northern Extremity of the Saij-aha (11334). composed of Green:

1. The porphyritic Suramit of Kutwal (14271 ft).

Spur of Safapoor which overhangs Manus Bal (lake) Greenstone, Basalt, Ash, &c. .

CUPID vo IL) mosrng Yb

E [AsO 52) AINE NY PTO BS

Ly Mannrene yeouinen nag parmerg

(ox poling snaneg) iam parmeareg ji

Cp mani MONT) IOI BERNARD sol =

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Trarestrine Cy

tavern pero HbeND

Dip

cvoees eh) ures pliant,

Tip

eqs ooay jah) pinay

ny SMaL)) MENPBIYL: L201,

SUOTION ACROSS the WESTESN HIMALAYA, the GREAT FUNJAB MIOCENE PLATEAU ard the ATOHAS MOCSTATIS

epi], by, eet)

Punjab

Miocene Plateu ef the

Great

(8 2 panic) so)s) YM] weary,

sre Geqepey,

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(Teret®)

Kandahar

towards

Plains

arurpiac

(emien w Trace?)

[ria antes

(Granate

Meta

Telowtic

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(Carberaferme

Sabra

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JOURNAL

OF THE

ASTATIO SOCIETY

Part II. —1866.

ETHNOLOGY.

—= Fo

- CONTENTS.

SPECIAL NUMBER.

_ ETHNOLOGY OF INDIA, BY MR. J USTICE CAMPBELL.

Inrnopvcrory.

= General remarks, a

‘Points recommended for observation,

General divisions,

Tur Aportarzs.

General description, ...

Main divisions,

‘ Southersi 6r Dravidian tribes,

Northern or Kolarian tribes,

_ Tribes of Western India, ...

__« Tribes under the Himalayas,

iy . The ‘ Bhooyas’ of the Bengal borders

~ _. Question regarding the Brahuis,

rr)

Tae Mopzrn Inprans.

; The Bramins or Khashas, _..,

The Jats, Yous

The Rajpoots,

: The Koonbees or ie

Some Punjab tribes, . tak

| Mahommedan les,

Pastoral tribes, Goojars, Aheers, de, aes

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JOURNAL.

OF THE

SOTATIC SOCIETY.

ONO ie Orne saws

SUPLEMENTARY NUMBER.

| Vou. XXXV. Parr IL.

—e ees

. The Ethnology of India —By Mr. Jusricn Campseun.

: [Received 4th June, 1866. ]

J trust that the great subject of Indian Ethnology has been taken

up by the Society in a serious and earnest manner, with a view to

that actual observation and practical inquiry which is only possible

in the countries and on the spots where the various races are found, or

_ where specimens of them may be collected together. The Govern-

- ment has already consented to take the first step in aid of the move-

os ment by collecting from its officers, in all parts of India, lists of the

_ races and classes existing in the various districts. The present paper

Zi. designed to assist both Government officers and private persons in

% making classified and descriptive lists in such a uniform manner, and

q with such a uniform nomenclature and arrangement, that it may be

~ afterwards possible to weld together the whole of the information thus

obtained. Without some common plan and nomenclature, without, as

it were, some Ethnological skeleton to serve as the guide and model

into which the various details may be fitted, and by which they may

‘be classed, I fear that there may be much confusion and error in

bringing together lists which must necessarily often be made by offi-

cials who have little knowledge of Ethnology as a science, and whose

practical knowledge and nomenclature are limited to their own par-

ticular parts of India. My object then is, to supply a sort of rough

24 The Ethnology of India.

hand book of existing information on the subject, particularly as re-

gards the North of India, and my hope is, that such a guide may

render much more easy, intelligible, and uniform, the collection of a

mass of details, which will render our knowledge ample and complete.

It happens that my personal experience has been wider than that of _

most officers; I have also travelled much in those parts of India in which

I have not served, and have made the people a constant subject of

observation and inquiry. I have farther, for some time past, noted the

information on this subject which I could collect from books. And

lastly, I have received much aid in my inquiries from many kind

friends. During a late visit to the Punjaub frontier, 1 was under

great obligations to many of the officers employed there, and feel that

-Ican always look for assistance in that quarter. Recent papers by

Colonel Dalton, Commissioner of the Chota-Nagpore territories, have

given much information respecting several of the tribes of that locality

of which T have made free use, and I had looked also to use another

paper on the Coles promised by Colonel Dalton. It has not been

received, but I hope that it will soon add to the information which

T am now able to give. During a tour in the Bombay Presidency, I

was fortunate enough to make the acquaintance and to obtain the

assistance of Mr. Perceval of the Civil Service there, since Private

Secretary to His Excellency Sir B. Frere, and through Mr. Perceval

[ have received a series of very interesting notes on the aborigines of

that part of India by Captain Probyn, Major Keatinge, Mr. Ash- —

burner, Mr. Probert, and the Rev. Messrs. Moore and Taylor, con-

taining information not elsewhere procurable. During a former tour —

in the Mysore country and in some of the Madras districts adjoining, I

received much kind assistance, and Mr. Bowring has since been good —

enough to point out to me some very interesting additional informa-

tion. With respect, however, to the Telinga country, and the extreme

South of India, I have not been fortunate enough to obtain all the

information that I could desire. ;

It will be understood, moreover, that as respects every part of India,

I by no means profess to give a complete sketch. I have not the

necessary information, and have not time for the necessary study to

enable me to attempt that. Indeed, in this as in so many other things,

the more one learns, the more one sees one’s ignorance and the vast

The Ethnology of India. 8

amount of inquiry that still remains. I only desire to teil so much as

_ I know, and to suggest points on which inquiry is desirable. Although

I have always been much interested in the people, I have usually not

had time and opportunity to commit all that I have observed to

_ writing; it is in fact only of late years that I have in some degree

done so. Iam obliged therefore frequently to use such expressions

as ‘I think,’ not because I do not speak from personal observation,

but because, writing from memory, I must give my impressions subject

tothe chance of error. In attempting too so wide and general a

subject without great opportunities of study, I am at every turn liable

_toerror. I would at once avow that I warrant nothing, even when

I do not specially qualify my phrases. I only give my impressions

for what they are worth. It is true that it would have been possi-

ble to verify many doubtful points, to fill up many gaps, and to solve

_ some difficulties which occur to me in writing this paper, by farther

_ enquiries in the proper quarters; but looking to the character of my

paper, as an avowedly imperfect sketch, designed to elicit the infor-

mation which may afterwards render possible something more com-

plete, I have preferred not to delay, but to give what I now can, as I

now can. In truth, my object is to suggest our deficiencies, to point

to them, and to prospect the quarters where valuable strata of in-

formation may be found. I shall say what I have to say in the most

‘simple and least technical form—in a rough and unpolished way.

: My philological acquirements are very deficient. As respects South-

parison easy. But there is no such synthetical account of the Northern

' languages. The character of each can only be separately learned.

| G izeratee, &c. when compared to Hindee and Punjabee, I find no

5 easy guide, and have not been able to acquire any adequate knowledge.

} —Cashmiree is still scarcely known at all. We very much want such

an account of the languages of the North as Dr. Caldwell has given

: ns for the South.

— Inthe mere matter of nomenclature, it is surprising how much

confusion arises, both from calling the same tribes by different names,

and also from calling different tribes by the same name. The former

4 The Ethnology of India.

error can only be met by explaining in detail the tribes variously

known in various localities ; but in respect to the latter, some general

caution seems necessary. It often happens that the same term is

applied both to a Tribe or Caste, and to the profession usually exer-

cised by that caste, and that while in one sense the term is proper

to the caste, whether exercising the same or any other profession, in

another sense it is applied to all exercising the profession, whether of

the same or of any other caste. For instance, in the greater part of the

Punjaub, the great agricultural tribe is the Jat, and there the words

‘ Jat’ and ‘ Zemeendar’ have come to be used by the people as

almost synonymous. A man who is asked of what caste he is, will

reply ‘a Gemeendar,’ meaning a Jat. And, vice versd, a Punjabee

will sometimes call a man a Jat, meaning only that he is a Zemeendar.

When I pressed some of the servants of the Maharajah of Cashmere

regarding the Ethnology of the valley of the Upper Indus and other

little known parts, I was at first much puzzled by finding them de- —

clare that the great mass of the people there are ‘ Jats,’ but I pre-

sently discovered that they meant merely Zemeendars or cultivators,

there being in fact no Jats within the Hills. In the West and South

too, I believe that the terms ‘ Koonbee’ and ‘ Wocal’ are used both

to designate certain agricultural tribes, and cultivators generally ; so

that while “‘ the Wocals are by the Mahommedans called Koonbees,” —

that circumstance gives no assurance that the tribes are the same.

The term Bunneah or Banian is properly applied to the great trading —

caste, but it also means a trader, and is often so applied. Again in —

India relzgious denominations are often applied in a way which con- —

founds them with proper tribal denominations. The character of the —

Hindoo religion is such that it is a pretty safe Ethnological guide, —

converts not being ordinarily received. Mahommedan and other pro-

selytising religions, on the other hand, are no guide in Ethnology ; on $

the contrary, the Mahommedan Laws of Marriage and Legitimacy are

such as to tend very much to efface Ethnological demarcations. For

our purposes therefore, Mahommedan denominations may be entirely”

put aside. But the mere fact, that people are Mahommedans, should

not deter us from seeking their Tribal denominations in the back

ground, Many Mahommedan tribes still retain their Hindoo caste

names, some Hindoo laws, and something of caste exclusiveness.

The Ethnology of India. 5

Though not so pure or characteristic as their Hindoo brethren, many

Mussulman Rajpvots and Jats are just as well known as such as the

Hindoos; while many whole tribes have become Mahommedans with-

out changing their tribal designations and occupations. Most of the

modern Sikhs in no way separate from their tribes, and are known as

‘ Jat,’ or ‘ Khatrie,’ or ‘Braman Sikhs,’ one member of a family

being frequently a ‘ Sing,’ while others are not. Jains, I believe,

are not ethnologically distinguished from Hindoos. Among the Bun-

neahs, it appears that some are Hindoos and some Jains, in the same

tribes and sections of tribes. Very puzzling in the South is the term

* Lingaiyat’ applied to those Ultra-Sivites who wear the Lingam, who

seem almost to form a caste, and who are generally spoken of as such.

_ So far, however, as I can gather, the term is really a mere religious

denomination, and the Lingaiyats are of various castes, which should

be distinguished.

Inall inquiries then, great care is necessary in sifting out tribal, as

distinguished from mere professional and religious denominations.

When we arrive at proper tribal titles, it is farther desirable to in-

quire into the aliases or varieties of title often possessed by the tribes;

for it may happen that while an obscure local title is in the most

- common use, another, less frequently used, will at once indicate iden-

tity with some well known and widely spread caste.

It is also very necessary to attend to the distinctions between great

caste titles, and the sub-divisions of those castes. All the great

-eastes have numerous gotes or sub-divisions ; and when a man is asked

to what caste he belongs, he will sometimes give the name of the

general, and sometimes of the special caste or gote. Some of these

-sub-divisions really are or may be ethnological sub-divisions, others,

_ from the peculiarity of Hindoo laws, are not so. On the principle

z which forbids the marriage of relations (carried by Hindoos to an

re extreme) men of the Rajpoot and other castes cannot marry in their

own ‘ gotes,’ but must seek their wives in other gotes. In blood

therefore such castes really form but one race—so far at least as the

~ intermarriages are carried—for there are many tribes claiming to be

_ Rajpoots whom the higher tribes will not recognize. Of other castes,

the primary sub-divisions keep altogether apart. I apprehend that

under the general term ‘Bunneah,’ are to be found many separate

By The Ethnology of India.

tribes who would on no account eat together or intermarry. I think,

however, that throughout all the great Hindoo castes, a strong ethno-

logical resemblance exists. I do not propose in this sketch to at-

tempt to notice the sub-divisions, except in any case in which they

may suggest marked ethnological features.

The details of Rajpoot and Bramin heraldry and hierology have

been amply given in several excellent works, and I shall touch on

nothing of that kind.

A caution which seems to me to be necessary is, that the accounts of

their origin given by many tribes, and especially by their Chiefs, must

be received in a very guarded way, because there is a great tendency

to invent origins illustrious in the eyes of men of the races and reli-

gions to which they belong. Among the Hindoos, the Rajpoot rule

is so famous, that almost all tribes which have taken to soldiering or ~

acquired power, pretend to a Rajpoot origin. At this day, some of the

followers of Maratta Chiefs have the impudence to tell strangers that

they are really Rajpoots, as if their origin was not matter of the most

recent history ; and almost all the aboriginal tribes who have risen to

any power (or at least the chief families among them) affect a Raj-

poot descent. As Colonel Dalton describes it, they are undergoing a

gradual process of ‘ refining into Rajpoots,’ a process probably founded

on a very small Rajpoot immigration and alliance, and a very large

amount of invention. Even the Jats and other tribes who need —

hardly descend to such stories, frequently make themselves out to be

Rajpoots who have been separated from the orthodox for some loose-

ness of practice ; but my impression is, that most of these stories are ©

quite idle. Even acknowledged Rajpoots of the North-Western hills :

who are, in an Ethnological point of view, a much finer and purer race _

than any in the plains, assert that their ancestors came from Ajoodea —

or Oude. So in Cashmere, the Bramins there, whose mere features at £

once proclaim them to be one of the highest and purest races in aa

world, instead of adopting the more ancient and better traditions —

which would point to their country as the common origin of the "7

Bramin races of India, prefer the story that when Kashyapa dried up_

the Lake (a geological fact patent even to Hindoos) detachments of

all the most famous and most sacred of the different Bramin classes

were brought into Cashmere, who, amalgamating, formed the present

The Ethnology of India. T

Cashmeeree Bramins. The real cause of all these stories, I take to be

this. The Hindoos, as Hindoos and from an orthodox Hindoo point

of view, did not attain their highest religious, literary, and political

development, till they were settled in the plains of India ; consequently

the early Bramins of the valleys of the Himalayas are not considered

nearly so orthodox, so sacred, or in the Hindoo scale so high, as the

more famous Bramins of the plains. And the Rajpoots of the Pun-

jab and the adjoining hills, are not so high in the scale of strict

Rajpoot orthodoxy as the Solar and Lunar races of Ajoodea.

Hence it is that the races, really earlier and purer, think it necessary

to claim descent from those who, in our point of view, are really very

inferior.

Again, most tribes which have been for many centuries converted

to Mahommedanism, set up some origin founded on the traditions and

literature of the dominant Mahommedan races. They are generally

descended from Soleiman or Nooshervan, or something of that kind.

Jewish names and traditions are particularly in vogue among the

Mahommedans (Abraham, Jacob, Joseph, and many others known to

“us, are their most common names, in the form of Ibraheem, Yacoob,

Yoosoof, &c. &c.) and it has been pointed out, that the Affghan asser-

tion of Jewish descent loses most of its significance, when we find

how many other tribes have stories of the same kind. I have not been

‘able to ascertain whether the ‘‘ Soleiman’s Throne” met with in so

: many places is to be specially referred to the Jewish Solomon, or

whether the term is merely the ‘‘ Suleh-man”’ or wise man of the Hast.

At any rate I believe that most of the pretended Mahommedan

f enealogies are in brief ‘ bosh.’ ,

- Ido not mean that popular traditions are to be neglected, on the »

contrary, I think that they often lead us far towards the truth ; but I say

‘a \

)

that we must use caution and discrimination, to sift the wheat from

_ the merest chaff.

- Ishould add that I believe that the claim of aboriginal and other

tribes to Rajpoot and such like origin, is not always without some

oundation in fact. The Rajpoots seem, like the Normans, to have

frequently found their way in small numbers among inferior races, and

_ there amalgamating and intermarrying with them, to have acquired

| by force of character a leadership over them, and to have considerably

8 The Ethnology of India.

raised the position of such tribes. There is, I think, a good deal —

to suggest that during the various invasions of Southern India by a

succession of Northern ‘ Yavanas,’ small tribes of these latter may have

taken up their position in difficult parts of the country, and there,

amalgamating with the aboriginal tribes, have formed half-breed races

of much robber-like and semi-military energy.

Before going farther, I would suggest the following as especially

deserving the attention of those who are willing to aid in a popular

way in classing the various tribes and castes in India.

1. Physical appearance. The three main types, Caucasian, Mon-

golian, and Negro or Negrito, are well-known. In India we have, in

the extreme North, the finest and purest Caucasian type, the handsomer

and more open form of that which we know as the Jewish cast of

countenance ; fine head and features, high brow and nose, long beard, _

tall, lithe, powerful figure, colour generally light. Throughout India,

we have this type modified and subdued by every variety of straight and

snub nose and plebeian features, much as in Hurope, and with a dark

skin unknown in Europe. Sometimes the skin becomes very black,

and the lips are thick and protuberant; there may be marked the

infusion of blood of the Negrito type which probably modifies the —

higher phase of the Caucasian type, even when actual Negrito features —

cannot be traced.

This Negrito type we find in India not accompanied with the —

muscular form of many Africans, but in a small slight race. The ©

principal points to be marked, in addition to colour, are the lips, already —

alluded to, shape of face, nose, and eyes, presence or absence of a —

considerable beard, character of the hair. ;

Among the Thibetans and Nipalese we have extreme examples of _

the type which I call generically Mongolian. The eyes particularly —

there is no mistaking. The hair is straight. The colour is yellowish, —

but never dark. ha

2. Language is liable to disturbances, and has been perhaps too

much taken as a sure guide, but it is always of great assistance, and

in 19 cases out of 20 tells a true tale. In practice I think that no_

considerable philological acquirements are necessary to enable an ob-—

server to make most useful observations of a language quite unknown

to him, if he can only get the rudest interpreter. There are certain )

4 ¥

1D -.

The Ethnology of India. §

words which may almost be taken as unfailing tests in classifying lan-

_ guage ; for instance, the first few numerals, the names for the com-

monest parts of the human body—as hand, foot, nose, eyes, mouth,

head, &c.—the names of the commonest family relations—father,

mother, brother, sister—sun and moon, fire and water—the personal

pronouns, and one or two others. I shall try to add to this paper

some of Mr. Hodgson’s lists. I do not know that they are all the

best selected words, but they are uniform lists of different languages

in parallel columns, and will enable any observer to determine on the

spot whether the savage he has caught, primd facie, seems to belong

to one or other of the classes represented in the columns. I shall

also make a smaller list of English words, a translation of which I

would recommend to be sent with each account of a tribe or race,

speaking a language in any degree peculiar.

It should be observed that it may not unfrequently happen that

- men who seem to speak but a rough jargon of some well known lan-

guage may, on close observation, be found to use peculiar terms for

some of the most familiar objects, and that these latter may be inva-

-luable as containing the remnants of their original language, all but ab-

sorbed in another which they have for the most part adopted. Especially

will such words be valuable, if they can be in any degree identified with

those in any of the Aboriginal Vocabularies.

Grammatical structure is somewhat more difficult of observation, and

80 far as I know, the general structural character of all the modern

eervetion, which would be eminently useful. And on the Hastern

Frontier, the distinction between Indian and Indo-Chinese grammatical

- forms might probably be readily marked.

y |

8. Religion. There isso much similarity in the religions of so

any rude tribes, that there may be doubt whether such worship as

that of the Sun, Moon, and the lord of Tigers represents a wide spread

religion, or merely a coincidence of very obvious ideas repeated again

‘and again; but it is worth noticing these ideas, in the hope that some

10 The Ethnology of India.

substantial inductions may. be formed from putting together many

observations. |

And among the mofe civilised races, I think it not improbable that

an accurate observation of the prevalence of Sivite and Vishnuite ideas

respectively, among particular tribes and castes, may be found to have

an ethnological significance. I cannot help thinking that these two

forms of modern Hinduism may in fact represent entirely different

religions derived from widely different sources, and that while the

Vishnuite faith came from the north, the Sivite may have had some

other origin, and may be the special property of races which of old

peculiarly affected it. Sivite monuments certainly seem to be marks

of a very old faith in the greater part of India, and the essential

element of it, the reverence for and deification of the procreative power,

seems to be the same idea of natural progression which is carried on

by the Buddhist doctrine of gradual perfectibility (raismg man almost

to the rank of a god) in opposition to the Vishnuite or Vedic creed of

a separate creation of gods and their occasional incarnation in the

form of man. If then pure Sivites, Buddhists, and Jains are in some

way connected, and they all prevail most in the West, who are those

who brought their doctrines there ? and whence did they come ?

4. Laws. I believe that, laws are among the most persistent —

ethnological marks, and that, as such, they have been too much ne- —

glected. Caste, and Marriage as a sacrament strictly limited by ©

caste, seem to be Arian institutions. Arian are strict rules of inhe- :

ritance, resulting from that sacred form of marriage and subject to none |

of the caprices of Mahommedan and similar laws. Arian is the pri- =

vate property in land, as distinguished from the Tribal; the property :

first of the village—then of the family—then of the individual ; a. a

consequence is, the attachment of the Arian to his native soil. Espe-_

cially Arian is the form of what we call constitutional, as opposed

to patriarchal and arbitrary government. The Indian village or Com- —

mune is a constitutional unit, common to all the Arians. A main 4

distinction, as I think, between two great classes of Arians is to be

traced in the constitution of these Communes—Aristocratic among

the one—among the other democratic, and recognizing as equals a all

free citizens, tothe exclusion of Helots only.

The Ethnology of India. _ Il

seems to be patriarchal and arbitrary—property in the soil is tribal

rather than individual. There is little local attachment to the soil.

he aboriginal tribes of India move from place to place, abandoning

_ one location and taking up another in a light way; they are even

ready to give up their land, to become labourers, and to emigrate in a

way to which the Arians are by no means prone. They seem to

_ have among themselves no caste, they eat anything and every thing.

_ Marriage is, I fancy, but a loose tie. On all these points, however, we

want much information.

5. Manners and mental characteristics. Under this I must in-

elude so much that I cannot attempt to detail it. Suffice it to say,

that any information regarding the temperament and_ bearing, the

intelligence, the customs and habits, the amusements and the cere-

- monies of little known tribes, may be in many ways most useful.

_~ It is patent in India to the most superficial observer that, owing to

_ the peculiar institution of castes, mere vicinage (even lasting many

hundred years) has not, as in Europe, led to the welding of different

races and tribes into proper local nationalities : that, in fact, in the

same locality many different races exist together without complete

intermixture, while a single race may frequently be traced through

“many different provinces and countries, always retaining its own pecu-

liarities under a great variety of circumstances and in coktact with

“many varying races. On the other hand, language can never be

exclusive, it must be the means of inter-communication between man

and man, caste and caste, without distinctions of race or creed.

Hence, however much by religion and race a tribe may be segregated,

il it be politically and to a great extent socially united with other

: eoples, it almost always in the end adopts their language, or a com-

‘mon language is formed by intermixture. That is the ordinary state

of Indian society. In the business of life, the different castes are

united in one society ; some are in the upper, some in the lower strata ;

me is the lord, another the priest, another the free cultivator, ano-

_ ther the hewer of wood and drawer of water; but still they form one

‘social whole. Farther, although the rules of caste and marriage may

hi nder the inter-communication of blood, it cannot but be that in

the long course of time, during which ‘different tribes live in the

closest intercourse, there must be some irregular percolation from one

12 The Ethnology of India.

to the other; in the course of thousands of years, something of the

blood and features of one will be infiltrated into the other.

Thus it has happened that in India there is a sort of double classi-

fication of the people, similar to that which we sometimes see in

rocks in which there is a double stratification, one line of strata

running say horizontally, and another line crossing the same rock

say vertically. When we trace a tribe or caste from one Province to

another, we shall find that in some things it retains the class charac-

ter, in others it varies according to provincial character, the latter

chiefly prevailing in point of language.

I propose to trace, so far as I can, the different tribes and classes

throughout India, irrespective of local nationalities, and to some extent

irrespective of language. I had thought that I might afterwards, when

that is completed, remark on the quasi-nationalities created by the

use of special languages and the social specialities of particular pro-

vinces ; but I find that our information is as yet so imperfect, that L

prefer to leave this latter task to another day. I shall merely

make some casual remarks on language and a few other national

features, as they occur in the course of my narrative.

Till we have accomplished an Ethnological Geography, whether —

Tribal or National, I shall for the most part use the ordinary terms of our

Modern Political Geography, and speak of the Punjab and Scinde,

Bengal and Mysore. But for facility of reference, I must make one —

or two explanations. I shall speak of Hindustan and the Hindu- —

stanees as the terms are applied by the natives, to the whole of the

great Central region of Northern India from the Punjab on one side

to Bengal on the other, and from the Himalayas to the Southern de- —

clivities of the Satpoora Range running across India im about the -

parallel of 22° Lat. I include in Hindustan, Bahar, (confining the

term of Bengal to Bengal Proper) as well as Oude, Rajpootana, and

Malwa. South of Hindustan to the West is the Maratta country, which c

may be roughly indicated as bounded by a line drawn from Nagpore

to Goa. And farther South are the Southern countries, sometimes

called Dravidian, first the Telinga or Telugu country to the East, the

Canarese to the West; beyond them again the Tamil country to the

Kast, the Malabar or ence country to the West.

As respects the physical features of these countries, it will be remem=

The Ethnology of India. 13

bered that the whole of Bengal proper, the N. W. Provinces and

Oude, the Punjab and Scinde, with part of the adjoining desert coun-

try, form a great semi-circular plain in which there is no place of

refuge (with little exception) for remains of aboriginal races; in all

these countries the modern races live together as one social whole.

But throughout Central and Peninsular India, while the most open

plains and best cultivated parts of the country are similarly inhabited,

there are scattered about, over every province, hills and jungles giving

cover to aboriginal tribes which hold themselves aloof from the

general population, and are very different in language, manners and

other particulars.

It is well known that the great plain is bounded on the north by

the line of the Himalayas, rising almost suddenly im great and rugged

height, but yet habitable for a considerable distance inland before the

snows are reached. That boundary is so uniform that more need not

be said respecting it, except as regards the northern extremity of

“India. There the plain is not at once succeeded by the Himalaya.

~The range called the Salt Range runs across from Jhelum to Kala-

Bagh on the Indus, and thence to the Affghan mountains, cutting off

as it were and enclosing a sort of triangle, and supporting a somewhat

elevated country something of the character of the Peninsular portion

_ of India, and lying between this Salt Range and the Himalaya. The

Salt Range, it will be presently seen, is an Ethnological boundary

of some interest.

TI now commence my survey according to Tribes and Castes.

- First, I take as a great division the black aboriginal tribes of the

interior hills and jungles. There can, I suppose, be no doubt that

_ they are the remnants of the race which occupied India before the

| I need not here go into any question, whether any portion

of them had received any civilization from any other source. It is

~ enough that all these tribes have many ethnological features in com-

| mon. They are evidently the remains of an element, the greater

| portion of which has been absorbed by, and amalgamated with, the

“modern Indian race, and which, mixed in various degrees with the

| high-featured immigrants, has contributed to form the Hindoo of

to-day. In the South their speech still forms the basis of the modern

languages. If proof were wanting that the predominance of Caucasian

14 The Ethnology of India.

features has been attained, in a great part of India, but gradually, and

that it is within the historical period that these features have alto-

gether preponderated, it is only necessary to look at the ancient

sculptures of the South and West. Take for instance the caves of

BKlephanta near Bombay. Who, looking at the faces there cut in stone,

and observing the universal thick lip and peculiar feature, can doubt

that when those were cut, the non-Caucasian element was still large

even among the higher classes ?

My scheme, however, is not to separate any of the tribes or castes

of modern Indian society, and to designate them as aboriginal. AlL

those people who have been either completely or partially amalga-

mated into Hindoo society, whether as proper Hindoos or as Helots

and outcasts, I regard as coming within the designations of ‘ Modern

Indians.’ I shall class as Aborigines only those tribes which still live _

apart, forming communities by themselves, under their own leaders, —

and often speaking their own peculiar languages. :

As Modern Indians again I class together all the high-featured $

northern races, and all the various trikes, castes, and nationalities i

formed by them after absorbing so much of the aboriginal element

as has been amalgamated with them, whether they are now Hindoos,

Mahommedans, or of any other religion. Of course they are mainly

Hindoos. I draw no wide ethnological line between the Northern ¥

and Southern countries of India, not recognising the separate Dravidian — 4

classification of the latter as properly ethnological. It seems to me ‘

that among all the Hindoo tribes the Arian element now prevails, and _

that the presence, more or less, of the aboriginal element is only a

question of degree. As a question of degree, I do not think that

there is, at any geographical parallel, any decided line. It is remarked

by Max Muller that languages are seldom properly speaking mixed.

Vocables may be mixed, but a single grammar and structure usually _

prevails. Therefore the change from one language to another must —

in so far be sudden. It is still, I believe, open to dispute whether —

the grammar of the present languages of Northern India is of Sanscrit

or of Aboriginal origin ; but at any rate this we know, that in the North

the Arians gained so rapid and complete an ascendancy as to introduce

their own radical words, numerals, &., and to render the language ~

essentially Avian, while in the South the Aborigines held out—

The Ethnology of India. 15

longer, the tide of Arian immigration was more gradual, and

the Aboriginal grammar and radicals formed the mould which

was only filled up by a large over-lay of Arian words. The

change then of language takes place, where passing southwards we

exchange the Maratta for Telugu and Canarese. But looking at

the people, we see no radical change of feature or characteristics. The

last of those who are more properly Arian in language, are not essen-

tially superior to the first of those whose language is by its structure

classed as Dravidian. The Marattas who are classed as Northerners

(though they probably take their name and much of their blood from

the aboriginal Mhars and such like tribes, whose features survive in

their monuments) have no decided advantage over their Canarese

neighbours; on the contrary, the Canarese of Belgaum and Dharwar

are deemed superior to the Marattas of the adjoining districts, And

_ to a traveller in Mysore and most of the Southern countries, the

general features and appearance of the people is, I think, not very

greatly less Arian than that of the lower classes of Hindustanees.

The truth I take to be, not only that in a mixture of races there is a

_ tendency of the higher, more marked, and more prominent type to

_ predominate, but also that it may well be that, although the people

“speaking a Dravidian language in the South, may always by force of

j numbers have linguistically prevailed over each separate batch of

immigrants, and so far annexed them, still by successive immigra-

‘tons, notwithstanding a Dravidian form of speech, the Arian blood

has come in reality greatly to prevail. The mere fact that they

are recognised as Orthodox Hindoos, seems to imply the Northern

‘origin of all the better castes in the South, and that is their own

account of their origin. I have no doubt that the Southern Hindoos

n ay be generally classed as Arians, and that the Southern society is

ir its structure, its manners, and its laws and institutions an Arian

80 ciety. After all, in their main characteristics, the Southern people

are very like those of the North.

4 _ Among some of the inferior tribes of the South, the remains of the

thick lips, the very black skin, and other features may, as I have said,

still be traced, but, colour perhaps excepted, the aboriginal features

are probably gradually wearing away.

Notwithstanding the identity in the main of the North and the

16 The Ethnology of India.

South, it will be seen when I come to details, that the change of

language very much puzzles and baffles me in the attempt to

trace the tribes and castes from North to South, and in fact causes

a substantial gap in the contiguity of my survey, which I trust

that others will fill. To return to a geological metaphor, there

is as it were a serious fault at the point where the change of

languages takes place. A similar series of strata goes on upon

the other side, but I can’t exactly identify the particular veins and

say which is which. The same series of classes with similar cha-

racteristics prevail in the South, and, knowing that they must have

come from the North in a continuous stream, one feels sure that they

must be identical with Northern congeners. It remains for those

who have an intimate knowledge of the country on either side of the

Fault to connect the broken links. Meantime, with the exception

of the Bramins (who may be traced all through India), I must notice

the people of the Southern countries separately. :

Commonly as the term is used, it may be well to say a word ~

in justification of the use of the term ‘ Arians’ as applied to all :

the Northern people. Not only are they known by the South- —

erners as Aryas, (see Buchanan,) but in fact I believe the term to i

be the correct one. Iam aware that some have set down the Jats

and others as Scythians and Turanians. I have no intention of quar-_

relling with any one who chooses to call them Scythians, for that is

a very wide and uncertain word, which may have been applied to |

Germans as well as to Jats. But if the word Turanian is applied to —

Punjabees, in the sense of expressing that branch of the human race ;

the term is wholly inapplicable. Anything more unlike Mongols —

than the tall, handsome, high featured, long bearded Punjabees if

is impossible to imagine. To say, on the strength of some obscure

similarity of names, that any of these people are Mongols and

Tartars, is not only as unfounded as the connection between Mon-

Negro, than a Punjabee is unlike a Mongol.

The Ethnology of India, Bert

Assuming then that the North-Indians are what we call Caucasian

in feature, the only question would be whether they may be in any

degree Semitic. This there seems to be no ground for supposing;

there is no radical trace of Semitic language, and we nowhere trace any

considerable immigration by land of Arabian or other Semitic tribes.

That being so, I hope that I may properly call the North-Indians

Arians, and extend the title to all those Indians in whom Arian

features predominate, even where they have been softened down and

otherwise qualified by intermixture. 7

Although I believe any division of the Northern tribes in India

into Arian and Turanian to-be quite out of place, I have long had

an impression that the result of a thorough examination may be to

divide the Indian Arians into two classes; the earlier Arians, the de-

scendants of the most ancient Hindus, a people acute, literary, skilled

in arts, but not very warlike, and rather aristocratic than demo-

cratic in their institutions ; and the later Arians, warlike people—pos-

sibly once Scythians—democratic in their institutions, and rather

_ energetic than refined and literary. War does not seem to have been

one of the earliest arts; we are told that the earliest Egyptians have left

little in their monuments which suggests that art, and it may be that

the earliest Hindus had little occasion for it, meeting with but simple

_ and peaceful savages. The later Arians appear, in my view, in their

- manners and institutions more nearly to resemble the German tribes, and

_ perhaps to them might more properly be applied the term Indo-Germanie.

4 The earliest Hindus appear to have had an intimate connection with

= hills immediately adjoining India on the North-west, and there may

7 well have been gradual immigration from the hills to the plains. But

ata later period, when the people in possession of the North of India

had acquired considerable power, it seems hardly possible that large

bodies of conquering immigrants should have found their way to India

by Cabul and the Khyber Pass. Those defiles are far too difficult to

be forced by strangers in large bodies accompanied by women and

children. The Affghans, and those who have ruled the Affghans, have

had the command of the direct route ; but if Rajpoots, Jats &c, came

as immigrant peoples, they probably came by the route of the Bolan,

occupying the high pastoral lands about Quettah, and thence descend-

‘ing into the plains below. We shall find accordingly that the Jats

18 The Ethnology of India.

(whom on this theory we may suppose to have been the latest comers)

occupy just the area which would tally with such a mode of immigra-

tion.

In physical appearance I would divide Indian Arians into two

classes, as far as we can call that a division which is only a question of

degree. The people of the extreme north, the pure Arians, large, fair,

high-featured, I shall call “‘ High-Arian” in type. The prominence

and beauty of their features is remarkable. The brow is remarkably

high and well shaped; the nose connected by a high bridge with the

high brow is also well shaped, sometimes straight, more often

slightly curved ; the eyes are very fine, the lips thin, mouth of a good

shape, the beard long and full. The type once seen cannot be mistaken.

The prominence of the brow in adults somewhat conceals the eye, but

in the children it is something marvellous. On the other hand, the

more subdued features, more frequently approaching a low and snub-

nosed type, and resembling those which are common among the lower

_ classes in Europe, are in India generally accompanied by a shorter

(but still pretty robust) form, a skin darker (but still more brown than _

black), and an appearance altogether inferior, but yet not aboriginal in

its style. This I shall call the ‘‘ Low-Arian” type.

In addition to the two main divisions, of aborigines, and modern

7 es oa. se

Indians, I propose to put under a third division, those whom I shall —

generally describe as ‘‘ Borderers,” that is, the tribes on the borders, 3

whose blood and manners show the influence of immigrants of races —

other than those already noticed. These meet and mix with the —

native populations, and form some marked classes. On the West Coast —

there has been a considerable immigration of Arabs and others; the same 4

has been the case in Lower Sinde. Along the whole line of the

Himalayas, and on the whole of the Eastern Frontier, Turanian races

meet the Indians.

Thus then I have three main classes :—

os Re PRE

1. Aborigines, os

2. Modern Indians, and

3. Borderers.

The 2nd are of course by far the largest and most important class.

Besides making the distinction among modern Indians of high anc

low Arians, there are one or two other points which I wo

notice, before going into details,

Pe)

‘os

Pi val

—

The Ethnology of India. 19

I should like to class Hindus as High and Low Hindus. There

is a full-blown style of Hindus (principally Hindustanees) who have

adopted to the full all the modern Hindu superstitions and obser-

vances, who are very particular about their cooking and such matters,

_ and in consequence generally eat but one large meal once a day, whose

widows may not re-marry, and who are in a continual state of anxiety

_ about the rules of their caste. These are high Hindus. There is

another class of Hindus, much less particular, whose religion and

religious observances sit very easy upon them, whose widows re-marry,

and whose prejudices do not prevent their taking good wholesome

meals as often as they can. Such are the Punjabees, some of the

Hindustanees, and I believe a good many of the Southerners. These

I would call low Hindus.

With respect to caste, whatever there may once have been, there is

now no proper Military caste. The fighting and dominant tribes are,

it may be said invariably, in the main Agricultural and are classed as

such. Why the old Vaisyas are sometimes said to have been the

Merchant class I do not understand. It is clear that they were the

body of free people, whose duty it was to till the land, keep flocks,

_ carry on trade, and many other things besides. The Soodras were

the Helots, ‘‘ whose duty is expressed in one word, viz., to serve the

} other three classes,” evidently the conquered race. Now-a-days it

seems to be considered that, except the Brahmins, almost all are

_ Soodras, that is, all have more or less intermixed with the lower races

~ and lost their purity of blood. Hindu Society then has lost its former

_ great divisions, and has been split up into an infinite variety of decent

“castes of mixed parentage, who have absorbed the old Soodras, as

well as the Vaisyas. Under them again new tribes of Helots are

: found, probably tribes more recently conquered.

- The Agricultural tribes may, for the most part, be divided into

_ three classes :—

& 1. Those whose proclivities were originally Pastoral, and gene-

| rally somewhat predatory.

| 2. Agricultural tribes in the proper sense, that is, Farmers—men

| who both cultivate the soil on a large scale, and keep cattle and

-Waggons when the country is favorable to that kind of Farming.

| These tribes are also most frequently those who have the greatest

20) The Ethnology of India,

Military vigor, and most democratic constitution, and generally occupy

the dominant position in the country.

3. The gardening tribes, 7. ¢., those who do the smaller and finer

farming and kitchen gardening. These are generally peaceable and

unmartial people.

IT shall not always exactly follow this order, but shall take first the

tribes who are politically most important.

The Mercantile tribes I shall notice separately, and then the Writer

tribes, where such tribes exist. When I speak of literate occupation,

I mean exclusive of mercantile business, that being almost every-

where in the hands of mercantile castes. Next come the Artizans,

and finally the Helots and inferior classes.

Tur ABORIGINES.

In giving any general description of the Aborigines, I must premise

that it is by no means to be supposed that all or most of the indivi-

duals of the race will correspond to the description. The fact is that

the Aboriginal tribes now remaining are but like scattered remnants ;

they have been all but melted, and in which they are on the point of —

of a substance floating here and there in a mass of water, into which

disappearing. By far the greater part of their substance has already —

it, and it is only in the very kernel and inner centre of the largest —

lumps, that something like the pure original substance is to be found. |

There is not in Peninsular India any very large tract of very high _

and difficult country ; the Aboriginal tribes are for the most part not

collected in any great masses supporting one another, but are found

in small and detached tribes here and there, wherever a bunch of

hills or an unhealthy jungle has given them a refuge. Even in these q

retreats, they are everywhere closely surrounded by, and to a consider-

The Ethnology of India. 21

probably to a good deal of robbery, have come down on the enervated

people of the plains and valleys, and have established a temporary

_ dominion over considerable tracts of country. Just as on the depart-

ure of the Romans and before the establishment of Teutonic rule,

the Picts and Scots came down on the cultivated portions of Britain,

so it seems certain that, at periods long subsequent to the glories of

the Solar and Lunar Rajpoots, Aboriginal Bhurs and Cheroos estab-

lished considerable principalities in parts of Oude and of the Benares

and Behar Provinces. So also Bheels, Mairs, and Kolees seem to

have had at one time considerable power in Rajpootana and Goojerat.

In comparatively modern times, the Bedas or Beders (whose name is

I believe really identical with that of the Vedahs or Vedders) seem to

have established considerable power in the South, and the Gonds in

Central India acquired quite a wide dominion. Under such circum-

stances, the savage conquerors are generally themselves socially conquer-

_ ed, and the tribes so situated, while gaining some civilisation, Jose much

of their peculiarities of blood and feature, and more of their language.

By far the largest tract in which the Aboriginal tribes prevail,

and may be said to form the mass of the inhabitants, is that

extending through the hilly country from the western and southern

borders of Bengal, Behar and Benares to the frontiers of the Hydera-

bad and Madras territories, and from the Eastern Ghats inland to the

¢ivilised portions of the Nagpore territory; but even in this tract it

_ appears that there are evident monuments of old Hindoo civilisation,

showing that Hindoos, or at any rate Sivites, had at one time a far

greater hold on much of this country than they now have, and that -

probably after being partially civilised, it was gained back by the

Aborigines. Even now this country is intersected by settled and

cultivated tracts. Hindoos are scattered about it, and there is an

admixture of Hindoo blood. Still, in all this part of the country,

Aboriginal tribes muster very strong, and they preserve their lan-

BS g uage, their manners, and their peculiarities much better than elsewhere.

It is, however, as I have said, only in the heart and kernel of the

| best preserved tribes, that we must look for the real original character-

istics existing in a palpable and little-diluted form. In less pure

| specimens, they will be found less distinct. My impression is that, if

we look carefully, they will seldom be altogether wanting. The

22, The Ethnology of India.

thick-lipped expression of countenance lingers long. The Gond Raja

of Nagpore is of a family for generations civilised and Mahommedan,

doubtless of very far from pure Aboriginal blood, and rather fair-

skinned, but even in him I noticed the thick lips as prominent as in

an African. Major Tickell seems to describe the ‘ Hos,’ who are iden-

tical with ‘ Lurka Coles’ and closely allied to Moondahs and Sontals

(one of the ugliest of races), as handsome ; but everything is compara-

tive, and I suspect that this beauty is of the same kind as that which

enthusiastic African travellers are constantly discovering in Negro

tribes. The Hos of the border land have probably much intermixed

with QOoriahs, and are less ugly than their congeners are always

described to be. |

Setting aside then the numerous half-breeds, borderers, and people _

of imperfett type, I take it that the general physical type of all the |

purest Aboriginal tribes, is that which is commonly known as Negrito.

They are small and slight, very black, face broad and flat, the thick

lips already mentioned very prominent, noses broad and nostrils wide,

beard scanty, hair very abundant and tangled, of a shock-headed —

appearance, sometimes curly or even woolly. The peculiar Mongolian —

or Chinese form of the eye is not conspicuous, and altogether the —

features and the face are rather what we best know as African than —

Mongolian. This description crops up everywhere in all the various ©

descriptions of Aboriginal tribes. I have not collected all these testi- —

monies, but I will give one or two on which I can lay my hands, —

Col. Dalton says, “The Jushpore -Oraons are the ugliest of the race,

~ with foreheads ‘ villainous low,’ flat noses and projecting maxillaries, —

they approach the Negro in physiognomy.’’ And again, “ The Kaurs,

next to the Jushpore Oraons, are the ugliest race I have seen, dark, —

coarse-featured, wide mouths and thick lips.” In a note which he

was good enough to send in answer to some inquiries which I made, —

he adds, ‘‘ The Oraons have more of the African type of feature, and I

have seen amongst them woolly heads.” An isolated tribe on the —

Hast Coast, called ‘ Chenchwars,’ are described in similar terms, and said

to be “ just what you might suppose to result from the crossing of the

Malacca Aborigines with the common people of this country,” the

Malacca Aborigines being very marked Negritos. The Savage Gonc s

in the forests east of the Wyngunga seem to be of a similar type. So —

The Ethnology of India. 23

in the papers with which I have been favoured from Bombay, I find

that Major Keatinge, describing the three tribes of Gonds, Koors, and

Bheels who meet about Asseerghur, says, “‘ All three tribes are very

black, with a decidedly African expression when met in the centres of

their country.”” And Capt. Probyn, speaking of the more civilised

_ Gonds who are now, he says, finer and fairer, still adds, “ with some-

what African features.” Major Keatinge adds what illustrates that

which I have already said, “ On the outskirts of their country, their

- features are much modified, showing plainly that they do not succeed

in keeping their blood pure. The Chiefs have generally made it a

point to get women of other castes into their households, and I have

consequently observed that none of them have the national features.”’

In the South, the Chermars of Malabar are described as “‘ very di-

-minutive, with a very black complexion, with not unfrequently woolly

hair.” And of some of the tribes of the Kodagherry hills it is said that

“flattened noses, dark complexion and large white teeth filed into the

form of a saw give them an African appearance.” The Nagadees are

said to be “in complexion invariably of the deepest black, their hair

hick and curly, their features brutish, their forms diminutive,’’

That the type which I have described prevailed among the Aborigines

generally in ancient times, is. evident from the Purans, where they

are described in extremely uncomplimentary terms as ‘ vile monsters,’

“allied to monkeys,’ ‘ as black as crows,’ ‘ of flattened features and of

‘dwarfish stature.’ Their long thick matted hair is also particularly

mentioned.

_ The ancient Greeks also describe the South-Indians as like Ethio-

pians, and it is difficult to assign any other country to the Oriental

Ethiopians of Herodotus.

It may be stated, as a physical peculiarity of the Aboriginal tribes,

th at most of them seem to have a remarkable power of resisting

malaria, and thrive in the most malarious jungles where no other

| human beings can live. This may, however, be the result of long

habit; some tribes inhabiting healthy localities sicken easily enough

~ elsewhere.

Mp The languages of the Aborigines seem to have all this much in

| common, that they are of the structure described as Turanian. They

are neither like the Monosyllabic Chinese on the one hand, nor on the

24 The Ethnology of India.

other like those Arabian and African languages which seem to form

their changes by variations in the body of the word. The Indian

Aboriginal languages, in common with the Hindustanee, the Turkish,

and some Arian tongues, seem to form declensions, conjugations, and

derivations, and to supply the place of what we call ‘ prepositions’ by

post-posttions and post-inflections. The verb or governing word comes

at the end of the sentence, instead of at the beginning as in English,

somewhat thus, our order being just reversed.

Rem acu. tetigit

Cheez sui-se chuha

Thing needle with touched he.

The word ‘ Turanian,’ as applied to an immense class of languages,

does not, however, imply any immediate connection with Thibetans

or Mongolians, from whom the Indian Aborigines are physically so

world-wide asunder. It is used in that very wide sense which in-

eludes not only all the Mongolian races, but all the Polynesian races,

and all the Negritoes of the Indian Archipelago, Australia, and Van

Diemen’s land. A few vocables are said to be found, common to the

Dravidian tongues and to some other Turanian languages. But the

greatest resemblance is said to be not to the nearer Mongolians, but to—

the most distant Finns, and it is at the same time admitted that there

are at least as great indications of a special connection with the —

Australian Negritoes. It may then generally be said, that both _

physique and in the structure of their language, the Aborigines present —

a type analogous to that of the Negritoes of the South Seas, Papuans, —

Tasmanians and others, as well as to the nearer Negritoes of Malacca

and the Andamans, .

That which I have already said of the general character of the laws

and institutions of the Non-Arians as distinguished from the Arians, is —

all that I can give as common to all these tribes. On this and any

other points, we require much more information.

One tribe only I must except, as quite without and beyond the

general descriptions of the Aborigines which I have given, viz. the

Todas of the upper plateau of the Neilgherry hills. They are nob

properly Hindoos, but no one who sees them, would for a moment P.

suppose that they belong to the Negrito races. They are evidently —

Caucasians of a high type. In truth they are but a very small tribe; the —

The Ethnelogy, of India. 25

common tradition and consent of the country makes it clear that they

came as conquering immigrants to their present position at a compara-

tively recent period, and their pastoral habit renders their migration

easy. Their language, so small a body may well have almost lost

during their wanderings among Dravidians. They may be anything

Caucasian, and from anywhere ; ordinary Aborigines they are not. It has

been said, that in their speech some words have a resemblance to the

Brahui dialect, but personally they do not seem to resemble Brahuis,

they are rather like Greeks.

The points of structure which I have given, as common to all the

Aboriginal languages, are, it will be observed, of the widest character.

And this brings me to the fact that by the test of language the

Aboriginal tribes may be divided into two great classes, having very

few vocables in common. The first great division is that of the tribes

speaking dialects. radically allied to the civilised languages of the

South, commonly called the Dravidian languages. These then I shall

call the Dravidian Aborigines. There is no doubt that the wild tribes

of the southern hills speak wild and primitive forms of the southern

languages. The Carambers seem to be ancient Tamil speakers, the

Maleasurs of the Western Ghats approach nearer to the Malayala.

The Burghers and Kotahs speak a primitive Canarese, the Ramooses,

a language which seems to be for the most part Telagoo.

The Gond language is as clearly Dravidian as Telagoo or Tamil, and

the Gonds are so, considerable a people that the Gondee might almost be

added to the list of regular languages of the southern type. The

name Khond is so like Gond that, next neighbours as they are, one

would almost suppose the words to be the same. They are said to be

different, but at any rate the Khonds also are shown by their language

_ tobe clearly Dravidian. More distant is the tongue of the Oraon

tribe, to whose physical characteristics I have already alluded, and who

are now found among tribes of the other division (to. be presently

noticed) in the Chota-Nagpore territory. But the radicals and main

features of the Oraon language leave no doubt that they are of

Dravidian stock—a circumstance which does not suprise us, as we

learn that they are comparatively recent immigrants from the west

into their present locations. Hast of them again, in the Rajmahal

hills, we have the last of the Dravidian tribes (so far as has yet been

26 The Ethnology of India.

ascertained), speaking a language akin to that of the Oraons. Those

hills form a kind of knot at the extreme eastern point of the hill

country of Central India. It was known that the people were entirely

different from their neighbours the Santals. The latter cultivate the

lower lands, and it may at first sight seem surprising that the higher

grounds should be in the possession of more recent settlers of a distant

southern stock. The fact, however, seems to be explained by the

plundering habits of the Rajmahal hillmen. They seem to have

occupied those hills as a kind of stronghold, from which they could

conveniently plunder the plains around them.

The greater part of the Chota-Nagpore division and adjoining tracts

is occupied by tribes whom I take as representative of the second or

northern division of the Aborigines. There are ‘ Lurka Coles,’ ‘ Hos,’

* Bhoomiz,’ ‘ Moondahs,’ and Santals, and wilder tribes of the border

hills, all speaking dialects of a language very different from the

Dravidian. In fact, so far as vocables go, no substantial connection can

be traced. Max Miller speaks of these tongues as quite unconnected

with any other. Still I venture to think that there seems to be some

similarity of structure between them and the Dravidian languages.

Major Tickell has published in the Journal of the Society a grammar

of the Hos or Lurka Col language ; and I note the following as a few

of the peculiarities common to it and to the Dravidian tongues, as the —

latter are set forth by Dr. Caldwell.

First, there is the general coincidence of structure, which I have

already noticed as common to all the Aboriginal tongues as well as to

Hindustanee, Turkish, &e. In this respect, the northern Aborigines —

do not differ, and they similarly use postpositions, &e. F

Further. In the Dravidian tongues there is no regular senden

all inanimate things are neuter, and the terms male and female are

prefixed when necessary. Zz

It seems to be the same in the northern abotiaiaal tongues.

Adjectives do not decline, nor are there degrees of comparison.

It is the same in the northern tongues.

There are two forms of the first person plural, one to include, and the

other to exclude the person addressed.

This peculiarity also is found among the northern evibe as ves ag

in the Australian tongues. .

The Ethnology of India. 27

Relative participles are used instead of relative pronouns in both

classes of languages.

The northern tongues seem to be considered more highly inflected

than the Dravidian, and they have aregular dual form which the

others have not. The verbs have no passive voice.

It would seem to imply a higher organisation in the northern

aboriginal languages, that the vocabularies show them to be more

complete, and less to borrow from their neighbours all words beyond

the very simplest. for instance, in the matter of numbers, while the

Gonds do not go beyond ten, the Oraons beyond four, nor the

Rajmahalees beyond two in Dravidian numbers, (borrowing all the rest

from the Hindee,) the Coles and Santals count up to high numbers

in their own tongue, only using scores instead of the decimal notation

of hundreds, as do many Arian tribes. I have seen it stated that the

Dravidian Khonds count by dozens.

Max Miller remarks that savage tribes, with no letters to fix

their tongues, alter their speech much more rapidly than civilised

_ nations ; and it may be that, when we have two groups of people adjoin-

ing one Shes and with a general physical similarity, such a general

I structural resemblance of language as I have noticed may mark a

remote common origin, even when the community of vocables can no

longer be traced. But at any rate, the difference is now so wide as to

_ establish, as I have said, two distinctly marked groups.

: The generic name usually applied to the Aborigines of the hill

, country of Chota-Nagpore, Mirzapore and Rewah is ‘ Coles’ or ‘ Koles.’

- Europeans apply the term to the Dravidian Oraons as well as to the

:.:.. but perhaps erroneously. It is difficult to say to which tribes

the.name is properly applied, for most of them have other distinctive

names. But in the south of the Chota-Nagpore country, about

Singbhoom, &c. it is certainly applied to the ‘ Lurka Coles,’ and I can

‘ myself testify that on the Mirzapore-Jubbulpore road, the Aborigines

are called by the natives Coles or Kolees, which they volunteered to

explain to me to be the same word “ which you call Coolee.” On the

i Bombay side again a very numerous class of Aborigines are styled

Kolees. In the Simla hills also, the inferior people are known as

Kolees. Altogether I have myself little doubt that the ordinary word

Coolee, as applied to a bearer of burdens or labourer, is the sarne word,

28 The Ethnology of India.

and that in short it is the word generally applied by the Northern

Indians to the Aboriginal tribes, most of whom they reduced to the

condition of Helots.

There seems to be good reason to suppose that the original form of

the word was ‘ Kola’ or ‘ Kolar.’ In fact, India seems to have been

known to the ancients (who approached it coastwise from the West) as

Colara or Coolee-land (Asiatic Researches, Vol. IX.) and the people as

Colaurians. If Kolar be the original form of Kolee, it would seem

not improbable that, as in the mouths of some tribes by dropping the‘7”?

it became Kola or Kolee, so in the mouths of others, by dropping the ;

‘?’ it would become Koar, Kaur, Koor, Khar or Khor, a form which ;

_ would embrace a large number of those tribes as now designated. I

propose then to call the northern tribes Kolarian or Coolee Aborigines.

One may see frequent allusion to Kolarees or Colleries in the south

of India. It appears that the word there used is properly ‘ Kallar.’

In the Canarese language, the word ‘ Kallar,’ it seems, simply means a

thief or robber, and hence some of the predatory Aborigines of the

hills, are designated Kallars or robbers, just as the thieves of Central

Asia are called ‘ Kazaks’ or ‘ Cossacks.’ The word is applied so_ 4

differently from that of Coolee, that there may fairly be doubt of its s

being the same. ut the subject is worthy of farther inquiry, and if

it prove that in fact the two words are identical, the term Coolee or —

Kolarian must be applied to the Aboriginal tribes generally, not to one

division of them. Meantime, however, I apply it to the Northern — :

tribes only, but I confess I have misgivings whether the more general 3

sense may not prove to be the true one.

Beyond the difference of language, I am unable to state with con- _

fidence any very marked features distinguishing the Dravidian ‘and %

Kolarian groups of tribes (each taken as a whole) from one another, _

But a marked difference in habits, manners, and national characteristics, — ;

has been found to exist where the two classes are in the closest conti-_

guity. The Santals and Rajmahalees are known to present a marked

contrast, and on the Chota-Nagpore plateau I am told that “ the

difference is so great, that they appeared to be quite another nation,” q

and ‘their customs, appearance, even manners, are very different.”

Of these differences we have not the details, but I hope that they ma a a

be furnished in Col. Dalton’s promised paper on the Coles, {

The Ethnology of India. 29

The Kolarian Santals are a very ugly race, and I gather that their

neighbours, the Dravidian Rajmahalees, have rather the advantage of

_ them in this respect, but these latter have probably kidnapped a good

_ many Arian women from the plains. I have fancied that I have noticed

in some of the ‘Dhangar’ labourers in and about Calcutta, a peculiar

q little ‘pique’ ‘retroussé’ sort of nose, as distinguished from the flat

broad-nosed features of the Santals, but this scarcely amounts to an

observation. It may be noticed that in the passages which I have

quoted in regard to the general type of the Aborigines, the African

‘style was more especially attributed to Dravidian Oraons, Gonds and

Chenchwars, &c. The Kolarians, Kaurs, Khairwars and Koors, are

also represented as only one degree less ill-favoured ; so, on the whole,

Timagine that in point of personal appearance there is not much to

choose between the two groups. Ethnographers seem to distinguish

the Negritoes of the Southern Seas into two groups, a woolly or curly-

haired group, and a straight-haired group ; perhaps there may be found

to have been some such division in India.

The Santals and most of their immediate congeners, are certainly

amore simple, mild, and industrious race than the Rajmahalees, Gonds,

Khonds, and Southern Kallar tribes; but again the Lurka Coles seem

to be warlike, and the hill Khorewahs are described as wild savages,

armed with battle axes and bows and arrows. On the whole, I should

r ather imagine that the Kolarians are more frequently good Coolees,

and the Dravidians oftener troublesome Kallars.

4 a descriptions of the Aborigines as a good-natured people, ever

d meing and singing (in a way that reminds one of the pleasanter

lescriptions of the Negroes,) I find to be applied to the Kolarians,—

als, Moondahs, Khorewahs, &c.—more than to the Dravidian tribes,

respects religion, although the indications are too slight for any

mfident generalisation, the accounts of the Kolarian creed seem

asanter than those of the Dravidian beliefs and rites. The latter

to deal in demonology, fetishism, frantic dances, bloody and

human sacrifices, in a way which reminds us of the worst African

}; while several different accounts of Northern Aborigines, in widely

erent parts of the country, represent them as reverencing in an

no ffensive way the sun, moon, and Lord of tigers, and mild and innocent

| Bhoots or houschold spirits. The superstitious belief in tigers’ claws

)

50 The Ethnology of India.

as a charm, is shared with the Aborigines by all the Hindustanees.

Another practice of the Aborigines the latter also have in hilly tracts,

the heaping up cairns of stones at particular points, and tying bits of

rag to a particular tree as votive offerings. This last may be seen

anywhere, and these practices are probably very widely spread.

If there really be such a distinction between the Dravidian and

Kolarian religions as that at which I have hinted, it is very like a

similar distinction in Africa. In a work on South Africa by the

Rev. Mr. Grout, we are told that the gods of the Hottentots are

above, the sun, moon, &. while those of the Kaffirs and more war-

like Negroes south of the line are below, demons and evil §pirits. ©

Among some of the latter too are seen the horrid rites and bloody

sacrifices. It strikes me that there is some resemblance in appearance ~

between Hottentots and Santals.

A curious testimony to the ancient rights of the Indian ‘ Boomeas’ —

or people of the soil, is the practice in many parts of Central India ~

where Hindu chiefs are dominant, that a new chief on his accession 4

receives the ¢eka or investiture from the blood of an Aboriginal Kole, |

Gond or Bheel. €

I proceed to mention the various tribes in detail, so far as my imper-

fect knowledge of them permits.

The Aboriginal tribes now living apart from the general population —

in the South of India, appear to be very small and scattered. They

_are there for the most part absorbed in the general social system,

Pariahs and others, as is well known, merely form a lower social grade. |

The robber tribes, Beders and such like, seem for the most part to

have robbed themselves into a respectable and even aristocratical posi

tion. The Beders in some parts of Mysore now form a consideraole

portion of the population, and they have many Polygarships. There |

seems to be some doubt whether the Badagras and Kotas of the lowe!

Neilgherry hills are properly Aborigines, they being, it appears, immi |

grants in those parts, and the Carambers the true Aborigines. I hayé

not been able to meet with any very connected or detailed account of

the thoroughly Aboriginal tribes of the hills and forests of the

Neilgherries, Pulneys, and Western Ghats. The word Maleasur seems

to mean simply a hillman, and the more proper tribal designations:

appear to be Carambers, Irulars, Puliars, and Veders, These seem #0”

The Ethnology of India, 31

be tribes in the very lowest stage of savageness, with in fact searcely

any agriculture, mere men of the woods. They are represented as of

very diminutive stature, with thickly matted locks and supple limbs,

living under trees in caverns or in the rudest wigwams, keeping

sheep or collecting forest produce, very stupid but also very mild and

inoffensive, except that they have a great reputation as sorcerers, and

themselves believing in a religion of demons and witchcraft, are by

their neighbours believed to be highly gifted that way. | Altogether

they seem to be very inferior to the simple but sturdy and industrious

Coolees of the north.

- The Chenchwars, already mentioned, and several very petty and

isolated tribes exist in the Hastern Ghats about and north of Madras.

I ean only give the names of “‘ Chendaurs” and “ Yende” as near the

Kistna and Pulicat Lake. Allusions seem to be made to the existence

of Aboriginal or quasi-Aboriginal tribes at different points in the

Western Ghats and Coasts; the name of “ Chermars” and “ Neade’

te mentioned in Travancore and Cochin, but they are no doubt the

ame as Chermars and Nagadees, the slaves of Malabar. The Dhers

nd Ramooses of the centre and west of the Peninsula seem to be mixed

ith the general population. On all these points more precise informa-

ion is much required.

‘It is not till we cross the Godavery to the north, that we come to

e country really held by the Aborigines. ,

In the highlands between the Godavery and the Mahanaddee, the

ge Khonds, notorious for their human sacrifices, are to the Hast,

e barbarous and less known tribes of Gonds to the West and more —

the interior.

The Khonds appear to be in contact with Hindus and to have some

that race among them. Their blood is probably somewhat mixed,

1 they are not described as so ugly and ultra-Aboriginal as some

ner tribes.

J. the Gonds of the forests of Bustar and thence running up towards

Ww yngunga we know very little, except that they are extreme

mages, black, ugly, barbarous and dangerous. The name ‘“ Marees”’

sms to be there applied to them, and they appear to be nearly inde-

dent, owning a scant allegiance to chiefs whose blood is for the most.

part Gond. From thence the Gonds extend a long way North, and

32 The Ethnoloyy of India.

occupy a broad tract east and west wherever the country is jungly or

hilly, but becoming more and more civilised and more dominant over

others as we go northwards. The valley of Sumbhulpore may be

taken as for the most part marking the division between the Gond

country on one side, and that of the Aborigines of northern stock

on the other.

On the east the Gonds, under the name of Gours, extend into the

borders of the Chota-Nagpore agency in QOodeypore and Sirgoojah,

but they are there much Hinduised and have lost their language. The

Raja of Sirgoojah, though pretending to be a Rajpoot, is suspected to

be a Gour; at any rate the Gours are there the dominant tribe. ~

Thence westward along the line of the Sautpoora hills, through all the ©

hilly country of the districts of Mandla, Jubbulpore, Seonee, Chand- —

wara, Baitool and Hoshangabad, in fact in some degree to the neigh- —

bourhood of Asseerghur, the Gonds predominate. In the wilder parts, |

they speak their own Aboriginal language, and seem there to be a i

simple and not intractable people, following both pastoral and agricul-—

tural pursuits. In the older maps, the name Gondwana is given to a |

wider tract of country in this part of Central India, being that which

was in modern times rather politically than ethnologically Gond. —

The Gonds (in a somewhat civilised form) were in fact for some time |

masters of all this part of the country, including the open and culti- |

vated tracts about Nagpore, Raepore, Jubbulpore; &c. and perhaps as |

far as Ellichpore on the one hand, and on the other to the south of the |

Godavery, where some of them are found among the ordinary Telinga

population. Deogurh in the Sautpooras was the chief seat of thei 7

power. They immediately preceded the Marattas. These latter |

ousted them from the open and valuable tracts, and they do not now

form any considerable part of the population of the plain country, but |

they maintained a feudal dominion in much of the hilly country ; and |

range, but most of the men of considerable position in parts of Saugot |

Following up the Dravidian tribes, we next come to the Oraons, now

located in the midst of Kolarian tribes and much mixed up w

| The Ethnology of India. 33

them. The Gonds or Gours have been mentioned as found in a not

very pure form in the west of Oodeypore, and Sirgoojah of the Chota-

Nagpore division. In the highlands to the east of those states and

of Jushpore, the Oraons are found. Col. Dalton mentions them as form-

ing the greater part of the population of a considerable portion of the

Jushpore highlands, and it is these whom he describes as the ugliest of

_ the race. Thence eastwards the Oraons have pushed themselves into

the proper country of the Moondahs (of Kolarian race) in the plateau

of the Chota-Nagpore district and adjoining country. They must

_ have been strong, to effect an ingress to a country not originally their

own, but I do not understand that they are now at all dominant over

the others. In fact they seem to have very much adopted the habits

of the Kolarians, among whom or in contact with whom they live,

_ are industrious and laborious, and as much as the others contribute to

_ the supply of the labour market*of Bengal. I understand that they

_ form a considerable proportion of the Calcutta Dhangars ; that last

term being one the proper meaning of which I cannot ascertain, but

which, so far as I can learn, is applied generically to the aboriginal

labourers in Calcutta.

Separated from the Oraons by a considerable space (principally of

lower but still more or less hilly-country, occupied by mixed tribes of

Kolarians, Hindustanees, and Bengalees), are the Dravidian Rajma-

halees, whose proper tribal name, I have not ascertained. They are

‘sometimes called Maler, but that is merely the Dravidian form for

been in those days terrible depredators. That all the parts of India

adjoining the Central hills, both at this point and throughout a con-

| siderably wider range, were ‘in times of anarchy dreadfully subject to

| injury from the hill-men, is still attested by the numerous and exten-

| sive ‘ehatwallee’ tenures held all along the foot of the hills and

|about the Ghats and passes. They are particularly numerous in the

| Bhaugulpore and Beerbhoom districts, adjoining the Rajmahal hills

|on either side. Such estates pay little or no revenue, but are held on

\the condition of guarding the passes against hill robbers, murderers,

jand cattle-lifters, The hill-men have been successiully reclaimed,

34 The Ethnology of India.

I believe that they cultivate quietly, and there appears to be now

little complaint against them. Organised and serious raids on the

plains are, I understand, unknown. The Rajmahal men are those who

were enlisted into the British military service to form the local corps

known as the Bhaugulpore Hill Rangers ; but when the usually quiet

Santals were impelled by a sense of wrong to a headlong sort of

rebellion, the other (and it was supposed more military) race forming

the Rangers, when opposed to them, by no means distinguished

themselves, and they have since, I think, been disbanded.

I now pass to the Kolarian tribes. The more civilised and numerous

tribes of this race, occupying an extensive country about 150 miles .

west from Calcutta, and known as Moondahs, Bhoomiz, Hos, and |

Santals, speak languages so nearly identical, that they may all —

be regarded as Sub-divisions of one people. They are in fact very |

like one another in many ways. They occupy most of the British |

districts-of Chota-Nagpore, Singbhoom, Maunbhoom, and the hilly part —

of Bhaugulpore (Rajmahal hills excepted) now known as the Santal

Pergunnahs; also parts of West Burdwan, Midnapore and Cuttack.

They are a simple industrious people, and are reputed to be _

remarkably honest and truthful. Their country is healthy and,

unlike most aboriginal tribes in most parts of the world, they seem

by no means to be dying out, but multiply and supply the labour:

market. Partly on account of the cheapness of labour in their |

country, partly on account of ‘their tractable disposition and freedom

from all caste and food prejudices, and more especially, I think, because —

of that want of attachment to the soil which distinguishes the

Aboriginal from the Arian, they are much sought after and highly |

prized as labourers. Many of them are settled in the service of Bengal

Indigo-planters ; they are very well known as labourers on the Railways,

roads, and other works of Western Bengal’; and they are now, I believe, ~

the favourite material for emigration to Assam. Unfortunately

however, coming from a healthy high and dry country, they have not

that capacity for resisting malaria for which the wilder tribes are

remarkable, and seem to die very rapidly. |

In the Chota-Nagpore country, the ‘ Moondahs’ seem to have so fat

adopted Arian manners, as to live together in considerable villages,

instead of apart in detached houses or isolated hamlets, according to

4 The Ethnology of India; 3g

the common practice of these tribes; but I am told that so great is

their instability and want of attachment to any particular spot, that

not unfrequently, on some petty quarrel with their zemindar, a whole

village will abandon their houses and seek other locations, or put,

themselves under the guidance of a Coolee recruiting-agent. The Hos

and Bhoomiz* of the lower parts of Singbhoom and Maunbhoom, seem

to be tolerably civilised. The Santals, though geographically near

_the plains, seem to be among the most shy and socially-isolated of

the race. They cultivate the lower lands of their country, but seem to

have kept very much to themselves, and to prefer locations surrounded

by jungle and segregated from the world. They too, however, have

now taken much to labour for hire, and they must have become

intimate with Europeans. In the case of these people is to be found

practical illustration of a truth of wider application in India, viz. that

in a mere pecuniary and commercial point of view, tact and scrupulous

fairness in dealing with the natives are more effectual than all other

means, and go farther than any laws and any administration. I believe

that certain of the Railway Engineers, who have gained the special.

confidence of the Santals. and allied tribes, construct the railway mile

_ for mile infinitely cheaper than any others.

On the borders of the hills, a set of half-breeds seem to be not only by

profession Ghatwals, but to constitute a sort of caste under that name.

I have alluded to the language of these Kolarian tribes. One

would hope or expect here to find the origin of the non-Arian

_ elements of the Hindee and other northern languages. This, however,

has not yet been so. It is difficult to distinguish between words

_ borrowed by the Aborigines from the modern Hindustanee or Bengalee

and those of acommon origin. A few of the words in Hodgson’s lists are

like Hindee, but most of them seem to be Arian. words. Some words

seem to be used throughout India as ‘ Donga,’ a boat, and some are

yords of much wider use as ‘ Ka’ ‘ Kahee’ or ‘ Kova,’ a crow and ‘ Pussi,’

‘acat. It is then no doubt the case that the very brief and imperfect

vocabularies.of the Kolarian tongues yet published, have not shown

“an immediate connection with any other known language. More

* Bhoomiz, I believe merely means ‘ people of the soil’ from Bhoomi, being

‘nearly the same word as the Persian ‘ Zemindar.’ What the Hindoo-tribes are

to the Mahommedans, the aborigines are to the Hindoos.

36 The Ethnology of India,

minute inquiry would be very desirable. Besides a more exact and

full grammar, I think it would be well to separate out from the Hindee

a list of non-Sanscrit words of common use, (and which are not also

common to the greater part of the world, such as ‘‘ kowa,” a crow, and

some of the universal Turanian words), and having thus got what I may

call a Hindee proper vocabulary, to compare it carefully with the

dialects of the Santals, &ec.

In addition to the semi-civilised tribes which I have mentioned,

nearly the same language is spoken by the wilder Lurka Coles of the

hills to the West of the Singbhoom district. North of these latter

again, in the highest hills to the North of Jushpore, and in those

between Sirgoojah and Palamow, Col. Dalton mentions a considerable

tribe called Khorewahs, who speak much the same language, whose

manners and habits are the same, .and who are evidently of the same

stock, though much less civilised; some, he says, utterly savage and

almost Nomadic. They are said to be of small stature, but better

looking and lighter than their neighbours, the Dravidian Oraons, with

shaggy heads of hair and some beard.

Mention is made of some other very wild tribes scattered about the

Chota-Nagpore division, Kherrias (who are a mystery even to Col.

Dalton), Bendkurrs and Birhores in the south of the division, and

Bhuhars or Boyars (not to be confounded with very different Bhuyas to

“be subsequently noticed) in the north; but the languages and affinities

of these tribes have not been ascertained sufficiently to place them,

They are described as “‘ regularly wild inhabitants of the hills and jun-

gles, who have no fixed villages, but move about from place to place, —

burning down the jungles, sowing in the ashes, and after reaping

what is produced, going elsewhere.”

On the Sumbulpore borders, the Coles, intermixed among the Cont

are said to be known as “ Kirkees.”’ F

Mr. Samuells mentioned a wild tribe in the jungles of Cuttack, :

whom he calls ‘Janguas,’ perfect savages, small, slender, nearly

naked, and horrid in appearance. They speak a strange language,

and he gives a few words, some of which seem like the language :

of the Santals, &c , as ‘ Minnah,’ one, and ‘ Bana,’ two.

The Aboriginal eae near Cuttack strike a bargain by breakin |

a straw,

The Ethnology of India. 37

In some places the word ‘ Soor’ or ‘ Sourah’ seems to be used, as

if the same as ‘ Santal;’ and Mr. Stirling, in an article on Cuttack,

(in the Asiatic Researches) enumerates ‘ Santals’ and ‘ Soors’

separately among the tribes of Coles. It would seem then as if

Soors or Sourahs were a tribe of Santals on the borders of the

Cuttack division. But the Soors under the hills north of the

Mahanaddee, while described as small, mean, and very black, and like

—_ <<,

the Santals naturally harmless, peaceable and industrious, are also

said to be without moral sense and ready to cut firewood or other men’s

throats indifferently, an accusation not, I think, brought against the

- Santals.

Again, Macpherson tells us, that the hill tribes south of the Khonds,

and running up to near the Godavery, are Sowrahs. That is quite a

different location, and I have not found any farther account of these

- Sourahs. Caldwell says that the Tamil people were anciently called

- *Sorahs,’ but as they are the most Dravidian of all the southern

‘ people, they can hardly be allied to the Kolarian Santals, and the

word must be different. The whole subject requires a good deal

» of fresh light.

_ Passing north, I have till now reserved, for separate notice, the

of Mirzapore and Rewah, and the borders of Benares and Behar.

“These are the Aboriginal tribes most directly in contact with the

“modern Hindustanees, and there is this difficulty about classifying

i are more mixed with the Hindustanees, perhaps I may say generally

‘more civilised, than the tribes located farther in the interior of the

hills. The principal tribe of these parts are called ‘ Kharwars’ or

*Kharawars.’ There is also a widely spread tribe of ‘ Rajwars.’ A

division of the Kharwars are called ‘ Bhogtahs.’ The Kharwars seem

| to be altogether the dominant tribe of Palamow and Singrowlee

| (the Mirzapore hill country). Both Kharwars and Rajwars are also

| found in considerable numbers westward, in parts of Sirgoojah and

| Jushpore, while to the north-east, in the parts of the plains adjoin-

jing the hills, they are numerous. In the Gya district, near the

hills, the Rajwars are the chief labouring class. They live in the

38 3 The Ethnology of India.

villages as a kind of serfs and bearers of burdens, carty palanquins,

and when out of employ, are apt to be thieves and robbers. A little

farther west, the Kharwars seem to perform the same functions ; they

are mentioned by Buchanan as in the outskirts of the Patna and

Arrah Districts. On the road from Mirzapore to Jubbulpore, where

it passes through Rewah, &c., the palanquin bearers and coolies are

Aborigines. When I passed that way some time ago, not having

then gone ,into the subject, I did not ask the particular tribe, nor

have I since been able to ascertain it, but in all probability they are

Kharwars.

All these people have in their faces unmistakeable marks of their

aboriginal origin. But they speak Hindee. This then brings us to

the difficulty about language. Col. Dalton is not aware of any

Aboriginal language spoken by the Kharwars. I have had the im-

pression that in the Mirzapore district they spoke their own language ;

and Capt. Blunt, who in the last century made a remarkable journey |

from Chunar right through the hills to the Godavery (see Asiatic

Researches, Vol. 7), almost at the outset of his journey mentions the

Kharawars of the Singrowlee hills as very savage, and speaking a

separate and quite unintelligible language. But the Rev. R. C.

Mather of Mirzapore, who has been good enough to write for me a

note on the subject (of which I have already made use), and who

refers to a tour made by the Rev. Mr. Jones, is unable to say that

any aboriginal language exists in these parts. He says that both

the Kharwars and another similar tribe, locally called ‘ Majhwars,’

speak the Hindee, or at least understand it when spoken. It would

be very interesting to ascertain if the remains of an original language

exists among these people, for with them more especially we should

expect to find the non-Aryan Hindee roots. If aboriginal tribes

so situated have no separate language of their own, it may arise from

either of two causes; either they may have abandoned their own

language and adopted that of the people who are flooding over and

as it were submerging them; or the fact may be that, in its most

radical parts, the language of these latter having been the same as

their own, an influx of vocables on this common basis may altogether

obliterate the landmarks by which languages are distinguished. Till

however, this is cleared up, I think that we must on other grounds

The Ethnology of India, 39

class the Kharwars, &c. with Kolarians rather than with Dravidians.

‘Mr. Mather, quoting Mr. Jones, says that, passing on from the Khar-

wars, he came to the ‘ Oraons,’ in whom he fopnd “the difference from

the Mirzapore Hill people to be so great, that they appeared to be

quite another nation.” In fact, the Oraons are now a good deal

interposed between the Kharwars and Kolarian Moondahs, but Col.

Dalton also says that the Kharwars and Oraons, though in contact,

are very unlike one another in language, appearance, manners and

customs. The Kharwars, he says, are not quite so African looking

as the Oraons, but some of them seem to be not much better favoured.

A long connection with the plains would best account for the adop-

tions of the language and some of the manners of the plains-people

by the Kharawars and Rajwars. And here the question has suggested

itself to me, whether they may not perhaps be identified with the

‘Cheroos and Bhurs, those aboriginal tribes whose dominion in the

plain country to the north of these hills is matter of history, who

seem certainly to have come from and to have gone to the country

now inhabited by these tribes, and who frém this point of their his-

tory almost or wholly disappear. Buchanan seems to speak ambi-

‘guously, sometimes classing Kharawars and Cheroos together, sometimes

treating of them as separate. While mentioning the Cheroos as

- nearly extinct in the plains, he speaks of them as still existing in

~ numbers in the high country within the hills. In the accounts of

_ the latter country, on the other hand, I find no mention of either

_ Cheroos or Bhurs under those names. Farther inquiry seems neces-

4 ‘sary. Our use of Roman letters applied to native names is very

uncertain, and if we could suppose the C in Cheroo to be pronounced

t hard asin Cole, Cheroo would become Kheroo, and Kheroo would be

Bit very different from the Khara of Kharawar (the ‘war’ is a mere

termination), while Khara might again be connected with the name

of the Kolarian Khorewahs already mentioned, and with the Koors,

equally Kolarian, to be subsequently noticed. Again, the Bhurs are

‘more commonly known as ‘ Rajbhurs;’ may not Rajhbur have been

corrupted into ‘ Rajwar ?’

The present dominant position of the Kharwars in a considerable

‘country would seem much to tally with the idea of their representing

‘the tribes once so famous. Both the Rajas of Singrowlee and Jush-

40 The Ethnology of India.

pore are Kharwars, however they may claim an origin from Rajpoot

foundlings, and they are the people who most affect what Col.

Dalton calls ‘refining into Rajpoots.’ Although many of them may

have achieved a good deal of improvement in their blood and appear- ;

ance, they are not originally a handsome race, for Col. Dalton expressly _

tells us that in the more remote parts, the Kharwars of Palamow,

and especially the Bhogtahs, are very ugly and ill-fayoured. Like

the other aborigines, they have no proper caste and eat anything.

I leave, for separate notice, a very numerous tribe all along the

borders of Bengal, Orissa, and part of Bahar, called Bhuyas, whose

connection with the races above described is not clear.

In this region of India, it only remains to mention one more Abori-

ginal tribe, called Kaurs, found in the extreme west of the Chota-Nag- —

pore Agency about Korea, Oodeypore, and the adjoining parts of the

territory of Nagpore proper, the Pergunnah of Korbah of Chatteesgurh.

They are described as a very industrious thriving people, considerably

advanced in civilisation. They now affect Hindoo traditions, pretend

to be descended from the defeated remnants of the Kooroos who —

fought the Pandavas, worship Siva and speak Hindee, but in appear- —

- ance they are ultra-aboriginal, very black, with broad noses and thick :

lips, and eat fowls, &c., bury most of their dead, and contemn

Bramins ; so that their Hindooism is scarcely skin-deep.

From the last mentioned point westward, through a broad tract of —

country, the plains are occupied by the ordinary Indian Arians, the

hills and forests by the Gonds (who here in the centre of India meet —

the Hindustanees on the North, the Telingas on the South, and the

Marattas on the West); and we do not again come to Kolarian

Aborigines, till we get in fact to the West of India. There isthena

hiatus, as respects the Kolarians, of four or five degrees of longitude,

where by the advance of the conquering Gonds they have probably been

split asunder. It somewhat singularly happens that the first people of —

this race whom we come to in the West, bear as nearly as possible the

same name as the last we left in the Hast. The latter were called

‘Kaurs.’ In the Western Sautpooras, in the hills about Gawalghur

near Ellichpore, and thence towards Indore, is a tribe called ‘ Coowr j

or Koor Koos. These people speak an undoubtedly Kolarian language.

The name is sufficiently near to Gowr to cause them to have been

The Ethnology of India.

sometimes confounded with their neighbours, the Gonds, but the

difference is clear.

In the notes with which I have been favoured

from Bombay, Major Keatinge mentions them as “a tribe of Gonds

ealling themselves Koor Koos,” but he goes on to distinguish them

from the Gonds, mentioning the geographical location of each, and

adding that the two tribes keep themselves separate, do not intermix,

and that each has a separate language of its own,

He does not give

particulars of the language, and it is from a paper on which I stumbled

in an old number of the Society’s Journal, and which does not appear

to have been previously much noticed, that 1 have been able to

identify this tribe with precision.

Dr. Voysey, writing at Ellichpore

so long ago as 1821, also at first calls them Gonds, but he goes on to

say that they are also called ‘ Coours,’ and that the Gonds consider

themselves a distinct tribe from the Coours and neither eat nor inter-

marry with them. He then gives a small list of Coour words.

This

was taken long before Hodgson’s vocabularies were published, and the

_ two seem never to have been compared. I have compared Dr. Voysey’s

list with Hodgson’s lists of words of the Kolarian tribes of Lurka

Coles, Santals, &c. and find a remarkable coincidence.

take the numerals.

Coour

UNE tivdviivdsddnias eeveds do va

2.. Bariah, .. ;

Me Gs ADE, 02.0 Se eee

RNERTMOO fo 5(5250i50.. Ser ceaeden

Men, Munes, 2....050esesee Late

BT WUITUING,” ) soca deceive.

x 7. PMR hati ctea : Sveik:s dels pececee

me) 8. Dhar, st reptiles

Seeo., Arhe, ..... ‘

I GL) ec suseervsecases edsalt.

_ And again.

4 Coour

Man, © Hoko,

©) Water, Da,

1. Fire, Singhel,

Tree, Darao,

ser eee

sereee

For instance,

Hodgson’s Coles, &c.

Mi.

Barria.

Apia.

Apunia,

Monaya.

Turia.

Hodgson.

Ho.

Dah.

Sengel.

Daru.

aS ¢

OO SF

42 The Ethnology of India.

House, Oah, | Oa.

Mouth, ~ Ah, A.

Eye, Meht, Met.

In fact, of the first nine of Voysey’s words which are also given by

Hodgson, seven are identical, a circumstance very remarkable, seeing

how far these illiterate tribes are separated from one another. None of

the words correspond with the Dravidian synonyms, so there can be no

doubt that we have traced the Kolarians so far.

Immediately beyond the Koors, from Asseerghur westwards, we are

in the Bombay Presidency. |

As I cannot ascertain that Mhars and Mangs and Ramooses

now live as entirely separate tribes, I may at once say that, so far

as my information goes, the Bombay Aborigines are (for my present

purpose) all comprised in the two tribes of Koolees and Bheels.

These tribes are scattered over a great portion of the Presidency, and

in some parts, the Koolees especially, seem to live as a part of the

general population. But the Koolees in part, and the Bheels more ©

generally, are still found in portions of their original seats as distinct q

tribes, and they both seem to be numerous. Their name, position, |

and character seem to mark the Koolees as Kolarians. But beyond

this, the more precise test of language is unfortunately wanting. I_

haye not been able to find that these tribes have now any aboriginal ~

languages of their own. ‘They are generally said to speak dialects of

the civilised languages of the neighbouring countries. In one or two

places allusion is made to the existence or. supposed existence ofa

Bheel language in remote jungles, but I have not found any precise ;

indication respecting it. | a

I was at first inclined to conjecture that the separation into two

tribes of Koolee and Bheels, and perhaps the more predatory character

of the latter, might point to a division of race; that the Bheels might |

be Dravidians, I find, however, that the general opinion of those

qualified to judge seems to tend to the belief that there is no essential

difference between the two tribes. Forbes in his’ Ras Mala says :

** Kaolees or Bheels, for though the former would resent the classi

fication, the distinctions between them need not be here noticed.”

Capt. Probyn says, ‘I think there is no actual difference between

Koolees and Bheels. Their religion is the same.” Mr. Ashburner: |

The Ethnology of India. 43

* There is no real difference between Bheels and Koolees; their habits,

physiognomy and mode of life are the same, modified by local circum-

stances.” And the Rev. Mr. Dunlop Moore says, ‘‘ Koolees frequently

marry Bheel wives.” Other authorities, however, say that they do

not intermarry. They both seem to claim a northern and not a southern

origin, pointing to the hills of Rajpootana and the north of Goozerat.

The Bheels say that they were originally called Kaiyos; Sir John

Malcolm says that they are related to the Meenas of Rajpootana, and

once ruled in the Jeypore country. Forbes again tells us that the

Koolees were originally called Mairs; while in Rajpootana, Col. Tod

speaks of Mairs or Meenas as one race.

The Rev. Mr. Dunlop says that, though these tribes speak the

- same languages as their neighbours, “‘ certain words are universally

recognised as peculiar to Koolees as well as Bheels.” He only

instances one word written in a character which I can read, and that

is ‘ Bhoroo’ or ‘ Bhooroo,’ the head. As I write, I have turned up the

word head in Hodgson’s vocabularies, and find that the Kols, Santals,

Bhumiz and Moondas use the word ‘ Bu,’ ‘ Buho’ or ‘ Bohu’ which

seems to be the same word. The Dravidian words for head are entirely

different.

Tt would be in many ways very interesting and important to rescue

‘any remains of aboriginal words or aboriginal dialects of these

tribes, and especially to find whether among them can be traced any

“hon-Aryan radicals of the Goozerattee, Maratta, and the Hindee dialects

of Rajpootana.

_ Though probably in the main of the same class and similar origin,

the Koolees and Bheels are now quite distinct tribes, and there is

this considerable difference that the Koolees have come much more

into contact with Aryan blood and civilisation, are in appearance

generally much more Hindooised than the others, and consider

themselves altogether a higher class. As has been said, both tribes

are now much scattered over many parts of the Presidency and in

places a good deal intermixed, but their proper locale seems to be

as follows. The Koolees are the Aborigines of Goozerat (where they

now live in considerable number), and of the hills adjoining that

Province. The hills east of Goozerat are called ‘ Kolwan’ and seem

to be the property of Koolee tribes, just as in the Chota-Nagpore

Ad The Ethnology of India.

territory the country of the Lurka Coles is called “ Kolhan.” The

Bheels are the proper possessors of the hills farther in the interior

and east of the Koolees, there occupying both the Sautpoora and

the Vyndia ranges, and extending into Rajpootana. In the latter j

direction and about the Vyndians some of the tribes claim to be ‘

crossed with Rajpoots, and these are called Beelalahs. The Bheels

are numerous in Candeish, and are found in some parts of the adjoining

Deccan. They sometimes find their way to the Coast where they

are stated to be known as ‘ Dooblas’ or the ‘‘ Kala Pooruj” or ‘ black

men.’ The Koolees seem to be scattered down the Coast country

nearly as far as Goa, and north again into the ‘ Thurr’ and the

neighbourhood of Scinde. While the wilder Koolees of the hills

are like the Bheels, the mass of more civilised Koolees are said to ©

be not only fairer and more Caucasian in feature, but also more sly

and cunning and less truthful. A large proportion of both races |

have been much diluted in point of ‘ aboriginality’ of feature by —

intermixture, but the Bheels less than the others. Many of the q

Koolees live in villages and adopt some Hindoo practices. They are |

stated to average about 5 feet 3 inches in height. Though most of —

them are now quiet agriculturists and labourers, they were not always

so. The wilder tribes of the race are still predatory, and Forbes

mentions the Koolees as by far the most numerous of the arm-bearing —

castes who in former days, living in the hills between Goozerat and —

Rajpootana, disturbed the country. He describes them as of dimi-~

nutive stature, with eyes which bore an expression of liveliness and

cunning, clothes few, arms bow and arrows, habits swift and ee |

bold in assault, but rapid in flying to the jungles, independent i id

spirit, robbers, averse to industry, addicted to drunkenness, and quar- |

relsome when intoxicated; formidable in anarchy, but incapable o

uniting among themselves.. This description seems exceedingly we |

to apply to the wild Bheels of modern days, whom indeed Forbes

classes with the Koolees. i

Many of the Bheels are so independent and so much apart in their

own hills and jungles, that it seems very strange that they should

have no language of their own; I think that the search for such a

language, or the remains of it, should not be abandoned without very

careful inquiry.

The Ethnology of India. 45

I have not been able to ascertain whether there are any of these

aboriginal tribes in the Kattywar hills, or who are the aborigines

of Kattywar. I have not met with any precise mention of them.

Lassen in his map places Koolees (Kolas he calls them) in the centre

of Kattywar. He had probably some authority for doing so, but

more precise information on the point would be desirable.

North of the Bombay country, in the Aravallee range running

towards Ajmere, is the country of the Mairs or Mhairs, with whom I

have said that the Koolees claim kindred, and whose name also suggests

the question whether they may be related to the Maratta Mhars.

Tod says that Mhair means Mountaineer, from ‘ Meru’ mountain.

_ The modern Mhairs are probably a very mixed race. Col. Dixon,

who is avowedly enthusiastic in their favour, makes them out to be

rather good-looking, and tells the usual story (as told by the chiefs

to him) of their descent from Rajpoots. They admit to have taken

_ a few Bheel and Meena women. It is probably the case, as Col. Dixon

says, that for hundreds of years they have been recruited by Hindu-

stanee refugees and rascals of all sorts. Though now out of the way,

it must be remembered that Ajmere was, under the emperors, one of

the chief seats of Mahommedan power.

The Meenas constitute a large portion of the population of Raj-

pootana, especially in the Jeypore country between Ajmere and Dehli.

T have said that they are supposed to be related to the Mhairs, and

they are called the aborigines of the country, but I doubt if they

are so in the sense in which I am now dealing with separate

aboriginal tribes. In Upper India, out of their own country, these

Meenas are principally known as dacoits; and of those that I have

seen in that capacity, my impression is, that they were not small and

aboriginal-looking, but fine powerful men. I suspect that if ori-

ginally a half-breed derived from aborigines, the Meenas are now

Members of the ordinary Indian society, and that Aryan features

predominate in them. ‘Farther information, however, is required.

I am not aware of any aboriginal tribes in Bundlecund. In a

recent Archeological paper read at a meeting of the Society, mention

| was incidentally made of “the wild Sherrias” found about the

southern sources of the Nerbudda, and I also find mention of a tribe

| called ‘ Naikras’ in the hills of Oodeypore, said to be like the Bheels,

46 The Ethnology of India.

but somewhat lower in the scale of humanity. I do not know whe-

ther these are really sub-divisions of the Bheels or separate tribes. In

fact there may be many remnants of tribes in the jungles of Central

India yet undescribed. I have now, however, noticed all the aboriginal

tribes of the hilly portions of the Indian Peninsula known to me, with

the exception only of the Bhooyas of the borders of Bengal.

In the plains, of course, we do not look to find separate aboriginal

tribes, and those now classed as ‘castes’ will be afterwards noticed ;

but before leaving the subject of Koolees or Kolaries I may mention

an assertion of Col. Tod that all the weaver caste throughout

Hindustan are of this class, though they now call themselves ‘ Julahas’

or Julahees. Ido not know what is the ground for this assertion,

but the weavers who have not turned Mahommedans are certainly

sometimes or generally known as ‘ Korees’ and considered to be low in

the social scale. .

There are no aboriginal tribes, of the character which I have been

describing, in the Himalayas. The Kolees of the Simla hills and

Domes of Kumaon are merely inferior castes living among the

general population. Both in Kumaon and Nepal, there seems to be

a sort of tradition or popular belief of the existence in some remote

forests of a ‘ Ban-manush’ or wild man of the woods, but I cannot

find that any one has ever seen one of these creatures, or that his

—; o—

existence is really in any way authenticated. One can hardly say whe-

ther the story points to the recent disappearance of the last remnants

of an ancient race, or whether it is merely a nursery tale. |

It is not then in the Himalayas, but in the forests at their foot,

that we must look for some aboriginal tribes. And here I must ~

observe that I think the use of the term Sub-Himalayan by Hodg- ©

son, and (following him) by most other authorities, leads to a good deal 7

of misapprehension, from an Indian point of view at least. We are ee

in the habit of considering the Simla hills, Kumaon, and Nepal to be —

part of the Himalayas (and with good reason too I think), but

Hodgson calls everything below the Snowy Range ‘‘ Sub-Himalayan,”

and classes as ‘Sub-Himalayan’ people who live higher than th |

highest mountaineers in Europe, in the most precipitous mountains, —

8,000 or 10,000 feet high; while the people really living under th

hills are usually put in another class. I am now about to notice

The Ethnology of India. 47

tribes who have nothing whatever to do with the hills, but live in

the forests and what is called the ‘ Terai,’ at the foot. No two

climates and locations can be more dissimilar than those of the hills

and the Terai, and no races are more distinct in their habits, manners,

and aptitudes than the people of the hills and those of the jungle

belt below.

It may be generally said that there is no Terai or forest belt

northwest of the Seharunpore district and the Dehra Dhoon; but

thence eastward this belt stretches along the foot of the hills through

Rohileund, Oude, and the Bengal Frontier, up to Assam. A great

part of it belongs to the Nepalese. A very interesting paper by Dr.

Stewart on the Boksas, a forest tribe found in western Rohilcund

and in part of the forests or Sewalik hills of Dehra Dhoon, was

published in the Society’s Journal last year. They are entirely con-

fined to the forest tracts, where they enjoy a wonderful immunity

_ from the effects of malaria. They never (says Dr. Stewart) settle more

_ than two years on one spot, but after getting a little out of the soil,

* move to fresh locations. They are of short stature and spare habit, and

i 7

‘in feature certainly Turanian of some sort, with broad faces, depressed

- noses, prognathous jaws, thick lips, and very scanty beard and

~ moustaches, but in colour apparently not darker than the ordinary

Hindoos of the country. They are fond of game and pigs, eat almost

% anything, have no caste, and are reputed to be very skilful in witch-

‘craft. They have no separate language. They are simple, inoffensive,

and good-humoured, but very ignorant and indolent. Their culti-

vation is very scanty and rude, but they also collect forest produce

and wash for gold. They are supposed to be dying out.

I have seen mention of another small and savage tribe in the

Rohilcund Terai called “ Rawats’’ or “ Rajis ;”’ and passing westward

We come to a very important tribe, the ‘ Tharoos,’ who in fact occupy all

the Terai from eastern Rohilcund all along the frontiers of Oude and

into Goruckpore. They are in many respects very like the Boksas—in

physical appearance and manners I should say extremely like—but

they are much more industrious, and altogether a larger, more settled,

and, one may say, less savage tribe. They, like the Boksas, keep

exclusively to the Terai and forest, living where no one else can live.

They are shy and timid, but frank and truthful, when you get hold of

48 The Ethnology of India.

them, and are very good cultivators in their own simple way. They

are not particularly dark, and, in addition to the ordinary breadth and

flatness of face, have a good deal of the Chinese-looking form of eye;

so that it is difficult from appearance to say, whether they really

belong to the Negrito, or to the Indo-Chinese stock. The fact is that |

though no two races can be more unlike one another than the slim,

black, tangled-haired Negrito, and the stout, fair, lank haired Thibetan,

yet when we come to half-breeds, the difference may not be so great.

When the colour is softened or heightened, and the size increased or

ALS

decreased to that of the ordinary Hindoo, and the hair reduced to

civilised limits, there is the same appearance of breadth and flatness of

face, and these latter characteristics are more apparent at a glance than

< oe

any distinction between prognathous and pyramidal skulls. It would

seem too that the Chinese peculiarity of eye is caused by the broad

cheek bone common to both races, and perhaps it may be that

while the eye being sunk deeper in the Negro and Negrito, and more _

covered by a more fleshy form of face its form is not so apparent, in ¢

the half-breed it is brought out, and the skin tightened by the high —

cheek-bone shows the Chinese-looking form of eye. I have noticed

some of the Ghatwals on the borders of Bengal and Behar, who looked ~

not unlike Goorkas. Thus then it becomes difficult to distinguish ;

those tribes, on the northern and eastern frontiers, whose blood may be |

supposed to have become a good deal mixed by long contact witha

other races, and whose colour may have been softened by the cool, moist

and shady climate of the Northern Terai. f

I must also say that I think Hodgson has somewhat contributed to

mix up the two races in our ideas, for in his enthusiasm to establish an

connection between his Tamulians and the eastern races, he scarcely _

attempts to distinguish them, and classes as Tamulians, Bodos, Dhimals, — i

&c. of whose connection with the Aborigines of the South of india

there does not seem to be the slightest evidence in language, and

who in appearance are as different as can be. | : a

To return to the ‘ Tharoos;’ as I said their appearance might .

doubt of their origin, and unfortunately they are not known to have any

language of their own. Those with whom we have come more imme-

diately in contact (including all those in eastern Rohilcund) certainly 4

now speak Hindee, but the tribe is so large and important, that

The Ethnology of India. 49

would be, I think, desirable not to give up without farther inquiry the

attempt to find a Tharoo language, though it will be more difficult

now that, by the transfer of the Oude Terai, the great mass of them,

and all those least mixed with Hindustanees, are Nepal subjects.

In other respects the habits and manners of the Boksas and Tharoos

certainly point rather to an Indian than a Thibetan origin. I saw

something of the Tharoos before they were annexed to Nepal; and

their general style suggests a good deal of resemblance to the Santals for

instance. Mr. Robert Drummond, who has served both in Pillebheet

and in Central India, and who knew the Tharoos well, tells me that

in many ways they remind him very much of the Aboriginal tribes of

the Central hills. They have the same simple ways and the same

_ religion of Bhoots and familiar spirits. He also mentions a singular

circumstance, that on looking over a map of the hill country of Bhau-

_gulpore (now called the Santal Pergunnahs), he was struck by the

occurrence of many names which he had supposed to be peculiar to the

- Tharoos.

The claim of the Boksas to Rajpoot origin is of course ridiculous,

but it is clear that all their traditions point to the south and south-

west as the country of their origin, not to the northern hills. These

ibes have in fact little intercourse with and no known congeners in

the hills. The Boksas and Western Tharoos are separated from the

Thibetan tribes by a great tract of very difficult country occupied by

Arians; and though the Eastern Tharoos are nearer to Nepalese races

who show Thibetan blood, it seems hardly probable that inhabitants

of the hills should be driven out into the Forest below (of which the

hi ll-men have a great horror); while, that Aboriginal Indians should be

driven from the plains to the neighbouring jungles, would be probable

enough, I am inclined to think that the Tharoos and Boksas are

bi p ‘obably not Thibetan, farther than the accession of refugees and others

from Nepal may have introduced a little of that blood. Dy. Stewart

“suggests the possibility that they may be akin to the Indo-Chinese

aces who occupy the lowlands near the Berhampooter; but though

that may be possible, it seems to be a long way for emigrant tribes to

fin ind their way up to the Dehra Dhoon in countries where, for so many

| Witared miles, there is no trace of their congeners. On the whole, it

seems more probable that they are Aboriginal Indians a good deal

SN PERERA SLE LEAL ALT Sa =

50 The Ethnology of India.

diluted. I have not heard of the Tharoos serving as labourers, but if they

are akin to the Dhangar Coolees now so much sought after, seeing their

Immunity against malaria, they would be very valuable to any one who

could induce them to emigrate. As yet, however, they are very shy.

From Goruckpore eastward in the Nepal Terai and along the

Frontiers of Bengal, I cannot learn that there are any Aboriginal

tribes till we come to the neighbourhood of Sikkim and Kooch Behar.

Those whom I have asked knew of none, and it is probable that if

there were any, Hodgson would have mentioned them. Dr. Campbell

of Darjeeling speaks generally of the population of the Nepal Terai as

composed of a most varied assemblage of bastard Hindus.

The Kooch Behar people have become so Hinduised, that theli

original character cannot be distinguished with certainty. They call

themselves ‘‘ Rajbansees,” as I think do several Hinduised Aboriginal

tribes.

About this parallel we come upon the Meches or Mechis who ford

the chief population of-the forests and Doars at the foot of the

Sikkim and Bhootan hills, and a few of whom have recently settled in

the extreme eastern portion of the Nepal Terai. I understand that

these people are the same as the Bodos of Hodgson, who are of Hl :

an Indo-Chinese family. I shall rank them and other similar tribes —

as ‘ Borderers,’ and now only notice them for the parpose of com: —

parison, They are described as very Mongolian or Indo-Ohinese in —

feature, fairer than the Hindus and of a yellow tinge, taller and

larger than the Nepalese cultivators, addicted to spirits and to smoking —

opium. They make small and temporary clearances in the forest and

are proof against malaria. In an industrial point of view they are

evidently much inferior to the Tharoos.

Dr. Campbell incidentally mentions among the lowland neighbours.

of the Mechis a tribe inhabiting similar tracts called ‘ Fhawas’ whom

I have not seen mentioned elsewhere. They seem (so far as one

can gather from the slightest notices) to be more industrious and

settled than the Mechis. Dr. Campbell seems to speak of them as

a different race. It would be ‘interesting to know whether these

Thawas may not possibly be related to the Tharoos.

Also among the neighbours of the Mechis are the Garrows, whowe

main habitat is the hill country Just within fue end’ of the Berham:

The Ethnology of India. 51

pooter as it sweeps round from Assam into Bengal, the extreme

western portion of the range which separates Sylhet, &c. from

Assam. More to the east are the Cossya hills, to the west those of

the Garrows. While all the tribes of the eastern hills are Indo-

Chinese, I am inclined to suspect that the Garrows alone are Indian

Aborigines, more or less mixed it may be. They seem to be quite

distinct and different from the other tribes of the neighbourhood, and

several officers, to whom I have talked, agree in thinking them more

in the style of Coles and Bheels than of Indo-Chinese. I have not

found any very exact description of them, but gather that they are

small and dark, savage and troublesome. That they should belong

to the Aboriginal races of India, is primd facie by no means impro-

bable, seeing that their hill country is, as the crow flies, scarcely more

than 150 miles distant from that of the Santals and Rajmehalees, as

may be seen by a glance at any map. There is a kind of straight

between the eastern and western hills through which the Ganges and

Berhampooter run before expanding in the broader Delta of Southern

Bengal.

The little that is known of the language of the Garrows has not

sufficed to connect them with any of the Aboriginal tribes mentioned

hi by me, but it also seems to show that it is radically different from

s _ the surrounding Indo-Chinese dialects. It seems especially desirable

b _ to know something more of the Garrows and their language.

rd Ihave kept to the last the Bhooyas or Bhooians, because they

_ Seem to belong to both sides of Bengal, to West Bengal and Orissa on

_ one side, and to Assam on the other. I have not met with any de-

_ tailed account of their position in Assam, but I imagine that there

ean be no better authority than Col. Dalton who intimately knows

/ “Poth Provinces, and he, while describing them in the western hills,

| distinctly states that they were once the dominant race in Assam.

‘tt is always necessary to be cautious in dealing with names of this

‘sound, since, as I have already mentioned, ‘ Bhoomea’ means ‘ man of

the soil,’ and I believe that the word earth or soil also takes the form

‘Bui. The Bhooyas have no immediate connection (that is looking

only to the name) with either the Bhumiz or the Boyars. But

Col. Dalton no doubt looks farther than this; and indeed he goes on

to notice a considerable connection between Assam and the west both

a a

SSS t32?

PERCE ?

52 The Ethnology of India.

im races and in language. The Bhooyas in the west seem to be

numerous. They appear to be the original occupants of much of the

lower country to the south of the Chota-Nagpore plateau, great part of

Singbhoom and Bonai, and the borders of Orissa. From a portion of

their country they have been partly driven and partly they are dominated

over by Coles, themselves probably impelled south and east by pres-

sure from the north and west. They are still very numerous in all

the districts and petty states hereabouts, and are found more or less

all the way across the lower hill-country to the borders of Behar.

Col. Dalton calls them a dark complexioned race, with rather high

cheekbones, but not otherwise peculiar. They have no language of

their own, but speak Oorya on the Ooriah borders, Bengalee on the

borders of Bengal, and Hindee farther north. They are now some-

what Hinduised, but have still priests of their own and traces of an

old religion, which seems even down to recent times to have included

human sacrifices. Major Fickell speaks of the Aboriginal Bhooians

who preceded the Coles in lower Singbhoom as “an inoffensive

simple race, but rich in cattle and industrious cultivators.” The:

descriptions of Col. Dalton and Major Tickell seem to suggest a

resemblance in appearance to the Ooryahs, among whom high cheek

bones seem to prevail with good features and straight hair. The

Bhooyas whom I have seen in the hills towards the Bahar border

seemed to have a larger dash of the black Aboriginal type. Seeing

how far these Bhooyas are spread to the west, I was curious to know

whether they might be related to the Buis, a tribe of Telengana and —

Central India who serve all over the centre, south, and west as

palanquin bearers and domestic servants, and from whose name is, E

believe, the most authentic derivation of the widespread word

Pus

‘ Boy’ as applied to a dark servant. Travelling from Nagpore towards —

Jubbulpore IE observed that I changed the Buis of Central India for

the Kahars of Hindoostan. Col. Dalton did not know whether there —

was any connection between Bhooyas and Buis. But quite recently, —

making a trip through a part of the Chota-Nagpore country, I found —

that the palanquin was carried by. Bhooyas there and below the hill

country till I got close to Gya, and I ascertained that they had no

connection with the Hindoostanee Kahars by whom they were then

relieved, but were considered to be a wholly different race. I cannot

The Ethnology of India. 53

help thinking that the Bhooya palanquin bearers of Chota-Nagpore

may be the same as the Buis of Nagpore Proper. At any rate it

might be worth inquiring. These Bhooyas or Bhooians have been

reputed to be the Aborigifies of Bengal, and if that be so, it would

quite account for their being found both in Orissa in the west and

in Assam on the east. The difficulty is that there seem to be no

such people now in Bengal, nor have I been able to identify them

with any caste under another name. If, however, one travels in a

palanquin from the Chota-Nagpore country into Bengal or Orissa,

the bearers will be relieved not by Kahars as in Hindoostan, but by

Gwallas or cow-keepers. These Gwallas do the work of palanquin-

bearing and domestic service in Bengal, functions not performed by

Gwallas so far as I know in any other part of India. An Aheer or

up-country Gwala would never dream of such work. In fact the

Gwallas in Bengal take the place of the Buis or Boys of the centre

and south of India. They are now the most numerous Hindoo

caste in Bengal and especially in Orissa. As I said, Major Tickell

describes the original Bhooians as rich in cattle. May not the

_ Hindoos have adopted them and turned them into Gwallas? I

_ should also however mention that the lowest or sweeper class are called

I understand in Bengal “ Buimals,” but I have not been able to

ascertain the derivation of that word.

The Bengalees are certainly in many respects different from any

other people of India, and if the Bhooyas are the Aboriginals of a

‘great part of Bengaly we may the more readily believe that they are

‘in fact different from the Coolees and Dravidians who have gone to

compose the Hindoostanees and Southerners respectively. Who they

are, and where they came from, are questions which open out a wide

field of inquiry. Can any Aboriginal language or words spoken by

them be traced? may they have any dash of more eastern blood?

Is the mode of carrying palanquins rather a Chinese than an Arian

fashion ?

If we knew something more of the Garrows and the Garrow lan-

guage, they might possibly supply.a link in the history of Bengal.

Another race mentioned by Col. Dalton, as found both in the West

and in Assam, are the Kolitas, whose name might suggest some

relation to Coolees; but they seem to be now considered rather high

54 Lhe Hihnology of India.

caste and good looking Hindoos, so the name is probably not the

same. Is every direction, however, there is room for inquiry.

One word regarding a people in another quarter who have been

classed with the Indian Aborigines, the Brahuis of the higher parts

of Belochistan near Khelat, &c. These people are set down as allied

to the Dravidians upon, I think, the slightest possible evidence, but itis

one of those things that, having once got into print, is in the absence |

of farther information repeated again and again, till it seems an

established fact. Dr. Caldwell, in his amiable enthusiasm for his >

beloved Dravidians, and seeking to establish for them an aristocratic 4

pedigree, without acknowledging obligation to the northern Hindoos, ef

seizes upon the Brahuis as the link to connect them with the more E

northern nations and goes somewhat into the matter.

The Brahuis are described as a stout, squat, somewhat flat-

faced people, fair, with hair and beards often brown if not red. That

they have indications of some Turanian element both in feature and

PRE ae

speech, may be at once admitted, using the word Turanian in its widest e

sense ; but for the rest anything in greater contrast to the slim black ‘)

Dravidian Aborigines, it is impossible to imagine. They are very —

remote from any Dravidian tribe, the nearest being the Gonds. Their —

language is not supposed to show any affinity to the Kolarians. §

On the other hand, in one direction we have not far to seek for an

explanation of the Turanian element in the features of the Brahuigill

The Hazarehs of the hill country near Ghuznee and Candahar have ib

in a more marked degree, and are without doubtof Mongolian blood. —

They seem to be in many ways like the Brahuis, and we are told a

that at one time they possessed the country on the Khelat side of i

Candahar, and were nearer than they now are to the Brahuis. That —

the latter have some of their blood, or may even be a branch of them —

driven to the hills by Belochees or Hindoos, would seem prima facie

the most probable thing in the world. It is then only by the test of —

language that any Dravidian connection can be assigned to the

Brahuis, and in the case of people otherwise so dissimilar and so dis-—

tant, the linguistic evidence ought to be very strong, to satisfy us. a

have been unable to find a paper giving a list of Brahui words said

to have been published by this Society, but Dr. Caldwell seems to.

sum up all the evidence on the subject. He admits that “ the Brahui

a A np? eee aaah el oe

The Ethnology of India. DD .

language, considered as a whole, is derived from the same source as the

Punjabee and Scindee” (in which no one ever suspected a Dravidian

connection), but he goes on to show that the Brahui has also a Dravi-

dian element in it. Now there are scarcely any two languages in

which here and there words of similar meaning and similar sound may

not be found, but so far as the vocabulary goes, Dr. Caldwell’s list

seems to show that he must have been very hard put to it. ‘ Khaff,’

the ear, and ‘ pid,’ the belly, seem to me at least as near to the

Hindoostanee ‘ kan’ and ‘ pet’? as to the Dravidian ‘ kadw’ and ‘ pir’

or ‘bir.’ ‘ Kat,’ a bedstead is, I think, distinctly a Hindee or Punjabee

word. ‘* Dir,’ water, seems to me as near to the Kolarian ‘ dah’ as to

the Dravidian ‘mir.’ ‘ Ae’ or ‘ ayi,’ a mother or nurse, and ‘ pussie,’

a cat, are words of world-wide use.

So also the pronoun ‘nv’ or ‘nim,’ thou or you, appears in some

shape in every dialect not purely Arian, from Australia to northern

Siberia and from Japan to Finland. I really cannot find above 6 or 8

words which Dr. Caldwell shows to be especially like Dravidian words,

_andto make out these, he picks and chooses from every one of the

different Dravidian dialects and accepts some rather distant resem-

_ blances as ‘pak’ to go, Tamil ‘pogu.’ This much seems to me to

_ prove nothing whatever.

Again, take his grammatical resemblances. Some seem to be too

wide, applying to many other languages, and others too minute. The

i use of postpositions and the want of comparatives and superlatives in

| adjectives is equally a coincidence with Hindoostanee and many other

languages, neighbours of the Brahui on one side. The expression of

_ gender by separate words and of plurals by postfixes denoting plurality _

is equally common to many other languages, including the neighbour

‘of the Brahui on the other side, the Persian, e. g. ‘nar-gow’ a ‘* male

tow,’ and Aspahan ‘ horses.’ The genitive in ‘na’ seems just as like to

the Hindoostanee and Punjabee ‘ka’ or ‘da’ as to the Tamilian ‘ ma.’

‘The dative-accusative in ‘e’ is a familiar Hindoostanee or Punjabee

form, thus instead of ‘ Mujh-ko do’ Give me, it is constantly ‘ Mujhe

do, and ‘ Use maro’ beat him, especially with the Punjabees. So also

‘ten,’ said by Dr. Caldwell to mean ‘ self’ in Brahui, seems very like the

same syllable used to give precision in Hindoostanee as ‘“ Use-ten do,”

which I should translate ‘ give to lim himself” At any rate ‘ten’ is

found nearer at hand than the Dravidian ‘ tan.’

66 The Ethnology of India.

Persian, and not go all the way to the Canarese for it.

It comes then in my view to this that the only real appearance of

analogy to- the Dravidian class of languages in particular (as distin-

The copulative ‘w’ ‘and,’ most people would think palpable

guished from the body of Turanian languages in general) is reduced

to two numerals. In Brahui neither ‘ one’ nor ‘ four’ and upwards in

the least correspond with Dravidian numerals, but the two numbers

‘two’ and ‘ three’ as given by Dr. Caldwell do seem similar. He gives

the Brahui two, ‘ zrat’ and three, ‘ muszt’ or ‘ muozrt? which bear com-

parison with the Dravidian two, ‘ eradu,’ ‘crandu,’ ‘ randu,’ ‘ ranw’

and three, ‘murw’ ‘ mudu,’ ‘ mundu,’ ‘ munnar,’ ‘ munu,

The Brahui one ‘ asit’ seems very like the Pehlevi ‘ achat,’ and ¢

the Brahui irat may come from the Pehlevi ‘tarein’ two, the Cauca- —

sian ‘derw’ and the Georgian ‘ort.’ If so the ‘three’ would be the © '

only tie to the Dravidians left, and that is not very close. The |

ground of induction seems insufficient to connect such dissimilar 4

people. My impression is, that if, instead of saying that the Brahui —

language is mainly Punjabee with a Dravidian element, Dr. Caldwell

had said that it is mainly Arian (Indo-Persic) with a Turanian —

element, that would have been more correct. At any rate in so

important a matter fuller inquiry is necessary.

THE MODERN INDIANS.

I commence with the Bramins. |

It is well-known that the Bramins as Priests are a necessary part

of every Hindu society, and as Priests they are to be found wherever —

there are Hindus. In that character then it would be unnecessary 7

to my purpose more particularly to trace them, for with their reli- —

gious sects and tenets I do not deal. I shall only trace them fo :

Kthnological purposes through the countries in which they form one

important part of the general secular population. In fact, far from

being restricted to the character of Priests, they are one of the

most numerous castes in India, and probably that which follows the

greatest variety of avocations. On the whole I should say that they ar ‘

less prejudiced than any other of those whom I call full-blown or High

Hindus. At any rate, whether it be that their character as keepers an .

expounders of the Law gives them greater licence, or that their intellect

The Ethnology of India. 57

is more varied and their necessities greater, they do in various places

and under various circumstances turn their hands to very many odd

jobs as it were. Throughout Hindustan they have almost entirely

: lost that function of Clerks and Bureaucrats of the community

_ which they still retain toa great extent in other parts of India; and

it will be as members of the ordinary agricultural populations that I

shall most deal with them. |

Beginning from the north, we first meet with the Bramins in that

quarter to which all their traditions point, within the hills north of

the Punjab. The first Indians encountered by a traveller from

Central Asia would be these Bramins of this extreme North-West

corner, occupying both the valley of Kashmir and the hills imme-

diately to the west and south-west of it.

Kashmir is a Bramin country. The lower classes have long been

converted to Mahommedanism, but they seem to be ethnologically

identical with the Bramins, and tradition also asserts that they are

_ of the same race. At the present day no other Hindu caste save

the Bramin is known, nor is there any trace (so far as I could find)

¢ that there ever was any other in the country. The Bramin popula-

} tion ‘is numerous, but it would seem as if, while the illiterate

multitude adopted the religion of the ruling power, the better edu-

~ eated and superior class maintained their own tenets; and at this day

the Bramins (or Pandits, as they are usually called) form quite a sort

of aristocracy. hey are almost all educated and exceedingly clever,

: and so, being to a great degree above manual labour, they are an

€xcessive and somewhat oppressive Bureaucracy, which not only has

‘Yuled Kashmir under every successive government, but sends out

t colonies to seek a livelihood throughout Northern India. The Kash-

| imtermixture of the blood of any lower race. It may be partly race

nd partly occupation, but they have certainly a greater refinement

and regularity of feature than the Affghans and others of a rougher

type ; with, however, a less manly-looking physique and a colour less

ruddy and more inclining to a somewhat. sallow fairness. The high

nose, slightly aquiline, but by no means what we call Jewish or

Nut-cracker, is a common type. Raise a little the brow of a Greek

58 The Ethnology of India.

statue, and give the nose a small turn at the bony point in front of

the bridge (so as to break the straightness of line), you have then the

model type of this part of India, to be found both in the living men and

in the statues dug up in the Peshawar valley. There arealsoa good

many straight noses, and some varieties as in all places, but much less

departure from an ordinary handsome standard than in most countries.

wet! Al

The figure of the ordinary working Kashmeeree is strong and athletic.

But none of them are martial, and the Bramins are in this respect

no exception. They rule by the brain and the pen, and not by the

sword. It is this character that has gained them the favour of so many

rulers of a different faith. Kashmere long belonged to the Cabul

kingdom, but it was never in any degree colonised by Affghans, and is

singularly free from any modern’ intermixture of foreign races. The

fact seems to be that the valley never belonged to the Affghan nation, —

but was always retained asa Crown Appanage of the kings, who

were very jealous of admitting into it subjects whom they might find

it difficult to turn out again, and much preferred to govern through

the Pandits. Others have to a great extent followed the same policy. a

From a Hindu point of view, the Kashmir Bramins do not rank

well. As they are Priests to no one but themselves, they are

necessarily much more secular than Bramins who among other ©

Hindus claim to be a priestly class, while they eat meat and are

altogether loose in their observances, to an extent which makes them —

very far short of the modern Hindu standard. They are in fact not —

recognised among the modern Divisions of Indian Bramins, belonging —

neither to the 5 Gours nor to the 5 Dravidas, but forming a class

apart. 1 have alluded to their attempt to claim the blood of all the ©

Bramins higher in the sacerdotal scale, and suggested that it is

“ney LP «

ee ee

more probable that the latter have sprung from and (in their sense} —

improved upon the Kashmeerees. In fact, the founder of the latter —

(Kashiyupa who drained the lake, colonised the valley, gave his name

to Kashgar and Kashmere and to the people originally called Kashas

or Kassias,) is still recognised by the Bramins and Hindus as the

first of the seven Rishis, and even far away down on the west coast

of India, the Bramins in general still trace their descent to Kashiyup vo

I shall afterwards notice the name Kash as Khas occurring again and

again in other parts of India, in a way which requires explanation.

7 |

The Ethnology of India. D9

The Kashmeeree Pandits are known all over Northern India as a

very clever and energetic race of office-seekers. As a body they

excel in acuteness the same number of any other race with whom

they come in contact. Probably they are in no respect inferior to

the Maratta Bramins, but they have not in Hindustan the same ad-

vantage as the latter have had in their own country among inferior

races. The Kashmeerees, as foreigners among energetic races, have a

much harder struggle, and though they get a good share of good

things, they are nowhere dominant, nor have they usually risen to

_ such high stations as many Maratta Bramins. The most conspicuous

man whom I recollect was Raja Denonath, Ranjeet Sing’s Financier and

in some respects Chief Minister. Although the Kashmeerees seldom

find their way as far as Caleutta, it is somewhat singular that in

Bengal the first native to attain very high office is a man of this

race, viz., Shamboonath Pandit, Judge of the High Court. Almost

all the secular Pandits use the Persian character freely; they are

perfectly versatile, and, serving abroad, will mount a horse, gird on a

sword, and assume at a push a semi-military air.

The Kashmir language is separate and distinct, and the dress,

manners, and fashions of the Kashmeerees mark them as in every way

a distinct people. Of the language we only know that it contains a

very large proportion of Sanscrit. The Institutions of the people

have nothing of the democratic character.

In the hills also, between Kashmir and the Punjab, Bramins

occupy the van (or perhaps we should call it the rear) of the

Indian race to the west, though they have abandoned their Hindoo

teligion and become partly Mahommedans and partly Sikhs. They

are in habits, language, and manners quite different from the Kash-

Meerees, and seem now to belong to a different nation. Their

language is a dialect of the Punjabee (a very Pracrit tongue and cer-

tainly not borrowed from any Mahommedan race), while they are good

Soldiers and altogether more Punjabees than Kashmeerees. Beyond

the Jhelum, the hill frontier is occupied by a tribe called Bambas, now

Mahommedans, but originally Bramins ; while on this side the Jhelum

the hills are shared with other races by a numerous tribe of Bramin-

Sikhs. The position of these men is curious. They became Sikhs

long before the extension of Sikh power to those regions, and in a

60 The Ethnology of India.

much more complete sense than most modern Sikhs, abandoning all

pretence of Hindoo religion and adopting to the full the Sikh

reformer’s tenets. Indeed they were converted during Mahommedan

rule, and when ‘ Sikh’ was really a religious rather than a political —

name. The fact probably is, that they found the country too hot for

Bramins, but did not care to become Mahommedans, so adopted the

alternative of becoming Sikhs, and so free from the trammels of caste.

These men are very useful soldiers and servants, especially under

Sikh rule. A good many of them have been introduced into Kashmir

as a sort of military colonists, partly by a Hindu governor under the

Affghans, and partly by the Sikh rulers ; but they remain quite apart q

from the Kashmir Bramins. One of the best native officers m the

Punjab force, who is himself of this class, told me that the Bambas

are without doubt Bramins under a corrupted name. He says that —

to this day the Sikh Bramins and Bambas exchange cakes on the —

occasion of certain ceremonies (births, funerals, &. 1 think), and that .

there is no doubt that they are of the same stock. I believe that it

certainly is so. It seems to be a common practice in India to give to —

tribes who have departed from the faith or mixed the blood of their

ancestors, names derived from their original tribal names. Thus half- _

civilised Bheels are called ‘ Bheelalahs ;’ Mahommedan Rajpoots are

called ‘‘ Rangars ;’’ a tribe of bastard Bramins to be afterwards noticed —

(in Benares and Bahar) ‘ Bamuns’ or ‘ Babhans.’ E

The Bramins of the frontier hills are, I think, even handsomer —

than the Kashmeerees. To my view, the people in general of those

hills are the handsomest of the human race. n.

Descending from the Himalayas, there are some Bramins near

the foot of the hills. Except a few priests, Ido not think that

they are found beyond the Indus, but they are, I understand, pretty

numerous in part of the Rawal Pindee district. South of the Salt Range, _

in the plains, they are well nigh overwhelmed by the strong flow of

Rajpoots and Jats (advancing, as I believe, at a later period and from.

another direction). The Bramins either never occupied the plains

of the Punjab to the south-west, or they have been driven from that

country. Even nearer the hills they are not exceedingly numerous. Bt t

still in that fertile and pleasant strip under the hills we have, amo oo

other races, villages of agricultural Bramins in the districts of Sealkot,

The Ethnology of India. 61

Goordaspore &c., in the valleys of the broken country between

Hosheearpore and Kangra, and in parts of Umballa district and the

adjoining Simla hills; and thus we, as it were, mark the trail of the

Bramin race in its progress southwards from the hills of Kashmir to

the banks of the sacred Saroostee or Saraswatee and the famous

field of the Gulcheter at Tanessur close to the Grand Trunk Road,

some thirty miles south of Umballa.

_ Here also the Bramin population in the country is not specially

numerous. Other races have swept over the scene. But lower down

_the course of the Saraswatee, where it may be traced through the

} now somewhat desolate countries of Marwar and Jessulmere, the

; Bramins are still numerous. Where the low and comparatively

moist tracts, in which the river once ran, still admit of cultivation,

the Saraswatee Bramins are found very industrious and good culti-

ators, who claim to have occupied the country before Jats and

i Rajpoots became dominant. There is found (at Pokhar) the only

_ temple in India still dedicated to the worship of Brama the Father.

_ The town of ‘ Palli’ seems to be a Bramin centre, and thence come a

race of mercantile Bramins called ‘ Palliwals.’

& Sir John Malcolm also mentions the Marwarree or Saraswatee Bramins

as forming a considerable proportion of the most industrious cultivators

in Malwa. And following the Saraswatee down to the Indus, we find

hat (some southern immigrants excepted) they are also the Bramins

“of Scinde, but said to be much looked down on by more orthodox

_ southerners as eaters of meat and altogether little advanced Bramins.

The settlement on the banks of the Saraswatee is a well-known

ge of Hindu history. ‘Here the Bramins came in contact with

ler races, castes were recognised, and early Hinduism became

iterary and historical. But the extreme caste and religious system,

the full-blown High-Hinduism of the Gangetic Bramins, was not

yet. The descendants of those who continued to dwell on the

Saraswatee seem to have much kept to the tenets of their forefatheis.

‘They are separate from the Kashmeerees and have a place among

the recognised divisions of Indian Bramins, but their more advanced

brethren give them the lowest place in the orthodox scale, and in

their native country they chiefly shine by those simple and agricul-

‘tural virtues in which their remote ancestors also probably excelled.

62 The Ethnology of India.

It is a curious problem, that lost river, the Saraswatee. The evi-

dent river-traces all the way down to the Indus, ancient Hindu

history, and the universal traditions of the people of those regions,

all go to make it as certain as any historical fact can be, that the

Saraswatee was once a fine river, and that the countries through which

it flowed (now for the most part desert and barren) were once well- —

watered and green. No mere diminution in the amount of rainfall,

caused by denudations or the like, could have occasioned such as

change. The outer range of the Himalaya runs all the way from

the Sutlej to the Jumna without a break, and the tributaries of the

Saraswatee receive but the outer drainage of the slope a few miles

wide. No doubling or trebling of the rainfall could make any of

these considerable perennial streams; nothing in fact short of a

change of elevation of the ridges to the extent of several thousand

feet would render possible any outlet in this quarter of the drainage —

of the interior of the Himalayas. The Saraswatee itself is now not

a stream at all, but an absolutely dry bed, which is only filled by

surface flooding in the height of the rains. The high embankments

on the present Grand Trunk Road, on the Umballa side of Thanessur _

or Peeplee, mark the levels, and show the hollow where a great river

once flowed. I have long had a theory that, in truth, the stream now

called the Jumna once flowed in this channel. The present channel

of the Saraswatee points upwards to the point where the Jumna —

issues from the hills, and ends in a confused drainage within 2 or 3

miles of that almost natural channel in which the Western Jumna —

Canal (running more like a river than a canal) carries the Jumna —

water in a course which eventually leads it lower down into the ve re

bed of the Saraswatee. The Jumna at its first issue from the hills” '

runs in a course which points directly towards the Saraswatee and

the lower Indus, and the moment you cross, to the west, the high’

bank (which is accumulated along the course of most rivers), the whole

of the drainage of the country is to the Saraswatee and not to the

Jumna. In fact the bed of the Jumna is higher than that of the

Canal, to carry it directly into the Saraswatee channel, and I believe

that to divert the whole river would be a work -within easy reach

modern engineering. May it not then be that nature caused a change —

The Ethnology of India. 63

the other way, that the stream now called the Jumna then belonged

to the Saraswatee, but that those hill torrents from the Sewalik,

bringing down masses of sand and earth, raised between them and the

main stream a sort of James and Mary which eventually caused

the latter to break away to the south-east? If the stream moved,

most of the Hindus would probably move forward too and find them-

selves in the Gangetic valley.

The Saraswatee Bramins are also called (in the south at least)

*‘ Kashastalee”’ a name which seems still to mark the time when they

were considered to be of Kashmeeree or Kasha origin. In fact there

seem to be several stages in the history of Braminism. The oldest

of the race may be the people of the upper hills who date from a time

altogether prior to Hinduism. The Kashmeerees were a civilised

and literary Braminical people not yet fully Hindu. The Saraswatee

Bramins (those Kasha settlers in the plains of India) were the earliest

and most simple and pure Hindus of Vedic faith, that faith being

now worked out and developed ; those of the Ganges and the rest of

India are in various phases the types of modern Hinduism.

From the Gulcheter down to Dehli and in the country about Dehli,

Bramin villages are scattered about, but the Bramins cannot be said

to constitute a very large proportion of the agricultural population.

Wherever they are found in this country, they are capital cultivators,

quiet, industrious, intelligent ; there is no better population, and the

| Women work as well as the men. It was remarked by the fugitives

| from Dehli at the time of the mutiny, that whenever they came to

| & Goojar village, they were always plundered ; whenever they came to

a Bramin village, they were always kindly treated ; while at any other

| village their treatment was uncertain. These Bramins too are, I

should think, descendants of the Saraswatee Bramins. Some of the

less pure agricultural Bramins of these parts are called ‘ Tugas’ or

| $Gour Tugas.’ South of Dehli, in the Jyepore country, Bramins seem

to be numerous, but I have not been able to ascertain if they are of the

same branch. In the Seharunpore district too there are a good many

_| Bramins of secular occupations, besides the priests of Hardwar.

| Sir H. Elliott has remarked on the difficulty of accounting for the

| fact that all the Dehli country is occupied by ‘ Gour’ Bramins. They

can hardly, he thinks, have come from Gour in Bengal, from which

64 The Ethnology of India.

they are separated by great tribes of Kanoujeas and others, and their

own traditions point to Harriana as their original country. I would

suggest the following explanation. The principal tributary of the

Saraswatee is the ‘ Guggur’ or ‘ Ghargar’ which now gives its name to

the main channel where it passes through the Harriana district.

May not the name of ‘ Gour,’ borne by these Bramins of Harriana, be

a mere abbreviation of ‘Guggur’ or Ghargar? May not the Gour

Bramins be simply Bramins of the Guggur or Lower Saraswatee ?

Generally speaking I think it may be said that in the western

parts of the present N. W. Provinces, in the Rohilcund, Meerut and j

Agra Divisions and in Western Oude, the Bramin population is not —

specially numerous. They are scattered about everywhere here and

there, both as cultivators and in other capacities, but I know no large |

body of them. I don’t know that they follow much any profession

involving manual labour, except cultivation and almost any kind of

service ; unskilled labour as Coolees or spade labourers, they may

undertake when pressed, but I do not think that they are artisans. |

There are a few considerable Bramin bankers in Hindustan, or at

least one great house, but that trade is not generally in their hands. ~

Farther east, in the Lower Doab, Hastern Oude, and the adjoining

districts, is the great country of the modern Hindustanee Bramins.

Kanouj, the ancient head-quarters of the race, is on the old Ganges

50 or 60 miles above Cawnpore. It is now an insignificant place,

and the mass of the Bramin population lies to the east of it. In

the districts of Cawnpore and Futtehpore I believe that the Bramin

cultivators far exceed in number any other class ; in Cawnpore alone

there are some 250,000 of them. It is much the same immediately

on the other side of the Ganges, in the adjoining parts of Oude.

The country of which this is the centre may then more than a y

other be considered especially that in which the Bramins are now

settled as a people. And in the far distant country in which also

the Western Ghats. The Lower Doab is well-known all over Centré

~and Southern India as the ‘‘ Unter-bed.”’ :

The Eihnology of India. 65

Whether from the example of the Rajpoots, or for other reasons,

these Bramins of the Unterbed and Oude have taken largely to the

profession of arms, not usually much followed by them in other parts

ofthe country ; and beyond their own boundaries in their Military

character they are reputed the most overbearing and disagreeable

of their race. Yet I fancy that it is rather their profession than their

natural character, which has attached to them this bad name. Numer-

_ ous as they were in the Sepoy Army and foully as that Army

behaved, I cannot find that the Bramins were really by any means

worse than others; some of the most Bramin Regiments stood the

best. And at home they seem to be quiet and peaceable enough.

_ The Bramin district of Cawnpore pays, I think, a higher revenue rate

than any other in India, except the peculiar Delta of the Cauvery about

Tanjore. Numerous as the Bramins are in this part of the country

and apt as soldiers, they have not been the dominant race. I do not

know much of the history of the Cawnpore district, but I have never

heard of Bramin rule ; and certainly over the river, in Oude, the rule

is with the Rajpoots, not with the Bramins. All the really old

- Talookdars are Rajpoots, as are the Rajas of Bundlecund and Baghel-

~eund beyond the Jumna.

- I[.am not sure what is the extent of the Bramin population in

pBundlecund. In the Banda District I think that they are common,

and certainly in ‘ Baghelcund,’ or Rewah, they are very numerous ; but

Bethe the same martial race, I do not know, for there they sonal

- peend to very menial services and groom most of the horses on the

4 ubbulpore road.

In the proper Bramin country, I think that some of them affect

‘te Rajpoot prejudice against actually holding the plough, but

even there they perform every other agricultural labour. Agri-

cultural and military as they are, they rejoice in the classic names of

Dobee, Tewaree, and Choubee, that is men of two Veds, of three Veds,

of four Veds, and are considered to be very high caste. Between the

| Ganges and the Gogra, as we recede from the Ganges, the population

| becomes more Rajpoot than Bramin, but there are many Bramins

| about ‘ Ajoodia,’ the old ‘ Oadh.’ Beyond the Gogra again is a nu-

| merous Bramin population of a different tribe from the martial

Bramins of the Ganges, humbler, and not soldiers, Thence to the

66 The Ethnology of India.

north of the Gogra and Ganges all the way into Tirhoot there are,

I believe, many Bramins. South of the Gogra and thence across the

Ganges, into the Arrah District (Bojpore), runs the Rajpoot dominions.

But about Benares, and still more in the greater part of Bahar, the

dominion is held by a numerous class of bastard Bramins called

‘ Bamans’ or ‘ Bhabans,’ to which belong both the Raja of Benares _

and almost all the great landholders of Bahar. There seems to be

no doubt that this class is formed by an intermixture of Bramins with

some inferior caste. They live in strong and pugnacious brother«

hoods, and are in character much more like Rajpoots than Bramins.

The main country of the Bramins may then be described to be that 4

part of Hindustan (between the Vyndyas on one side and the Hima-

layas on the other), from the longitude of Kanouj and Lucknow

to near the frontiers of Bengal, with a large segment of more

especially Rajpoot country (stretching from Lucknow to Bojpore) —

cut out of the centre of this tract. £

The Hindustanee Bramins are all strict Hindus of the modern type, i

They are generally good sized and on the whole well-looking men,

not I think particularly fair among the higher castes, but seldom so

dark as the lower. Their features are good, but by no means ‘a

generally of the peculiar High-Arian and sub-aquiline type. In fact

the breed has here lost some of the purity of its blood, and the

features are very much as in Europe. I think I have noticed among

many of the Hindustanee Bramins a good deal of the open, blunt,

bullet-headed, and as it were anti-aquiline style of countenance ; not |

so handsome as more High-Arian features, but still pleasant enough.

I do not think that in appearance they have any decided superiority

over the higher castes of Hindustanees in general, though the higher |

castes have some general advantages over the inferior castes. By ~

far the greater number of them are quite illiterate and have nothing |

of the clerkly character about them. The priests and Pandits are learned _

enough in their way, but they have never taken to the use of the |

Persian character. I doubt whether Hindustanee Bramins are as @ ~

as they have done in several other parts of India. As it 1s, they

have scarcely any share of high office and very little literate services :

The Ethnology of India, 67

Besides serving as soldiers, they may be found among the lower

hangers-on of courts, jails, &c., as process servers, guards over

prisoners, and so on, but little in anything higher. As I have said,

they turn their hands to many miscellaneous occupations not peculiar

to any one else, and of course occasionally rise.

Sir H. Elliott calls the bastard Bramins of Benares and Bahar

* Bhoonhars’ and seems to consider them a branch of the Sarwarea or

Transgogra Bramins. Again he speaks of them (quoting from the

‘ Harivansa’) as Military Bramins descendants of Kasya Princes, and

here he seems:to connect the term Kasya with Kashee, the Hindoo

name for Benares. I do not know the derivation of Kashee, or whether

it is connected with Kashupya.

Bramins are numerous in Kumaon and Gurwhal. The great tribe

of those Provinces are however ‘ Khassias’” who now claim to be

- Rajpoots, but whose title to that character is more than doubtful.

Education is, I think, more general here than in the plains, and

the Nagaree or ordinary Sanscrit character is always used. Again

the Goorkhas, the dominant tribe in Nepal, are properly called ‘ Khas,’

whence Gor-khas. They are certainly for the most part of Arian

and Hindoo origin, and pretend to be Rajpoots; but, according to

Mr. Hodgson, they are really bastard Bramins, the offspring of a

cross between Bramin immigrants and the people of the hills. Both

the Khassias of Kumaon and the Khas of Nepal assert that they are

“comparatively recent immigrants from the plains, but this is probably

in a great degree connected with their claim. to the blue blood of the

Rajpoots: of the plains. The latter by no means acknowledge the

connection. The circumstance that a bastard Bramin race is dominant

inthe plains immediately under the Central parts of Nepal gives

much colour to Mr. Hodgson’s account of a similar race in the hills,

May it not be that the Rajpoots have never got so far east in the

hills, and that the hill country was occupied by pre-Rajpoot Bramins ?

May it be that the names Kashee, Khassia, and Khas, point to a time

when the Bramins were known as Khasas or Kashmeerees, just as

English colonists are known as Anglo-Saxons ?

| Myr. B. Colvin, long Deputy Commissioner of Almorah, tells me a

curious circumstance, viz. that in Kumaon, although the hill dialect

is in the main Hindee, it has some curious grammatical affinities to

68 The Ethnology of India.

the Bengalee, both in some of the popular terminations, in the verb

‘to be,’ and in other particulars. I had before learned that there was

a peculiarity of this kind in the Hindee spoken in the high

country immediately south of Bahar, but there I supposed it to be a

mere intermixture of the not distant Bengalee. The existence,

however, of Bengalee affinities in the patois of Kumaon would

seem to suggest the question whether these are not the remains of a

form of Arian speech older that the modern Hindee, spoken perhaps

before Rajpoots and Jats came on the scene, and then driven forward

to Bengal in one direction, into the hills in another. I have not

myself any acquaintance with Bengalee, but it would be interesting

to enquire ifit has any affinities with the older forms of speech in —

Kashmir and the north-western hills, or again with the Maratta .

and western dialects.

To get an idea of the Bengalee formation, I asked a friend the

other day a single word, the pronoun ‘he’ and the genitive ‘ of him,’

which he gave me ‘ Se’ and ‘ Zaha’ or ‘ Tah.’ At this present writing,

by way of experiment, I have just turned up these same words in Mr.

Edgeworth’s small Kashmir Grammar and find ‘he,’ ‘ Sw ;’ ‘of him’

‘Teh.’ The ‘ Se’ is a very old Arian form, found in the Kaffir hills,

which disappears in Hindee and reappears in Bengalee ; but the genitive

‘Teh’ in Cashmiree, ‘ Tah’ in Bengalee, seems a singular and hardly

accidental coincidence. j

To return, this brings me to the Bengalee Bramins. They all

assert a northern origin as a historical fact, and I believe that there

is no doubt of it. Still their nationality is altogether Bengalee,

and as the Bengalees differ from all other Indians, these Bramins"

also differ much in language, dress, habits, and general style from the

Hindustanee Bramins. : r

In appearance they are certainly fairer, larger, and altogether

Aryans of a higher type than the mass of the Bengalees. There is

much more difference, I think, between Bramins and the mass ing

Bengal than in Hindustan. Some of them are fine looking men both

in size and feature. They regain here too, some (though not all) .

of the aristocratic and bureaucratic position which. they have lost

in Hindustan. They have little competition from Rajpoots and |

rough northern tribes, and might have it pretty much their own way, a

‘

The Ethnology of India. 69

were it not that they are hard-pushed by the clerkly caste of Kaits

who also are numerous in Bengal. As it is, the Bramins have a

large share of the landed property, the public offices, the educated

professions, and some mercantile and banking business, They are

very numerous. In the entire absence of statistics and detailed

information in Bengal, the only source of ethnological information

which I can find is in the jail statistics. These show that about

9 per cent. of the total number of Hindu prisoners are Bramins.

We may suppose that the Bramins of Bengal proper come to jail

less frequently than the inferior classes, and this return certainly

seems to prove that the Bramin population must be very large.

I do not understand that anywhere in Bengal they form the mass of

the population, or that they are often found in the lowest ranks of

agriculturists and labourers. They are rather more or less an

aristocratic class, and though following a variety of callings and to

some extent cultivating the land, will not ordinarily put their hand to

the plough, and affect as far as possible the position of superiors. They

are altogether unwarlike and somewhat effeminate in their habits.

In Eastern Bengal Mahommedans prevail, and some Bramins are

_ supposed not to like to cross the Berhampooter, hence in that quarter

_ they seem not to be very numerous. In Orissa I believe they are

very many, and I see it stated in the Gazetteer of Southern India

_ that in the Oorya portion of the Ganjam District many of the Oorya

- Bramins both obtain their livelihood as cultivators and traders, and

follow the occupations of brickmakers, bricklayers, &c.

_ The result of education shows the Bramins of Bengal to be most

acute and intellectually capable. But they do not appear to have

the practical energy of the mercantile and some other classes, nor

ig the political and administrative success of Maratta and Kashmeeree

| _ Bramins. In native times I do not remember to have heard of Bengalee

Bramins in great places, unless we except Nandcomar who attained

so unfortunate an eminence. In these days I believe that intellectual

eminence is often combined with much high principle among the

educated Bengalees, and I hope that both may bear practical fruit.

Going to the other side of Indiag in Goozerat the Bramins appear

to be numerous, but I have not yet visited that Province, and have

not exactly ascertained their position and avocations. Forbes does

70 The Ethnology of India.

not seem to speak of them as forming any large portion of the culti-

vating classes. They trace their descent from Kashyupa, and are

divided into a large number of tribes and sub-divisions. In a secular

capacity they seem to have a good share of office (although there

also they encounter an energetic writer-caste) and also to trade.

The Jains of Western India have Bramins among them, and these

would seem to be for the most part Goozerat men.

Next to Goozerat comes the Maratta country, extending from

_ Damaun to the neighbourhood of Goa, and from Bombay to Nagpore

and the Wyuganga. The Maratta Bramins are the most famous and

successful of their race. That their fortune is due to their talent and

energy, is shown by their success beyond their own bounds, in fact

throughout Southern and Central India. But in their own country ©

and among their own people, they are also favoured by circumstances.

The lower caste men of the pen, who have ousted the Bramins in ~

some countries of the north and more than rivalled them in others, —

are not found in the Maratta social system (those now found in the

Bombay country are Goozerattees, and Bombay itself is in a mercan-

tile sense very much a Goozerattee city). The mass of the Maratta

people are of a comparatively humble class, without the pride and

jealousy of Bramins shown by Rajpoots and Jats. Hence wherever

there is a Maratta people or Maratta rule, Maratta Bramins are the-

brains and directing power. At first they contented themselves with

the highest administrative offices under Maratta rulers, but later, as

is well known, the Peshwa and other Bramins usurped the supreme

power itself, assumed the command of armies, and openly ruled the

confederacy. In truth, so miscellaneous, and so loosely held together

by any other tie, were Maratta confederacies and armies, that these

Bramins may be considered to be the real source of the power and

fame of the Marattas as rulers in India. They were the heads of @

body of which others were but the hands guided by them. Even

to the present day in many States and places beyond their own limits,

they have the chief power. 5 ;

The Ethnology of India, 71

It might be conjectured that centuries of Mahommedan rule might

have caused the retreat of the Bramins from the more open

plains to these regions; but I do not know that there is historical

ground for this supposition, and think it more likely that under any

tule they would hold their own and circumvent even foreign rulers.

Their personal appearance would lead one rather to suppose that they

came from the North-West. Many of them are very fair, and I think

that there is among them a much greater tendency to the common

occurrence of a somewhat aquiline, or what I call sub-aquiline type

of feature than among Hindustanee Bramins. A very marked feature,

not uncommonly met with, seems to be a light greyish kind of eye.

Altogether, I cannot suppose these Bramins to be a branch of the

_ race which, after occupying Hindustan, extended southwards. I can-

not imagine how they could in the south, as it were, in some degree

have returned towards an earlier type, instead of step by step

becoming darker and more Indian-like. It is undoubtedly the case

and is a subject of common remark, that all along the West Coast of

India the people are much fairer than in the interior, even though

most of the interior country above the Ghats is considerably elevated.

Some have accounted for this by saying that colour does not alto-

- gether depend on the thermometer, that the inhabitants of the

_ more umbrageous Coast are less exposed to an unclouded sun and dry

atmosphere than the people of the bare and treeless plains of the

Deccan, and that thus the difference of colour is to be accounted for.

Iwill not say that this cause is wholly without effect, but I think it

quite insufficient to account for the whole difference. The Bengalees

‘im a moist atmosphere and amid a luxurious vegetation are generally

dark. The blackest of the Aboriginal tribes live in the densest forest

country in a moist malarious climate. Even on this very Western

| Coast I find the Aboriginal Helots of Malabar described as being

“of the deepest black.” We must look then to some other cause

Modifying the complexion of many tribes on the West Coast, and

that I take to be immigration by sea. That there has been much

| such immigration, is not only probable, but a historical fact. All

along the southern portion of the West. Coast, a large part of the

| population is notoriously to a great degree of foreign blood. The

Moplahs are to a great extent Arabs, the ‘ Teers’ or ‘ Teermen’ are also

72 The Ethnology of India.

said to be immigrants (as their very name indicates), and there are

many Jews and Christians, though the latter I believe have not much

trace of Western blood. All along the Bombay Coast also, from Goa

to Kurrachee, are the descendants of Persian, Arab, Portuguese, and

other Western immigrants. Hence I did not think it by any means

absurd when an educated Bramin of Poonah suggested to meas a

theory, that the Bramins owed the light eyes and light complexion

noticed among them to an intermixture of Western blood. The Bramins

would be less liable, however, to casual and recent intermixture than

other races, and I incline rather to the theory that these Bramins of

this part of the Coast may have more directly come from the original

seats of the race by the route of the Saraswatee and the Indus, and

thence perhaps by sea, without passing through Hindustan and

tral India and there suffering any infiltration of Aboriginal blood.

I have already traced the Bramins down the Saraswatee. Is it not

probable enough that in very early days, when they were pressed by |

Rajpoots and Jats, they may have colonised the Konkan, reduced to —

subjection the rude Aborigines, and transmitted to descendants

features preserved from great deterioration by caste rules, and forms

only somewhat deteriorated in size and robustness by a southern ~

climate and the absence of manual labour? If such an immigration 7

took place so early as I suppose, it might well happen that, in long

contact with southern elements and southern creeds, the colonists in

the Maratta country would separate themselves from the old Saras-

watee Bramins and become a separate division. :

I have seen some allusions to Konkan Bramins as disting dice 3

from Maratta Bramins, but have not been able to make out the

exact distinction. Certainly Maratta Bramins are altogether the |

dominant race in great part of the Konkan. But it appears that |

there is a strip to the south, extending beyond the district usually —

known as the Konkan to some way beyond Goa, in which a mixed —

language called Konkanee is spoken. In this Konkan there are some

Bramins still called ‘ Kashastala or Saraswatee’ and from the Konkan

some of them have penetrated into the north-western part of the

Mysore country, where they are traders and in public employment, ane

described as very clever but greatly looked down upon by souther n

Bramins who profess to be much more rigid in their rules, In t the 3

The Ethnology of India. 73

towns of the North Canarese Coast, the Hindu traders are said to be

chiefly ‘‘ Konkanee Bramins who trade and keep shops.”

In the Maratta Konkan the Bramins are at the head of the

agricultural community. Most of the ‘ Kotes’ or village zemindars

who rule over and claim the proprietary right in each village are of

this caste. I have not been able to ascertain what proportion of the

actual cultivators are of the same class. For the rest, office of every

kind, including the village and pergunnah accountantships all over the

country, and every service of the head and the pen, seem to be their

great resources. They are not military, nor generally in any way

- men of the sword, though, as-I have said, they have in their prosperity

_ taken the command of Maratta Armies. Nor do they seem to have

"any great commercial proclivities. Among the various races who

push to so great a point mercantile enterprise in Bombay I cannot

find that the Bramins have any great share. Under our Government

they have almost a monopoly of office in Western India.

Adjoining the Maratta country on the east is the Telinga or Telagoo

country, very little of which I have visited and of the castes and

population of which I have been able to learn less than of any other

- part of India. ‘This at least, however, I find that here also the

Bramins, though not so famous nor, I apprehend, so clever as those

of Maharashtra, are numerous and powerful. The Telinga people

are described as generally illiterate and as (unlike their Tamil neigh-

hours) leaving literature and science to the Bramins; so that the

| latter would seem in Telingana, free from the competition of a.

| writer caste, to have in their hands all the secular business of a

| elerkly character and a good deal more besides. I have not ascer-

| tained what proportion of the population they there form, and

Whether many of them are actual cultivators; but in more than one

place I find it stated that many of the Zemindars are Bramins, and

in Rajamundry the more respectable inhabitants of the Town are said

to be chiefly Bramins.

Ican only trust that this meagre account of the Telagoo Bramins

will be supplemented by some one better qualified to describe them.

_ Towards Madras I gather that there are some learned Gwallas called

| Yadavas and Telagoo Chetties (perhaps a merchant class, but I am

| not sure), who must a good deal interfere with the Bramins. They

74 The Ethnology of India:

do not seem to be very conspicuous in Madras itself, which, though in’

the Tamil country, is not far from the Telagoo frontier.

In the Canarese country (comprising Canara, Mysore and parts of

the Bombay Southern Districts and adjoining Nizam’s country) the

Bramins are not rivalled by a specific writer class, and have a large

share of literate office, very generally (it appears) occupying that of

Shanbogue or village accountant, besides many higher offices. But a

very large proportion of the Canarese people are of the ultra-Sivite

or Lingayet sect, who altogether ignore Bramins in their sacerdotal

character ; and there are energetic mercantile and other classes. The

rule of the Marattas in one quarter, and of the Mahommedans in another:

was also unfavorable to the power of the Canarese Bramins, and thus

they are by no means dominant. Maratta Bramins, Mahommedans,.

East Indians and others have a large share of the higher offices and

occupations.

In the North Western part of the Canarese country, in the district.

of North Canara, in the high and hilly country above and about the

ghats, and the adjoining parts of Mysore, there is a large population —

of Bramin cultivators who are on all hands represented as exceedingly

industrious, thriving, and in every way good. Most of these people

are called ‘ Haiga’ Bramins, and they seem to be of pure race and of

no bastard or doubtful caste. They especially affect the cultivation

of the betel-nut, and both own and cultivate the land over a large

extent of country. In the Canara District they constitute one of

the most numerous castes, being given by a census taken some years 3

ago as 147,924, to 146,309 Banters (corresponding to Nairs), and

151,491 of the inferior class called Billawars. In the Nagar district.

of Mysore they are also numerous, and they are there described as

“very fair, with large eyes and aquiline noses,” a description which

would seem to imply for them a derivation from an uncorrupted

and little intermixed northern source. They are stated not to be

very literary or highly educated, being more devoted to agriculture. .

In South Canara and what is called the Talava country, there are

again many Bramins who do much cultivation, and on the whole;

West Coast, down to the extreme South of India, the country is said

to have been extensively colonised by the Bramin colony led from

Calpee by Parasram, who caused the sea to retire for their eae e,

- |

The Ethnology of India. 75

Tn the centre of this tract, in Malabar, the Bramins, owing to political

circumstances and hostile rule, have been to a great extent driven

‘away, but they are very numerous in Travancore and Cochin; and in

the Palghaut valley (a little inland, where the break takes place in the

line of the ghats) the Bramins seem to be very numerous as cultiva-

tors, and are industrious and good in that capacity. The principal

class of Bramins on the South Coast are called Namberees, and they

have some very peculiar customs. They affect, however, much of

the sacerdotal character, and seem to be very influential in Travancore

and Cochin. Throughout the South Western Coast, however, wherever

_ the Nairs and allied tribes are or have been politically dominant or

are now numerous, the Bramins have by no means a monopoly of

office, even among Hindus; for the Nairs themselves are frequently

_ educated and hold very many public offices.

The Namberee Bramins are described as very like the Nairs and

Seneral Hindu population of the South Coast, but as not unfrequently

_ fairer.

It remains to notice the Tamil country. There also the Bramins

: :

_ are numerous, but it appears that throughout the extreme South, they

again lose that literary predominance, or almost monopoly, which they

enjoy in the Maratta and other countries in the middle zone of India

as well as in the extreme North.- I have mentioned that the Nairs

_ of the Malayala and Talava country by no means resign the pen to

| the Bramins ; and so also it appears that throughout the Tamil country

offshoots of ‘the dominant tribes, under the names of Modelliars,

| Beileys &c., do much of the clerkly work, and the Bramins have not

| generally the office of village accountant and collector—the posses-

sion of which is the greatest test of predominance in that respect. I

“gather that the Lingamite sect is less numerous in the Tamil than

| in the Canarese country, and consequently the Bramins are in a

| sacerdotal point of view more important. They also push their

fortunes in many secular ways. They rent much land, but will not

| hold the plough, and are extensively employed in the public offices

| as hurkaras (messengers or process servers) and in such like capa-

cities, also as keepers of choultrees and in many other occupations.

With reference to what I have said of them as renters rather than

cultivators, I should add that, though the Palghat country is included

76 The Ethnology of India.

in Malabar, it appears that most of the cultivating Bramins there are

of Tamil extraction. Many of them condescend to officiate as astro-

logers and religious guides to the very lowest and scarcely Hindu

castes of Southern India.

Briefly I would thus recapitulate the position of the Bramins in

the principal Provinces of India. |

In Kashmir, they are altogether dominant by the brain and pen, —

but are not military. ro

In the Punjab, Scinde; and countries about the Saraswatee, Bramins

are superseded by other races, and are only found here and there in

the eastern part of this tract as industrious cultivators claiming to be

the ancient occupants of the country.

In Hindustan, Bramins have altogether lost literate predominance q |

(with the exception of some immigrant Cashmeerees), sand also

political predominance, except something retained by quasi-Bramins —

of mixed caste in the extreme east of this country. But they

constitute a large section of the population of Hindustan, especi-

ally of the eastern half, and a large proportion of the cultivators,

soldiers, &e. :

In Bengal and Orissa, Bramins form a large portion of the Hindu

population, occupy to a great extent an aristocratic position, and have

a large share in the superior rights in land, in offices, and in the

literate professions; but are at the same time quite rivalled by

Kaists.

In the Maratta country, Bramins are altogether dominant in literat 7

work, and have the largest share of political power.

In the Telinga country, Bramins are in possession of most of the

literate work, and apparently of a good deal of office, land, de. j

but my information is very imperfect.

In the South of India, Bramins have but a moderate share of the

literate work; but on the West Coast, they have a large share

of the land and form a large proportion of the best cultivating

population; while in the east of this country they seem to be not

dominant and are rivalled by several other tribes, though here also

they are numerous and employed in many capacities, secular as well

as sacerdotal, 3

The Ethnology of India, 77

Ture JATS.

On the general scheme of tracing the Arian races from the North-

West, I take the Jats before the Rajpoots. These Jats are in fact by

far the most perfect specimen of the democratic and more properly

Indo-Germanic races, whom I believe to have appeared in India later

than the early Braminical Hindus, and who, while Hindu in much

of their speech, laws, and manners, have also some peculiarities and

institutions, and perhaps some grammatical forms of speech not to be

traced in the earlier Braminical writings. These tribes, now consti-

tuting over a great part of India an upper and dominant stratum of

: society, have given to a great degree their own tone and colour to

many Provinces. In great part of Jat-land the Jats are not only

_ the upper stratum, but the great body and mass of the free people;

P and hence we have among them their original institutions in the

_ greatest purity, little modified by modern Braminical Laws, or by those

"necessities of Military and Feudal organisation which so much alter

_ the institutions of a free people, when they become dominant con-

- querors over other races greatly superior in number.

_ There is some variation in the pronunciation of the word ‘ Jat,’ it

_ being sometimes (chiefly in the west country) pronounced so short that

it may be written ‘ Jut ;’ sometimes (in much of the Punjab) variably

used, and sometimes (chiefly in the east) pronounced very long as ‘ Jat’

and even occasionally written by early English authors ‘ Jaut.’ And

the present religion, dress, &c. of the race also differing in different

‘Tegions (they are Mussulmans in the west, Sikhs in great part of the

Punjab, and in some sense Hindus in the east), some people have

supposed Mahommedan Jats of Scinde to be radically different from

Hindu Jauts of Bhurtpore, and the wide extent and populousness of

this great race is not very generally known. In fact, however, any

apparent differences in the extreme of the type disappear, when we

trace them as one great continuous population throughout the whole

tract, and find that the one extreme gradually and imperceptibly merges

| into the other.

_ To prevent future doubts, I will, however, add that there may

possibly be small local western tribes of similar name, distinct from the

great Jat nation. It seems that on some parts of the frontier Jats are

78 _ . The Ethnology of India.

known as a somewhat pastoral and light-fingered tribe; and Burton

in his ‘ Scinde’ speaks of a tribe of Beloochis bearing the name; also

says that it is the name of a wandering tribe found about Candahar,

Herat, Meshed, &c., and that in all the Western parts of Central Asia,

the term is used as synonymous with thief ‘and scoundrel. These

gentry may be offshoots of our Jats thrown by circumstances on the —

resources of their mother-wit, or they may be some other tribe; but

at any rate they are in no way a type of the great agricultural nation —

whose habitat Iam about to describe, and about whose oneness and —

complete ethnological nationality there can be, I think, no doubt —

whatever.

In all the east of Beloochistan, about the routes by which the most

open and constant communications between India and the countries’

to the west are maintained, in the Provinces marked in the maps as

‘“Sewestan’ and ‘ Cutch Gandava,’ Jats form a large, probably the largest

portion of the agricultural population, and claim to be the original

owners of the soil. In fact the Beloochis are there but a later wave

and upper stratum. The Persian Tajiks are the original agricultural

class of all the west of Affghanistan and Beloochistan; then there is

a tribe apparently somewhat mixed, called ‘ Dehwars,’ found about.

Candahar and thereabouts. The Jats are not found in Affghanistan,

but in Beloochistan they succeed the Tajiks and Dehwars, as we go

east by the Bolan and routes thereabouts. Here then they are not

confined to the plains, but occupy the hilly country. ;

Descending into the plains, we find the Jats spread to the right anil

left along the Indus and its tributaries, occupying upper Scinde on

one side and the Punjab on the other. But it is particularly to be

remarked that in the Punjab they are not found in any numbers

above the Salt Range, and they are wholly unknown in the Hima-

laya. In fact, to the north they are altogether excluded from the

hilly country, a circumstance which seems to me conclusively to show

that they did not enter India by that extreme northern route. The

hills to the north seem on the contrary to be a barrier by ve the

flood of Jats was checked.

In all Upper Scinde the Jats are still the prevailing population, a

their language is the language of the country. It is moreover matte .

of history that they were once the aristocracy of that land, though

The Ethnology of India. 79

latterly other races have dominated and the higher classes among the

Jats have lost somewhat of their position. In the south and west of

the Punjab too they have long been subject to Mahommedan rulers,

but latterly as Sikhs they became rulers of the whole Punjab and of

the country beyond as far as the upper Jumna, in all which territories

they are still in every way the dominant population. Over great tracts

of this country, I should say that three villages out of four are Jat, and

that in each Jat village the Jats constitute perhaps two-thirds of the

entire population, the remainder being low caste Helots, with a few

_ traders, artisans, &c.

The Juts of the Indus seem on the map to be separated from the

_ Jauts of Bhurtpore and Agra by the whole breadth of Rajpootana, but

the fact is that the ordinary geographical nomenclature gives rise to

‘much misconception on the subject. By far the greater part of what

we call Rajpootana is, ethnologically speaking, much more a Jat than

a Rajpoot country. The great seat of Rajpoot population and ancient

‘power and glory is on the Ganges, and it is said that since the Mahom-

‘medans conquered them there, the chief Rajpoot houses have as it were

‘doubled back on the comparatively unfruitful countries which now bear

‘their name, but where, notwithstanding, the most numerous section

4 the population is Jat. Col. Tod expressly tells us that northern

Rajpootana was partitioned into small Jat republics, before the

Besipoots were driven back from Ajoodea and the Ganges. It is clear

then that the Jats extend continuonsly east from the Indus over

| Rajpootana. They do not seem to have occupied (or at least do not

. now occupy) lower Scinde, nor are they found in Goozerat, although

in the history of the latter country mention is made of incursions of

| Jat horsemen on the frontier in conjunction with Katties. Their line

of settlement lies farther north. They may have arrived on the

Saraswatee, before its banks lost their moisture, and if so, their passage

to the east would be comparatively easy. Throughout the more open

parts of Rajpootana they share the soil with the Aboriginal or semi-

Aboriginal Meenas, the remains of the Bramin population, and the

‘jdominant Rajpoots ; the Jats having, I gather, the largest share of the

iltivation. The southern and more hilly parts of Rajpootana (where

\Mhairs, Meenas, and Bheels so much hold their own,) are not Jat, but

im Malwa again they are numerous, and seem to share that Province

with Rajpoots and Koonbees.

80 The Ethnology of India.

To the north, in the north-eastern Punjab and Cis-Sutlej districts,

as we get near the hills, I think there are evident indications that the

Jat population has been advancing on what has once been a proper

Rajpoot country, after having perhaps been, before that, a Bramin

country. It is not clear whether the Bhattees of Bhatteana were

originally Rajpoots or really are Yuti or Jats. But from Bhatteana

northwards, Rajpoot villages are scattered about in considerable

numbers among the Jats, and there are traces of more extensive

Rajpoot possessions. The Rajpoots seem to be here undergoing gradual

submersion. But in the extreme north of the Baree and adjoining

Doabs of the Punjab (the Baree is that Doab in which Lahore and

Umritsir are situated) there is still a strip immediately under the

hills, which may be classed with the adjoining hill country as still

mainly Rajpoot. To the west, advancing through Rajpootana, we

come to the Jats of Bhurtpore and Dholpore, famous in history.

Gwalior was a Jat fortress belonging, I think, to the Dholpore Chief.

They do not go much further south in this direction. From this

point they may be said to occupy the banks of the Jumna all the way

north to the hills. The Dehli territory is principally a Jat country, and

from Agra upwards the flood of that race has passed the river in con-

siderable numbers, and forms a large part of the population of the

Upper Doab in the districts of Allighur, Meerut, and Mozuffernugger.

They are just known over the Ganges in the Moradabad district, but.

they cannot be said to have crossed that river in any numbers.

To define then the Jat country ; take as a basis the country on both:

sides of the Indus from Lat. 26° or 27° up to the Salt Range ; from

the extremities of this base draw two lines nearly at right angles to

the river and inclining south, so as to reach Lat. 23° or 24° in Malwa,

and Lat. 30° on the Jumna, thus including Upper Scinde, Marwar,

and part of Malwa on one side, and Lahore, Umritsir, and Umballa on

the other; then connect the two eastern points by a line which shall

include Dholpore, Agra, Allighur, and Meerut. Within all that

ambit the Jat race ethnologically predominates, excepting only the —

hills of Mewar and the neighbourhood, still held by Aboriginal tribes, .

point of view, as fine athletic men with handsome features, but rath er

dark.

The Ethnology of India. 81

In Upper Scinde, up the course of the Indus, and in the south-west-

ern Punjab, they are now for the most part Mahommedans, and in that

character seem to be somewhat inferior to their unconverted and

perhaps purer brethren; the more so as they have been long subject

to foreign rule. The language spoken along the line of the Indus

and throughout Upper Scinde is there known as the “ Jatee Gul” or

Sat language, but is in fact identical with that which we call

Punjabee. The Punjabee may, in fact, properly be called the Jat

language ; to the Jats the dialect seems especially to belong, and by

them chiefly it is spoken. Advancing eastwards into the Punjab and

Rajpootana, we find Hindu and Mahommedan Jats much mixed ; it

often happens that one-half of a village or one branch of a family ig

-Mahommedan, and the other Hindu. Further east, Mahommedan Jats

_ become rarer and rarer, and both about Lahore and all that part of

_ the Punjab and along the line of the Upper Sutlej and Jumna the

_ great mass remain unconverted. In the Punjab they all take the

name of ‘Sing,’ and dress somewhat differently from ordinary Hindu

Jats, but for the most part they only become formally Sikhs, when

they take service, and that change makes little difference in their

_ laws and social relations. The Jats of Dehli, Bhurtpore, Ge. are

avery fine race. They still bear the old Hindu names of ‘ Mull’ and.

such like, and are not all ‘Sings.’ In Rajpootana the Jats are pro-

_ bably a good deal intermixed by contact with Meenas, &c., and they

have now been long subject to an alien rule. One does not there

P hear much of them otherwise than as quiet and submissive cultivators.

5 The Jat Sings of the Punjab and the Upper Sutlej] may probably

de taken as the best representative type of the race. They are a’

‘emarkably five variety of man—tall, large, well-featured, with very

plentiful and long beards, fine teeth, and a very pleasant open expres-

‘sion of countenance. I am told that in the Punjab Regiments, which

‘select from several of the finest races in the world, the Sikhs are upon

the whole the largest men, although they are not so stout-limbed or

in certain respects quite so robust as the Affghan Pathans. Perhaps

the larger population to choose from may have something to do

With the superior size, but I should say that on dn average they are

taller than Pathans, with the upper part of the body especially well

developed. In pluck and Military qualities they excel the fairer and

82 The Ethnology of India.

in some degree more beautiful non-Pathan races of the northern

hills. Altogether then they are not excelled by any race in Asia.

There is among them a large proportion of High-Arian feature,

but there is much more variety and not so universal a high-nosed

type as among the men of the frontier hills. Compared to northern races

they are dark, but in every other respect they are, take them all in all,

a very remarkably fine handsome people.

They are as energetic in the arts of peace as in those of war.

There are no better cultivators; hard-working and thrifty, they let

little land lie waste, and pay their revenue punctually. They have

this great advantage too that among them a woman is almost as good

as a man, works as well and makes herself as generally useful. They —

are not literary, they leave that, with proper mercantile business, to the

Khatrees (to be afterwards noticed). But many men and some women ~

can read and write in their own rough way, and as waggoners they

not unfrequently carry their grain and other goods to distant markets

on their own account. |

They have an excessive craving after fixed ownership in the soil,

and are essentially agriculturists. They seldom undertake a garden-

ing style of cultivation, and prefer broad high lands to more cramped

though moister locations. Where the country is more fitted for

cattle, they breed them largely, and both ordinary carts and large ©

mercantile waggons are generally plentiful in the Jat countries.

Camels too they sometimes breed. But still, in India the Jats have

never anything of the pastoral, roving, Gypsy-like character.

I have alluded to the democratic institutions of the Jats, institu-_

tions to which we do not find allusions in the books of the Bramins. .

Yet it is certain that such institutions prevailed in the North of j

India as early as the time of Alexander the Great. The Greel =

accounts are distinct on the point. They represent the institutions —

as in fact extremely democratic, and add that the Indians ascribed

their free constitution to Bacchus, by whom they were led into the

country. I mentioned Col. Tod’s testimony to the former oxistongl

of Jat republics in great part of what is now Rajpootana. I know —

of only one recognised republican State which came down to ot i

day, that of ‘Phool’ or ‘ Maraj,’ from which sprung the chiefs vin

founded the States of Patteealah, Nabah, Jheend, &c, The old terr

The Ethnology of India. 83

tory of the Phoolkeean race was recognised, and treated, among the

Protected Sikh States, as a regular republic. But I fear that, with

many less creditable institutions, it has now been brought under the

general rule of British dominion.

However, States apart, every Jat village is on a small scale a demo-

cratic republic. As respects property, there is neither that common

tribal right which we find among the wilder Arabs, Turcomans, and

New Zealanders, nor that complete joint family which figures so

largely in the Hindu Law of the Braminical sages. Every man has

his share of the cultivated land, separate and divided. It may be that

a father and sons cultivate in common, but entire commensality

_ seldom goes farther. The union in a joint village community is

rather the political union of the Commune, so well known in Europe,

than a common enjoyment of property. The village site, the waste

lands and grazing grounds, and it may be one or two other things

- belong to the commune, and the members of the commune have in

i these rights of common. For all the purposes of cultivation, the

_ remainder of the land is in every way separate individual property.

} And the government of the commune is no patriarched rule, but

_ simply representative government. A Communal Council or Punchayet

tules by right of representation. For the rest, the laws of these people

j are of Arian, Indo-Germanic, and to some extent of the more liberal

Hindu type. Marriage is a sacred and irrevocable bond, though

“remarriage of widows is permitted; and alliances are restricted by

q and exclusive marriage, prevails among the Jats. Property is equally

divided among sons. Daughters get nothing but that which may be

‘given to them at the time of marriage. All the Jats are divided into

wm any Gentes and Tribes, after the universal fashion of the peoples of

t ‘th his stock, and the usual fashion is to marry into another Gens. |

In that portion of the Protected Sikh Territories which Sikhs

from the Lahore country had occupied as conquerors, there was a

perfect feudal system. The chief of a tribe, as General, had a large

appanage; smaller chiefs owed him allegiance and service for their

smaller domains, and under-holders under them again (all holding on

@ permanent hereditary tenure), till we come to the tenure of a single

84 The Ethnology of India.

horseman. ‘These latter again have come to be divided under the

operation of the rules of inheritance, But this system, it will be

observed, is only adopted abroad for purposes of foreign domination.

Beyond the caste system common to them with most Indo-Germans,

the Jats have very little of the ceremonial strictness of Hindu caste.

In Punjabee Regiments, they mess freely like Kuropeans, and have their

comfortable two or three meals a day.

The Jats sometimes claim to have been originally Rajpoots, and it

is so stated in some of the written accounts; but that is only one of

the many stories of the kind prompted by a desire to stand high in

the Hindu scale, and its futility is illustrated by a counter-story

told by some of the Mahommedan Jats, viz. that they are descended ©

from one of the companions of the prophet. That the Jats and —

Rajpoots and their congeners are branches of one great stock, I have

no doubt. It may be possible that the Rajpoots are Jats who have

advanced farther into Hindustan, have there more intermingled with —

Hindu races, have become more high and strict Hindus, and achieved —

earlier power and glory. But that the Jats are Rajpoots who have

receded from a higher Hindu position, is a theory for which there is —

not the least support, and which is contradicted by every feature i In

the present position of the now rapidly progressing Jats. |

The suggestion that Rajpoots may be Jats more highly developed

_ in a Hindu point of view, would make the latter the earliest and most

primitive, though at the same time perhaps the purest of the race;

just as I have supposed the Bramins of Cashmere and the Frontier

hills to be Hindus of an earlier stage of Braminical development. j

But I am more inclined to suppose the Jats to be later immigrants”

from Central or Western Asia. The character of the northern hills

is such that immigration from thence could only gradually filtrate

into the plains; but by the passes of the Bolan, great immigrations

are possible. Looking at the area of Jat occupation, it is just that

which we might suppose to be covered by the steady flow of a large

flood of population issuing from the Bolan, about Lat. 28° or 30°, as

from a funnel, and thence spreading over the plains and pushing

away before it other populations. The Rajpoots, again, when I come 4

to treat of them, will be found to be ranged in a kind of horse shoe 4

form round the outer edge of the Jat area, the mass of them occu>

The Ethnology of India, ) 85

pying the richer valley of the Ganges. My conjecture is that the

Rajpoots are an earlier wave from the same source, and who came in

by the same route, who have farther advanced and have been more

completely Hinduised, while the Jats have come in behind them.

The Jat or Punjabee language is but a dialect, bearing somewhat

the same relation to the Hindee of the Rajpoots and other Hindustanees

that Lowland Scotch bears to English. In its main grammatical and

essential features it is not widely different. There are certainly in it

many words which sound strange to a European only superficially

acquainted with the common Hindustanee, and it would be very

interesting to examine all these words and ascertain whether any and

what foreign elements can be found. But I may state broadly that

by far the greater number of these words are really of plain Sanscrit

origin, and very many of them are quite familiar to those well

acquainted with the purer Hindee dialects. I have been surprised to

find how Sanscrit are most of the words which (little linguist that

Iam) I had supposed to be peculiarly Punjabee. Indeed the Rev.

_ Mr. Trump broadly states the Jat language to be one of the most

- Pracrit of Indian Vernaculars, and so it clearly is. There remains

_ the old question which concerns it equally with the Hindee, whether

_ the grammar can be derived from the Sanscrit. It seems very im-

_ probable that so great a mass of people as the Jats should have lost

all traces of a separate language, if they ever had one. If so, it may

surely be recognised in some Punjabee words. For the rest, the

| or y doubt seems to be whether the Jats and Rajpoots, speaking an

“Tndo-Germanic tongue allied to the Sanscrit, may have brought with

them the grammar which now distinguishes the Punjabee and

Hindee ; or whether the Bramins, when they spread wide over

“Hindustan and mixed among a large Aboriginal population, adopted

some Aboriginal grammar, and fitted into it their own vocabulary,

making a language which Jats and Rajpoots also have received in.

ndia; or whether in fact all these tribes have derived a common

Fongre by direct Pracrit descent from the Sanscrit.

Tue Raspoorts.

a have already made so many allusions to the Rajpoots, that I have

half anticipated my description of them. The best proof that they

86 The Ethnology of India.

are not a part of the original Hindu system, but rather something

engrafted upon it, is (I think) to be found in the difficulty of defining

what is and what is not a Rajpoot. I have already shown, in noticing

many tribes, that it is almost impossible to say where the Rajpoots

begin and where they end. I shall now, however, confine myself as

far as possible to the tribes who are generally acknowledged to be

real Rajpoots of blue blood.

They can scarcely be said to have any broad general tribal name

like that of the Jats. It is hardly contended that they are really the

old Kshatryas of the early Braminical accounts; and though, in a

military point of view, they have occupied and more than occupied

the place assigned to the Kshatryas, still their numbers, their position

and the existence among them of the institutions shared with them

by the Jats and unknown to the old Hindoo Shasters (in them we ©

find no trace of democracy) would all go to show that the Rajpoots

are another race. In fact the days of the Kshatryas were those of the —

earliest Hindu annals, many hundred years before Christ, while the

Rajpoots may be considered to have been the immediate predecessors

of the Mahommedans in the rule of Hindustan. Except then in

an affected way and with direct reference to the old Sanscrit Nomen-

clature, the Rajpoots are not usually called ‘ Kshatryas,’ while the

name Rajpoot also is by no means universal among them, and merely

means ‘Son of a Raja’ or ‘ Royal.’ In some parts of the country,

they usually call themselves ‘ Thakoors,’ a word which also means:

Chiefs or Nobles.

They are more frequently known by the names of their tribes

as ‘Chouhans,’ ‘ Soorujbansees,’ ‘ Bais,’ ‘ Rahtores,’ ‘ Baghels’ (or

Waghels’) or the like, but the practice of marrying into another tribe

makes all these high-caste tribes identical for ethnological purpony

I shall continue, then, to call them Rajpoots.

They are chiefly known to Europeans in their military character 3

and as feudal conquerors. But in reality, in their own villages im i

the plains of the Ganges, they are simple agriculturalists of a con-

stitution very much like that of the J ats, only less pure and complete. —

The fact is that the Rajpoots have had their day, and are now roa

down-going race. Partly the furnishing of armies and feudal hosts —

has exhausted the material and corrupted the simplicity of their ori-

The Ethnology of India. 87

ginal villages ; partly infanticide and other causes tend to diminish

their numbers; the result of all which is, that over great tracts of

country we find them rather a minority trying to maintain a failing

rule over a scarcely subject majority, than forming full democratie

bodies of free Rajpoots. Still, in some parts of the country the

agricultural Rajpoot villages are strong and numerous; the land is

divided among them, every Rajpoot is free and equal, and the commune

is administered on democratic principles. Wherever this is so, their

_ institutions are like those ofthe Jats. Although they have never cared

much for Bramins, they have, unlike the Jats, the ceremonies and

" superstitions of Hindu caste. They cook once a day with ‘great fuss

and form, almost every man for himself after the most approved

_ Hindustanee fashion, and are very particular about caste-marks, &. &e,

_ Their widows may not remarry, and it is their excessive point of

honour to marry their daughters to none but men of the best tribes

(a feeling allied to our chivalry no doubt) that renders the daughters

such a burden to them, and makes female infanticide unfortunately so

common among them. Their wives again are shut up after the

~ Mahommedan fashion, and are lost for agricultural labour. Altogether

Rajpoot females are a very unsatisfactory institution, and this goes

far to weigh down and give a comparatively bad name to men who

who are often industrious enough.

Like the Jats, the Rajpoots are not found in any numbers to the

North of the Salt Range, nor are they inany of the hill country west

‘of the Jhelum.* If they ever occupied the Western Punjab, they have

been driven forward by the Jats, and they are nowonly found about

the Salt Range itself, where a small tribe called Jhanjhooas’ (now

“Mahommedans) represents a Rajpoot race that seems to have been

“once great in those parts. But in the North-Hastern Punjab near

the hills, the Rajpoot population is (as I have already noticed) more

numerous, and the Himalayas of the Jummoo and Kangra districts

are occupied by Hindu Rajpoots who are there altogether the domi-

nant race. I do not know if the highest Rajpoots to the south east

_* It was somewhere suggested that the Gadoons or Jadoons just over the

| Indus, where that river issues from the Himalayas near Torbela, are Rajpoots,

but that seems to be a mere conjecture, founded on a fancied resemblance to

the name of a Rajpoot tribe. There is not the least doubt that the Gadoons

| are pure Pushtoo-speaking Pathans,

88 | The Ethnology of India.

would admit the equality, but the Kangra and Jummoo Rajas and

their clans affect among themselves to be of very blue blood indeed, and

they are certainly very fine handsome men. The Kangra Rajpoots in

particular are very fair and handsome and High-Arian looking. I

fancy that in all these hills, for a considerable distance to the east,

there is a great deal of Kashmeeree or rather old Kasha blood. The

women of the hills are in deserved repute and much sought after —

in the plains. The Kangra Rajas have endless genealogies, but I

think that their clansmen are somewhat effeminate looking and not

very first rate soldiers. The men of the Jummoo country, the im- |

mediate clansmen and subjects of the Maharaja of Cashmere, (and

who also occupy the west of the Kangra district), commonly called

Dogras, are not spoken of with so much Hindoo respect, and are not

so pretty and be-jewelled looking as the Kangra men, but they are

much more robust and brave. In the Punjab force, no men are pre-

ferred to them as soldiers ; they are quiet, staunch, steady and reliable,

without the disagreeable Hindustanee airs of the old Sepoy Rajpoots.

The Rajpoot population of these hills must be very considerable.

Fast of the Sutlej, in the Simla hills, many of the Rajas and their

followers are Rajpoots, but most of the agriculturalists are of anothe

caste called Kanaits. 3

A large proportion of the Rajpoots scattered about the Hastern

Punjab, Cis-Sutlej territory, and Dehli districts are now Mahomme-

dans, as are occasional Rajpoot villages all over Hindustan and a good

many Rajpoot Rajas, this being no doubt the result of the favour

shown to the Rajpoots by the Mogul Emperors; but east of Dehli

conversion is quite the exception, by far the greater number are

staunch Hindus. ;

In the Gangetic valley the body of the Rajpoot population may

be said to lie next to the Jats to the east, in the middle Doab,

Rohilcund, and Oude; and still farther east the country is shared

with a Bramin population. Before Rohilcund (given as a jagheer t

Rohillas) acquired its present name, it was known as the Rajpoot

Province of Katerh, and to the present day in all lower Rohilev nd

the Rajpoot communities, (they are there called Thakoors) are strong

and numerous. They are also numerous in Western Oude, but fo1

what reason I know not, neither the Rohileund men nor those of

The Ethnology of India. 89

Western Oude entered the Sepoy Army in large numbers. In the

Central Doab, in the districts of Mynpooree, Futtehgurh, Etawah, &c.

-Rajpoots are numerous, and a good many of them served in the army.

The Raja of Mynpooree is, I think, one of the highest of the famous

Chouhan clan. The lower Doab is, as I have before noticed, more a

- Bramin country ; but Eastern Oude, especially most of the broad tract

between the Gogra and the Ganges, is the home of the great Rajpoot

population which supplied so large a proportion of the Sepoy Army.

At home these Rajpoots are by no means a loose military class, but

a purely agricultural population. The prejudice against the particular

act of holding the plough which so many of them affect, is reduced

“to the narrowest possible limits, and many ex-Sepoys may now be

seen grubbing up weeds, raising water by manual labour, and performing

all the lowest agricultural functions. Baiswara, the country of the

. Bais Rajpoots, lying almost parallel to the Bramin country of the

ower Doab, is a famous nursery of Sepoys. In all this part of the

country, so far as there still subsist ancient superior rights in the

‘land, they belong to the heads of Rajpoot clans.

_ Some of the inferior clansmen hold subordinate tenures and village

5 proprietorships, but the great mass of the Rajpoots of Oude are now

teduced to the position of mere ryots, in which capacity they are

“much intermixed with Bramins. Many of the superior rights have

7 passed away to modern men.

q 4 Passing to the east of Oude, Rajpoots are pretty numerous in

Azimghur and Ghazeepore, but, as I have already mentioned, in the

‘Surrounding districts and those farther to east, the chief Rajas and

‘landholders are the bastard Bramins or ‘Bhamuns’ whose clansmen

abound in Behar. In the Arrah district only (in the east) in the small

Doab between the Soane and the Ganges, the Rajpoots are strong and

numerous. Their leader was the famous rebel landholder, Koer Sing,

| nd they supplied to the Native Army the numerous class known

| as ‘ Bhojpore’ Sepoys.

This is almost the limit of Rajpoot ethnological occupation to the

| east, but turning round to the south-west, the Raja of Rewah is

| chief of the Baghel Rajpoots (whence his country is called Bagheleund),

and has no doubt a numerous following of his clansmen, though

Aborigines on one side and Bramins on another are also numerous in

50 The Ethnology cf India.

his territory. The Boondeelas of Bundlecund are not, I believe, con-

sidered to be very pure Rajpoots; they have probably suffered some

intermixture, but they are notoriously bold and martial, form a domi-

nant aristocracy, and used to be very troublesome to us. I do not

know the proportion of Rajpoot population in Scindia’s territories to

the west, but believe that it is numerous. In Malwa, Rajpoots of the

Rahtore, Chouhan, Sesodya and other clans form a large proportion of

the population, and all the surrounding hilly country which is not~

held by pure Aborigines seems to have been from very old times in —

the possession of Rajpoot or semi-Rajpoot chiefs. The Mewar or ©

Oodeypore Rajpoots, occupying a strong and elevated country in the

west, claim to be the most ancient of the race; and I have seen it

stated that some of the western Rajpoots are comparatively fair, with

light or grey eyes. Ii so, that would seem to indicate that they

reached their present location by a direct route from the west, and

not by doubling back from the Ganges, as is supposed to have been

the case in northern Rajpootana. a

In the history of Guzerat the Raipoots are very famous, and many

of them seem to have been of the same high-caste tribes whose blood

is reputed the best in the east, the Waghels, for instance, being (it

appears) the same as the Baghels. They are evidently still numerous,

but I have not been able to ascertain what proportion of the popula

tion they form, and to what extent they take part in the actual cul-

tivation. Forbes does not speak of them as if they were among the

most numerous cultivators. ;

In Kathywar, Rajpoots seem to be numerous, and from the practice

of infanticide we may suppose that they consider themselves high-

easte, but I cannot exactly make out whether the Kathis are counted

as Rajpoots, or whether the many petty chiefs of Kathywar are prin-

cipally Kathis or proper Rajpoots. The Kathis seem to have been

undoubtedly immigrants from the west and at one time neighbo 1S

and allies of Jats. a

In Lower Scinde there are undoubted traces of ancient Rajpoot

rule, and the Summa Rajpoots ruled more recently under the Mahom- |

medan emperors. Farther west, in Beloochistan, there seem to be

traces of Hindu rule of a character more orthodox than that of the

Jats, but whether the Rajpoots ever had dominion there, I am unable

to say. a:

Tne Ethnology of India. 91

~ Looking back, it will be seen that (as I before said would be the

case) I have traced the Rajpoots all round the edge of the more com-

pact mass of the Jat population ;—from the Salt Range through the

Northern Punjab and adjoining hills to Rohileund, Oude and the

Centre Doab; thence by Bundlecund through Scindia’s territory,

Malwa, Mewar, Guzerat and Kattywar into Lower Scinde.

There remains in the centre of this circuit the greater part of Raj-

_ pootana which I have described as ethnologically more Jat than

Rajpoot, though the Rajpoots now rule, after doubling back from the

Ganges. They form a numerous and dominant aristocracy, organised

on the feudal principles necessary to domination.

Though a full and complete Rajpoot village mainly inhabited by

Rajpoots is democratic in its constitution, I have never heard of a

- Rajpoot Republic on a larger scale ; and whether it be from long habits

of domination by means of a feudal system, from the imbibing of a

Hindu spirit, or from their original genius, they seem to be more than

- the Jats given to suffer the rule of Rajas and Chiefs. In Rajpootana,

however, the chief seems generally to be but a chief, and not a despotie

ruler. Numerous fiefs are held by subordinate chiefs, who are again

surrounded by Military followers holding many petty jagheers and

grants of land on a hereditary service tenure. It may well be sup-

posed that under such circumstances, when the British peace-preserv-

ing power is at all relaxed, the authority of the chiefs is very apt to

ollapse. They never could hold their own against the Marattas.

Sut still, as a quasi-chivalrous aristocracy, with their bards, and

genealogies, and military get-up, and contests about the possession

f high-caste young ladies, they make a very pretty picture.

j The normal Rajpoot, however, to my view is, as I have said, the

iltivator of the Gangetic valley, where, at the eastern extremity. of

he horse-shoe which I have described, they spread out in a broad

egion into a large population. Physically I do not know any strik-

‘ing features which broadly distinguish the Gangetic Rajpoot’ from

. 4 lis neighbour the Gangetic Bramin. In a Sepoy Regiment, setting

aside caste marks, &c., I doubt whether they could be distinguished,

They are both in fact the type of the higher class of the modern

Hindustance population. Both are tall men, though in the native

| army Commanding Officers went in too much for height, and many

92 The Ethnoloyy of India.

of the unpadded recruits looked at first rather lanky. The modern

Rajpoots are quite as Hindu as, and a good deal more prejudiced

than, the Bramins. In their own villages they are pleasant good

fellows enough, but as Sepoys they were a disagreeable overbear-

ing set, and, so far as L[ can gather, were upon the whole about the

worst class in the mutiny. .

As agriculturalists their style of cultivation, &c., is much the same

as that of the Jats, although very greatly inferior. They are very

fond of land, and do not affect the finer garden cultivation but the

broad farming style of agriculture. They also keep cattle when the

country is fitted for it, and are very fond of laying their hands on

other people’s cattle when they have the chance,—a weakness from

which the Jats also are not altogether free.

They are as a rule wholly un-literary, and very much confine them-

selves to the two professions of agriculture and arms.

The Rajpoots everywhere speak dialects of the ordinary Hindee. —

I am not aware that any traces of any other language have ever been

found among them.

Tue Koonsers orn KoorMEzs.

To the south of the Rajpoots and Jats, the country is mainly occu-_

pied by the class above mentioned. In all the central and eastern

parts of the N. W. Provinces, or in fact of Hindustan generally, the

Koormees are scattered about in considerable numbers as a well-

known and-very industrious class of quiet cultivators. They own

villages of their own, and are also more widely spread in detached

families or groups of families. They affect the finer garden style

of cultivation much more than Jats and Rajpoots, and like the Jats

are assisted by industrious women. .

As I shall afterwards notice, the Koonbees seem to be nearly con-

nected with the Mallies, whose name we apply to the whole profession

of gardeners.

The name is variously written, Koormee or Coormee, Kunabi,

Kunbee or Koonbee, and there is no doubt that the terms are syno:

nymous.

In Hindustan the Koormees do not go much beyond their own

agricultural calling, but they are not absolutely unknown as Sepoys,

The Ethnology of India. 93

and they have occasionally, though rarely, risen to higher posts, espe-

cially one somewhat notorious family in Oude. In fact, in the

Gangetic valley the Koormees, though much appreciated as cultivators,

are somewhat looked down upon by the higher castes as mere humble

tillers of the soil. If we proceed south from the Lower Doab, towards

_ the Jubbulpore and Saugor territories, Koormees become more numer-

ous, and there are hereabouts a good many ‘ Lodhas,’ a tribe appa-

rently cognate to Koormees, and who are also pretty well known in the

_ North West Provinces. They seem in this part of the Central Provin-

ces to have at one time occupied a very considerable position.

_ Thence westwards, on both sides of the Nerbudda, and still farther

west to the north of the Nerbudda in parts of Malwa, that is in fact

throughout the southern borders of Hindustan, Hindee-speaking

Koormees are very numerous. In most of this country they are the

chief cultivating class. In Malwa they meet the Jats and share with

them the character of the most respectable and industrious cultivators.

5 In Rajpootana there is a cultivating class called ‘ Pittuls’ who are

i supposed to be Koormees under another name.

Farther west in Guzerat the Koonbees form the main body of the

best cultivating population. They seem to be in the main the owners

_ Throughout the whole of the Maratta country, the Koonbees are

the main agricultural and landholding tribe. Here also they generally

“are quiet simple agriculturalists, but the Maratta Koonbees do not seem

to be so energetic and good in this way as their northern congeners,

% agreed that the abies are decidedly superior in te ane agri-

| cultural energy.

| I have seen an allusion to Telinga Koonbees in the north-eastern

q ortion of the Nizam’s territory, in the country down the Godavery

| b low the limits of the Maratta tongue, but whether these are really

| Telingas of this caste, or whether the word is only used to express

| Telinga cultivators, I am not sure.

94 The Ethnology of India.

In Hindustan the Koormees, as a lower class, are on an average

darker and less good looking than Bramins and Rajpoots, but still

they are quite Arian in their features, institutions, and manners. So

they are in the Maratta country ; indeed the Marattas are still known

to the people of the south as ‘ Aryas,’ but they have probably towards

the south a larger intermixture of Aboriginal blood, and it is noto-

rious that the Marattas are small men compared to the northern tribes.

The constitution of the Koonbees seems to be less democratic than

that of Jats and Rajpoots. In the Maratta country (and indeed in

the countries to the north of that also) the villages are for the most

part ruled by hereditary patels or headmen without much trace of

representation, so far as I could learn, and individual property in land

has been in many parts subject to many changes and vicissitudes.

Nothing puzzled me more than this, viz. to understand whence came —

the great Maratta Military element. In the Punjab one can easily —

understand the sources of Sikh power ; every peasant looks fit to be a

soldier. But the great mass of the Maratta Koonbees look like

nothing of the kind, and are the quietest and most obedient of hum-

ble and unwarlike cultivators. On inquiry I gathered that in fact

throughout by far the greater part of the Maratta-speaking country,

all through Nagpore, Berar, and the Northern Bombay districts, the ~

agricultural Koonbees furnish very few soldiers, nor ever did furnish

many. Although the Koonbee element was the foundation of the -

Maratta power, though Sevajee and some of his chiefs were Koonbees,

it appears that these people came almost exclusively from a compara-=

tively small district near Sattara, a hilly region where, as I judge, the

Koonbees are very much mixed with numerous aboriginal and semi-

aboriginal tribes of Mhars and others, and where, losing with the

intermixture many of their agricultural virtues, they acquired more of

the qualities of predatory soldiers. It is notorious that Sevajee

relied principally on his ‘ Mawallees’ of the Western Ghats, who were

apparently little better than non-descript predatory tribes. In their

best days, it does not appear that the Marattas were ever Koonbees:

to the same extent and in the same sense that the Sikhs were Jats.

In fact the Maratta confederacy was more a political than a personal

union. Many of the oldest chiefs were not Koonbees. Holkar was of

the shepherd, and the Guickwar was of the cow-herd caste. All these

The Ethnology of India. 95

as well as the Koonbees were quite illiterate, and would have done

little without the directing power of the Bramins. When they were

farther advanced, the Maratta forces seem to have been mere mercen-

ary armies, a congregation of every loose fortune-seeker of every race

and class, Mahommedans included, with a nucleus of the population of

Sattara and Poonah, from which the proper Maratta chiefs had sprung.

Take them all in all, I think that the Koonbees must be considered

one of the most important as well as one of the most useful and most

easily governed tribes in India. A great territory is in the main

theirs, extending from about 23° or 24° to about 16° Lat., and from the

western frontiers of Guzerat to the countries watered by the Wyngunga

and the Middle Godavery, and the upper streams of the Nerbudda.

OruerR AGRICULTURAL TRIBES.

I have traced the Jats, Rajpoots, and Koonbees as the three chief

territorial tribes peculiar to Northern India. I must now go back to

- notice other landowning tribes intermixed with them.

I shall take first the farming tribes, apt in the use of arms and of a

- constitution similar to the Jats and Rajpoots; these are principally

- found in the Punjab. Second, the tribes more or less pastoral in their

proclivities, though now almost universally settled in agricultural

- communities. Third, the fine-farming or gardening tribes.

Ihave noticed how much the Salt Range seems to be the northern

limit of both Jats and Rajpoots. The people north of this range are

_agreat puzzle. They are those who seem to me the finest and hand-

somest in India, perhaps in the world. They are all now Mahom-

_ medans, but are wholly Indian in their language, habits, manners,

and constitutions. There can, I think, be no doubt of that ; the line

between them and their Pathan neighbours is very distinctly drawn,

3 the languages especially being totally different. Knowing the

Pathans so well, any relationship with them is never suggested ; a

Pathan is with them a Pathan, and a man of another tribe 1s not a

| . But they have fanciful Mussulman genealogies, the

| = and Tanaolees from the Caliph Abbas, the Kurrals from

| Alexander the Great, the Awans from Roostam and the Gukkurs

| from some other Persian hero.

_ There are a large number of petty tribes, very like one another, but

96 The Ethnology of India,

known by their own tribal names only ; they have no common appel-

lation. On the one hand much in their features, &c. would seem to show

that they have kindred with the Kashmeerees or with the pre-Hindu

congeners of the earlier Indians found in the hills farther west; on the

other hand, their language and character, dress, and the architecture

of their houses would indicate that they are nearly allied to the

Punjabees. The language is altogether Punjabee. In these respects

they wholly differ from Kashmeerees. Jats and Rajpoots are so well

known that one would think that if they belonged to those tribes,

they would say so. As it is, the only tribe which admits a Hindu- —

stanee origin, is that which seems to have the least claim to it, the

Dilazaks, the predecessors of the present Pathan tribes in the Peshawar

valley, and who seem to have themselves so considerable an infusion —

of Pathan blood that it has been doubted whether they are not earlier —

Pathans.

The Swattees too, the people driven out of Swat by the Euzofzyes,

though in the main of the blood which supplied the early Indians, ~

must be considered pre-Hindus, and have now a considerable Pathan ~

intermixture.

The Gukkurs were the rulers of the Rawal Pindee district in com-

paratively modern times. They might possibly be foreign conquerors,

but if so, it would seem singular that they should have completely —

lost their language, and so entirely assimilated to those around them. —

In appearance I do not think Gukkurs could be distinguished from

Awans. JBoth are very large fine men, but not exceedingly fair, in-

habiting as they do a dry, bare, rather low country, hot in summer,

The Awans are the most numerous of these frontier tribes, and the

best ; there is no finer people in India. They are settled in large”

agricultural communities in the ‘ Chuch’ plain, immediately facing

the Peshawur valley on this side the Indus, and are also found in

smaller bodies somewhat to the east, in the Jhelum, Guzerat, and

Sealkot districts. They are good soldiers as well as good cultivators,

and might be taken for the best class of Jats. 7

The Dhoonds and Tanaolees are to the north in the outer range

of the Himalaya and about the Indus near Torbela. I have not been

in the Tanaolee country, but the Dhoonds seemed to me to be the hand-

somest among handsome tribes. It is to be remarked, however, tha

The Ethnology of India. 97

in the country far towards the frontier in this direction, the people

who are the fairest and handsomest, are not considered the most |

plucky and trustworthy ; the blood of Cashmere and Swat does not

seem altogether to tend to these latter qualities. I cannot attempt

to trace the minor tribes of Alpials, &. &c. &e. Both the Awans

of the lower lands and the Dhoonds, &c. of the higher lands seem

to have democratic village constitutions.

Till we know something of the language of the tribes of the hills

west of Cashmere, it would not be safe to speculate on the origin of

the people of this corner of India. If the language of the hills is

_ nearly allied to the Hindee and the Punjabee, we may suppose that

4 these are Indianised tribes from the same source. If on the other

2 hand the hill tribes speak a tongue of an earlier Arian form, then we

i: must look to people of the blood of the Jats and Rajpoots for the

introduction of the Hindee form of speech both here and in the rest

- of Hindustan. Looking to the want of any proper tribal name of

_ the Rajpoots, it might be that before they became famous in Hindu

story, some of them occupying the Punjab surmounted the Salt Range

and mixing with some aboriginal Caucasians, formed the present

tribes. Nowhere is there room for more interesting inquiry than in

this direction.

- Passing farther down in the Punjab I only remember one class of

the character that I am now describing, the Doghurs, a Mahommedan

tribe found near the Sutlej, fine, good-looking, high-featured men, but

"not very reliable and rather given to cattle-lifting. I do not know

In the Simla hills, most of the land is held by a local tribe called

Kanaits. They are inferior in position to Rajpoots, more perhaps of

the level of Koormees and Lodhas, but they are often educated, and

‘men of this class are generally ministers to the Rajpoot chiefs. In

| e rtain places there is a partial and local practice of polyandry among

them, but it is not the general custom of the tribe. All those who

| are not (in the upper hills) in contact with Tartars are quite Arian,

though not very large ; the women very nice-looking.

98 The Ethnology of India.

It will also, I think, be proper to mention the Indian Pathans,

before I leave my present class of Fighting-Farmers.

I do not now touch on the proper Pushtoo-speaking Pathans. I do

not reckon them as Indian, and all the Pathans beyond the Indus, as

well as a few on this side (in the north of the Hazareh District and

west of that of Rawal Pindee), are Pushtoo-speakers. The Pathans

are the only Central-Asiatic people who have in comparatively

modern times colonised to a considerable extent in India. They have

never come in large bodies, nor occupied any large tracts at any one

spot, but Affghanistan has always been as it were the base of opera-

tions of all the successive Mahommedan Empires in India; and from

that base Pathans have immigrated in the service or under the pro-

tection of Mahommedan rulers, and have settled themselves here and

there at many places. throughout Northern India and even in some

places in Southern India. They are not nearly so much mere Urban

fortune-seekers as other Mahommedans, but are generally settled in

villages, in many of which they own and cultivate the soil, and in

some of which they form large brotherhoods, approaching those of —

Jats and Rajpoots. Their constitution and mades of government also

seem to me to be in these villages very similar. They have been

generally a favoured class who have had in places a good deal of

jagheer and rent-free land, and still look a good deal to service, but

many of them pay their rent or revenue by honest cultivation like

sf % FH acre Or Sree Oe

ee &5

any one else. Indian society is a wonderful solvent and absorbent; —

every one who long lives in it, becomes Indianised; and so all the

Pathan colonists, even those whose immigrations are matter of recent —

history, are essentially Indian, not Affghan. Among Indians, they

have very marked characteristics, but their nationality is changed, and

the Pathans from the Frontier, who came down in the mutiny times, —

utterly refused to acknowledge the proudest Indian Pathans as

having anything in common with themselves, and chopped off their —

heads with the utmost non-chalance. In many respects, however, the

Indian Pathans are a very great improvement on the wilder Pathans

of the Frontier. They are very much more civilised and educated.

In India, in fact, the Pathans are quite an aristocratic class. Not-

withstanding the wide door to corruption of blood opened by the

Mahommedan laws of marriage, they are still a very handsome people; |

The Ethnology of India. 99

a large proportion of them are in a respectable well-to-do position,

and many of them are very well educated. After all a well-educated

Mahommedan has much more in common with us than most Hindus,

and comes much nearer our idea of a gentleman. It may be, too, that

these Pathans retain some little trace of that non-Indian character

which makes us readily become familiar with Affghans. Altogether

I have no hesitation in saying that (putting the Punjab apart), among

Hindustanees, the Pathans are by far the best class with whom we

come in contact. They have always been very numerous in our

Irregular Cavalry and also had a large share in our Civil Service. I

shall be sorry, if, partly on account of the more insinuating and it

may be in some respects sharper character of subservient Hindus, and

partly from the difficulty of imposing our education on those who

have already an education of their own, these and other Mahommedans

are gradually extruded from the public service.

Pathan settlements are dotted here and there about the Punjab,

but they are not very numerous. In Hindustan they are more

«so. They are found about Dehli, and are very numerous in the

Upper Doab and Rohilcund, though it must not be supposed that

_ the latter is really a Rohilla country ; it is only a Rohilla jagheer, and

the Pathans, though positively numerous, are relatively but a small

minority of the population. It may be mentioned that the term

* Rohilla’ does not signify any particular tribe, but is applied in India

to Pathans generally, meaning apparently “‘ mountaineer.”” The Rohil-

cund and Dehli Provinces are the chief nurseries of Pathan soldiers,

&e., but all over Hindustan, and indeed all over India, Pathan Princi-

‘palities and Jagheers, Pathan settlements, and Pathan families are

found here and there.

It will be well here to dispose of the other Mahommedan settlers,

that is, Mahommedans who do not own or cannot be traced toa

Hindu origin. With the exception of the Pathans, their origin is,

in fact, generally obscure and doubtless very mixed.

The name of Mogul is assumed by but few, and whatever the word

may originally have been, it must be understood that it does not now

in India in any degree mean ‘ Mongol.’ There is no ethnological

trace of Mongol immigration into India. Even the leaders who

inherited Mongol claims had, in fact, changed their blood in passing

100 The Ethnology of India.

through Persian and Affghan peoples. And on the Frontier, the term

Mogul is now applied to Persian-speakers, as distinguished from

Pushtoo-speaking Pathans. Most people will there tell you that

‘Mogul’ means a Persian, but it is really a somewhat wider designa-

tion. In Cabul, the Mahommedan population is simply divided into

Pathans and Moguls (or non-Pathans), the latter being chiefly compos-

ed of Persian Kazzilbashes and the like. So then in the armies and

followings of the Emperors of Dehli, Foreigners were divided into

Pathans and Moguls; but while the Pathan settlers are many, the

Moguls are, as I have said, very few. =

In small Mahommedan countries there are numerous people claim-

img to be descendants of the prophet after the easy Mahommedan —

form of descent. Indian Syuds are generally mere loose waifs of -

low degree among the Urban population; but here and there we have |

considerable settlements of Syuds holding villages or jagheers, and

where these occur, they generally claim and maintain a good deal of

dignity and propriety, and are a superior and well educated, if some- i

times somewhat bigoted, class.

It is generally said that a ‘ Sheik’ means only a Mahommedan whem

is neither Pathan, Mogul, nor Syud. There are, however, a good

many respectable landholders, and some village communities who bea

the name of Sheiks; for instance, the old proprietors of Lucknow, when

it was but a village, were Sheiks. It is impossible to trace the

erigin of these people, much less that of the loose Urban Mahomme- —

dan population. But I think it may be said that, generally speaking, |

the Mahommedans retain among them considerable traces of north-

western origin. Dress and manners may have something to do with

it, and there are of course many exceptions, but on an average they

are fairer and show fewer marks of aboriginal intermixture than the

Hindus. High-Arian features are not unfrequently to be seen among

them. Even among those who do not directly claim to belong to 0

Pathan and other tribes of the North-West, one often sees handsome:

faces, features, and beards, such as would make good ‘ wise men of the

east,’ or the very best of our oriental imaginings. It is impossible to

attribute to these features, in Northern, Central and Hastern India, a

Semitic origin (on the South Western borders it is another matter), id

Lattribute them to the hilly countries of the North-Western Arians. —

The Ethnology of India. 101

Of the races which I call in some respect pastoral, I will take first

THe Goosars.

They have been long known to us as cultivators of predatory pro-

clivities in the country about Dehli, and after 50 years of enforced

peace and quietness, they distinguished themselves by breaking out

into wholesale plunder all over that district within a few hours of the

out-break of the mutiny, just as if the present generation had been

accustomed to it all their lives. However, we must take a wider

survey, for the Goojars are a far extending people, numerous in the

Punjab and on the Northern Frontier. In fact, they now extend

- farther to the North-West than any other Indian people. I understand

_ that they are still numerous in Swat and the adjacent hills, and they

_ are said to have been the original inhabitants and owners of part of

the Hazareh District, on this side the Indus, before they were in great

degree dispossessed by the Swattees, themselves pushed forward by

the Affghans. In the hills about Kashmere the Goojars are very

“numerous ; and there more than anywhere else they have an actual

- pastoral character, being apparently somewhat vagrant in their habits,

and at one season receiving the cattle of the Kashmeerees to graze,

while at another they bring their own down for sale. Perhaps

‘these are the Goojars who were dispossessed of their homes in

Hazareh. It is supposed that in the event of any disturbance in

kK ashmere, they might visit the valley for other than pastoral purposes.

! Descending into the plains of the Punjab, we find the Goojars about

Goojerat and the country thereabouts in very much better repute than

elsewhere, in fact they are there said to be among the best cultivators.

, They are very numerous, settled in prosperous communities, and give,

it appears, their name to the town and thence to the district of |

Goojerat. There might be some question whether the word is not

the Persian one, ‘ Goozerat,’ 7. e. ‘ Fords’ or ‘ Ferries,’ in allusion to

t 1e ferries over several rivers thereabouts, but I understand that it

is really Goojerat from Goojar. And there are frequent names in

the Punjab derived from the same source. In fact, Goojars are very

much mixed with Jats in all the northern, if not in all the Jat

country, and form a considerable proportion of the population. About

Dehli they are, as I have said, very numerous, and they are so in the

Meerut and Seharanpore Districts of the Doab. They are numerous

102 The Ethnology of India.

in all Northern Rajpootana, and extend into Malwa and the adjoining

parts of Central India.* They there extend as far east as Bundle-

cund, where one of the chiefs is.a Goojar.. But in the other

direction they do not approach Goozerat, and, so far as I can learn

have never been known there. I believe that the Bombay ‘ Goozerat’

is a name derived from some other source. Its proper form is said

to be Gurjarat, derived from ‘ Gurjar’ Princes. I do not know the

derivation of this last term, but there are Gwurjat Chiefs in the

Cuttack and Southern Nagpore territories, where there are no Goojars.

I fancy, however, that I have heard it said (though I cannot now

trace the source), that a similarity of names can be traced between

places in Goozerat and in the Punjab Goojerat. If that be really so,

it would open up an interesting inquiry. To prevent mistake, I q

should here notice that in the Bombay Presidency the word ‘ Goozar’

is used, not to signify a Goojar in the northern sense, but merely E

an inhabitant of Goozerat, as thus ‘Goozar Bramins,’ ‘ Goozar

Banians.’ :

The Goojars are generally a fair good looking people, especially —

towards the frontier, and have no aboriginal traces about them. —

Those located to the east trace their origin from the west. All, I

think, to the north of Dehli are now Mahommedans; but those to the

east and south of that place are sometimes half-Mahommedans, some- _

times a sort of Hindus, though of so lax a character that I believe —

they are hardly admitted within the pale, and are considered to be in 4

some degree a sect apart. They are sometimes said by the natives to

have a language of their own; at least so I was told in the aaah

It may not improbably be that this is only the patois of one province al

carried by them into another, but it would be interesting to inqaial

whether they may possibly have among themselves some sort of

Gypsy tongue. Their most proper calling seems to be the keeping

of cattle and buifaloes, not sheep ; but they do not generally exercise —

this as a mere caste profession among the Seren population. They

* The last Nagpore Prince is stated to have been a Goojar adopted into

the family, the son of ‘Nane Goojar, but I apprehend that there must be —

some mistake, as the Nagpore family were, I believe, Maratta Koonbees, of the

same race as the Sattara family. Hither ‘Goojar’ must be here a mere name

or title of the individual, or the allusion must be to some supposed indiscretion

of a lady of the family.

The Ethnology of India. 103

are usually settled in separate villages of their own, and in the absence

of pastoral * and predatory opportunities are cultivators, like other

tribes, though in most places indifferent ones.

I shall here just mention ‘ Mewattees,’ not because I am prepared

to class them as ‘ Pastorals,’ but because they are very frequently

classed with Goojars, as ‘‘ Goojars and Mewattees,” with reference to

their plundering propensities. In fact, although I have always been

familiar with Mewattees as a very thieving tribe of cultivators found

here and there along the south-western borders of the North West Pro-

vinces, I have not been able to make out what they really are. Theyseem

to come from the Central country, from somewhere in Rajpootana or

Central India, and their name might seem to indicate a connection

with Mewar. I have seen mention of ‘ Mewassees,’ hill chiefs, in those

_ parts, but don’t know if they are connected with the Mewattees. In

fact, the Alwar country near Dehli seems to have been of late

called ‘Mewat.’ Mewattees are mentioned as common in Malwa in

the characters of irregular soldiers and depredators. They extend

farther east than the Goojars. I think the villages razed to the

ground in the station of Allahabad, for their predatory activity in the

mutiny, were those of Mewattees. My impression is that they are

mostly Mahommedans and not bad looking, but in truth I know and

ean find very little about them.

The Goojars are succeeded as cattle-keepers to the east and south

by the ‘ Aheers,’ who seem to be the pastoral element of the Rajpoot

and Bramin countries, as the Goojars are of the Jat countries.

‘Aheers and Goojars are sometimes spoken of as if connected, but

that I believe is an error arising from mere coincidence of profession.

Meeting as they do in the country east and south of Dehli, they keep

entirely apart (in a social point of view), and are universally recognis-

ed as entirely separate and distinct castes, with no connection what-

ever. The Aheers are not a very strict sect of Hindus in the modern

sense, and their widows re-marry, but still they are decided Hindus

of the respectable position which their charge of the sacred animal

demands. In the strictest days of caste there were a good many

Aheers in the Sepoy army. They are good and upper-class-looking

Hindustanees. Like we Goojars, es are ae a mere cow-keeping

104 The Ethnology of India.

country are in considerable tracts almost the principal landholding

class. Under these circumstances they are very fair agri¢ulturalists,

only a little given to cattle-lifting, when opportunity offers. Besides

the Aheer villages, families of the caste are much spread about the

country as cultivators and herdsmen, ‘ Ghosees’ also, common as

buffaloe-keepers, are said to be related to the Aheers ; they are, I think,

Aheers converted to Mahommedansm. Except in the country occu-

pied by Jats and Goojars, Aheers are found all over Hindustan, but

do not generally extend east into Bengal. There are many of them

just between the proper Jat and the Rajpoot country about the

Ganges, to the east of Meerut and Allyghur, and on the other side

in part of Rohilcund, and they seem to extend into the south-east of :

Rajpootana and of the Dehli territory, and are found about the Jumna :

near Muttra, and in many places farther east. In the Benares and :

Behar Divisions there are also many of them.

Thence through Central India I am not prepared to say what pro- ~

portion of the population are Aheers, but they were certainly very

famous in old time on the Southern frontiers of Hindustan, in

Guzerat, and in the Maratta country. The famous Fort of Asseerghur

derives its name from Asa Aheer, a noted leader of this tribe, and

Aheers are still, I believe, found in those parts. They are said to

have been once powerful in Goozerat and to be still numerous in —

Kattywar. That western country is stated in fact to have been ~

formerly called ‘ Abhira’ or the country of the Aheers. And thenall

southwards, it seems probable that Aheers were one of the principal

Hindu races who along with the Bramins conquered and colonised

Southern India. Bramins and Herdsmen are said to have been the

first conquerors, and the Aheers may probably be the progenitors of

the cowherd castes who are still numerous in the Southern Districts,

One can only suppose Goozerat to have been a Goojar country, by

assuming Goojars and Aheers to have been originally identical, which —

at any rate would require that we should go back a very long way.

The subject is, however, worthy of inquiry. ¢

Besides the Aheers known in the Maratta Districts, there seems to

be in the south of that country and also in the Canarese country &

quiet respectable class of cultivators called ‘Dhangurs.’ The word

is translated ‘Shepherds,’ but I have also seen it stated that the

The Ethnology of India. 105

Dhangurs and Aheers are nearly the same. It would be well to

know more on the point.

In Hindustan sheep and goat herds, ‘ Gaderias,’ form a separate and

very inferior caste and profession. They have no villages of their

: own, but tend sheep in the villages in which they reside.

_ In Bengal Proper and Orissa, the Aheers are succeeded by the

Gwallas, whom I have already incidentally noticed as very different

in their style, manners and occupations. ‘ Gwalla’ is not a tribal

name, but merely means a cowkeeper (from the old Sanscritic word,

_ go, a cow), so that the name does not necessarily imply any tribal

connection with the Gwallas of the south and elsewhere. The

_ Gwallas (as I have before noticed) are, with their congeners the

_ ‘Satgopes,’ by far the most numerous Hindu caste in Bengal; and as

- Bengal is not much of a grazing country, they constitute a large

_ proportion of the cultivators, besides carrying palanquins, acting as

_ domestic servants, and following some other avocations. In the jail

returns they are about 13 per cent. of the non-Mahommedans, that

is, of Hindus and Aborigines of all sorts taken together; and as

~ Aheers prevail in Behar, it is probable that fn Bengal and Orissa the

Gwallas amount to fully 20 per cent.

_ There are no democratic villages in Bengal; indeed village commu-

nities in the proper sense, with anything like a municipal constitution

| of any kind, can hardly be said to exist; the Province is in that

| Tespect peculiar. Consequently it is unnecessary to add that the

yallas are not in regular communities. They are scattered about the

‘land and attained to respectable positions. They seem to be a quiet,

| decent set of people.

Tam not well versed in the manners and customs of the Bengallees,

| and there seems to be a great want of information on the subject,

which I trust may be supplied.

| PI have before hazarded a conjecture whether the Bengallee Gwallas

| ‘may not have been formed on the basis of the Aboriginal Bhooyas.

_ Of the fine cultivators or gardeners, the most important are—

a Tue Matwizs,

| to whom TI have alluded as apparently allied to the Koormees, and

_ who are not only the humble gardeners to whom Europeans ordinarily

106 | The Ethnology of India.

apply the name (as to a profession), but a considerable and far extended

people. On the Frontier, above the Salt Range and extending up into

Peshawar, there is a considerable class of ‘ Mulleals’ who are I believe

Mallies (though like most of the people of those parts now Mahom-

medans), and who are very industrious cultivators and gardeners.

Throughout the plains of the Punjab, there is again a very im-

portant and numerous class who seem to be allied to the above, —

called Raees or Raeens. These people have generally villages of their :

own, or hold divisions of villages on equal terms with Jats and others, —

and under a similar constitution. They chiefly affect the best lands ~

and finer cultivation, where they pay a high revenue and are much

appreciated by native governments; for they are probably, on the —

whole, the best cultivators in the Province. They are not martial,

but are generally (like almost all Punjabee Mahommedans) fair and ri

good-looking men. They are all, so far as I know, Mahommedans, ~

which may account for their bearing a different name from their —

Hindu congeners, if congeners they be. So far as I am aware, they —

are not known by this name beyond the Punjab. t

A little farther east, long before we come to the Koormees, we meet

with Hindu Mallies. I know that between Umballa and Dehli, in the |

operations), there are a good many Mallie villages. Inthe North West —

Provinces I do not think that they are much known as independent

landholders, but as gardeners they are scattered about. I find men-_

tion made of them as common about Ajmere and on the Southern

frontier of Hindustan. Beyond Jubbulpore they are common, mixed

with the Koormees. Thence going onwards to the Maratta country, I

in Nagpore also they share the country with the Koonbees, and are

the class next in importance to these latter. In fact, in all this. part

of Central India, (the southern limits of Hindustan and the Maratta —

country), Koormees and Mallies seemed to be classed together. The —

Patels, I learned, were either Koonbees or Mallies, and they often

divided the same villages. The two classes (I was told by the Patels —

of the Nagpore country) will. eat together, but do not intermarry.

In this latitude both Mallees and Koormees extend far to the east.

I find mention of the former in Orissa, and of the latter in Maunbhoom

and other districts of Chota-Nagpore, f

The Ethnology of India. | 107

The Lodhas I have already mentioned as connected with and of the

same character as the Koonbees, though they are strictly speaking -

distinct from them.

The remaining classes of Northern India, whose proper profession is

cultivation or gardening, have not generally, to my knowledge, villages

of their own. There are, however, scattered through most villages in

Hindustan many industrious Kachees and Koerees and Morows (tobacco

cultivators) and Kumbohs, and some (though not many) who have no

other caste name than that of ‘ Kisan’ or cultivator. The farther we

go down in the scale, the greater seems to be the infusion of aboriginal

blood, the shorter is the stature, the darker the skin, and the more low-

Arian the features ; but in none of these decent castes of Hindustan do

_ the features or the complexion and hair assume at all an aboriginal type.

In Bengal the names of castes are different, and there very many of

the cultivators, the majority I believe in all Eastern Bengal, are

_Mahommedans, whose original caste and ethnological history I am

at present unable to discover. Among Hindus, the most numerous

_ castes after Gwallas, Bramins, and Kaists, are Bagdees (who are I am

told of an inferior and aboriginal type), and a decent class of cultiva-

‘tors called Kyburtos. I am as yet altogether puzzled about the

| ethnology of the mass of Bengal ryots. Most of them, though dark,

| look Arian, but some are very dark, and have a decided tendency to a

| ’ thickness of lip, and to some features either Aboriginal or Indo-

Chinese. I am half inclined to think that there are two types among

| them, Some of them seem to have a great tendency to curly hair,

| and to a cast of features which I should be disposed to attribute to

. the influence of the black woolly-headed. Aborigines, who may have

Stretched across from the Rajmahal to the Garrow hills. Others,

especially the Ooryahs, with the Bhooyas of those parts and some of

the Bengalees, seem rather to have straight hair with high cheek

bones. and complexions not very dark, which might suggest an Tndo-

Chinese element stretching from Burmah across the Soonderbuns.

But I have acknowledged that I do not understand Bengal, and I

| hope that others will throw more light on it.

The inferior Helot classes, who generally, all over Northern India,

| eultivate to a considerable extent, either on their own account, or as

_| the servants of others, I leave for another givision of my subject.

108 The Ethnology of India. :

It must, however, be understood that a good deal of cultivation, in

most parts of the country, is carried on by miscellaneous cultivators

of a great variety of classes, who by caste properly belong to other

professions. Cultivation is the one profession which is open to all

alike, and is occasionally followed by almost all. In a great part of

Hindustan in particular, wherever Rajpoots and Bramins are compara-

tively few, and Koerees and Kachees are not numerous, there is in the

present state of cultivation a large space not occupied by the classes

which I have enumerated, and lists of tenant cultivators of these tracts |

present a very great variety. It isthe same in Bengal. The caste

of ‘ Telees’ are supposed to be properly oil-manufacturers, but whether _

(seeing the large growth of oilseeds) they were also in their origin ©

oil-growers, or whether their multiplication is accidental, they certainly —

in many parts of the country form an important and respectable

section of the agricultural community. Many of them are found both |

in Hindustan and in the Bombay Presidency, and in Bengal and ~

Orissa they are particularly numerous and well-to-do. In Bengal the

Tantees or weavers are also a prosperous class, and own a good deal

of land.

The Chumars or leather workers form a large proportion of the

population of Hindustan, and are both labourers and cultivators, but

they may perhaps better be put among the inferior labouring classes. iq

For the rest the list of cultivating artisans and others would be |

endless. They must be classed under their own professions. |

THe Mercantitte CLassEs. %

First under this head, I will put—

Tue Kuarrens. -

Trade is their main occupation, but in fact they have broad= |

er and more distinguished functions. Besides monopolising the

trade of the Punjab and the greater part of Affehanistan, and

doing a good deal beyond those limits, they are in the Punjab the

chief civil administrators, and have almost all literate work in ‘hee

hands. So far as the Sikhs have a priesthood, they are moreover the

priests or gooroos of the Sikhs; both Nanuk and Govind were, and

the Sodees and Bedees of the present day are, Khatrees, Thus then

The Ethnology of India. 109

they are in fact in the Punjab, so far as a more energetic race will

permit them, all that the Maratta Bramins are in the Maratta country,

besides engrossing the trade which the Maratta Bramins have not.

: They are not usually military in their character, but are quite capa-

ble of using the sword when necessary. Dewan Sawan Mull, Gover-

nor of Mooltan (and his notorious successor Moolraj), and very many

of Runjeet Sing’s chief functionaries were Khatrees. Even under

Mahommedan rulers in the west, they have risen to high administra-

_ tive posts; there is record of a Khatree Dewan of Badakshan or

_ Koondooz, and I believe of a Khatree Governor of Peshawar under the

t Affghans. The Emperor Akbar’s famous minister, Todar Mull, was

a Khatree ; and (though I was not before aware of it) a relative of

that man of undoubted energy, the great Commissariat Contractor of

Agra, Jotee Pershad, lately informed me that he also is a Khatree.

Altogether there can be no doubt that these Khatrees are one of the

most acute, energetic, and remarkable races in India, though in fact

- (except locally in the Punjab) they are not much known to EKuro-

_ peans. They are, either on account of their name confounded with

Rajpoots (by those who only see the name), or more frequently, on

_ account of their mercantile profession, are confounded with the Bun-

-neahs or Banians, with whom socially (as matter of tribe and caste)

_ they have no connection whatever. The Khatrees are staunch Hin-

dus, and it is somewhat singular that, while giving a religion and

priests to the Sikhs, they themselves are comparatively seldom Sikhs.

And though, judged by a modern Hindu standard, they can hardly

penetrate as they do into Central Asia with much regard for caste,

_ they show their staunchness by never succumbing to the Mahomme-

dan faith, where all the Indians around them have done so. I scarcely

"think that there are such people as Mahommedan Khatrees in lati-

/ - tudes where Jats, Rajpoots, and others are all Mahommedan; and

~ even in Affghanistan they seem to maintain their faith intact. The

_ Khatrees are a very fine, fair, handsome race. And as may be gather-

ed from what I have already said, they are very generally educated.

_ There is a large subordinate class of Khatrees, somewhat lower, but of

equal mercantile energy, called Rors or Roras. The proper Khatrees

| of higher grade will often deny all connection with them, or at least

only admit that they have some sort of bastard kindred with Khatrees,

110 The Ethnology of India.

but I think there can be no doubt that they are ethnologically the

same, and they are certainly mixed up with Khatrees in their avoca-

tions. I shall treat the whole kindred as generically Khatrees.

Though the Rors have not usually risen to such high posts, at

least one of Runjeet Sing’s ministers was of this class.

Speaking of the Khatrees then thus broadly, they have, as I have

said, the whole trade of the Punjab and of most of Affghanistan. No

village can get on without the Khatree who keeps the accounts, does

the banking business, and buys and sells the grain. They seem too

to get on with the people better than most traders and usurers of this

kind. Of course, like all people so situated, they are often a good

deal abused, but ina Punjabee village I think that the Khatree is

generally rather a popular character and on friendly terms with his. —

clients ; at any rate they appreciate the necessity for him, and are by

no means anxious to get rid of him. In Affghanistan, among a rough

and alien people, notwithstanding occasional exceptions, the Khatrees

are as a rule confined to the position of humble dealers, shop-keepers

and money-lenders ; but in that capacity the Pathans seem to look on

them as a kind of valuable animal, and a Pathan will steal another

man’s Khatree, not only for the sake of ransom (as is frequently done =

on the Peshawar and Hazarah frontier), but also as he might steal a

milch-cow, or as Jews might, I dare say, be carried off in the middle Pa

ages, with a view to render them profitable.

I do not know the exact limits of Khatree occupation to the west, ~ ‘

but certainly in all eastern Affghanistan they seem to be justas

much a part of the established community as they are in the Punjab. —

They find their way far into Central Asia, but the farther they get,

the more depressed and humiliating is their position. In Turkistan, a

Vambery speaks of them with great contempt as yellow-faced —

Hindus of a cowardly and sneaking character. Under Turcoman —

rule, they could hardly be otherwise. They have even found their

way to St. Petersburgh and made money there. They are in fact

the only Hindus known in Central Asia.

In the Punjab they are so numerous that they cannot all be rich

and mercantile, and many of them hold land, cultivate, take service,

and follow various avocations. But I do not think that there is in

the plains such a thing as a Khatree village or Khatree community,

The Ethnology of India. 111

such as I have described to be the social form of other castes. They

are always mixed among other classes.

It is somewhat singular that the Khatrees, so important in Affgha-

nistan, and who also push so far into Central Asia, are altogether

excluded from Bramin Kashmere ; they are not found there at all. In

point of acuteness, I fancy it is an instance of ‘ two of a trade.’ In the

hills, however, the ‘ Kukkas’ on the east bank of the Jhelum are said

to have been originally Khatrees, (they are a curiously handsome race);

and in the interior of the Kangra hills there is an interesting race of

fine patriarchal-looking shepherds called ‘ Gaddees,’ most of whom are

Khatrees. There are some Bramins among them, and some of low

caste, but the great majority are Khatrees, and their story is that

they are the remnant of the former rulers of the plains of the Punjab,

_ driven to the hills by conquering invaders. They are a very pleasant,

frank, simple people, quite apart from their present neighbours, and a

great puzzle. Khatree traders are numerous in Dehli, are found in

Agra, Lucknow and Patna, and are well known inthe Burra Bazar

of Calcutta (though there they are principally connected with Punjab

firms). But as soon as they pass east from the limits of the Punjab,

4 they get into the mercantile field of the Bunneeahs, who are quite

their equals in mere mercantile ability where little physical courage

is required, and in the Bunneeah country the Khatree merchants are

_ mere exceptions in large towns.

_ In Behar there seems to be a considerable agricultural class called

| Kshatrees, Chatrees, or Khatrees, who are distinct from and considered

_ to be somewhat lower in rank than Rajpoots. They seem somewhat

_ to affect a Military character, sometimes serve, I believe, as soldiers,

and are well known as ‘ Darwans’ and the like in Calcutta. Bucha-

han seems to have been inclined to suppose that they are really Kha-

trees from the west, but I have not yet been able to ascertain whe-

ther they are in truth of the same caste as the mercantile Khatrees.

I do not know the exact limits of the Khatrees to the south. I

have not visited Mooltan which is a great mercantile centre of the

race, and cannot accurately distinguish between Khatree and Bun-

neeah sects called by their sub-tribal names. The term ‘ Mooltanees’

Seems to be applied to several trading sects in different parts of Cen-

tral India, &c., some apparently wandering Pathan traders, and some,

112 The Ethnology of India.

I suspect, of some Khatree sect. The Khatrees do not» seem as a rule

to reach the western Coast; the Guzerat and Cutch traders appear

to be Bunneeahs (or Banians) not Khatrees, and in the Bombay

market I cannot find that they have any considerable place. In

Scinde, however, I find (in Captain Burton’s book) an account of a

race of “pretended Khsatryas who are really Banians of the

Nanuk-Shahi (Sikh) faith,” and who trade and have a large share

of public offices. These are evidently Khatrees. I had supposed the

Lohanee merchants to be Pathans coming under much the same cate-

gory as the “ Povindeahs,” but again Captain Burton makes mention

of the “ Lohanos, a Mooltanee caste of Banians,” a robust and good-

looking race who trade with Central Asia, and also with the Arabian

Coast, who form a very large proportion of the Government servants

in Scinde, and who also do some agriculture and labour. I cannot at

this moment ascertain whether these Lohanos are really Banians or

Khatrees, probably I think the latter. Palgrave again mentions

among the Indian traders of the Arabian Coast, as distinguished from _

Banians, people whom he calls ‘ Loothians’ or Loodianah men. I

take it that these must be Khatrees, unless indeed they may possibly —

be Kashmeree shawl merchants. Loodianah is a large and thriving ~

town of mercantile Khatrees, with a numerous colony of Kashmeree

shawl-weavers. —

The Khatrees claim to be the descendants of the old Kshatryas,

and I am inclined to think that they really have the best claim to

that honour. With all their enterprise, it is difficult to imagine them ° iy

so completely domiciled in Affghanistan, among so alien a people, if —

they are entirely foreigners in that country. It is well known that

the Pathans themselves have advanced into the North Eastern por-

tion of the country which we call Affghanistan, within comparatively © ie

recent and historical times; and although the upper valleys of the —

Indian Caucasus have pO all along been held by pre-Hindu —

tribes, there seems to be little doubt that the lower valleys of the —

Cabul country were once Hindu. To this day the peaks of the —

‘ Sufed Koh’ between Jalalabad and Cabul bear the palpably a

names of ‘Seeta Ram” and such like.

The old Sanscrit books make the, Bramins and Khsatryas to uote

remotely sprung from a common origin, May it not be that in-early |

The Ethnology of India. 113

Aryan days the Bramins of Kashmere may first have become literary

and civilised, and ruled on the Saraswatee by peaceful arts, after the

fashion of the earliest Egyptians before the art of war was invented,

(See M. Renan’s abstract of recent Egyptian inquiries); and that

later a cognate tribe of Khatrees of the Cabul country, rougher and

more warlike, may have come down upon them like the Shepherd

Kings, and assumed the rule of the Military caste of early Hindu his-

tory? That warlike conquerors of one age should become astute

money-dealers of ancther, is but the ordinary course of history—Jews,

Greeks, Lombards and others are instances in point, and perhaps

when the New Zealanders rule in England, the English may be knewn

as the Khatrees of those parts.

Tue Bounneaus, Baniays, Banuzs, on WanNzES.

No race is more important in India than the Banees. What I

have described the Khatrees to be in a mercantile point of view in

the Punjab, that the Banees are in the whole of Hindustan and Wes-

_ tern India. No village can get on without them. Unlike the Kha-

_ trees, they are for the most part confined to their proper mercantile

business. A few of them are found in Government offices and such

Service, more properly the domain of the Kaists, but these are only

tare exceptions. They have also under our system acquired by pur-

chase large rights in the land, and take farms of more, but this is in

fact with them a mere mercantile operation; they do not cultivate

‘the land, but make the most of the rents payable by the ryots, and

the ejected proprietors reproachfully term the British Government

Bunneah ka Raj” or the shopkeepers’ rule. Bunneahs may cultivate

a few fields, like any one else, or even reduced individuals may earn

their livelihood as ryots or labourers, but so far as I know, a proper

Bunneah village is nowhere to be found.

There is no doubt that in their own way the Banees are a people

of wonderful energy and enterprise, and it is their energy that gives

tone and sinew in a commercial, and to a great degree an industrial

sense, to the greater part of India. Without the Banee to supply the

_ sinews of war, little would be done. Their function permeates every

operation of every village. In all the great cities of Hindustan, they

are found in a position commanding much respect as Bankers and

114 The Ethnology of India.

Merchants, and they are also most daring speculators, as is well known

in the markets of Bombay and Calcutta. Indeed they often carry the

rage for speculation to the point of gambling. In respect of physical

courage, however, the case is quite different. Both their habits and

their religious ideas make the use of a sword a thing unknown to ©

them, and they have no affectation of personal manliness.

If the Banees are not generally very tall or strong, they are not much

the contrary, and they are generally very fair. For this latter feature

their indoor avocations may in part account, but that alone is not,

I think, sufficient. When one gets peeps of the faces of their women ~

on the occasion of great religious gatherings and the like, they

seem to be fair beyond almost any other Hindustanee caste. The

men, though flabby and un-muscular looking, are, I think, to an ©

unprejudiced eye often by no means bad looking. They have, how-

ever, none of the high-Arian sharpness of feature, but rather a sleek

comely pudding-faced kind of countenance, something like those old —

‘Egyptian faces which are said to come nearest to the Hindu type. —

They are, I think, generally reputed more grasping than I have dea

scribed the Khatrees to be; are more often accused of being hard %

on those in their power, and exercising a severe tyranny of the purse. _

But even in their case I believe that this is a good deal exaggerated, and =

that many of those who abuse them most, can least get on without -

them. Possessed as they are of so much capital and energy, there

can be no doubt that, from an industrial point of view, the acquisition a

by them, from indolent and unprovident proprietors, of a good deal .

of the land is beneficial, when it becomes their absolute property. —

They, almost alone among superior landholders, perform something of —

the industrial functions of landlords, and they know too well the —

value of ryots, altogether to expend and sell up those in whom they

have a permanent interest. There is to be set, on the other side, the

political weakness resulting from the existence of large numbers of

strong-armed pre-owners still, as they think, natural proprietors, side by

side with new owners who in a difficulty will not fight. Still, if the

Bunneahs will not fight, they may perhaps pay others to fight for

them. It is only when they are set to ‘exploiter’ the ryots in a

speculative way, as mere temporary lessees and middlemen under

the great superior Zemindars, that they are often a great curse,

The Ethnology of India. bts

The great seat of the Bunneahs seems to be in the west, and most of

them point to a western origin, or rather, speaking from a Hindustanee

point of view, [ should say south-western, not to the Punjab, but to

Rajpootana and the Bombay country. There are a great many sub-

divisions among them, and my impression is that the different divisions

do not intermarry as do those of Jats and Rajpoots. There may

therefore be ethnological distinctions among them, but I do not

know that itis so. The most famous of them are the Marwarees ;

and that is the name of the country, and not of the sect, intimating

their habitat in Rajpootana. The red-turbaned gentlemen so conspi-

cuous in the Calcutta Opium marts and Bombay share-markets are

generally Marwarees. In Hindustan the highest class of Bunneahs

are called ‘ Aggerwals,’ and there are several other sects. The

Bunneahs professing the Jain religion are called Srawaks, and under

that name they seem to have been famous in very old times, even in

parts of Central India which are now comparatively barbarous. In

Hindustan, Hindu Boras are a sect of money-lenders and traders and,

Limagine, Bunneahs. I believe the name is the same as that of the

~ Mahommedan ‘ Borahs’ of the Bombay side; but the latter, with

some peculiar Mahommedan tenets, have probably got some traces of

transmarine blood, and I shall reserve them for the category of ‘ Bor-

derers.’ Towards the south of Hindustan I have heard of a sect of

inferior Bunneahs called ‘ Jashwals’ who, unlike the race generally,

are lax Hindus and even permit their widows to remarry.

So far as I can make out, the proper Banees are not thoroughly and

completely domiciled in Bengal proper, and to the want of that

element (or of anything’ equal to it) I attribute the absence of enter-

prise and practical achievement, which seems to be remarkable among

the Bengallee, notwithstanding the great value acquired by the land

‘under the permanent settlement, and the accumulation of wealth

‘during a hundred years of peace. In Calcutta most of the considerable

trade and banking business and all the Hindu speculation is done by

‘up-country Marwarees and other Bunneahs, not by Bengallees. In the

Bengal districts, though a good many Banee colonists. are settled

in towns and considerable places, the money-lending and shopkeeping

business seems to be in great part in the hands of a variety of other

classes. Bramins do, I believe, a good deal of money-lending, and the

116 : The Ethnology of India.

goldsmith class are also Bankers in Bengal. Then there is a class

of Sahoos, whose proper profession is spirit-distilling and vending,

but who have a large share of the general trading business. The

common ‘ Modees’ or grain-sellers, instead of being almost universally

Banees as in Hindustan; are, I understand, of various castes, and

there are separate spice-sellers, oil-sellers, &c. If there are not so

many enterprising Banees to make the most of the land, there is at

any rate this advantage that, I believe, the ryots are now not nearly

so much rack-rented in Bengal as they are in Behar and other parts

of Hindustan, where the lands of great landholders are almost in-

variably farmed to speculators.

In Goozerat, Forbes describes the Wanees as very universal and

very grasping. But at any rate the traders of the Coast of . Goozerat

and Cutch are very enterprising. The Banian of those parts is ar

important institution all over the coasts of Arabia and Africa on

the opposite side of the Ocean. And in Bombay, Premchand and

“other Banees have made their names famous. In the Maratta country, —

the higher trade and banking seems to be done by Marwarees, the

village business by local Wanees. Farther south, in the Canarese

country, the classes of trading proclivities called, ‘ Banijagas’ seem to

be very numerous, but as the name is derived from the Sanscrit —

©Banij’ a trader, I cannot be quite sure that the northern and

southern traders are se by blood. Inquiry is necessary On this

point. 7 £

Almost all the Banees are strict Hindus, that is, strict in their own _

form of the faith ; for in some sense Jains and such like may be said S 5

not to be proper Win das In Hindustan, though there are a good

many Jains, the great majority are proper Hindus. They may be

considered to be in religion very high Hindus, and carry toa great —

extreme respect for animal life. This tenet, I think, connects them — a

with the wena Jains and others, ae foundation of oe —

souls from one creature to another. The Banees are, I think, really

the most sincerely religious among the Hindus, and much attached

to their tenets) Among many other Hindu classes, religion is littl

better than form. In the west country, Jain tenets very much pre

at the present day .among all the Banee classes, and seem to ha‘

| Bes As

The Ethnology of India. ' Vi7

had a very ancient hold upon them. In the south, the Banijagas are,

it appears, now chiefly Lingamites and, as such, scarcely Braminical

Hindus. But at one time the Jain form quite prevailed among them.

In fact, in all the west and southwest the Jain religion appears to

have been at one time predominant. The Jains seem to assert that

the Rajpoots were once of their faith, The Pali language and cha-

racter would seem especially to belong them.

What then is the origin of the Banees? That is a very puzzling

question. I cannot account for them in any historical way, but the

speculation which has occurred to my mind is, whether they may not

originally have been immigrants by sea from the west who brought

. with them the Phallus or Lingam, and those ideas of a continually

I self-reproducing procreative power which took shape in the worship

of Siva, and eventually gave birth to Buddhism and to Jainism, and

which finally, meeting and amalgamating with the Braminical faith,

_ produced modern Hinduism. If this be so, we might suppose that

the Banees had done much to civilise the Central and South of

India, before the Bramins got so far. But, as I have said, this is

mere speculation ; much farther inquiry is necessary.

; Among the mercantile classes of the north (as well as of the south)

7 should be classed the well-known Banjaras or wandering grain mer-

_ they carry on their trade all over the country, they have in some

re aces fixed homes. On the borders of Rohilcund, towards the Terai,

“they have in fact considerable settlements, are considerable landed

Pp oprietors and altogether important people.

4 I now come to the Writer classes :—

Tue Karts orn Kayasts.

| : Important as this caste now is, I am totally at a loss to imagine

how or why it came into existence. In old Hindu times, with a great

4 ramin class occupying something the position which Bramins now

d among the Marattas (by no means confined to sacerdotal duties,

but performing all literate functions), one can see no room for a sepa-

rate Writer class. If the Rajpoots, coming in as conquerors, wished to

put aside the Bramins, they would probably have found Khatrees and

Banees ready to assist them. The Mahommedans, we know, had

118 } The Ethnology of India.

always among them a large educated class of their own, so much so

that in the early days of our rule in Upper India most of our public

servants were Mahommedans. Yet somehow there has sprung up

this special Writer class, which among Hindus has not only rivalled the

Bramins, but in Hindustan may be said to have almost wholly ousted

them from secular literate work, and under our Government is rapidly

ousting the Mahommedans also.

Very sharp and clever these Kaits certainly are. They are looked

on by Hindus as rather a low caste, and their appearance is not aris-

tocratic. Most of them are decidedly dark, generally spare thin men,

and, I should say, on the average short, with often sharp weasel-like

features, small and quite low-Arian. They are somewhat lax in

their ways, given to drink, and on their great annual festival, when

they worship the pen, it is rather the correct thing than otherwise to

have a good debauch.

They have generally the office of Patwaree, or village accountant ;

and of high office, having always had a good share, they are getting —

more and more a monopoly. They are, in fact, first-rate men ol

business, and without pride ready to adapt themselves to our ways,

they have become almost indispensable to us. They have acquired

much landed property, some by honest means, some by dishones 3 -

means, when very loose practices prevailed in our courts. And of |

course, with dignity and wealth the respect with which they are re-

garded from day to day increases. What I have said of loose ways, is ;

only applicable to the lower and more common members of the sect. It is” :

only fair to acknowledge that there are now many high officers and

worthy proprietors of this class, whose respectability is great and con- a

duct unimpeachable. I never remember to have heard a conjecture

as to the origin of the Kaits. They are never found in separate

villages, but are scattered about rather as a separate profession than a |

separate race. .There are a good many illiterate men among them

who earn their bread as they best can ; but most of them are educated:

I should not say that they anywhere in Hindustan form a very large”

population. One may suppose that when the Bramins got indolent,

this class grew up asa sort of low-caste clerks to the Bramins, who-

ruled by supplanting their masters. But whence did they get their

talent? Some of the Aboriginal races seem to have activity and |

bodily energy, but none of them mental talent. |

The Ethnology of India. 119

In Bengal the Kaits occupy a higher relative position and are very

numerous. It is related as a historical fact that they accompanied

the Bramins into Bengal from the North-West, and indeed it would

seem as if the Hindustanee colonists in Bengal had been almost ex-

clusively Bramins and Kaits ; there are scarcely any other castes of

well authenticated Arian descent, while a large proportion of the

inhabitants show some aboriginal traces. In Bengal then the Kaits

seem to rank next or nearly next to the Bramins, and form an aristo-

cratic class. According to the Jail Returns, they are 7 per cent. of

_ the Hindus incarcerated in Bengal, Behar and Orissa, and in the

_ general.population they are probably in still larger proportion. They

have extensive proprietary rights in the land, and also, I believe, cul-

tivate a good deal. Of the ministerial places in the public offices

they have the larger share. In the educational institutions. and

_ higher professions of Calcutta, they are, I believe, quite equal to the

Bramins, all qualities taken together, though some detailed informa-

tion of the capacities of different classes, as shewn by the educational

tests, would be very interesting. Among the native pleaders of the

High Court, most of the ablest men are either Bramins or Kaits ;

| _ perhaps the ablest of all, at this moment, is a Kait.

| Not knowing where else to put them, I shall here mention a caste

| who are, so far as I know, peculiar to Bengal, the Boidyas or physicians,

| They are not very numerous, are, I believe, often learned and respecta-

j ble men, and rank high among Hindus, but in truth I do not know

| very much about them. It would be interesting to know more.

The Kaits extend west all through Hindustan, are numerous in

| Malwa and are found in Goozerat. But in this latter Province we

come upon either another caste of the same kind, or a branch of the

Same bearing a different name, and called—

Pursuoos on Purvors

who are very conspicuous in that part of India and in the town of

Bombay, where they do most of the work of clerks. I cannot make

out whether Kaits and Purbhoos are in the main the same or differ-

ent. Of two well informed native gentleman whose opinions have

| been sent me, one seems to think that they are mere sub-divisions of

an original writer class, another, that they are different. Those whom

_| Isaw in Bombay seemed to me different in appearance as well as

120 The Ethnology of India.

very different in dress from the Hindustanee Kaits; they are, I

should say, generally fairer and better looking. I should much like

to know more about them.

Tne ARTISANS.

For ethnological purposes it would be useless to go through the

long lists of professional castes, as they cannot, so far I know, be

distinguished as representing races, but are merely the modern Hindu

social division into professions. It will nearly suffice to say that in :

Northern India almost every possible profession has its separate caste,

and that there is no grouping of them together, either into right hand

and left hand, or into such groups as the Punchalas of the south,

Nothing of the kind is known; Carpenters, Blacksmiths, Goldsmiths,

Bricklayers, Potters, Barbers, Confectioners, Washermen, Spirit-sel-

lers, and very many others, have all their own separate castes, and

they eat and marry within those castes. Some are more and some

less strict Hindus. All are of a low-Arian type, and I am not prepared —

to suggest any ethnological differences, except that they are better —

looking in the Punjab, and less so to the east and south, I doubt,

whether substantial differences can be found till we get lower, to tribes”

exhibiting more decided aboriginal traces. Most professions bear

different names in Bengal from those in Hindustan. I do not know

much of these classes in Goozerat and the Maratta country. ‘-

The Hindustanee Kahars or Palkee-bearers are a considerable class, i.

and are strong hard-working men, rather good looking than otherwise, — %

They stand well among Hindus, whose water-carriers they are, and —

who will therefore generally drink from their hands. They are also

fishermen and cultivate a good deal. They have by caste nothing —

whatever to do with cow-keeping, though they may own cows, like

other people. I believe that they are quite distinct both from —

Bengal Gwallas and from south country Buis or Booes. They are

found in parts of the Punjab as well as in all Hindustan, but not in -

the west of the Punjab. |

Tue Inrerion AND Hetot Cuassss. a

Finally I come to the inferior labouring classes, the Helots and

out-castes, among whom, if anywhere, the aboriginal blood should

show itself in a marked way. ..

The Ethnology of India. 121

' Castes originating in a difference of races, it may be pretty safely

assumed that Helot races represent conquered peoples; but it some-

times happens that the form remains when all substantial difference

has disappeared, just. as in fossilgswe have the form although in fact

the substance is stone like that which surrounds it. In the hills of

the extreme north, where we have the high-Arian race in its purest

and most unalloyed state, even the form of a Helot caste is wanting ;

which is just what we might expect in a country where the Arians

themselves are the aborigines. There are no out-caste Pariahs.

In Kashmere a tribe called Wattals are said to be low, but they appear

to be rather immoral than ethnologically low, a gypsy kind of tribe

which supplies dancing girls and prostitutes. The women are noto-

riously among the handsomest in the valley, so they are not at all

Helots such as I mean. In all these hills, the ‘‘ Chooras’’ of the plains

are altogether wanting.

' In the plains of the Punjab there is a thorough Helot tribe.

The arrangement of castes is there generally more simple than

elsewhere, and a single low caste tribe are both the ordinary

labourers who do all the inferior Coolee work, and at the same time

the out-caste scavengers of the community. They are in fact all

considered to be of the lowest sweeper caste, and are called ‘ Chooras.’

As in most democratic communities there has generally been under

_ the freemen a Helot class (the Helots of Greece, the Slaves of Rome,

the Negroes of South and the Irish of North America), so also every

dat village has its Helot quarter, where the low caste people, fewer, but

still considerable in number, reside. They sometimes cultivate on

their own account, but more generally act as labourers, and do all that

‘is done by the Chamars in Hindustan. When a traveller of rank

arrives at a village in Hindustan, the Chamars are called out to carry

his baggage ; the Chooras in the Punjab.

- These Punjabee Helots are in fact fine powerful men and tolerably

good looking. They were well-known under native governments as

good soldiers, fit to be expended on desperate enterprises. The early

Sikh reformers, preaching their doctrines of equality, tried to bring

these men within the pale, but with very partial success, though a

few were admitted to a respectable position as Sikhs. They were

only occasionally used as soldiers by chiefs who were hard-pressed,

122 The Ethnology of India:

It has been reserved for us to enlist them in regular regiments, and

to try to raise them to a good position. Like most low-placed men,

they look low, when in low case performing low offices; but that they

are well grown and powerful, isgalways clear. I had recently an

opportunity of looking at them carefully, in a body drawn up on

Regimental Parade, and looked especially with the view of seeing

whether I could detect any ethnological peculiarity. I was quite’

satisfied that nothing of the sort is to be found. There may not be

so large a proportion of good looking men as among the higher castes,

but as a body they are fine Arians, not very materially inferior to the

other people of the country. The only physical peculiarity that I

have noticed among people of this class in the Punjab is, that a large

proportion of them have only one eye. I apprehend, however, that:

this is not an ethnological peculiarity, but the result of inferior labour

in a dry and dusty country, as may be seen in Egypt.

“In Scinde also the low caste people are mentioned as large men of

Punjabee origin and speaking the Jatee language. They are there

called ‘Bale Shahe’ or Royal, a term also I believe applied to the

sweepers in some other parts of India, and which may seem ironical, but. :

may possibly be founded.on some traditions of their former rule.

~ In the Punjab, in addition to the functions which I have mentioned,

the Chooras are generally the village watchmen ; and it may be observed, ba

that this office is all over India very generally held by the represen= |

tatives of the oldest races, especially when they possess any fighting

capacities. It may be supposed that when conquerors came in, they.

would find the headmen of the conquered races best acquainted with

the localities, and most capable of dealing with those of their brethren

who had taken to the jungles. I should always be inclined to look —

to the watchmen for ancient ethnological traces. The same races who .

do the watching also often do the thieving, and the Punjab Chooras —

have done a good deal of theft and robbery and some thuggee. —

What may be the origin of these Punjabee Helots, I must leave to

conjecture. Hither they may represent an old aboriginal tribe, whose

features have been wholly absorbed by infiltration and intermixture,

and who have left no ethnological traces but a dark tinge in the

colour of the Punjabees and Affghans of the lower hills, or they may.

be early Arian inhabitants, conquered and enslaved by subsequent | |

tribes of Bramins, Khatrees, Rajpoots, and Jats. >|

The Ethnology of India. 123

the Punjab, both high and low, is above the average Arian type.

~ Ihave before mentioned that the lower class of cultivators and

labourers in the Simla hills are called “‘ Kolees.” I have not noticed

among them any marked aboriginal features.

‘ I have alluded to the Chamars as the labourers of Hindustan;

but there the functions of the Punjabee Helots are divided; the

Chamars are the labourers (besides their own proper profession of

curing skins), and the out-caste sweepers are an entirely separate and

lower class. I have never quite made out whether the Chamars are

considered to be properly Hindus. They are not considered abso-+

lutely offensive to the touch like the unclean out-castes, but their

name is commonly used to signify a low man, and the greatest insult

commonly proposed is to beat a man by the hands of Chamars.

own, not by the ordinary name of God; and the sweepers again had.

a different Gooroo. They really are the modern Sudras of Hindu

society, and no Hindustanee village could get on without them,

Like others, they do not appear to advantage when engaged in

menial offices, but to judge them fairly we should take them clean

and decently fed and dressed. Most of our Hindustanee Syces are

_ of this caste, and any one in Northern India may among them satisfy

himself of their general style. It seems to me that they are a

good specimen of the lower grade of the low-Arian type. An ancient

"proverb, quoted by Sir H. Elliott, speaks of a black Bramin and a fair

Chamar as perversities to be avoided. In these days I think many

Bramins may be found darker than many Chamars; but as a rule and

on an average the Chamars are very decidedly dark, also rather small,

though active and well knit. In features they are as it were quite

the opposite of the high-Arian; there is a want of prominence, a

simplicity as it were of feature; but still they do not I think show

anything whatever that can really be called aboriginal. Judged by

a@ European standard, and colour and size apart, I think that their

features are quite as good as the average of Europeans of inferior

degree.

\ The Chamars have never been soldiers, though I believe that we

haye enlisted some of them since the mutiny ; nor have they generally

124 The Ethnology of India.

held the office of watchman ; that is more frequently held by the unclean

out-castes. In their own trade as leatherworkers and shoemakers, they

are clever intelligent men, and they are the same as Syces and some-

times Coachmen, and as Coolees and hired labourers. In some parts of

the country, a good deal of the cultivation is in their hands; but I

have not heard of their acquiring considerable landed rights or rising

high in the world, except in Chateesgurh in the Central Provinces,

where I understand that a colony of Chamars of a reformed faith

have come to occupy quite an aristocratic position. )

- The Chamars generally are apt to be somewhat . foul feeders ; the

lower people of the race habitually eat the dead cattle which they skin.

They are also a good deal given to drink, when they can afford it.

The unclean outcastes are generally by no means numerous in

Hindustan, and are for the most part confined to their own proper —

functions. There are various sub-divisions of them, and they are

somewhat indiscriminately known by various names, Bhangees, Meh

ters, &c. General Briggs, in an ingenious paper, tracing the names of

provinces to aboriginal tribes, makes the Bhangees the Aborigines of — E

Bengal, but the term is a Hindustanee one, not Bengalee. The term

‘Dome’ is somewhat generally applied to these people, or if specially, :

I should say that their particular function is more particularly con- 5

nected with dead dogs. It would appear, however, that in the north : |

of Hindustan under the Himalayas, the Domes were once a consider- |

able tribe, and in the Kumaon hills, they are still a numerous Helot a:

section of the population, being in fact the only inferior class, and 2

assuming the functions of artizans as well as those of ordinary labourers.

They are there described as very black, with curly hair, and alto-

gether very aboriginal in appearance. I had not myself noticed this, —

but when I knew Kumaon I had not much taken up ethnology. In

the plains where races have been longer and more mixed, and where,

as I have said, the lowest caste are few in numbers, they do not, I think;

exhibit aboriginal features. The fact is that so small a class has beem

recruited by people turned out of other classes, to a degree which has

quite obliterated their original type. There are now many decidedly

good-looking people among them, and their women often take up with

men of other caste. On the average, I should say, that they are now

decidedly better looking than the quiet decent Chamars,

The Ethnology of India. 125

' The result is that, in my view, in Hindustan, after 3,000 or longer

years of juxta-position, the Arian element has quite prevailed in

feature over the aboriginal type, and the population, take them all in

all, are in this particular about as Arian as Europeans, but dark in

skin and usually smaller.

- It is on the authority of one of the most learned native members of

the society that I have alluded to the Bagdees, one of the most numer-

ous non-Mussulman castes of Bengal, as aboriginal, but I have no

particular description of them; and though I have observed the

much greater frequency of aboriginal feature in Bengal, I am not

sufficiently acquainted with the people to distinguish the special per-

sonal characteristics of the different inferior classes. The Bagdees

seem to be cultivators, fishermen, watchmen, and dacoits. On the

borders of Bengal and Behar, the work of labourers is done by Raj-

wars, Bhooyas and other aboriginal tribes whom I have noticed,

The unclean tribes seems to be very various, and to have among

them a system of castes more particular than that of many Bramins,

I was lately obliged to dismiss the lowest servant in my establishment,

an excellent man, because he respectfully but firmly declined to wash

the cat, as impossible under the rules of his caste.

In the Prison Returns there is a large entry under the head of

_ *Chandals,’ the orthodox low caste name, and others appear under the

titles of ‘ Dosads,’ ‘ Harees,’ ‘Bhoomallees,’ &c, Altogether they

must be numerous in Bengal. There is in the list a cgnsiderable

caste of ‘ Mooshers,’ but I cannot find what they are. .

- I consider that in Bengal there is still a very great field for ethno-

logical exploration.

In the plains of Goozerat, the Kolees seem to fill the place of the

inferior grade in the social scale, as labourers and lower cultivators,

being there rather members of the ordinary community that a separ-

ate aboriginal tribe. The unclean outcastes are there called Dhers-

and Olganas. 7

* In the Maratta country, the ‘ Mhars’ seem to perform the functions

of ‘Begars’ (forced bearers of burdens), watchmen, and Helots gener-

ally, much as the Punjab Helots do among the Jats. There is also a

low caste of Mhangs. The lowest unclean caste are called ‘ Dhers’

there too, but I have also seen it asserted that the ‘ Mhars’ are really the

126 3 The Ethnology of India.

same as the ‘“ Dhers.’”’ There is a low caste called ‘‘ Parwarees’’ in

the country below the Ghats. They are found in the Bombay |

army. They, also, seem to be much the same as Mhars. Everything

seems to point to the reasonable expectation, that if we could but

trace the matter back far enough, the Goozerattee language would be

found to be the tongue of the Rajpoots and Koormees with an infu-

sion derived from the Koolees, and the Maratta that of the Koormees

and Mallies with a considerable infusion derived from the aboriginal

Mhars. I have not any good description of the personal appearance

of the modern Mhars. The Ramooses of the south of the Bombay

country, seem to have been a bold robber caste, now settled down to

cultivation. They came apparently from the Telagoo country and

are not aboriginal to the Maratta districts.

Besides the settled lower classes, there are also in the north some

tribes of a character which is apparently more common in the south ;

people who are a kind of half-tamed huntsmen, watchmen, and thieves,

doing little regular labour. In all Oude and in some of the neigh-

bouring districts to the east, there prevails a very peculiar tribe called

“ Pasees’” who almost monopolise the office of village watchmen and

who are in their way extremely good active men. They are also

huntsmen and thieve extensively, also to some degree cultivate and

labour. On the whole they are superior to most of these tribes.

Then there are several wandering tribes of Bhoureahs, Sansees,

Harnees, Koonjars, Dhanuks, and others who go about on pretext of

trapping vermin and the like, and are great robbers. There are also é

everywhere the gypsy ‘ Nuts’ or ‘ Sirkie-bashes’ (dwellers under reed- ‘

mats), but Gypsies are too well-known all over the world to need

farther specification here, a

Tue Tripes oF THE Soutnu.

» I have already avowed my ignorance of the Telinga country, and —

without a good knowledge of the races there existing, it would be im-

possible to trace the Aryan tribes in their progress from North to

South—for I find that a very large proportion of the tribes farther

South refer to Andria, the Telinga country, as a former stage in their

southward progress. That country seems in fact to have been a great

nursery of the southern tribes, Whether “ Andria” is another form of

The Ethnology of India. 127

“ Ariana’ I am unable to say. The change, on the southern frontier of

the Maratta country, to a Canarese population seems to be abrupt, and

there are few traces of progress of the tribes southwards at that point.

Iam inclined to think that the aborigines held out in the hilly

country about Sattara and Poonah till a more recent date, and that

the Arian immigration into the south principally occurred by a route

farther to the east through the Telinga country, which may possibly

have been then more extensive than it now is. In this I put aside

the question of maritime immigration from the west.

The Telinga country seems, from some source, to have been civilised

at a very early date, and there appears to be reason to believe that a

good deal of the country about Warangal and thence eastwards to-

wards the sea, was in a better state than that into which it has

since fallen. Much of the ancient Telinga country is said to have

been taken from the Koles who (in the sense in which I have used the

word) are not now adjacent—the Gonds intervening—and the country

Was it seems anciently called ‘‘ Kalinga” which may be another form

of Coolie-land. The old Telingas seem to have been a maritime

people, and it was probably they who carried Hindu ideas and perhaps

some Hindu blood into the Hastern Isles. To this day the Hindus

_ ofthe Hastern Coast are called “‘ Klings’” on the opposite side of the

_ Bay and in the Islands, a name evidently derived from Kalinga or

\ Kalinga. It is then much to be hoped that we may obtain some

_ better knowledge of the Telinga country.

+ The Bainjagas, who are very important in the Canarese country, are

3 Stated to be comparatively humble in the Telinga country and reduced

to the condition of cultivators and labourers, while the mercantile

business is in the hands of Comtees or Comatiyas, claiming to be a

‘Yace of pure Arian Vaisyas. The dominant classes are others of Arian

character, whom I shall presently mention so far as I know them.

All this would seem to indicate that if the Banees, being according te.

‘my speculation western immigrants, ever reached the Telinga country

as Srawaks or Lingamites, or with some earliest forms of that type

of faith, they have since been redueda and humbled by Northern

-_*

The principal people of whom I find mention in the Telings

— are Aylmas or Velmas, said to be “the Rajpoots of the

128 The Ethnology ef India.

South,” and apparently somewhat like them in character, a dominant

agricultural tribe of military proclivities. But of the nature of their

settlements I have no information. Another similar tribe are men-

tioned as ‘ Ratsawars.”’

Another fine tribe called Reddies and found in the Northern

Canarese country, are also stated to be a Telinga tribe, but of their —

jocation in the latter country I have no particulars.

The original Telinga “‘ Andras” seem to have come from the North ~

West by the valleys of the Godavery and Wyngunga. ‘The better

classes of them would seem to be taller, fairer, and better looking than

most of the southerners. The “common Telinga peasantry” are

described as people of spare form and dark complexion, with little

spirit or enterprise, but it is added that they do well inthe Madras

Army. I cannot make out what are the common castes of these people!

‘Naik,’ a word known in the native army and elsewhere, is in some

sense a Telinga, but more properly I believe an aboriginal word, —

There are I think some people called Naiks towards the Hastern —

Ghats, but in most places ‘Naik’ is the title of a headman. The —

Telinga villages, I find it stated, are not compact and fort-looking —

like those of Northern India and the Maratta country, but loose and —

detached, which would seem to be rather an approach to the very —

loose Bengal form. There are a good many Gonds in the North Hast, —

but the common low tribes are ‘ Dhers’ and * Beders' who have their =

Helots’ quarter in each village. iq 4

The Telinga palanquin-bearers are widely spread over the south ~ f

and are, I imagine, the Buis of whom I have before made mention,

The bearers who ply at Madras itself and on the East Coast seem to

come from Ganjam and the Northern Circars, which also furnish many pi

of the so-called “ Coolee” emigrants to the Mauritius. i=

The Canarese country is a remarkable instance of the way in which — :

names are transposed in India. The Canarese name igs given to a

everything that is not Canarese, and to nothing that is. What ie

called in Bombay the “Southern Maratta country,” because the

Marattas conquered it (the districts of Dharwar and Belgaum and the

country about Beejapore) is for the most part ethnologically Canarese,

while the Canara districts on the West Coast (though there is some

Canarese intermixture and they were once ruled by a Canarese-

PT ten i

The Ethnology of India. 129

dynasty) are principally inhabited by races alien to the Canarese,

more akin to the Marattas in the extreme north, and akin to the

Malayala people in the south. About and under the Ghats, the

Marattas and Northern Bramins run farther south than they do on

the plains of the Deccan.

On the other side of the Peninsula, the Carnatic, wholly Non-

Canarese, will always be called the Carnatic, because a dynasty seated

in the Canarese country once had authority there.

The real Canarese country is, the southern part of the Bombay

Presidency, part of the adjoining Nizam’s territory, part of Bellary,

and nearly the whole of Mysore. The Canarese can scarcely be said

_ to be Hindus, the Lingamite sect so much prevails, and those Linga-

mites so entirely ignore Bramins, and so completely make their Lingam

worship a separate faith. Most of the people are called ‘ Lingamites’

or ‘ Sibahtagars,’ a name which conceals various castes and races; for

4 are the Banijagas who both trade and hold land, and are very

In the north of this couutry the Reddies, whom I have already men-

~ tioned, are described as a fine handsome powerful race, capital culti-

: vators, living together in large villages, and raising much cotton, which

with other produce they often export as well as grow. They pay their

_ revenue well, but are jealous of interference in their village concerns,

and somewhat litigious. This is an old account, and it seems very

| 1 ke what might be said of Jats. Ido not know what is the present

eondition of these communities. The widows of the Reddies re-

a aarry. ‘They are much superior to their southern Maratta neighbours

| Mm an industrial and personal point of view.

f. Farther south the chief castes of Hindu cultivators are ‘Wokuls’ or

* Ooculagas,’

said to be called by the Mahommedans ‘ Koonbees,’ and

whom the Abbe Dubois considers to be in essentials the same as_ or

ilar to the Tamul Vellallers, isege they will not eat or sbynehi «

now a different caste och both Rionheds and Fosilalbenan 1 — few

| particulars regarding their character, but they seem to be on the

_\whole good cultivators, The headmen of Caharese villages are called

130 The Ethnology of India.

‘ Gaudas,’ and under native governments not unfrequently farmed the

rents. There also seems to have been the village communal system

in some degree, but in most places not democratic. The Wokuls are

indifferent soldiers, but serve as Militia. They eat flesh freely and

are not a strict class. There are, it seems, a number of sub-divisions

among them. One of the chief are called Gungacara, but whether

that indicates a northern origin, I can’t say. In truth Wokul seems to

be a very wide word. A considerable proportion of the cultivators,

in several parts of this country, seem to be settled and reclaimed

aborigines, sturdy ‘‘ Beders” and “‘ Malawa’”’ or “ hillmen,” and there

are a class allied to the Billiaru and Teermen of the Western Coast.

The low Helot outcastes are numerous and called ‘‘ Hollayers.”

Some of this caste seem to be still aboriginal] in the Western Ghats,

they are mentioned as coming down to the Coast nearly or quite |

naked; but most of them are agricultural labourers and serfs. They

are said to correspond to the ‘“‘ Dhers” to the north and to the Palli or —

Pallers to the south. ‘‘ Halaya’”’ means ancient, and the word Hollayer J

perhaps only means “ the ancient race.” The Gollars, Golavadu or —

Gwallas seem to be few, but the “‘ Dhangars,’’ mentioned as connected

with Aheers, extend a good way south, and there is a large class of ©

the aboriginal shepherds the “‘ Carambers.”” There are Banjaras called —

also “ Lambadi,” and I believe also “‘ Warali” or ‘‘ Katode Warali,” but —

IT am not sure whether these last are not a kind of Gpysies found also |

in the Bombay country.

The Buis and Bustars are palanquin-bearers, fishermen, ferrymen —

and distillers. }

The old Ganarese dynasties and most of the people were at one

time Jain, but those of that faith are now few, they have returned —

to the worship of Siva and the Lingam, which seems to be their

ancient faith. This former Jain profession seems to be, however, a .

link of connection with the Banees farther North. .

My impression, in passing through the country, has been that the

Canarese as a body are fairer and better looking than mast of th in

southern neighbours ; and as the tribes of a northern character see x

to prevail among them less than in the Tamil and Telagoo country, it

may be a question whether their features are influenced by an infusion

from the west. It seéms that the ancient name of the Canarose

The Ethnology of India. 131

people and language is ‘‘ Arabee,” but I have been unable to trace

the origin or derivation of that name. There are some vague tradi-

tions of former Arab conquest in those parts, but I have not been

able to connect them with the Canarese name. The language is

certainly, like the other languages of the South of India, Dravidian

with Sanscrit super-imposed, but it is an undoubted fact (as we shall

see when we come to the Western Coast) that a succession of immi-

grations has occurred there; and one of them seems to a considerable

extent to have flowed over into the Canarese country. Perhaps still

more ancient immigrations may have flowed farther, and it might be

well worth while minutely to inquire whether any Hithyaritic or

Kgyptian importations can be traced in the Canarese tongue.

In the Tamul country there is little suspicion of Western blood.

The dominant tribe is of a very decided Northern character, while

the mass of the lower classes is probably more aboriginal than in

any other part of India. Consequently most of the Tamul people

are small and black, and there seem to be among them frequent

_ traces of aboriginal features.

The superior agricultural class, owning and cultivating most of the

-Jand and in possession of many chiefships, &ec. are the “ Vellallers,”’

\ a people of whom their own traditions of immigration from the North,

Beried with their laws and institutions, leave in my mind no doubt

that they belong to the class of later democratic tribes. Much has

Been done to dissolve the old communal system, but the early deserip-

tions of Vellaller villages, their apportionment of the lands and mode

of self-government are exactly such as would describe a Jat village

of the present day.

The term Vellaller, like the Canarese Wokul, seems to be used to

express a cultivator of the soil, in fact may be translated zemindar

or cultivator, just as “Jat” is synonymous with zemindar in the

Punjab. Whether the Vellallers are directly connected with the

Velmas of the Telagoo country or with the Bellalla Rajas (who,

ruling in the Canarese country, carried their arms into the south), I

am unable to say. They appear to burn their dead, but are Hindus

of the looser sort in their religious observances, and in their rules

respecting marriage, &c. Like most of these tribes, they do not

ordinarily marry more than one wife, unless the first fails to bring

132 The Ethnology of India.

children. They have apparently some Poojarees of their own caste,

but also to some degree accept Bramins as priests. Some of them

are educated, or at least some sections of them are quite literate.

Of this sort I have mentioned the Modelliars, who are distinctly

stated to be a branch of them, but I am not quite sure whether it

actually is so as regards the Pillays. The Vellallers are the principal

tribe among the Tamul population in the north of Ceylon. The

whole race seems to be an industrious good people.

The cowherds in the Tamul country are it appears called “ Idayan,”’

and I have alluded to the learned branch of the cowherd race called

Yadavas. "I have not been able to ascertain who are the merchant

class among the Tamul people, whether Modelliars, Pillays, &c. or

whether there are any Banijagas.

The artisans in the south generally seem to be classed in groups,

one caste comprising several different handicrafts, the principal of —

which is that of the Panchalas or Pancham-Bandams, comprising ©

carpenters, blacksmiths, coppersmiths, masons and another which has —

escaped me. } ,

The principal low caste tribes are the Palli or Pallers, and the Pariahs, —

who, though somewhat similar in name, are quite distinct and in fact

seem to be a good deal opposed to one another one (the Pallers ;)

forming the lowest grade of what are called the right hand castes,

the other (the Pariahs) holding the same place among the left hand ;

castes. Then there are the robber castes, Kallars and Marawars. I

have been unable to make out accurately whether these are the same

or different, whether Marawar is the name of the tribe and Kallar

only means robber, or whether there are two tribes. However pre=

datory their disposition, they are not all now robbers, but seem to

form a considerable portion of the settled-mhabitayts of the extreme

south of the Peninsula. In one place I find the Marawars described |

as very aboriginal in feature, and in that respect giving much ground i

for the belief that they are descended from the monkeys who assisted

in the conquest of Ceylon, while in another place they are said to —

be well made and featured and of a martial disposition. Probably

The Ethnology of India. 133

Ramooses of the southern parts of the Bombay territory, the better

Beders of the centre of the Peninsula, and the Kallars and Marawars

of the south. All are of a sturdy, semi-military, predatory character.

They have generally, in times of trouble, acquired considerable posi-

tion, and their chiefs have risen to be Polygars. Evidently they are

_ superior to the simpler aborigines. The Ramooses are described as

a ill-favoured, but not altogether different in appearance from the ordinary

_ population. They have many customs which seem to indicate some

eonnection with the northern democratic tribes (see full particulars

in the Madras Literary Journal), and have the Rajpoot-like traditions

of the Sacred Horse, Ge. It is in such tribes that I think an infusion

of Yavana blood may well be suspected.

The Pallers are probably related to the Puliars of the Pulney hills,

but as settled inhabitants they seem to be decent cultivators of low

_ degree. They are very numerous, and seem chiefly to cultivate kitchen

* gardens and small farms. They bury their dead, and have Poojarees

F; of their own caste, eat animal food when they can get it, and drink

freely. Like most non-Arian tribes, they appear to practice polygamy

when they can afford it.

_ The Pariahs are well known, their name having become proverbial.

_ They also seem to be numerous, and somewhat lower in degree than

§ quarters attached to the Vellaller villages. I think that traces of the

thick lip and something of the prognathous jaws of their ancestors

1 ay sometimes be traced in those whom we see in service. Yet they

| a e certainly very intelligent good servants. It appears that they are

“Sometimes educated, and that there have even been Pariah authors.

| q _ A strong mark that even yet Hindu ideas and manners have not

| fully taken hold of the extreme south, is this that there, as it appears,

| even some pretty decent and respectable castes bury, instead of burning

‘hei dead.

The division into right hand and left hand castes, which prevails all

over Southern India is very extraordinary and unexplained. They

are sometimes violent factions, and yet, for anything that we are told,

there is as little occasion for the feeling as for the feud between the

134 The Ethnology of India.

three-year-olds and four-year-olds in Ireland. The Canarese Bani-

jagas seem to be the chief of the right hand castes, with the lower

cultivating classes of Hollayers and Kallars under them—while the

better classes connected with the land appear to be the left hand, with

the Pariah serfs under them. The Abbé Dubois seems rather to.

reverse this arrangement as respects right and left, but the more recent

statements are probably the better. The artisans seem to be divided.

I think that the subject deserves farther inquiry. Possibly these

factions may represent two different streams of civilisation and domi-

nation meeting in the south.

The old dominant tribe of the South Western Coast are the Nairs,

who seem long to have dominated that country from the Western Ghats.

These Nairs are the chief people of Malabar and Travancore, and the

Bunts, who occupy a similar position in Canara, are cognate to them,

as are the Coorgs above them. They are chiefly notorious for the —

singular custom of polyandry, and the consequent order of succession

through females. Polyandry is not now universally practised (though .

not uncommon), but the rule of succession through females is at this —

day the actual unvarying law of this people. They are a good-sized ~

well-featured race, but rather dark, especially compared to the other

inhabitants of this Coast. They are not only soldiers and landholders,

but are also often educated, and are then considered to be remarkably

good accountants. I have mentioned the prevalence of Bramins in

this part of India. They seem to get on very well with the Nairs, and

share the land with them. Indeed, it is said, that the Nair women

are not always satisfied with their own polyandrical arrangements,

and that a good deal of Bramin blood has been infused into the Nair

aristocracy by the channel of female descent.

There seem to be a considerable number of the Agrestic slaves of

Malabar, the black aboriginal Chermars, to whom, as well as to the

Nagadies (if possible still lower), I have already alluded. The re-

maining important sections of the population of this part of India

I shall soon come to, but with regard to the effect of immigration

upon them, I shall class them under the head of Borderers. F

The system of village communities does not prevail on this Western

me}

Coast. The land is there considered to be the private property, in full

right, of private landholders who hold separately, more after a modern —

The Ethnology of India. 135

European fashion. It is also a general observation that in all hilly and

broken countries (such as are the Western Ghats and their spurs on

either side) village communities are neither required, nor can be easily

‘formed. In the midst of great plain countries, the cultivation of a

community is concentrated within fixed and not distant limits, and

concentration of habitation is required for defence. In hilly countries,

the occasional spaces fit for cultivation are occupied by petty scattered

hamlets and individual habitations.

I have never heard any attempt to account for the singular poly-

andry of the Nairs. My impression, however, is that polyandry is

only a step in advance of the custom which is well-known as existing

_ both among the old Jews and among almost all those modern Hindu

tribes which permit remarriage, as well as among some other races,

viz,, that the wife of one brother passes on his decease to the next

brother. Among the Jats, the men strenuously assert this right, and

the women generally as strenuously deny it ; but as we do not enforce

it, it has never been decided which is in the right. At any rate it is

_ always asserted. Now when the woman is recognised to be family

_ property, and when moreover the Hindu and older than Hindu doctrine

r. ot joint family property is brought to bear on the matter, it seems

- to require but a little pressure and a little philosophy to convert a

Minocessive holding into a joint contemporaneous holding; especially

when childless elder brothers are getting old, and younger brothers

Bare rising Np who may supply the want. In an early state of society,

~ we know that in war the women are always carried off as the prize

_ of the victors ; consequently, as the fortune of war varies, tribes must

often be left with a deficiency of women to an inconvenient degree,

which the polyandrical arrangement among brothers (already pos-

sessed of contingent remainders in the same woman) obviates. This

‘result seems to have followed among some of the Scythian tribes, and

there is a tendency to the same thing among some of the Arian tribes

of the Himalayas. In this last case, the cause assigned often is, that

the women being good-looking and much prized in the plains, fathers

have great temptations to make advantageous matches for their

daughters (to sell them, rude people say), and women become scarce

in the hills.

We may suppose that the Nairs were perhaps a tribe who had

136 The Ethnology of India.

pushed far ahead of their base of operations, possibly their baggage

and most of their women had been cut off, and being left with a scant _

supply of wives in their new settlements, they may have adopted the —

present arrangement. Yet it seems one which has little to recom-

mend it to permanence. The extraordinary thing then is, that it

appears that in some parts of the Malabar Coast, parts of other tribes

have actually to some degree borrowed the practice from the Nairs:

There can be nothing about the country unfavourable to the propaga-

tion of womeny Any cause tending to female infanticide would also

tend to polyandry, but this has not been assigned as the reason in |

Malabar. |

In the Canara districts, the Jains are still numerous, many of the ©

Bants, &e. being of this sect, and it appears that this country (known —

also as the Tulu or Tulava country) was formerly a great stronghold —

of the Jains and ruled by Jain Rajas.

THE BORDERERS.

Tue TEERMEN oR ISLANDERS oF THE SoutH West Coast.

On the Malabar Coast there is a numerous class called Teers or

Teermen. They are generally a fair good-looking race, but considered —

to be of very low caste. Caste ideas are there carried to an extreme —

unknown in Hindustan, where, with the exception of the unclean

scavenger caste, mere contiguity and general intercourse is not sup-_

posed to affect caste, and all classes mix freely together. In Malabar

and Travancore, the Nairs do not pretend to be more than Soodras, |

but they make out the Teers and Shanars (who are much the same) to”

be so infinitely below them, that they must get out of the way when

a Nair calls out to announce his approach in the public road. Anée

yet the Teers are by no means a low and degraded caste; on the

contrary they are, as I said, a good-looking, and they are also a thriving

prosperous people, who are largely educated in the Government

schools, obtain much public and private service, are acquiring land,

and are in every way well-to-do. t

They have (it seemed to me in Malabar) not the least aboriginal

trace, but are fairer and in appearance more refined looking than the

Nairs. The Shanar women of this class are those about whosé

“a

liberty to cover themselves a disturbance was made in the Travancore |

The Ethnology of India. 137

country by the classes who considered them too low for this decent

practice. Al] the Teer and Shanar people are said to be by caste

or profession palm-growers or toddy-drawers, in allusion to the prin-

cipal product of their native regions. ‘ Teer’ it seems means ‘ Island’

and the Teermen are generally understood to be Islanders or immi-

grants by sea. Their relationship to the Maldivians is spoken of,

but that is a petty group, and the only people to whom it is clear

that they are related are the Singhalese. I am not acquainted with

Singhalese ethnology, but the Singhalese whom I have seen seemed,

I think, to be a fine-featured straight-haired people with no dash of

the Indian Aborigines and like the Teers, only somewhat darker and

somewhat different in dress, &c. Caldwell speaks of the Teers as

bemg a reflex of the previous Hindoo emigration to Ceylon. Yet if

all the accounts be correct, it is difficult to suppose all the congeners

of the Teers to have come from Ceylon. Not only are the Teers

very numerous in Malabar, where they form a great proportion of the

population, but all the Shanars farther south are stated to be of the

_ same race, as are the Billiaru (said to mean ‘Bow men’), the lower

_ Yace im Canara, and a considerable number of people related to the

_ latter who are found in Mysore, and there called Halaya Paika or old

% Paiks. Some of these people are, however, I believe much darker and

_ less good looking than the proper Teers. The latter are also said to

have contributed to form the Moplahs. If so large a population has

“immigrated, it must have been a long time ago. I said I think that

there can be little doubt of their relationship to the Singhalese. It

- would seem from the published accounts, that the Singhalese are not

ravidian in language and manners, but derive the main portions of

their language and religion, and perhaps of their civilisation, from

Bengal and Magadha. That they received their present Buddhism

from Magadha, and much of their language from a Sanscritic source,

there can, I believe, be no doubt. But here also Western elements

| may be mixed with the other, and very careful inquiry is necessary.

' It would be curious if it proved that, as it were in the three

extremities of India, in Cashmere in the north protected by moun-—

tains, Bengal in the east protected by the marshes of the Ganges

and Berhampootra, and parts of Ceylon and Malabar on the south

"| protected by distance and water, there remain three remnants of the

138 The Ethnology of India.

older and softer Indian civilisation, not swept over by the democratic

tribes of the north-west, and still retaining considerable points of

resemblance among themselves.

Tue SoutHerNn CHRISTIANS.

I have not been able to find any precise ethnological description of

the Christians of the Southern Coast, but so far as I can learn, they

are principally Shanars.

Tue Mopiaus.

I believe that the notoriety of certain events has led most people

at a distance to suppose the Moplahs to be a small sect of religious

fanatics on the West Coast. Nothing can be a greater mistake,

They are a large, most energetic, and most prosperous people ; in some

industrial respegts perhaps the best population to be found anywhere

in India. In point of numbers alone they are very considerable. In

a large portion of the Malabar country, they form full half the popu-

lation, and in the Malabar district their total number by census is —

not far short of half a million. They are also numerous in Canara —

and very numerous in Travancore. The Lubbays of the Tinnevelly

Coasts seem to be as nearly as possible the same race. It is evident

then that they are numerous enough to form a small kingdom, and

in point of wealth and individual comfort and prosperity they

certainly exceed any similar number of any other race in India, |

confidently assert that no one can see the comfortable, neat, superior

two-storied houses and homesteads of the Moplahs of the West

Coast, without feeling that he has come upon a people non-Indian in

their vigour, progressiveness, and whole style. One hardly feels oneself

in India. There is no doubt that the Moplahs have a very large

share of Arab blood. Ihave not been able to ascertain particulars

of the date of their immigration, nor of the parts of Arabia from

which, and the tribes from among whom they come, which latter

points would be important now that Mr. Palgrave has led us to

distinguish among Arab and quasi-Arabs; but the general native

belief, which is probably correct, is that the Moplahs are a cross

between Arabs and Teermen. The result is a fine, stout, manly, good-

looking race. Their religion and much of their energy and manners

The Ethnology of India. 139

are Arab, but at all events they are Arabs of an industrious money-

getting stamp. They have most of the trade of the Coast in their

hands, and they are rapidly acquiring a larger and larger share in

the land, not only inferior rights by settlement and lease, but also

superior rights by purchase and mortgage. As respects their religious

fanaticism, I believe it will generally be found that fanaticism is

most frequently used as an instrument of political warfare, and that

in the most sincere it is but a symptom of political discontent. In

spite of Mr. Palgrave, I think that when Arabs beyond their own

country are Mahommedans, they are pretty zealous, especially when

| they find themselves confronted with unbelievers. Probably the

_ Moplahs are as good Mahommedans as are usually found, and in time

of political discontent there is no lack of religious leaders from

: Z =

o7 see te |

_ Arabia; but in fact I understand that it is perfectly clear to those

_ acquainted with the matter that the Moplah outrages of which we

_ hiave heard so much, are really political, or perhaps I should rather

} say social, outbursts of a few individuals among an energetic people,

i directed not against the British Government or Christian rule, but

_ against Hindu landlords. The land question is at the bottom of it

all. It is the old story of an inferior race with the law in their

favour, and a more energetic race who wish to progress somewhat more

! rapidly than a conservative law allows. The more serious attacks

_ 6n Kuropean officers have been made on them, not because they are

@hristians, but because they have not taken a view sufficiently

favourable to the Moplahs in questions between them and the Hindu

landlords.

_ They are a sturdy and independent as well as an intelligent and

educated race, and though they make, I believe, capital public servants

when they enter our service, they do not much seek it, and circum-

“stances seem to have rendered them somewhat apart and over-indepen-

dent. There is perhaps less intercourse and friendly feeling than is

desirable between the governors and the governed. Still the Moplahs

are an ethnological fact, and a strong and rapidly progressing fact ;

we can’t get rid of them, and we must try to guide their energy in

the right direction. After all, their outbreaks have been those of

a very few individuals, and have only been serious on account of their

_ extreme pluck and energy, with which only European soldiers can cope,

140 The Ethnology of India.

MIxED AND IMMIGRANT RACES ON THE BomBay Coast.

The Mahommedan Borahs, with equal mercantile energy, are a

pleasant contrast to the Moplahs in their quiet demeanour and ready

acceptance of British rule. They seem to be of the sect of Ismaleahs or

Assassins, who are supposed to hold murder among their tenets; but —

the Borahs are very mild, peaceable, shop-keeping assassins indeed.

I believe that the name is that of the Hindu mercantile Borahs, but

there is an evident infusion of immigrant blood, which probably came

in together with their religion. It is probable that they are a cross

between immigrants from the Persian Gulf and Hindu Borahs.

Whether called Gulf-Arabs or Persians, the population of the coun-

tries at the Northern end of the Gulf is evidently more Persian than

Arab, and there also seems to be a chief seat of the Ismaleah sect.

The Borahs seem to some extent to cultivate and hold land, but their

proper avocation is trade; and a most useful and prosperous race they

are. They are very numerous in Bombay, and thence west and north-.

west ; they have a large proportion of the trade of Western India, and —

form an important class in all the large towns up to about the centre

of India. Boorhanpore is, I believe, the “city of the Borahs” to —

which they attach peculiar importance, and where they desire to lay

their bones; and they are found in Hllichpore, Nagpore, Indore, —

Nusseerabad, and many other places in those directions. They are

generally a fair good looking people, and deal largely in all sorts 7

Europe and foreign goods. |

The Parsees are so well-known that I need say little of shen ;

They must form altogether a considerable population in the west ofa

India, comprising many humble members in service, &c. as well as %

merchants. They are, I think, in feature, in the main, of a high-Arian~ 4

type, somewhat intermixed perhaps after a very long residence im —

India, and somewhat blunted and thickened as compared to the sharper —

and more chiselled northern faces; but still there is generally the

prominence of feature which we might expect from an extraction —

originally Persian. a

I believe that there are some bade Jews on the Western Const, .

but the comparatively recent Jew settlers somewhat numerous about

Bombay, and who form a considerable community in Calcutta, are one

The Ethnology of India. 141

of the most striking and, I think I may say, handsome of all races.

A remarkably showy oriental dress, setting off a complexion almost

European, no doubt goes for something ; but still the people themselves

are very remarkable. Far from the dingy old-clo’ looking complexion

which we are apt to associate with European Jews, their complexion

is the most bright and transparent looking to be seen anywhere, and

the blood seems quite to over-master the faint tinge of olive in their

_ skins. The features are large and prominent, almost to excess, and

their forms tall and goodly. I believe that these people are all

connected with the Persian Gulf, and that they derive their blood

from thence. After Mr. Palgrave’s description of the true Arab

_ physique, one may well believe that their traits are really rather

Persian than Semitic.

Tur ScrnDErs.

I have already noticed the people of Upper Scinde. The people

and language properly called ‘Scindee’ are almost confined to the

lower part of the Province, andI have reserved them to be classed

‘among the Borderers, because they are not altogether an extension of

i any of the Indian Arians of whom I have treated, but a composite

_ race largely influenced by other elements. The Arabs seem to have

conquered Scinde some centuries before India at large was overrun

by Mahomedans of other races; and at this day there is both much

Arabic in the Scindee language, and probably a good deal of Arab

ey blood in the Scindee people. There is also probably some Persian, some

Hindu, and perhaps some aboriginal Koolee blood. In short both

E. the people and the language are altogether composite. The amal-

gamation does not seem to have had the good industrial result shown

| in the Moplahs and Borahs. The Scindees are described as well

13 Me rown and rolust, but dark in skin, debased in morals, and idle. The

_ Delta and the country of the Lower Indus seem to be very ill and

in sufficiently cultivated ; and the people are given to hunting, ones

| = pastoral pursuits ee as much as to cultivation.

i a Tur BELocuens.

I have not alluded to the Belochees as an element in making up the

Scindees, because it would seem as.if the Belochees themselves were a

142 The Ethnology of India.

composite people, made up of the blood of Persians and Arabs, and

I don’t know what besides. However, if that is so, it is not now a

mere mixture, but a chemical union of the elements thrown together,

and the Belochees, if their language is composite, are still now a

people of distinct traits and nationality. They acquired, as is well-

known, at a comparatively recent time the dominion of Scinde, and

they are pretty well-known as settlers in the North-West of India, say

to about as far as Dehli; but they have there none of the dignity and

station of the Pathan settlers. I dare say there are decent cultivators

among them ; but they are more often camel-drivers and such like, and

they have not a good name, being generally supposed to have consider-

able robber and cut-throat proclivities. I don’t think they have any

villages of their own; they are generally only scattered about in the

capacities which I have mentioned. They are fine powerful men,

but rather dark. Those whom [ have seen of the families of the

Ameers of Scinde are fair and good looking, but even in Belochistan —

I believe it may be said of the Belochees generally, that they are a F

good deal darker than the Pathans. They are similarly arranged in

tribes, and are similarly predatory upon the border ; but I understand 3

that they are a good deal less democratic in their constitution, and

more amenable to the authority of their chiefs than the Pathans.

This too may make them preferable as mercenary soldiers. It is

somewhat curious that, while in the west of India Arabs are en-—

tertained in that capacity, on the Coasts of Arabia itself and of

Africa, Belochees are the people so employed by the chiefs. They are

in fact the Swiss of those parts.

I have alluded before to the Brahooes, and as I believe that they a

are not known as residents within Indian limits, a need not recur to — :

them.

7. “

3 4

“2

Tur AF@HANs orn PATHANs.

_ [have included the Indian Pathans among modern Indian tribes, —

and have sometimes called the Pathans proper “ Afghans,” to distin-

guish them, and in deference to English habit. But among the people

themselves, the name Afghan is hardly known.

Physically these people are among the very finest on the earth.

And they have a pleasant, frank, simple, unaffected way, that makes

The Ethnology of India. 1438

4 man at once feel, when he gets among them, that he is out of India.

A European will really more amalgamate with a Pathan in a week than

with a thorough Indian in seven years.

The Pathans are decidedly high-Arian in feature; and if their —

features are less universally very high and chiselled than those seen in

the northern hills, they have on the other hand more of a broad, robust;

ruddly, manly look, and the people are in fact a hardier and bolder

people. About Cabul they are fair, but some of the tribes in the

lower and hotter hills and valleys adjoining India have somewhat

_ dark skins. Rough, simple, and frank as these people generally look,

_ they are in fact by no means simple. I believe that some of the

~ more isolated tribes, Wazeerees, &c., have more simple virtue, but the

t great majority of the Afghans, rail probably by nature and more

in consequence of long dealing with many nations (holding as they

- do the portals of India), have the reputation of being a very astute,

Ck ee

_intrigruing, ambitious, avaricious, and crafty people. Great allowance

must, however, he made for their situation and temptations. One

: cannot but feel that so energetic and fine a race, living in a country

80 poor, but the highway of so many nations, must of necessity learn

| to live a good deal on their neighbours. I am told by officers on the

frontier, that in point of bold unblushing lying, a Hindu is a mere

ehild to a Pathan. I suppose this habit comes from long living by

their wits. The character of faithfulness, however, is in the main

injurious to the Pathans. They are distrusted as mercenaries. It is

felt that if they are always ready to do any work when it is made

— their =, they are also people of a calculating pu deeb

fay our of another sluts as ‘the Persians found to their cost in the

| last century, when they too much availed themselves of the services|

| ‘of the Afghans. At present they are very popular in our native

amy, and certainly make capital soldiers. But they are fickle and

} uncertain, and seldom serve long without a break. A man gets a

Message to say that it is absolutely necessary that he should come

home and murder his uncle, and off he goes with or without leave.

They come back, however. It is a thing to be understood that the

Ameer of Cabul pretends to no authority whatever over the Hastern

| Afghan tribes. They are avowedly politically quite independent,

144 : The Ethnology of India.

while in one sense, without our attempting to interfere in their internat

affairs (that they will not permit for an instant), they are becoming

more and more our military retainers. A very large number of them

pass though our service, and a steady income is derived from it.

The. Pathans south and south-west of Peshawar are pure and

rough, but the Eusofzies and tribes to the north seem to differ con-

siderably in character. In fact, as I have before mentioned, the Pathans

are comparatively recent conquerors and colonists of the northern hills

and valleys. They have there mixed much with people of an Indian :

type, pre-Hindu it may be, but probably the ancestors of Hindus.

These people have not the Hindu caste which, for the most part, pre-

vents amalgamation on the part of the Khatrees, and I think there

can be little doubt that their blood has much influenced the

character of the Husofzye clans. The purer Afghans are extremely —

illiterate, and the very opposite of bigots in matters of religion.

The Eusofzies are perhaps all the fairer and handsomer for the inter- —

mixture of blood; they are also more civilised in their manners and —

much more literary. And they have imbibed very much of that

veneration, that religious capacity, which distinguishes the oldest ~

Indian branch of Arians. Mahomedans as they are, they really :

seem to have some religious zeal, and they are very much priest- —

ridden. In fact the Akhoond of Swat and other priests have, to _

some extent, induced the tribes to submit to a certain and partial |

religious government, if it can be called by that name. The priests

seem to have considerable grantsof land, and at any rate succeed in

levying a regular tithe from the landholders and cultivators, whose ;

differences they settle as far as they can. It is among these people —

that discontented Mahomedan immigrants from Hindustan have

found some sort of shelter. It should be understood that intermix an

ture has not destroyed the military qualities of the Eusofzies

themselves. With an inferior population at home to cultivate their —

fields, they are amongst the most notable Pathan soldiers who have

pushed their fortunes in India. ©

The proper Afghan constitution is democratic in the extreme, sO —

much so that any sort of government on a large scale is almost im-

possible, and the Ameer’s authority is confined to a few open valleys —

(for the most part cultivated by inferior races) and to a very uncertaim —

Lhe Ethnology of India. 145

feudal chiefship over the western clans. They have their regular

system of democratic representation and self-government by the

assemblies of Jeergahs and Qolooses; but like mest rude people so

_ situated, no man’s nationality goes beyond his own clan (just as in

civilised Greece, it did not go beyond his own city), and within the

clan order is very insufficiently maintained. Afghan individuality in

‘very irrepressible.

A considerable population of proper Pathans are now our subjects

ain the districts of Peshawar and Kohat, and it would be very

interesting to examine critically, how far their constitution is really

different from that of the Jats and other democratic Indian tribes.

_ dt is generally said that as a people they are very different, and non-

Indians must be very different from Indians. The language too

shows that, Arian though they be, the Pathans are a branch separated

by a wide interval. But still I have not been able to discover by

cursory inquiry that their constitution is other than that of the more

‘democratic Indo-Germans. I rather incline to think that they are

probably of the same stock as the Jats and other tribes, but of a common

ancestry, long anterior to the entrance of the latter into India. It

| may be that while some tribes poured into India, others have been

gradually working their way though the hills, dispossessing the

_ Khatrees and Khasas and more aboriginal Caucasians who held what

| as now modern Afghanistan,

if. Tux Aporiainat Artans or Tue Inp1an Caucasus.

| I have lately called attention to our ignorance of these most

| interesting people, probably the remains ef the pre-Hindu ancestors

| of the earliest Hindus. Of the Kaffirs of the most inaccessible

' portions of the range, between the Kashgar river and Bameean, we

have heard a great deal, but learned almost nothing. They are

thought to be related to Europeans, because they sit on chairs and

drink wine copiously. They must be a sturdy race, to have maintained

their independence so long. All the other tribes seem to be more or

_ less Mahomedans. ‘There are the * Neemchahs” or half breeds on

the southern slepe of the Caucasus, between the Afghans and the

, higher peaks, speaking a language with a strong affinity to the Indian

tongues, and which also seems to present some curious affinities te

146 The Ethnology of India.

the Latin. In the lower country near the debouchure of the Kashgar

river, the people speak a mixed language called ‘‘ Laghmanee.” In

the upper valley of that river, the name Kashgar seems to mark the

trace of early Khasas.

The ancient language of Swat seems to have disappeared, and the

country is now Pathan, with a subject race of aboriginal blood, that

is pure Arian aborigines. But farther north, in the valleys of the

Ghilghit river, running into the Indus from the West, we have an

Arian people speaking a language of their own, which is cognate to the

tongue of the tribes east of the Indus in and about the country called

** Chilas.’’ Some of these latter are independent and scarcely known, but

most of this country, and also Ghilgit, is now subject to the Maharajah

of Cashmere. The “ Dards’’ seem to be among these tribes.

It may be asserted of all these Caucasian tribes (excepting the

Kaffirs of whom we know so little) that, while they are physically

as handsome and fine as possible, they are not so democratic and

sturdy in independence as the Afghans. We know very well what —

an undertaking it is to subdue, still more to rule, an Afghan tribe in ©

their own country. But the Aighans have certainly subdued many

of these Caucasians. The Maharajah of Cashmere has conquered ~

and governs many more. Those in contact with our own frontier :

are quiet and not troublesome. And in Kashgar it is understood that —

the people submit to their rulers, in a way which Afghans will never |

suffer. Altogether it may be assumed that this race is less indepen-

dent (though it may be more intellectual) than the democratic races; _

more amenable to Rajas and Priests, and altogether just such a people

as we might expect to give birth to Khasas and early Braminical —

Hindus. Living in countries most favourable to the Vine they seem |

to be generally given to the use of wine. Whether the use of chairs

extends beyond Kaffiristan I cannot say. We have in fact everything —

to learn about these people and their languages. 7

Tue NortHERN BorDERERs OF MIXED TARTAR OR THIBETAN BLOOD,

The Mongolians and Arians seem to cross well. Most of the tribes

falling under this heading are physically vigorous and industriously

energetic,

The Ethnology of India. 147

I have before alluded to the Hazarahs beyond Cabul and Ghuznee,

who come down to Peshawar and the Punjab for labour. This name

“Hazarah” has no connection with that of the Cis-Indus district

so called froma town of that name. These Hazarahs are Persian in

speech, Sheeah in religion, and decidedly Mongol in feature, charac-

teristics, which would seem to tally with the story of their having

been a body of slaves in the train of some Mahomedan conqueror;

but whether this is really historical, I cannot say. They are very

independent and industrious, decidedly a good race.

The people of Ghilgit are the farthest Arians of the country whence

the Indus flows. To the north the people are of Turkish race, and in

_ the valley of the Indus above the junction with the Ghilgit river are

the Bultees of Iskardo, &c. The language of the Bultees is decidedly

Thibetan, and their features show a large proportion of the blood of that

race. Some of it may be, as they say, that of Alexander, for anything I

know to the contrary; but we should hardly have heard of it, if they

_ had not been Mahomedans. They are Sheeahs, as are several tribes in

those higher countries, a circumstance which has not been explained.

They seem to be a good, stout, quiet race. The Maharajah of

Cashmere (who rules the country) has enlisted many of them into

_ his service, apparently with advantage.

In the upper valleys of the Sutlej, in Spiti, Kanawer, dc. there are

_ mixed races exhibiting much Thibetan blood, and apparently more

Buddhist than Hindu in religion. A very Thibetan-looking colony

used to be settled at Mahasoo just beyond Simla, and people of that

ace did much of the heavier work, carrying wood on their backs.

They are powerful, ruddy-looking people, and as entirely unlike

Thdians as anything one can imagine. The women especially are

-vemarkably fine females in an industrial sense; but in other respects,

whatever they may be from a Turanian point of view, they are not

likely to be dangerous to the Arian visitors to the sanatarium.

From this point for many hundred miles to the east, all the passes,

the very crests and centres of the passes through the snowy range, are

occupied by a peculiar tribe who almost monopolise the trade across,

principally carried on upon the backs of sheep. They also cultivate

some land. They are known as the “ Bhooteas,” but that is so wide

@ word (in fact identical with Thibetan) that it is little guide to us.

148 The Ethnology of India.

I believe that there are some very curious tribes m valleys near

and immediately beyond the snows, but I have not the means of

specifying them.

As respects the Himalayas generally, the following may, I think, be:

said. From Cashmere eastwards, all the easily accessible portions of

the Himalayas are occupied by perfectly Arian Hindus, as: far as the

eastern border of Kumaon and the Kalee river, separating that Pro-

vince from the Nepal dominions ; the Thibetans being here confined to

the valleys about and beyond the snow. Throughout the whole

length of Nepal again people of Thibetan blood have partially flooded

ever into the Nepal country, have there met and intermixed with

other races, and have formed mixed tribes who appear to be generally

(the proper Goorkhas perhaps excepted) more Thibetan than Indian:

in physiognomy and speech, but are or affect to be more Indian than

Thibetan in religion and manners, doubtless under the influence of

the dominant “ Khas.’” East of Nepal, in Sikkim and Bhootan,

Thibetans are altegether dominant, and the Hindu element almost.

disappears. ‘Fhe soldiers whom we erroneously call ‘ real Goorkhas’”

are mostly of the Gurang and Magar tribes of western Nepal. Their

features are ultra-Mongolan, but they are small, whereas the Thibe-

tans are generally large. Of their pluck and energy there can be no

doubt. At the Simla Government School, the children from a —

Goorkha Regiment were found at least to equal, in fact rather to beat —

the Hindus. They themselves affect to be Hindus, and stoutly — i

deny being Buddhists, though they are free from most disagreeable

Hindu prejudices. The Newars, the cultivating peasantry of the” :

valley of Nepal, are stated to have Thibetan looking features, with a ey

fair and ruddly complexion. Both their language and that of the —

= =

Gurangs and Magars seem to be in the main Thibetan, at least i in 4

the fundamental numerals, pronouns, &e. Still more is it so ay

regards the languages of the tribes farther east, Kerantis, Murmisy —

and others, of whom I know little.

The Lepchas of Sikkim and Lopas of Bhootan are unmitigated

Buddhist Thibetans. There seem to be several tribes of ‘‘ Rong,”

“ Khampas” or Kambas, and Limboos, who come from different parts

of Thibet, and there are some differences of language. The Lepcha

tribes are described as a dirty, good-natured people, in character said

The Ethnology of India. 149

to be something like the Mongols from beyond the Chinese wall, as

described in recent accounts. The Lopas, &c. of Bhootan seem to

be more difficult to deal with. Farther east are, I believe, still wilder

Thibetan tribes. All these people are idle, but very powerful; and

when they do work, they carry enormous loads, both men and women.

They are said to carry up to Darjeeling as much as 250 lbs. ina

single load. And at some of the Hill Stations on the Eastern

Frontiers of Bengal, I understand it is the fashion that a European

‘visitor is carried up the hill in a basket on the back of an old woman.

THr PEOPLE oF THE EastERN Frontier.

The people of the very lowest hills of Bhootan and of all the low

country at their foot are of another race, the Meches or Mechis (before

alluded to in marking the boundaries of the Indian Aborigines), who

are apparently the same as Hodgson’s “ Bodo.” They are, it appears,

_ now quite ascertained by their language to be Indo-Chinese of the

_ Lohitic or Burmese branch of the Turanian family, a connexion

which their physiognomy confirms. They seem to be a good-sized,

3 fair, but rather yellow-looking people. They are described as rude

z in their agriculture (using the hoe, not the plough), and erratic in

their habits, but good-natured and tolerably industrious. They pro-

fess a kind of debased Hinduism, but are very omnivorous in their

habits. The Dimals are a smaller but somewhat similar tribe,

_ Speaking a language which in some degree differs.

_ Passing over the Garrow and Cossya Hills to Cachar, the Cachar

_ people again are ofthe same race as the Mechis. So, it would appear

(so far as I can gather), are the Nagas, Abors, and some other tribes

4 in the hills bordering on Assam. There are aboriginal tribes of

: /Tipperah and Munneepore, but of their ethnology I am not informed.

In the Cossya hills are an isolated body of people of the Taic or

_ Biamese race. Of this race were the Ahoms who once ruled Assam,

as are, it appears, the Khamtis and some other tribes of the more

“distant hills of that Province; also the Shan tribes of the Burmese

interior. The Karens are, I rather think, Lohitic. It is evident,

however, that on this Eastern Frontier I have got into a vast

ethnological region, with which I have no personal acquaintance, and

with which I cannot deal farther than to point out the vast field for

150 The Ethnology of India.

inquiry, and to suggest how great a service any one would render, who

would briefly classify and describe these tribes.. There are endless

distinct tribes, even the names of which I do not attempt to give.

POSTSCRIPT.

When this paper had nearly passed through the Press, Colonel

Dalton’s paper on the Kols (to the want of which I have alluded) was

received in the office of the Society, and it will be printed along

with this. Ihave only had an opportunity of hastily glancing at it,

but have seen enough to be sure that it will admirably fill up just

what was wanting in regard to our knowledge of the aboriginal

tribes, and will be read with extreme interest. The two papers, thus

published together, having been written without concert, may be found

to express or assume different opinions on some points; but I hope

that the general result of Colonel Dalton’s paper will tend rather to.

confirm than to contradict most of that which I have written. In —

regard to the general Negrito character of the Dravidian tribes he —

fully bears me out. At the same time he seems to point to a consi-

derable difference in the type of the Moondahs, Hos, Sontals, and

others speaking the language which I have called Kolarian. He ©

seems in some degree to support Major Tickell’s account of the supe- —

er SE ee

rior physical qualities of the Hos, but he also tells us that other —

tribes of this race are much more degraded and less good looking, —

In fact, the principal tribes of the race, the Moondahs and Sontals, are

now extremely well known, and it is patent to all that they are

among the ugliest of mankind. The Sontals are a proverb for a —

combination of simple good nature and ugliness. Still, I quite admit —

that most of these people are less black and Negrito-looking than the — b

Savage Dravidian tribes. I think I have already suggested, and ies ;

am inclined to repeat, that they look in some respects more like -

Hottentots than Negroes. It is very much to be desired that a more |

complete study of their language should in some degree break

through the complete isolation which has been hitherto attributed ‘-

it. It seems to have no affinity to the more Eastern tongues so far as _

has yet been discovered. >

The Ethnology of India. 151

I have been struck by those parts of Colonel Dalton’s description,

which would seem to show, among the more civilised of these tribes,

some institutions akin to those of the modern Hindoos. Not only

does it appear that the Kolarian tribes burn their dead, but also I

notice that the systematic division of their tribes is very similar to

that which I have described among the Hindoos, and especially that

they have the peculiar rule which forbids intermarriage among people

of the same tribe, and imposes on every man the necessity of taking

his wife from another tribe. The question will be, whether the prac-

tices common to Kolarians and Hindoos are borrowed by Kolarians

from Hindoos, or by Hindoos from Kolarians. Many interesting sub-

jects of inquiry may be opened out.

Colonel Dalton’s account of the tenacity with which some of the

tribes cling to their ancient rights in the soil, seems somewhat at

variance with the information which I had noted respecting their

ready emigration. That many of them do emigrate, is certain; but

perhaps my information has reference to the Dravidians and less

settled tribes,

Colonel Dalton in one place speaks of the Kolarian Hos as more

dignified and more like North American Indians, and the Dravidian

Oraons as more like light-hearted Negroes; but in other places he

_ seems rather to confirm my suggestion that the Kolarian Sontals and

~ Moondahs are an especially light-hearted race, and the Dravidians less’

80; the Dravidian Oraons having, he says, learned their songs and

dances from the Moondahs and other Kolarians among whom they

have settled. Certainly the flat and broad-faced Sontals and Moon-

- dahs seem to bear no resemblance to the North American style of

- feature.

Colonel Dalton more than confirms what I have said in regard to

the increase of numbers of the Kolarian tribes of the Chota-Nagpore

division. He tells us that, notwithstanding their tendency to drink,

they increase rapidly. He evidently takes a most favourable view of

| them, and I think it impossible to doubt that we have in these tribes,

ina healthy and accessible country in the immediate vicinity of the

Capital of India, a people whom it behoves us to cherish and utilise—

a people comparatively free from the peculiar vices of the modern

Thdians, simple, truthful and ready to receive our religion and the

152 The Ethnology of India. —

impress of our manners—possessed moreover of much industrial

energy, laboriousness, and ductibility. ‘To make such a people tho-

roughly our own—to render the central and healthy plateau occupied

by them a completely Christian and Anglicised country, would be

(higher considerations apart) a very great source of strength and

comfort to the English in India. I think that every effort should be

made in this direction.

Colonel Dalton has sent with his paper a grammar of the Oraon

language by the Rev. Mr. Batsch. This is a Dravidian tongue. The

Rev. Mr. Phillips has published a grammar and introduction to the

Sontal language, but he has put it in the Bengallee character, some- —

what unfortunately, as I think—for although I have not advocated the

‘Romanising of the written vernacular languages, I should prefer to

give to the Kolarian tribes, hitherto entirely without a written cha-

racter, our own Roman letters, rather than those of the foreign and

hated Bengallee. Since then Mr. Phillips’s work is not available for

‘my present purpose, I propose to re-publish, for comparison with Mr. —

Batsch’s Oraon grammar, the brief grammar of the Kolarian “‘ Ho”

language, published by Major. Tickell in an old number of the So-

ciety’s Journal. I hope then, by placing, as appendices to the present

publication, vocabularies of test words both Arian and Aboriginal

(Gncluding in the latter both Dravidian, Kolarian and Indo-Chinese

dialects), and the sketches of Dravidian and Kolarian grammar, to—

supply the rough elements for a comparison of all the dialects of |

India. And I trust that if a beginning is thus made, we may here- —

after obtain much information, more full, ample, and complete.

The “ Kols’”’ of Chota-Nagpore, 153

The “ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore.—By Lt.-Col. E. T. Dauron, Commis-

sioner of Chota-Nagpore.

[Received 27th July, 1866.]

The country called Chota (or properly Chuttia) Nagpore is the

eastern portion of the extensive plateau of Central India on which are

the sources of the Koel, the Soobunreka, the Damoodah and other

_ less known Indian rivers. It extends into Sirgoojah and forms what is

called the Oopur Ghat or highland of Juspore, and it is connected by

a continuous chain of hills with. the Vindhyan and Kymore ranges,

from which flow affluents of the Ganges, and with the highlands of

Omerkuntuck on which are the sources of the Nurbudda. That the

population of this watershed is found to be, for the most part, a hetero-

geneous collection of non-Arian tribes, is in itself a fair proof that these

tribes were at one time the inhabitants of the plains who, driven from

their original sites at different periods by Braminical invaders, gra-

_ dually fell back, following converging lines of rivers in their retreat,

till from different directions, nations, some bearing marks of common

origin though separated for ages, others bearing no trace of such

affinity, met at the sources of the streams, and formed new nationali-

‘ties in the secure asylum they found there.

_ The plateau averages more than 2,000 feet above the sea level ; it

is on all sides somewhat difficult of access, and it is owing to the

_ security thus given, that the primitive tribes, still found on it, retained

Y for ages so much of their independence and idiosyncracy. After over-

coming the difficulties of the approach, these first settlers must have

‘Tejoiced at finding they had not merely reached the summit of a

‘range of hills, but had ascended to a new country, well suited to their

wants and out of reach of their enemies; and here they made their

final stand.

_ They found a genial climate at this elevation and a well-wooded un-

‘dulating country, divided and diversified by interior ranges of hills

| uplifting the fertilizing streams, or breaking out in rocky excrescences,

sometimes in vast semi-globular masses of granite, like sunken domes

of gigantic temples, sometimes in huge fragments piled in most fan-

154 The “ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore.

tastic forms, viewed with awe by the new settlers as the dwelling

places of the local gods.

The total area of the plateau thus occupied is about 7,000 square

miles, and the present population may be estimated at a million ; more

than half of whom are of the race best known to us by the name of

“iol.”

This word is one of the epithets of abuse applied by the Bramini-

cal races to the aborigines of the country who opposed their early

settlement, and it has adhered to the primitive inhabitants of Chota

Nagpore for ages. It includes many tribes; the people of this pro-

vince to whom it is generally applied, are either Moondah or Oraon ;

and though these races are now found in many parts of the country

occupying the same villages, cultivating the same fields, celebrating

together the same festivals, and enjoying the same amusements, they are

of totally distinct origin and cannot intermarry without loss of caste.

The received tradition is, that the Moondahs first occupied the

country, and had been long settled there, when the Oraons made their

appearance. The Moondahs believe themselves to be autochthonous,

or at all events declare that they are all descended from one man and

woman, who were produced or established themselves, at a place called

Satyomba, which is reyered by the whole tribe as the cradle of the

race. ;

Satyomba is the name of a pergunnah on the edge of the plateau

overlooking the valley of the Damoodah. It is not improbable that ;

the Moondah race had previously occupied a position on that river, s

and that, in departing from it, the division took place which separated a

Damoodah, and call it their sea ; and the ashes of their dead are always

preservedtillthey havethe opportunity of disposing of them by throwing |

them into that stream or burying them near its banks. The Sonthalgi

remaining in the plains, had easy access to the river and retained their

veneration for it. The Moondahs, settling on the highlands, were —

less faithful to it, but from its name they might claim it as their

own ; for, though Damoodur has been adopted as one of the sacred

names of “ Krishno,” does not Dah-Moondah in their own language

mean ‘‘the water of the Moondah ?” ad

The “ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore. 155:

We find the Moondah settlements chiefly in the eastern and

southern parts of Chota-Nagpore, the Oraons predominating in the

western; and this strengthens the hypothesis that the Moondahs ascend-

ed from the eastern side of the plateau.

The intimate connection between the Sonthals, the Bhoomij and

the Chota-Nagpore Moondah tribes has long been known. I have

pointed out théir affinity with the Korewahs of Sirgoojah and

Juspoor, and have given some account of that wild clan.* Ihave

now to add to the list the ‘‘ Kheriahs,” another aboriginal tribe

settled on the plateau of Chota-Nagpore, and the ‘“‘ Juangas’’ of

the Cuttack tributary mehals, whose women are so conservative in

their notions, that they still adhere to the fashion in dress first

introduced by mother Eve and wear nothing but leaves. I had

often met with individuals and families of the Kheriah tribe, living

in mixed communities, but from contact with other races they

had lost much of their individuality, and I found it difficult to place

them.

This year, I happened to come upon some of their principal settle-

ments in pergunnah Bussiah, on the southern borders of the portion

of the plateau occupied by the Moondahs, and collected round me the

elders of the tribe. These settlements all lie near the Koel, one of the

streams from the watershed of Chota-Nagpore, which, after its union

with the Sunkh in Gangpore, becomes the Bramni and terminates

its career at Point Palmyras.

The Kheriahs venerate the Koel as the Sonthals the Damoodah.

~ They were in all probability once settled on its banks in the low-

lands, and clinging to it in their retreat and adopting the place of

‘refuge that it led to, regard it still as communicating with their

fatherland, and with this idea the urns contaming the ashes of their

dead are dashed into a rock-broken rapid of the river, so that their

contents may be rapidly borne away by the current to mingle with

the ashes of their forefathers. |

They say their first settlement was Pora, a village om the Koel, and

that there were no Moondahs in the country, at least in that part of

it, when their ancestors first came there. There is sufficient resem-

blance between the Kheriahs and Moondahs in language and customs

* As, Soc, Journal, Vol. XXXIV. p. 1.

156 The “ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore.

and appearance, to make us certain of their consanguinity, and at the

same time sufficient divergence to lead to the inference that the

relationship is a remote one, and that the two branches of the family

had been long separated when they met again on the banks of the

Koel. These points of resemblance and divergence I will describe,

when treating of the manners and customs of the race generally.

The Juangas or Puttoons (leaf-clad) are noticed in a paper by

Mr. BE. A. Samuells.* They are found in the Cuttack tributary

mehals of Keonjur, Pal Lehra, Dhekenal and Hindole. They are

thus isolated from all other branches of the Moondah family, and

have not themselves the least notion of their connection with them ;

but their language, a specimen of which is given in the table

appended, shews they are of the same race, and that their nearest

kinsmen are the Kheriahs, a fragment of the tribe left behind when

the remainder ascended the valley of the Koel. The Hos of Sing-

bhoom have a tradition that they once wore leaves only, and not

long ago threatened to revert to them, unless cloth-sellers lowered |

their prices !

The Bhoomij form the majority of the population in all the estates —

of the Manbhoom district to the south of the Kassae river, As they |

approach the confines of Chota-Nagpore, they appear to be called

indiscriminately Moondahs or Bhoomij, and they intermarry. More

to the east the Bhoomij have become Hindooized, or rather Ben-—

galeeized, toa great extent, and many of them have acquired consider- ;

able estates, like the Mankees of Chota-Nagpore, and positions of j ,

influence as ‘“ Sirdar Ghatwalls,” the hereditary custodians of ‘hea

passes. ;

The characteristics of the tribe that they most tenaciously cling to, ea

are the national dances and songs. The Bhoomij appear to have

been the first to colonise the large pergunnah called Dhulbhoom or — '

Ghatsillah, attached to the Singbhoom district. The Rajah or

Zemindar is, in all probability, himself a Bhoomij by race, though

ancestor, according to their version, was a washerman, a Dhoby who

* As, Soc. Journal, Vol. XXV. p. 295, 1856. 7

The “ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore. 157

saved the goddess Kali when, as Runkini, she ran away from Pochete,

Discredit has attached to the Bhoomij and Sonthal in consequence of

the human sacrifices offered at this shrine of Runkini, but the whole

establishment and ritual are essentially Braminical. The Bhoomij

and Sonthal races personally do not much care for the blood-thirsty

goddess. The Bhoomij is the brarich of the Moondah race that has

spread farthest in an eastern direction. Bhoomij are to be found in

Mohurbhunj and Keonjur, though perhaps not so much at home there

as in Dhulbhoom.

The Sonthals are now chiefly massed in the Sonthal Pergunnahs,

but they muster strong in Mohurbhunj, and there are several colonies

of them in the Singbhoom district. They are au erratic race, and

their ancient traditions are lost in the history of their modern migra-

tions; but my idea is that their chief settlements in Bengal. were once

on the Damoodah river, and that they gave way to the Koormees, an

industrious Hindoo race, who now form the bulk of the population in

that part of Manbhoom.

In a southerly direction the next tribe of ‘‘ Dasyus” that we come

across are the Khunds, but I am unable to trace any point of resem-

blance between them and the Moondah, either in their religion with

its morbid superstitions and horrible human sacrifices, or in their

language.

To trace the further ramifications of the Moondahs we must proceed.

‘west, not south, and take up the link in the hills and highest table-

~ lands of Sirgoojah and Juspore, where we find the wildest of the race

in the Korewahs. Ihave given a brief note on them in the paper

_ above quoted, and have only to add that the Korewahs are quite

unaware of the connectionship between themselves and the Kols.

They do not acknowledge, and do not see, that the languages are almost —

identical. This would not, I conceive, have been the case if the

-Korewahs had broken off from their Satyomba kinsfolk.

The Korewahs are another branch of the family, and the history

‘oftheir migrations is no doubt an independent one. It is probable

‘that they were forced back into the hills they now occupy by the

~Gooands, as a Hindooized clan of that people became the dominant

yace in the plains of Sirgoojah. Moreover, as pointed out by

Mr. G. Campbell, at a late meeting of the Society, we have in

158 The ‘ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore.

this Journal* a brief notice of a tribe called “ Coour Gooand,” and

a vocabulary which proves them to be not Gooand at all, but

another branch of the great family we are describing, occupying the

Gavilghur range of hills near Ellichpore. Dr. Latham mentions

in connection with them another tribe which he calls Chunah, but I

have no further information about them. If the investigation is

carried out, we shall, no doubt, find connecting links in the intervening

ranges of hills.

Thus we have in the Coours of Ellichpoor, the Korewahs of

Sirgoojah and Juspore, the Moondahs and the Kheriahs of Chota-

Nagpore, the Hos of Singbhoom, the Bhoomij of Manbhoom and

Dhulbhoom, and the Sonthals of Manbhoom, Singbhoom, Cuttack,

tributary mehals, Hazareebagh and the Sonthal Pergunnahs (the author

of the introduction to the Sonthal lauguage, the Rev. J. Phillips,

adds ‘‘Nakales and Kodas,’”’ I do not know where they are to be

found,) a kindred people sufficiently numerous, if united, to form

a nation of several millions of souls. They were, in all probability, ©

one of the tribes that were most persistent in their hostility to

the Arian invaders, and thus earned for themselves the epithets of

“worshippers of mad gods,” “haters of Bramins,” ‘“ ferocious

lookers,”’ “‘ inhuman,” “ flesh-eaters,” ‘‘ devourers of life,” ‘

of magical powers,” “ changing their shape at will.’}+ To this day,

the Arians settled in Chota-Nagpore and Singbhoom firmly believe

that the Moondahs have powers as wizards and witches, and can

transform themselves into tigers and other beasts of prey, with the

view of devouring their enemies, and that they can witch away the

lives of man and beast. It is to the wildest and most savage of the

tribe that such powers are generally ascribed ; and amongst the Kols

themselves the belief in the magic powers of their brethren is so

strong, that I have heard converts to Christianity assert they were

first induced to turn to our religion, because sorcery had apparently

no power over those who were baptized! The upper classes of the ~

Moondahs, those who aspire to be Zemindars, have assumed the

“ »oita” and taken to Bramins and Kali, but the mass of the people —

adore their ‘‘ mad gods” still, after their own primitive fashion. The

great propitiatory sacrifices to the local deities or devils are carousals

* As. Soc, Journal, Vol. XIII, p. 19.. t See Muir’s Sanserit texts. _

possessed

(

The “ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore. 159

at which they eat, drink, sing, dance and make love, but though the

austere ‘munis’ of old must have stood aghast at such wild ebulli-

tions of devotion, it is a fact that whilst the mass of the Kols have

not taken to the worship of any Hindoo idols, the Hindoos settled

in the province think it expedient to propitiate the gods of the

Kols. It is gratifying that the darkness in which this primitive and

interesting people have so long dwelt, is now being dispelled by a

brighter light: that their paganism is at length yielding to the

gentle influence of Christian teaching ; that there is abroad amongst

them a widespread feeling that a change is necessary, a change more

perfect than can be typified by the adoption of a “ povta.”

As the Moondahs first settled at Satyomba spread over the country,

they formed themselves into communities called Purhas, or the country

was divided into Purhas, each consisting of twelve or more villages

under a chief. They do not appear in their earlier days to have

acknowledged any chief, superior to the head of the Purha; the

ordinary business of the community was conducted by him, and on

extraordinary occasions, the Purha chiefs met and took counsel together.

Vestiges of this ancient system are still met with in many parts

of the country. Though ignored as geographical or fiscal or territorial

divisions, the Purhas still exist in the eyes of the people, and they

still have chiefs whom they call Rajahs, men of influence and weight,

_ who preside when a meeting is called to adjudicate regarding breaches

of social observances, and who take the lead on the great hunting

expeditions and national festivals.

It is said that the Moondahs were in a very wild state, occupying

but a small portion of the plateau, when the Oraons, driven from the

Rhotas hills, swarmed into the country, and sought and obtained

permission to occupy it jointly with the Moondahs. Both Moondahs

and Oraons declare there was on this occasion no fighting. The

former were glad to obtain assistance in reclaiming the country they

had adopted, and the Oraons are said to have come with large herds

of cattle and implements of husbandry previously unknown to the

Moondahs.

It is probable that the Moondahs of those days were not more

advanced than are to this day their brethren, the hill Korewahs of

Sirgoojah, a tribe that know not the use of the plough: but they

160 The ‘‘ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore.

were great hunters, and could sing and dance and make merry. The

Oraon youth and maidens speedily acquired: the songs and the steps,

and this I doubt not aided greatly the harmonious blending of the

two peoples. .

There are no ancient temples or other antiquities on the plateau of

Chota-Nagpore to indicate that the early Braminical races or

Buddhists ever obtained a footing there; there is no tradition even

of the “‘ Munis” having sought retreats amongst its rocks or by its

waterfalls for their devotional exercises. We find such monuments

in Sirgoojah to the very foot of the western face of the plateau ; and, as

I have recently described in a paper dovoted to the antiquities of

Manbhoom, we find numerous remains of Arian colonization close to ©

its southern and eastern approaches, but none on the platean itself.

Left to themselves, the Kols increased and multiplied, and lived a happy

arcadian sort of life under their republican form of government for

many centuries ; but it is said that a wily Bramin at last obtained a

footing amongst them, and an important change in the form of

government was the result. ,

The Rajah of the Purha of which Satyomba was the head alto j

was a Moondah named Madura. His occupation of the supposed —

cradle of the race gave him precedence in the confederate councils;

and a child of his house, reared in it if not born there, was, through —

his influence and by the advice of a Bramin he had taken into his ~

service, elected supreme chief over the whole confederacy ; but as it

would not suit the noble family, his descendants, to have it supposed |

that their ancestor was one of the despised race called Kol, they have’

adopted the following legend as their origin :— :

‘When Jonmajoya, Rajah of Hustinapoor, attempted the destruc-

tion of the Nags or Serpent race, one of them, Poondorik, assumed the .

form of a Brahmin and went to the house of a Bramin at Benares

to study the ‘ shasters.’ The Benares Bramin, pleased with th 2

intelligence and grace of his pupil, gave him his only daughter

‘ Parbutee’ to be his wife. Poondorik and his wife, Parbutee,

together visited Juggernath, and on their return, passing through this

country, then called ‘Jharkhund,’ the forest land, she was seized : i

with the pains of labour near Satyomba, and gave birth to a child

and died. ae

The “ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore. 161

“ Madura’s Bramin happening to pass, bearing an image of the sun

worshipped by the Moondahs, saw the child sleeping and protected by

a snake with expanded hood. This snake was Poondorik, relapsed

into his original form. He addressed the Bramin, told his own

story and the story of the child’s birth, declared that the babe was

destined to be a great Rajah, and that his name was to be Funimatuk

Roy, ‘the snake hood crowned,’ a worshipper of the sun, whose image

the Bramin bore, and the Bramin was to be the family priest.

The snake then vanished. The child was taken to Madura’s house

and adopted and brought up with his own son, a boy of much the

same age. When Funimatuk Roy was twelve years of age, Madura

convened the Purha chiefs, and it is said the neighbouring Rajahs,

including the Rajah of Sirgoojah and the Dytya Rajah, and suggested

that one of the two lads should be selected as the Rajah of N agpore.

The lads were subjected to an examination, when it was found that

the snake boy had already acquired all the accomplishments necessary

for his destined position, whilst the other was a mere rustic. It was

then (according to the annals of the Nagbunsee family) ruled, that

_ Funimatuk Roy and his heirs for ever should be the Rajahs, and that

the Moondah’s child and his descendants should bear burdens, and

thus all who claim to hold lands as descendants of the Moondahs and

Oroans that first cleared them, are bound, when called on, to bear the

burdens imposed on them by the Rajah and his assigns !”

It is frankly admitted in the annals I quote from, that a difficulty

_ arose regarding Funimatuk’s birth, when he sought in marriage the

_ daughter of the Sikurbhoom (or Pochete) Rajah. The Sikurbhoom

family priest was sent to examine the certificates of birth and found

none: but Rajah Matuck Roy prayed for the intercession of his

ophidian parent; he had calmly contemplated his position and put

it to his father, that if the Sikurbhoom priest was not satisfied, a

Moondah or an Oroan girl should become Queen of Nagpore. This

Was not to be thought of. So the Nag once more entered an appear-

ance, satisfied the Bramin by a relation of wonders, and since then

the Nagbunsis have always intermarried with the best Rajpoot families.

It is particularly noted that at Funimatuk Roy’s wedding-feast the

~Oroans and Moondahs all got drunk and began to fight, and the Rajah

_ of Nagpore and Madura had to obtain the assistance of his guests, the

162 The “ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore.

Rajah of Sirgoojah and the Dytya Rajah, to separate them. The

Dytya Rajah was, I presume, the Rajah of Patkoom, as that famuiy

bear the surname of Adytya to this day.

The marriage was celebrated at Satyomba, and there the first Rajah

resided in a mud fort. The fourth in descent from Funimatuk moved

his court to Chuttia, where we have the remains of a fort with masonry

walls and some stone temples ascribed to him. Subsequently Doisa

was chosen as the seat of Government, and here are some fine buildings,

shewing that the family were improving in art and in civilization,

when they moved there. This site also has been abandoned, and the

present Rajah lives in a very mean house at Palkote.

The sway of the Rajah of Chota-Nagpore does not, in early times,

appear to have extended beyond the plateau or fringe of hills which

divide it from the plains, but the Moondahs overran those limits and

formed colonies in what are now called the five pergunnahs—Silli,

Tamar, Barundah, Rabey and Boondoo—which did not acknowledge

the Rajah-elect of Satyomba. In time, each of these pergunnahs —

elected a Rajah of its own, who (their descendants declare) were each

of a divine or miraculous birth, ike Funimatuk Roy; and on the

strength of it they all call themselves Chuttrees and wear the cord.

They intermarry amongst themselves or with the petty Rajahs of ’

Manbhoom who are of similar origin ; so their claim to be Chuttrees, —

or at all events Hindoos of respectable caste, is not disputed. According —

to their own tradition, the Rajahs of the five pergunnahs first forfeited

their independence by submitting to pay tribute to the Rajah of —

Cuttack. Eventually, however, they were subjugated by the Maha- ¥

rajah of Chota-Nagpore, and submitted to pay tribute to and accept es

the “ Tilluck” or symbol of investiture from him. The Moondahs oH

comprise about two-thirds of the population of the five pergunnahs, a

and all who are not Moondahs are settlers of no very ancient date. E A

In the northern and western parts of Chota-Nagpore, the authority Ns

of the old Moondah or Oraon chiefs has been almost effaced by the

middlemen who have been introduced by the Zemindars as more.

profitable farmers, or by the Bramins, Rajpoots and others to whom,

for religious or secular services, grants have been made by the

Maharajah and members of his family holding under him. In many

instances, the Kols have been entirely dispossessed of the lands their

The “ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore. 163

ancestors brought under cultivation, and ryots from other parts of

India, more subservient to the wishes of the farmers, have been intro-

duced. In some villages the peasant proprietory right of the aborigines

has been entirely extinguished, and the few of that class that remain

are found in the position of farm labourers.

In the southern parts of Chota-Nagpore the Moondah chiefs, there

as in Singbhoom called Mankees, have managed to retain their position,

first, by resisting in open arms all attempts to encroach upon it, and

lastly, by a settlement suggested and brought about by the officers of

the British Government and concluded with the Maharajah shortly

aiter the Kol disturbances in A. D. 1833.

These Mankees have each under them about as many villages as

formerly were included in a “ Purha,”’ and they pay a quit rent to the

Maharajah as a commutation of the service and tribute in kind

formerly paid to him as Lord Paramount, and they collect this and a

little more as the contribution for their own support from the heads

of villages, who again collect according to ancient custom at fixed rates

from the villagers. There is fixity of tenure throughout, from the

Maharajah to the cultivator, notwithstanding the intervention of the

Mankee, the village Moondah, or Mohto. This is no doubt a living

exemplification of the relation that, in older times, subsisted between

the cultivator of the soil and his chief in most parts of India.

In the Hoor Lurka Kols of Singbhoom we have a people who,

till recently, had no notion of what it was to pay rent to any one, or

even to give pecuniary support to their chiefs. They had their

Mankees and Moondahs, but no one exercised any right arising from

a title in the land except the cultivators. We have a very interesting

description of the Hos, their country and their languages, by Colonel

‘Tickell,* and to this, before proceeding further with my memoir, I

will add a brief sketch of their history.

’ The Singbhoom district is of a singular interest to the ethnologist.

That portion of it called the Colehan, the Ho-desum or country proper

of the Hos, is a series of fair and fertile plains, broken, divided and

surrounded by hills; about 60 miles in length from north to south,

and from 35 to 60 in breadth from east to west. It has to the south

and south east the tributary estates, Mohurbhun. Keonjur, Bonai

* As. Soc. Journal, Vol. IX. pp. 783, 997; 1063.

164 The “ Kols’ of Chota-Nagpore.

and Gangpore, inhabited by Ooriah-speaking Hindoos, to the east

and north the Bengalee pergunnah of Dhulbhoom and district of

Manbhoom, and north and north-east the Hindee district of Lohar-

daggah, and it is occupied by a race totally distinct by descent,

custom, religion and language from any of the three. A people on

whose smiling country covetous eyes have often been directed, but

into which no one ever attempted with impunity to intrude.

It is impossible to say when the Hos first entered Singbhoom ; but

as we find that the Chota-Nagpore Moondahs more and more assimilate

to the Hos, as we approach Singbhoom from Chota-Nagpore, we may

safely infer that the Hos came originally from that country ; and this

is their own tradition. They appear to have brought with them and

retained their system of confederate government by Purhas, but in

Singbhoom the word now used to express it, is Pirhi or Peer. Thus

the Colehan is divided into Pirhis, each under a Mankee as chief of

the Pirhi, and each village having its Moondah as headman.

According to their own tradition, the Hos displaced a nation of —

Jains settled in the eastern parts of Singbhoom, some remains of —

whom are still extant, and a nation of Bhuyahs from the western and ,

southern parts, driving them out of, and appropriating to their own —

exclusive use, the richest part of the country. From these early times,

probably more than 2,000 years ago, they have proudly held the ~

country they acquired; and, in my humble opinion, they have the |

right to say they never submitted to rulers of an alien race, till they — )

were forced to do so by the power of the British Empire.

At the commencement of the present century, Singbhoom was only |

known to the British Government as a country under the rule of

certain Rajpoot chiefs, all of one family, whose independence, when we —

first occupied the Orissa Provinces, Lord Wellesley promised to respect,

After the final cession of all the surrounding districts in 1819 these ie

chiefs, occupying a territory that embraces the Colehan, volunteliial | es

submitted to the British Government, and immediately sought the sal

assistance of that Government in reducing the ‘“ Hos’ to submission,

asserting that the Hos were their subjects then in rebellion ; but they bd

admitted that for fifty years they had exercised no arithaoce over, Be

them, and I find no proof that the Hos had at any former period ever

submitted to them. It is not pretended that they were conquered, —

Ane

The “ Kols’” of Chota-Nagpore. 165

but supremacy was claimed by the Rajpoot Rajahs over the Ho tribes

next to them, thus dividing the country and the people amongst four

Rajpoot chiefs, the Rajahs of Mohurbhunj and Porahat, Koer of

Seraikilla, and Thakoor of Khursowan.

It is true that the chiefs of Singbhoom, ancestors of the Rajahs of

Porahat, Seraikilla and Thakoor of Khursowan, obtained great influ-

ence over their wild neighbours. They were gradually induced to

believe tales which gave to the founder of this family a miraculous

birth in their country, and they accorded to him divine honors, whilst

they repudiated the idea of his being their temporal chief. The

oldest surviving member of the Porahat family tells me that no

regular tribute was ever received from the Colehan, but they were

treated and employed rather as friendly allies than as subjects, and at

certain seasons presents of trifling value were received from them and

presents given in return.

When a division of the estate of the Singhoom chief occurred, the

brothers each took, with the share assigned to him, a share in the good-

will of the Hos. Thus the Seraikilla and Khursowan families claimed

the allegiance of the tribes nearest to them. The claim of the

- Mohurbhunj Rajah sprang up as the Kols extended their cultivation,

till it touched or ran over his boundary. But it is admitted that all

‘recorded attempts of the Rajpoot chiefs to subdue them had been

‘signally defeated.

On the last occasion, the great grandfather of the present Maharajah

of Chota-Nagpore, at the head of 20,000 of his own men co-operating

‘with the forces of the Singbhoom Rajpoot chiefs, entered the Colehan.

‘The Hos allowed him to do this; they then fell on his army in masses,

and, routing it with immense slaughter, ignominiously expelled him,

pursuing him into his own territory, and severely retaliating on the

border villages of the Maharajah and his allies.

__ It was no doubt in retaliation for these attacks on their independence

that the Hos now became, as they were found to be when first brought

to our notice (in 1819-20), the scourge of the inhabitants of the more

civilized parts of Singbhoom and of all the surrounding districts.

They shewed no mercy to the Braminical inhabitants of the villages

they attacked and pillaged. A long line of Bramin villages on the

Bramin river in Gangpoor was laid waste by them and has remained

166 The “ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore.

depopulated ever since. No traveller ever ventured to pass through _

their country. No Bramin, Rajpoot or other Hindoo caste, or Mussal-

man was suffered to reside in it.

In 1820, the Agent Governor-General, Major Roughsedge, entered

the Colehan at the head of a force consisting of a battalion of infantry,

with cavalry and artillery. He was surprised to find the wild race,

of whom he had heard such disparaging accounts, in possession of an

open undulating and richly cultivated country, studded with villages

in groves of magnificent tamarind and mango trees, abounding in

unusual indications of rural wealth. He was allowed to enter on this

scene unmolested, but the slaughter of some of his camp-followers,

who had incautiously strayed into one of the villages, demonstrated

the hostility of the people, and an attempt to capture the murderers

brought about the first collision between the Hos and our troops.

A party of cavalry, sent to the offending village, was met in the open

field by 300 warriors, who undauntedly advanced to meet the charge,

- rushed between the ranks of the horsemen, hacking especially at the —

horses with their formidable battle-axes, and shewing no disposition to :

yield or to turn, till half their number had been sabred or shot. In {

the village where the murder was committed, was found a reserve of

60 men who fought desperately and were all killed! The same evening

another body of Lurkahs* attacked the rear of the column and cut

off a convoy of supplies. It became necessary to act with vigour, and

the old Hos of the present day describe the retaliation that now fell —

upon them as dreadfully severe. Eventually some intercepted mails

were restored uninjured, as a token of submission, and the Lurka chiefs :

in the vicinity entered into engagements to acknowledge and pay =

tribute to the Rajah of Singbhoom.t :

Major Roughsedge met with further opposition in his progress.

towards Sumbulpoor through the Southern Peers: he had in fact to

fight his way out of the country ; and on his leaving it a war broke — +

out between the Kols who had submitted, and those who had not. lf

One hundred Hindustanee burkundazes under a Soobadar were sent

by the Agent to the support of the Rajah and his Lurka allies, and

this for a time gave them the advantage; but the Soobadar having

* “ Laraka,”’ the fighters, a common name for the Hos. ie

+ Major Roughsedge’s dispatches, .

The ‘ Kols’’ of Chota-Nagpore. 167

been induced to enter the Colehan to assist in levying a contribution,

was attacked, and he and the whole of the party cut up !

In 1821 a large force was employed to reduce the Lurkas to

submission, and after a month’s hostilities, the leaders, encouraged by a

proclamation surrendered and entered into engagement, binding them-

selves to subjection to the British Government, and agreeing to pay

to the chiefs at the rate of 8 annas for each plough. It was now

noticed that the Lurkas evinced a perfect willingness to be guided

and ruled by British officers, and the utmost repugnance to the

authority arrogated over them by the Singbhoom chiefs; and it would

have saved much blood, expense and trouble, if this feeling had at the

_ time been taken advantage of. Made over to the chiefs, they soon

_ again became restive and reverted to their old practices of resistance

and pillage. The circle of depredations gradually increased, till it had

included Dhulbhoom, devastated Bamunghatee, and extended to some

parts of Chota-Nagpore. The chiefs under whom the Lurkas had

been placed could not control them, and for some five years, from 1830

to 1836 the Hos, maintained this hostile attitude.

_ In consequence of this unsatisfactory state of affairs, a proposal

‘made by Captain Wilkinson in August 1836, to employ a force and

thoroughly subdue the Lurkas, and then to take the whole tribe under

the direct management of British officers, was favourably received by

; Government and promptly acted on. Two Regiments of Infantry

and two Brigades of guns entered Singbhoom in November 1836, and

., were immediately commenced against the refractory Peers ;

‘and by February following all the Mankees and Moondahs had

‘submitted and bound themselves by fresh engagements to obey and

pay revenue to the British Government, and no longer to follow the,

orders of the chiefs to whom they had previously been required to

submit. Six hundred and twenty-two villages, with a population,

| estimated at 90,000 souls, of whom more than three-fourths are Hos,

were thus brought and have since remained under the immediate

control of the British Government. Since then, the population and

| spread of cultivation have immensely increased, and the people are

now peaceful, prosperous and happy. rom the region round about

the station, Chybassah, 170 miles due west from Calcutta, the waste

| lands have entirely disappeared. Colonies of Hindus may now be

168 The “ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore.

found settled in the heart of the Colehan, occupying villages apart

from the Hos, but without demur placing themselves under the Ho

Mankees of Peers. For their own system of government is, as far as

possible, preserved, and the Mankees are officers of police as well as

the tuhsildars or rent-collectors of their circles. One great change is

now being peaceably introduced, the old system of assessment on

ploughs is under process of commutation toa light assessment on the

land.

This is undoubtedly the nucleus of the Moondah nation, the most —

compact, the purest, most powerful and most interesting division of —

the whole race, and in appearance decidedly the best looking. In

their erect carriage and fine manly bearing, the Hos look like a people

that have maintained and are proud of their independence. Many

have features of sufficiently good cast to entitle them to rank as Arians; —

high noses, large but well formed mouths, beautiful teeth, and the

facial angle as good as in the Hindu races. The figures both of

male and female freely displayed by the extreme scantiness of the

national costume are often models of beauty; but this description

applies only to the people of the highly cultivated part of the

country who have seldom been subjected to severe privation and who

generally fare right well. The inhabitants of the imperfectly reclaimed

hill forests are more savage-looking, but they seldom deteriorate to

the almost simian physiognomy that the Oraons are found with

under similar circumstances. When the face of the Moondah varies

from the Arian or Caucasian type, it appears to me rather to merge

into the Mongolian than the Negro. High cheek bones, small openings

for the eyes, having in some rare instances a tendency to the a x

oblique set of the Mongolian, and flattish faces without much beard or

whisker. They are of average stature, and in colour vary from brown

to tawny yellow.

IIl.—Tue Oraons.

The Oraons have a tradition that they were once settled in Guzerat. a

They were expelled from that part of India, and, retreating east, made a

stand at fort Kalinjur where they fought the “ Loorik Sowrik” of “ Pali-

pipri,’’ were defeated, and, retreating still east, settled on the Rhotds

hills. Here they say, they remained unmolested till attacked and

The “ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore, 169

driven from the hills by the Mahomedans in the reign of the emperor

__ Akbar, but as they aver this occurred fifty-two generations ago, there

‘is an anachronism somewhere. I think they were settled in Chota

_ Nagpore centuries before the days of Akbar, but it is probable that

I some of the clan-remained in the Rhotas hills until the Mahomedans

; constructed their fortress there. |

; The accounts of ancient Guzerat faintly confirm the Oraon tradition.

H I find from Thornton’s Gazetteer that there is a race settled there from

_ remote antiquity who are called Coolies ; but there is nothing in the

- name, which, as I observed before, appears to have been applied very

generally to the aborigines by the Arians, and the account given of

the Coolies does not lead me to suppose they are of the Oraon family.

q There is, however, a short description of what appears to be a remnant of

a tribe, which would answer perfectly forthe Oraons,—“ A small, active,

well built race, engaged to some extent in cultivation, but by choice

deriving their subsistence, as far as possible, from the chase, fishing,

_ or the collecting of wild fruits and the marketable produce of the

f jungles for sale. Their peculiar pursuits, little relished or shared in

by the rest of the community, caused them to be viewed with dislike

~ and dread, and the reputation of possessing great powers in sorcery

_ subjects them to much cruel treatment.”

. Every word of the above description applies to the Oraon tribe,

‘and the name given to this remnant of a people viz. ‘‘ Dunjas,” is an *

Oraon word not unlike the term Dhangurh, so commonly applied to

the Oraons in the countries to which they emigrate for work.

_ The names traditionally handed down amongst the Oraons, as Loorik

Sowrik, allude probably to some tribe of Sravacks or Sowoks or Jains,

and the Palipipri might refer to the Palithana mountains, the Jain

‘temples on which are amongst the most interesting architectural works

| inIndia, The etymology of the word Oraon, I have not been able

| Gr (0 trace satisfactorily, but it may have been applied to the tribe

in consequence of their migratory habits. They call themselves

~ * Khoonkir.”

| @. Between the language of the Oraons and the language of the

_ Moondahs and their cognates, I can trace no similarity either in

| ‘pronunciation, formation, construction or general character. With

| pretty copious vocabularies before me, I can find no analogues, and

170 The “ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore.

whilst the language of the Moondahs is soft and sonorous, that of the

Oraons is guttural and harsh. Doctor Latham, in his descriptive ethnolo-

gy, has noticed the near connection of the Oraon, Rajmahal hill and

Tamul languages, and especially observes on the similarity of the

personal pronouns.

English. Rajymahal. Oraon. Tamul, dc

Li En En nam, En.

Thou Nin Nin » Mia

He, she, it Ath As Ata

We Nim Km Nam

Ye Nina | Nim Nim

They Awar Ar Awar

Out of a vocabulary of about 24 Oraon and Tamul words, I find

the following analogues.

* EE

English. Tamul. Tuda. Oraon,

Man Al Al Al

Hye Kam Kan Khan.

Tooth Pal Paroh Pulla —

But I find in the language now spoken by the Oraons, words of

Sanscrit origin not in common use, as “‘ puph,” flower, “‘ amb,” water,

“kesh,” hair, indicative of their having occupied some country in —

common with people speaking a Sanscrit or Prakrit dialect.

The annexed notes on the language with which I have been favoured

by the Rev. Frederic Batsch, senior Missionary at Ranchee, will, I

hope, throw some light on the subject. The resemblance between the

Oraon and Tamul language does not invalidate their own migratory

traditions, for it is mot more marked than the relation between the

Tamul and the language of the Gonds and others.

Their physical peculiarities are as different from those of the

Moondah as are their linguistic characteristics. The Oroans. must be

regarded as a very small race, not. short and squat like some of the

Indo-Chinese stock, but .a well proportioned small race. The young

men and women have light graceful figures and are as active a8 —

monkies. Their complexions are, as a rule, of the darkest; but if we

take as our type those who dwell in mixed communities, we find great

variety in feature and colour. If we take those who, living in isolated

positions, may be supposed to offer us the purest blood, we find them

The ‘ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore. 17t

generally dark and ill-favoured. They have wide mouths, thick hps

and projecting maxillary processes, nostrils wide apart, and no elevation

_ of nose to speak of, and low though not in general very receding

foreheads. I have seen amongst them heads that in the woolly crispness

_ of the hair completed the similitude of the Oraons to the Negro. It

_ may be said that the class [ am describing have degenerated in feature

from living a wilder and more savage life than others of their clan ;

but Ido not find this degeneracy of feature amongst the Jushpore

Korewahs, who are to the Moondahs of Chota-Nagpore what the

Jushpore Oraons are to the Oraons of the same district.* I found the

Korewahs mostly short of stature, but with well knit muscular frames,

~ complexion brown not black, sharp bright deep set eyes, noses not. de-

_ ficient in prominency, somewhat high check bones, but without notable

maxillary protuberances. In the more civilized parts of the province,

both Oraons and Moondahs improve in appearance. The former indeed

& still retain their somewhat diminutive appearance, but in complexion

_ they are fairer, in features softer, some even good looking, and the

youthful amongst them all pleasing from their usual happy contented

expression and imperturbable good humour.

Driven from the Rhotas hills, the Oraons, according to their own

tradition, separated into two great divisions. One of these, moving

east, found a final resting-place in the Rajmahal hills; the other, going

. south, sought refuge in the Palamow hills, and wandered from valley

to valley in those ranges, till they found themselves in Burway, a hill-

locked estate in Chota-Nagpore proper. From thence they occupied

the highlands of Jushpore and formed the settlements in the vicinity

of Lohardugga, on the Chota-Nagpore platedu, where they still

‘constitute the bulk of the population. The Satyomba Moondahs had

} The identity of the language spoken by the Rajmahal hill people

| (mot the Sonthals) and that of the Oraons is full and sufficient

confirmation of the tradition of their common origin, and of the

| bt the Rajmahal hill people, who being isolated must have retained

| Whose they brought with them to the hills, with the customs of the

| Oraons, demonstrates that the latter are derived from the Moondahs. |

* Asiatic Society’s Journal, Vol. XXXIV. p. Lo.

ie The ‘ Kols’ of Chota-Nagpore.

Referring to Col. Walter Sherwill’s account of the Raéjmahal hill

people,* I find, in regard to marriage, that it is customary for the

young couple to sleep together on the same bed before marriage.

The Oraons would consider this a very indecorous proceeding, though

a public recognition that the young couple have slept together aiter

the marriage is with the Oraons an important sequel to the ceremony. -

Inthe Rajmahal hills, says Col. Sherwill, the dead are buried. The

Rig Veda and Ramayun tell us that this was the custom of the

Dusyas, but the Moondahs and their cognates all burn their dead, and

the Oraons follow their example.

The Réjmahal hill men swear on salt, the Oraons have a veneration

for salt, but swear on dub grass,+ huldee and rice.

The Oraons know nothing of Bedo Gosain, the invisible spirit

adored by the Rajmahalies. Their supreme deity is the sun under —

the title of Dhurmo, but as that and the Réjmahalee term are both of

Sanscrit origin, it evinces that neither race have in their own language

any word for the Deity.

Lastly, the hill man is described as less cheerful than the Sonthal, —

less industrious, and as not joining in the dances that the people of

the Moondah stock are so-devoted to. In Chota-Nagpore the Oraons :

are more lively than the Moondahs, quite as industrious, and the most

enthusiastic and nimble-footed of the dancers.

The two races, Moondah and Oraon, must have been for ages the |

only colonists of the plateau; it is singular that they have no tradition

of any disqute having arisen between them. Affecting jealously to

guard against admixture of the races by sexual intercourse, they in

other respects lived as one people, the Oraon conforming more to the

customs of the Moondah than the Moondahs to the Oraon, and ix

many instances adopting the Moondah language and losing their own.

In villages east of Ranchee, though inhabited wholly by Oraons, the

Moondah, not Oraon, is the language spoken ; but the Moondah language

is not much known in the vicinity of Lohardaggah or in Jushpore. _

The village systems of the two people became almost identical in

form. The village priest, called the Pahan, is probably an Oraon

institution, as, [ think, amongst the Moondahs the principle is that the

head of the family is priest; but the Moondahs of Chota-Nagpore

* Asiatic Society’s Journal, Vol. XX. p, 544, + Agrostis linearis, ;

e “ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore. 173

adopted it, and in their villages, as well as in those of the Oraons,

there isalwaysa Pahan. The village system now existing is such as it

became after many encroachments by the Rajah and the middlemen

introduced by him. Still as bearing the impress of a very primitive

form of government, it is worth describing, and in doing so, I

will make use of a very elaborate report on the subject written by

Doctor Davidson in 1839.

The actual descendants of the men who formed the villages are

_ called Bhuinhurs. They are a privileged class, who hold their lands

- at low fixed rates or rent-free, but they are bound to do service to the

_ chief or his representative. The head of, the Bhuinhurs is called the

_ Moondah, and is generally the representative of the old Moondah chief

_ of the village. He presides when meetings are held to settle disputes

~ about social customs ; and all demands for service on the Bhuinhurs by

the proprietor or tase are made through him. He holds his lands as

b Bhuinhurree, and has no other emolument.

_ The Mahto, though second in point of rank, is the most important

F | functionary in the village. He has the assessment and settlement of

all lands not held by the hereditary cultivators ; collects all dues and

t rents, and is responsible for them to the farmer or proprietor. He

- holds for his services one powa of land rent-free, and in some villages

_ gets a fee of one or two pice annually from each ryot. The office is

not hereditary.

_ The Pahan is the village priest. He is a Moondah or Oraon by

are performed by him. No Bramins are permitted to interfere. The

" office of Pahan is generally hereditary, but is not necessarily so. He

has under his charge the land called “ Dalikhatari,” and. from the

proceeds of this land, he has to support himself and to provide the rice

kerai or bundle of each crop as it is mit

‘There is a Gorait for each village, and a Kotewar for one or more

| villages. The former is the messenger of the Zemindar or his repre-

| Sentative, the latter is the Police officer,

174 The “ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore.

The villagers maintain a blacksmith and a Gowala or herd; the

latter takes care of all the village cattle, and is supposed to be respon-

sible if any are stolen. They each get a maund of dhan for every ‘

plough and three kerais, bundles, of other crops.

According to the tradition of the Kols, the Rajah is entitled to the rent

of only half of the land in each village. The remainder is Bhuinhurree,

or rent-free under some other denomination, but in most villages rent

is now taken on from two-thirds to three-fourths of the land. The —

land is thus divided :—

I. Rughus—the land that pays rent to the owner or his represent-

ative.

II. Bhetketta, a certain portion of the Rughus which each ryot,

not a Bhuinhur, is allowed to cultivate free of rent, but for which he

has to perform various services to the landlord or farmer.

III. The land allotted to the Mahto, the Pahan and the Bhundari,

IV. Munghus—the land at the disposal of the landlord or his agent |

or the farmer of the village. For the cultivation of this land, the —

holder of the village can make any arrangement that he pleases.

V. Bhuinhurree is the land held rent free by the descendants of the

founder of the village, who are, however, bound to render certain

services to the Rajah or his representative.

VI. Bhootketta—the land, the produce of which is appropriated to

the expense of the great village poojas and festivals; a portion of this.

called “‘ Dalikhatari” is assigned to the Pahan for the ordinary annual _

poojas, and the proceeds of the remainder are reserved for the triennial

sacrifices and extraordinary occasions.

The rent is assessed on the wet land only. The cultivator is

entitled to upland in proportion to the wet land for which he pays.

If he cultivates more, the custom is for a payment in kind called

Muswur, to be made when the crop is harvested.

The Bhuinhurs cling most tenaciously to their Bhuinhurree lands.

Insurrections have followed attempts to disturb these tenures, and eve 2

now such attempts are sure to lead to serious affrays. The Kol insur-

rection of 1833 was, without doubt, mainly caused by the encroac h-

ments of alien farmers and sub-proprietors on the rights of the

descendants of the old settlers. The first burst of the outbreak was a

pretty broad hint, a general conflagration of the houses of alien farmers

The “ Kols’”’ of Chota-Nagpore. 175

and sub-proprietors, and the massacre of all that the incensed Kols

could find.

The Kols of Chota-Nagpore, generally a good-tempered, mild, inoffen-

sive race, become wild with excitement on this question, and nothing

_ ean reconcile them to a decree or order which in any way infringes on

what they consider their proprietary right. According to their theory,

; dispossession for generations can no more annul their right in the

land than it can extinguish the ties of blood. The courts will not

always accept this doctrine, and the Kols cannot regard as equitable

any decision that excludes it. _

An Oraon family lives very promiscuously in a small, indiffer-

ently constructed and untidy looking hut, and their village often consists

of a street or court of such huts. In all that relates to their inner

domestic life, they are less susceptible of improvement than the other

f tribes. They have no gardens or orchards attached to individual houses,

but the groves of fruit-trees that they plant outside the village form a

§ property. In every Oraon village of old standing there is a house called

the ‘‘ Doomcooreea” (Bachelor’s Hall), in which all unmarried men

. and boys of the tribe are obliged to sleep. Any one absenting himself

and spending the night elsewhere in the village is fined. In this

_ building the flags, musical instruments, yaks’ tails, dancing equipments

d other property used at the festivalsare kept. They have a regular

system of fagging in the Doomcooreea. The small boys have to

shampoo the limbs of their luxurious masters, and obey all orders

of the elders, who also systematically bully them to make them, it is

lleged, hardy. In some villages the unmarried girls have a

house to themselves, an old woman being appointed as Duenna

to look after them. She is always armed with a stick to keep the

boys off. A circular space, in front of the Doomcoorea, is kept

clear as the village dancing ground. It is generally sheltered by

fine old trees, and seats are placed all round for spectators or tired

¢ ancers.

| _ The Doomcooreea is never used by boys of the Moondah tribe. It isan

institution quite unknown to the Hos, but the Moondahs and Hos build

| themselves houses in which all the family can be decently accommo-

176 The “ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore.

dated. Their houses are more isolated, occupy much more space and

are in appearance much more civilized than those of the Oraons, with

verandahs, well raised plinths and separate apartments for the married

and single members of the family. Every Moondah village has its :

dancing place, though it has no Doomcooreea. The best Korewah |

villages consist of about forty houses built round a large square, in the

centre of which is the dancing arena; but as the Korewahs are nomads,

changing their abodes every second or third year, their villages may —

be regarded as mere standing camps. The Kheriahs build substantial —

comfortable houses like the Hos. It is curious they have the same

word “‘Q”’ for a house and the sky. The Moondah word ‘ Ora” is,

like the Turkoman “ Ova,” a house or tent. The flags kept in the ~

Oraon Doomcooreea appear to be an Oraon institution. Every village

or group of villages, probably the head quarters of each “‘ Parha,” has |

its peculiar flag, and we have actually had cases in courts praying for

injunction against villages charged with having assumed flags that

did not belong to them !

I will now proceed to review the customs of the Moondahs and

Oraons together, taking care to note all points of divergence that are

known to me. :

After the birth of a child, the mother has-to undergo purification,

and on the same day that this ceremony takes place, which is simply a

process of ablution, the child is named. Elderly females or matrons,

friends and relations assemble for this purpose, and a vessel containing

water is placed in the midst, and as the name first selected is

pronounced, one of the women. drops a grain of rice into the water,

If the grain of rice sinks, that name is discarded, and the experiment

is repeated with the second name on the list, and so on till, as the name

is pronounced, the grain floats. (Tho Garrows of the eastern frontier

have a similar method for divining the name of the spirit they ought

to invoke on particular occasions.) If the name of some friend is

chosen, it is considered as establishing a tie between the child and his

namesake, resembling that which subsists between a Christian child

and his godfather. The person whose name is selected is always

called Saki or Sakhi, a word of Sanscrit origin meaning friend, so that

in ‘‘nam Saki” we have in meaning and sound our word namesa ke.

The “ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore. 177

Sulgi,* Pongla, Madhi, Makoo, Roomeea Saggi, Dinli, Natri, Akli,

oo”)

Bangi, Julli, and the Hindoo names of the days of the week are very

commonly given. The following are the names of boys—Rumsi, Birsa,

Somra, Daharoo, Singra, Satri, Dubroo, Doolkoo, Didoo, Runka, Biggoo.

But they have adopted many foreign names, and the names of British

officers they have known and esteemed, are thus preserved amongst

the Hos of Singbhoom, and may be handed down from generation to

generation. Thus ‘‘ Major’ and “ Captain” have become common

names in the Colehan, originally taken from Major Roughsedge, the

| first British officer they ever saw, and Captain Wilkinson (now Col.

_ Wilkinson) whom they regard as their greatest benefactor. Doctor,

Tickell, &c. are also common. Girls, when three or four years of age,

_ receive their mark of caste. Three lines tattooed on the forehead and

_ two on each temple, four dots on the chin and one on the nose. It

_ does not appear to be connected with any religious custom, nor is it

applied with any ceremony, and as neither the Moondahs nor the

‘ Oraons have any particular term for it in their own language, it is

{ probable that they adopted it from the Sudhs or Hindoos. Some

& “Moondah girls of Chota-Nagpore have different marks. Those of

; Singbhoom have adopted the arrow, appropriately enough, as the

national weapon of theim lords and masters.

_ The Kheriahs and Juangas, though isolated from the Moondahs and

| Oraons, have the same triple and double marks on the forehead and

% emples.

_ rather a severe process of puncturation, which they consider it manly to

The Oraon boys are marked, when children, on the arms by

endure. The only reason I have heard assigned for this custom is, that

_ through it even the naked dead may have a distinguishing mark.

__ When a girl approaches maturity, it is incumbent on her to bind

Uy her hair, and from that period of her life she is restricted to food

‘prepared by her own people. Asa child with her hair loose, she is

permitted to partake of whatever is edible, no matter by whom prepared.

Young men enjoy this liberty of appetite tillthey marry. They then,

to use their own expression, put salt in their flesh, and must not

partake of food prepared by aliens. The Oraons have a veneration

for salt, and they are not absolutely prohibited ia om partaking of

"* A common name and also the name of a goddess, A the name, I see, of

one of the young ladies from the Andaman Islands,

178 The ‘ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore.

plain rice cooked by others, provided they are left to salt it themselves.

The salt, it would appear, thus applied, removes the “ Taboo,” and

makes fas what is otherwise nefas.

As a rule, marriages are not contracted till both the bride and

bridegroom are of mature age. It is sometimes left to the parents

to select wives for their sons, but the young people have ample

opportunities for studying each others characters, love-making and

following the bent of their own inclinations; and it very often happens,

that plans concocted by the parents are frustrated by the children.

In Chota-Nagpore, amongst the agricultural classes, and in Sing-

bhoom amongst all classes of Kols, the girls have all a price fixed upon

them, and this the lover or his friends must arrange to pay, before the

parents of the bride will give their consent. In Singbhoom, the price

is so high, especially for young ladies of good family, that marriage is —

frequently put off till late in life; and girls valued not so much for —

their charms and accomplishments as for their pedigree, often grow

grey as maidens in the house of their fathers. Singbhoom is perhaps

the only place in India in which old maids are found; they have ~

plenty of them there. But though urged to change this practice by —

all who take an mterest in them, the old Mankees of Singbhoom are —

inflexible, not only in demanding a high prite for their girls, but —

in insisting that it shall be paid, according to ancient custom, chiefly

in cattle. A Mankee of the old school will not take less than

forty head of cattle for his daughter; but the eyes of .the rising

generation are opened to the absurdity of the practice, and some of us _

may live to see it changed. ’

In consequence of this custom, the grown up boys and girls are

quite a separate institution in every Kol village ; there is very little |

their own, from which the old people sensibly keep aloof. If a

flirtation is known to have gone too far, the matter is generally settled

by the young man being made to pay the price for the girl and —

marry her. . a

In Chota-Nagpore the daughter of a Mankee was, some years ago, %

valued at about 36 Rs , but they are gradually adopting the custom

of the Hindoos in re to their marriages, and giving up the —

objectionable practice of putting a price on them. The price paid ‘=

The “‘ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore. 179

the common people ranges from 10 to 12 rupees. These disagreeable

preliminaries having been arranged, the bridegroom and a large party

of his friends of both sexes enter with much singing and dancing and

sham fighting the village of the bride, where they meet the bride’s

party and are hospitably entertained.

The bride and bridegroom are now well anointed with turmeric, and

bathed, and then taken and wedded, not to each other, but to two

trees! The bride to a Mowa tree, the bridegroom to a Mango. They

are made to touch the tree with “ seendoor,” (red lead), and then to

clasp it in their arms. Qn returning, they are placed standing face to

face, the girl on a curry stone over a ploughshare supported on

sheaves of corn or grass. The bridegroom stands ungallantly treading

_ on his bride’s toes, and in this position touches her forehead with the

red lead ; she touches his forehead in the same manner. The bride’s

maids then, after some preliminary splashing and sprinkling, pour

a jar of water over the head of each: this necessitates a change of

raiment, and apparently concludes the ceremony, as the young couple

going inside to change, do not appear again till the cock-crowing

announces the dawn or its approach. At the first crow the bride’s maids,

who with the young men have been merrily keeping it up all night

with the song and dance, burst into the nuptial chamber and bring

- forth the blushing bride and her bashful lord; and then they all go

} down to the river or to a tank to bathe, and parties of boys and girls

- form sides under the leadership of the bride and bridegroom, and pelt

“each other with clods of earth. The bridegroom next takes a water

vessel and conceals it in the stream or water for the bride to find,

She then conceals it from him, and when he has found it, she takes it up

“filled with water and-places it on her head. She lifts her arm to

‘support the pitcher, and the bridegroom, standing behind her with his

bow strung, and the hand that grasps it lightly resting on her

shoulder, discharges an arrow from the pretty loophole thus formed

into the path before her, The girl walks on to where the arrow falls,

and with head erect and still bearing the pitcher of water, she picks

it up with her foot, takes it into her hand, and restores it to her

husband with a graceful obeisance. She thus shews that she can

adroitly perform her domestic duties and knows her duty to her lord

and master, whilst he, on his part, in discharging an arrow to clear

180 The ‘ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore.

her path of an imaginary foe, indicates that he is prepared to perform

his duty as her guide and protector through life.

In the Oraon marriages, many of these symbolical ceremonies are

omitted, and the important one of exchanging the “ sindoor’’ is

differently performed. The bridegroom stands behind his bride with

his toes on her heels, and stretches over her head to touch her forehead

with the powder. She touches his forehead by reaching back over his

shoulder. The cold bath completes the ceremony, they go to their own

apartment to change their clothes, and do not emerge till morning.

The price paid for a girl in cows is called ‘ Sukmur’” by the

Kheriah tribe. They have no word for marriage in their own

language, and the only ceremony used appears to be little more than

a sort of public recognition of the cohabitation. They have learned

to call this “‘ bzha,” but they admitted to me that this public recogni- ,

tion was often dispensed with. 3

It takes place in this wise. After the settlement of the usual prelimi-

naries, the bride is brought to the village of her intended bridegroom

by her own people and their friends, and they halt and bivouac in the —

village grove. The bridegroom and his friends join them in the grove —

where they all regale themselves and dance, and during these nuptial —

dances the bride and bridegroom are each borne on the hips of one of

their dancing friends; they are not allowed to put their feet to the

ground. Thus wildly dancing, they proceed into the village, and the

bride and bridegroom are taken to the latter’s house and anointed with

oil ; they are then brought outside, and the ceremony of touching each

“sindoor” is performed, followed by the .

splashing and sousing which becomes a general romp. Then the

young couple are left to themselves till morning. The bride’s maids

other’s forehead with the

arouse them as the cock crows, and after the public ablution of

garments and their wearers the party breaks up. ANG

The gestures of the dancers on these occasions, and the songs, all

bear more directly than delicately on what is evidently = as

the main object of the festivities. :

In Singbhoom, marriages, notwithstanding the lateness at which

they take place are generally arranged by the parents, but nelle

wishes are not unfrequently anticipated by love matches. In the

various journeyings to and fro that are found necessary when a match

The ‘* Kols” of Chota-Nagpere. . 181

is being arranged, omens are carefully observed, and the match is broken

off, if they are unfavourable. At the actual marriage there is much

feasting and dancing, but little ceremony, The turning point of the

affair is, when the bride and bridegroom mix and drink off some of

the beer they have each been helped to ; the boy pours some of the

beer given to him into the girl’s cup, she pours from her cup into the

boy’s cup, and they drink and thus become of the same “ keel”’ or

clan, for the Hos, Moondahs and Oraons are all-divided into families

under this name, and may not take to wife a girl of their own keelt.

This division of the primitive races into something having a

semblance to caste, will be found in the North Eastern Frontier as well

as in this province. The Garrows, for instance, are divided into what

~ ae

are called “ maharis,” and a man may not marry a girl of his own

~ mahari. |

It is obvious that the custom does not spring from any such notion

of caste as are found amongst the Hindoos, and that it is not one

which these races have adopted from the Hindoos, because with a

Hindoo, caste is destroyed by a marriage out of it. It is equally

opposed to the custom of the Jews, whose daughters (at least if

_heiresses) were obliged to take husbands of their own tribe.*

i _ In Singbhoom the bride and bridegroom do not touch each other

- with “¢ sindoor’’, as is the custom in Chota-Nagpore. The Oraons and

~ Moondahs may have adopted the custom from the Hindoos, and the

primitive practice of the race is probably as it is found amongst the

_ more isolated Hos.

4 _A very singular scene may sometimes be noticed in the markets of

Singbhoom. A young man suddenly makes a pounce on a girl and

carries her off bodily, his friends covering the retreat (like a group

from the picture of the rape of the Sabines). This is generally a

‘summary method of surmounting the obstacles that cruel parents may

have placed in the lovers’ path ; but though it is sometimes done in

anticipation of the favourable inclination of the girl herself, and in spite

of her struggles and tears, no disinterested person interferes, and the

girls, late companions of the abducted maiden, often applaud the

exploit.

- The Ho husband has to pay a high price for his wife, and it is

* Numbers xxxvi. 6,

182 The “ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore.

certain that he highly appreciates her. Although he is not known

to have for her any more endearing epithet than “my old woman,”

yet by no civilized race are wives treated with more consideration

than by the untutored Ho. The whole of the domestic arrange-

ments are under her exclusive management. She is consulted on

all occasions, and I know one or two husbands whom I am almost

inclined to regard as henpecked. The Kols seldom take a second

wife during the lifetime of the first, but I know instances of their

having done so. The wife always cooks for her husband, and when

the dinner is ready, they sit down and eat it together like Christians ;

but the Oraons have followed the Hindoo custom of making the

woman eat the leavings of her lord.

It is customary with all these tribes to pay particular attention to —

omens, when any of them set out to arrange the preliminaries of a

marriage. The Hos who are more under the influence of this ©

superstition than their cognates or than the Oraons, have a long list —

of deterrent signs, which have been described by Tickell in his paper

above quoted, I subjoin the most noticeable of those that are observed

by the Oraons. .

1.° On leaving the house ‘‘to win a bride’, they look out for

omens. If acowcallsand the calf responds, it is good. If there is no

response, the wooing is postponed or abandoned.

2. If they find a dead mouse on the road, they must stop and

make a diagnosis. If ants and flies have possessed themselves of the

carcass, it is good, they go on. If the insects appear to have shunned

it (which is not very likely to happen), they go back.

3. It is not good to meet oxen or buffaloes with their horns”

crossed, or to see a hawk strike a bird, or to come upon women

washing clothes. It is good to see people burying a dead body, and

to find on their road a cow giving milk to her calf. z

4. If they see a man cutting a tree, and the tree falls before they

can get past it, it is very bad. If they pass before it falls, it is all

right. A certain bird heard on the left gives a note of joy; if —

on the right, he is a harbinger of woe. P

5. If, on approaching the village of the girl, they come on women

with water-pots full, it is a happy omen. If they meet a party witll hy

empty water-pots, it is a bad one, Z|

The “ Kols’” of Chota-Nagpore. 183

The Nagpore Kols, whether of the Moondah or Oraon tribe, and all

the cognates of the Moondahs that I know of, are passionately fond of

dancing, and with them dancing is as much an accomplishment as it is

with the civilized nations of Hurope. They have a great variety

of dances, and in each different steps and figures are used, of great

intricacy, but they are performed with aneatness and precision that

can only be acquired by great practice. Little children are hardly

on their legs, before they begin to learn their dancing steps; and

the result of this early training is that, however difficult the

step, the limbs of the performers move as if they belonged to one

body.’ They have musical voices and a great variety of simple me-

lodies. It isa fact fhat, when we raised a corps of Kols, their early

practice in keeping step and time greatly facilitated the operations

of drill; and the Missionaries have availed themselves of the musical

talents and taste of the Kol converts to produce congregational singing

that would be a credit to an English country church.

The dances are seen to the greatest advantage at the great periodi-

cal festivals called ‘“‘ Jatras.” They are at appointed places and

seasons, and when the day comes, all take a holiday and proceed to the

spot in their best array. The girls, on these occasions, put on their

_ best dress, generally a white “ saree’ with a broad red border. They

- tastefully arrange flowers in their hair and plumes of the long breast

j feathers of the paddy-bird. The young men wear Turkey red turbans,

and add a snow white cloth to their usually scanty garb, and also

adorn themselves with flowers and peacock’s feathers. As parties from

the different villages come near the trysting place, they may be

observed finishing their toilettes in the open fields; when all is ready,

the groups form, and their approach from different sides, with their

banners and yak’s tails waving, horns and symbols sounding, mar-

shalled into alternate ranks of lads and lasses all keeping perfect

step and dress, with the gay head-dresses of the girls and the numer-

ous brass ornaments of the boys glittering in the sun, forms a very

lively and pleasing picture. They enter the grove where the meeting

is held in jaunty dashing style, wheeling and countermarching and

forming lines, circles and columns with grace and precision. The

dance with these movements is called “ khurriah,”’ and they are held

in all months of the year, a series of them following each other at

184 The ‘‘ Kols”’ of Chota-Nagpore.

short intervals at different places all over the country, and the atten-

dance, at some that I have seen, could not be under 5,000 people, all

enjoying themselves.

When they enter the grove, the different groups join and dance the

khurriah together, forming one vast dancing procession. Then each

takes its own place and plants its flag and dances round it till near

sunset, when all go dancing home. ‘This is followed by a carouse

in the village, after which the dance is often continued at the

‘““akrah” all night.

At each of these ‘‘ Jattras,” a kind of fair is held, and fairings and |

refreshments are to be had in abundance. The young men can treat

their partners with sweetmeats and do so, “As already observed,

there is a place in every village called “ akrah” set apart for dancing

and ceremonies. This is a circular arena with a post in the centre, ©

and around it are benches for the spectators or for the dancers when

wearied, the whole being generally shaded by fine old tamarind, the —

most beautiful of village trees. .

The season dances in the village open with the kurrum in July, —

at the commencement of the planting season. There is a moyement |

in this dance called ‘‘ hojar’’ when the girls suddenly kneel and pat

the ground in time to the music, as if caressing and coaxing it to be-

productive. On the day appointed for the ceremony, the boys and

girls go in procession to the kurruwm tree, cut and bring back to the

village some branches, which are planted in the akrah. An old

man with a liberal allowance of beer is placed to watch these, whilst

the young people refresh themselves. They all, old and young, then

assemble in the akrah, and one of the elders harangues them, and

after giving them much good advice, concludes by directing them to

commence the dance. Thesongs sung on this occasion are in Hindee,

and contain allusions to the flooded state of the rivers and fields.

They also sing an ode to the Satyomba Rajah. The kurrum is kept

by the Soodh or Hindoo population as well as by the Kols.

After harvest of the earlier crop of the planted rice, in November

the “mathe” is danced by the boys and girls in the village. The

girls, moving in a semicircle and clasping eath others hands, dance

with a very lively step and bowing motion of the body to the men .

who sing and play to them. The girls have another dance at this

The “ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore. 185

season called “‘ angua,”’ because it is danced in front of the house

instead of the akrah ; to this and to a feast held on the occasion the

young men are not invited.

The “ Jadoor’ dances commence on the completion of the great

harvest of the rice crop, and continue till the commencement of the

hot season. This is one of the most characteristic dances, from the

peculiar way in which the arms are interwoven and clasped behind

the back of the performers.

Then comes the “ Sarhool,”’ at the close of the month of Phalgoon

or early in March. The Sarhool is the flower of the Saul tree which

now blossoms. The boys and girls make garlands of these flowers,

weave them in their hair and decorate their houses with them. The

dance on this occasion, called the ‘‘ Baihini,” is a very frisky one.

The boys and girls dance to each other, clasping hands and pirouetting,

so as to cause ‘ dos-d-dos’’ concussions which appear to constitute

the best part of the fun. Yet the subject of the song sung at the

Sarhool feast is a sad one. <A girl who had married out of the village

is supposed to return to it in affliction, and to sit weeping at one side

of the house, whilst her former associates are revelling at the other.

The songs are in the Moondah language.

_ They have besides different dances for weddings, and a dance called

. Jumhir” which is suited to any occasion. The dances above briefly

“noticed are all more or less connected with some religious ceremony,

but this is left to the elders. The young people seem to me to take

little interest in that part of the festival, which is, in proportion to

the dancing, in importance like the bread to Falstaff’s sack. They

are always ready for a dance, and night after night in some villages

‘the akrah drums collect the youths and maidens after the evening

meal, and if you go quietly to the scene, as I have done, you may

find that, whilst some are dancing, others are flirting in the most

. demonstrative manner, seated in detached couples on the benches or

| on the roots of the great trees, with arms round each others’ waists,

' looking lovingly into each others’ faces.

| _ Next to dancing, that which most engrosses the mind of the Kol

jis the belief in and fear of witchcraft. All disease in men and in

jeattle is attributed to one of two causes, the wrath of some evil

spirit who has to be appeased, or the spell of some witch or sorcerer

186 The ‘‘ Kols”’ of Chota-Nagpore.

who should be destroyed. The fear of punishment and, I may add ~

for some of them, the respect they bear to the orders of their rulers,

restrain their hands, and witch murders are now very rare, but a

village is soon made too hot to hold one who is supposed to be

a witch.

When a belief is entertained that sickness in a family, or mortality

amongst cattle, or other misfortune has been brought about by sorcery,

a Sokha or witch-finder is employed to find out who has cast the

spell. By the Sokhas various methods of divination are employed.

One of the most common is the test by the stone and ‘“ potla.” The —

latter is a large wooden cup shaped like a half cocoanut, used as a

measure for grain. It is placed under a flat stone, and becomes a

pivot for the stone to turn on. A boy is then placed in a sitting

position on the stone, supporting himself by his hands, and the names

of all the people in the neighbourhood are slowly pronounced, and as

each name is uttered, a few grains of rice are thrown at the boy ;

when they come to the name of the witch or wizard, the stone turns”

and the boy rolls off ! 7

There is no necessary collusion between the Sokha and the boy;

the motion of the hand throwing the rice produces coma, and the

Sokha is, I suppose, sufficiently a mesmerist to bring about the required

result when he pleases.

The Singbhoom Kols or Hos, left to themselves, not only considered

it necessary to put to death a witch thus denounced, but if she had

children or other blood relations, they must all perish, as all of the

same blood were supposed to be tainted.

In 1857, when, in consequence of the mutinies, Singbhoom was

temporarily without officers, the Ho tribes of the southern parts of

the district, always the most turbulent, released from a restraint they

had never been very Sod eli under, set to work to search out the

is tos ia to contemplate ; at families were put anend to. I

some instances the destroyers, issuing forth-in the dusk and commen-

cing with the denounced wizard and his household, went from ho se

The ‘ Kols’’ of Chota-Nagpore. 187

to house, until before the morning dawn they had succeeded in ex-

tinguishing, as they supposed, the whole race.” On the suppression

of the disturbances, the return of the refractory Hos to order was as

sudden and decisive as had been their relapse into barbarism. The

survivors of the families who had suffered at once emerged with confi-

dence from their hiding-places, and of the cases of witchcraft-murder,

thus or otherwise brought to notice, the perpetrators were in almost

every instance prosecuted to conviction.

It was melancholy to have to condemn men who themselves artlessly

detailed every incident of the crime with which they were charged.

The work of retribution was a sad task, but it was rigorously carried

out, and we have not since then had a single case of witchcraft murder

_ inthe Colehan. That the belief in the existence of witches and sorcerers

is consequently extirpated, cannot be hoped. Nothing but their

conversion from paganism could effect this. I am convinced that

in most instances the prisoners, who in their examinations detailed

the most marvellous effects of imputed sorcery, were sincere believers

in all that they narrated. .

One of them, named Mora, saw his wife killed by a tiger, which

he followed till it led him to the house of a man named Poosa whom

he knew. He told Poosa’s relations what had occurred, declaring to

them that Poosa had, in the form of a tiger, killed and eaten his

wife. The relatives appealed to, did not for a moment discredit the

charge. They said they were aware that Poosa did possess the

‘imputed power of metamorphosis. They brought him out and, deliver-

ing him bound to his accuser, stood by whilst Mora deliberately put

him to death,

In explanation of their having so acted, they deposed that Poosa

had one night devoured an entire goat and roared like a tiger, whilst

_ he was eating it ; and on another occasion he informed his friends he

had a longing to eat a particular bullock, and that very night that

very bullock was killed and devoured by a tiger!

From their having lived so long together, it is not surprising that

we should find the religious ceremonies of the Oraon and Moondah

almost identical. The Oraons have adopted the religion of the

Moondah, but they retain some features of their original faith which

indicate that it was in many essential points different from that to

which they have conformed.

188 The ‘‘ Kols’” of Chota-Nagpore.

I have already observed that the Pahan or village priest is in all

probability an Oraon institution. The Rajmahali have a similar

functionary called ‘Demam,’ who foretells events, offers sacrifices,

regulates feasts and exorcises devils. In the Ho and Moondah villages,

all priestly functions may be performed by the head of the family, or,

if the occasion be one in which the village generally is concerned, by

any elder of the requisite knowledge and experience. They worship

the sun, “‘Singbonga,”’ as the supreme being, the creator, the preserver ;

and a number of secondary gods; all invisible; material idol worship

they have none. The paganism of the Ho and Moondah in all

essential features is shamanistic.

The Oraons, in addition to the Pahan whose business it is to offer

sacrifices for the benefit of the community, have recourse to a person ~

called ‘‘ Ojha” whom they consult regarding the proper spirit to be —

invoked and the nature of the sacrifice that is required of them, and

whose functions appear to me to bear a strong resemblance to those

of the medicine man of the African tribes. The Oraons have wooden

images or stones to represent thavillage and domestic spirits that they |

worship. Thus a carved post in the centre of their dancing arena

represents the tutelary deity of the village, ‘‘ Daroo;” and they have

objects of some kind to represent their domestic gods, penates.

They never build a house, or select a new site for a village or even

a new threshing-floor, without consulting the ojha and omens. When

a new house is ready for the reception of its owners, an ojha is called,

and he takes earth from the hearth and charcoal, and mixing them |

together, marks on the floor a magic circle. In the centre of this

he places an egg, and on the egg a split twig of the Bel tree. The

egg is then roasted and eaten by the people who are to occupy

the house. This is followed by a great feast and dancing—a regular

house-warming—on the top of the house an image of a fish is hun;

to avert the evil eye. These peculiarities in the paganism of the

gods, depicted by W. Sherwill as seen in their villages, are very fetish

in appearance.* iE

* Vide Journal, Asiatic Society Bengal, No. VII. 1851, page 553.

The “ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore. 189

The Moondahs, without applying to an ojha or medicine-man,

consult auguries in choosing the site of a house, with prayer to

Singbonga. A small quantity of rice is placed in holes made at the

four corners of the selected site, where it is left all night ; and if found

undisturbed in the morning, the site is good. The same process is

gone through in selecting a new site for a village. Prayer is offered

to Singbonga twice, first, that the test applied may truly indicate

if the site be good or bad ; secondly, for a blessing on the chosen site.

It is the fashion to call the religion of the Kols ‘ devil worship,’ but

this is not strictly correct ; for although the minor deities may be mostly

of a malevolent nature and therefore devils who have to be propitiated,

still Singbonga is worshipped as a beneficent god. This worship

of the sun as the supreme deity is the foundation of the religion

of the Oraons as well as the Moondahs. By the former he is invoked

as Dhurmi, the holy one. He is the creator and the preserver, and

with reference to his purity, white animals are offered to him by his

votaries. He is not regarded as the author of sickness or calamity ;

but he may be appealed to to avert it, and this appeal is often made,

when the sacrifices to the minor deities have been unproductive.

But besides these occasional sacrifices, all Moondahs who hold to

the faith of their ancestors, are especially bound to make a certain

number of offerings to Singbonga during their tenure of the posi-

tion of head of the family. He may take his own time about them,

‘but he will not be happy in his mind till he completes his comple-

‘ment and clears the account. I obtained this information from the

‘Kheriahs, and on speaking about it to some ancient Pahans and

-Moondah elders, was told that it undoubtedly is the orthodox practice,

but it has been neglected. The sacrifices are five in number:

Ast, fowls; 2nd, a pig; 3rd, a white goat ; 4th, a ram ; 5th, a buffalo ;

and they must be offered in the open plain in front of an ant

hill, or with an ant hill as an altar. Sacrifices to other gods are

generally offered in the “ Saerna,’’* the sacred grove of Sal trees, the

remnant of the primeval forest left for the spirits when the settlement

was first made. : :

The names and attributes of the inferior deities are nearly the same

amongst the Hos in Singbhoom, the Moondahs and Oraons in Chota-

* Or ‘Saran,’ ‘ Charan,’

190 The ‘“ Kols”’ of Chota-Nagpore.

Nagpore, and amongst the Sonthals ‘passim.’ Marang Booroo and

Pongla his wife; Desaoolli, Jaer Boori, Hekin Bonga, Boora Bonga,

Charee Desoolli and Dara are invoked in Chota-Nagpore.

The Sonthals have Marang Booroo, also Maniko his brother and

Jaer his sister. Tickell’s paper in Vol. IX, part 2nd of this Journal

gives the Singbhoom gods and their attributes. They too have

Marang Booroo and Pongala, Desaoolli and Jaer Boori or Jaer Era

and others. In cases of sickness the Ho, after ascertaining by augury

which of the gods should be propitiated, will go on offering sacrifices

till the patient recovers or his live stock is entirely exhausted.

Next to Singbonga I am inclined to place the deity that is adored

as ‘‘ Marang Booroo.” Booroo means mountain, but every mountain

has its spirit, and the word is therefore used to mean god or spirit*

also. Marang Booroo is the great spirit or great mountain. Not far

from the village of Lodmah in Chota-Nagpore one of the most

conspicuous hills on the plateau is called Marang Booroo, and here —

the great spirit is supposed to dwell. It is worshipped by the

Sonthals, the Bhoomij, the Hos, the Moondahs and the Oraons. The —

two latter make pilgrimages to it. The Hos have some vague notion —

of its situation; the more distant members of the family canonize

some hill more conveniently situated.

The Marang Booroo is especially venerated as the lord of rain.

Before the rains the women go to the top of the hill, under the

leadership of the wives of the Pahans, with drums, which are on this

occasion only played on by young ladies, and with offerings of milk

and leaves of the Bel tree. On the top of the hill there is a flat mass

of rock on which they deposit their offerings.

The wives of the Pahans now kneel down, and with hair loosened

invoke the deity, beseeching him to give their crops seasonable rain.

They shake their heads violently as they reiterate this prayer, till they

work themselves into a phrensy, and the movement becomes involuntary.

They go on thus wildly gesticulating, till a “little cloud like a man’s

hand” is seen. Then they arise, take up the drums, and dance the

Kurrun on the rock, till Marang Booroo’s response to their prayer is

heard in the distant rumbling of thunder, and they go home rejoicin

eo)

, * Thus they have for their altars groves and high places like the idolatrous

ews.

The ‘ Kols’’ of Chota-Nagpore. 191

They must go “ fasting to the mount,’’ and stay there till ‘‘ there is a

]

sound of abundance of rain,’ when they get them down to eat and

drink. My informant tells me it always comes before evening. We

must conclude that the old women are wonderfully clever at taking a

* forecast,’ and do not commence the fast till they sniff the rain.

All the villagers living in the vicinity of the hill make offerings of

goats, whenever they think it desirable to propitiate this spirit ; but he

is not invoked in cases of sickness, unless the ojha declares it necessary.

Sometimes bullocks are offered.

- The next in importance in Chota-Nagpore appears to be the spirit

Dara, whom the Oraons and Moondahs living with them adore in the

form of a carved post stuck up where the great jatras are held, or in

the village dancing place. Dara appears to be a god of rather

‘bacchanalian characteristics, worshipped amidst much revelling and

wassail, A sacrifice to him of fowls is followed by a feast in his

honour, at which all the elders drink themselves into a state of sottish

-drunkenness, whilst the young people dance and make love ; and next

day comes the jatra which all the country attend.

_ The Penates are generally called the “old folks.” They are in

fact the manes of the votaries’ ancestors ; votive offerings are made to

them when their descendants go on a journey, and they are generally

the first that are propitiated when there is sickness in the family.

By the Singbhoom Kols, the manes of the ancestors of the principal

lady of the house are also honoured. The offerings to them are made

on the path by which she was brought home as a bride. Desaoolli

and Jaeroolli are propitiated for harvests and for cattle, Chandoo

Seekur, the same probably as the Chanala of the Hos, for children.

P The Pahan has to solemnize regularly the following festivals. The

Pas

‘Hurihur, at the commencement of the planting season. Every one

then plants a branch of the Belowa in his field and each contributes

a fowl, a pitcher of beer and a handful of rice to the feast. The sacrifice

is offered to Desaoolli, Jaer Boori and others, in the Saerna.

_ During the Sarhool—when the Sal tree blossoms—the sacyrifice of a

goat and fowls is offered in the Saerna by the Pahan to the manes of the

founders of the village and to Dara. The introduction of the Sal |

blossom, in memory of the forest that was cleared when the village was

formed, is very appropriate. At the khurria Poojah, when the rice is

192 The ‘‘ Kols’”’ of Chota-Nagpore.

harvested, the sacrifice is offered and the feast takes place on the

Pahan’s threshing floor.

Dalikattari: every second year a fowl, every third year a ram,

every fourth year a buffalo. To provide what is required for this feast,

the Pahan holds the Dalikattaree land.

I have already alluded to the division of the Moondahs and their

cognates into “‘ Keelles’ or clans. Many of the Oraon clans and

some of the Moondah in Chota-Nagpore are called after animals, and

they must not kill or eat what they are named after.

Thus the Moondah ‘“ Enidhi” and the Oraon “ Minjrar” or Eel

tribe will not kill or eat that fish. The Hawk, Crow, Heron tribes

will not kill or eat those birds. Livingstone, quoted in Latham,* tells

us that the sub-tribes of the Bitshaunas (or Bechuanas) are similarly

named after certain animals, and‘a tribe never eats the animal from

‘ala,’ hate or dread, in reference

which it is named, using the term,

to killing it.

The above curious coincidence tempts me to give a few more details ~

regarding the Oraon clans.

The ‘ Tirki’’—have an objection to animals whose eyes are not

yet open, and their own offspring are never shewn till they are wide —

awake. .

The “ Ekkar’’—will not touch the head of a tortoise.

The ‘“ Katchoor’’—object to water in which an elephant has been

bathed.

The ‘‘ Amdiar’’—will not eat the foam of the river. .

The ‘ Kujrar’’—will not eat the oil of the Kujri tree, or sit in its

shade. .

The “ Tiga’’—will not eat the monkey.

The Ho chiefs could give me no signification for the names in

which their families rejoice. The following are the most aristocratie,

the Boorioolli, the Poorthi, Sincoi, Baipoi, Soondee, Bandri.

I do not know of any people who are more careful in regard to the

disposal of their dead than are the tribes of whom I am treating,

especially the Singbhoom Kols and best classes of the Moondahs. __

On the death of a Ho or Moondah, a very substantial coffin is

constructed and placed on faggots of firewood. The body, carefully

* Latham’s Ethnology, Vol. II. p. 160.

The “ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore. 193

washed and anointed with oil and turmeric, is reverently laid in the

coffin, and all the clothes and ornaments used by the deceased are

placed with it, and also any money that he had about him when he

died. Then the lid of the coffin is put on and faggots piled above

and around it, and the whole is burned. The cremation takes place

in front of the deceased’s house. Next morning water is thrown on

the ashes and search made for the bones; all the larger fragments are

carefully preserved, the remainder, with the ashes, are buried then and

there. The selected bones are placed in a vessel and hung up in the

house in a place where they may be continually viewed by the widow

or mother. Thus they remain till the very extensive arrangements

necessary for the final disposal are effected. A large monumental

stone has to be selected, and it is sometimes so large that the

men of several villages are employed to move it. It is brought

to the family burial place, which with the Hos is close to their

i houses, and with the Oraons generally separated from the village

by a stream. A deep round hole is dug beside the stone, and when

all is ready, a procession is formed consisting of one old woman

eairying the bones on a decorated bamboo tray, one or two men

with deep sounding wooden drums, and half a dozen young girls,

those in the front rank carrying empty and partly broken pitchers,

‘and brass vessels. The procession moves with a solemn ghostly

sliding step, in time to the deep sounding drum. The old woman

carries the tray on her head, but at regular intervals she slowly

; owers it, and as she does so, the girls gently lower and mournfully

‘Teverse the pitchers and brass vessels, to shew that they are empty.

In this manner the remains are taken to the house of every friend

and relative of the deceased, within a circle of a few miles, and

te every house in the village, and as it approaches, the inmates

ec me out and mourn, as they call to mind all the good qualities of the

deceased. The bones are thus conveyed also to all his favourite haunts,

to the fields he cultivated, to the grove he planted, to the threshing-

floor where he worked, and to the akrah where he made merry. When

this part of the ceremony is completed, the procession returns to the

village and moves in circles round the grave, gradually approaching its

goal: at last it stops, and a quantity of rice and other food, cooked and

acooked, is now cast into the hole. The bones are then put into a

194 The ‘ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore.

new earthen vessel and deposited on the rice, and the hole is filled in

and covered with the large slab which effectually closes it against

desecration.

The collection of these massive grave stones under the fine old

tamarind trees is a remarkable feature in Kol villages, and almost an

indelible one, for they are found in many places where Kols have not

existed for centuries. Besides the grave stones, monumental stones

are set up outside the village to the memory of men of note. They

are fixed in an earthen plinth, on which, shaded by the pillar, the ghost

is supposed to sit. The Kheriahs have collections of these monu-

ments in the little enclosure round their houses, and offerings and

libations are constantly made to them.

The funeral ceremonies above described are of a composite order,

mingling with the Hindoo custom of cremation, what was in all —

probability their original mode of burial; but a very profound

that the Kols originally disposed of their dead differently. The coffin, —

though put together on the faggots that are to consume it, has projec- —

tions as if to facilitate transport. Omit the burning and substitute —

burial, and we have the careful disposal and subsequent adoration of the

dead that is practised by the Chinese ; but the burning of the body and

the long retention of the ashes in a portable form may have been

adopted at a time when the tribe could not be certain of continued

residence in one place. |

Tickell has given at length the Ho legend of the origin of the human

race. It is supremely absurd, and very few of the present generatio

know anything or care anything about it. I have always found such

legends changeable and untrustworthy. With no written record to

give them permanence, they are altered either to suit new con

ditions or the fancy of the reciter. Thus though the Kols have

known the English for little more than half a century, they assign to

them a most honourable place in their genesis. The Assam Abors and

Garrows do just the same. q

I do not think that the present generation of Kols have any notion

of a heaven or a hell that may not be traced to Brahminical or Christian

teaching. The old idea is that the souls of the dead become “ bhoots,”

spirits, but no thought of reward or punishment is connected with the

The ‘' Kols’”’ of Chota-Nagpore. 195

change. When a Ho swears, the oath has no reference whatever to a

future state. He prays, that if he speak not the truth he may be

afflicted in this world with the loss of all, health, wealth, wife, children ;

that he may sow without reaping and finally may be devoured by a

tiger ; but he swears not by any hope of happiness beyond the grave.

He has in his primitive state no such hope, and I believe that most

Indian aborigines, though they may have some vague ideas of conti-

nuous existence, will be found equally devoid of original notions in

regard to the Judgment to come.

It may be said that the funeral ceremonies I have described, indicate

clearly a belief in resurrection, else why should food, clothes and money

be burned with the body or buried with the ashes? The Kols have

given me the same explanation of this that I once before received from

the Chulikutta Mishmees in Upper Assam, who have no notion of any

existence beyond the grave. They do not wish to benefit by the loss

of their friend, which they would do if they were to appropriate any

article belonging to him: they therefore give with him all his person- |

alties, all property that he and he alone used and benefited by; but

this does not apply to the stock of the farm and household property

that all profit by, or even to new cloth, for that might have been

procured for any member of the family. It often happens that a

respectable ‘ Ho’ has goods of this nature, that he abstains from using

\ even once, because if once used, the article will be destroyed at his

death.

~ The Moondah Oraon races are passionately fond of field sports, and

are so successful that large and small game soon disappear from the

% vicinity of considerable settlements ; and they fear not to make a new

settlement, consisting only of a few huts, in the jungles most infested

by wild beasts. Every year at the commencement of the hot season,

they form great hunting parties which are well described in Tickell’s

“memoir. They are also greatly addicted to cock-fighting. They have

periodical meets at assigned places where hundreds of fighting cocks

are collected. Cruel stee! spurs are used, and the combat is always

a Poutrance, the victims becoming the property of the owners of

the victorious birds. This is, I think, the only stake. They are

fond of fishing too, and some of them are very expert in spearing large

fish,

196 The “‘ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore.

The arms of the Kols are to this day what they were in the days of

‘“‘ Rama’’—the bow and arrow and battle-axe. The bow is simply

a piece of bamboo, and the string is of the same material. The war

arrows have large broad blades doubly and trebly barbed, but they

make them of all shapes: poison they do not use. They commence

practice with the bow and arrow at the earliest age. In Singbhoom

boys three and four years old and upwards, when herding cattle or

otherwise engaged, have always their bow, and blunt and sharp arrows ;

the former for practice, the latter to bring down birds when they have

a chance.

In the villages of Chota-Nagpore where the Oraon and Moondah are

mixed up together, the difference of character between the two races

is not much marked ; but if we compare the Singbhoom Hos or Chota- ~

Nagpore Mankees and the Oraons, we see strong contrasts. The Oraon —

has the lively happy disposition of the Negro. He is fond of gaiety,

decorating rather than clothing his person, and whether toiling or

, playing, is always cheerful. :

The Ho or Moondah has more the dignity and reserve of the North

American Indian, at least when he is sober. He appears to less

advantage when he is drunk, and he is not unfrequently in that state. |

At all festivals and ceremonies, deep potations of the rice-beer called

‘‘ eeley’”’ are freely indulged in by both sexes. - Inspirited by this’

beverage, the young men and girls dance together all day and half the

night; but the dances are perfectly correct, and whenever _ these ~

meetings have led to improprieties, it is always attributed to a too

free indulgence in eeley. As arule, the men are reserved and highly

decorous in their treatment of the women; and the girls, though

totally free from the prudery that secludes altogether or averts the

head of a Hindoo or Mahommedan maiden when seen by a man, have’

a modest demeanour, combined with frank open manners and womanly

grace. >

It is said by some, that at the seasons of their great festivals

amongst themselves, breaches of chastity are of frequent occurrence ;

but the mere freedom of intercourse allowed to the sexes is likely to

be viewed with unmerited prejudice and misconstrued by their neig be

bours of different race who place such restrictions upon it, and I believe

that this may give rise to false imputations of impropriety. It is, ab

The “‘ Kols” of Chota-Nagpore. 197

all events, a fact that illegitimate births are rare. Out of her own

tribe, a Ho girl is hardly ever known to go astray, though from the

freedom allowed to her and, for a tropical climate, the ripe age at which

she is likely to be sought in marriage, she must have to pass through

many temptations.

The Hos are acutely sensitive under abusive language that at all

reflects upon them, and may be and often are driven to commit

suicide by an angry word. If a woman appears mortified by anything

that has been said, it is unsafe to let her go away till she is soothed.

The men are almost as sensitive as the women, and you cannot offend

them more than by doubting their word. It has often seemed to me

that the more a statement tells against themselves, the more certain

they are to tell the exact truth about it. It frequently happens that

aman is himself the first person to bring to notice that he has com-

mitted a crime; he tells all about it, and deliberately gives himself up

to be dealt with according to law.

The Oraon is, I think, less truthful, he is more given to eiecebarntise

ing, and wandering over the face of the earth in search of employment ;

he soon loses all the freshness of his character. He returns after an

_ absence of years, unimproved in appearance, more given to drink and

self-indulgence, less genial and truthful than before, with a bag of

money that is soon improvidently spent. Those who have never left

_ their own country have far more pleasing manners and dispositions, than

“those who return to it after years spent in other parts of India or

beyond the seas. The fact is, they are not an improvable people.

They are best seen in their wild state.

There is no more pleasing trait amongst all these tribes than their

‘kindly affectionate manner one towards another. I never saw girls

“quarreling, and never heard them abuse each other. They are the

Most unspiteful of their sex, and the men never coarsely abuse and

‘seldom speak harshly of the women. This is remarkable on this side

of India where you seldom pass through a bazar without hearing women

‘Screeching indecent abuse at each other across the street, whilst the

menlook on. A Kol girl’s vocabulary is as free from bad language of

this kind as a Bengalee’s is full of it.

The young Oraons of both sexes are intensely fond of decorating

their persons with beads and brass ornaments. These they entirely

198 The ‘‘ Kols”’ of Chota-Nagpore.

discard on embracing Christianity, and the converts may be always

recognised by the total absence of all such adornment. The converts

do not join in the dances, or festivals, and must not even be seen as

spectators, when they are going on. ‘They appear indeed to lose all

relish for their old amusements, and shrink with horror at the idea of

resuming their discarded ornaments. And as Christianity is rapidly

spreading amongst them, and in all probability will continue to spread

more and more rapidly every year, it is quite possible that inthe course ~

of a few generations, the most marked characteristics of the races I am

describing, will have been effaced for ever. It is marvellous with what

firmness old prejudices are abandoned, old customs discarded, and even

tastes changed, when they become Christians ; and there is now a wide-

spread feeling amongst the Kols themselves, that this change will

inevitably come upon them all. :

The Moondah-Oraon are a rapidly increasing people. We may

form some calculation as to the rate of increase by the statistics of the

Mission. In 1864, the baptised converts numbered 5,923, and in that

year there were 195 births to 80 deaths. In 1865 there were 7,828

baptized Christians, and the births during the year were 309 to 86

deaths. The number of professing Christians is probably double the

number registered as baptized. I subjoin in a tabular form brief

vocabularies of the Moondahs and their cognates, referring to Tickell’s

memoir for a full notice of the language. I annex notes on the Oraon

language with which I have been kindly favoured by the Reverend

Frederic Batsch. |

”

a : .

* \

A ~

q 4 rs

2 >

. ad \ .

. .

ae |

+ , \ £ t

a’ *

‘ : 5

/ . CJ

a — ‘ .

| | ea

oes)

* + ‘

1 Quy Wy sf

\ Fran

‘ : <q ; ‘ { poe

‘ r 2 i : * . mah:

: ae =

: Po a

tee as

/ = =» ee

APPENDIX A.

Last of words and phrases to be noted and used as test words for the

discovery of the radical affinities of languages, and for easy

comparison.

Numerals. Qnetoten. Twenty. Fifty. Wundred.

Pronouns. I. Of me. Mine.

We. Of us. Our.

Thou. Of thee. Thine.

You. Of you. Your. ,

He. Of him. His.

They. Of them. Their.

Hand. Father. Sun.

Foot. Mother. Moon.

_ Nose. Brother. Star.

Wye. Sister. Fire.

Mouth. - Man. Water

Tooth. Woman. + House

Far. Wife. Horse

Hair. Child. Cow

Head. Son. Dog.

Tongue. Daughter. Cat.

Belly. Slave. Cock.

Back. Cultivator. Duck.

Tron. Shepherd. Ass.

Gold. God. Camel.

Silver. Devil. Bird.

Go. Come. Die.

- Kat. Beat. Give.

Sit. Stand. - Run

202

Appendix A.

Up down before

near far behind

who what why

and but ae

yes no alas,

A Father. Two Fathers.

Of a father.

To a father.

From a father.

A daughter. Two daughters.

Of a daughter.

To a daughter.

From a daughter.

Fathers.

Of fathers.

To fathers.

From fathers.

Daughters.

Of daughters.

To daughters.

From daughters.

A good man. Two good men- Good men.

Of a good man.

To a good man.

From a good man.

A good woman.

Of good men.

To good men.

From good men.

Good women,

A bad boy. A bad girl.

good better best

high higher highest

a horse a mare horses mares

a bull a cow bulls cows

a dog a bitch dogs bitches

ahe-goat a female goat goats

a male deer a female deer deer.

I am Thou art He is.

We are You are They are.

T was Thou wast He was.

We were You were They were.

Be. Tobe. Being. Having been.

I may be. I shall be.

I should be.

Beat.

I beat.

We beat.

I am beating.

I may beat.

I am beaten.

I go.

I went.

Go.

Appendia A.

To beat. Beating.

Thou beatest.

You beat.

I was beating.

I shall beat.

I was beaten.

Thou goest.

Thou wentest.

Going.

What is your name ?

How old is this horse ?

How far is it from here to Kashmir ?

203

Having beaten.

He beats.

They beat.

I had beaten.

I should beat.

I shall be beaten.

He goes.

He went.

Gone.

How many sons are there in your father’s house ?

I have walked a long way to-day.

The son of my uncle is married to her sister.

In the house is the saddle of the white horse.

Put the saddle upon his back.

I have beaten his son with many stripes.

He is grazing cattle on the top of the hill.

He is sitting on a horse under that tree.

His brother is taller than his sister.

The price of that is two rupees and a half,

My father lives in that small house,

Give this rupee to him.

Take those rupees from him.

- Beat him well and bind him with ropes.:

Draw water from the well.

Walk before me.

Whose boy comes behind you ?

From whom did you buy that ?

From a shop-keeper of the village.

Appendia B.

204

BUO0S

Suort

ote

(‘osout

21g) tumeyyy | ORL MS OPO

Suvu

sue

o4}

eqn

o£

uty

91q

wey}

eyo

‘HSUNIH) -OGNT

“wByoqry yy,

mn TUL | 1748 10 uese UvAv

Sue we wolu TU

Sul Sure} wd.a0 ueue uu

jos wopos eped eyed

Q18 Colv an npeqno

raat BIpAL InumeUR n440

et bos 4

TCL BAL nyod nyzo

many eLIny Suores nie

ekeuout ve AOUl uUvy.sres neue

vruod wriuede nyeu neu

erd verde nun naunuw

leq ered nud npur.it

‘BIUL TU tpun nauo

-spequog ‘S[Oy Wooyq | ‘soyeyourlery mnure y

SUG 10 SOFT | uoRIG ‘puoy

“NVIUVIOY] “‘NVIGIAVUCL

“spiom pourbrwogy fo aquz, aaxyouwduoey

‘d@ XIQNUddV

‘HSITONG

205

Appendix B,

uny

oul

BATT

BUILC

vydiq

O10YY

TVUCT

euUloyy

Teyyey

nsnoyy

uoSsoul

eydnd

TRIB

quavyo-1q

TUIvYp-Suvu

tu-suol

ts.

Tu-Sueu

Tu-ouR

Sueu

suol

TUL

BUe

vyd

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Casout

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206

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urey 990 UIVY, 9OAL aiepMyo purysey ueue TyUBARy ‘tues aie AOU,

Urey Issny urey 1004 znunsnyjo poysey vuunys vyyeavyq ‘ets O18 NOX

urley Tssv urey wy ZN.ANTO tmooysvy vur | Yeureavyq ‘tyeurs OIRO AA

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Appendix C.

212

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213

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Appendix C.

214

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220

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Jopo} ‘toprulo}

BIULO}Y

vATpemy “eqey

10} ‘reuL04

TUINY

Jopow ‘tepeure

PLU

oLyIp

toyyoyouq

alloq ‘teuued

gltoq ‘1148

Snueul

woq

yeut

deq

Appendix C.

yqul

nyyeur

[?4

wv]

qayp

paqear

yay

BIVGEAC]

pa peRte

‘oATINS

‘yoAT

orynd ‘yoy

‘ayo ‘TpRyURS

nyroq

BYLOG

snupul

uryeq

ney q

Te ‘reut

deq

yal

qs “yop

Soy

ayy

puoy

o1ep

%104

opueyo

oAl1008

oAtyl

o-ood

eid “eyo

odrut

vAUTy eu

odiurut

SoU MOY

Lge

odeq

equil

eyyOuL

ouvy

ovuRp

oyoouL

DTS

vIRy

pueyo

elims

eAvUt

ejoyyo

ueqyues

1138 ‘SeuUL

veut ‘eXeut

ysnueul

Ie4Q

Lo Cold 74

ung

Toyyone cy

wog

PIMO

OTL.

UBULO AA

UBT,

1048

IOYIOIGE

TOY OT

IO Ie

ensuoy,

peor

IIVEL

IVT

q00y,

qMoW!

oAgy

deq qpreyyy

deg. | dyq neq

dyq oq dyq uop

Tyjosed deq insyd vdeq

oudeq sedeq

nudyq | ayo vdeq

et GssyuL

LLBTOQ « . dolueut

: O13 valqny

2 Tee 13

S o10ys BIOs

a rpys viva ays

& DOLL] INR] ‘O.LYLl

urwez *934TUL uimez ‘Tayyid

ued ued

6e ‘Tus nysiq ‘Use

"907VIZNY) "BY VIVY LI

a .

(‘panuejuog)—‘spioy, woisp fo aqnyz, aarzosndwuog

| deq vpueut y

seurmdeq

odeq ov0p

orvy} oysundeq

oysundeq

indeq

sot OVUl

Sore

By yooy

Iva

ey1os

INysS

oyywy

semyyoo1d

Tued

UBIU |

arey} rodyq

oydeq

rodeq

TOR ut

Tetrq

anyny

n10s

eLoys

IVs |

yer

rag ‘FyeUL

unse

"g0[B.0UNg

“sie

S1OYIVE OMT,

IOYIV] B WOLT

1OYIC} B OF,

IOY}L} BIO

Ustiy

veO

sog

MOD

aS10 FT

osnoyyT

pooMm

Wye

199 AA.

Saf

a ES CEES ty | ee CS SS

"Ystpougy

nN tojoy indkeyy

‘ ouvAOY

Toqoy} ‘inoy

BJOY 004

ejoy Tomo4

eyoy UOURY,

0j0Y 04

ojoYy 074

oyoy UNY

ayy 004

oTYD Woul0y

gay yo WoULRy,

Appendix C.

eyyo 04

eyyo Uny

ungqyo uny

atyVpoq “nies

n.vs |

9y}U0S

nivs oieypoq

nies

esnueul Lies

BSNURUL DIS oq

SnUvUL OBS yo

area!

eyoRuoy

‘dal

ajoy yoresy

Byoy YorIwNy

oyoY YorLpue

Boy 07

ysvyoy 13

oyoY ou

qoye yoy iy

ay eek

Our inl ae

oT 07

qoye TyUo} 10 svye ny

ss pe

o[sueyo ynyeq

asuvyo UINYe oy

to ‘opsueyo evysyode 94

opoueyo

BSNUeT P[SUBTO -

RSHUBUL o[SuBYD WOp

SNUBUL opouBya yo

00-0

oooy

vpoyytoy Avuvu Avs

Blouy

-roy Avuvut Avyqurooy

ooyeyytoy Aouvur Avyquue

voy} toy Avs

ney} rooy Avyquro0y

ay} looy Avyquue

uoooy Avuvut Aes

oooy Avuvur AYQurooy

ooy Avuvm Avyquiv

tyW000y Avs

oooy Avyqui0y

uoooy Avyqure

BYSLIyyN

opey Cor vpeyq

icflate ba

AVUOU OOT VTVYG

OF0T FSA?

OF0] BIRT Bp

oprey, “vArey

O}IVY,

ovy

UETITYO vrvy

BTLYYO VIULOY

OOPS Yay

UOT TUT}

BY TUN

uy] EY Tuy

waTpR vy

BY OVW BIULOY

rye vruy

waYOR THT}

eyoe TuIny

Tyoe rune

VUIv}}OUIRIIN

BIvICUIEyIN

epeqq

vIOYOT BByq

OLB Teua ep

Useq SULALFT

oq OL

o1oa AO,

o10M NOX

O1OM OA

SUM OFT

qsvm Noy,

SUM J

oie AO,

ol8 NOX -

018 9M

ST OF]

qv NOU,

We T

qsoqr

193}9q_

poox

wat Poor)

us Po0o0s OM,

usm poos y —

Appendix C.

224

stew TnYy

OaIBUL OUL

ooreul

oURM TRU

UNOIVUL

ayyooreut 004

oyyoorent temo} |

eAYYooreul WoURy

eT Too1e 94

ey yooIvul 04

toyyoniem ony

vrol ney} ougur

semoy) unY

"99}B1ZN-)

UdIPUL TUL

o]{BUL TUL

ouy] Pytea

Bleleul

¢ IeUL

O[IVUL YOTOy

RIVUL TYWNY

OVLIBUL YorryUe

OPIUM 04

SO}LIVU NY

oY VLABUL LUT

ugAo TUL

“BL VIVY LI

oqosireu Avyqure

vpeyjoorvu Avyqure

901BUL

eq LeU

eIvUl

eyuooiem Avuvut Avs

oreta Avuvut AvTqU00Y

orem Avuvu Avyquie

TyUOTeM Avs

ort ABYqU00y

eorvur AVY que

@eenee

uoqdvy Avyqure »

"eA10()

soe

oqireuL Ture

TyovATeUL Ture

eTIVUL

OPE UL

IvUL

UsIVUL VIE}

OLVU BITLOY

LIVUL BIULe

UW9IBUL TUT}

ole TUN

LIBUL THY

ureyrey] Ture

oqrey Tur

“90[BOUOg

(‘panuyuog )—‘spsoy, unwp fo a19qn7, aarqounduog

quod [Leys T

ywoq PIP J

Uoqywoq SUIAR FT

78289 OL,

qvag

qvaq oy,

qvoq NOX.

qwoq OA4

syvoq OFT

ysoyvoq NOU,

yeO0

SCE PEO UAL

ode ea

"YSIS

Appendix D. 225

APPENDIX D.

Kashmiree Vocabulary and Grammatical Forms.

In consequence of recent discussions in the Society, Mr. L. Bowring,

Commissioner of Mysore, was kind enough to let me know that he had

many years ago compiled and sent to the Society a Kashmiree Voca-

bulary. The result has been the discovery of a paper as valuable as

the hereditary reputation of the author would lead us to expect, which

the Society now loses no time in publishing, and which it has been

thought well to put in this,place in connection with our Ethnologi¢al in-

quiries. Mr. Bowring’s paper gives us a far fuller and better knowledge

of the Kashmiree language than anything that we have yet had. The

Vocabularies are very full, exact, and well arranged, and the grammati-

cal forms of the verb especially are very fully set forth. It is only neces-

sary (treating the matter ethnologically) to observe that since Persian

has been for several hundred years the language of Government,

religion and literature in Kashmir, and there has also been a long

connection with Hindustan and the Punjab, a vast number of Persian

words and phrases, and some Hindustanee and Punjabee expressions

have necessarily incorporated themselves in the modern Kashmiree,

especially as spoken by the better classes. In fact, that wonderful

language Persian infuses itself wherever it comes in contact, and it

abounds in Kashmiree just as in the upper class Hindustanee and in fact

in Turkish also. Hence a faithful specimen of the Kashmiree of the

‘present day will be found to contain many foreign words. But they

are easily distinguishable, still wearing their foreign dress and little

adapted to the native forms; and for the most part such words need

| not be confounded with original native words in such a way as to

mislead us regarding the radical affinities of the language.

I have taken the liberty of omitting from Mr. Bowring’s vocabularies

a few evidently Persian words of a literary, and for the most part com-

| pound character, as I thought that these would not serve our present

purpose. Some remain as now part of the ordinary vulgar tongue,

but looking both to the vocables and to the grammar, I think it will

| be found that Kashmiree is certainly allied to the Indian languages

| rather than to the Persian.

226 Appendix D. |

Mr. Bowring has, perhaps, in the examples which he has given, put

the declension of the noun rather too simply. He has used the unin-

flected Indian‘form ‘ Manush’ for man and the Persian word ‘ Zananah’ —

for woman. He shows, however, that most Kashmiree nouns are in-

flected to form the plural, and I think it will be found that almost all

real Kashmiree nouns are inflected for cases also. Both my own

observations and those of Messrs. Edgeworth and Leech, as well as Mr.

Bowring’s dialogues give the proper Kashmiree form for man

‘Mohnyn,’ plural ‘ Mohnivi.’ And the following which I take from

Leech is, I believe, the true declension of the Kashmiree noun ‘ Nichu,’

a son.

A son, nichu Sons, nichivi.

Of a son, nichivi-sand Of sons, nichiven-sand.

To a son, nichivis To sons, nichiven.

From a son, nichinishi From sons, nichiven-nishi.

With respect to the variations of the genitive case, Mr. Edgeworth

seems to differ from Mr. Bowring, saying that the genitive affix is,

like Hindustanee, governed in point of gender by the noun which fol-

lows rather than by that which precedes it. So far as I could make

out from cursory inquiry on the spot, it seemed to me that in fact the

form of this affix is affected by both the preceding and the following

nouns. Indeed it seems to have the most extraordinary chameleon-

like variety of shapes, according to the positions in which the words

are placed, and the only conclusion of my inquiries was, that the rules

of Kashmiree declension are so complicated, that nothing but careful

and scientific study will reduce them to shape. ,

It may be added that feminines are formed from masculines by

inflections, as—

Masculine. Feminine.

Gur, horse. | guir, mare.

Kokur, cock, kokair, hen.

Tsawal, he goat, tsavij, she goat.

Batak, drake, batich, duck.

Kay, male crow, | kavin, female crow.

The language is evidently altogether subject to very many ee t-

inflections, and abounds in affixes and postpositions. c

G. CAMPBELL,

Appendix D. 227

Voctbulary of the Kashmiri Language.—By L. Bowrine, ae b5

Commissioner of Mysore.

The following vocabulary was prepared in Kashmiri in 1851, after

comparison with another copy in Urdu.

It may -be observed of the Kashmiri that the pronunciation of the

letter 6 is very broad, resembling the aw in aw/ul, as for instance ‘ mdl,’

father, read ‘mawl.’ The language also affects the compound letter

ts in lieu of ‘ch,’ as ‘tsor,’ four.

The formation of the plurals of substantives is irregular, but they

generally take the affixes ‘cha’ and ‘chi.’ The genitive of substan-

tives takes its gender from the noun preceding, not from that fol-

lowing as in Urdd. .

The particle us is not used with verbs. The great number of Sans-

krit words existing in Kashmiri is evident, but there are many words

peculiar to the language. The character is generally written with

Persian letters, but a form of Nagri is also in use. |

: Substantives,

Air akash Boat nau, shikari ”

Apple tstint Brick sir |

Ass khar Book pith

Arm nar Buffalo moesh

Army fauj | Bread tsuit

Age bujar Breast vachh

Assistance yari Badness yach

Answer uttar Beard dor

Arrow tir Bone adij

Abuse lék | Bill tont

Bird pak Breath shah

Brother boi Brass sartal

Boy lokat Business kom :

Branch a Tang Basket phut, dak

Barley lishak Bush | kradzél

Butter thain Blood rath

Blackberry bar Bag thil

Birth parsun Bow kaéman

Bridge kadul Blow chék

228

Butterfly

Burglary

Bee

Child

Cucumber

Cherry

Clothes

City

Copper

Cow

Cat

Camel

Chin

Coat

. Ceiling

Cotton

Cheese

Claim

Corner

Colour

Chesnut

Cedar

Carrot

Cloud

Crossbeam

Chair

Corpse

Chalk

Candle

Day

Dew

Daughter

Death

Dog

Deer

Duck

Dirt

didar

san

tilar

balak

lor

glas

kapar

shahr

tram

gad

barur

unth

hongain

faran

talaii

kapas

chaman

dawa

kon

rang

bin

deodar

gajar

abar

thathar

| sandal

mur

slap

soyet

duh

shabnam

kar

maran

hin

loh, rus

battuk

mal

Appendia D.

Deceit

Darkness

Dream

Danger

Drop

Dram

Dance

Earth

Klephant

Egg

Kye

Kar

Eyebrow

Evil

Edge

East

Elbow

Enemy

Exertion

Fire

Father

Father-in-law

Fruit

Flower

Flour

Fowl ~

Fox

Fish

Frog

Food

Field

Foot

Forehead

Fear

Flesh

Firebasket

Foreigner

bram

gath

supan

khatar

phitr

henur

nagmah

zamin

hasth

thol

tchh

kan

bumah

yach

buth

pur

khon

shitar

talash [gul

tungul, nértun-—

mol, bab

zamtur

mewah

posh

ét

kukkur

patslo

gad

nihimondij

bat

Khyeti

khor

dek

bayi

shun

kangar

bishahri

Fraud

Face

Feather

Fever

Fireplace

Friend

Family

Ferry

Finger

Fisher

Fist

Funeral-pile

Flea

Fly

God

Girl

Grass

Gram

Garlic

Gold

Goat

Goose

Grain

Garden

Goodness

Greatness

Grape

Groom

Game

Girth

Husband

Hail

~ House

Horse

Head

Hair

Heart

Appendix D,

dagha

bit

par

tap

bukhari

mitar

shirbots

ghat

anguj

gadhanj

musht

chenta

pish

mach

dé

lokat kur

gas

chhola

ruhan

son

tsdwij, tsAwul

ans

anaj

biagh

jan

bajar

dach

Sais

gindun

tang

ran

dot

garh, lur

gur

kalah

wal

yandah

Hand

Height

Heap

Hunger

Health

Hedge

Hoof

Honey

Horn

Hour

Hemp

Ice

Insect

Tron

Indian corn

Interest

Interference

Ink

Juice

Jest

Jackal

Knife

Leaf

Leg

Lip

Length

Lie

Life

Light

Letter

Linseed

Lime

Liver

Lock .

Load

Log

Lizard

229

ath

thazar

dér, anbar

buchi

balan

var

padur

mach

hiang

gar

bang

yak

kim

shistar

makhai

sidh

khalal, toth

mil

ras

thatha

shal

srak

barak

lang

uth

zechar

apuz

umar

gash

achar, harf

alish

chunah

jigar

kuluf

bar

hat

- hadzing

230

Moon

Mountain

Mist

Month

Morning

Midday

Man

Mother

Mushroom

Marriage

Mosque

Money

Mule

Mouth

Moustache

Measure

Medicine

Milk

Molasses

Manure

Minute

Market

Mat

Mine

Monkey

Mortgage ©

Mustard

Mint

Musquito

Meteorite —

Mouse

Name

Night

Nephew

Niece

Nose

Nail

Appendix D.

koh, parvat

vunar

riat

subah, prabat

dopahar

manush, mohnu

m6]

hedar

khandar

mashid

nakd

katir

és

génch

minun

dawa

dédh

gor

pah

laza, pal

koth

vagu

kan

vandur

band

asur

podin

mah

trath .

anmur

nav

rat

bapitar

bapitar beni

nast

nam

Neck

Needle

Nest

Noise

Number

Nettle

Net

North

Onion

Oil

Oar

Oath

Pumpkin

Pear

Partridge

Pearl

People

Platter

Pain

Price

Pair

Poplar

Piece

Peg

Pepper

Pace

Paper

Pen”

Pillar

Pillow

Pit se

| Plough

| Pole

Power

Pocketpicking

Question

River

gardan

stizan

él

shor, kraknad

ganzrun

swai

zal

vutar

paran

til

kar, chapa

dri

alah

tank

tsar

mukt

lok

thal

dod

mol

jora

farast

tukra

mekh

marach

pur

kaghaz

kalam

tham

vatrun

-khad

alah

chob

kowwat

thappul

prachun

darya vi

Rain

Rains

Rice

Raspberry

Road

Rat

Rump

Roof

Relation

Rope

Red pepper

Rind

Rate

Rein

Remedy

Ring

Rose

Rust

Sea

Sun

Star

Snow

Son

Sister

Son-in-law

Spring

- Summer

Stem

Salt

Strawberry

Street

Stone

Silver

Sheep

Snake

Shoulder

Stomach

Appendix D.

rad

barsat

tumal

chanchh

vat

gagar

mandul

bain

rishta

raz

martsuwangan

diyal

mol

lakam

i14j

vO]

gulab

khai

samandar’

aftab, saria

tarak

shin

nichii

bei

heur

behar

rathkél

mil

nin

kandachh

dur, kocha

kain

chand

gobh

sarp

phiuk

yad

Smallness

Strength

Shadow

Shoe

Sleep

Skin

Sound

Seed

Sugar

Stick

South

Shop

Sugarcane

Staircase

Saddle

Sorrow

Sack

Stool

Spider

Species

Sand

Saw

Scale

Screw

Sheath

Sheet

Shield

Side

Silk

Sleeve

Smoke

Soap

Spot

Sting

Scorpion

Steel

Straw

231

shikaslad

zOYr

sdyah

paizar

nindar

cham

awaz

beul

shakar

lar

duchan

van

waishakar

hér

zin

azab

gun

rayat, garusth

zallur

kism

slak

lotar

trak, hayuk

pech

kum

chadar

sipar

tarf

pot

nar

duh

sabun

dagh

toph

bich

folad

gas

232

Sweat

Storm

Spoon

Thunder

Tree

Temple

Teeth

Tongue

Thigh

Truth

Time

Throat

Turban

Thirst

Tank

Tea

Tail

Trade

Toe

Tomato

Turnip

Thread

Tent -

Table

Taste

Thorn

Theft

Trust

Uncle

Umbrella

Udder

Urine

Use

gumah

vai

choncha

gagrai

kul

mandir

dand

jiau

ran

puz

vakt, vél

hut

dastar

tresh

talau

chahi

dumah

saudagari

khorij anguj

ruvangan

goga]

pan

khema

mez

maza, swad

kanth

tsur

itimad, pats |

pitar, chacha

tabdan

than

mutr

kam

Appendix D.

Venom

Velvet

Vein

Vice

Village

Water

Wind

Woman

Wife

Winter

Wheat

Wood

Wrist

Width

Well

Weight

West

Washerman

Watermelon

Wall

Worm

Whore

Weed

Wager

Wax

Wheel

Widow

Wing

Wire

Wool

Yard

Year

zahar

makhmal

rag

pap

gam

ab, pot

hawa

zenanah

kolai

vand

kanak

zun

mats

khajar

chah, krar

tolin

pachum

dub

handwand

dos

amkhitim

hafiz

gas

dau

mom

hagur

mond

par

tar

won

gaj

varih

Appendix D.

Declensions,

. N. Aman

< G. Of aman

= Acc. A man

2 tLAb. From a man

N. Men

8 |G. Of men

re Acc, Men

Ab. From men

A woman

Of a woman

. A woman

From a woman

N. Women

8 G. Of women

= Acc. Women

Singular

bee

fe)

‘Kul

‘Barak

Gam

Gas

Tanwar

Active

Blunt

Boiling

Broken

From women

233

manush

manush-sund

manush-is

manush-nishin

manash

manash-sund

manash-is

manash-nishin

zenani

zenani-hund

zenani

zenani-nishin

zenanah

zenanah-hund

zenanah

zenanah-nishin

Examples of Plurals.

a sister Benicha sisters

a brother Bai brothers

a father Mail fathers

a mother Maji mothers

a son Nichii sons

a tree Kuil trees

a leaf Barakchi leaves

a village Gamchi villages

a grass Gascha grasses

an animal Janwarchi animals

Adjectives,

takra Blind un

mund Blue nitil

tut, bahar Black karhin

Bitter tsok, chok

phutmut

234

Appendix D,

Bad yach Hard dur

Cheap sug Hungry | - buch

Clever gatul Heavy gubh

Clear sdf Hot garm, ushan

Coarse viut Tl, bad yach

Crooked hul Low past, tsut

Cold turun Long dsiit, khul

Certain pats Little kam

Deep sun Less kehna

Dear drug Last brunthun

Dark anigut Lame lung

Deaf zur Leprous hitrilad

Dumb kul Lazy sust

Dead mudmud Light lut

Double zuh Loose diyul

Dry huk Left hul

Dirty malburut Lower tal

Drunk mut Many sitah

Easy asan Mad dewana

Empty khali Middle sum

Expert fazil New né

First pathiim Naked nathnun

Former bronth Old pur6én, budh

Fat viut Proud kibar

False apuz Putrid dudriyomut

Frightened khochtin Poor gharib

Fine zayul Quick tikan

Full barit Ready tayyar

Fond téth Right sind

Good jan Ripe papiimiud

Great béd Raw khém

Glad khish Small lik

Greedy ldlachi Sweet miut

Green sabz Stupid nddan

Generous datah Straight siud

General 4m Square chankunjal

High thud Sharp tej

Appendia D.

Slippery pishul

Thirsty treshut

Thin lissa

Tight tang

Ugly yach

Upper piath

N. A good man

G. Of a good man

. A good man

Ab. From a good man

N. Good men

G. Of good men

. Good men

Ab. From good men

Declension.

225

Weak liyad

Well jan

White safid

Wet tar, udar

Young jawan

jan manush

jan manush-sund

p ; Singular.

jan manush-is

jan manush-nishin

janchi manash )

janchi manash-sund

Plural.

janchi manash-is

janchi manash-nishin

Comparison.

Good Jan

Better Yuts jan

Best. Sitah jan

Verbs,

To awake votun To Burn zalun

», Avoid bachun ,, Blow phok diun

», Ascend khasun ,», Bury garhun

,», Advance bron khasun », Buy mitl hidin

» Ask prutsun ,, Come iyun

& Be sompanun 2 Cat! * tsatun

», Be able hekkun ,», Call nadun

,, Bring anun ,, Conquer jitun

,, Begin — lagun ,, Choose tsdérun

», Bite tsétun 5, Cover vatun

,», Believe patskarun ,, Chew cud dr4mun karun

Beil pakinwun , Drink chiun

» Beg mangun 3» Die marun

236

To Dwell

,, Do

,», Decrease

Draw

,y Drive

Drown

Expel

Krase

Knuter

End

Find

Fight

» ly

Fall

Fasten

Forget

Frighten

1) Go

rive

Gamble

rP] Hear

Increase

» Join

Kill

,, Know

Kick

Lose °

Live

,, Leave

,, Laugh

5, Learn

», Hide

Lift

» Leap

5) Lule

Meet

Melt

Appendix D.

basun

karun

kamgachun

lamun

patrozun

phatun

kadit tsumun

kadun

andar atsun

makolawun

labhun

ladun

uphin

parun

lagun

mashun

kotsunawun

gasun

diun

zaras gindun

bozun

badun

melanawun

marun

janun

lat diun

haérun

zindasun

chhorun

asun

hichun

khaditrozun

tolun

khanun

apuz vanun

melun

galun

Move

Open

Play

Put on

Put off

Pain

Place

Pass

Plague

Pour

Push

Read

Roast

Run away

Reap

Reckon

Recollect

Return

Repel

Retire

Ride

Rise

Row

Rouse

Run

Rub

Stick -

Swim

Swell

Sweep

Suckle

Sing

Spit

Sell

Sit

Show

Send

alarawun

mussurun

gindun

gandun, chhawun ~

mutsurun, walun

dod karun

thawun

guzarawun

dek karun

dalun

dhakdiun

parhun

buzun

tsalun

fasl tsatun

gansrun

yad karun

phir diun

nibar kadun

pat nerun

khasun

vathun

vayun

uzanawun

daaiwun

mathun

lagun

tsatwayun

hunun

dun

chawun

gewun

taktrawun

kunun

bihun

hawidun

sozun, ludun

Appendia D. 237

We have been

Ye have been

They have been

I had been

Thou hadst been

He had been

We had been

Ye had been

They had been

as ous osmutun

To Strain chhaénun To Take hiun

», seek tsadun »» Laste tsuhun

») Sow vawun ,, Teach hichunawun

», Strike marun » Lhrow trevitsunun

», Stand istadrozun ,, Louch lagun

»» Seize ratun 5, Vomit ’ khai karun

5 Shut bandh karun 5, Weave vonun

5 Say vanun 5, Weigh tolun

»» See uchhun 5) Wait prarun

», Smell mushakhiun Wish yatsun

», Sleep shongun 5» Wash chhalun

», Speak vanun

CoNnsUGATIONS.

Sompanun, to be.

Present. Imperfect.

Iam buh chus I was buh dsus

Thou art tsuh chukuh Thou wast tsuh é6sukuh

He is suh chuh or ché | He was suh 6us

We are as chih We were as 6uis

Ye are tahi chiwuh Ye were tahi 6suwuh

They are tim chih They were tim duis

Perfect.

I have been buh ésus osmutun

Thou hast been tsuh ésukuh osmutun

He has been suh 6s osmutun

tahi é6suwuh osmutun

tim 6us osmutun

Pluperfect.

buh é6sus sompunwatun

tsuh ésukuh sompunwatun

suh 6vis sompunwatun

as ous sompunwatun

tahi 6ésuwuh sompunwatun

tim ous sompunwatun

238 Appendia D.

Future.

T shall be buh heksompanit

Thou shalt be tsuh hekaksompanit

He shall be suh hekisompanit

We shall be as hekéisompanit

Ye shall be tahi hekitisompanit

They shall be tim hekavisompanit

To be sompanun

Being sompanit

Been sompun

Vanun, to speak.

Present.

I speak or am speaking

Thou speakest

He speaks

We speak

Ye speak

They speak

I spoke .

Thou spakest

He spoke

We spoke

Ye spoke

They spoke

I have spoken

Thou hast spoken

He has spoken

We have spoken

Ye have spoken

They have spoken

tsuh chukuh vanan

suh chuh vanan

as chih vanau

tahi chiwuh vanau

tim chih vanau

Imperfects,

Perfect.

mi vun

tsuh vanut

suh vun

as vanwutun

tahi vanwutun

timati vanwutun

mi chum vanwutun

tsuh chuh vanwutun

tim cha vanwutun

as cha vanwutun

tahi chuh vanwutun

timati chuh vanwutun

I had spoken

Thou hadst spoken

He had spoken

We had spoken

Ye had spoken

They had spoken

I shall speak

Thou shalt speak

He shall speak

We shall speak

Ye shall speak

They shall speak

I may speak

Thou mayest speak

He may speak

We may speak

Ye may speak

They may speak

Appendix D.

239

Pluperfect.

Future.

mi 6s vanwutun

tsuh 6si vanwutun

tim 6s vanwutun

as Osus vanwutun

tahi 6si vanwutun

timéa 6s vanwutun

buh hek vanit

tsuh hekak vanit

suh heki vanit

as hekati vanit

tahi hekiti vanit

tim hekati vanit

Potential.

Speak

Speaking

Spoken

buh vanah

tsuh vanak

suh vani

as vanau

tahi vanid

tim vanat

van

vanan

vanwutun

CoNJUGATION OF THE Passtve VoICcE OF MARUN TO STRIKE.

I am struck

He is struck

We are struck

Ye are struck

They are struck

Present.

buh gasa marah

tsuh gasak marah

suh gasa marah

as chih marah gasan

tahi chuh marah gasin

tim chih marah gasan

240. Appendia D.

Imperfect.

I was struck

Thou wast struck

He was struck

We were struck

Ye were struck

They were struck

T shall be struck

Thou shalt be struck

He shall be struck

We shall be struck

Ye shall be struck

They shall be struck

buh gés mérah

tsuh g6k mérah

suh gai marah

as gayé marah

tahi gai marah

tim gayé marah

Future.

buh gatsa marah

tsuh gatsak marah

suh gatsa marah

as gatsaui marah

tahi gatsiii marah

tim gatsad marah

PRonovuns.

Personal. Possesswve.

I buh | Mine mitin

Thou tsuh Thine chhén

He, she suh His tasun

We asi, ml Our mi(n

Ye tahi Your chhén

They tim, timat Their tasun

Relative and Interjective. Indicative.

Who? kus? This ih

Which ? kya That uh, suh

Whoever yus These yum

Whatever yih Those tium

He who yus

Miscellaneous.

Self pané Another duyum

Such yithui | Any kanh

All sari Every yusaka

Same sarti Own panun

Other bék

Appendia D.

Declension of Pronouns.

N. I buh N. We

G. Of me mitin GG; Of as

Acc. Me mi Acc. Us

Ab. From me mi nishin Ab. From us

N. Thou tsuh N. You

G. Ofthee chhon G. Of you

Ab. From thee tsih nishin Ab. From you

N. He suh Ny.) They

G. Ofhim tasun G. Of them

Acc. Him humis Ace. Them

Ab. Tohim humis nishin Ab. To them

N. This Th N. These

G. Of this yimsun G. Of these

Acc. This yimis Ace. These

Ab. From this yimis nishin Ab. From these

a uh, suh N. Those

G. Ofthat yusun G. Of those

Acc. That humis Acc. Those

Ab. From that humis nishin

Above

Always

Almost

Also

Already

Alone

“Altogether

Ab. From those

Myself buh pané

Of myself buh panas

&e.

Adverbs.

plat Below

dohai Backwards

jaljal Except

biyih Exactly

yiut Enough

. Wain Far

kunui From

sari.san Forwards —

241

as in singular

) tsih

as in singular

) tim

i in singular

yum

yuhund

yiman

yiman nishin

tium

tinhund

timan

timan nishin

tal

pat

siwai

thik

thayu

dur

piath, nishin

brunt

242

How

How much ;

How many

Hither

Tnside

Immediately

Near

Now

Nothing

Outside

Perhaps

Quickly

Slowly

Suddenly

According

After

Among

Before

Besides

For sake of

And

Although

But

Because

Alas!

Ho!

kiut

kota

yur

andar

jhatpat

nakh

vuin

kechni

nah

nebar

dewuh.

jalpahan

ithui

lut

yekayek

ithui

pat

mauz

brint

varat

bapat

hargah

lekin

yudvane

aists !

hata !

Appendix D,

Still

Then

Thus

There

Thither

Therefore

Together

Very

When

Where ?

Prepositions.

Towards

With

Without

Saas

Conjunctions.

PES

Hither

I nterjections.

Lo!

What !

tamat

til

ithui

tati

hér

imbapat

san

sitah

yil

kati

kyazi

én, 40

kitpéthin

yithipothin

tithipéthin

andar

piat

tarf

satin

slwa

Appendia D.

Cardinal Numbers.

One ak Seventeen saddah

Two dzuh Highteen athdah

Three tré Nineteen kunuwth

Four tsdr, chor Twenty wth

Five pans Twenty-one* ekwith

Six shah Thirty truh

Seven sat Forty chatji

Hight ath Fifty pansa

Nine nat Sixty shet

Ten dah Seventy satat

Kleven kéh Kighty shit

Twelve bah Ninety namat

Thirteen trowah Hundred hat

Fourteen chaudah Two hundred zahat

Fifteen pandah Thousand dahshat, sas

Sixteen shurah Lakh lach

#22 dzitéwth. 49 unwanzah.

23 trawth 51 ekwanzah

24 chétiwth 52 dowanzah

25 pantsuh 53 trewanzah

26 shawwth 54 chauwanzah

27 satowth 55 panswauzah.

28 athowth 56 shahwanzah

29 untruh 57 satwanzah

31 ektruh 58 athwanzah

32 daitruh 59 unhath —

33 tehtruh 61 ekhath

34 chaitruh 62 dohath

35 panstruh 69 kunsatat

36 shahtruh ra! eksatat

37 sattruh 72, dosatat

38 athtruh - 79 kunshit

39 kuntazi 81 ekshit

Al ektazi 89 kunénamat

42 ‘) 91 eknamat

43 99 namaéanamat

4A,

45 pas above

48 5

244 Appendia D.

Ordinal Numbers.

First godniuk 21st ekwthiim

Second | duyum 22nd dzitowuhium

Third -treyum 23rd trawuhium

Fourth | tsurum 24th chétiwuhium

Fifth -panchum 25th &e. &e.

Sixth shayum

Seventh satum

Highth athtum

Ninth hawum

Tenth dahiam

Eleventh kahiim

Sentences,

What is your name ?

What is the name of this village?

How far is it to Kashmir ?

How many houses are there in this

village ?

Who is the head man ?

What is the time ?

Three o-clock.

Bring that.

Take away this.

What crops ate grown here ?

Are the pears ripe or unripe ?

Go away.

Come here.

Come quickly.

What does this man want ?

Ask him.

I cannot say:

IT shall go to-morrow.

It rained yesterday.

It is very hot.

tank chéd paminmud ki na khém

buh chus sasna vanit hekan.

chhén nai kya chth ?

yit gamas kya chth nau ?

Kashmir témut kéta chth dir? —

yit gamas kuts garh chuh ?

mokaddam kus chuh ?

k6ta chuh dth?

sihpahar chuh.

uh anun.

ih niun. 5

yithi kya fasl chuh sompanin?

chuh ?

gats.

vol yur.

jald volah.

ih monhyti kya chuh mangan.

humis pricht.

buh gats phaga.

rat volun rud,

sitah garm chuh.

Appendia D.

The road is good.

The road is bad.

One must ascend that hill.

What is the price of this ?

It is dear.

It is cheap.

You ask too much.

Are there any manufactures here ?

Is cloth woven?

What pay do you get?

Is the Kardar a good man?

I wish to find out.

Ts he able to carry that load ?

My horse is lame.

Can you shoe him?

What rent do you pay for this

shop ?

Six rupees a year.

He began to get tired.

They began to fight together.

Can you read and write?

A little.

How do you know?

In what way will you repair this?

In what month is saffron gathered ?

In Kartik.

What colour is best ?

If he takes it what will you do?

Has he gone before, or is he follow-

ing ?

Why are you making such a noise ?

Put on this dress and put off that.

I went with him.

He walks without shoes.

When he comes tell me.

Is it near or far?

245

vat chuh (or chavuh) jan.

do.

yit kohas piat bania khasun.

yit kya chuh kimat ?

drug chuh.

vat yach.

sug chuh.

tsuh chukuh sitéh mangan.

yithi bania ki tyér karun ?

kapar bania vanun ?

tsuh kya chuh talab inelan?

Kardar ché jan monhyu ?

buh chus yatsin zi madlim kar.

hekya uh bor tulit ?

miun gur lung chuh.

tsuh hekak yimis guris nal lagit ?

yit vanas kot chukuh diwan kiraya

tsuh ?

shah ruipi varihas.

suh lug thakne.

tim lég panawin harhar karani.

tsuh hekak likhit, parhit ?

kam kam.

tsuh kitpéthin zanak ?

tsuh kitpothin karan ih durust

kat retas andar chih kongposhk

[tsatan ?

kya rang chuh sarikot jan?

hargah ih heki timsritit, tsuh kya

karakadah ?

suh chuh brint gomut, kin-pat

Kartikas andar.

chuh awan ?

tahi kya zichuryut krakanad karan?

ih kaparu mutsar, uh tsun nil.

buh chus gomut humis satin.

suh chuh paizar siwai pakan.

yili suh yi tili gasi mi khabar.

nazdik ché, kinh dar chuh ?

246

You always delay.

We are almost ready.

I am hungry and thirsty.

Don’t eat raw apples.

I have ate enough.

Where is my servant ?

Is he here or there?

It is still raining.

Shall you sleep inside or outside ?

This dog is exactly like mine.

IT have already heard that story.

There is a bridge opposite.

Do as I say.

Write accordingly as I do.

Are you alone ?

He fell from his horse.

Throw down that blanket.

Come up here.

How far is it from here?

It is five kos.

My brother and I went home.

Hither you or he will be punished.

Why should I be punished ?

Because you are a thief.

Unless you have witnesses you will

be imprisoned.

This horse is better than that.

What do you call that basket ?

Don’t be frightened.

He ought to have done so.

Can you swim ?

Listen! show me the road.

You must do it.

Taste this peach.

I cannot find my coat.

Look behind that wall,

tsuh gatsi zarur karun.

ih tsunun gatsi tsuhun.

Appendia Dy

tsuh chuktth déhi tsér karan.

as chih thikan thikén tyar.

buh chus phaké bi treshut.

khém tsunt ma khit.

thai, khiat.

miun naukar kati chuh ?

yithi ché, kinh tathi chuh ?

vunyas tanyat chuh vélan.

andar shongak kinh nibar ?

yih hin chuh menis hinis hit.

mi biz suh kissa brint.

brohun kani chuh kadul.

yithipsthim buh dapan chus, tithi —

pothin karit.

menis lekhinas hit likhii.

tsuh chukuh kunezun ?

suh piau guri piat visit.

uh kamal sun bonkun trevit.

yur khas hitr.

ithi piat k6ta chuh dur?

pans kréh chuh.

ak buh bi min boi gaye garh. |

y4 tsuh nat humis meliwuh sazé.

mi ky4 zi dit saza. i

awé bapat zi tsuh chukuh tsur. |

hargah tsuh gawa ashinah, ta kaid fe

sompanak. Bs a

ih gur chuh humsin kotjan.

hut fiatis kya chuh vanan ?

kots muh.

timis guts ih karun.

tsuh hekak tsant vayut ?

hata? mi hat vat.

mitin kurtah chuh nah melan.

hut dewaras pat kani uchhu.

Appendix D.

He lost Rs 50 in gambling.

I won Rs. 100,, .:

A snake bit him in the leg.

She laughed much.

We seized 10 thieves.

They all escaped. .

They shall leave this country.

I will punish them.

Can you lend me a rupee ?

_ What do you teach these children ?

Let him come, why do you stop

him ?

I beat him soundly.

His house has been burnt.

He will be buried to-morrow.

Choose one of these apples.

Cover that pan.

Send me some fruit.

He answered me falsely.

Hang up these clothes.

What are you doing?

I am cutting corn.

Are these cows chewing the cud?

Go and see.

Feed them with grass.

Give them water to drink.

Has the room been swept ?

Can this be washed ?

I have two horses.

He had three wives.

I shall. have plenty.

I rode 10 kos without stopping.

‘What is to be done?

They are drunk.

We are poor.

This room is 12 ft, long, 10 it. wide,

247

hum hari zaras andar pantsah ripi.

» hat ”

humis ditsnas sarpan langas tiop.

humi us sitah.

asi rit dah tstr.

miziin _,,

timan tsail sarf.

tim tsalan yihu mulk.

buh dimak adh timan saza. [dit ?

tsuh hekak asi ripiyahak wozum

im shitr kya chiwak hichanéwan?

yiu ih kya zi chuwan ratan ?

mi dint humis sitah mar.

humis lug garhas nar,

phaga ihi daffan karanah. [tanah.

yimati tsuntai andar tsuhunak tsun-

hut degchas piat thavin sarposh.

asi mishin ladiu kinh mewah.

tim vunasi mishin apuz jawab.

ih kapar tsinun awezan.

tsuh kya chukuh karan ?

buh chus kanak tsatan.

ih gai chuh drémun karan ?

gatsit vuch.

yim khiawik gas.

yim chividk tresh.

at kothis duwah kinh nah?

ih yiya chhalanah ?

mi chuh dzuh gur.

timas dsah tre koleyih.

mi nishin 4si ih sitah.

buh gés dahan krohun guris kia

lakim varai.

kya gatsi karun?

suh chuh mut.

as chih kangal.

ih koth bah pawah dsut, dah pawah

248

- and 9 ft. high.

He was very lazy.

Give me rather less than one seer.

Weigh this ghee.

How much honey for a rupee ?

Change this rupee into pice.

Is there any batta taken?

Give that blind man, that lame

man and that leper each an anna.

Tare care how you carry that. =~

I shall be very glad.

All the people came to see.

Is this the same horse or another ?

Every man was killed.

‘His father and mine are cousins.

His uncle is rich.

Her mother is poor.

Your horse is lame.

My servant is ill.

Put this and that together.

This is my own watch.

Why was I beaten ?

Shall I be beaten ?

Why should I give you anything ?

You should go quickly.

There are rocks above and below.

This language is rather difficult.

With practice it will become easy

Never mind, speak every day.

Shall I go with or without my

horse ?

Why do you follow me?

I want alms.

Perhaps it will rain.

I was wet through.

Appendix D.

-tsuh kya zi chukuh mi patpat wan: .

khishadah, bi chuh nai pawah

thid.

suh 6s sitah sust.

mi gatsi ak sir akich kih kom diun.

ih ghiai

rupia kéta chuh mach ?

yit rupia aniu tiunk.

vi tuliun.

kinh chuh hewén ripia vat ?

humis anis ta humis langis ta —

humis hitriladas, akak ana dit.

uh chiz gatsi khabardari san niun.

buh gatsa sitah khush.

sari lok aye uchhini.

ih chuh suhi gur kinh bék chuh?

pratakah gat marah.

humsnnd mél bi miun mél chih

panaion bdi bdi.

humsund pitar chuh datlatmand. —

humsanz m6j chuh kangal.

chhén gur chuh lung.

mitin monhyti chuh bemar.

ak ih bi ih gachi vatun.

ih chuh mi panin gar.

buh ky4 zi gos marah ?

buh gatsa marah ?

buh kya. zi dimai tsuh kih ?

chhon gatsi jald gatsun.

koh chuh piat ti ta tal ti.

ih zaban chuh kentsa mushkil.

adat satin gatsi asan.

ki parwar chunah duhi van.

buh gatsah garheth knih nah ?

buh chus bechan. ~

dewah valik.

buh 6s sitah baranah.

Appendix D.

Dry my clothes in the sun.

He and his brother were drowned

in the river.

The maharaja is very kind to arti-

sans,

They are never fined.

He sent me a good ‘ ziafat.’

I laughed and she wept.

This shawl is not worth Rs. 400.

This is not the first time.

The Government takes half the

produce.

I and you and he will go together.

You will never come back.

The people here are very dirty

and poor. [ Kashmir ?

How many boats are there in

About two thousand.

Do they pay any tax?

If he ever do so, beat him.

If you can jump over this ditch.

I cannot jump over it.

Can you shoot birds flying ?

Is there any game in these hills?

Yes, a great deal.

Of what kind?

There are bears and deer.

How do you know?

I am a sportsman.

What do the bears eat ?

Indian corn, walnuts and fruit.

Are there any white bears?

Not here, but there are beyond.

In what district? ,

249

mitn kapar hoknawt tapas. [ phiat.

suh bi tasun bdéi daryavas andar

Maharaja chuh karigaran piat sitah

miharbani karan.

amis chun zehti chit ivan hinah.

tim laz asi zabar zidfat.

mi us ta tim wud.

ih doshélah

ih chuh nah godinitk dé.

[hund.

chuh nah tsorhatun

sirkar chuh nisf paidaish hewan.

ak buh bi tsuh bi suh gatsénikwatén.

tsuh guk nah biyi za yor.

yithik 16k chih sitéh mail talryi

chih kangal.

Kashmiras andar kotsa nai chih?

atsat chih désas.

kinh chih mahstl diwaén ?

hargéh suh biyi ithui kare, adh

marun. [wot tarit.

hargah tsuh hekak yit khandakas

buh hek nah tarit. [tan ?

tsuh hekak wuphun janéwar marl-

yit kohas cho kinh shikar ?

ad, sitah.

kya kya chuh?

hapat ché kinh rds chuh.

~ tsuh kitpothin zanak ?

buh chus shikari.

hapat kya chih khiawan ?

makhai chih khiawan, dun chih

khiawén, kinh mewah chih

khiawan.

kanu chah safid hépat ?

ithi chuh nah, amma wehin chuh

kut pergannahs andar ?

250 Appendia D.

On this or on that side of the hill? kohas ihpar kinh chuh kinh apar

| kinh chuh ?

Beyond it. aparé.

What kind of fish are there in the darydvas andar kami reng chih gad?

river ?

A great many kinds. sitahi reng chih.

Do people catch them or not? low chih gad ratan kinh nah ?

Attend to what I am saying. ih kinh tsuh buh vananchus, tat

piat thai dhian.

If you do not go, I will beat you. hargah nah gasak, adh marut.

Had you done as I told you, this yithi pothin mi dah piumad, hargah |

misfortune would not have hap- tithi pdihin karihiu, adh ih

pened. hauwinan kanthi balai.

If I were rich, I would repair this hargah buh daulatmand dsah, adh

house. karahah yit kothas marammat.

If he had gone there, he would hargah suh 6r gatsaheh adh bila-

undoubtedly have been killed. shak gatse suh marah, |

Appendia EH. 251-

APPENDIX E.

eee

Language of Dravidian Aborigines. Notes on the Oraon Language.-—

By the Rev, F. Batson.

Nouns.

The language is very defective in nouns. It is evident that the

Oraons have lost much of their own language, and that they have

made up their losses from the languages of the people amongst

whom they have dwelt, chiefly Sanskrit and Hindustani. They have

no original religious terms, no abstract ideas, no words for actions of

the mind or thoughts.

GENDER.

In Oraon there are two genders, the masculine and the feminine, but

there are very few nouns of the latter.

Whether the noun is a masculine ‘or feminine is only to be found

in the termination of the verb. Inthe declension, the gender is not

or only very seldom expressed.

DECLENSION.

There are all the usages of the Hindi language to be found in the

Oraon. The oblique cases are also formed by postpositions.

Note. Pronunciation of the Roman characters as used in writing the Oraon

words.

& like a in father e like e in peg

aa as hs ~rald OF was. --O.s 53° 80

We.) ky. POLES cite Mi: 1 meet: 3 (=) (=)

a 4) a 9. roman an’ 5 “ow”... owl

ey Tne eae ch +3. eh >,, churek

OS as a eae 3 ch as in German doch, loch

252 | Appendix E..

SINGULAR.

Nom. kukos, the boy.

Gen. kukosgahi, of the boy.

Dat. kukosge, for to the boy.

Ace. kukosin, the boy.

Abl. kukosgusti, from the boy.

Instr. (?) kukusanti, from or by the boy.

Loe. kukosnu, on, in, upon the boy.

Agent. kukosim (?)

Voc. ana ko, oh boy.

PLURAL.

Nom. kukor.

Gen. kukorgahi.

Dat. kukorge.

Acc. kukorin.

Abl. kukurgusti.

Instr. kukoranti.

Loe. kukornu.

Voc. ana koe.

SINGULAR.

Nom. kukoi, the girl.

Gen. kukoigahi.

Dat. kukoige.

Ace. kukoidin.

Abl. kukoigusti.

Instr. kukointi.

Loc. kuknu.

Agent. kukoidim.

Voce. an koi.

PLURAL.

Nom. kukoier.

Gen. kukoiergahi, ete.

SINGULAR.

Nom. chad, the boy.

Gen. chadasgahi.

Dat. chadge.

Ace. chadin, or chadasin.

Appendix E.

Abl. chadgusti.

Instr. chadanti.

Loc. chadnu.

Agont. chadasim.

Loe. ana chad.

PLURAL.

Nom chadar.

Gen chadargahi.

etc.

Oc)

The plural is mostly expressed in the termination of the verb, the

noun remaining unaltered in the singular and plural.

Masculine.

tangdas gon

kukos boy

belas king

meiut husband

mercha firmament

chechal earth

binko star

biri sun

chando moon

pairi morning

ulla day

macha night

ucha darkness

al man

meth male

mukka female

kuku head

kes, chuti hair

chan eye

kapre forehead

moy nose

boi mouth

gale

cheek

Nouns.

Feminine.

tangri

kukoi

belri

mukka

Nouns.

chebda

tatcha

cheka

chochal

pall

chesar

chocha

kul

umbalcho

daughter

girl

queen

woman

ear

tongue

hand

bone

tooth

shoulder

back

belly

liver

heart

lungs

blood

foot

leg

finger

nail

heel

knee

arm

254 Appendia E.

thapri palm of hand bercha cat

gunri cow lakra tiger

ado ox harha wolf

era goat tsigalo jackal

patha lamb cher fowl -

allah dog cokro cock

‘ Pronouns.

in, 1 nam we (both)

nin thou em we (more than two)

as he nim you

ad it ar they

ad she

ne who

end what

Declension of pronouns.

Singular. Plural.

Nom En, I &e. . Em, we, &e.

Gen enghai, of me emhai.

Dat. engage emage |

Acc. engan eman

Abl. engusti emgustim.

Instr. enganti emanti

Loc. engnu emanu or emanum

Agent. enim emim

Nom. nin, thou nim, you

Gen. ninghai nimhai

Dat. ningage nimage

Ace. ninin nimin, nimanun

Abl. ‘ningusti nimgustim

Instr. ninanti nimanti

Loe. ninganu nimganu

Agent. ninim (?) nimim (?)

Appendix LE. 255

Nom. As, he ar, they

Gen. asgahi argahi

Dat. asge arge

Ace. asin arin

Abl. asgusti argustim

Instr. asantl aranti

Loc. asganu argnu

Agen. 4sim arim.

The dual may be formed, but does not really exist,—as

nam irab, we both nim irib, you both

nam irbgahi nim = irbargahi

nam irbge nima_ irbarge

nim irbatin nim = irbarim

nam irbgusti nim _iribgusti

nam irbanti nim __iribanti

nam irbnu nim iribnu

PosTPOsITIONs.

gane, with chocha, after

gusti, from mechha, above

gusan, unto kuti, beside

ge, to, for hiri, near

anti, by, through katha, beyond

nu, upon gechha, far

num, in menya, up

kinya, beneath mund, before

ADJECTIVES.

The adjectives, which are only a few, take no part in the declension.

Nom, sanni alas, little man

Gen, _ sanni alasgahi

Dat. sani alasge

AGC. sani alasin

Abl. sani alasgusti

etc. etc.

Nom. sanni mukka, little woman

Gen. sanni mukkagahi

256 Appendia E.

Dat. sanni mukkage

Loe. sanni mukkasin

Abl. sanni mukkasgusti, ete.

Comparison.

- Pos. sanni, small

Comp. adinti sanni, smaller

Superl. ad hurminti sanni, smallest

Pos. koha, great

Comp. _adinti koha, greater

Superl. ad hurminti koha, greatest

7 ADJECTIVES.

panru, white garl, deep

mocharu, black otta, heavy

cheso, red nebba, _ light (not heavy)

hariar, green marchia, dirty

piyar, yellow kuri, hot

digha, long kurna, warm

pudda, short kiri, cold

mot, thick bariar, strong

sarhua, thin jukki, little

chaika, lean chaiga, wet

kuba, } TAT =’, dry

benko, kira, hungry

ujgo, straight didirna, satisfied (full)

mechha, high nidi, empty

phuda, low ninka, full

maldan, ugly chandrna, sleepy

sobhdas, selena ejmm, watchful

kore, landi, = slow

bens, good kitka, rotten

malbens, bad panjka, ripe

malkore, ill chena, unripe

pachgi, old ghutum otaro, round

joch, young tissa, sour

sanni, small phari, pure

bhircha, hard

Appendia E. 237

Numerals.

outa, one In numbering human beings,

ent, | two these are the following numerals:

mund, three

nach, four ort alas, one man

pantche, _ five . irib alar, two men

Sol, six nib alar, three men

sate, seven naib alar, four men

athe, eight pantche Alar, five men

nawe, nine etc.

dase, ten

There are no ordinals.

‘tara, half

onghon thauna, once

panr enr, twice

panr mund, thrice

panr nach, four times

ete.

VERBS.

The auxiliary to be, manndge.

Inpicative Moop.

Present.

IT am &e.

Kn ira: adan rain

nin ra: aday ra: adi

as ra: adas ad ray ad rai

em ra : adam raim

nim ra: adar ra: aday

ar ra ; anar ar ra: nay

Imperfect.

I was.

En = ra:achkan_ ra: achan

nin ra:achkay ra :-achki

as ra : achas ad ra: acha

em ra: achkam

nim yra:achkar ra: ach kay

ar ra ; achar ad ra ; achay

258

Appendix E.

Perfect.

I have been.

manjkan be: edan en manjkan

manjkai be : eday nin manjki

manjkas be:edas § 4d manjki

manjkam be : edam em manjkeem

manjkar _—_ be: edar nim manjkay

manjkar be : enar ad manjkay

Pluperfect.

Thad been.

manjkan ra: achkan en manjkin

manjkai _—ra : achkaij manjki

manjkas ra: achas_ ad = manjki-

manjkam ra: achkam manjkam

manjkar ra: achkar manjkay

manjkar = ra: achar manjkay

Future.

I shall or will be.

En manon

nin manoy

As manos ad mano

em manom

nim mannor

ar mannor

Future completive.

I shall have been,

En ~—=——manj chachon, )

em manj chachom

nim manj chachor

ar manj chachor

Imperative Moon.

En manon, let me be.

nin mana manai, be thou.

as mana ad mani, let him, ete. be.

em mannom

nim mannor

manj chachoy

aS manj chachos,

ar mannor

be :

be:

: achan

: achki

: acha

:achkam

:achkay _

achay

Appendix E. 259

Porrentrat Moon.

Present,

I can be.

En- manna ongon,

nin mana ongoi

as manna ongos

em manna ongom

nim manna ongor

ar manna ongor

Imperfect.

I might, could, &. be.

Kn ~=manna ongdon

nin manna ongday

as manna ongdas

em manna ongdam

nim manna ongdar

ar manna ongmar

Perfect.

I may have been.

En ~~ manna ongkan be: edan

nin manna ongkay be: eday

aS manna ongkar be: edar

em manna ongkam be: edam

nim manna ongkar be: edar

ar manna ongkar be: enar

Pluperfect.

I might, could, &. have been.

Kn mannaongkan ra: achkan

nin manna ongkay ra: achkay

as manna ongkar ra: achas

em manna ongkam ra: achkam

nim. manna ongkar ra: achkar

ar manna ongkar ra: achar

Conpit1onaL Moop.

Present.

Ti I be.

Te en manon, em manom

nin manoy nim manor

as manos ar manor

260 A ppendia E.

Imperfect.

Ii I were.

Te en __holle, em _holle

nin _holile nim _holle

as holle ar holle

IyrintttveE Moon.

manna, being

mannage, to be

Kadlage, to go.

Inpicattve Moon.

Present.

Mase. Fem. Dual.

En kalakdan, kalagin, nam irbatim kalakda

nin kalakday, — kalakdi,

as kalakdas, ad kalgi,

em kalakdam, kalagem,

~ nim = kalakdar, kalakday,

ar kalaknar, — kalaknay,

Imperfect.

En ~~ kalakkan kalakkam

kalakkay kalakkar

kalakyas kalakyar

Perfect.

En kerkan be: edan

kerkay be: eday

kerkas be: edas

kerkam be: edam

kerkar be: edar

kerkar be: enar

Pluperfect.

En kerkan ra: achkan

kerkay ra: achkay

kerkas ra: achas

kerkam ra: achkam

kerkar ra:achkar |

kerkar ra: achar

En |

nin

kaun

kaoy

kaos

kala chachor

kala chachoy

kala chachos

kaun kdélon

kaoy kalakaloi

kaos

kala ongon,

kala ongoy

kala ongos

kala ongdan

kala ongday

kala ongdas

kala ungkan

kala ungkay

kala ungkas

kala ungkam

kala ungkar

kala ungkan

kala ungkay

kala ungkas

kala ungkam

kala ungkar

Appendix FE,

Future.

kaom

kaor

Future completive.

kala chachom

kala chachor

IMPERATIVE Moon.

kaum kélom

kaor kala

kaor

PorentraL Moop.

Present.

I can go

kala ongom

kala ongor

Imperfect.

kala ongdam

kala ongdar

kala ongnar

Perfect.

be : edan

be: eday

be : edas

be : edam

be : edar

Pluperfect.

ra: achkan

ra: achkay

ra: achkas

ra: achkam

ra; achkar

ra; achar

262 Appendix E.

Conprtronat Moop.

Present.

Ii Ago!

Te en kéun, — . em kaum

nin kde nim kaor

as kaus ar kaor

Imperfect.

Te en kerkan em kerkam

nin kerkay nim kerkar

as kerkas ar kernar

PatIcIPLe.

kalke

kalar

kalnosim

Infinitive Moon.

kana, going

kalage, to go

Nandage, to do.

InpicaTiIvE Moon.

Present.

Kn —_nandan nandam

nanday nandar

nandas nandar

Imperfect.

En _ nanjkan nanjkam

nanjkar nanjkar

nanjas nanjar

Perfect.

Enim nanjkan be: edan

ninim nanjkay be: eday

asim nanjas be: edas

emim nanjkam be: edam

nimim nanjkar be: edar

arim nanjkar be: enar

Appendia E.

Pluperfect.

Enim nanjkan ra: achkan

ninim nanjkae ra: achkay

asim nanjkas ra: achas

emim nanjkam ra: achkam

nimim nanjkar ra: achkar

arim nanjkar ra: achar

Future.

nannon — em

nannoy nim

nannos ar

Future completive.

nanjchachon em

nanjchachoy nim

nanjchachos ar

Imperative Moon.

nannon em

nannoi nim

nannos ar

VERBS,

to beat laona

to drink ona

to sleep chandrna

to walk | ekna

to swim ogna

to plough oyna

to cut choina

to sow chachna

to eat mochna

to eat ona i

to ride argna

to fall katrna

to rise cho : na

to see erna

to hear menna. .

nannom

nannor

nhannor

nanjchachom

nanjchachor

nannom

nanor

nannor

2638

264 Appendia E.

to speak kochna karna

to sing parna

to blow urna

to dance nalna

to sit okna

to tie chotna

to go kana

to cook biitna

ADVERBS.

below kinya

near hiri

within ekatara

whence ekaiants

' how ekane

not ambo

yes hae

whence ekaianti

whither ekatara

alone oatoch

CoNJUNCTIONS.

and dara

then antle

but pahe

or bhel

because igune

also hon

when ekabiri

if je

The Lord’s Prayer. —

He embai je mercha nu ra: aday. Ninghai néme pavitr mano,

Ninghai raji bar: 0; ninghai suuwak ekane mercha nu, aneho chochal —

nu ho mano. Emhai ulla ullanta asma ina emage chia. Antle emhai

dosan muaf nana, ekane omho emhai dosnanurin muaf nandan. Ant e :

oman pariksha nu amba cha:a, pahe burainti chhar a ba:a Raji,

sawang antle mahatm sadau sadau ninghai rai, Amin. |

Appendix E, 265

Creed.

En bishwés nandan Dhames embas nu, 4s je mercha dara che-

chalgahi sdngias sirjanharas talids, antle asgahi ortostonka tangdas.

Prabhus Jisus Christusnu, je Dharmatmanti Kulnu barchhas dindam

Mariamauts kundrus, Pontius Pilatus tarti dukhan chedas, Krusnu

kilras keras, ketchas keras, mandras keras, antle naraknu itids, ulmund-

nu ketch ka gusti ujias dara chochus mercha nu argias, antle sawan-

gias tambas Dharmeshgahi mandi cheka tara uk: as be: edas; eksanti

as ujnarin antle ketch karin niséb nandge phen bar: os.

En bishwas nandan dharmatma nu: Dharmir Christéner gahi go

honda nu dhar mir gahi salha me, papgahi chhema, med gahi jia cho:

ona antle jug jug gahi jia nu. Amin.

Ten Commandments.

1. Dharme nimhai Dharme entol konnek anum dosar Dharmesin

amba man : a.

Indri im juthi gahi dewt a puja amba nana.

Dharme ninghai Dharmes gahi namin begar bujhra : am amba ana.

Dharmes gahi ulan paoits niage amba modr a.

Ninghai 4go babasin maha tmchia,

Alawein amba chetar chia.

Nanna mukkargane amba nana bekamma dral tarah amba mana,

Chalal amba chara.

Phasiar amba ana, ninghai orsi porsir un phasiar gawahi amba

OW MIA NP wb

chia

10. Ninghai orsi porsir gahi erpa erpanta talach amba nana.

266

English.

Man

Woman

Boy

Girl

Head

Hair

Kar

Kye

Mouth

Tooth

Hand

. Foot

Bone

Blood

Kgg

To-day

Night

Sky

Sun

Moon

Star

Heat

Fire

Water

Wind

River

Stone

Tree

Village

House

Snake

Moondah.

horo

sing

chandu

epil

Jolo

singil

Appendia F..

Ho,

APPENDIX

Brief Vocabulary of the Moondah and

Kherrvah.

hibo

kanseldo

baboo

bui)

boko

ulloi

lutur

mud

tamode

sencom

lolo

tingson

dah

Appendix F. 267

cognate Languages of the Kolarian type-—By Lieut.-Col. Dauton.

Putoons or Sonthal. Bhumiz Coour

Juang. (Latham.) (Dr. Voysey.)

juang horh horro hoko

CE TRE y soos 15 os waaeee suttan

lunda

lundi

bocob buho buho

juta (H) ub ub ap

lutur lutur lutur

emor met met meht

tamon mocha alang ah

goneh datha datta

saeco thi thi

ais cox kata kata

har (H) jang jang

iyam myum myun

susuté billi pito

missing teheng tising

berote nindha nidha

akas (H) sirma reiumil

suruj (H) singi singl

lerung chandu chandi (H)

konjinda ipil ipil ipil

lalai sengel sengel singh¢l

dah dah dah da

koyo

noi (H) garra garra

olag dirri dirri

sumsing daré dara. darao

jaon (1H) athu hathugé

Specs. ora OFF i, oarru

bubung bing bing

268 Appendia G.

APPENDIX G.

Language of the Kolarian Aborigines ;—Grammatical construction of

the Ho language.—By Lveut.-Col. Trokeu.*.

T hope due allowances will be made for the imperfectness of the

grammatical details here given, when it is remembered that the Ho

language has no written character, nor does there exist a person, native —

of the Kolehan or otherwise, who could give me the slightest assis-

tance on this point.

It would be trite to observe that grammar is as inherent and essen-

tial to all languages, even the most barbarous, as a vocabulary itself.

By first learning a number of the words and sentences arbitrarily, the

system on which they are founded may be detected in due time by

patient comparisons of them, even when the speakers themselves are

unable to give the inquirer the least information on the construction

of what they are saying. With this difficulty once mastered, it is

inconceivable with what ease the most (apparently) complex and

difficult languages become familiar. q

The sounds of the Ho language are exceedingly pure and liquid,

without strong aspirates or gutturals, and may be well rendered by

the English alphabet, or still better the French one, as that admits of

the slight nasal inflection which prevails in many words in the Ho

dialect.

Let the following conventions be made to the sound of the vowels,

in the ensuing dialogues, &e. |

a as in “father,” “ rather,”

Gi faaudhprey, | aaa

i —— ,, “skip,” “trip,”

ee —— ,, ‘sheep,’ “peep,”

y Tao ee? % fly,” a try,”

ai or ay ,, longer sound as in ‘‘ aye, aye?”

9) —— ,, “bone,” “stone,”

00 —- , * fool,” “ stool,”

+n = (nasal n) 5 ton” ‘ Fanfaron,” (Frenehy

* Reprinted from As. Soc. Journal, Vol. IX. p. 1063.

7 Also g, as the French liquid g, in Cologne, Boulogne.

Appendix G. 269

The long acute vowel sounds, such as 00 and ee, also the letter 7,

are pronounced too liquidly and subtilely to be easily imitated by a

stranger, and in some words the imflections of the vowels are in-

conceivably complex and mellifluous. The general euphony or cadence

of the language is sprightly and cheerful; if the subject be of a

complaining nature, it subsides into a strange chaunt, the sentences

being linked together by such see-saw sounds, as “‘na-do na-do enété

né-do” which have no meaning, bnt serve to connect together the

speaker’s ideas.

When two or more words come together, the former ending, and

the latter beginning with similar vowels, they are joined by ellipsis.

as ‘‘ Hola’lé senicna,” instead of ‘‘ Hola allé seniéna,” we went yesterday.

i ARTICLE.

There is none, (properly speaking), definite or indefinite.

Noun.

There is no distinction of genders, marked or influenced by ter-

mination, it being determined by the sense or meaning of the word,

whether referring to a male or female being. Besides man and woman,

“ erril” and “‘éra,” boy and girl, “ koa’ and “ kodee,’

)

names of rela-

tions, and those of a few domestic animals, all other nouns are

distinguished in their gender by prefixing ‘‘ Sandee” male, or “‘ Enga”’

_ female, as in Persian or English ew yy? ew woley he-bear, she-bear.

_ A noun has three numbers, singular, dual, and plural, as in Greek.

The nouns can scarcely be said to have declension, as the terminal

does not vary either according to number or case, although a dis-

tinguishing adjunct, which may be called a ‘ Pronoun article,’ from

its nature and use, is added.

Singular. Dual. Plural.

Nom. Seta, a dog. Seta king, two dogs. Séta ko, dogs.

Gen. Seta-4, of a dog. Seta kingya, of two dogs. Seta koa, of dogs.

Ab. Seta-té, from a dog. Seta king td, from two dogs. Seta ko t8, from

dogs.

The dative, accusative, and vocative cases do not differ from the

nominative, being only known from their position in a sentence.

In composition, the noun in an accusative case takes the first place

in the sentence, if the nominative be a pronoun; otherwise the noun- —

nominative precedes, the accusative follows, and the oblique or dative

case comes immediately before the verb, sometimes immediately after

270 Appendix @.

it. En ho kajikeeai aya éra,” that man said to his wife, “ Dendka

o€ tootigoikeea,”’ Dendka shot the bird. ‘‘ Kean hon do chowlee seta

emadya,’”’ my son gave the dog some rice.

ADJECTIVE.

The adjective does not alter in termination, either in number, case,

or gender; and always precedes the noun it qualifies. As “ Boogee

ho,” a good man ; “‘ Boogee ho-a,” of a good man ; “ Boogee ho lo té,”

with a good man, &c. There are no degrees of comparison, but as in

Hindustani the qualifying words very, or most of all, are prefixed to

denote grades of quality, as ‘‘ Etka,” bad, ‘‘ Hina té need o etka,” this

is worse than that. ‘‘Sabee ré nee o etka minna,” this is worst of all.

‘ Boogee léka éra,” a pretty woman. “ Boogee léka éra ko,” pretty

women. ‘

PRONOUN.

The first personal pronoun has four numbers, the singular, dual,

plural, and plural comprehensive. The others only the three first, as

noticed in the noun-substantives.

The possessive pronouns are the same as the personal, with the

genitive inflection @ added.

PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

Singular. Dual. _ Plural. Pl. comprehensive. —

Ist. Eeng or aing,Z Alleeng, we two Allé, we Aboo, we all —

2d. Um, thou Abben, you two Appé, you }: |

3d. Ay or ayo, he Aking, they two Ako, they a5

In speaking, if the person include the person addressed, himself, and

every one present, as nominatives or agents, he uses the plural com-

prehensive. If he exclude the person addressed, he employs the first

person plural, as ‘“‘ Hola aboo seniéna,” yesterday we went (i. e. you

and all of us.) “ Hola allé seniéna,” yesterday we went (i. e. not you,

we alone.) ;

The personal pronouns in the nominative case both precede and

terminate the verb, optionally with the speaker, as, I speak, “ Heng

kajitanna”’ or “ Heng kajitannaing”’ or ‘ Kajitannaing.” 3

I go, ‘Heng senotana,” or “ Heng senotannaing,” or ‘‘ Senotan-—

naing.”’ ¥

And to give energy to the sentence, the pronoun is repeated, with

the connect “do” between them, as ‘‘ Heng do eeng kajitanna,” “Zis I

who speak,’ Um do um kombookenna,” Thou alone statest 7.

Appendix G. 271

The most difficult part of their construction is in the dative and

accusative cases, which are absorbed in the verbs they are governed

by, in a manner unknown to other languages, being placed in the

centre of the verb, after the root, and before the tense terminal.

As, I speak to thee, ‘‘ Heng kajimetanna;” he spoke to me, “ ayo

kajikedingia ;” he spoke to them, “ kajiked kodi;” the tiger saw me

*“ koola do neldedingia ;” he killed him, “ a¥o goikedaya.” Here I have

underlined the oblique or accusative pronoun, where it comes in, just

before the tense terminal of the verb.

PossEssive Pronouns.

Singular. Dual. Plural. Pl. comp.

Ist. Henga* or dingia, my alleengia alléa abooa

2d. Umma, thy abbena appéa sf

3d. Aya, his ; akingia akoa ss

These always precede their substantives.

DemonstRATIVE PRonovuns.

Singular Dual. Plural.

Nee or inee, this neeking,, these two niko, these

Need or ineea, of this neekingia, of these two neekod, of these

Neet¢, or ineeté, to, with, neekingté, neekoté,

G&e. this

En, that enking, those two enko, those

Ena, of that enkinga, of those two enkoa, of those

Rnté, by, from with &c. that enkingté, enkoté,

“‘ Nee” this, is sometimes used idiomatically by a person referring

to himself. If a Kole were to be asked what countryman he was? he

would answer, ‘“ Ho nee gé,” Lam ; or literally, this isa Kole. Of

what clan are you? Answer, ‘ Poortee neegé,”’ I am a Poortee.

InteRRoGATIVE Pronovns.

Okoi, who ? chikan, which? chia, what ?

Okoid, whose ? chikana, of which ?

Retative Pronouns.

Relative pronouns are very vague, the sentence being generally go

rendered as to obviate the necessity of them, thus, instead of saying,

The man who went ; a. Kole would say, Zhe gone man, “Senien

Horo.”

* Pronounced, as ‘mignon,’ ‘ Ligne,’ &c, in French,

272 Appendix G.

But at times ‘Chikana,” whatever, and “Ena,” that, are used

relatively, as “ Chikana um kajeed, éna eeng diooma,” what you say,

that I will listen to. | ;

VERBS.

Verbs are either active or neuter. There is no passive voice.

The Infinitive mood is formed by adding téé to the root.

The present participle by adding tan or #é.

The Past participle by affixing kedté.

In the active or transitive voice, the Present tense Indicative mood

adds to the root ‘‘ tanna,” in the neuter voice, ‘‘ akanna.”

Imperfect tense there is none, the Present tense being used, and —

its Imperfect signification understood by the context.

The Perfect tense is formed by adding in the active voice, “ kidda, —

keea, kenna, lidda, or tadda,” tothe root. In the neuter voice, “‘ lena,”’ ’

or “zéna,” sometimes “ kenna.”

There is no Pluperfect tense, but greater completion is expressed by —

conjugating the verb ‘“chabtea,” to finish, added to the root ; much ~

the same way as “ chookna”’ in Hindustanee. :

The Future is formed by adding to the root eea or od, or sometimes

simply dé, in which latter case the sound of the root is prolonged. —

and ‘‘ rote,”

Except “ nooitea,” to drink, which makes “ noonooa ;

to gore (as a bull) “ roroa.”’

The Imperative is formed by adding (in the 2nd person singular) to

the root, ‘‘ mén” and ‘ omén” or “ ymén,” if the root end with a con-

sonant. In the other persons ké precedes the pronoun, and the simple

root of the verb, which will be more clearly shown in conjugating.

In a negative sense, “ alwm” or “alo” is prefixed to the 2nd personal

pronoun, @ being added to the root; if in the 3rd person, singular,

dual, or plural “ aloka” is prefixed to the pronoun, and the root alone

of the verb is used.

The Subjunctive mood is vague and imperfect. In the Present and

Future tenses “ rédo” is added to the root, sometimes together with

the word ‘“ honang,” “‘derang,” or “ tora” (signifying conditionality)

affixed. | i

The Past tense is formed in the same way ; indeed there appears to

be no Past Snbjunctive tense ; but sometimes the conditional terminal

““yvédo”’ is added to the Past perfect Indicative.

Appendia G. 273

This word ‘‘védo”’ admits the vowel to be affixed to it, or to come

immediately before it and after the root. n

Conjugation of the verb ‘‘ Kajéetea,” to speak.

Inrrnttive Moon.

Present tense—Kajéetéa, to speak,

Present Participle—Kajitan, or Kajienté, speaking,

Past Participle—Kajikedté, having spoken. ,

InpicativeE Moon.

Present tense.

Sing. Dual. Plural.

1st. Person, vm | Aen Apps Kajitanns,

BE i iy Um, ¢ Kajitanna, Abben—Appé, ¢ 75 ceticakieal

oe, Ayo, Aking—Ako,

Perfect tense.

Bee ging Anceng— All’, ) Kajikidda, Kajilidda or Kajitadda.

3d. Ayo— Aking— pes 0, ) I éc. spoke or have spoken,

Future tense.

Aing, Um, &c. &c. &e.—Kajeca, I dc. ec. will speak.

Imprrative Moon.

Sing. Dual. Plural.

Heng Kakajee, Let me speak. | Kajeeabooor Abookakajee, Let us ail, Ge.

‘Um Kajeemén, Speak thou. | Kajeeben or Abbenkakajee, Speak you,

Ayo Kakajee or one him| de.

Kakajee o kai, speak, | Kajeealling or Allingkakajee, Letus, &c.

Kajeeallé or Alléokakajee Let us, dc.

Kajeeako or Akokakajee Let them, &c.

Kajeeaking or Akingkakajee, Let them,

ée,

NEGATIVE. —

Sing. Dual. Plural.

Alokaing kajeea, Do not let me speak. | Alo k’aboo kajeea. }

Alum kajeea, Speak not. Alo k’allé kajeea. Dove Bhas

Alo kai kajeea, Do not let him speak, | Alla’bben kajeea, bee

Al’appé _ kajeea. o oe

Alo ka’ko kajeea. ae

Aloka’ king kajeea

QTA - Appendix G.

Sussunetive Moon.

° Present tense.

Keng Kajeerédo, If I speak. Aboo,

Um Kajeeredo, Jf thou speakest. | Allé,

- = |

Aio Kajeeredo, If he speak. pene + Kajeerado, If we &c. speak.

Ako,

Aking,

Perfect ar Pluperfect. !

Eeng, Um, &e. &e. &e. Kajeekedrédo, If I dc. éc. de. had spoken.

CoNDITIONAL, OR PoTENTIAL.

Heng Kajéaing honang, I would speak. | sig &o. &o, Kage onan

Um Kajeeum honang, Thou dc.

Ao Kajeea honang, He, Be We might or would speak.

Norse. As has been before explained, in all these tenses and persons (except

in the Imperative) the pronoun may be either prefixed, or affixed, or both.

Premera

The same Verb, Conjugated with its Objective pronoun.

Inpicative Moop

Present tense.

Heng or Ayng Kajeeing tanna, J speak to myself.

Kajee metanna, J speak to thee..

Kajee ditanna, I speak to him.

Kajee’ létanna, I speak to ourselves,

Kajee’ ling tanna, I speak to us two.

Kajee’ ben tanna, I speak to you two.

Kajee’ pétanna, I speak to you.

Kajee king tanna, I speak to them two.

Kajee kotanna, J speak to them.

The same exactly for all the other persons, and tenses, &e.

Perfect tense.

( Kajikedingié. ) ( spoke to myself.

Kajiked’mia. spoke to thee,

| Kajikedaia. spoke to him.

' .z | Kajikede’lia. spoketo ourselves

Aine, ve Pack’ { Kajiked’lingia. .+ 7. ae Be 4 spoke to us two.

Fy Me EY EE Kajiked’bena. cov" | snoke to you two.

| Kajikedpéa. spoke to you.

| Rekewbee | spoketothemtwo.

Kajiked’koa. J | spoke to them.

Appendia G. * 275

Examples of this construction, especially in the Imperative mood,

will be given in the Vocabulary, so need not be further dwelt on here,

It is scarcely possible to reduce the verb ‘‘to be” to conjugation,

unless we suppose the varied forms in which it is used as inflections of

separate verbs, wanting in many tenses. Tor ‘to be’’ ig expressed by

different verbs, according to its allusion to time, a person, or a thing;

and its relation to mere existence or to the nature of existence. In

short, there is no auxiliary verb “to be” which can be independently

conjugated. The unchangeable word ‘‘ minna,” or “‘ minnakana,” is

applicable in the present tense alone, to denote a-state of existence,

as ‘ Keng, um, ayd, &c. menna, or minnakana,” J am, thou art, he 1s,

&c. But in past and future tenses some other verb denoting presence,

as the verb “‘ to come,” ‘‘to reside,” &c. must be employed.

But the verb ‘‘to be,” when implying the nature of existence, can

be rendered in the past and future tenses, as well as the present, by

adding to the participle or adjective, od in the future, and zena in the

past, as ‘“‘ eeng laga akanna,” J am tured ; “ eeng lagaoa,” I shall be

tired ; “eeng lagiéna,”’ I have become tired ; “ eeng rénga akanna, or

renga akannaing,” J am hungry ; ‘‘ eeng rengaoa or rengaoing,” I shall

be hungry; “eeng rengaiéna,” J was hungry. Od and vena, it is to

be remembered, are inflections of the future and past tenses in all

neuter verbs.

- Again the verb ‘to be’ can be simply represented in the future

and past tenses, when speaking of a thing, by the word “ hobawa,” 4

shall or will be, and “hobiena,” zt has been; also in the present,

“ hobowtanna,” zt 7s. This mode of expression commonly refers to

the success or accomplishment of any project. In the English idiom

we should say for ‘“ hobawa,” zt will do, or at wall answer ; “ hobiena,”’

at is all over, or has succeeded ; “‘ hobowtanna,”’ a 7s govng on.

_ That boy will be a thief, could not be rendered, ‘‘ En koa do komboo

hobawa,” but ‘‘ En koa do. komboo oa.”

Your business will be done to-morrow, not, ‘‘ Umma kajee gappa 04,”

but, ‘‘ Umma kajee gappa hobawa.”

This will never do, “Ka hobawa ;” go away, wt as all over “ Mar-

senomén hobiéna.”’

276 = Appendia G.

In English and other languages, state, nature or condition, is render- —

ed by affixing or prefixing the various tenses of the verb “‘to be”

to the adjective, as to be hungry, J am hungry, I was hungry ; ““to be

glad, I am glad, &c. &c.” But in the Ho dialect the adjective itself

becomes a neuter verb, and is conjugated by affixing to it the different

inflections denoting time and mood—to be hungry, ‘ ies >’ Lam

hungry, “renga akannaing ;”’ I was hungry, “ rengaiénaing ;” W&e.

Nevter Vers.

After what has been said, it would be unnecessary to give any —

example of the conjugation of neuter verbs. It only requires to be —

“tanna;’’ and their past inflection ‘iéna,’’ instead of ‘‘ kidda, tadda, —

lidda, or eea,” all of which latter are transitive forms.

Some verbs are both neutral and transitive, as ‘‘ chabatea’’ to finial ,

They have therefore both inflections. In the transitive form “ chaba-_

tea’ is frequently added to the root of some other verb, to denote

completion; but it may also be used alone: in the neuter form, it is

of course confined to the third person. _

EXAMPLES.

Yémcehabakiddai, He ate rt all up.

Bychabakidallé, We finished (making) tt.

Kajeechabymén, finish speaking.

Gappa miang chabawa, It will be done to-morrow or next day.

Nado chabiéna, Jt 2s now finished.

The word “ hered’”’ is placed between the root and osetia of a

verb to denote positiveness or certainty; as when the speaker means

to state something as an incontrovertible fact, as, “‘ Kajee heredkiddai,”

most assuredly he spoke. ‘‘ Qodoob hereémén,”’ speak positively. 4

The causal form is alee by putting “chee” between the root

and terminal—as “ landated,” to laugh, makes “‘ landacheetea’’ to cause

to laugh ; “ aioomtea,” to eee ‘ aioomcheetea,”’ to cause to hear, as in

Hindustani @ is inserted (with a few exceptions) for the same purpose,

as Hunsna, Hunsana; Soonna, Soondna, &c.

Continuity Gn the Imperative mood alone) is expressed by adding

“‘akén”’ to the root, as “‘ doobmén,” sé down, ‘ doobakanmen,” remav im

sitting ; “‘ Aioom mén,” listen, ‘‘ Aioomakénmén,” continue listening. 7

Finally, the thoroughly performing an act, is often rendered by addin ing

Appendia G. ea

the verb, “‘ jometed,”’ to eat, to the root of the expletive verb, as “ nel-

joomkidallé,” we all saw it (thoroughly) ; “ aioomjémmeén,”’ listen (atten-

tively) ; ‘‘Geetee jom-meén,” sleep (soundly). And should the verb

be of a violent nature (referring to some violent act) the particle

“tab” between the root and inflection gives force to the meaning, as

a Goitabkiddai,” he slew him (outright) ; ‘ Toltab kidallé,” we bownd

him (forthwith); “‘ Neertabmén,” Run (quickly) fly 1 so “‘ Ooited’’ is

to jump, and ‘ Ooitabtea,”’ to bound (as a tiger).

Kd before the pronoun gives the verb a negative form, as has been

before explained in describing the Imperative mood.

There is no verb “‘to have,’ possession being denoted in the same

manner as in Hindustani. J have, ‘‘ Kengtra minna’’—‘ Méré pas hye

From the foregoing remarks may be gathered, that in the active or

transitive voice-—

The present terminal is, “ Tanna.”

The past, “ Kidda, tadda, lidda, kenna or beeen”

In the Neuter Voice—

The present terminal is, * akénna.”

The past, “7éna or léna ;”

In either Voice—

The conditional, subjunctive,

or potential mood terminate in

; “redo” or “ kedrado,”’

All these terminals being of course subject to the inflections of their

pronouns, which are, as has been said, as often affixed as prefixed.

A nondescript species of Verb is used in rendering the sentence

what shall or can I, (thou, he, &c.) do?

Future and Present.

Ch’eeng chikya, ) TL, 7

Chee’m chikya, | Tho

Chee chikya, a

Cheeboo chikya, We all,

Chee’lé chikya We, |

Cheep chikys, | what shall or can i Wau, cae

Chee’ben chikya, let ou two,

Chee’ko chikya, | | They,

Chee’king chikya, | | They two,

Chee’ling chikya, if \Wetwo, jf

278 — Appendi« G.

Past tense.

Chee’ng chikakidda, what could I have done? &e. &c. &e.

The verb “to be able” is rendered by “ Dytea” in its moods and

tenses, as ‘‘ Niddo eeng bydya,” I can make this ; ‘‘ Umdokadya,” you

cannot ; ‘‘ K’ai dyoa,” he will not be able.

Many little exceptions and variations occur to these general rules,

which it would be impossible to become familiar with, without con-

stant practice in their arbitrary use; but the foregoing remarks com-

prise all that would be of practical utility. The constant elision and

confluence of words beginning and ending with vowels must be

remembered, and that the particle do, has no meaning whatever. This :

will render the examples above given to the different rules simple

and illustrative.

Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of January, 1866.

Latitude 22° 23’ 1” North. Longitude 88° 20’ 34” Kast.

Height of the Cistern of the Standard Barometer above the Sea-level, 18 ft. 11 in.

Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.

Sey 2

i 2 A Range of the Barometer 'B i Range of the Tempera-

of E a during the day. ale ture during the day.

"| Aaa As

go ; ; ad 5 ; :

ea Max. Min. Diff. e a Max. Min. | Diff.

or 8 Oy

=| =

Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. fe) oO oO fe)

1 30.056 | 30.147 | 30.006 | 0.141 . 68.3 76.4 61.0 | 15.4

3 .029 Is .987 126 69.1 79.4, 60.2 | 19.2

A .OO1 .082 .930 .152 72.0 82.8 62.8 | 20.0

5 29.961 .061 .886 my 73.4 83.6 65.8 | 17.8

6 .906 | 29.971 .848 123 veal 81.2 66.4 | 14.8

"5 30.007 | 30.073 .948 125 68.4 73.8 64.6 9.2

8 Be 3: 221 | 30.057 164 64.0 73.0 55.8 | 17.2

9 119 219 .064 155 63.4: 72.9 56.0 | 16.9

10 .068 .158 .004 154 65.2 75.5 57.6 | 17.9

11 .042 112 | 29.992 .120 66.9 77.0 58.6 | 18.4

12 .068 .158 | 30.003 155 66.1 76.6 57.0 | 19.6

13 .060 .140 O15 125 65.5 76.8 56.0 | 20.8

14, .060 133 | 29.995 138 67.8 79.0 58.0 | 21.0

15 .082 .183 | 30.019 164: 68.8 78.6 60.0 | 18.6

16 .036 123 | 29.969 154 67.5 77.2 59.2 | 18.0

17 .012 .098 .955 143 67.1 774 58.9 | 18.5

18 .018 107 .959 148 68.2 78.7 59.2 | 19.5

19 29.990 .056 .923 los 69.9 81.4: 61.0 | 20.4

20 30.028 .106 .967 139 70.1 81.2 61.0 | 20.2

21 .044: i3 .962 pt Tis 81.0 62.6 | 18.4

22 .080 161 | 30.033 128 F(a Das 81.3 65.0 | 16.3

23 .096 .165 .029 .1386 70.5 79.8 62.2 | 17.6

24, .105 185 .020 .165 7 fa a 81.2 62.8 | 18.4

25 077 148 | 29.989 5 aD 82.0 64.4 !} 17.6

- 26 .085 to. |. s0-018 .160 74.5 83.8 66.4 | 17.4

27 .066 152 | 29.983 .169 74.0 84.7 67.0 | 17.7

28 .042 .083 | 30.001 .082 |- 68.3 77.8 63.4 | 14.4

29 .005 .079 | 29.935 144 68.6 75.2 63.4 | 11.8

30 29.975 .056 .929 a i 68.2 72,2 63.8 8.4,

31 30.003 094 937 157 63.4 64.6 62.2 2.4:

The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb Ther-

mometer Means are derived, from the hourly observations made, during the day.

il Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of January, 1866.

Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.— Continued.

x E 8 5) | ees

o : 45 oO 5 a ead

Boob ced |, Hb -Bhckcl che eee eee

= a a) A ie ab ogim =

wees 0 5 & HB |eak less

2 3 B | 3 2 C2 |e oe | oS wn

Dateue hae 2 A = He 4.2 22 | 3 oe

4+ & os) = on .5 me (oD) hs Oo

og 2 3 3 Se | 33 | Seo | Se

Eo = £ du | HE | FO | esa 8 oa

S a a | S, 3a |: ag ba

a § a | gf] da (S88 | 88s

8 4 p> 8 PoAy ore oH [er ens ee

= a) oO a = =| < |

o ) fo) oO Inches. | 'T. gr. || Tog

1 62.5 5.8 57.9 10.4 | 0.488 5.38 2.22 OE

2 | 618 62 | 568 | 112 | 2470 19 34 ‘69

3 63.2 5.9 58.5 10.6 498 A8 30 70

4 | 67.3 4.7 | 63.5 8.5 | 588 | 6.43 07 16

5 68.2 5.2 64.0 9.4 597 03 4 74,

6 68.2 4.9 64.3 8.8 .603 .60 9 -75

/ 62.2 6.2 57.2 11.2 A76 5.25 on .69

s | 568 Bo) W608. | 187 laa qn dae A5 63

9 | 57.3 61 tote | ie 1 heuy 42 aa 68

10 | 58.7 6S Bae) 107 | Ade 68 23 68

11 60.3 6.6 55.0 11.9 442 .90 38 .67

12 | 58.8 73 | 53.0 | 13% || J414 59 51 65

13 58.4: Gk 52.7 12.8 .409 .55 43 -65

1A IGA. 7) | eee 1 e834 agi) eae 16 71

15 61.8 7.0 56.2 12.6 A61 .O7 .64 -66

16 | 60.5 70 || ‘549 ) 126 Waal th aoe 55 66

17 | 60.6 G5 | Bea a7 ap a9 96 36 68

is | 61.1 71 | 55.4 | 12.8 | .449 95 63 65

19 | 64.4 5.5 | 60.0 99 | 523 | 5.75 23 72

20 | 641 60.4 see) | see | pit Gi 42 70

21 66.7 4.6 63.0 8.3 .578 6.35 1.98 -76

22 65.6 7.5 59.6 13.5 .516 5.64 3.15 64

23 63.1 7.4 57.2 13.3 .A76 23 2.90 64

24 64.2 7A 58.3 13.3 ADA . 42 .98 -65

25 | 67.2 5G || 625 | 10.6. | lees | ea 58 val

26 69.5 5.0 66.0 8.5 .638 .95 23 .76

27 69.3 4.7 66.0 8.0 .638 yy 07 Te

28 65.5 2.8 63.3 5.0 584 AA, 1.16 85

29 66.5 Died 64.8 3.8 .613 78 0.89 .88

30 66.2 2.0 64.6 3.6 .609 73 85 .89

31 61.8 1.6 60.4: 3.0 .530 5.91 .62 oF

Meteorological Observations. iil

‘Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta,

in the month of January, 1866.

Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.

SAS 5 DO RS ES a OS

6 8 Range of the Barometer =, |Range of the Tempera-

2 o# for each hour during aS ture for each hour

"80 5 ES the month. e — during the month.

Hour. | 3 & RS |e

aa mr & A =

qo” : ; do ? F

Rae Max. Min. Diff. a Max. Min. | Diff.

or Ss D Ey

= a

Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. oO oO oO oO

Mid-

night. 30.046 30.119 | 29.921 0.198 65.5 72.4 60.0 | 12.4

i .039 1138 .902 wk 64.8 72.4 58.8 | 13.6

2 .030 .106 .886 .220 64.2 72.0 57.8 | 15.2

3 .021 .099 .867 202 63.6 71.8 57.4 | 14.4

A, 014 ,094 848 .246 62.9 70.4 57.0 | 13.4

5 .022 .103 861 242 62.3 69.7 56.4 | 13.3

6 .038 .120 .867 253 62.1 69.5 ba. | 18.7

7 .059 156 885 271 61.8 67.4 56.0 | 11.4

8 068 }* .190 927 .263 63.7 69.2 57.8 | 11.4

9 114 215 957 .258 67.2 73.2 61.2 | 12.0

10 122 221 971 .250 70.8 Cit 63.8 | 13.9

11 .105 197 .960 BY | a2 79.4 63.6 | 15.8

Noon. .075 .167 .935 .232 75.2 81.6 62.6 | 19.0

i .035 124 897 227 76.5 82.8 62.4 | 20.4

2 007 - 091 871 220 7 pF fa) 84.0 62.8 | 21.2

3 | 29.989 077 S861 .216 78.0 84.7 63.8 | 20.9

4 .983 .064: 851 213 76.8 82.8 64.4 | 18.4

5 .992 O77 .864 218 75.5 81.5 63.8 | 17.7

6 .999 .076 .880 .196 72.6 79.2 62.6 | 16.6

7 30.018 | .088 904 184 70.9 77.0 62.8 | 14.2

8 .035 .LO9 .929 .180 69.5 75.3 62.8 | 12.5

9. .050 aba 941 .180 68.1 74.1 62.6 | 11.5

10 .056 137 .940 197 67.0 73.4 61.8 | 11.6

if 052 132 927 205.1 ° -66.1 72.5 60.6 | 11.9

The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb

Thermometer Means are derived from the Observations made at the several

hours during the month,

iv Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta,

in the month of January, 1866.

Hourly means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.—(Contimued.)

é eT ee 6 He | S89 |38

= $ E A ro) 3,8 5) Sime = e >

e g Eo ee ae 38 | Sse) 33

H pO 8 2 3 2 = & > oie oP

eke 4 & es] A a7 ano & Fo E ol ce

oie 2 3 2 Sy og | Syd oa

Fs} 2 | £ | Se] BE) eS [feels c

do A ~ 2 8 a f* og @ | | aeeeee oo coe

Sg b P| ps | ge | 82 |Ses| see

= = e) = = = < a

Oo oO oO co) Inches, |. T.. gr. Aes

Mid-

night.| 62.1 3.4 59.4 6.1 | 0.513 5.69 1.29 0.82

1 61.7 3.1 59.2 5.6 .509 .66 17 83

2 61.2 3.0 58.5 5.7 .498 53 16 83

3 60.7 2.9 58.1 5.5 AOL 46 ue 83

4 60.2 2.7 57.8 5.1 486 43 .00 84

5 59.7 2.6 57.4 4.9 480 36 0.95 85

6 59.7 2.4 57.5 4.6 A81 38 89 86

7 59.4 2.4 57.2 4.6 476 32 Belg 86

8 60.7 3.0 58.0 5.7 489 AA 1.15 83

9 62.7 4.5 59.1 8.1 .508 62 73 YS

10 64.4 6.4 59.3 11.5 511 -60 2.60 .68

11 65.3 7.9 59.0 14.2 .506 53 3.29 63.

Noon.| 65.9 9.3 59.4 15.8 518 58 79 60

1 66.3 10.2 59.2 17.3 509 54: 4,21 57

2 66.7 10.8 59.1 18.4 .508 .50 54: 55

3 66.8 11.2 59.0 19.0 506 AT 12 54

4, 66.2 10.6 58.8 18.0 503 45 38 55

5 65.9 9.6 59,2 16.3 LACS ‘55 3.91 9

6 65.8 6.8 60.4: 12.2 530 81 2.85" |, a

cs 65.1 5.8 60.5 10.4 532 85 38 oy i

8 64.4: 5.1 60.3 9.2 528 82 .06 TA

9 | 63.7 44 | 60.2 We.) ee 82 | 1.78 77

10 63.1 3.9 60,0 7.0 523 79 51 19

11 62.5 3.6 59.6 6.5 516 72 38 81

All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants.

Meteorological Observations. Vv

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta,

in the month of January, 1866.

Solar Radiation, Weather, &c.

Hy [toe .

32 |s8%4 Prevailing

be ae A Wind.

a oe 8 a3 & O

Biot leis

o Inches

1} 138.0 N.& W.&N.W. | Clear, slightly foggy at midnight &1 a.m,

and from 8 to 11 Pp. M.

2} 134.0 N. & W. Clear, slightly foggy from 8 to 10 P. mM.

3} 134.0 S. W. &S., Clear, slightly foggy at 1 a. M.

4) 138.4 Ss. Clear to 8 p. u. Scatd. \i afterwards.

5} 139.0 Ss. Nito 8 A.M. “i to 4 P.M. clear after-

wards.

6} 129.5 S. & variable. Clear to 9 a. M. Seatd. “i afterwards,

slightly foggy at 5 A. M.

7| 139.0; ,.. | N. &N. W. Various clouds to 7 a.™M., clear afters

wards, |

8} 129.0 N.& N. W. Clear.

9) 124.8 N. & N. W. Clear.

10} 131.0 N. W. & N. Clear, slightly foggy from 8 to 10 P. M,

11) 183.2 ; W. Clear, slightly foggy at 9 Pp, M.

12) 131.0 N. W. &N. & N. E.} Clear.

13) 129.0 W.&N. EL. &N. Clear.

14, 133.4 W. & variable. Clear, foggy at 5 and 6 A. M.

15) 133.0 N.& N. EK. Clear to 10 a. m. Scatd. “i to 5P. M.

clear afterwards, slightly foggy at 10

& 11 P. mM.

16} 126.0 N.&S Clear to 6 a. M. Scatd. “i to 11 a. M.,

clear afterwards. :

17| 129.0; ... |N.GW.&QN. W. Clear to 9 a. mM. Scatd. \i to 6 P. M.

clear afterwards.

18) 130.8 W. Clear, slightly foggy at 6 A. M.

19) 129.5 S.&N Clear to 5 A. M. 71 to 6 P. M. clear after.

wards.

20) 134.5 H. & N. E. Clear, slightly foggy from 5 to_9 A. M.

21} 130.0 S. W. & W. Clear to noon, Scatd. ni to 4p. M. clear

afterwards.

22) 134.0 N. Clear, foggy from 2 to 4 A. M.

23) 127.2 W.&N, Clear to Noon, Scatd. \i to 5 p. M. clear

afterwards, slightly foggy from 8 to

11 P. M.

24) 130.8) ... | W. Clear to 3 Pp. mM. Scatd. “i to 8 Pp. M. clear

afterwards, slightly foggy at 7 & 8p. M.

25} 135.2} ,.. |W.&S. W. Clear to 10 a. mM. Scatd. “i to 7 P. M,

Scatd, i afterwards.

Ni Cirri, —i 8trati, i Cumuli, i Cirro-strati, ~i Cumulo-strati, “-i Nimbi,

ii Cirro-cumuli.

v1 Mt eteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta,

in the month of January, 1866.

Solar Radiation, Weather, &c.

oOo oO

us Peo

é is 5.3 z Prevailing

.| 2@ |O& 2] direction of tion General Aspect of the Sky.

Si wd is oe Wind.

o| © S [and

Als ™ |p

o |Inches

26) 189.5} ... | HE. & 8S. & W. Clear to 5 A. M. Scatd. “i afterwards.

27| 129.5 S. Scatd. “i to 7 p. M. clear afterwards, —

slightly foggy at 7 A.M. and thin rain

at 6 P. M.

Dele 0.45 | HE. & S. EH. Clear to 10 a.m. Overcast to 6 P.M.

wi afterwards rain between 1 & 2 P. M.

and from 4 to 6 Pp. M. Thunder at

3&5 P.M. e

ol aoeas 0.80 | 8. EH. & S. Overcast. Lightning towards N. at 8 &

9 Pp. M. rain after intervals. s

SO aa 0:20. | N. > Scatd. “i to 5 a. M. overcast to 11 A. mM.

ito 3 P.M. overcast afterwards. Light

rains from 7 to 10 A. mM. and from 5 to

9 P.M. :

41h ee 0.46 |N. & N. BE. Overcast, rain at 4, 8, 9,11 and Noon, —

Meteorological Observations. Vii

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of January, 1866.

Monruty Resvtrs.

Inches

Mean height of the Barometer for the month, . we 380.041

Max. height of the Barometer occurred at 10 a. M. on the Sth, ve «930.221

Min. height of the Barometer occurred at 4 A. M. on the 6th, .. 29.848

Extreme Range of the Barometer during the month, has wath OTe

Mean of the daily Max. Pressures, ... ae ne ». 30.123

Ditto ditto Min. ditto... ot seine en

Mean daily range of the Barometer dnring ie oe . os 0.144

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer for the month, ... wa ane 69.0

Max. Temperature occurred at 3 Pp. M. on the 27th, i a 84.7

Min. Temperature occurred at 6 A. M. on the 8th, ste as 55.8

Extreme range of the Temperature during the month, sis his 28.9

Mean of the daily Max. Temperature, a ws oe 78.2

Ditto ditto Min. ditte,, ... % aa As 61.4:

Mean daily range of the Temperature during the month, is 16.8

Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer for the month, . eae 63.4:

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above mean Wet Bulb eee ee ee 5.6

Computed Mean Dew-point for the month, ... : ves 58.9

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above computed mean ideas point a 10.1

Inches

Mean Elastic force of Vapour for the month, ... ae vw. 0.504

5 Troy grains

Rféan Weight of Vapour for the month, he wake 5.56

Additional Weight of Vapour required for complete saturation, if 2.20

Mean degree of humidity for the month, complete saturation being unity, 0.72

: Inches

Rained 5 days, Max. fall of rain during 24 hours, one he 0.80

Total amount of rain during the month, iG wae -. 1.91

Total amount of rain indicated by the Gauge attached to the es

meter during the month, was aes ies ane 1.70

Prevailing direction of the Wind, .., eee Hc N. & W.&S.

Vili Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of ths Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of January, 1866.

Monruty Rusvuts.

Tables showing the number of days on which at a given hour any particular wind

blew, together with the number of days on which at the same hour,

when any particular wind was blowiug, it rained.

Hour.

A 87 18) (8) 181.18] (Sb .78t [ale

EHaaee a \ri|.a SIE) a] | StF |e) | a) 2

NéiZ SE sli eisisliie tleizigis sig

No. of days.

Midnight, a 4 2 3 6 9

1 9 3 3 2 6 8

2 9 4 1 1 9 7

3 li 2 4 1 vm TZ 4

4 11 3 4| 1 "7 1 4, q

5 11 3 3 6 2 4 1

6 11 6 2 6 2 A

7 1o| 1} 3 5 2 3 2 4 2

8 cB ies ee 7, 2 2 3 3 2

9 12| 21 4 3 4, 2 2 3 1

10 10) 1} 5 3 4 1} 2 2 4 1

11 8 1] 4 2 6 1 2 8

Noon. 13! 11 3 1} 1:6 i vf

1 11 2 I 4| 113 3 Fi

-2 il 3 3/1 3 3 7) an

3 3 2 i 4 1 7| 113

A, 5 1 Z| a 3 2 8

5 "| 2 1 4 9

6 8} 2 Lhd 5 5

7 9 i! 2 2 3 1 3

8 9) 1! 2 1 2 2 2 3

9 9} 111 2 1 3 1 3

10 9 3| 1) 2 2 4 2 3

1 7 1h 3 2 3 6 1 1

Meteorological Observations,

Abstract of the Results of the Howrly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of February, 1866.

Latitude 22° 23’ 1” North. Longitude 88° 20’ 34” Kast.

Height of the Cistern of the Standard Barometer above the Sea-level, 18 ft. 11 in.

Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.

SH oy Q

5 £5; | Range of the Barometer ‘2 & | Range of the Tempera«

rt ra during the day. As ture during the day.

‘By = PE

Hae | Ag

go? : ; a 5 3 :

eae Max. Min. Diff. Sf Max. Min. | Diff.

or O Ey

eI q

Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. fe) oO oO oO

1 29.982 | 30.052 | 29.934 | 0.118 63.1 66.9 60.0 6.9

2 994 .067 .946 121 64.3 71.6 58.4 | 13.2

3 .921 .013 .840 ga 65.3 73.8 57.2 | 16.6

4, .833 | 29.898 787 Aad 63.6 70.6 60.4 | 10.2

5 .848 .925 .766 .159 66.3 75.8 DbS.o | 18

6 .983 | 30.062 915 147 69.2 78.4 61.8 | 16.6

vj 30.045 138 985 wae 70.5 80.2 61.4 | 18.8

8 .024 SEO. .967 134 70.8 80.4 65.0" |) LAA

9 .06O 132 | .997 135 68.1 75.2 64.6 | 10.6

10 051 122 .982 .140 ye 5 81.7 62.0 | 19.7

fai 29.987 O41 .915 .126 69.9 80.0 65.4 | 14.6

12 .943 .013 .850 .163 66.8 71.2 62.4 8.8

13 30.037 124 986 .138 63.8 ThA 56.4.) 1487

14 .006 .075 937 .138 64.7 73.5 Dod |) igs

TS 29.975 057 .919 138 67.3 76.4 58.6 | 17.8

16 .952 .040 .888 sLO2 69.3 78.4 59.8 | 18.6

17 .966 .046 .925 121 72.6 82.0 63.2 | 18.8

18 981 .073 .930 143 72.8 78.3 68.8 9.5

19 981 .062 .886 176 7A9 86.0 67.4 | 18.6

20 953 .039 896 | 143 71.9 80.2 | 67.8 | 12.4

21 945 .0238 897 .126 Face 81.8 67.8 | 14.0

22 " ,923 | 29.992 .856 -L36 72.0 81.0 63.2 | 17.8

23 .945 |} 30.021 894 127 2b 82.6 62.2 | 20.4

24 .967 .056 .916 .140 73.0 84.8 62.8 | 22.0

25 .937 .009 874 135 Vim 87.2 64.8 | 22.4,

26 887 | 29.959 824 boo 77.0 88.2 Giso |) 20

27 843 914 791 123 Via 89.2 68.4 | 20.8

28 815 .900 736 164 79.6 91.4 70.8 | 20.6

' The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb Ther-

mometer Means are derived from the hourly observations made during the day,

x Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of February, 1866.

Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.—Continued.

ms : ve) 4 | Soe is

Ald) SR) 1 Brees

= >) bP SS. Gs O Sees. | Hw» &

a B E Re SS |b os | OS a

2 2 a “ ze 9 paee) oo

wo a a mS | g|Eee

oe 2 = = S oe | S45 | MSe

=o A 2 B 43 eI EO | Sera io oa

a & 9 B a8 d a®%? [SS] ges

SF B 5 pa | § SH |3e8)eas

= A o) A =| = <q = .

) ) ) fo) Inches. | T. gr. |] "To gr

1 61.4 Ly 59.9 3.2 0.521 BoA. 0.66 0.90

2 59.3 5.0 54.8 9.5 440 4.88 1.84 73

3 59.9 5.4 55.6 9.7 A52 5.02 91 72

A, Do. a7 56.6 7.0 A67 BA .36 79

5 61.7 4.6 58.0 8.3 489 A2 73 76

6 63.5 gi 58.9 10.3 .504 -56 2.25 Tt

a. 62.6 7.9 56.3 14.2 A62 .08 3.05 .63

8 64.0 6.8 58.6 12.2 499 49 2.71 .67

9 63.9 A.2 60.5 7.6 .Da2 87 1.68 78

10 65.9 5.6 61.4 LO 48 6.02 2.36 72

41 65.6 A.3 62.2 ol .963 A9 1.79 18

12 62.8 4.0 59.6 has OG 5.72 04 79

13 56.2 7.6 49 A, 14.4 .066 4.08 2.53 .62

14 58.8 ae 54.1 10.6 429 Be | .03 70

15 60.8 6.5 55.6 ibe ig 452 5.00 Br .68

16 62.9 6.4: 57.8 11.5 A86 sao A8 .68

17 67.8 4.8 64.0 8.6 597 6.53 13 Te

18 70.2 2.6 68.1 4.7 684: 7.AT 1.24 .86

19 68.4: 6.5 63.8 aE 093 6.46 2.82 70

20 67.5 4.4 64.0 7.9 597 54 1.94 UE

21 66.3 7.4 lt 12.6 543 5.92 3.04 .66

22 62.9 9.1 55.6 16.4 A52 4.96 DA 58

23 62.7 10.0 54.7 18.0 .438 79 89 55

24 62.9 10.1 54.8 18.2 .440 .80 .96 55 a

25 64.9 10.2 57.8 17.3 A86 5.29 4.05 yf

26 67.3 9.7 60.5 16.5 532 rhe | 12 58 a

27 69.8 8.1 64.1 13.8 599 6.48 3.68 64 9

28 73.2 6.4 68.7 10.9 .697 7.52 Be 70 4

All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants. -

Meteorological Observations. xi

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta,

in the month of February, 1866.

Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.

6&5 Range of the Barometer = .. |Range of the Tempera-

2 Ba) | for each hour during aS ture for each hour

Hour Ce. x E 5 aad =

Amt ole:

qo , , do : :

aw Max. Min. Diff. a Max. Min. | Diff.

Or S OD Ey

= =

Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. oO o oO oO

Mid-

night. | 29.964 |30.079 | 29.831 0.248 66.3 74,2 59.8 | 14.4

r 954 .070 821 249 65.8 74.0 59.0 | .15.0

2 .943 051 794 257 65.2 74.0 BSi7 1 Tee

3 931 .046 778 .268 64.6 73.5 58.0 | 15.5

4 .925 .039 .766 273 64,1 72.4 57.4 | 15.0

5 .936 071 197 274 63.7 71.6 56.8 | 14.8 -

6 .954 .079 827 .202 63.3 71.2 56.6 | 14.6

a 974 .085 845 .240 63.3 70.8 56.2 | 14.6

8 |30.000 .106 .868 .238 65.6 71.0 58.8 | 12.2

9 .026 132 .898 234 68.9 75.2 60.6 | 14.6

10 031 138 883 .255 71.6 78.6 60.8-| 17.8

11 .021 127 884 .243 74.0 82.0 62.0 | 20,0

Noon, |29 .994 .099 847 252 76.1 86.4 62.9 | 23.5

1 962 .063 813 250 774 88.8 | 65.0 | 23.8

2 931 .028 778 .250 78.3 90.6 | 66.8 | 23.8

3 911 012 .748 264: 78.6 91.4 | 64.4] 27.0

4 905 022 740 282 77.9 91.2 | 63.8 | 27.4

5 .907 062 736 326 77.0 90.6 | 62.8 | 27.8

6 915 070 742, 828 74.6 87.6 | 62.5 | 25.1

vi 929 ba il .760 B51 72.6 84.6 | 62.2 | 22.4

8 .948 122 784 338 70.9 80.6 | 62.0 | 18.6

9 962 7 798 319 69.7 78.4; | G2 bi te

10 .969 .080 809 aah 68.6 772 61.8 | 15.4

11 964: O71 804 267 4 | 6A6 76.0 | 61.4| 146

The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb

Thermometer Means are derived from the Observations made at the geyeral

hours during the month.

xii | Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta,

an the month of February, 1866.

Hourly means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon,— (Continued.)

4 : zs) fe | OS las

A 3 4 A R78 8) Bese

a ® a= 2 Se |ase |p?

oc o > & ea ‘oS A 5 SHS

5 - E i) ° 3 = 8 ae on

es) Sipe i 8 | s- | s2 eee

6 & S 5S) 2 a PE ls.e] 8a

Es| |e = | = eS (fhe | gam

a 8 a ee ee Fl aa |S SE | abe.

5 5 b> 5 be § ¢2 |SES| sek

zi A Oo A = a <q =

oO fe) o Oo Inches. | T. gr, |T, ee:

Mid-

night.| 62.9 3.4 60.2 6.1 | 0.527 5.84: 1,31 0.82

1 62.7 3.1 60.2 5.6 527 84 20 83

2 62.5 2.7 60.3 4.9 .528 87 04, 85

3 61.9 2,7 Bar7. 4.9 518 76 02 85

4 61.5 2.6 59.2 4.9 .509 67 00 85

5 61.3 2.4 59.1 4.6 .508 65 0.94 - 86

6 60.9 2.4 58.7 A.6 501 58 .93 86

i 61.0 2.3 58.9 A.A 504: 62 89 86

8 62.2 3.4 59.5 6.1 515 (pe L2g 82

9 63.6 5.3 59.4: 9.5 5138 64 2.10 73

10 64.4 7.2 58.6 13.0 499 AT 93 65

11 65.0 9.0 58.7 15.3 501 A7 3.07 61

Noon.| 65.4— 10.7 57.9 18.2 488 .29 4,34 55

af 65.8 11.6 57.7 19:7 485 24 77 52

2 66.1 12.2 57.6 20.7 483 21 5.07 51

3 66.1 12.5 57.3 21.3 478 16 22 50

4, 65.9 12.0 57.5 20.4: 481 21 4.95 51

5 66.0 11.0 58.3 18.7 494 85 54 4

6 66.4: 8.2 60.7 13.9 536 83 3.37 63

7 66.3 6.3 61.3 rs 546 ee 2.67 69

8 65.4 5,5 61.0 sis) 541 94: 29 72

9 64.6 5.1 60.5 9.2 *,.532 .86 07 74

10 64.3 4.3 60.9 Mal .539 94 1.73 1 -

11 63.9 3.7 | 60.9 Cy .039 .96 48 30 8

Meteorological Observations.

xiii

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of February, 1866,

Max. Solar

radiation.

Date.

12 eeo

Rain Guage

5 feet above

Ground.

1.26

Solar Radiation, Weather, &c.

Prevailing

direction of the

Wind.

General Aspect of the Sky.

Overcast to 5 p. M. clear afterwards,

Rain from 5 to 10 a. M.

Clear, slightly foggy at 3 A. M.

Clear.

Clear to 2 4. mM. “ito 104. mM. Overcast

afterwards. Rainat11 a. mM. and from

1 to 4 P.M.

Clear.

Clear to9 a.mM.Wito2P.mM. “ito 7 P.M,

clear afterwards.

Clear to 11 a. ms. Wi to 6 P. M., clear

afterwards,

Clouds of different kinds to 6 P. M., clear

afterwards.

‘i to 3 Pp. M. overcast afterwards. Thin

rain at 11 a. M., 4 and from 7 to 9P. M,

Clear nearly the whole day.

Clear to 4 a. mM. Scatd. “i to 1 P. m,

Overcast afterwards. Thunder at 3 &

7~.mM. Rainfrom4to 7 &10&11P.m,

Overcast to noon. i to 5 P. M. clear

afterwards. Lightning and Thunder

at 24.M. Rain at midnight from 2 to

5& at 7a.M.

Clear,

Clear.

afterwards.

Clear to 7 a. M. overcast to 5 Pp. M. clear

afterwards foggy at 6 & 7 A. M.

Ai and “i to noon. Wi to 7 Pp. M. clear

afterwards.

Overcast to 3 Pp. M. clear afterwards,

Thin rain at 9 A. M. & 2 P. M.

Clear, slightly foggy from 9 to 11 P. M.

Clear to 9 A. M. Scatd. “ito 3 P. M. clear

afterwards. Slightly foggy at 8 P. M.

\i Cirri, —i Strati, 9i Cumuli, “i Cirro-strati, ~i Cumulo-strati, Wi Nimbi,

\i Cirro-cumuli,

xiv Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta,

an the month of February, 1866.

Solar Radiation, Weather, &c. |

m + [oO | -

& § 5.2 | Prevailing

.| 28 5 & =| direction of the General Aspect of the Sky.

££) ee te se Wind.

e| oS fan

A) a” |i.

o (Inches ~

23) 140.0 N.&N.W.&8 Clear.

24| 139.0| .. N. & W. Clear, slightly foggy at 10 & 11 P.M.

25| 139.9; ... |N.W.&W.&N. | Clear, slightly foggy at midnight.

96| 142.2 a W. Clear.

7 AALS ie | Clear, slightly foggy at 6 & 7 A. M.

28} 145.0; .. |8 Clear, slightly foggy at midnight and —

at6& 7a. M.

Meteorological Observations, XV

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

un the month of February, 1866.

Monruty Resvtts.

Inches

Mean height of the Barometer for the month,.,, ite w. 29.956

Max. height of the Barometer occurred at 10 a. Mu. on the 7th, ». 980.138

Min. height of the Barometer occurred at 5 Pp. M. on the 28th, we 29.736

Extreme Range of the Barometer during the month, oe ve 0.402

Mean of the daily Max. Pressures, .., ave uae vw. 380.034

Ditto ditto Min. ditto... vee or ve 29.894

Mewn daily range of the Barometer during the month, ,,, we OLRa

fo)

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer for the month, .., ca a 70.3

Max. Temperature occurred at 3 P. M. on the 28th, ony we 91.4

Min. Temperature occurred at 7 A. M. on the 14th, a a 56.2

Extreme range of the Temperature during the month, a oe 35.2

Mean of the daily Max. Temperature, “wi wae ree 79.2

Ditto ditto Min. aittie:) va. a tat 62.9

Mean daily range of the Temperature during the month, via, So) DOve

Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer for the mien a ae 64.0

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above mean Wet ‘Bulb Miecninmite: cn 6.3

Computed Mean Dew-point for the month, ... cae 36 59.0

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer «bove computed mean Dew-point, exale s

Inches

Mean Elastic force of Vapour for the month, .., ee eo. 0:506

Troy grains

Mean Weight of Vapour for the month, se oa 5.56

Additional Weight of Vapour required for complete ete aa 2.52

Mean degree of humidity for the month, complete saturation being unity, 0.69

Inches

Rained 5 days, Max. fall of rain during 24 hours, aad ve 1.56

Total amount of rain during the month, ae hein ae 3.74

Total amount of rain indicated by the Gauge attached to the Anemo-

meter during the month, Abi ae Bie ae 3.34

Prevailing direction of the Wind, ,,, eve sin H. &N. & W.

Xvi Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of ths Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

an the month of February, 1866.

Montuty Restuts.

Tables showing the number of days on which at a given hour any particular wind

blew, together with the number of days on which at the same hour,

when.any particular wind was blowiug, it rained.

Midnight. 3 3 "113 5 5 2

1 3 3 7 2 5 5 3

2 3 8) Az 1b 3 4 5 3

3 5 2 6 2 3 5] 1] 4 1

4 6| 17 2 | 1 4, 4 3 1

5 “| 41 2) 116 i 5 A 3 .

6 ait Lisl Hepes als 19 A| 15

7 7| 11 3) 116 2 6 4

8 4 5| 11 6 2 6 5

9 4| 2] 21...4 8b 2 6 6

10 5 2) 1410 1 2 6 2

11 A 1 8 213 3 5 4

Noon. 4, 4) 7 6 1 4, ir 5 S

1 2 3 4| 1] 1 3 1 7 ‘

2 3 2 5) 1] 1 3| 1 9| 15

3 7 iL 5) 1 2 1 8 4

A 6 2] 4) 11 2 2 8 6

5 7 2| 11 6 i 1 1 5 5

6 11 1) eZ 1 1 4 3

7 14| 1 wet 2 4 1

8 13) 00 7 2 | 4 1

9 10) 1 11 4 3

10 8 1 9/1 6 3 if

11 vf 1 9| 1 6 bah 1

Meteorological Observations. XV1L

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of March 1866.

Latitude 22° 23’ 1” North. Longitude 88° 20’ 34” Kast.

Height of the Cistern of the Standard Barometer above the sea level, 18-11 feet

Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.

Chet

° 8 Range of the Barometer = # | Range of the Tempera-

a= $2 during the day. ale ture during the day.

aS ——

o Se, HS

Date. ae S Q es =

eo | Max. | Min. | Diff. | $3 | Max. | Min. | Diff.

5 ~ o = HH

Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. re) oO O 0

1 29.789 | 29.866 | 29.740 | 0.126 81.4 93.6 72.8 | 20.8

2 821 .898 748 .150 82.3 92.8 74.5 , 18.3

3 821 927 145 182 81.4 91.7 72.4 | 19.3

4 756 .818 .678 .140 81.8 93.6 72.0 | 21.6

5 .786 .865 432 33 82.4 94.8 72.4 | 22.4

6 .816 .892 WY 135 81.8 94.0 414 | 22.6

7 792 .860 724 136 82.6 94.0 75.4 | 18.6:

8 .793 .876 719 157 | 83.4 95.2 | 72.5 | 22.7

9 .800 .872 732 140 83.8 95.0 75.4 | 19.6

10 784 .859 719 .140 83.4 94.4 6.7 | U7

11 .858 937 175 162 83.6 92.4 76.8 | 15:6.

12 .977 | 30.060 .900 .160 83.4 92.4 77.4 | 15.0:

13 .967 056 .872 184 83.3 92.2 77.8 | 14.4.

14, 845 | 29.945 764 181 86.4 96.4 77.9 | 18:5

15 .828 924 | - 61 163 84.3 94.0 76.6 | 17.4,

16 .871 .952 .812 140 84.5 94.0 79.0 | 15,0:

17 885 970 .822 148 84.0 94.4 74.0 | LFA

18 .820 .899 750 149 83.4 92.9 1¢.0: | 15:9

19 198 .869 . 729 140 84.5 95.0 77.6 | 17.4

20 .842 921 179 142 84.3 94.0 16.6 | Le

21 798 .878 703 175 85.5 96.5 76.8 | 19.7

22 GAZ. .803 .619 184 86.7 93.6 77.8 | 20.8

23 715 790 .663 127 86.4 98.4 | 77.8 | 20.6

24 751 .838 684 154 84.9 95.3 CEB | AGT

25 748 .827 .678 149 86.4 96.2 81.0 | 15.2

26 .700 .769 .626 143- 87.4 97.4 80.7 | 16.7

27 .730 S11 .668 143 86.1 95.1 79.5 | 15.6

28 .812 .914 743 tifel: 84.9 93.2 76.0°| 37.2

29 .859 .960 Brig 189 81.9 91.6 Tas | L778

30 .855 927 175 152 81.0 91.0 72.4 | 18.6

31 .806 .887 a9 148 83.7 93.0 77.0 | 16.0

The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb

Thermometer Means are derived, from the hourly observations, made during

the day.

XV1il Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of March 1866.

Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.—(Continued.)

' = Gey . oe : Chae

Bevdehs| 2] Aodbag | But aemeneeg p

Gey (ie Ade 8 | Ss | See |e%s

OQ o = ° Gy 42 Of & 8 rob) ce

E ae eS ee C8 | Bed oa

FA 2 3 = se Eee on. a

22 2 Zo 2 a 5; oo | es | &S2

Be || 2 | 3s | a2 | eS | 2/222

aS : S| 8s | ss | eS5 | s28

es > | BA SF SO, | wees | SUR

= a ome = = a | =

fo) to) oe) Co) Inches. | 'T. gr.” } Doge

1 72.9 8.5 | 66.9 14.5 0.657 7.06 4.21 0.63

2 72.8 9.5 | 66.1 16.2 .640 6-87 71 59

3 70.3 TP 1 yeaa 18.9 .568 oy 5.16 54

A, 69.4: 12.4 | 60:7 Zit 536 5.75 .65 .50

5 70.2 12.2. | 61,7 20.7- 004 93 .68 OL

6 69.4 12.4 | 60.7 21.1 506 WSs 65° 59

7 76.9 Of | Tag 9.7 197 8.56- 3.12 13

8 74.5 8.9 | 68.3 15.1 .688 7.37 4.59 .62

9 77.2 6:6 | 72.6 Dh ah 790 8.47 3.63° .70

10 771.3 6.1 | 73.0 10.4: SOL 58 38 72

11 72.8 10.8 | 65.2 18.4 .621 6.66 7m 5d

12 75.3 6.1 | G26 13.8 TLE 7.68 4.28: 64

13 Tat 6.6 | 72.1 11.2 778 8.34 3.59: 70

14 rhe OS} 7026 15.8 TAL 7.89 5.17 .60

15 75.0 9.3 | 68.5 15.8 .692 AL 4.87 .60

16 73.5 11.0 | 65.8 18.7: .634 647: 5.58: DO

V7 74.2 9.8 | 67.3 16.7 .666 7.12 .05 59

18 74.8 8.6 | 68.8 14.6: L090" 48 4.48 63

19 75.6 8.9 | 69.4 15.1 113 .62 73° .62

20 73.6 10.7 | 66.1 18.2 .640 6.84. 5.44 56

21 75.4 10.1 | 68.3 12: 688: 7.34 38) 58

22 76.3 TOA |. ZOE 16.6. 429 76 42. 59

23 75.6 10.8 | 68.0 TS.42~)|" 21680: .26 .80- 56

24 78.6 6.3 | 74.2 10.7 .832 8.89 3.60. , ane

25 79.6 6.8 | 74.8 11.6. .849 9.04: 4.92: - .69

26 80.8 6-6] 7638 10.6: .905 61 3.84. 7

27 76.3 9.8 | 69.4 16.7- 713 7.59 5.36. oo

28 ho 5.8 | 75.0 <5) 854 9.12 3.37 - 13 a

29 75.1 6.8 | 70.3 11.6 734 7.89 5d 69

30 75.1 D9 | “71,0 10.0 751 8.09 05 13

31 77.3 6.4 | 72.8 10.9 195 o2 y9) sh

All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants. —

Meteorological Observations. XIX

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of March 1866.

Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.

6 | Range of the Barometer =. |Range of the Tempera-

oo s for each hour during BS ture for each hour

"ooo the month. 2 during the month.

oq ce Ps 5

Hour.| © Bo Ag

g°423 | Max. | Min. | Diff. | 32 | Max. | Min. | Diff

ad an

Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. oe) ) ) )

Mid-

night.| 29.821 | 30.007 | 29.706 | 0.301 79.1 82.8 | 72.5 | 10.3

1 807 .OOL .696 «305 78.6 82.0 72.4 9.6

2 794 | 29.985 .682 303 78.1 81.6 72.8 8.8

3 784 .978 Fi" | a0F 77.5 STB i fae8 |b tek

4, 781 .982 .668 314 77.2 81.6 72.8 8.8

5 796 995 .687 .308 76.8 81.4 71.6 9.8

6 815 | 30.009 707 302 76.4 81.1 71.5 9.6

7 .839 025 730 | .295 76.7 81.4 | 71.4 | 10.0

8 869 043 748 | .295 78.8 82.8 | 73.8 | 9.0

9 885 055 761 294 81.9 86.6 76.6 | 10.0

10 .889 .060 751 309 85.1 89.8 80.0 9.8

11 878 .056 769 | .287 87.9 92.4 | 83.8 | 8.6

| Noon. 851 031 -740 291 90.3 94.6 87.6 7.0

1 818 003 “il .292 92.0 96.0 89.2 6.8

2 .784-| 29.976 .666 a LO 93.4: 97.4 91.0 6.4

3 761 957 642 old 94.1 98.4 90.6 7s

A 748 933 .625 308 94.0 98.6 89.8 8.8

5 745 .939 .619 320 92.5 97.4 87.6 9.8

6 152 950 624 326 88.9 93.6 84.6 9.0

7 £09 964 .633 aL . 86.0 90.6 82.6 8.0

8 793 .990 .666 O24 84.0 87.0 81.6 5.4

9 .819 | 30.009 .693 316 82.1 84.8 73.8 | 11.0

10 .830 021 707 314 80.9 83.8 78.2 7.6

i 831 .O19 .706 303 79.8 83.0 (4.2 8.8

The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb

Thermometer Means are derived from the observations made at the several

hours during the month.

xX Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of March 1866.

Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.—(Continued.)

a ee 43 om : oi | Se 3itae

2 |) a Z as | 7a | Bs

= ete 6 3 Ss | aos | me.

= E E E os iS) 2 ‘a8 52°

H oa 2 aay 2 2 = EES) oes

mel ge | cc] g | Eo) Ego) Sega

Fe a | Sis, [es | ee | Sees

ge} |B | | | eee

So jb |) eg | pe | Se | So ee ees

Ss a OS am SI = SF = Sj) sos

fy) ) Oo inches.,|.'T. gr. | T. pe

Mid- f

night.| 75.8 ad) | Sad 5.6 0.814 8.79 1.74 0.84

il 75.6 3.0 | 73.5 51 814 81 OF 85

2 75.4 2eh |) lao 4.6 814 sy Al .86

3 75.0 2.5 | 73.2 4.3 .806 15 29 87

4, 74.7 2D | 12:0 Ans hy iS) oe .66 .29 87

3) 74.5 2.3 | a0 3.9 197 .66 AE. 88

6 74.2 2.2 | C2nb 3.7 792 61 all 89

7 74.6 2 | Vert 3.6 803 12 08 89

8 75.2 a0. | 7 2e¥ 6.1 792 58 .86 82

9 75.8 6.1 | 71.5 10.4 .763 21 3.29 | 12

10 75.7 9.4} 69.1 16.0 £06 7.03 5.04 .60

iT oO?) 1298) 67:3 20.6 .666 06 6.58 52

Noon.| 74.9 15.4 | 65.7 24.6 | .632 6.68 7.95 46

1 74.6 TZAO)) 6422, 27:8 601 2 9.04 AL

2 74.5 18.9 | 63.2 | :30.2 682 obi 88 38

3 74.3 19.8 | 62.4.|, 31.7 | 567 5.93 10.39 36

4, 74.9 19.1 | 63.4.| :30.6 O86 6.13 14 38

5 fork 17.4.| 64.7;| °27.8 611 43 9.16 AL

6 75.1 13.8 | 66.8: 22.1 655 94 7.10 AQ

7 75.5 10.5 | 68.1 17.9 .684 7.28 5.63 56

8 75.1 8.9 | (68.9 ESL yal OL OL 4.66 .62

9 75.3 6.8 | 70.5 Ba ae 93 BOO, .69

10 75.8 5.1 | 72.2 Bic) Pow 8.40 2.70 .76

11 75.9 3.9 | :73.2 6.6 .806 70 2.05 81

All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants.

Meteorological Observations. . XXxI

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

im the month of March 13866.

Solar Radiation, Weather. &c.

Besoin e

pe & Sst Prevailing

.| .8 OS 2] direction of the General Aspect of the Sky.

é le rg BSS Wind.

A|s* 3s

0 |Inches |

LP Tae9)| .... N. W.& W. &S. | Clear.

-2| 142.0]... W. Clear.

3} 142.8; ... | W.&S. W. | Clear.

4/ 141.6] ... W.&S.WK&S. Clear.

5| 148.5]... W.&S. Clear.

6 | 142.0)... W. Clear.

7 | 141.5 S.& 8S. W. Clear. Seuds from S.between 4 &7a.m.

DS. dW. Clear to 4a. M., scatd. ito9a. M.,

8 | 142.4 clear afterwards.

9| 136.4 S. W. Clear, slightly foggy from 4 to 6 4. m.

10 | 137.2 Dy. ALN. Clear, slightly foggy from 3 to 8 4. m.

11 | 140.0 N. & W. Clear, slightly foggy at 4.4. m.

12 | 142.0 S. & N. Clear.

13 | 137.0 8. & S. W Clear to 2 a4. M., overcast to 6 A. M.,

clear afterwards.

14} 140.0 S. & W. Clear, slightly foggy at 1 a. Mm.

15 | 141.0 S. & W. Clear, slightly foggy from 3 to 54. mM.

16 | 150.0 S. W. & W. Seatd. clouds to 8 a. M., clear after-

wards.

ay } 137.0 S.&N Clear to 7 4. M.\1i to 7 P. M., clear

afterwards.

18 | 134.7 S. & S. W. Ni to 8 p. M., clear afterwards.

19 | 142.0 W.&S8S.&8.W. | Nito 84. M., clear afterwards.

20 | 149.0 S.W.&W.&N.W.| Clear, foggy from 4 to 7 a. M.

21} 142.0 W.&S.W.&S Clear to 1 Pp. m., scatd. “i to 6 P. M.,

elear afterwards.

22 | 142.0 S.Ww.&W.&S Clear.

23 | 146.0 S.& W. Clear.

24 | 140.5 S. Clear.

25 | 141.0 S.&S. W. Scatd.~1 to 9 a. M., clear afterwards.

26 | 146.0 Ss. Clouds of different kinds.

27 | 142.5 S. Clear.

28 | 137.0 ih cee Clear to 6 A. M., scatd.“i to 5 Pp. M.,

overcast afterwards. Thin rain Inght-

ning. and Thunder at 10 & 11 Pp. M.

29 | 132.0 S. Overcast to 6 A. M., scatd.i to 8 P. M.

over cast afterwards Thin rain at

Ll Pe: M.

M1 Cirri, — 1 Strati,~i Cumuli, i Cirro-strati, ~ i Cumulo strati,~-i Nimbi,

“i Cirro cumuli.

XX Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of March 1866.

Solar Radiation, Weather, &c.

w . (22

2S 5 se Prevailing

h ee pg ee he 5 direction of the General Aspect of the Sky.

£/ 82 226 Wind |

A)" leas

30 | 135.0 S “i to 10 a. mM. “i to 4p. m., clear

afterwards. .

31/137.0| ... | E.&8.&8.W. | Clearto4a.m. “itol rp. m. Scatd.

Ni afterwads.

Meteorological Observations. XX

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta, in the

month of March 1866.

Montuyuy REsvutts.

Inches.

Mean height of the Barometer for the month,,... en, SOLOLE

Max. height of the Barometer occurred ai 10 a. M. on the 12th, ... 30.060

Min. height of the Barometer occurred at 5 p. M. on the 22nd, _ ... 29.619

Extreme | range of the Barometer during the month, we ww. 0.441

Mean of the daily Max. Pressures, ... = se ... 29.893

Ditto ditto Min. ditto sat va. 20.740

Mean daily range of the Barometer during the month, .., a» ) Chios

)

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer for the month, ... a > oe

Max. Temperature occurred at 4 Pp. M. on the 22nd, ae a | See

Min. Temperature occurred at 7 a. M. on the 6th, ret ak ey

Extreme range of the Temperature during the month, ... ia 20

Mean of the daily Max. Temperature .. an a a | oe

Ditto ditto Min. ditto, bik GR

Mean daily range of the Temperature during the month,.. av”

Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer for the month, ... Go.

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer 8.8

Computed Mean Dew-point for the month, 68.9

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above computed n mean Dew-point. . 15.0

‘ites

Mean Elastic force of Vapour for the month, ... ae te O01

Troy grains.

Mean Weight of Vapour for the month ese ie

Additional Weight of Vapour required for complete saturation, oe) AG?

Mean degree of humidity for the month, complete saturation being unity 0.62

Inches.

Drizzled 2 days, —Max. fall of rain during 24 hours a sat Nil

Total amount of rain during the inonth, ee Nil

Prevailing direction of the ‘Wind, ee i §.& W.&S. W,

XXIV Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta,

on the month of March 1866.

Monrtuiy ReEsvutts.

Tables shewing the number of days on which at a given hour any particular

wind blew, together with the number of days on which at the same hour,

when any particular wind was blowing, it rained.

Hour. ; : :

al fel ie] 2] lél lel jel/al leks

gig) eke) See. F se al2

“PCPEPPePPTT Tree

| |

No.of days

Midnight. Lp fod. Wp 3)

1 i 2} 418 8 2

2 1 20 8 2

3 Li {17 8 4

A 1| 15 9 5

5 1; 13} [10 6

6 1 1 14, | 9 5

7 1 1 12) fll 5

8 3 AD cpt 6

9 1 9 9} 10) 42

10 2 5) $10) flo) 74

11 5 1 1 3 6 9| 46

Noon. HPQ eee) Tel 5} | 4 7 7) 16

1 2| lal 42 3| | 6) fill [6

2 2 1 2 ut 3 3} 115) 74

3 4 2 1 2 6} flo} pl

A, 3 2 1 6 3) Lol “pe

5 3 1 ] 1 8 2; 714) Fl

6 ja) Jil fal. 9} | 2: fiz) {2

4 2 1 2 14 1 9 42

8 2 1 17 1 9} yl

9 1 1 21 3 Al Jl

10 1 sey, a 5} 1] 3

it 1}, es 6 4' 241

et et ee

Meteorological Observations. XXV

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of Aprit 1866.

Latitude 22° 33’ 1” North. Longitude 88° 20734” Kast.

Height of the Cistern of the Standard Barometer above the sea level, 18-11 feet.

Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical_elements

dependent thereon.

o 8 Range of the Barometer = = | Range of the Tempera-

Stes during the da f= | ture during the d

SES uring the day.. 1% ure during the day.

Date. | 5 Bo | 5 2

& 2° | Max. | Min. Dif. | £3 | Max. | Min. | Diff.

st re) | = H

Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. 0 0 0 oO

1 29.842 | 29.976 | 29.781 0.195 82.5 89.9 76.9 | 13.0

2 844 915 .796 LIQ 82.6 91.8 76.4, 15.4

3 853 955 BOL 154 77.4 83.4 73.6 9.8

4 811 882 753 129 78.6. 89.0 tLA | UG

5 -806. 879 125 1L5A) 82.1 93.0 72.8 | 20.2:

6 138 834 .620 214 83.9 95.0 78.2 | 16.8

7 -695 472 617 145 85.6: 96.8: | 77.2 | 19.6.

8 .688 760 .621 139 86.6: 97.6, | 78.0:| 19.6

9 707 794. .629 .165 88.2 98.8 | 81.0)| 17.8:

10 .655 .730 562 168 89.3 102.6 81.8 | 20.8:

oe ay, .O16 685 545. 140 89.1 102.3 78:8: | 23.5.

12 -642 .709 O76. 133 88.1 100.2: 77.4. | 22.8:

13 -730 810 671 139 87.7 100.2 77.0: | 23.2)

14, 716 799 .634 165 88.5 101.8 79.2: | 22.6.

15 674 747 881 166: 88.8 102.6. 80.6 | 22.0)

16 .676 .736 .630 -LO06: 86.3 93.8: |e SO:7 1- 13et

17 -700 .766 642 124 85.3 90.8: 81.4. 9.4),

18 723 -796 .618 178 85.1 92.1 80.8 | 11.3:

19 734 .812 .679 133 86.4: 95.6 81.2 | 14.4.

20 803 -894 132 162 86.8 94.0 $1.4. | 12.6

21 914 | 30.062 .806 .256 82.4: 91.4: 69.6, | 21.8:

22° .983 074) .899 175 75.5 84.4 | 68.4 | 16.0:

23 951 -039 .845 194: 79.3 88.2 73-0.) Vue:

24 .902.| 29.973 804 169 82.5 91.2 75.0 | 16.2:

25 .835 Rey) 721 196 83.6: 94.2 | 75.7 | 18.5

26 .766 -853 .660 193 85.7 96.4 #7.4. | 419.0:

27 .796 858 Jal 127 86.1 94.4 | 77.8 | 16.6

28 853 995 788 207 80.3 89.8 72.2 | 17.6

29 874 .959 192 167 78.2 87.0 73.0 | 14.0:

30 .839 -900 751 148 81.0 90.6 72.0 | 18.6

The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb

ancien Means are derived, from the hourly observations, made during

e day. .

XXV1 Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta,

in the month of April 1866.

Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.—(Continued.)

' A te = a Gy gy es ae

g a aes 3 og.) 2884 ee.

rahe) | ae ole Ss | Ss | See) ats

a) o id & G4 42 a = ede =

a > = ° o 98 Ons ~~

Date. 5) 4 3 A = S "p.2 ee 2 Ee

Sf + 2/2) s. | ds | SS | eae | See

Pala |ze| aa | 22 | BS |geeve ee

ond ~~ ~Y

Sac] b | 8] be Pee | oo | ee eeee

= A oS A = i hale =

Oo Oo ) ) Inches. | T..er.” | “Paar

1 75.1 74} 69.9] 12.6 | 0.725 eT7 3.87 0.67

2 75.1 75 | 608 | 12:8 bes. 74, 94, .66

3 71.1 6.3 | 66.7 | 10.7 .653 07 2.94 Bri:

A 69.9 67 | 628 || Was 593 6.41 3.97 62

5 73.2 8.9 | 67.0] 15.1 .659 7.08 4.43 62

6 77.3 6.6) 727 || 12 .792 8.49 3.64 70

7 95.2 | 10.4 | 67.9 | 17.7 .679 7.24, 5.52 SY

8 79.2 74) 74.8} 11.8 .849 9.04 4.10 69

9 81.2 70 | F7.05\ ) Tie .910 .67 .09 70

10 80.4 8.9 | 75.1] 14.2 .857 08 5.13 64

11 76.7 | 12.4] 69.3] 19.8 atl 7.52 6.60 53

12 75.3 | 128 | 676 | 205 .672 13 59 52

13 77.6. |)101 | Fle | 16.2 .763 8.11 5.45 .60

14 78.2 \° 90.3 | 7210") | 165 776 WA 67 59

15 79.8 9.0| 74.4] 14.4 .838 .89 at 64

16 80.7 5.6 | 76.8 9.5 .905 9.63 3.39 74

47, 79.7 5.6 | 75.8 9.5 .876 35 .29 74

18 79.7 5.4 | 75.9 9.2 879 AO a 453

19 80.1 6.3. | Yea" | 10:7 .873 .30 76 JA

20 80.4 6.4 | 76.6'| | 10:2 .899 57 64 72

21 76.2 6:2 | 71.9) 1025- 773 8.29 32 Rie!

22 70.7 4.8 | 67.3 8.2 .666 7.25 2.21 ie

23 74.6 any | Fz3 8.0 .758 8.20 .39 17

24 76.1 6.4 | 71.6] 10.9 .766 122 3.42 We:

25 78.0 5.6 | 74.1 9.5 .830 .89 14 74

26 78.7 70 | 78%) 109 .822 76 4.04, 68

27 80.6 5.5 | 76.7 9.4 .902 9.62 3.33 74

28 76.3 4.0 | 73.5 6.8 .814--| 8.78 2.13 81

29 74.0 LN rg Ui 7.1 753 16 .09 .80

30 74.1 6.9 | 69.3 | 11.7 yall 7.64 3.50 69

All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants. —

Meteorological Observations. XXV11

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of April 1866.

Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.

63 Range of the Barometer <=. | Range of the Tempera-

5s for each hour during a g ture for each hour

ae q the month. 2 during the month.

® #

aan : - 4 : ;

S a oo | Max. Min. | Diff. : = Max. |-Min. | Diff. -

as =

Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. oy) oy) oy) )

Mid-

night.| 29.783 | 30.042 | 29.623 | 0.419 79.5 83.4 68.8 | 14.6

1 771 | 29.963 .608 309 79.0 83.0 68.4 | 14.6

2 .761 .982 O93 389 78.8 82.6 68.8 | 13.8

3 752 959 O80 379 78.5 82.2 68.4 | 13.8

A 755 .960 587 373 78.2 82.0 69.0 | 13.0

5 770 982 .600 382 78.0 82.2 69.0 |, 13.2

6 .790 | 30.005 .620 385 77.8 82.2 68.6 | 13.6

7 881i 038 .640 398 78.8 83.4 70.4 | 13.0

8 833 .068 .665 403 81.2 85.8 70.4. |. Bet

9 849 O74. 684: 390 84.3 88.8 73.3 | 15.5

10 851 .070 685 385 86.9 92.2 76.0 | Wee

ki 841 O14 .683 ol 89.1 95.6 76.3 | 19.3

Noon. 822 007 .662 340 90.6 98.9 77.6) 2a

1 91 | 29.971 .627 B44 91.9 100.2 78.0 | 22.2

2 757 947 585 362 92.7 101.8 82.0 | 19.8

3 129 018 565 303 93.0 102.3 82.8 | 19.5

4, 709 899 555 44 92.4 102.6 S).0 |. 216

5 705 £905 545 .360 90.6 100.8 79.0 | 21.8

6 127 917 .Od7 .360 87.7 96.4 70.2 | 29.2

7 741 948 O17 371 84.7 91.6 72.8 | 18.8

8 .768 963 605 308 82.6 89.8 73.6 | 16.2

9 783 .989 632 B07 81.6 87.0 73.4 | 13.6

10 796 | 30.016 641 Yi) 80.6 85.0 fa. | 12.8

195 062 .639 423 80.0 84.4 43.0 | fll.

The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb

Thermometer Means are derived from the observations made at the several

hours during the month.

XXV11 Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta,

in the month of April 1866.

Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.—(Continued.)

: us ‘ = = eS ae

Sanctions | Jer 8 aid | a | 88

3 eo) ey ie * 23 |\poel cee

ae ea a 2 =. os |e g | SEs

FS ES 212. | S| ES1e es SEB

ag a | Fg da | ¢ Sas | og

SO b =I bo Se = = aes oS

ea | F181 BS | Se | Se Seelam

= = ) = = ao “5 < =~

o za) oO ° Inches: | Togr. | Tor

Mid- :

might.| 76.1 34 | 73.7 5.8 0.819 8.85 1.81 0.83

1 76.0: 3.0) | Fa9 ol 824 92 08 8d -

2 0.1 2.7 | {AR 4.6 832 9.00 4A, .86

ee: 76.1 2.4) 74.4 4.1 .838 08 2b .88

4 76.0 2.2 | 74.5 Bw | .840: at 14 89

3) 75.8 2.2) 74.3 Sw 835 05 14 .89

6 75.8 2.0 | 74.4 3.4 .838 10 03 .90

@ 46.3 25 | 74.5 43 .840 11 .oo 87

3 Vie 4.0 | 74.4 6.8 838 02 2.19 81

9 77.8 65 | 73.2 j1.1 -806 8.63 3.68 .70

10 78.1 8.8 | 72.8 14.1 95 47 4.78 64

a 78.1 11.0 | 71.5 17.6 763 08 6.04 OT

Noon.| 77.7 12.9 | 70.0 | 20.6 ae 7.66 7.10 52

1 77.9 14.0 | 69.5 22.4 715 3 £9 AD

2 Lid 15.0 | 68.7 24.0 -697 2 8.36 APS

3 77.6 15.4 | 68.4 24.6 .696 25 56 46

A 771A 15.0 | 68.4 24.0 .690 28 .29 AT

5) Fine 13.3 | 69:3 203 gtd AO 7.26 1

6 77.5 10.2 | 71.4 16.3 761 8.08 5.48 .60

7 76.9 7.8 | 71.4 13.3 Ol 13 4.29 .66

8 76.7 5.9 | 72.6 10.0 .790 49 3.19 73

9 76.5 mi | 729) Sez foe 57 2.77 76

10 76.3 Aco. | fans isa .809 72 .29 79

at OL a9 | 7aA 6.6 Bole 18 3.06 1

All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants. —

Meteorological Observations. XX1X

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the mouth of April 1866.

Solar Radiation, Weather, &c.

aa |PE Prevail; |-3 8 |

So ilsas revailing Ae |

eee hO = 2! direction of the Pi | General Aspect of the Sky.

= ie 3 & 2 & Wind. Oe

AIA li Ag

| o |Inches | Ib

1; 132.0| ,.. |W.S. W. & E.S.E.) 2.75 Overcast to Noon,\ni to 5 P. M.,

| clear afterwards.

2/1410; .,. |8.S.E. & W.S. W.| 1.25 }~i to 7 a. m., scatd. “4 tod

. P. M., overcast to8 Pp. M.\l

afterwards.

wien |... an.& N.N. W. 2.25 \\-i to 3 P. M., overcast after-

/ wards. Thin rain between 6

/ | &7a.M.&at8&10P. m.

4 | 128.0 iw. S. W. 0.25 \\wi tod a. m., “i to Noon,

| ¢lear afterwards.

9| 135.0); ... |W.S.W.&.8.S.W] ... (Clear to 11 a. m., scatd. “i to

5 p. M., clear afterwards.

Seon ... \s.5..W.&S. W. 2.25 \Clear to 7 a. m., scatd. “i to 7

p. M. clear. afterwards, light-

ning totheS. H.at10&11~.m.

7 | 141.0 S.W. & W.N. W.| 0.50 |Clear scuds, from 8S. W. from 4

to 7 a. M, Foggy at 6 a. m.

oie ... «is.& W.S. W. 0.25 |Clear to 10 a. m. Seatd. ito 5

P. M., clear afterwards.

' 91 140.0 S. by E. & S. ... |Scuds from S. to N. to 9 a4. M.

clear afterwards.

‘10 | 143.0 S.&S.S. W. ... |Seuds from S. W. to N. E. to

8 a. M. clear afterwards.

11} 144.6; ... |S.&N. W. ... |Clear.

12/1405] ... |S. & variable 0.50 Clear. Foggy at 6 & 7 a. M.

13 | 145.5| ... |S. & variable 0.50 |Clear. Foggy from 5 to 7 4. M.

ae t4g.5". ... |S... W. 0.75 |Clear.

15 | 148.4 S.S.W.&S8.byE.| ... . |Clear to 3.4. mu. Scatd. clouds to

8 a. M., clear afterwards.

16 | 132.4; ... |S. &8,S. W. (high) 2.00 [Clear to 9 4. m. Seuds from S.

toN.to 3p.m.clear afterwards.

171 -199.0\ ... Ss. (high) 4.50 |Clear to 44. m. Seuds from S.

. to N. to 3 vp. m. Overcast to 7

p. M. clear afterwards, light-

ning to the 8. at 7 & 8a. m.,

thin rain between 4&5 4. M.

.8. W. &S. 3.25 |Clouds of different kinds.

.&5.5.W.£S.by W. 2.00 |Clouds of different kinds to 6 P.

M., clear afterwards. Light-

ning to the S. EH. at 44. mM.

20 | 138.0) "|S. & 8.8. W. 1.80 |Clouds of different kinds. Light-

| | ning to the E.

18 | 128.7 |

19 | 130.2

XXX Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of Aprit 1866.

Solar Radiation, Weather, &c.

B; |S a:

Ze iy “2s

3 § qo ¢ Prevailing FE: =

o Sg ia .o : 3

a iss S a i) Wind. = ;

o |Inches tb

21) ...... 4|8. & 8. 8. E. 10.50 Overcast Lightning Thunder &

C 0.51 rain at 10& 11 p. m. Hails at

. 10 Pp. M.

22 | 123.2 ... |S. E. & variable 2.00 \Overcast to Noon\i & _i af-

| terwards, Lightning & Thun-

der at Midnight light rain at

Midnight,1 & from 4 to 6a.m.

23 | 128.0| 0.148. W.& N. N. W. | 2.80 \Wi& ito6 Pp. . clear after-

wards.Lightning toS.at9p.M. —

; Rain at 4&5 Pp. M.

24 135.8, ... |E.S. E. & variable.| 1.00 |Overcast to 3 a. m. clear to 9

A. M. Scatd.%i to 6 Pp. M. clear

afterwards, Lightning to S.W

; at 1 a. M.

25 132.0| ... |IE.& 8.8. W. 1.00 |Clear to 6 a. um. Seatd. i to 4

Pp. M. clear afterwards.

26) 128.5) ... |S.S.W.&S. 1.25 |Clear to 1 Pp. m. ~i afterwards

Lightning to the W. & S. at

7&8 p.m. Thunder at 7 Pp. M.

Light rain between 7 & 8 P. M.

Af | 1BW6 1 BY AISASE TNS. 2k 1.00 |7i to a. mM. Seuds from 8. to 10

A. M. Vi to 4 p.m. clear after-

wards. it

28) | sie 1.16/S8. E. & E. 2.75 \Clear to 7 a. m. Scuds from S.

tol0a.m.Overcastafterwards

Lightning to the E. from 6 to —

9 p.m. Thunder at5 & 6 P.M.

rain at Noon, 5,6 & 8 Pp. M.

29 | 128.0) |... |W. & variable. 2.00 |Scatd. “i to 5 a. M. \_i& “1 to

lp. mM. overcast afterwards —

Lightning to the EK. at8 & 9 ~

. p. Mm. Thin rain at 6 Pp. M.

30} 131.0; ... |S. W.&N.N.E. | 5.00 |Scatd. i& Vito 1 p.m. Scatd —

i to5 p.m. overcast after- —

at 9 p.m. Thin rain at 10 &

ll P.M.

Mi Cirri, — i Strati,~i Cumuli,‘-i Cirro-strati, ~i Cumulo strati,~-i Nimbi,

“i Cirro cumuli. \ a

* Fell from 10 p. m. of the 21st to 6 a. mu. of the 22nd.

Meteorological Observations. XXX

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta, in the

month of April 1866.

Montuiy ReEsvtrs.

Inches

Mean height of the Barometer for the month,. ... 29.779

Max. height of the Barometer occurred at 9 a. Mm. on the 22nd, ... 30.074

Min. height of the Barometer occurred at 5 p. M. on the llth, ... 29.545

Extreme range of the Barometer during the month, a ... 0.529

Mean of the daily Max. Pressures, _... if one ... 29.863

Ditto ditto Min. ditto : ... 29.700

Mean daily range of the Barometer during the month, vy. Q163

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer for the month, a ae

Max. Temperature occurred at 4 Pp. mM. on the 10th & 15th . ... 102.6

Min. Temperature occurred at 1 & 3 4. M. on the 22nd ___.. ., GGe

Extreme range of the Temperature during the month, oe we BA2

Mean of the daily Max. Temperature .. ay Si .. 940

Ditto ditto Min. ditto, — .“ cs aa

Mean daily range of the Temperature during the month,.. wi

Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer for the month, ... 76.9

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer, 7.2

Computed Mean Dew-point for the month, #2 71.9

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above computed mean Dew- -point. . 12.2

‘aes

Mean Elastic force of Vapour for the month, ... i ee DOTS

Troy grains.

Mean Weight of Vapour for the month a Bae

Additional Weight of Vapour required for complete saturation, ... 3.93

Mean Eee of humidity for the month, complete saturation being unity 0.68

Inches.

Rained 9 days,—Max. fall of rain during 24 hours ee oe lel G

Total amount of rain during the month, | ey HSE

Total amount of rain indicated by the Gauge attached to the anemo-

meter during the month. ee 1.37

Prevailing direction of the Wind, .... 8.&8.8.W.& W.S. W.

XXXI1 Meteorological Observations.

« TS

oa Siren =

= |Ad4q°N],

La i=. —

re Wie “WO UIR

(ee ° . . i, es onlin mene | Ss NO oOA ao

<> MANN}

7c "uO UIBY

Chey 5 . G

= 0.) wee

= 5 |-vo meg

Ss re . here cal 4 — S89 SN

2 5 “MN M —

SS he mecomeaucees

g = a4 ON

= ° 6 ae te

> 1 N AQ" M =

= 2y ‘UO ULB

Sua ae a =a aS SS ee

Sree eee

8 © | UO Urey

Co. o.8 ‘ak Tee cass

S oH

Sy (qiges [OO Se leo wile wir ont oid,

Or uies Fagor NAMA HID FOR WAIAAAAAAAN

~ ~~ app A 'S'’M a

> .8 | -uo urey i

$ aoa A SE, SOS a Sa OSes” Te ae

& By, [wo uray

is 3 Mg 9] OORT OOOO ONAN O AAO acs

= Bef DS) ee eee

> urg | UO Uley

S 3

oS prado :

“SE mM aqis| ANON aaAaN NORNAAAS

Qa , | -uo wey = =

Seas] Qh CHOFAR COW ONY BH OHSOCOWASANG

~ \ ;

» 2 GaN eaee

Seg ee yuo Ulhel

S435 “a Aq“ abe s—4& O&O oD as 4 —— =O

Se gw =| =

So 2p] uo urey|

ofa sia ace SA ANHOGS A = nN SS Noo AaAal

= Saige saree

28 “UO ULB YT S

3 5 z : e } co] So 6 =

SE 7g) waa Aaaaa ny oY

S 8. |-ao ley

S 86) -a-n ae ARAN 4 aa

ihr aie! RE

S [2 » | uO Uley

‘s AGEy. : =

ee ek ae

S 8 » | Uo uley a a a

Se eee eee NS Sa

ot ae ali

-% Wee a GS ak ES pS a Sa eeene Say Wea ik AS

SSS | uo uey

ro j- ; al al i} li

> y 7s [N Aq a

= oy: !

ii i a ees = ee 55

SS) 6 9D: re re

Ss & at NS aN a4 4 ee

. . © i o

be ae Li Dao cNe = 2

oe TO Uley

= bp oR “ME Nebo SAAN H a4

% KEIN IN

ge ‘E ‘UO UBT

o) ly ae

gor fe 4a a a

. ro rat

af gee Se ; ra |

te NT ANNA Aa = an nN AA

mae

e cH a 5

S j re 5 =

nS =o °

x Ai

Meteorological Observations. XXXII

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of May 1866.

Latitude 22° 33’ 1” North. Longitude 88° 20’ 34” East.

Height of the Cistern of the Standard Barometer above the sea level, 18-11 feet.

Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.

Cpe

cm sg _ | Range of the Barometer = # | Range of the Tempera-

aes during the day. ae ture during the day.

3 om ‘-

aoc | Max. | Min. | Diff. | 23 | Max. | Min. | Diff

= Sa Sia

Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. ) fy) ) Co)

1 29.827 | 29.900 | 29.736 0.164 81.4 91.0 72.4 | 18.6

2 838 .890 807 083 78.8 87.4 73.6 | 228

3 “09 .855 .686 .169 78.9 88.9 71.7 | 2

4, 705 758 .628 .130 79.5 89.8 74.6 | 15.2

5 .659 126 069 157 82.2 91.2 12.7 | 186

6 079 .630 482 .148 84.2 93.2 76.6 | 16.6

7 .563 .607 O14 .093 84.4 93.0 76.0 | 170

8 583 634: 042 .092-| 87.2 94.9 82. 12.9

9 611 701 552 149 88.3 98.6 82.4 | 16.2

10 674 733 .606 ny 88.8 99.2 SL.8. | ge

11 .672 .739 064 175 86.9 97.8 78.4 | 19.4

12 .622 675 043 132 87 <7 96.7 80.8 | 15.9

13 645 694, 088 106 88.5 96.6 82.0 | 14.6

14 .681 .740 .612 128 87.4 96.4: 76.0 | 20.4

15 .680 751 595 .156 84.8 95.0 76.4 | 18.6

16 652 .693 O61 1382 85.8 96.3 74.2 | 22.1

17 .666 135 .600 135 85.9 94.3 |. 78.2 | 16.1

18 .665 720 .586 134 87.0 95.8 LiO)) LSe8

19 661 .720 604 16, +879 97.3, | (9:2 | B8eh

20 .681 740 624 116 89.3 of.9 83.0 | 14.8

21 .670 134 .576 .158 89.3 97.2 83.8 | 13.4

22 621 .672 532 .140 89.2 95.8 83.8 | 12.0

23 577 642 A495 147 89.3 96.4 83.8 | 12.6

24, 599 647 497 .150 88.3 96.8 80.4 | 16.4

25 595 657 523 134 90.0 97.8 84.0 | 13.8

26 614 .680 .5d3 27 90.7 102.6 83.0 | 19.6

27 089 .660 .505 155 92.0 105.8 83.0 | 22.8

: 28 003 617 A79 138 91.2 101.0 84.4 | 16.6

29 547 .623 476 147 90.3 98.2 84.6 | 13.6

30 .610 677 542 136 90.2 98.4, | 83.0 | 15.4

31 .633 .690 037 153 | 90.6 98.0 | 85.0 | 13.0

The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb

Bp moniter Means are derived, from the hourly observations, made during

the day. ;

XXXIV Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

im the month of May 1866.

Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.—(Continued.)

' fs : Ces 3 Se Sa sy os Be

SieolyBa) 3°] Aovdagrac| ng Se aaa

a |e > Ss | SSE /a75

a o = & G1 42 a= = ey 2-8

Date. |; Poe | eee, ze ae eo | ess

S23 j2 | Bo) Spd sgn) San qaee eee

a & | #4 6 | 8s | ES Le oeiee es

ge Bt) 8 1 8 a | ee. Pe ee

2g = pe = Pay oF oo ses] cs

/ A Fa oe) ey = a7 | q =

) o | 6 Oo Inches: 4 Toe.) “ae

1 72.7 8.7 | 66.6 14.8 0.651 6.99 4.28 0.62

2 744) 4.4.) 71.3 7.5 758 8.20 2.24 19

3 72.6 6.3 | 68.2 10.7 686 7.4L 3.06 py’

A 74.1 5.4 | 70.3 9.2 734 .93 2.73 74

5 76.2 6.0 | 72.0 10.2 776 8.33 3.21 72

6 79.3 Ae), SO 8.3 879 9.42 2.82 77

7 80.7 Seb Cook 6.3 943 10.10 21 82

8 82.4 4.8 | 79.5 hake 985 AQ 88 79

9 82.0 6.3 | 78.2 10.1 946 05 3.79 73

10 81.7 ie RY Fe: oa feng 922 Suri) 4.21 70

11 89.2 6.7 | 76.2 10.7 887 A5 3.80 71

12 81.5 6.2.) 77.8 Sas, 934 .93 .63 73

13 81.7 6.8 | 77.6 10.9 928 .85 4.03 71

14, 79.6 4-3-7 4.9 12.5 851 .O4 Al 67

15 78.5 6.3 | 74.1 10.7 830 8.87 3.59 71

16 80.5 5.3 | 76.8 Spa) 905 9.65 18 75

17 80.9 5.0 | 77.4 8.5. 922 83 OA 76

18 81.5 5.5 | 78.2 8.8 946 10.07 22 76

19 82.3 5.6 | 78.9 9.0 967 28 06 75

20 83.3 6.0) 29:7 SHO 992 ol 10 74

21 82.7 6.6 | 78.7 10.6" 961 18 4.03 72

22 83.1 6.1 | 79.4 9.8 983 AL 3.75 74

23 83.2 6.1 | 79.5 9.8 986 45 76 74:

24, 80.4 Loo Log 12.6 873 9.26 454 67

25 83. 6.8 | 79.1 10.9 973 10.30 20 71

26 83.6 ede Goes 11.4 979 36 44, 70

27 83.8 8:2 | 78.9 13.1 .967 20 5.16 66

28 85.0 6.2 | 81.3 2.9 1.043 11.02 4.00 73

29 84.2 6.1) SO 9.8 O17 10.76 3.87 74

30 82.7 7.0. 18.2 12.0 0.946 OO 4.59 69

dL 83.3 7.3 | 78.9 aR aay .967 22 54, 69

All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants. y

Meteorological Observations. XXKV

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

mm the month of May 1866.

Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.

63 Range of the Barometer . | Range of the Tempera-

eG. for each hour during 5S ture for each hour

cE 4 the month. 2 during the month.

Hour. i ae 4 :

“A qj . .

ePice | Max. | Min. | Diff. | 3 | Max. | Min. | Diff.

as ak

Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. ) 0 ) tf)

Mid-

night.| 29.660 | 29.868 | 29.545 | 0.323 82.2 86.8 | 73.2 | 13.6

.650 .858 534 | .324 $1.9 86.2..| 73.2 | Taw

2 .639 .839 525 | .314 81.7 85.6 | 72.9 | Tae

3. .630 .826 511 | .815 81.4 85.8 | 72.6 | 13.2

A, 635 .823 531 | .292 81.1 85.8 | 72.2 | 13.6

5 .646 .830 540] .290 81.0 85.6 | 71.7 | 13.9

6 .660 .846 571.| 276 81.1 86.6 | 72.0 | 14.6

7. 677 .868 573 | .295 82.5 88.2 | 73.4] 14.8

8 .693 895 582.| .313 85.2 89.8 | 77.0 | F238

9 .700 .900 .582.| .318 88.1 93.6. | 80.7 | 12398

10. i) .896 .582.| 314 90.5 96.5 | 83.6 | 12.9

11 -690 874 .568 | .306 92.6 97.4 | 85.2 | 12.2

Noon. .673 851 548 .303 94.1 101.4 85.6 | 15.8

1 .650 .827 .539 292 95.1 103.0 86.8 | 16.2

2. .626 .820 O2r.| .299 95.3 104.4 74.3 | 30.1

3. .604 818 512 -306 95.4 105.8 76.7|. 29.1

A. 585 811 A481 .330 94.3 | 105.0 75.6 | 29.4

5 576 812 476 396 92.7 101.5 75.7 | 25.8

6 589 813 A488 325 89.8 96.5 74.8 | 21.7

2 .613 .822 496 326 | 86.8 91.6 74.2 | 17.4

8 .635 .838 .516 322 84.6 90.0 74.2 | 15.8

9. .653 843 549 294; 83.7 88.2 73.6 | 14.6

10. .661 842 561 281 83.3 88.0 74.2 | 13.8

11 .663 .856 573 283 82.7 87.6 73.8 | 13.8

The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb

Thermometer Means are derived from the observations made at the several

hours during the month.

XXXV1 Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of May 1866.

Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.—/(Continued.)

‘ . = Sey gy ea,

- e | gas 2 gis | 27 Bd Be

za a A 2 =o oes | ase

oS = 2 2 ‘$2 >) 70 lee ple

= E E E se es |= eee

Hour. a ’ = i = 3 a 3 a Beco

D 5 Ses: 3S = @| wag

Pe | | 24 3. | Se | eS seeeencee

qq 4 = Ms q 2 Ss OB a re

I a a a 3 | mae | sea

SO bs = bs Sa S s a) eo so

SA A S am Ss S-5 ar S| sss

() fo) ) ) Inches. | T..gr.:| T.ge.

Mid- ,

night.| 78.6 3.6 | 76.1 6.1 | 0.885 9.51 2.03 0.82

HT 78.7 3.2 | 76.5 5°4 .896 .65 1.79 84

2 78.7 3.0 | 76.6 5.1 .899 .67 70 85

3 78.7 2.7 | 76.8 4.6 .905 F/G! 54 .86

A 78.7 2.4 | 77.0 A.1 .910 SL 36 .88

5 3.7 2.0 | F7ek 3.9 .913 84 .30 .88

6 79.0 2 MY OS 3.6 .925 .96 21 .89

7 79.9 A6 | “7ack A.A, 943 10.14 50 87

8 81.0 4.2 | 78.1 GL .943 .08 2.53 .80

9 81.8 6.3 | 78.0 10.1 .940 9.99 3.73 73

10 82.3 8.2 | 77.4 13.1 .922 75 4.97 .66

11 83.0 S64 fie 15.4 .916 65 5.98 .62

Noon.| 83.2 10.9 | 76.7 17.4 .902 AT 6.85. 58

1 83.6 Tn |) G27. 18.4 .902 A5 7.34 06

2 83.2 Tl 768 19.4 879 21 .68 5d

3 83.1 Ws aN 5 bi 19.7 .875 13 81 4

A, 82.9 EA, to 76s 18.2 .885 .28 13 57

5 82.5 10.2 | 76.4 16.3 ' 893 Al 6.27 .60

6 | 818 | 8.0] 77.0| 12.8 .910 63. | 4.79 67

7 80.5 6.3 | FO" 10.1 .902 .60 3.61 73

8 79.4 5.2 | 75.8 8.8 .876 or .02 76

9 79.1 A.6 | 75.9 7.8 879 42 2.65 78

10 78.9 4.4. | 75.8 7.5 .876 39 54 9

il 78.8 Boo We HOul. 6.6 .885 910) .22 81

All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants. —

Meteorological Observations. XXXVil

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of May 1866.

Solar Radiation, Weather, &e.

"way 2

2 & 38 q Prevailing & iS

s| a8 = 5| direction of the ‘cz, | General Aspect of the Sky.

~=|a KS a= mor Wind. ip

Ala * |eic as

o (Inches ; tb

1| 180.5; ... |S. & variable. 3.50 |Overcast to 2 a. M., scatd. \i to

3 p. M., scatd. \i & ~i after-

wards. Thin rain at Midnight.

2| 126.0) ... |S. by W.&N.E. | 3.00 Scatd..ito6 a.m. \Wi to Noon

\ni & \Wi afterwards. Light-

ning to 8. E.atl p.m. Thunder

at 2 p.m. Thin rain at2 & 8 p.m.

3| 126.0; .. |N. W. &S. by E. 1.75 |\ni to 5 a. M. scatd. \i to 11

A.M. Wi & %i afterwards.

Lightning to W. at 8 & 9

P. M.

4 | 129.6| 0.88 |S. by E. & E. 2.20 \Wito34.mM. Scatd. “ito 1 Pp. m.

\~i afterwards. Thunder at

3&4. mM. Lightning at4&8

p.m. Hail at 4p. m. Rain from

3 to 5 P. M.

Sraco2i.. IE & S. 0.50 |Secatd. “i to 7 p. M., clear after-

wards.

6| 127.0; 0.31 |IS.S.B.&S. 2.70 |Clear to 1 a. mM. Seuds from S.

tolla. m., scatd. “ito 3 P. m.

Overcast afterwards. Thunder

at 7 & 8 p. m. Lightning from

7 tollpe. m. Rain from 6 to 8

P. M.

7| 129.0; ... |S.&8.S.E. & E. | 1.00 |\Scatd. “i to 4p. m., clear after-

wards.

8| 135.0; ... |S. by BE. & 8. 1.00 |Clear to 4 4. m. Seuds from S to

A.M., scatd. “i to 4 P. M., clear

afterwards.

9| 135.0; ... |S. & variable 1.50 |Clear to 3 a. m. Scuds from S. to

10 a. M., clear afterwards.

a) 140.0)... S. 0.50 \Clear to2 p.m. Seatd. “ito 7

p. M., clear afterwards. Light-

ning to N. at 8 Pp. M.

11 | 137.0} 0.12 |S. & variable. 3.60 |Clear to5 a.m.Scatd.”ito 8 P.M.,

clear afterwards. Lightning to

N.E.at7 & 8p. m. Rain at 7

. P. M.

eS 136.0) %.. S. 0.60 |Clear.

3) 28:37) 0. 18. & SES. ER. 0.50 |Scatd. “i to 6 a. mw. Seuds from

S.tol10 a. mM. Seatd. %i after-

wards. Lightning to N. W. at

8,9 & ll Pp. M.

14,| 180.0} 0.55 |S. E. & S. by E. 19.50 |Clear to6 a.m. “ito7 p.m. Over-

cast afterwards. Lightning

from7 tollv. m. Thunder from

8 tolO p. m. Rain at 8 Pp. M.

XXXVI

Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

an the month of May 1866.

Solar Radiation, Weather, &c.

24,

31 | 130.0

Ni Cirri, — i Strati

radiation.

Max. Solar

| Rain Gua

a ©

5 feet above

Ground

: (e)

a ie

(a>)

Prevailing

direction of the

Wind.

Variable.

134.9; 0.58 |S. & S. by E.

130.2

128.0

132.0

130.0

130.2

134.0

129.0

132.0

130.0

141.6

143.0

132.0

128.0

133.0

“i Cirro cumuli.

sure of Wind

Max. Pres-

j=)

12.00

S. by E. & 8. by W.| 0.25

S.&8. 8. W.

S.&8. 8. E.

& Br &

gunn

ADR

S.&8. 8. W.

3.00

0.70

0.50

0.30

0.70

3.00

General aspect of the Sky.

Overcast to 4.4.M. Clear to Noon.

Scatd “i to 6 p.m. Scatd \i

afterwards.

Scatd. \i to 5 a. M., secatd. ~1 to

6 p. m. Overcast aferwards.

Lightning from 7 to 10 Pp. M.

Thunder at 7 & 8 p. mM. Rain

between 6 & 7 P. M.

Clear to 7 a.m., scatd. “ito6 .

Pp. M., clear afterwards.

Clear to 6 a. M., scatd “i to6P.M.

Overcast afterwards. Rain be-

tween 7 & 8 P.M.

Clear to 11.4. M., scatd “ito 2

P. M., clear afterwards.

Clear.

Scatd.\i to 4.4. M., clear after-

wards.

Clear.

Clear to 5 a. M., secuds from S.

to 1l a. m., clear afterwards.

Shock of an earthquake, felt

at 3-41 from N. W. toS. E.,

the shock, or shocks, lasted

several minutes and there was

apparently a cross wave from

N.. ‘to 8S:

Scatd. ~i to ll a. m., clear after-

wards. Lighting to N. W. at

8&9P. M.

Clear.

Clear. :

Clear to 3 A. M., scuds from S. to

7 a.M., clear to 6 Pp. M.,, scuds

from S. afterwards.

Scuds from S. to 9 a. m. Clouds

of different kinds afterwards.

Clear to 4 a. M., scatd. “i to 6

Pp. m. Overcast afterwards.

Lightning to N. W. at 8

& 9 p.m. Thin rain between

1&9P.M.

0.80 |Scatd. “1.

»>i Cumuli,i Cirro-strati, ~i Cumulo strati,~~i Nimbi,

Meteorological Observations. XXXIX

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta, in the

month of May 1866,

Montuity RESUtts.

Inches.

Mean height of the Barometer for the month... ... 29.646

Max. height of the Barometer occurred at 9 a. M. on the ‘1st, ... 29.900

Min. height of the Barometer occurred at 5 p. M. on the 29th, ... 29476

Extreme range of the Barometer during the month, ti .. 0.424,

Mean of the daily Max. Pressures, ... ts 5% ... 29.708

Ditto ditto Min. ditto oy OF

Mean daily range of the Barometer during the month, wie 2 OBE

)

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer for the month, __.., »” prea re

Max. Temperature occurred at 3 P. M. on the 27th a (>. 9 RUBS

Min. Temperature occurred at 5 a. m. on the 3rd . ay ee ee

Extreme range of the Temperature during the month, fe: i. oa

Mean of the daily Max. Temperature .. ey ea, > oo eae

Ditto ditto Min. ditto, a aod eee

Mean daily range of the Temperature during the month,.. vas? Lo

Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer for the month, ... 80.7

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer, 6.3

Computed Mean Dew-point for the month, 76.9

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above computed mean Dew- -point. , 10.1

thas

Mean Elastic force of Vapour for the month, ... si rp ee OOS

Troy grains.

Mean Weight of Vapour for the month oe ae GO

Additional Weight of Vapour required for complete saturation, JA ie O8

Mean degree of humidity for the month, complete saturation being unity 0.73

Inches.

Rained 9 days,—Max. fall of rain during 24 hours ar Sere.’

Total amount of rain during the month, 7 206

Total amount of rain indicated by the Gauge attached to the anemo-

ineter during the month. Eo nals

Prevailing direction of the Wind, ae §.&8.8.W.&8. 5S. E.

together with the number of days on

g, it rained.

y particular wind blew,

Monruty RESULTS.

Tables shewing the number of days on which at a given hour an

when any particular wind was blowin

ical Observations taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, in the month of May 1866.

which at the same hour,

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorolog

Meteorological Observations.

UO WLBT

“MM 4q° NT

‘WO ULB]

"MN UN

dO ULE

‘HO UlBY

"nN AQ* AA

“UO ULB

“MM

"UO UI

‘S Aq “AN

"UO IBY

"MSA

‘UO WIV

og a

‘UO ULB

"MS 'S

ee eth

“Mm 4q “9

]

‘UO TIBI

‘UO ULB

‘a Aq ‘g

"HO WIV

‘A'S 9

"UO ULVYT

“aS

‘UO Uleyy

he eh

‘UO ULV

“g Aq -oT

‘UO Ue

acl

‘UO ULV

'N Aq “of

“UO UleYy

‘A NW

‘UO Uley

TON

‘UO UleIy

ee SEE

‘a Aq “NI

‘UO UBT

‘INOy]

—

— = — —

——

SAcocs — ———

=o a

=i = S|

aq -

Saas OM Noa at

QI SO OD OD SH SH 6 10 OD OD Ee 19 10 WHO SH KHraaan

Ta aIANA MO ine) DLO aM Oma aa & oO

NAMAUNNATWNA MR WMO MAN 1 TAA

=} im! —

Nes NAAN SS ANAM MNAN SS Nr

eS i re al! == re Lama OD |

re ce ei

Lo es oe ON Be ee LO NS re (| Lom! i N AN

— —

Lat Ls |

are

eS ae rir re

‘ 4

i =a! i

ore

vl ial i N

PAN Win Om ODO 4 ON Hig ORO Or

thir Tel

Noon.

Meteorological Observations. xh

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Caicutta,

in the month of June 1866.

Latitude 22° 33’ 1” North. Longitude 88° 20’ 34” East.

Height of the Cistern of the Standard Barometer above the sea level, 18-11 feet.

Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.

he & | Range of the Barometer = + | Range of the Tempera-

a = Be during the day. gi 3 ture during the day.

2s b

Date. | & Bo Ra

Eph ' as

327, | Max. | Mu. Diff. po Max. | Min. | Diff.

= ~~ 8 = ES

Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. ) Oo Oo ry)

I 29.610 | 29.662 | 29.548 0.114 89.9 99.2 83.0 | 16.2

2 .629 .682 557 .125 87.4 98.0 79.6 , 18.4

3 .625 .678 55d 123 87.8 98.4 79.2 | 19.2

4 593 647 480 167 88.9 98.2 81.4 | 16.8

5 571 628 499 129 90.2 98.4, 83.4 | 15.0

6 509 597 404 153 90.4 98.6 84.0 | 14.6

7 ADA O51 ABL .120 91.1 99.8 84.2 | 15.6

8 Od 1 612 A479 .133 91.4 101.6 83.6 | 18.0

9 570 .622 497 125 90.5 97.8 82.0 | 15.8

10 546 .621 AZ 174 89.5 98.6 76.2 | 22.4

Il 503 573 423 .15V 88.3 96.8 80.2 | 16.6

12 499 550 425 125 89.1 95.6 85.4 | 10.2

i. |. -632 .604 462 142 89.4 93.4 83.0 | 15.4

14 .538 596 450 146 89.9 98.2 84.6 | 13.6

15 492 544 440 104 83.4 86.5 80.8 5.7

16 A494 .533 443 .090 83.3 87.3 79.6 Ca

17 515 571 451 120 82.2 85.0 79.6 5.4

18 531 O70 476 .099 82.9 87.2 78.4 8.8

19 503 563 A36 17 82.7 86.8 80.0 6.8

20 425 485 290 135 84.35 89.0 81.8 7.2

21 375 416 319 097 80.9 82.4 79.0 3.4

22 429 519 .o00 154 82.1 89.2 79.0 | 10.2

23 502 097 446 dd 83.3 90.8 79.4 | 11.4

24, 483 045 408 BF 82.9 87.3 79.6 8.2

25 AAL A489 .330 .109 85.7 91.2 81.8 9.4

26 431 477 376 101 85.3 89.5 81.2 8.3

27 465 .920 A15 105 83.3 85.1 80.6 4.5

28 514 579 452 127 84.1 88.6 82.0 6.6

29 573 .637 503 134 87.2 93.4 83.4 | 10.0

30 .607 .667 .560 107 83.9 87.4 81.8 5.6

The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb

Thermometer Means are derived, from the hourly observations, made during

the day. |

xln _ . Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of June 1866. |

Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.—/(Continued.)

4 eee % BH | SSa}28 .~

4 : == S ” Syne etapa eS

Ecce us| eer Pfs | eee an a3

ore: ) > & Cer 19 ge S|

3 5 8 oS be are ioe to.

| 5 2 = 2 SS |B Oe lo eee

bets | 2 a | eet ee les |e ee

ea) age) | eS BET SSD Seen ee ee oe

Fe le} ekae | BS | Ro | sees

ES Bs S..| 9 S| ¢o |g eB [og ono

as bs = Bay se 5 a Onuere et

= ohmic cour (a= = te lees =

) ) | fo) ) Inches." )"T, gr Dees

a0) $99 | bP | 77764 12S") 0028. O83 — "| Aaa eelee toes

Di) 4 BORO MGUP, | ewe NOM.) 208 oS) 3.8% 71

Bho SO. | 268 | YEO -10:9—| ~ 908 G4 | 4.04 a

ts) -s Gop °° Ree | Fone o'G-) . OFF) 10. ga) am a

5°) | 83% | #65 | 79.8) 10.4) .995 4° | 4.05 72

Gril saad a) Pas! veers Tee Gr 16 51 69

foc Ma is EO ee set cen BA 43 105

Cle SG RS | 78a 1a) 067 20 50 6am

21) - ee Ol Aye | ysOTF Jol: | ome 00 42 68

TOS oem, | PRE | 78 AYo 11 eel” ode 00 29 70%

WA) Bake! dee? | Y7aRe 10 ges) OR) Odeo aaa we

WWE) | Bae) Revo ois ORF) | 10.a8 79 Pile

13:8] GAG eet OEE 1 OB 978 BS 90 vag

Tat) | Sate l= OA 77 Sell. TON gar. OL SEI due 68

1S 21 2 SOW. 1 TORBL) 78S AEA OSB 10. BI” Thee 86

16%) goth VOR) 77OSe 5AM O87 06 87 84.

1 | Foe | ae 77 gee Mare! 087 08 AG 87

18."| 70 oe 97 ae 5 Bat SIRE Oa 99 83

10-2 | OB || Awe | POO B7U) OTE 1-40. 49 30 89

20°) S016 | SBN 78.05% 6.3"! 948 (iy ealpaees 82.

Qa.) Rte. Yee | ees 8 Bh). (OI OLGita Rien .89

29>| Fol’ | Be 78415 Bye) 958) 10.28 28 89

28) 804 | BI) FRANZ 4/54). O58 21 72 .86

262). FOS B77 Bie St 934 03 76 85

25:3| sols! | SAR VE Re Gel BOR Ose) “Sigs 5

26) 80i4e | BiGe) 270A BiSet OUD ase Qe Me

27°) SbBe | ONE) ZO Re. Biel. GOREN Over eeN « lve 89

28% 84.7? | @.42| 80.61% 4.1%) 1.008 ue AQ 88°

29 lo (810-1) 6.2 | 973). 16.6) (OMe sy mG Nia 73

80/798 Al | 769 | ON se alee .80

“es

All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants. —

Meteorological Observations, xliii

_ Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations.

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Caleutta,

en the month of June 1866.

Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygremetrical elements

dependent thereon.

$3 Range of the Barometer | =... | Range of the Tempera-

we for cach hour during | 3 ture for each hour

BO = the month. Py on during the month.

SFict | Max. | Min. | Diff. | $2 | Max. | Min. | Dif

as | ue i3 |

Inches. | Inches. | Inches. Inches. ) Co) Oo )

Mid- |

night.| 29.532 | 29.646 | 29.407 | 0.239 83.4 87.2 79.2 8.0

1 518 630 897 | .233 83.2 87.0 | 79.2)| \spee

2 BOT | G2i\|- 18830] .288. | 83.0 | 87.0 1.79.2 Legs

3 HOO .O33 367 206 $2.8 86.8 78.8 8.0

4 497 641 2300 276 82.7 $6.3 78.4 8.4

5 57 634 865 279 82.7 86.4 78.8 7.6

6 24 651 079 272 82.7 86.6 79.0 7.6

7 539 604 397 267 83.7 83.0 | 80.0} 8.0

8 a3 .678 <OOL 281 | 85.2 90.8 80.6 | 10.2

9 561 676 396 | 280 86.9 95.0 |-81.0 | 14.0

10 561 .682 394 | .288 88.5 07.2 | 80.4 | 16.8

11 552 .676 319 297 89.8 93.6 80.6 | 18.0

Noon. 539 .651 .362 .289 90.9 100.6 81.3 | 19.3

1 * 520 632 | .o02 .280 91.6 101.6 82.4 | 19.2

2 A499 BLS 309 279 91.9 101.2 $1.6. |: 19.6

2 AS] O79 329 .250 G1.9 101.0 80.8 | 20.2

4 403 805 319 .246 91.0 100.2 80.4 | 19.8

5 459 652 .323 329 90.0 98.2 $1.0) |. 07:2

6 475 578 043 230 88.2 05. z $1.4: | 13.8

7 509 601 302 209 85.9 92. 76.2 | -16.5

8 520 614 382°; .232 85.1 90. : 79.4 | 11.4

9 OD £656 401 258 BA. 4 89.8 79.0) |. 10.8

10 549 65i ALL 240 83.9 88.4 79.2 9.2

ll 547 .6356 416 240 83.5 87.8 ea ee 79.4 8.4

The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb

Thermometer Means are derived from ‘the observations" made at the several

-hours during the month. 5 ee laa dgerrraee FER

xhv Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta,

wn the month of June 1866.

Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.—(Continued.)

Bs a Pe om a 3 e.8 |S goes

ao 5 o o = = 6 te = 2

Bob | ge | |B eS: | eee

= > E > om 56 on | 69-3

Gre | RE | eg 4. | 32 | = eee

Pele) 2)2. | es | es | bse |eee

ag a, A a 8, a 3 —saq|8&nhe

2 3 p | & Se 2S o¢ | So eee

Gos yey ey a Sees

Mid-

night.| 80.3 ok |) ee 5.3 0.943 10.12 1.84 0.85

IL 80.3 2.9 | 78.3 4:9 949 18 71 86

2 80.5 2.5 | 78.7 4.3 961 oo 49 87

3 80.5 2:3 | 78.9 3.9 967 oo 36 88

4 80.5 2.2 | 79.0 3.7 970 42 30 89

5 80.6 2.1 | Fo 3.6 973 A5 27 89

6 80.6 2.1) Foe 3.6 973 A5 27 89

7 81.1 2.6 | 79.3 4.4, 979 51 06 87

8 81.4 3.8 | 78.7 6.5 961 26 2.35 81

9 81.8 5.1 | 78.7 8.2 961 24 3.01 wh

10 82.0 6.5 | 78.1 10.4 943 02 86 72

41 82.3 75 140.8 12.0 934 9.89 4.53 69

Noon.| 82.8 8.1 | 77.9 13.0 -937 90: 99 67

1 82.9 O7 Nia 13.9 931 82 5.37 65

2 83.1 8.8 | 77.8 14.1 934 85 47 64,

3 82.9 9.0:| 77.5 14.4 .925 76 56 64

4 82.9 8.1 | 78.0 13.0 .940: 93 00 67

5 82.5 7.5 | 78.0 12.0 .940 95 4.55 69

6 82.2 6.0 | 78.6 9.6 .958 10.17 3.59 74

7 80.9 5.0 | 77.4 8.5 922 9.83 O04, 76

8 80.4 AT \> Goa 8.0 913 .76 2.81 78

9 80.0 4.4 | 76.9 7.5 908 410 61 79

10 80.1 3.8 | 77.4 6.5 922 .87 26 81

11 80.2 33 | 77.9 3.6 937 19.04 1.96 84

All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants. i

Meteorological Observations. xlv

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of June 1866.

Solar Radiation, Weather, &c.

WS oe

2 8 5.25 Prevailing & =

.| . 8 |O& 2) direction of the ‘c. | General aspect of the Sky.

S| eae la oe Wind a)

a) is a Sa eOO ind. So

ale ic. = 5

o |Inches tb

1) 136.0; ... 4S. &S8.S. E. 0.80 |Clear to 5 a.m. Scatd. “i to 9

a. Mm. Seatd. Wi to 4 PP. M.

Clear afterwards.

2) 132.0! 0.32 |S. 8S. E. & S. 2.00 |Clear to 5 a. Mm. Scatd “i to 4

Pp. M. Overcast afterwards.

Thunder & Lightning at 6,7

&9 p.m. Rain from 5 to9 p.m.

oS) ae... is. &S.E. 1.25 |Overcast to 5 A. M. \i to 6 P. M.

Clear afterwards.

4| 135.0; ... |S. by E. &S. 5.00 |\i to 10 a. m. clear to 3 P. M.

Overcast afterwards. Light-

ning to the E. at 9 p. M.

oy isand, |... OS. & S.S. W. 1.25 |Scatd. \i to 11 a. m. Seatd. “i

to 5 p.M. Overcast afterwards.

: Lightning to the N at7 &8

: P. M.

| ae i Se W. &S. 4.25 |Clouds of various kinds. Thin

rain at 9. P. M.

. 5. ES&S. 2.00 |Clear to 34. Mm. Scatd. \i to 5

Pp. M. Wi & \_i afterwdrds.

8|132.0| ... |S. by E. & variable}! 3.00 |\,i to 6 4. m. Thin clouds to 10

A. M. Clear to 5 Pp. mM. Over-

cast afterwards. Lightning

to N. E. at 8 & 9p. mu. Thun-

der at 8 ep. Mm. Light rain at

10 & ll Pp. M.

9| 135.0] 0.15 |S. W. & S. 3.00 |Overeast to 3 a. M. Seatd. “i

& \i to 5 p. m. Overcast

afterwards. Lightning at 8 &

10 p. m. Thunder at 10 Pp. m.

Rain at 9 Pp. mM.

10| 128.0; 0.24 |S. & 8S. S. EH. 23.00 |Overcast to 4 a. mM. Scatd. “i &

\ni to 5 p. M. Overcast after-

wards. Rain from 7 to 9 p. M.

wer i260Tr ... i. & 8.8. E. 0.25 |Scatd. \i to Tito 10 4. Mm. i

to 7 p.m. Overcast afterwards.

Lightning to the N. at 8 p.m.

12| 128.0; .,.. JE. S. E. & variable. | 0.30 |Overcast to 8 a.m. \Wito7 P.M.

Clear afterwards. Thunder at

3 p. M. Thin rain from 7 to 9

A.M. & at 3 P. M.

313 | 136.0| ... |JE.N. E. & 8. & E.| 0.50 [Clear to 4 a. wm. \ito8a. m.

Scatd. “i afterwards. Light-

ning to the N. K.at 9& 10 p.m.

$42 131. Ol Se eS. Ei. 0.50 |Overcast to 3 a. m. Scatd. “i to

7 P.M. Clear afterwards. Light-

| ning to the N. at 1 a.m.

™M

7 | 130.0

xlvi

Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of June 1866.

Solar Radiation, Weather, &e.

o4 oD Oo =)

= & a9 <3 Prevailing . <

é ec SE! direction of the | "*Z | General aspect of the Sky.

+2 cI ce) dh leg a wo

5 sf ae Wind. = 2 .

Oo |inches | 1b

165 0.38.8). de. dy ae; 0.80 iClear to 44. m. \wito 1] a.m.

Overcast afterwards. 'Thun-

der at 1 p.m. Rain at 6&9

A. M. & from 1 to 5 P. M.

16 0.18 |S. E. & EH. by S. 0.80 |Clear to 3 a. M. Overcast after-

wards. Thunder at 74.m. Rain

at5,6&7a.M. & at 2P. mM.

17 0.538 SE&XSSE&Sby EH 0.90 |Overcast. Light rain from 2 to 9

a. M. & at Land 2p. m. Light-

ning at 2, 3, & 44. mM. Thun-

der ab 2 & 11 a. M.

18 S.S.E.&8.8S.W.&W.| 0.50 |\\i & \Wi to 7 vp. mM. Overcast

aiterwards. Lightrainatlla.m.

19 0.23 |W. & S. W. 0.40 |Overcast. Light rain after inter-

vals. k

20 » |W. S.-W. 0.40 |Overcast. Thin rain at 3 a. M.

& from 7 to 1] p. mM.

21 0.96 |W. by 8. &W.N.W,) 0.60 |Overcasi. Light rain after inter-

vals.

22 0.58 |W. N. W. &S. 0.80 [Overcast to 54. mM. Wi & 7i to

le.m.Overeast to 7p. M. Clear

atterwards. Rainat3,4&7 P.M.

23 | 121.0} 2.41 |S. 8S. W. & W. 0.80 | ito3a. mM.Overcast toll a.m.

“ji to 4 p. m. Overcast after-

wards. Rain at 5 & from 8 to

lle. m. Thunder & Lightning

at 8 & OP. M.

24 0.23 |W. by S. & W.S.W.) 0.80 |Overcast nearly the whole day.

Light rain from 6 toll a. m.

25 | 117.0 W.S.W.&W.by §.) 0.49 [Clear to 5 a. mM. \i to 9a.u.7i to

3 p.m. Overcast afterwards.

Shioht rain between 2 & 3 p.m.

26 | 117.8 8. W.& W.N. W.| 0.40 | i & \\i to 6 p. w. Overcast af-

terwards. Slight rain at 3, 10,

: & led play

27 0.64 |W.S.W. & N.N.W.| 1.25 |Overcast rain at 1, 4, 5 & from

| 7to9 a.m. & at 8 P. M.

28 W.S. W. & 8. W.| 0.50 |Overcast. Slight rain at 6, 10 &

Li a. vore

29 | 125.0 W.by S.&N.N.W.) 0.50 \.' to3 4. M. Overcast to 7 4. ™.

\ni & “ito d p. um. Overcast

afterwards. .

30 0.12 |W. by N. & variable} 0.50 |Overcasi to Noon.\si, to5 P.M.

Thin clouds afterwards. Rain —

at 6&7 a. M.

M Cirri, — i 8 /rati,~i Cumuli,\_i Cirro-strati, ~ i Cumulo strati,~-i Nimbi,

“i Cirro cumuli.

*Fell from 7 pv. ™. of the 20th to 10 vp. ™. of the 2lst.

Meteorological Observations. ; xlvii

Abstract of the Results of tre Hourly. Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Culcutta, in the

month of June 1866.

Monruty ReEsv.ts.

Inches.

Mean height of the Barometer for the month,. ... 29.518

Max. height of the Barometer occurred at 10 a. at. on the 2nd, ... 29.682

Min. height of the Barcm:ter occurred at 4 Pp. M. on the 21st, ... 29.3:9

Extreme range of the Barometer during the month, a .., -0.863

Mean of the daily Max. Pressures, _... Rs *: ... 29.575

Ditto ditto Min. ditto ce Za ... 29.449

Mean daily range ot the Barometer during the mouth, ... .. 3) SOaL2a6

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer for the month, . pity .. 86.4

Max. Temperature occurred at 1 p. M. on the Sth nis . LOK

Min. Temperature occurred at 7 p. M. on the 10th ... i. ves tt eine

Extreme range of the Temperature during the month, ye. 0 ¢ 25a

Mean of the daily Max. Temperature .. Ef tpi’ >. 92.8

Ditto — ditto Min. ditto, : wa & Sle

Mean daily range of the Temperature during the month,. vet Bae

Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer for the month, ... 81.4

Mean Dry Bulb Taermometer above Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer, 5.0

Computed Mean Dew- point for the month, 5 a

Mean Dr y Bulb Thermometer above computed n mean Dew- -point. . 8.5

eee

Mean Elastic force of Vapour for the month, ... a we OLGSF 4

Troy grains.

Mean Weight of Vapour for the month 24 » 998

Additional ‘Weig ht af Vv apour required for complete saturation, Osh BOD

Mean degree of humidit y tor the month, complete saturation being unity'0.76

Inches.

Rained 21 days,—Max. fall of rain during 24 hours nae a OAD

Total amount of rain during the month, uae 4 Ge

Total amount of rain indicated by the Gauge att ached to the anemo-

meter during the month. - va) “G2e

Prevailing direction of the Wind, ae §.S.E.&S.& W.S. W.

xlvili Meteorological Observations.

Za) "UO UIG

= , [M4a'N re

e+" ‘UO UleyYy

mn Pen oe ON = ——

& & [ANN ) 8 3

TS uO Uley on EN

) ra rie pee a 4 saa ey Moe —=N NS — ol

<2 66 MN.

~ — — N ——4

S & UO ULey]T

2 ie as QA SSS SS ANNO AANMO HAC AAN

~ s ia | |

as. ee qo! ee see a

e— GC a

<j) pee - =

= = to, meg =

~ re es “AA = SAMI NANN DoD 10 — Ac

~ Es “ao Urey — el 4 =n = —

Ores Ea fa oa NAAN AAT ANON SOAN SOO MANOS SSS

2 aos S Ad M — ol — =o aN oo

So Bap mt HMMA ANDS BDANMAMDOMAS

5 > pws mM ae

neo a ‘uo Ulery ae (OS Bs I oe |

= GAC. staat ee NANAAAAAAAAATH NOOO ND SH GD

Si eS MS

cog Me ta)

5 eae "moO ULBY an

6 6241-3. TAAHDUMAARAAAMOMDAOMAMA

& EE “MS 'S

Spy | uo ueYy 4

> p= rane a ANA Ae a =a oa

eee e "Uo ULB] a

SBES ‘g] AHH ANN TAA MoOHMMANGTOWN

me) a LS

Eee, \

at ae “gq fq‘g PO TRARDAABAAA AANA

S a Pl OS

BE, | uo uy) ra = z

2ce e WG Gg] SC PARMAR ARGHARANAN HOGG IAN a0

RN eee

Soea “UO UIBY| y, sq ee NX re

8 a 2 2 "aS NMNAAAMAMMANAHHMANAPAANAHANM

S “&

S @ y "uO Uley GN mo ce rc N te

S BEtegm-a- 1d =H NAMANMAN AN FBAAANAHMAS

SO @ fo | ase

3 hes MO ULB i, m4

ae = =

S 9 “| 'Uo urexy

= seus 5 AMMAN a ao

& ae AL

Ww «2 310 uley

os) .

pba oy me == =

& oie [X“1 a

= ate "UO TIeY ca

SD | eee ; NADA ana. =

Ry aH ON ‘a

g g [uo wey Ps

SBS ¢g aes er =a ee ee a

ied) faa — S

= "mO UIe yy

2 ? re

~S . ° “ re mn ere ro

Se» [a NN

ae : am

g — [uowy che

goo [A AGN

her ee "UO Ue ie TS,

> 2 es 4 oe =

si j|—_

8 » ;

Poy , SS MM AID OR DAN SHAMTDMONDOOA

S MOH] "ep ies ae

| Meteorological Observations. xlix

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of July 1866.

Latitude 22° 33’ 1” North. Longitude 88° 20’ 34” Fast.

Height of the Cistern of the Standard Barometer above the sea level, 18.11 feet.

Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.

Chey

vs & _ | Range of the Barometer | = # | Range of the Tempera-

ges during the day. | ra ture during the day.

_ S i} ty

Date. | 5 Bo | | oe 5

& 2% | Max. | Min. | Diff. == | Max. | Min. | Diff.

S| 2 = eS

Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. oO oO oO re)

1 | 29.602 | 29.642 | 29.551 | 0.091 | 77.7 $1.0 | 76.6 | Ba

2 597 646 537 09:1 76.2 TEA) 276.2)... ae

3 O09 63 17 O96 79.1 85.6 74.4 | 11.2

4 538 576 476 100 | 81.2 85.4 | 78.0 | 7.4

5 529 "580 ASA O96 81.3 86.6 77.4 9.2

6 604 .665 564 LOL 81.6 87.6 78.4 9.2

7 635 698 570 123 | 83.2 89.0 |:79.8 | 92

8 572 634 482 152 85.1 93.0 80.0 | 13.0

9 520 O79 A433 142 85.8 93.2 80.6 | 12.6

10 ADA, OAT 436 ED 86.2 9i.6 83.2 8.4

a 505 558 AAL a a | 90.5 | 81.0] 9.5

12 509 6i6 506 110 84.5 90.0 81.0 9.0

13 646 697 593 104 | 84.6 89.8 | 81.2) 8.6

14, .660 “714 .602 112 89.0 90.4) 80.2 | 10.2

15 579 61 459 162 83.4: 86.0 81.2 4.8

16 O21 .560 409 O91 84.2 86.7 82.0 4.7

17 555 597 522 075 | 83.2 G1.0 | S786. bes

18 563 .600 516 084 | 82.9 86.2 | 80.4 | 5.8

19 580 631 .OU9 122 83.3 88.6 Loo g.0

20 604 654 AT 107 82.3 89.0 80.2 5.8

21 615 .662 dd 107 82.7 86.8 79.2 7.6

22 587 634 34 .L00 83.4 87.0 79.8 7.2

23 614 664, 545 119 | 84.5 89.4 | 80.0 | 9.4

24, .638 681 534 O97 | 84.6 87.8) | 486) 16.0

25 634 .670 573 097 | 84.0 90.4 | 81.6 | 8.8

26 597 645 517 128 | 82.2 85.0°; | W8122>|) 3.8

27 597 .639 533 106 | 83.7 88:67 147902" |) 9.4

28 OLE .668 .5d5d 113 83.2 87.5 80.4: ya!

29 631 691 .560 sho 84.3 99.2 79.8 | 10.4

30 629 673 573 . 100 84.8 90.8 80.3 | 10.5

31 631 .668 O79 093 83.0 87.8 80.6 7.2

The Mean Height of the Teeter as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb

oe Means are derived, from the hourly observations, made during

the day.

hie _ Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

im the month of July 1866.

Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.—(Continued.)

7 ca ae e 6 6.4 | 68d |-as .

eA Behe. a). A 2 e | soe | Bae

a a : > Ss | mee |i 3

= ) > ° GH 42 ‘=. oS Q 3

| = Ee iS oa aye) os 5 =| 3 -

fa Seely el eee 2 22 o-oo

Dates) ak gM SL Te = mo | He | 25's

les |} 3 | 2 | Be | gf | ee | Bel eee

ag 2 5 as aa. | ee eee

oq Ps = PAY oF Cag a OO &

= A e) A = ee =

fe) ) ) ) Inches. | 'T. gr. “| Toney .

1 75.3 2.4 | 73.6 4. 1 O.S1F 8.86 1.24 | 0.88 |

2 75.0 1.2 | 74.2 2.0 .832 9.05 0.61 4

3 770 PA |. 756 3.6 .868 38 1.15 89

A 78.9 31 77.3 3.9 919 90 31 88° 8

5 78.1 3.2 | 75.9 5.4 .879 AT Mis 84. a

6 79.3 28 7a 7 3.9 .931 | 10.02 32 88

7 80.4 2.8 | 78.4 4.8 952 21 68 86

8 81.0 4.1 | 78.1 7.0 943 08 2.49 80 @

9 81.6 4:2 | 78.7 Fel 961 .26 57 80. @

10 82.1 Al | 79:2 7.0 .976 Al 58 80

lt 80.8 43 | 77.8 7.3 934 9.99 58 80 @

12 80.1 4.4 | 77.0 7.5 .910 73 62 79 a

13 80.6 AO! F728 6.8 934 .99 AO 3

14 0 BOR aes es 7.3 931 .96 57 30

15 81.2 22,| 79.7 3.7 .992 | 10.63 1.33 89

16 81.4 2.8.| 79.4 4.8 .983 51 73 36

17 80.4 Be | 7ea oAS 952 2) 68 86

18 80.1 | 2.8] 781 4.8 943 12 67 86:

19 80.8 2.5 | 79.0 4.3 .970 AQ 51 87

20 80.6 V7 |-79.4 2.9 .983 58 02 91

21 80.4 2.3 | 78.8 3.9 964 36 36 88

22 80.2 32.1 78.0 5.4 .940 09 87 84

23 81.4, Bul | 79.8 5.3 | .976 AB 90 85

24 81.5 3.1 | 79.3 5.3 .979 8 91 85

£5. | ein 2.9 | 79.1 4.9 .973 AQ 5 | 86

26 | 80.3 1.9 | 79.0 3.2 .970 AA 10 | =

a7 80.3 3.4| 77.9 5.8 .937 04 2.03 | 88

28 80.0 3.2 | 77.8 5.4 934 038 1.96 | 64

29 80.7 3.6 | 78.2 6.1 946 13 9.15 | 83

30 | 80.5 4.3 | 77.5 7.3 925 9.90 56 80

ag a7 ae 931 <1 10.00.) Ise | 85

All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants.

Meteorological Observations. Ii

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations —

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of July 1866.

Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.

63 Range of the Barometer = . |Range of the Tempera-

“25” for each hour during me ture for each hour

oe R= the month. 2 during the month.

sas b 8

Hour.) = a a F

a ;

S233 | Max. | Min. | Diff. | $3 | Max. | Min. | Diff

Ag ae

Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. re) ° 0 o

Mid-

night.| 29.605 | 29.674 | 29.515 | 0.159 81.2 84.5 76.0 8.5

1 593 .663 AOL 172 81.0 83.8 75.8 8.0

2 583 .656 466 .190 80.7 83.5 75.4 8.1.

3 573 .650 456 194, 80.4, 83.3 74.8 8.5

A 570 659 476 -183 80.2 83.2 74.6 8.6

5 577 664 A80 184 80.4 83.4 74.4 9.0

6 591 .680 493 .187 80.6 83.4 74.5 8.9

7 -606 .700 504 196 81.2 84.0 74.6 9.4

8 .618 705 -596:| 189 {| 825 85.3 75.8 9.5

9 .626 412 530 182 84.1 87.4 76.6 | 10.8

10 .629 714 530 Bi, 84.9 88.8 77.0 | 11.8

11 620 702 529 173 85.7 90.2 76.8 | 13.4

Noon. -608 .686 509 177 86.1 91.2 i br-a\ ee

1 591 675 491 184 86.5 92.2 76.4 | 15.8

2 569 657 4.60 197 86.3 93.0 76.6 | 16.4

3 548 632 433 es Sa 85.9 93.2 75.2 | 18.0

A 536 616 439 Lif 85.6 oi@ 75.6 | 15.4

5 534 608 44.3 .165 85.3 89.6 75.5 | 14.1

6 542 .616 456 .160 84.5 88.0 75.5 | 12.5

if 560 637 A80 157 83.3 86.0 75.4 | 10.6

8 581 660 505 155 82.7 85.2 75.6 9.6

9 602 684: 527 157 82.3 84.7 75.6 Sills

10 616 697 540 157 81.8 85.2 75.6 9.6

11 616 689 542 147 81.4 85.0 75.6 9.4

See Le EBS gs TE ie ee Pe ie a ee cee 2 YA

The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb

Thermometer Means are derived from the observations made at the several

hours during the month. :

hi Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

am the month of July 1866.

Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.—(Continued.)

. ; ; Bot i ~ |

= = x, A 5 > 6 | des ls.

a) ) & o 5 GH 4> a5 = = Cy = &

Z| > = > = o 9 y= ° 2"s

S) o ° S 2 Oo i Seth poe

@ $3 io eo iS oS. o a tie bh =

Pe | 73 | 2 4. | Be Se | eee ce

qq FA Bi) ag eg 8, 2 Be et te

SS] be OB | Ore | es | ee) eee eee

si =| ay 5 ala Sin S-5 oe Sj) sos

fo) fo) Co) ) Inches: Ter.) vas

Mid-

night. 79.4, 18) etal Ean 0.943 10.16 1.05 0.91

iL 79.3 ih 4 5 Gee 2°9 943 16 0.98 91

2 rice 1.6 | 78.0 al .940 hd, ‘91 .92 -

3 79.1 £31 J82 2.2 .946 21 13 .93

4, 78.9 1-3: |. FSO 2.2 .940 15 3 .93

5 79.0 1.4 |. 78,0 2.4: .940 15 19 .93

6 79.2 4s Fasee 2.4 .946 21 .80 .93

7 79.5 17 |) f8aa 2.9 .949 22 :99 91

8 80.2 2.34) £826 3.9 .958 .30 1.34 .89

9 80.7 Ai Tee 5.8 .949 .16 2.05 83

10 80.8 7 la 9 7.0 .937 .O2 AZ .80

ii 81.2 4.5 | 78.0 ed 940 .03 airy 18

Noon. 81.2 4.9 | 77.8 8.3 .934 9.97 .98 By i.

i 81.2 d.a | £00 8.5 .940 10.01 3.09 76

2 81.1 B.2- iL oD 8.8 .925 9.86 16 76

3 81.1 7 a i fe 8.2 931 94, 2.93 Boh

4, 80.8 4.8 | 77.4 8.2 .922 .85 on J

5 80.8 ALS Gf06 Tod . 928 91 13 78

6 8V.3 4.2 | 77.4 fall .922 .87 48 .80 ;

7 79.8 3:0; || dives 6.0 .919 .86 07 83 @

8 79.8 2.9' Pia8 4.9 .934, 10.03 1.69 .86

9 79.7 236 1 jah ie 4A, .937 .08 50 87

10 79.6 2.2 | 78.1 ont 943 14 26 .89

Th 79.6 18) |) a2.Sae 3.1 .949 22 5 91

Ail the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants.

Meteorological Observations. hin

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutia,

in the month of July 1866.

Solar Radiation, Weather, &e.

La C “1 oo |

S6\|s.9¢ Prevailing mS

Ms |b ss : . he Cy

cap ie = 2! direction of the "a. | General aspect of the Sky.

=| Ko |e oF Wind. ied

2), Ss fac So

ea Mio Ag

o \Inches tb

1 0.80° |W. & S. W. Overcast. Rain day & night.

2 * 4.20 |S. W. & W. N. W.| 2.60 |Overcast. Rain day & night.

3 +1.32 |W.S.W.&S. S. E. Overcast to 11 a. m. Seaid. Wi

& Ni afterwards. Rain from

5 to 10 a. M.

A, S. HE. & E.S. E. 2.00 |Seatd. \i to 44. Mm. Overcast to

5 p.m.clear aiterwards. Light

rainat6&104.m. &at1&

; 3 P. M.

5 | 118.4| 0.13 |S. 8: E. & 8. by E.| 1.50 |Overcast to 8 a. M. “1 after-

wards.Light ran at 2,7 & 10

A.M. andat4& 10 Pp. mM.

ee 0.87 |S. by E.&S. by W.| 1.00 |Overcast to 2 Pp. mM. Scatd. >i to

6p. M. clear afterwards. Ram

at 2,5, 8 &lla.m. & atZ&

oP. M.

7| ... | 0.61 |S.S.E.&8.& S.byW.| 0.25 |Clear to 4 a. Mm. “1 to7 P.M.

clear afterwards. Rain be-

tween lO &ll a.m. & at 2 P.M.

Sy 1190")... |S. by W..& B. 0.30 |Overcast tod a.m.\ni to ll a.m.

“i atterwards. Light rain at

4A. M.

Sato | 3... |(ScS. W.&S. 0.50 (Wi to 4 Pp. M. overcast after-

wards Thunder at 6 P. M.

Lightning to the N. W. at 8

—

P. M.

10 | 125.4 S.S. E. & S. E. 0.50 |Scatd. “ito 7 p. m. clear after-

wards.

11 | 128.0] 0.10 |S. E. & E. by S. 1.20 |Clear to 3 4. um. Scatd. ~i to 8

p. M. clear aiterwards. Kan

between 1O & ll a. m. & be-

tween 2 & 3p. M.

12 112.0} 0.09 |S. E. & E.S. E. 2.10 |Clear to 3 4. mw: \i to lla. M.

Scatd.. “1 & s21 10,5 Py lee

afterwards. Rain at 5 a. M. &

between 9 & 10 a. M.

13 | 129.8 eh. MES: Se EB 0.70 |Seatd. 71 & Wi to 7 p. M. clear

afterwards. Light rain at 6}

& ll a. M.

14 | 121.0 tis. 4828: Ei. 0.50 |Clear to 4.4. m. Scatd. “i & \Wi

to 7 p. M. Clear afterwards.

Light rain at 6 P. M.

15 0.16 |S. by E. &S. 0.50 |Scatd \i to 44. mM. Wi & “i to

8 p. mM. clear afterwards.

Light rain from 9 to ll.a. mM.

*Fell from 1 p.™M. of the lst to 4 Pp. M. of the 2nd.

+ Do. 5 p. a. of the 2nd. to 10 a. Mm. of the 3rd.

hiv Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

an the month of July 1866.

Solar Radiation, Weather, &c.

a eae bie:

3 § s ae Prevailing oie

.| . 8 |O & 2] direction of the Fie | General aspect of the Sky.

2) 2S lage Wind ahs

fan Ss ra oie ind. ss z

i o |Inches tb

LGticias 0.18 | S. 1.00.3 108 av a Aig te sae Ca.

overcast to 7 Pp. M. clear

afterwards. Rain from 9 a.

m. to Noon.

17 | 118.0; 0.78 |S. 8S. W. & S. by W| 4.30 |Clear to 3 a.m. \i to2 P. Mu.

overcast afterwards. Rain

from 3 to 5 Pp. M.

PS AA, a. S. W. 1.00 |Overeast, slight rain at 63, 73

& 10 a. M.

19) ... | 0.88 |S.& 8. W. & W. 1.00 |Overcast nearly the whole day.

Rain from 2 to 6 a. M. & at 8

A. M.

710 0.85 |S. by E.&S8.&8.8.E.) 0.20 |Overcast to 4 P. M. “i after-

wards. Rain at 10 & ll,a. m.

& at l3,4&7P. mM.

ZN ae vio |S. QS 0.50 |\~.i & \Wi nearly the whole day.

Slight rain at 74. mM. & at 3

Pp. M.

225 = 38 0.18 |S. & 8. 8. E. 0.50 |Wi & 71. Rain at 6 & 104 a. m.

& between Noon & 1 Pp. m.

ZO AOS LABS SW. OSON Fg Nae

es | ISS Wits. 0.50 |Scatd. \_i to 5 aA. M. overcast

afterwards.

25:| 3, 14 ODORS! by Waa s. 0.60 |Overcast nearly the whole day.

Rain at 3,10 & lla.m. & from

2to 4p. M.

2640 1452S. oH: 0.40 |Overcast nearly the whole day,

Rain at 6 & from 8 to I]]4a4. mu.

27 | 120.0); ... |S. byW.& E. 8. E.| 0.40 |Scatd. \wi to 10 4. m. m1 to5

p. m. Scatd.\_i &\i after-

: wards.

28 | 114.0) 4 a) FS aoe. 0.70 |-ito 4P.m.Sceatd. \i&\_i after-

wards. Light rain at 5 & 7 a.

mM. & at 3 Pp. M.

29/1340; ... |S.E.&S.S.E. 0.70 iScatd. “ito 4P. m. Seatd. \i

afterwards. Rain between

midnight & la. mM. & at 4P.

30 | 127.0| 0.10 |K.S. BE. &S.E. 0.40 |\Scatd. \i to 84. M. “ito 4 P.M,

Seatd. \i afterwards. Rain at

ll a. we. & at I Pom.

olae h J) NaN, 0.25 |Clear to 5 a. mM. \i & Wi to 10

A. mM. Overcast afterwards.

Thunder at 2p. uw. Light rain

from | to 3 Pp. M.

™a Cirri, — i Strati,~i Cumuli,\—i Cirro-strati, ~i Cumulo strati,~i Nimbi,

“i Cirro eumuli.

Meteorological Observations. lv

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, in the

month of July 1866.

Monrtaty ReEsvutts.

Inches.

Mean height of the Barometer for the month,... sas SOLOST

Max. height of the Barometer occurred at 10 4. a. on the 14th, ... 29.714

Min. height of the Barometer occurred at 3 Pp. M. on the 9th, —... 29.433

Extreme range of the Barometer during the month, a ian, OF2BE

Mean of the daily Max. Pressures, _... pnd bd 2GaT

Ditto ditto Min. ditto >. .. 29.527

Mean daily range of the Barometer during the month, ... wi) OLE

)

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer for the month, __.., abs <3. Baek

Max. Temperature occurred at 3 p. M. on the 9th or, ja: - ae

Min. Temperature occurred at 5 a. M. on the 3rd . oP we TAA

Extreme range of the Temperature during the mont nth, a. oa: |. pans

Mean of the daily Max. Temperature .. re x a OSLO

Ditto ditto Min. ditto, rs oP ee’ pc

Mean daily range of the Temperature during the month,.. eh 8.3

Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer for the month, ... 80.1

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer, 3.0

Computed Mean Dew-point for the month, 78.0

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above computed n mean Dew- -point. . 5.1

hae

Mean Elastic force of Vapour for the month, ... Bet ».. 0.940

Troy grain.

Mean Weight of Vapour for the month a5 OOS

Additional Weight of Vapour required for complete saturation, ... 1.77

Mean degree of humidity for the month, complete saturation being unity 0.85

Inches.

Rained 26 days,—Max. fall of rain during 24 hours Be ww 3.43

Total amount of rain during the month, & ABA?

Total amount of rain indicated by the gn attached to the anemo-

meter during the month. ws 12,06

Prevailing direction of the Wind, +. S&B Ee 8. B

lvi

ce, Caleutta, in the month of July 1866.

‘

he Surveyor General's Of

MontTuuy RESULTS.

taken at

tons

cal Observat

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorolog

riven hour any par

sether with the number of days on

ticular wind blew, te

fon

Tables shewing the number of days on which at a

ind was blowing, it rained.

any particular w

, When

which at the same hour

Meteorological Observations.

"UO UIRIy

iM AqN

‘Uv ULB ee

ApS - ae ——

“MN UN

‘uv ULB $i RSS ~

otal — ——7 i

Se ee ee ee — el

‘UO Wie

"UO ULB = oe

: —

"NAG" AA ae as

“ao areg Coon llumen tae! = — A

are aie = —_= = AN om =-=———O€

— —

“UO ULB sy aa Ey

f ea NN = =

Gg Aq “AA

Spay eres Are a4 NA = SU

uO UiBy

iho nao Wiel ata GD OD GO et = ANN

‘uv ule J rt ABAMMNNA AAR AAA Ae

“MA “a ANN RAANWMWDODMDIOAMANMAAWDMAAN

sania ei re — No Nas

pe Seer a NO AAWN So NID OM TION DION Ae

M'S’S

“au Utes : | aN rt eo

A Ay “yl OD NM om ww 1Dd Oo SG aN on Ss oaWN GNI GS cr oO

ze Tuk ik = = :

‘uv ULB yy aN a MINN ee ce

“g OO wOMWILMWM BOOM ALKNOAOhATDEeLe Dood

“Uv Uap : i Cm rc re ce asaamsN

“y Aq “9! aS OOM MMA Naa aH TDONWM TMUMOANIAN

——— i) : * ~*~

“uv aves] “o ah aN ANA — = =

aS “I lomo) 1D LID TO MIOQMAN ON MaANr~OMWANnOSO

ee ws ~

‘Us Wey Z co mown ae N

|) ROMO MMMOAAKRMOAAMNROAAMADoHw

‘HO ULB yy “ a la

“a ‘OY a NN SN ND ODO NWN Tee i ee Be ee | ama N

N v |

“Tu Uwe ic [| |

*g £q 7g Sse SON sq as — eS

"Gu t rie

eo ac mo asece

—

nt Ag “Gy ne eS

‘Uy UB sy Piha

. : 5 | ia Ls | [| [| sq ae

OF Ne.

‘Uo Wey

i ; ee

_IN

“oO WiBiT

HN oN

Uo ULB AT

a Aq ‘"N

uo U ey ee

T aan

N. ——

oS . d

‘amnLopr) oS Bp IAA FID OM DAO SGHAMAMWOMOASOF

sen rad ite mare

A Gq

Meteorological Observations. lvit

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of August 1866.

Latitude 22° 33’ 1” North. Longitude 88° 20’ 34” East.

Height of the Cistern of the Standard Barometer above the sea level, 18.11 feet.

Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.

fe 8 _ | Range of the Barometer = FF Range of Tompera-

mad during the day. FA 3 ture during the day.

5 oS BE

Date. | = BQ | Ag

grin =a

@ oi; | Max. | Min. Diff. & po Max. | Min. | Diff.

S| ~~ 8 S =

Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. ) ) ) )

1 | 29.586 | 29.625 | 29.520) 0.105; 83.2 | 89.6 | 80.4] 9.2

2 614 .695 O44 151 80.7 83.2 78.2 5.0

3 .730 .809 .683 126 80.4 83.6 79.2 4.4)

4, 739 en 677 100 80.0 82.7 79.0 3.7

5 680 "742 .616 126 81.5 84.8 79.4 5.4:

6 540 .655 442 213 82.2 86.0 79.8 6.2

7 .390 AAI 332 117 81.2 85.4: 79.2 6.2

8 A14 499 069 130 80.9 85.2 78.2 7.0

: 9 544 .630 AT5 155 83.6 89.7 78.8 | 10.9

10 593 631 O24 -107 84.3 90.8 80.7 | 10.1

11 557 613 ATA 139 | 84.6 89:2: | Sb.8 | 7:4

12 501 ol 426 125 83.6 89.4: 80.4 9.0

13 542 595 489 .106 83.0 87.6 128 7.8

14 597 .639 541 098 | 83.3 87.4 | 80.0 | 7.4

15 .617 651 .560 O81 83.4) 89.6 80.2 9.4)

16 589 631 O31 -LOO 82.4 86.0 78.8 7.2

17 563 .623 A84 139 83.0 87.8 80.2 7.6

18 525 572 A52 120 | 82.6 86.7 | 808) 6.2

1g 505 547 AAZ 105 83.8 88:0 5). SOQ: Sh

20 .509 561 465 .096 83.2 85.6 81.5 4.1

21 548 .607 495 112 82.0 85.2 79.6 5.6

22 578 .634 516 BS. 83.7 89.4 79.4 | 10.0

23 562 .615 A75 140 84.6 90.4: 80.4 | 10.0

24 598 .613 485 .128 85.0 90.8 81.4 9.4,

25 585 .645 516 130 84.3 89.8 81.8 8.0

26 .606 657 047 110 83.6 88.4 80.6 7.8

27 .607 649 550 O99 82.3 88.4 80.3 8.1

28 .582 .636 511 125 82.0 86.0 77.4 8.6

29 .670 739 .615 124 81.9 85.8 78.6 7.2

30 754 822 691 131 84.1 90.0 79.0 | 11.0

31 723 187 .639 148 | 86.2 91.8 | 81.4} 10.4

The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb

peeeno ele? Means are derived, from the hourly observations, made during

the day.

lvili Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

om the month of August 1866.

Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.—(Continued.)

P 4

fs so | E 6 5H | SSa las.

A |e | 2] 4 eg | #2 | ane | Bes

r2 o > a) +> ‘Bea 8 feyw =

| b E ° O° SES | SD &H

a 2 Sein 2 He |E 8 | ona

Dates) oo 5: Fa A ? e oh.2 Pepe) ie te ®

of | @ | S| 2.0 Sgal SSS eee

Pe 2 |) s-) ee | 8°) BS |S sees

dé wy aS) a3 Aas — Sr | €6°5

3 4 P> = Pry 55 oq | ses | S08

= A One = a7 |< =

| ) ) Ce) Co) Inehes.|' “Tor.” Faby ae

i. 79.8 3.4 | 77.4 5.8 0.922 9.89 2.00 0.83

2 79.4 6 | 780 2.7 .940 10.13 0.91 92

3 79.0 1.4 | 78.0 2.4 .940 15 79 .93

4 78.5 LS | 774 2.6 .922 9.95 .86 92

5 79.8 EY | 786 2.9 .958 10.32 .99 OP

6 80.0 2.2 | 78.5 3.7 955 27 L.2F .89

“if 79.2 20) | 77:8 3.4) 934 07 14 .90

8 79.0 on 77 4 3.2 931 04 .06 91

) 80.1 3.5 |~77-6 6.0 928 9.95 2.08 83

10 80.9 3.4 | 78.5 5.8 955 10.23 .05 83

11 81.3 3.3 | 79.0 5.6 .970 5/6 02 84

12 80.0 a6 | 475 6.1 .925 9.92 a hk 83

13 79.9 8 a as 5.3 .931 10.00 1.82 .85

14, 80.3 3.0 | 78.2 5.1 946 15 78 85

15 80.4) 3.0 | 78.3 5.1 .949 18 78 85

16 79.8 2.6 | 78.0 4A .940 Ae 50 87

17 80.3 3.2) 78.1 5.4 943 12 .88 84

18 79.7 2D | OTA 4.9 931 .0O .68 .86

19 81.0 2.8 | 79.0 4.8 .970 40 70 .86

20 81.5 L.7 | 80.3 2.9 1.011 84 .05 91

21 80.2 1:8: | 78.9 3.1 0.967 Al .06 91

22 80.8 2.9 | 78.8 4.9 964 04 13 .86

23 81.2 3.4 | 78.8 5.8 .964 ol 2.08 83

24, 81.3 3.7 | 78.7 6.3 .961 .29 24 82

25 80.7 3.6 | 78.2 6.1 .946 13 15 83

26 80.4) 3.2 | 78.2 5.4 .946 15 1.88 84

27 79.9 2.4 | 78.2 4.1 946 17 Al 88

28 79.4 256!) F7.6 4.4, .928 9:99 48 87

29 79.8 2.1 | 78.3 3.6 949 10.20 24 .89

30 80.6 3.5 | 78.1 6.0 943 10 2.11 83

dL 82.1 4.1 | 79.2 7.0 .976 AL 08 .80 &

~All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants. 4

Meteorological Observations. lix

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteoroloyical Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Caleutta,

im the month of August 1866.

Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.

SR Range of the Barometer ot ; Range of the Tempera-

aS; for each hour during mS ture for each hour

ae Z a the month. = during the month.

Hour.| = ay Gz

nN zB

e433 | Max. | Min. | Diff. | $2 | Max. | Min. | Diff.

as ao

Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. ) ) ) )

Mid-

night.| 29.601 | 29.760 | 29.399 | 0.361 81.3 BAT. b SO) | cee

1 O89 751 O89 302 80.9 83.8 79.2 4.6

2 580 744 379 | .365 80.7 83.0 | 79.2 | 38

3 570 738 372 .366 80.5 82.6 78.9 3.7

4 .566 TAL .368 373 80.2 82.2 78.2 4.O

5 574 £750 378 372 80.1 81.8 77.4 4.4,

6 588 tik 378 | .393 80.3 82.4 | 77.8 | 4.6

7 .603 801 .393 | .408 81.0 83.2 | 78.38 | 4.4

8 .616 809 ALL 398 82.0 84.8 | 79.0] 5.8

9 .626 .816 A24, 392 83.6 87.0 79.6 74

10 .629 822 432 | .390 84.7 88.4 | 79.2 | 9.2

11 .618 812 408 | .404 86.1 69.6 | 80.5 | -91

Noon. .603 .796 084 412 85.7 90.4: 81.4.) 2 So

1 583 .766 .378 .388 86.1 91.0 81.2 9.8

2 .560 133 309 380 85.8 O12 79:2: \ V2

3 540 113 309 374 85.8 90.8 79.4 | 11.4

4 525 694 332 362 85.7 9E0 79.6 | 11.4

5 527 .693 343 999 85.0 91.8 80.0 | 11.8

6 .540 113 .000 .308 83.8 89.7 19.8) | AOE

z 558 123 367 .006 83.1 87.7 79.2 8.5

8 583 748 388 .360 82.6 86.4 79.6 6.8

9 604 158 400 208 82.2 85.6 79.6 6.0

10 617 .809 ALL 398 81.9 84.8 79.6 5.2

11 .613 767 415 302 81.6 84.4 79.2 5.2

The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb

Thermometer Means are derived from the observations made at the several

hours duzing tle month.

ix Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

an the month of August 1866.

Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.—(Continued.)

ee ee ————

= +3 = = Se 5H | S Ot F Fs

a S = is = ae 2" § 55 :

eS Bai al.) 2 >s | essing. am

2 o 2) io) G4 45 orl oh Aes So,

= > E > = O38 S's 8 | o's

5 S S 2 baie e os os |

wou|@ | 2/A|4 | 8 | 22 Feel] eee

| 2B ef ts = i a. ‘Be hd a ieee ee

ES j= £ ae. fe yy ES So | BS's

® 5 = as 5 O~ |e a

aq a xs aS, es mae | eg

fo fb Leche eee (ioe

SA) Gey: Tein bey cS Sea. a

) ) ) ) Inches..| 7D. .et, 0) Toe

Mid-

night. 79.7 1.6 | 78.6 2.7 0.958 10.32 0.92 0.92

iI 19.5 1.4 | 78.5 2.4, .955 ol 19 .93

2 79.4 Le | 4S. 2.2 .955 soil. fe .93

3 79.2 LB 18s 2.2 949 24, 74 .93

A 79.0 1.2 | 78.2 2.0 .946 21 G7 94

5 78.9 1.2.) of Oelk: 2.0 .943 18 .66 94

6 79.0 13/8 2.2 .943 18 73 .93

4 79.5 1.5 | 78.4 2.6 .952 25 .89 .92

8 80.0 2.0 | 78.6 3.4 .958 .o2 1.15 99

9 80.5 Mal | Sud 5.3 949 18 .8d .85

10 80.8 3.9 |>781 6.6 .943 .08 2.34 81

11 81.5 4.6 | 78.3 7.8 .949 12 .83 78

Noon.| 81.3 4.4,| 78.2 7h) 946 .O9 “Fl 79

a. 81.6 4.5 | 78.4 beh 952 15 .80 78

2 81.2 4.6 | 78.0 7.8 940 .03 .80 78

3 81.2 4.6 | 78.0 i 940 .03 .80 78

4, 81.2 4.5 | 78.0 hers 940 .03 ed 78

5 80.7 AS) Thar fis 931 9.96 Pay 80

6 80.4 3.4 | 78.0 5.8 940 10.07 .O3 83

| 80.2 2.9 | 78.2 4.9 946 15 Ly 86

8 80.1 20 | «oo A.3 949 .20 A8 87

9 79.9 2.) | wows 3.9 949 .20 34, 88

10 80.0 1.9 | 78.7 3.2 961 .o0 .O9 91

jE 79.9 Lh) 2.9 961 30 0.99 91

All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants.

Meteorological Observations, Ixi

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of August 1866.

Solar Radiation, Weather, &e.

IEE =e

2 S te0 Prevailing & =

ag 256 Wind. 2°

a” bas a5

Inches tb

} 126. 0} 0.34 |E. N. E. & EH. 0.50 |\ni nearly the whole day. Rain

between 11 & Noon & be-

tween 5 & 6 P. M.

2 0.43 |E.S. E. & E. 0.80 Overcast. Rain constantly.

3 0.67 |E. S. E. &S. by E. | 0.75 jOvercast. Rain at 2, 5, 7, 9, &

10 a. M. & from 1 to 3 Pp. mM.

Thunder at 8 A. M.

4| ,.. | 1.56 |S.8. E.&S. by E.| 0.75 |Overcast. Rain from 4 a. m. to

. 5 p. M. Thunder & Lightning

at 4.4. M.

Re reves 0.21 |W.N.W. & S. S. E.| 0.40 [Clear to2 4. m. Overcast to 10

A. M. Wi to 8 Pp. M. Overcast

afterwards. Rain at 10 a. m.

at2 & 3 p.m. Thunder at 2 &

3 p. M. Lightning at 9 P. m.

ee)... 0.44 |N. N. E. 0.50 |Overeast to 11 a. M. \i to 8 P.

mM. Overcast afterwards. Rain

at8 & lla.m. & at 2,6 & 9

p. M. Lightning at midnight.

-& -E.| 2.12 |Overcast. Rain constantly.

i& 8. SoH: Overcast to 3 Pp. M. “i to 6 P.

m., clear afterwards. Rain

from midnight to 4 a. M. at

8a.mM. & at 3p. mM.

9|130.0 | 0.12 |S. S. E. & S. EK. Scatd. “i to5 p.m. clear af-

terwards. Rain at 4,6 & 11

A. M. & between 4 & 5 P. M.

10/125.0/ ... |S.S.E.&S.E.&SSW. Clear to 7 a. M. Seatd. “ito 8

p. M. clear afterwards. Light

rain at 5 Pp. M.

S. S. W. & variable Clear to2 a.m. \Wito 7 P. M.

& S. by E. clear afterwards. Light rain

between Noon & 1 P. M. & at

6 Pp. M.

12 |124.0 | 0.25 |S. E. & E. Clear to 4.4. mM. Secuds from E

to 11 aom. Seatd. “1 to! Sez

M. clear afterwards. Rain at

7,11 & Noon.

13 [130.0 | 0.17 |S. 8. E. & E. by S. Scatd.\i & \_i to 6 a. m. clouds

of different kinds afterwards.

Rain at 9 & between 11 &

Noon & between 10 & 11 P.M.

17S aie ct joeeds: by B, Overcast tolO a.m. Wi & “i

to 6 p. m. clear afterwards.

OST

(on)

(oa)

Dia

11 | 126.0

Slight rain at 3 & 4a. M.

1 15/131.0; 0.14 |S. S. E. & S. E. Clear to 3 a. m. \ni_ afterwards.

Rain betweend&64mM &at2 Pm.

Ixil — Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of August 1866.

Solar Radiation, Weather, &e.

Prevailing

General aspect of the Sky.

direction of the

Wind.

Max. Solar

radiation.

Max. Pres-

sure of Wind

Rain Guage

5 feet above

Ground.

iq?)

Gt) TR 2, VASE Oe: ... {Overcast to 3 Pp. Mm. \Wi to 7 P.

M.\i afterwards. Light rain

at2& 94a. mM. & at lf Pp. mM.

mS .. |S. S.W.&S. 8. E.| ... |Wi nearly the whole day.

ro ae 1.36 |S.S. W. & S. W. wwii to3.4a. M..\t fo lO Ac we

Overcast afterwards, Rain at

ll a. m. 123 p.m. & from 5 to

ll Pp. M.

Overcast nearly the whole day.

Lightning & Thunder at mid-

night. Shght rain from mid-

night to 2 a. M. & at 6 P. M.

Overcast to4 Pp. mM. “i & Wi

afterwards. Rain at2 &3 4.

m. & at Noon.

Overcast nearly the whole day.

Rain from midnight to 2 &

at 5 & from 7 to 9 a. Mm.

ya ASSIS by JEL. i, Ss 5: EE. Scatd. ‘i to 8 a. M. Mi tol p.m.

Overcast to 6 Pp. mM. Thin

clouds afterwards.

OE) A Sete, ... |S. S. W. & variable

BOs \) 4h. 0.44 |W. & variable

21) ... | 0.63 |S. & S. by W.

Instruments out of order

23 | 133.0) ... |S. 8S. E. & S. by E. \ni to 9 a. M. i afterwards.

24)... EK. &. HK. S. E. \Wi & Mi nearly the whole day.

Light, rain at 3 P. M.

25.2. OU27E- N. Bo& B.S. B. i & \\i nearly the whole day.

Rain at3 & 4P. M.

26 |) 2 4 (OOS. ae. 8. N. Ee. Scatd. clouds to 7 4. M. “i to

Noon. Overcast at 5 P. M.

Scatd. cloudsafterwards, Rain

at 1 & 43 P. M.

err x. 0.30 |K. & S. S. E. Seatd. clouds to ll a. m. Over-

cast to 3 p.m. Thin clouds af-

terwards, Rain at ll3 a. m.

4.22 aS 0.30 |S. HE. &S.8. E. Overcast to 6 a. M. Wi & Seuds

from E to ll a.m.Thin clouds

to 4 p. M. Scatd. ~i afterwards.

Rain from 2 to5 a. M. at 10 4.

mM, Noon 34 P. mu. & at 105P. ™.

76 er 3.14 |S. by W. & variable. Overcast to 1 Pp. m. ~i to 6 P. M.

clear afterwards, rain from 3

tod a.m. at 8 a.m. & at 39P.M.

30|133.0| ... IS.&S.S. W. ito 7 p.M. clear afterwards.

Light rain at Noon. .__

31/ 134.6} ... |S.S.W.&S. by W. Clear to 2 4. ™. Seatd. “i to 6

p. m. clear afterwards. fe

Mi Cirri, —i Strati,~i Cumuli,\—i Cirro-strati, ~ i Cumulo strati,~1 Nimbi,

“i Cirro eumuli. ;

Meteorological Observations. Ix

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta, in the

month of August 1866.

Montuity ReEsvutts.

Inches.

Mean height of the Barometer for the month,... 1. 29.584

Max. height of the Barometer occurred at 10 a. M. on the 30th, ... 29.822

Min. height of the Barometer occurred at 4 P.M. onthe 7th, —... 29.332

Extreme range of the Barometer during the month, a ... 0.490

Mean of the daily Max. Pressures, _... pe at .. 29.642

Ditto ditto Min. ditto +s.) 29.519

Mean daily range of the Barometer during the ‘month, a») OA2S

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer for the month,

Max. Temperature occurred at 5 p. M. on the 31st,

Min. Temperature occurred at 5 a. M. on the 28th,

Extreme range of the Temperature nit a the month,

Mean of the daily Max. Temperature .. :

Ditto —_ ditto Min. ditto, ....

Mean daily range of the Temperature during the month,..

NTO HATO

ee ee Ue oS)

STO O BB

Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer for the month, ... 80.2

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer, 2.7

Computed Mean Dew-point for the month, dine ROcek

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above computed n mean Dew- -point. . 4.6

Taekee.

Mean Elastic force of Vapour for the month, ... wh ». 0.949

Troy grain.

Mean Weight of Vapour for the month in} I1GHS

Additional Weight of Vapour required for complete saturation, ... 1.61

Mean degree of humidity for the month, complete saturation being unity 0.86

Inches.

Rained 27 days,—Max. fall of rain during 24 hours Se ee ORLA

Total amount of rain during the month, wi LEAS

Total amount of rain indicated by the Gauge attached to the anemo-

meter during the month. 10.67

Prevailing direction of the Wind, a) 808, Eo EnSen. & S. by E.

lxiv

ays on

yor General's Office, Caleutta, in the month of August1866

together with the number of d

ae:

—

cope)

“4 ©

Aro

Ss, 4

S85

Cra

owoHkHs

rep sa

S wn QP

Sa St

Ss So

Sp 5,

mad

£5 &

ebaag

Sodgq

Sse

SA.

on FE

eB i.

ens}

Gs}

which at the same hour

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observ

Tables shewing the number of days on wh

Meteorological Observations.

‘UO Ue

“M 4q°N

‘UO ULB

"M'N'N

‘UO WIRY]

‘uO ULB

“NT AQ "AA

‘UO ULB

ner

‘HO Urey

‘Gg Aq MM

"UO ULV

M'S'M

"UO UleYy

2 oe

ae See

‘M'S'S

Liisa!

“M 4q ‘9

‘UO UIBY

—

ec Ce ee

OD SH GO SH HO SOD

NAN AN

Le oe OO

to) in|

SSS SS ee ee

[1 |

oa reat

SSS St SN a ee

]

Tal

— Loe |

QT OD NI OO I 1D OD 10 OD SHAD 20 10

et |

ANNAN TOA wIdANAA

=! lt

‘'§

‘mo Urey]

OAT RAHANN N

Ln le De ee OCD ee OCI oe i Are) | AMMAN TWIMNAN SS

NID AN AAO CO Re CO R16

‘aA Aq ‘g

‘HO UIE = =

No ew i

‘a 'S ‘8

"UO UR} a a

LD UD 1D CO SH XH OD 20 0D 10 IN OD) SH SO SH CO SH SH GD 10 6

oa OD ro

rt N

“HS

‘UO UB

“a Goat

“uO uley

‘HO ULB

“

"HO WIRY

"nN AQ “q

‘UO UIeyy

"as IN ak

‘uO WIRY

"ol “NI

‘UO UII

“NM

“uo Uley

“a Aq *N

“TO Uley

Fo Nl

OANM DONA Lan

= =

OANMOR TR TNAN

rd HN

i= foal ial il

al I

ral i) at

ANNA TSA AA

moH| =

A HANNMOANMAMONNMUWAANAN TG

Cee ee OO oe oe en OO)

AND NATANWMONWOMMDHANMAATSH

(a) il teal is! re NAN

SNM AAAMAOOMAMAMNAMATAN SHO 10

re N

aoe ANN OD

taht —

FASTA MANTANANANA TS mim” La

Pal teal

i! ili! i]

Meteorological Observations.

lxv

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of September 1866.

Latitude 22° 33’ 1” North. Longitude 88° 20’ 34” East.

Height of the Cistern of the Standard Barometer above the sea level, 18.11 feet.

Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.

DES

Date. | = 3 =

= Ss

Inches.

5 29.669

2 .646

3 598

4 570

5 .612

6 .666

z .667

8 571

9 498

10 548

11 .626

12 615

13 .638

14 642

15 579

16 579

17 599

—=18 .643

19 .730

20 741

21 412

22 .763

23 .802

24 BY

25 729

26 hon

27 .767

28 152

29 51

30 .760

Range of the Barometer

during the day.

Max.

Inches.

29.730

715

.669

.627

°683

.726

126

.652

559d

.607

.687

.672

691

694,

.618

.622

645

724

.786

197

.762

812

.855

834

176

182

842

811

.803

831

Min.

Inches.

29.582

O76

517

494

.650

615

O84

473

A444

904

.569

534

.586

.o190

515

.576

674

681

.645

vile

746

.698

.657

.652

.688

.676

677

Diff.

Inches.

0.148

139

152

133

142

179

103

118

138

105

119

103

dai

122

148

116

117

099

109

136

119

130

154

135

127

154

Mean Dry Bulb

Thermometer.

87.0

86.8

86.5

83.1

83.9

85.7

83.5

80.8

83.3

83.2

84.2

84.9

84.8

85.8

84.5

82.9

83.2

82.5

82.6

84.1

85.1

84.1

82.2

83.9

85.4:

86.2

86.5

Range of Tempera-

ture during the day.

Max.

93.2

93.0

92.0

87.2

89.4

88.4.

90.2

89.0

82.8

87.3

87.0

90.1

91.8

88.0

91.6

92.8

86.2

86.3

89.0

87.6

87.5

89.8

90.8

89.0

84.0

90.0

91.2

91.4

93.2

93.6

Min. | Diff.

SUD SVU $0 F320. SEPP iPU Gist

a ee

DOW ERODDANANWEROCORMNOSDBRHEALKLADMND

arg)

The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb

Thermometer Means are derived, from the hourly observations, made during

the day.

xvi Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

an the month of September 1866.

Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.—(Continued.)

‘ : 3 oR = ri; GH my at pes

Bo fae) Bo] ecculoopet if ila) a ga

S) Ee = > s |S 3e ees

- 2D) a > 2 an 2 = on , 8

= 2 e = 3S | Sables

2 5 E a = =e ie Sg | 22 op

Date.) | SS ea os ze ae fo1| fe'3

2 | 2 | B | So) Sool Sat soa

Fo 3 | 2. 64 | 83 | ES | ooee ee

AS oy 7) Ss wey = 3 = 3 = as 3

& & ay a Pom & > oo ceo] eos

= A}Oo] A a Sashes a

| ) Oo Ce) ) Inches: | -T. gr. | T. or

1 82.9 4.1 | 80.4 6.6 1.014 10.79 2.50 0.81

2 82.7 4.1 | 80.2 6.6 008 13 48 81

3 82.5 4.0 | 80.1 6.4 O08 aL 9 82

4 89.6 2.5 | 78.8 4.3 0.964: 36 1.50 87

53) 80.5 2.8 | 78.5 4.8 955 25 68 86

6 81.4 2.5 | 79.6 4.3 989 .60 53 87

7 82.4 3.3 | 80.1 5.6 1.005 Wy as 2.09 84

8 80.6 2.9 | 78.6 4.9 0.958 .28 1.72 .86

9 79.3 fo} 782 2.6 946 ee 0.88 92

10 80.7 2.6 | 78.9 4.4 -967 39 1.54 .87

11 Fo 4.1 | 76.2 7.0 .887 9.52 2.37 .80

12 80.8 3.4 | 78.4 5.8 952 10.19 05 83

13 81.5 3.4 |} 79.1 5.8 973 AO .O9 83

14 82.1 2.7 | 80.2 4.6 1.008 AT 1.69 56

15 82.1 3.4 | 79.0 6.3 0.986 53 2.30 82

16 81.4 3.1 | 79.2 5.3 7G A5 1.90 .85

7. 81.0 I iW 3.2 .992 .66 13 .90

18 80.5 2.4) 78.8 4.1 964 06 43 88

19 80.7 2.9) 139 4.3 967 -o9 50 .87

20 80.2 2.3 | 78.6 3.9 958 30 od 89

21 79.4 3.2 | 772 5.4 .916 9.85 83 84

22 80.4 a Galen ee: 6.3 934, 10.01 2.20 82

23 31.5 3.6 | 79.0 6.1 970 o7 .20 83

24 peas 4.4 | 76.6 Lo 899 9.61 60 vis

25 79.4 2:3: Tie 4.8 922 91 1.63 86

26 79.3 4.6 | 76.1 7.8 885 48 2.65 78

27 80.8 4.6 | 77.6 7.8 928 91 dd 78

28 81.9 4.3 | 78.9 7.3 967 10.32 67 79

29 81.5 5.0 | 78.5 8.0 955 LS 92 78

30 81.8 4.7 | 79.0 7.5 970 3d fe 79

“All the H ygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Consfants.

Meteorological Observations. Ixvii

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

am the month of September 1866.

Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.

63 Range of the Barometer = .. | Range of the Tempera-

ae for each hour during ea) 8 ture for each hour

ae & the month. =~ during the month.

o S Py

Hour.) © = A :

ses | Max. | Min. | Dif. | 2S | Max. | Min. | Dif.

wo oe

as =

Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. oO oO re) o

Mid-

night.| 29.681 | 29.807 | 29.537 | 0.270 82.2 84.6 79.0 | 5.6

I .672 £805 O19 .286 82.0 84.2 79.2 5.0

2 .663 .800 .503 297 81.7 83.8 78.8 5.0

3 .655 91 488 .803 81.4 83.2 78.4 4.8

4 .648 781 .469 312 81.2 83.0 78.2 4.3

5 .656 .798 A464 334 81.1 82.8 78.0 4.8

6 671 811 479 .Bo2 81.0 83.0 78.2 | 4.8

7 .687 824, 499 3825 82.0 84.8 79.6 §.2

8 705 .846 O06 340 83.8 87.0 81.3 5.7

9 716 .851 O19 .332 85.3 88.2 81.8 6.4

10 718 .855 523 .332 86.3 90.2 82.2 8.0

11 .708 .846 O16 .330 87.2 91.0 82.2 8.8

Noon. .688 .836 502 Bo4 87.8 91.2 80.4 | 10.8

1 661 .808 A481 327 88.2 92.8 81.2 | 11.6

2 .633 782 461 321 88.1 92.8 80.0 | 12.8

3 611 .769 444 32d 88.2 93.6 80.7 | 12.9

4 .603 758 A448 310 87.7 93.0 81.4) 11.6

5 604 746 456 .290 86.8 92.6 80.2 | 12.4

6 622 .760 480 .280 85.2 $0.7 80.5 | 10.2

7 .642 174 A909 284 84.4 89.0 80.5 8.5

8 .666 .786 519 .267 83.6 88.4 80.4 8.0

9 .686 801 551 .250 83.0 85.8 80.0 5.8

10 .695 .812 555 257 82.7 85.6 jo0 6.0

11 .690 .809 .590 .209 82.4 85.0 79.2 5.8

The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb

Thermometer Means are derived from the observations mace at the several

hours during the month.

Ixviul Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of September 1866.

Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.—(Continued.)

| Z :

gi 5 = Ge > Sy = Se

| = eo) wear) oe S aia |. | Be

eae gins |) Ba | 2: | BS | SES THe e

= 5 5 5 = 238 |22e) oss

Hour. S a = 3 S ais Bo 3 Boe

Ses | Bo) a S| ae

| Fe i@2 | s\ 2. | Ae | FS | Soares

ag | A a | Pe as, | « SRS) oo

so Ps = ae) Ss as Tw SR BOS

| Sa) 8/8 | fi | ge | Ea | Ses] ges

7) ) Oo Inches... ‘Ter. ||) aie

Mid-

might.| 80.4 1.8 | 7084 3.1 0.973 10.47 1.07 0.91

1 80.2 1.8 | “7839 3.1 .967 Al .06 91

2 80.2 1) | Oe 2.6 973 AT 0.90 92

3 80.0 1.4 | 79.0 2.4 .970 46, 81 .93

A, 79.8 1.4] 78.8 2.4 .964 40 81 .93

9) 79.8 1.3 | 78.9 2.2 .967 43 74 93

6 79.8 A. | 2.920 2.0 .970 46 68 |: .94

7 80.4 £6 | 7933 2.7 73 53 94 92

8 81.0 2.8 | 790 4.8 .970 40 1.70 .86

9 81.5 3.8 | 78.8 6.5 974 .29 2.35 81

10 81.6 Ad (83 8.0 .949 12 .90 78

11 81.8 5.4 | 78.6 8.6 .958 ES) 3.18 76

Noon.| 82.0 5.8 | 78.5 9.3 955 .16 AA, 15

1 82.3 5.9 | 78.8 9.4, 964) .25 OL 15

2 81.9 6.2 | 78.2 9.9 .946 07 .65 43

3 82.2 6.0 | 78.6 9.6 .958 | 59 74

4 81.9 5.8 | 78.4 9.3 952 12 44, 75

5 81.4) 5.4 | 78.2 8.6 .946 OF 14 .76

6 81.2 4.0 | 78.4 6.8 952 whe 2.44 81

7 81.2 3.2 | 79.0 5.4 .970 40 1.94 85

8 80.9 24 | TOD 4.6 .970 40 .63 87

9 80.5 2.6 | £oxh 4.3 .961 oo 49 87

10 80.5 2.2 | 79.0 3.7 .970 42 .30 .89

11 80.5 TD es e2 3.2 076 .50 <del .90

All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants.

Meteorological Observations. Ixix

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

im the month of September 1866.

Solar Radiation, Weather, &c.

tH od ' =

Sd ies 5 5

oe |e as Prevailing ce

F ae) |S 2 =| direction of the ‘r | General aspect of the Sky.

2) es sé Wind. “i

Alsfles a5

o |Inches ile

1) 139.0; ... |S. by W. &S. Clear to 7 a. mM. Scatd. Mi to 1

p. M. Wi & “i afterwards.

Lightning to Kat 7 & 11 P.M.

Scatd.\i to 6 a. M. Seatd. ni

2/| 141.0! 3.08 |S. &S. W. to 6 p. m. Overcast after-

wards. Thunder at 9 & 10 Pp.

mM. Lightning at 9, 10 & 11 P.

mM. Rain from 7 to 11] Pp. m.

Mi & “i. Lightning at 10 p. m.

Se reebGners...) |W. SW. & N. W. Light rain at midnight & 8

A. M.

Overcast nearly the whole day.

Bhi. 03 0.42 |S.S. W. & S. W. Thunder & Lightning from

midnight to 3 a. M. Rain at

12&4& from 8 to 10a. m.

\ni to Noon.~i to 6 p. m. Over-

5 | 128.0| 0.20 | Variable. cast afterwards. Rain at 7 a.

M.& at3&8P. M.

Clear to 34. M. “ito8Pp.M.

Cie vis .. |KE, 8S. E. & variable Clear afterwards. Slight rain

at9 a.m. & OP. M.

Clear to5 a.m. \Wito3 P.M. M1

Re?!) (Se & 8. W. afterwards. Lightning to N

W from 8 to 1] Pp. o.

“ito 4 p. mM. Overcast after-

ee 0.73 | Variable. wards. Thunder at 11 P. mo.

| Lightning from 9tollp.m

Rain at1,2&1lla.m. & at

5 & ll Pp. M.

Overcast. Rain constantly from

9; ... | 3.84 |Variable. midnight to 4 P. mM.

Seatd. \i to6 a. m. Seatd. “i

207 i... 71S. 8..N. & 8: 8. E. to 1 p. M. Overcast to 8 P. M.

Clear afterwards.

i nearly the whole day. Slight

$F 140:2 ) 2. |S:5:E,S.\&8. by E. rain at 11 Pp. M.

_ |Seatd. “1 to 6 p.m. Clear after-

12 | 149.2 | 0.18 |S. S. E. &S. by E. wards. Rain at midnight, 1 &

6 a. mM. & between 3 & 4p. M.

Clear to 5 a. M. Seatd. “i to 7

dad) cae lSe 8. H..&.S. E. p. m. Clear afterwards.

Clear to 4 4. M. Scatd. i to 6 P.

14 | 133.8} 0.27 |S. S. E. & S. M. Scatd.\i to 9 p.m. Clear af-

terwards. Rain at Noon & 13

P. M.

157 1-143.2.1. oles BWV. & BS. Clear to 7 a. Mm. “1 afterwards.

Light rain at 8 Pp. M.

Ixx Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of September 1866.

Solar Radiation, Weather, &c.

Be epi eae ce

= & 3 2 Prevailing ae

cute se) ies =| direction of the Fi | General aspect of the Sky.

2) a2 se Wind ue |

CoG ind. -

eR ba is os a5

we o |Inches tb

16 | 148.2 | 2.52 | S. & variable. ... |Clear to 5 a. m. Scatd. “i to 1

Pp. M. Overcast afterwards.

Thunder at 4,6 & 7 P. M.

Lightning at 7 p. M. Rain at

3,4,7 &8 P.M.

i 6s (ue 0.39 IN. E.& N.N. E. ... |Overcast nearly the whole day.

Rain from 113 a. M. to 2 p.m.

& at 5 Pp. M.

Bak VF 1.29 |E. N. E. & S. E. Clear to 3 a. m. Seatd. \i to 7

A. M. “i afterwards. Rain

from 93 a. M. to 123 a. mM.

19 | 142.4) 0.78 |K. S. E. & variable Clear to 5 a. mM. “ito lla. m.

Overcast afterwards. Light-

ning & Thunder at 5 Pp. M.

Rain at 7 a.m. Noon, 1 & from

5 to7 P. M.

20 | 143.7/ 1.00 |S. S. E. & S. E. ~i & \Wi. Rain at 1 & 3 p. M.

21 | 136.2) 0.09 |S. S. E. Clouds of different kinds. Rain

at 123 & at 55 P. M.-

22 |: Vag 8 Se AS. by Ei. Clear to44.mM. oi to 6 P. M.

Clear afterwards.

23|140.2| ... |S. by HE. & 8.8. W. Clear to 7 a.M. 71to4P. M.

\_i afterwards.

24|140.0} ... |N. W. & W. ~-ito9 a.m. Clouds of different

kinds afterwards. Light rain

x at 7 P. M.

Bore” tt 0.03 |W. & variable. Scatd. \i to 2 a. M. Overcast to

4p. m. Scatd. \_i afterwards

Slight rain at 4 & 5 A.M.

26 | 140.2} 0.14 |E.S.E. & S. E. Scatd.\i to 5 a. M. Scatd. 71 to

lp. mM, Scatd. \ni afterwards.

Rain at 8 & 9 P. M.

27 | 846.2 | 0.84 |S. by E., S.S.E.&S. Clear to 7 a. M. Scatd. i to 10

a. M, Seatd. 7i to 5 p.m. Wi

afterwards. Thunder at 6 P.“

Rain at 6 & 7 Pp. M.

28 | 147.4} 0.05 IS. & S. EH. |Clear to 7 a. M. Seatd. “1 to 6

p. mM. Clear afterwards. Light

rain at 5 P. M.

29 | 138.2 | 9.12 |S. & variable. Scatd. \i to 7 a. M. Seatd. ~1 to

6 p. M. Overcast afterwards.

Lightning & Thunder from 7

to 9p.m.Rain between 8 & 9PM

30| 145.2) ... |S. S. W. & variable Clear 8 a. M. Scatd. ~1 after-

wards.

Mt Cirri, — i Strati,~i Cumuli,\_i Cirro-strati, ~ i Cumulo strati,~-i Nimbi,

i Cirro eumuli.

* Rain Gauge 1 Foot 2 Inches above ground.

y an

Meteorological Observations. Ixxi

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta, in the

month of Septemper 1866,

Montuty ReEsvutrs.

Inches.

Mean height of the Barometer for the month.. ... 29.666

Max. height of the Barometer occurred at 10 a. .M. on the 23rd... 29.855

Min. height of the Barometer occurred at 3 Pe. mM. on the 9th —... 29.444,

Extreme range of the Barometer during the month ste . , G41

Mean of the daily Max. Pressures... wh Me ... 29.724

Ditto ditto Min. ditto - pe! ... 29.597

Mean daily range of the Barometer during the month ... oe 2 OLZE

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer for the month _.. one a

Max. Temperature occurred at 3 Pp. M. on the 30th a oe eee

Min. Temperature occurred at 5 a. mM. on the 26th si ob ac eee

Extreme range of the Temperature ria the month = t ~ OG

Mean of the daily Max. Temperature .. oe: 0 4) BOB

Ditto ditto Min. ditto, x ee 80M

Mean daily range of the Temperature during the month.. vd 9.0

Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer for the month _.. 81.0

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer 3.3

Computed Mean Dew-point for the month i an hOuh

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above computed mean Dew- -point . 5.6

bisanas

Mean Elastic force of Vapour for the month ... Mag i. OSE

Troy grain.

Mean Weight of Vapour for the month rae 10,29

Additional Weight of Vapour required for complete saturation ... 1.99

Mean degree of humidity for the month, complete saturation being unity 0 84

Inches.

Rained 23 days,—Max. fall of rain during 24 hours be w. 3.84

Total amount of rain during the month Pk OF

Total amount of rain indicated by the Gauge attached to the anemo-

meter during the month ie - ike 16.04

Prevailing direction of the Wind _ .... ee “§$.S.E.&8.

Ixxu1

cal Observations taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Caleutta, in the month of Sept. 1866.

Montuty Rest ts.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorologi

cular wind blew, together with the number of days on

wind was blowing, it rained.

which at the same hour, when any particular

Tables shewing the number of days on which at a given hour any parti

Meteorological Observations.

‘HO UIeyY]

‘MAG NT

uO Ue = a ~

‘ ° . ro ete ro ro resN Aare a |

“M’NUN

UO Ule}y ft

"MON rs =i me re Nm oIN escsce

‘uo Wey = = ae

0 3 4 ce e re SAN INN metres [oo

M'N M

ao Wey | ete

5 5 | rs ANQrAINnNnAaA co

N Aq" AA

‘UO UIBY rer _ =

5 ee Pe ee of ee co | [e | Ga Gt

MN.

‘UO WIV 4 -4

4 - er toe | re

S Aq “M

‘uo urey| ie

Prats eSsoesietinatiat ee eo esos reainNn lag) Lama

M'S'M

uo ULE fe i

wo Ae re a DNANANNIN TOONS

"MO Udy Le | Sesser re ret

; es NAT MMAMMADAINN ODA FAN FmHA NATOMM

Ne SS

‘MO UIBYy

“OC kaa! NS SSSA A ANNA AANS

MALS

‘uo Urey a m7

eg] SSS 15 10 OD HS NAN 99 ND SH ODO O18 HIS

‘To Urey) = ee

TP 2S RD AANATA TAO AN DANIAN TA HIO HO

a Aq “S| &

‘mo Ulex] ec es ea os re Asana Ss

“aa gi em 1D IDIDID AAD AANODMDAMDOWDAOOOADHS

k is .

ee ee

‘UO Uley| 7, son Laan OD |

7 a ae NOMANHRD NAAWDSOOMWMH NATASHA A

‘UO WIRY Le | re re

on on|) St SDM OMIOAHN MAAS a HAAN

H SOW

‘UO WLBY

‘a iqeg) i AoA =

‘10 Ue aN are

‘UO ULE pas

hes TET re re ron ret

NT Aq ap

‘WO WRIT Pa ie

ear Sat HHNMNOMNHAD ATH 44 ANHA

WO Trey e re ce

é : Lo re ore NANA A AINA

HN re rm

“UO Urey

os ene AANA AQ

a oN ON

‘uo Uley = a

i . oe re Len | Ssesteared

a Aq “N

“uO IR a 7;

Tre re ae re ae

be a a

oS =I

den I Ey AAO HID ON OWAON SHAM MOORDRBOn

nNlO, tf OD a ae) Sr

aS Z

Meteorological Observations. Ixxiil

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of October 1866.

Latitude 22° 33’ 1” North. Longitude 88° 20’ 34” East.

Height of the Cistern of the Standard Barometer above the sea level, 18.11 feet.

Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.

—

is 8 _ | Range of the Barometer = = Range of Tempera-

g25 during the day. eile > ture during the day.

3 oe Pe

Date. ae) a Q ‘i z

e2% | Max. | Min. | Diff. | £3 | Max. | Min. | Diff.

| a) S H

Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. ) fe) Oo ty)

1 | 29.759 | 29.808 | 29.689 | 0.119} 85.2 91.2 | 82.0] 9.2

2 795 857 745 112 84.3 92.2 81.4 , 10.8

3 853 915 #91 124 85.6 90.4 81.0 9.4

a 849 .913 785 128 84.0 90.6 80.0 | 10.6

5 815 864: 733 131 84.4 91.2 80.4 | 10.8

6 821 884 759 125 83.7 88.0 81.0 7.0

7 819 882 748 134 84.1 89.8 79.6. | 10:2

8 847 901 .780 121 82.7 87.4 79.4 8.0

9 841 .903 782 121 81.5 89.2 77.8 | 11.4

10 779 854 705 149 | 80.2 85.4 | 77.0 | 8.4

11 799 875 743 132 82.5 88.6 78.0 | 10.6

12 .876 .938 832 -106 83.1 89.8 78.0 | 10S

13 877 953 .808 146 84.1 89.9 (92 | 10.7

14 855 .923 fab 126 85.0 90.5 81.0 9.5

16 .839 902 773 129 84.4: 90.2 80.7 9.5

16 .869 928 816 112 81.9 88.4 78.8 9.6

17 905 951 857 094 83.2 90.0 78.0 | 12.0

18 936 -998 .880 118 82.4 88.0 77.4 | 10.6

19 .909 .981 841 140 82.6 88.8 77.0 | 11.8

20 -869 .965 ite 7 178 83.7 90.2 77.6 | 12.6

21 -820 875 751 124 81.5 85.6 ies 7.9

22 178 836 -706 -130 80.5 84.2 78.0 6.2

23 749 .810 .668 142 | 80.2 84.0: || > Fees Wek

24 .638 715 566 -149 75.9 77.5 74.0 3.5

25 .628 802 O14 .288 79.2 82.7 76.5 6.2

26 .850 915 178 137 75.8 79.4 71.9 7.5

27 924 .982 843 134 78.2 83.4) 73.6 9.8

28 .950 | 30.004 .900 104 78.9 86.0 73.6 | 12.4

29 922 | 29.994 879 116 79.6 85.6 74.0 | 11.6

30 .904 .966 .849 «LEG, 79.3 85.4 74.8 | 10.6

31 895 954 843 LLIN ~ FONG 84.6 | 75.4] 9.2

The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb

orn amaa Means are derived, from the hourly observations, made during

e day.

Ixxiv Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of October 1866.

Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.—(Continued.)

' : Sit =e GH ey os t

apg ale ae 28 | 228s | ee

Be ee hee | ee

= e 1) each B e SS | Fas | ss

fa ab) Be ye 2 £2 |B eS | one

28 | Sect Et BS yudt S Sekt SS 4 ee

ee |e) eo) ge) Be") BS) Somme

as 24 a5 qe 4,3 |53a2 ea

é | b> z bay E Ss é q | Se 8 i ait

co i ee aa = a stale

) ) re) re) Inches: |'“T. gr.) D.. ge.

1.| 814 | 38) 787] 65 | 0.961 | 1026 | 2.36 | 0.81

2isi|° 80.7 | 1G | Fear Ca 946 13 15 83

iii SME | ete pee 19% 937 00 .76 78

4: | 80% || ome) 78m Bese) — 082 19 | 1.98 84,

Si 80.6. |) sae 770i. 6s 937 02 | 2.25 81

6 | 80.7 | 30] 786] 6.1 958 23} 1.79 85

711 | Foe | cea) Fes 73 905 | 9.69 | 2.52 79

Ba |) Fo ee | F7a~ Be 919 88 | 1.84 84

9 | 785 | 80) 764): 6.1 893 62 69 85

1011) 7a | eee 76g “4a 885 55 33 88

446) Rute 4) eB: | Fe Aale. - lal 922 91 73 85

12 | 792 | 39|.765] 6.6 896 61 | 2.25 81

13)| 79.6 | 45/7641, 77 893 56 65 78

14: | 800: | sO} 765 4 Bz 896 BT .96 76

6 | 794 | 60! 759) | 86 879 40 91 76 |

16 | 37.9 | 40/ 751| 68 85 21 23 81

17 | 7.0 | 62| 72.7| 105 | .792 | 849 | 3.40 71 |

18. | | Sek |} pew | FkOde T14 751 07 54 70 |

19. |. Zee | pea | TBs a 763 20 48 70 |

20 | 77.6 | G&l| 733] 104 | .809 66 Al 2

21,| 78:2 | 83.) al, Be 879 | 9.46 | 1.85 84, |

2 | 7.6 | 29| 756) 49 871 39 59 86

23.| 72 | Ba) galt ba 857 25 63 85

24 | Fh | ee weeds By 806 | 8.77 | 0.80 92

25 | 75.8 | 34| 734) 68 Sil 76 | 1.80 83

266) 72:6 | Be) 7OAIn oe 736 02 52 84

27 | Fhe | AO Tie Baer) Mae DIO 28 80

28) Be | 62 Jade Bs 729 | 7.89 58 75

29 | 74.3 | 5.3| 70.6| 9.0 741 | 8.00 69 75

301 1744 140] 710) BS 751 ig AT 77

Bley 932° |---G:4r 68-7 | 109 607 | 7.52 | 3.17 19 =

All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants.

Meteorological Observations.

ixxv

| Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of October 1866.

Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.

63 Range of the Barometer | 5 ..

oe for each hour during aS

we a the month. 2

o = vn ADR Moh ee si

Hour.| = Bs a) Z

é ™ 3 | Max. Min. | Diff. & = Max.

ad a

Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. ° re)

Mid-

night.| 29.842 | 29.953 | 29.560 | 0.393 79.8 84.4

1 834 .949 534 -415 79.5 84.2

2 826 -946 522 424 79.2 83.8

3 819 .939 421 -408 78.9 84.0

4 817 -936 514 -422 78.7 83.8

5 830 -954 523 A431 78.5 83.6

6 846 .970 533 437 78.3 83.0

7 861 .987 562 425 79.1 83.8

8 881 | 30.001 -596 405 80.9 86.8

9 891 .004 627 377 82.7 87.8

10 895 .004 .648 .356 84.0 90.4

11 .880 | 29.998 645 303 85.1 91.0

Noon. -856 .965 631 304 85.6 91.2

Fe .825 .937 .621 316 86.3 91.4

2 800 .921 -606 315 86.8 92.2

3 785 911 577 334 86.4 91.2

4 787 .904 577 327 84.7 90.4

5 791 .913 573 340 84.2 90.4

6 804 .923 571 302 82.5 88.0

7 821 .935 .566 369 oe 86.6

8 842 .945 590 355 ped bee 86.0

9 856 954 597 307 80.6 85.3

10 862 .961 588 313 80.2 85.2

a 855 958 576 382 79.8 85.0

Range of the Tempera-

ture for each hour

during the month.

Min.

Diff.

oe gd pet gg gg

be wR © OG s

The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb

Thermometer Means are derived from the observations made at the several

hours during the month.

Ixxvi Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of October 1866.

Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.—(Continued.)

e 4 e S Se fy ae

Beye | a] BS | ee | oa

a e pen) ies Ss Se, | So:8 2

= Da eo No we os A Py

z Bites |S lie 28 |EEE| ces

How! vee 8 | me] Sou] Boor] Shee ge met

Be |e | 2\'3, | Ba | eS | oes

om) ac 3 as = O 2 om gree)

q q ay A ds, ai Bag! €nq

og P> = ae oS $4. |S eueee.2

) Oo ty) Inches. |: Ti gr: | Tigre

Mid-

night.) 77.7 2.1/ 76.2 3.6 0.887 9.58 Ee bf 0.89

if 77.5 2.0 | 76.1 3.4 .885 57 i: eee .90

2 fs LD |) 76.0 3.2 .882 04 .O2 .90

3 i a 1.8 | 75.8 Bek .876 A8 0.99 91

4, 76.9 1.8 | 75.6 ae: 871 AZ .99 91

5 76.8 17.) ORG 2.9 871 AZ .93 91

6 76.7 1.6 | 75.6 2.7 871 AZ .86 92

f 77.0 2.1 | 75.5 3.6 868 38 1.15 89

8 77.2 3.7 | 74.6 6.3 843 .O9 2.01 82

9 77.9 4.8 | 74.5 8.2 840 .03 .69 77

10 78.2 5.8 > 74.1 9.9 830 8.89 3.28 73

11 78.4 GH le ark 11.4 819 76 81 70

Noon.| 78.4 F.2 | (RA | § 120 811 .66 4.10 68

1 78.5 4:8 | 73.0 13.3 801 .o3 49 66

2 78.5 8.3 | 73.5 Lo. 814 .67 oO 66

3 78.3 8.1 | 72.6 13.8 790 A2 64, 65

A, 77.6 ik | G26 12.4: 790 45 3.97 68

5 A ie | 6.5 | 73.1 Ptah 803 .60 .64 70

6 47.8 AT | 74.5 8.0 840 9.03 2.61 78

a 77.9 3.8 | 75.2 6.5 860 24 3 81

8 77.9 D2 | fone 5.4 873 Al 1.76 84

9 78.0 2.6 | 76.2 A.A, 887 m3) 43 87

10 77.8 ak | Gul: 4.1 885 333) 3] 88

at 17.5 2.3 | 75.9 3.9 879 AQ 26 88

All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants.

Meteorological Observations. Ixxvil

- Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of October 1866.

Solar Radiation, Weather, &c.

— =

> See tes nas

2 & ara ° Prevailing & =

3 a 16 4 a direction of the ‘s. | General aspect of the Sky.

3/83 |dud| Wind. or

ALA [eas a8

o {Inches tb

1} 148.4 0.05 |S. by W. Scatd. %i to 2 p. m. Overcast to

6 p.m. Clear afterwards. Rain

at Noon & 6p. mM. Thunder

from 1 to5e. m. Lightning

at 4 P. M.

2/148.0/] 0.45 |S. & variable Clear to 5 a. M. Seatd. “ito 6

p. M. Clear afterwards. Rain

from 3 to 5 P. M.

3} 143.7| ... |W. by N. & variable Clear to 7 a. m. Scatd. “i to 5

p. M. Clear afterwards.

- 4/| 127.2) 1.14 |W. by N.& S.8.E. Clear to 7 a. M. 71 & \Wi to 2 P.

mM. Overcast afterwards. Rain

from 4 to 6 P. M.

§6| 154.2) ... |S.S.E. & S. W. Clear to 5 a. mM. Seatd. ~i to 7

p. mM. Clear afterwards.

Grhay.t.: ... 1S. & variable. Clear to 5 a.M. Scatd. ~i to

Noon. Wi & Wi afterwards.

7 440-2)" 4: 1S. & 8. S. E. Seatd. -~ito 6p. M. i after-

wards. Light rain between

Noon & 1 P. M.

8/1201} ... |S. & variable. Clear to 7 a. mM. Seatd. “i to 7

p. M. Clear afterwards. Light

rain at 4 P. M.

9/ 126.2} 1.23 |K. by N. & E:S. E. Scatd. \_i to 3 a. mM. Scatd. \wi

to 9 a. Mm. Seatd. 71 to 3 P.M.

Overcast to 7 Pp. m. Clear af-

terwards. Rain from 3 to 7

P. M.

10 | 115.2; 1.39 IN. N. E. & N. E. Clear to 5 a. mM. Overcast to 6

P.M. \~i afterwards. Rain

between 3 & 4 P. M.

1) aes 3. SIND NN? Bee & EH. Overcast to 3 a. M. >i to 6 P.

M. Clear afterwards.

12 | 144.0 arieictNis Bp Clear to 6 a. M. Scatd. ~1i to 6

p. M. Clear afterwards.

fay 143.00). s IN: Bk N. N. W. Clear to 7 a. M. Seatd. 7~i to 4

. Pp. M. Seatd. —i afterwards.

14) 143.5); ... |W.N. W.& N. W. Scatd. “i to 5 p. m. Clear after-

wards.

151,126.00; ... |S. He@e: S. B. Clouds of different kinds till 10

A.-M. Seatd. 1 ‘to 9p! Mm.

Clear afterwards.

xxvii

Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta,

in the month of October 1866.

Solar Radiation, Weather, &c.

Max. Solar

radiation.

144.6

140.2

144.8

142.2

146.8

115.0

130.0

146.5

147.0

146.0

Rain Guage 1

—

az Ge

ft. 2 in. above

Ground

Prevailing

direction of the

Wind.

S. by E. & N. W.

E. N. E. &S. by E.

N.E.& N. by E.

N. by E. & N.E.

NE.&ENE.&NNE.

S.&N.E.&S.S. E.

N.NE.&SSE&ESE.

N.N.E.& N. E.

EK. N. E.

W.S. W.&S. W.

N.N.W.&N. W.

N..N.. We

N.N.W.& N. W.

N.N. W.

N.W.&N.byW.&N.

ure of Wind.

Max. Pres-

General aspect of the Sky.

Clear to 5 a. um. Scatd. \Wi to 9

A.M. “ito 3 Pp. M. Seatd. Wi

afterwards.

Clear nearly the whole day.

Foggy from 9 to 11 P. m.

Clear to 11 a. um. Wito 3 P.M.

Clear to 8 p. M. Scatd. \_i af-

terwards. Foggy at 11 Pp. m.

Clear to 10 a. m. Seatd. “i to 4

p. m. Clear afterwards.

Clear to 5 a. M. Wi & 7 after-

wards.

Overcast to 11 a. m. Seatd. “i

to 6 p.m. Thin clouds after-

wards.

Thin clouds to 3 4. m. Overcast

to10 a. m. Wi afterwards.

Rain from 5 to 8 a. M.

Overcast & \wi. Rain from 7 to

9a.m. & between3 & 4 P.M.

Overcast. Low. scuds from E

from Noon to 6 pv. mM. Rain

nearly the whole day.

‘ni & “i Low scuds from S

from 7 a. M. to2 p. M. Light

rain at midnight, 4 & 5 a. M.

& at 8 Pp. M.

Clouds of different kinds to 6

p. M. Clear afterwards.

Scatd. \i to Noon. Scatd. \wi to

5 p. m. Clear afterwards.

Clear to 10 4. m. Seatd. \i to

7 p. m. Clear afterwards.

Foggy at midnight.

Clear to 9 a. m. Scatd. “i to 4

p. Mm. Clear afterwards.

Clear to 7 a. m. Scatd. ~i to 4

Pp. M. \_i & \Wi afterwards.

\Wi & “ito dp. M. Clear after-

wards.

Mi Cirri, — i Strati,>i Cumuli,—i Cirro-strati, ~i Cumulo strati,~i Nimbi,

“i Cirro eumuli.

Ls Y.-S PF

Meteorological Observations. xxix

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta, in the

month of October 1866.

MontTuHiy REsvutts.

Inches.

Mean height of the Barometer for the month.. . 29.838

Max. height of the Barometer occurred at 9 & 10 4. a. on the 28th... 30.004

Min. height of the Barometer occurred at 4a. M. on the 25th ... 29.514

Extreme range of the Barometer during the month mA! ... 0.490

Mean of the daily Max. Pressures ... = iis ... 29.905

Ditto ditto Min. ditto ah Bote

Mean daily range of the Barometer during the month ... wy O32

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer for the month 81.9

Max. Temperature occurred at 2 P.M. on the 2nd 92.2

Min. Temperature occurred at 6 a. m. on the 26th 71.9

Extreme range of the Temperature awe the month 20.3

Mean of the daily Max. Temperature .. 87.5

Ditto ditto Min. ditto, .. 77.8

Mean daily range of the Temperature during the month.. 9.7

Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer for the month ... Thr

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer 4.2

Computed Mean Dew-point for the month S 74.8

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above computed mean Dew- -point . hod

elie

Mean Elastic force of Vapour for the month ..., ie ». 0.849

Troy grain.

Mean Weight of Vapour for the month sey i Gola

Additional Weight of Vapour required for complete saturation ... 2.31

Mean degree of humidity for the month, complete saturation being unity 0.80

Inches.

Rained 12 days,—Max. fall of rain during 24 hours ik eg! 2200

Total amount of rain during the month . 0.88

Total amount of rain indicated by the Gauge attached to the anemo-

meter during the month __.. : 7.25

Prevailing direction of the Wind aa . NN.W.&N. E.

Ixxx

Montuty RESULTS.

given hour any particular wind blew,

ical Observations taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, in the month of Oct. 1866. -

when any particular wind was blowin

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorolog

together with the number of days on

o, it rained.

which at the same hour,

Tables shewing the number of days on which at a

a 6 0) ULeyYy

‘M4q ‘NT

‘UO ULB

"MM ' NN

uO UlBy]

“MN MA

"UO ULB

"Nr AQ* AA

Meteorological Observations.

(=a) i=l 9S i OC ie Bee ae re

fac)

Laon

CO OD “HOR OO OD ra rd oO 10 <A oD WMI CO 19 OO CO CO CO 20

NNANNKR RRR RRNA STO SS MANA RAN

bl teil ioh mahal h i,

(ah eal eel ie Pel pS) NANA AAA AAAS eS

UO ULBY

"uO USI]

'§ Aq M

"UO Ul

‘uO ULB

PT ated

m0 ce) Uley

“MS's

‘UO ULB]

“M Aq "g

m0 C6) ULBYT

‘g

‘UO ULV

"a Aq ‘g

“WO Uleyy

Yes)

dh Sk

1 imal fale) Ln OS Oe

SAAT NANT NAAN

1D 210 0 OD SH SIN

NNO ON

ANN MAAN SF oH

Antwaan AA eS

La re

‘dS $8

"UO ULB

Bee Oe

UO WIRY

‘HS

‘uo ULey

WO ULV

acl

‘UO UleYTy,

"N Aq

‘UO Ue

‘aN “a

‘dO UIE

‘HN

‘UO UIRYy

“AN ON

m0 10) Uleyy

ra Aq “NT

‘uO UleyY

“N

*ITLO HL

of days

Sa FAARTAS

N NS NAN ANTMNAN

| NAN So

FAM N ARN AMHAAMHN MANN

| lan)

|e ee nl) =r

Le OC MOC MOONS Binns Maes! NAGA

Libel met —iowiee aete oy

ANAANANATAN YS

ANN

(aa AN ere

SHO TION HOON

CS ees Bey ey BR oacien ae)

NANG CA ODIDID RDM TS OAAN Soo AG

ANHASH ATAGWMHMAAOIMAAOOOA

re.

Loe oe oe ee ee NOD CO. ie oe oe Bs oe oe ee

oN mw con ANA A 4

SAND FAIDOMnNOAOnCANMAMORDQORG

ee | rt

—_—_ ee ee

Meteorological Observations. xxx

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of November 1866.

Latitude 22° 33’ 1” North. Longitude 88° 20’ 34” Hast.

Height of the Cistern of the Standard Barometer above the sea level, 18.11 feet.

Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.

a g _ | Range of the Barometer = # |Range of the Tempera-

mad during the day. ee ture during the day.

soS i72-

Date.| Hee | Ag 5.27

s2% | Max. | Min. | Dif. | 24 | Max. | Min. | Diff.

Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. oy) | Ce) ) )

1 29.907 | 29.963 | 29.861 0.102 80.0 86.0 74.2 | 11.8

2 954 , 30.013 4 5 .L02 19.9 85.4 74.8 , 10.6

ee, .989 059 943 116 S17 88.6 V6.9 | 12.7

4 30.002 O74 945 129 2.1 87.8 710.) TOR

5 29.972 045 921 124 79.9 84.0 76.5 7.5

6 946 O01 .888 113 79.5 85.0 75.6 9.4

7 936 009 872 137 78.9 84.9 73.4 | 11.5

8 910 | 29.979 847 132 78.6 86.6 72.0 | 14.6

9 .900 961 .840 115 78.3 85.8 72.0 | 13.8

10 859 915 .786 129 76.7 84.0 70.0 | 14.0

11 885 944 829 115 75.7 83.6 68.0 | 15.6

12 983 | 30.047 925 122 76.6 83.6 70.8 | 12.8

13 30.021 .O96 365 131 77.2 84.8 70.8 | 14.0

14 O11 O74 953 121 774A 85.2 71.2 | 14.0

15 054 124 | 30.003 «hod YT jes 84.8 70.4 | 14.4

16 082 143 037 .106 77.0 84.1 TL.Op Tet

17 .097 163 029 134 76.2 83.9 LO. 4 bose

18 063 142 | 29.991 151 76.0 83.6 70.0 | 13.6

19 -050 121 | 30.007 114 76.0 83.4 70.0 | 13.4

20 032 «LOG |, 29.977 135 75.5 82.6 69.2 | 13.4

ze |* 026 094 959 135 75.4 82.6 69.8 | 12.8

22 021 .O83 964 BES) 74.1 81.8 67.2 | 14.6

23 990 .058 -939 L119 73.1 $1.0 66.7 | 14.3

24, 29.990 O64 O31 133 71.4 80.1 64.8 | 15.3

25 985 059 919 140. ee: 79.6 64.0 | 15.6

26 -936 | 29.999 876 123 70.4 79.0 62.8 | 16.2

27 945 «dod .890 101 70.1 78.0 62.0 | 16.0

28 30.000 | 80.060 959 106 72.0 80.0 64.4 | 15.6

29 .029 .095 983 eke 71.8 80.4 64.2 | 16.2

30 038 107 O74 133 Liy 81.0 65.0 | 16.0

The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb

ate Means are derived, from the hourly observations, made during

the day.

Ixxxul Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of November 1866.

Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.—(Continued.)

cal

f eB] 3 E S SH | 68a |-gs .

2 |e |2/A8 |s | 8 lass | eee

-- a > Oo mes ie aA

e 6 5 oS : =e = 28 | 52 wp

Date. | ("ss ar = 3s 5 ‘So. |= eee ee

e282 PS) Bs ey Se4) Sas eee

Fe )2|2| és | #3 | BS | sse)so¢

dso = 5 as A 3 Sad qos

S 4 aaa Oe Poy 5 5 oq | Ses] SOR

= A Poa eS = a ie: =

| ) ) ) ) Inches. | T. gr. | 1. ge

1 73.3 6.7 | 68.6 11.4 0.695 7.50 3.01 0.69

2 73.8 6.1 | 69.5 10.4 415 42 .06 42

3 76.4 5.3 | 72.7 9.0 792 8.52 2.85 15

4, 76.2 po) Tea 10.0 178 510) 3.15 WY

5 74.0 5.9 | 69.9 10.0 120 7.82 2.96 13

6 73.3 6.2 | 69.0 10.5 704 .o9 3.07 2k

7 72.2 6.7 | 67.5 11.4 .670 .26 21 .69 |

8 72.4 6.2.) 68.1 10.5 .684 08 .00 ve 4

9 71.8 6.5 | 67.2 Lint .664 19 .O9 70

10 68.1 8.6 | 62.1 14.6 O61 6.08 2 .62

11 67.8 7.9 | 62.3 13.4 .065 15 10) 65

12 69.6 7.0 | 64.7 11.9 611 64 13 .68

13 70.2 70-1" “Gaa8 11.9 623 76 19 .68

14 70.6 6.8 | 65.8 11.6 .634 87 14 .69

15 70.5 6.6 | 65.9 11.2 .636 .90 02 70

16 70.5 6.5 | 60.9 ied .636 .90 2.99 70

17 68.9 7.3 | 63.8 12.4 593 45 3.21 67

18 69.6 6.4 | 65.1 10.9 019 4 2.86 70

i 70.2 5.8 | 66.1 9.9 .640 .96 64 13

20 69.4 Gedo a nope: 10.4 .619 65) Hh 71

21 68.8 6.6 | 64.2 11.2 .601 4 .89 .69

22 67.1 7.0 | 62.2 11.9 063 14 .93 .68

23 66.2 6.9 | 60.7 12.4 .036 5.86 93 67

24 94.3 7.1) 58.6 12.8 499 7 .88 .66

25 64.8 6.5 | 59.6 yb reg .o16 66 .67 .68

26 63.4 7.0 | 57.8 12.6 486 34 76 .66

27 64.2 5.9 | 59.5 10.6 old .65 38 70

28 65.9 6.1 | 61.0 LLO 541 .93 57 70

29 65.7 6.1 | 60:8 11.0 537 .89 56 .70

30 65.4 6.3 | 60.4 11.3 .530 82 61 69

All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants.

e 4 A. ee, = oe ee ae

Meteorological Observations. | Ixxxili

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

un the month of November 1866.

Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.

63 Range of the Barometer | Range of the Tempera-

b= we for each hour during as ture for each hour

22 m= the month. sie during the month.

Hour.| = a Gz

N =

233 | Max. | Min. | Dif. | 38 | Max. | Min. | Dif.

as a

Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. ) ) 0 0)

Mid-

night.| 29.990 | 30.104 | 29.861 | 0.243 73.2 80.8 67.4 | 13.4

4A 984, .102 852 .250 72.6 80.2 66.6 | 13.6

2 977 .L00 845 .255 72.0 79.4 65.6 | 13.8

3 971 .100 833 .267 71.6 79.0 64.8 | 14.2

4, .969 105 .829 .276 71.0 78.0 64.0 | 14.0

5 .978 hl .850 .261 70.4 77.4 64.0 | 13.4

6 994, 122 872 .250 69.9 27.0 63.2 | 13.8

7 30.016 144 894 .250 70.3 77.4 62.0 | 15.4

8 .037 154 .902 .252 73.0 79.8 64.4 | 15.4

9 .052 163 a0 253 75.6 81.8 67.0 | 14.8

10 .050 157 915 242 78.7 85.2 69.9 | 15.3

11 .028 132 893 | .239 80.7 87.0 | 73.2 | 13.8

Noon. .002 105 .860 245 82.0 87.4 | 75.0 | 12.4

a 29.971 072 825 247 82.6 87.8 (RY i ae RS

2 949 049 801 248 83.1 87.4 77.4 | 10.0

3 .936 .037 .786 251 83.0 88.6 78.0 | 10.6

4 932 043 789 254 81.5 87.0 76.4 | 10.6

5 941 .059 798 .261 80.3 85.8 75.8 | 10.0

6 953 072 805 267 78.2 84.2 73.3 | 10.9

7 O71 .087 .840 247 - 76.8 83.0 71.6 | 11.4

8 .989 095 853 .242 75.9 82.3 69.6 | 12.7

9 30.001 112 866 | .246 75.1 81.6 69.4 | 12.2

10 .007 LT 867 244 74.3 81.2 68.6 | 12.6

.002 .L08 .868 240 73.6 80.8 68.2 | 12.6

The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb

Thermometer Means are derived from the observations made at the several

hours during the month.

Ixxxiv Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of November 1866.

Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.—(Continued.)

= t J

s | oe a ie = en) SSalae

= = | 28 2 Se, | See

fe eS | A > >So | "oes eee

2 S| eal be a = 8. | & ete

Hour. " — A = de mee S = toa, a

D 5 “= ro is Boo ‘3 '5 ao | 84

eS) S| 24 3. | Bs | eS | eee

ad ra Ee —Q = anon AS 1B O'R 4 )

is) be = bd a & act |oa'e | ses |

o 4 LA OD Cd SS 2) O ori

) ) ry Ce) Inches. | T. gr. | T. gr

Mid- |

night. 69.1 4.1 | 65.8 7.4 | 0.634 6.94 1.88 0.79

i 68.6 4.0 | 65.4 7.2 626 .85 81 79

2 68.2 3.8 | 65.2 6.8 621 81 .69 80

3 67.7 39 | GAG 7.0 609 69. ay | 80

4 67.3 3:/ | G43 6.7 603 .63 .62 80

5 66.9 oo | Gaia 6.3 599 .o9 OL 81

6 66.6 3.3 | 64.0 5.9 597 a4 AL 82

7 66.8 3.5 | 64.0 6.3 597 57 ol 81

8 68.1 A.9 | 64.2 8.8 601 as ee 2.19 75

9 69.4) 6.2 + 65.1 10.5 619 TA, 4 va:

10 40.7 S20) oh ee. 13.6 619 70 otk 64,

A 71.3 9.4 | 64.7 16.0 611 58 4.46 60

Noon. Tas 10.7 | 63.8 18.2 593 ay 5210 56

i: 71.0 41.6 | 62.9 19.7 .576 17 51 5d

2 71.0 12.1 | 62.5 20.6 568 08 73 al

F 70.9 12.1 | 6214 20.6 567 06 76 51

4, 70.4 1k. |. G2 18.9 570 13 18 5A

5 70.7 9.6 | 64.0 16:3 597 4A, 4.47 59

6 71.2 7.0 | 66.3 17:9 644 .98 3.27 68

4 70.9 5.9 | 66.8 10.0 695 Felt 2.72 72

8 70.5 5.4 | 66.7 9.2 693 AEG) oo 74,

9 70.0 onl | Geax 87 646 04 30 75

10 69.7 4.6 | 66.5 7.8 648 O7 05 78

ll 69.3 4.3 | 66.3 io 644, .05 1.88 79

All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants,

Meteorological Observations.

lxxxv

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

im the month of November 1866.

Solar Radiation, Weather, &c.

Date.

Max. Solar

radiation.

oa)

145.0

147.0

141.0

145.5

145.0

146°0

148.0

143.0

138.0

140.0

142.8

147.0

149.0

138.0

148.0

144.4

148.0

145.5

141.4

Prevailing

direction of the

Wind.

N. by W. & N. W.

N.&N.E.&N. by W.

Noa N= N.OW.

ia... W.:

N.&N.N.W.&N.W.

a ae Sas

NW&NbyE&EN.E.

N. E.

N. N. W.&N.by W.

N.N.E.&N.NW.

N.W. & NN.

Max. Pres-

—

Mas

PE)

General aspect of the Sky.

tea a... \_1 to leis oe

& \Wi tod Pp. Mm., clear after-

wards.

Clear to 34. M. Witod Pp. mM.,

clear afterwards.

Clear to 5 p. M. \Wito 10 4. m.

\i & 71 to7 e. M., clear after-

wards.

Clear to.7 4.™M. \ai.to 6 P. mu.

“j afterwards.

Aito7 a. M. \Wito 3 Pp. M. Over-

east afterwards, Thin Rain at

5,6& 1l p.m.

Overcast to 6 a. M., \Wi to 2 P.

m., clear afterwards, Slight

Rain at 4 A. M.

Clear to 9 a. M. Seatd. \Wi to 1

p. M., clear afterwards.

Clear

Clear to 7 a. M. Scatd. \i to 6

p. m., clear afterwards.

Clear.

\ni to 8 a. M. clear to 11] a. m.

ni to 5 p. M. \Wi afterwards.

Clear to 10 a. m. Scatd. \ni to

7 p.M., clear afterwards.

Clear, slightly foggy at 10 p. M.

Clear to 10 a. m. Scatd. ~i to

4p. mM. Seatd. \i afterwards.

Clear to 4 a. M. Seattered \—i

to .7 «A: wi Scatd. “1 & Nat

afterwards.

Clear to 9 a. M. Scatd. \_i to 6

Pp. mM. Seatd. \i afterwards.

Slightly foggy at 7 & 8 P. M.

Clear to 11 a. m. Scattered “i

afterwards.

Scatd. “1 & \i to2 Pp. M-, clear

afterwards.

Clear to 19 a. m. Sceatd. “i to3

P. M. Wi afterwards.

Clear to 10 a. m Seatd.>i to 4

Pp. M., clear afterwards.

Clear to Noon. Scatd. \1 after-

wards. Slightly Foggy from 8

to ll Pp. M.

Ixxxvi Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of November 1866.

Solar Radiation, Weather, &c.

Ces fee?) i

Bal ies i age

a &§ PS 5 Prevailing 2 iE

‘ ne is < =| direction of the gi General aspect of the Sky.

oS |oo o

3e/| esa 18 i rr)

ais 3 . O Wind. Ss 8

; ao in n

o |Inches tb

23 | 142.0; ... |N.N.E.& N.by W.| ... {Clouds of different kinds to 5

p. M., Clear afterwards, Fog-

gy at ll Pp. M.

24)140.2) ... IN. Scatd. i to 9 a. M., \i after-

wards. Foggy at 8 Pp. M.

26 | 137.0%) <... iN. byl Woes IN. WW. Clear to 10 a. m. Scatd. “i to 6

Pp. M., clear afterwards.

26 | 139.8:| .... [Ne WegeaN. NW. ~ |Clear to 11 a. m. Scatd. 71 to3

p. M., clear afterwards. |

27 | 1383.0) 6. )2 (NIN WE Chiefly clear. |

28/145.0) ... |N. by W.&N. byE. Clear toll a.m. Scatd.nito5

Pp. M., clear afterwards.

29|140.0/ ... |N. by E. & N. W. Clear.

30 | 142.0; ... |N.W.&N.by E. Clear.

a” oe _ £

i Cirri, —i Strati,>i Cumuli,—i Cirro-strati, ~i Cumulo strati,~i Nimbi,

“i Cirro cumuli. : mali: ico

Meteorological Observations. Ixxxvii

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, in the

month of November 1866.

Montuty REsvtts.

Inches

‘Mean height of the Barometer for the month.. »». 29.988

Max. height of the Barometer occurred at 9 a. a. on the 17th ... 30.163

Min. height of the Barometer occurred at 3 Pp. M. on the 10th ... 29.786

* Extreme range of the Barometer during the month a ee O.e

Mean of the daily Max. Pressures _... a ie ... 30.053

Ditto ditto Min. ditto wat s«. 29.930

Mean daily range of the Barometer during the month ... ww.” 0.128

)

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer for the month __.., aes Ges Seem

Max. Temperature occurred at 3p. M. on the 3rd bit 9 eee

Min. Temperature occurred at 7 a. M. on the 27th nee «| 30200

Extreme range of the Temperature ese the month a fia” ol

Mean of the daily Max. Temperature .. bis on és.

Ditto ditto Min. ditto, = en oue

Mean daily range of the bs osgnana during the month. ac’ (koe

Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer for the month . 69.5

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer 6.6

Computed Mean Dew-point for the month 64.9

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above computed mean Dew- -point . 11.2

| iohes

Mean Elastic force of Vapour for the month .., xs vw. 0.615

Troy grain.

Mean Weight of Sa la for the month be Ode

Additional Weight of Vapour required for complete saturation ... 2.93

Mean degree of es for the month, complete saturation being unity 0.70

Inches.

Drizzled 2 days,—Max. fall of rain during 24 hours we Bi) ioe ANE

Total amount of rain during the month bie er Na

Total amount of rain indicated by the Gauge attached to the anemo-

meter during the month __.. Ma Pu Nil

Prevailing direction of the Wind a6 .. N.W.N.N. W.&QN.:

Ixxxvill

taken at the Surveyor General's Office,Calcutta, in the month of Nov. 1866.

Montuuy RE&svUtrtTs.

tOons

cal Observat

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorologi

wind was blowing, it rained.

any particular wind blew, together with the number of days on

h at a given hour

Tables shewing the number of days on whic

, when any particular

which at the same hour

"HO UB}

Meteorological Observations.

FMM OASHAOHA ANT MOR DSCSCMm WS

—

"HO ULB

“NC AQ "AA

"uO ULB

‘UO WIRY

} UO ULB yy

| AAS AL

mene) ULB Yy

“M °S

m0 C6) ULG ef

“MS S$

‘HO ULB

Pa Aq 9)

‘WO Wey

“dO UiBsf

ly Aq 9

“UO UTR

Cid HAM ATO OAO MM OM RMIDOOROOMNO ;

* |

HNMNMNMOMAMHNARONOMDNRAOR®

fe eh ee |

NANA A TRA RRR RRR RRR TNANNANANN

No.of day

|} Uo Wie

}-ao wey

uO ULeYy

| Uv TiByy

‘a ‘NA

f° UO WiexT

Bee: Bs

1-1O Urey

ra NON

ace) Ulery

ba Aq Ny

} UO ULexT

“dno FT

; uo UBT

“Ta

teal ual ell i

NANANTAN TAN Se ed

AMA MMNAMAMArOHWMWANWMWAAN

NN MH FD DW WODANMMNAMIOMMNAANAAAN

TM OOO DrOMAMOSODArRAOMAAIAIAAAN

es AN Fp Orono HNO Hin Ore OO Ord

ae ae

Meteorological Observations. Ixxx1x

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta,

e in the month of December 1866.

Latitude 22° 33’ 1” North. Longitude 88° 20’ 34” East.

Height of the Cistern of the Standard Barometer above the sea level, 18.11 feet.

Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.

Cet

5 3 _ | Range of the Barometer = + |Range of the Tempera-

a3+ during the day. om $s ture during the day.

3 Se EB (ie

Date. | Ae, | | A BL | |

s2° | Max. | Min. | Dif. | 3 | Max. | Min. | Diff

Ss me |

a | ie "| |

Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. ra) ra) o oO

1 30.023 | 30.072 | 29.962 0.110 717 82.0 64.0 | 18.0

2 O17 O88 935 153 71.8 80.6 64.6 , 16.0

a O14 .1L00 947 -153 69.8 80.6 61.4 | 192

4, O11 065 941 124 68.4 78.0 60.2 | 17.8

5 29.985 ‘O62 911 151 68.2 78.0 60.0 | 18.0

6 961 O44 904 140 67.0 76.6 60.6 | 16.0

7 30.006 .071 944, mys 65.9 77.0 57.6 | 19.4

8 oy 1 .159 | 30.000 159 65.8 76.0 57.0 | 19.0

9 O71 hol .029 102 65.4 76.0 56.8 | 19.2

10°: 104, Ea a 054, 119 67.1 76.4 89.0 | 17.4

Peel ~ 145830 -185 O85 -LO0O 67.9 78.0 60.0 | 18.0

12 413 .195 045 .150 67.0 76.8 59.0 | 17.8

i3 .025 .096 | 29.955 141 67.5 | 77.0 59.6 | 17.4

14 014 .078 959 .119 68.0 FH Pe 60.6 | 16.6

15 .065 122 | 30.022 . LOO 67.2 Cie ee 58.7 | 18.5

16 .136 .208 .087 121 67.9 I7 6 59.8 | 17.7

17 145 222 .O76 146 66.7 76.6 08.8 | 17.8

18 144 217 O88 129 68.0 77.2 61.0 | 16.2

19 ial .256 119 a rf 67.5 ye 8) 58.4 | 18.9

20 195 213 AZ1 2152 66.9 76.6 58.6 | 18.0

21 164 .226 108 118 67.1 76.0 58.8 | 17.2

22 164 .232 aEky 115 67.1 76.0 58:8. | 17.2

23 .158 201 .097 134 66.5 76.0 58/2 TAL7S

24, .170 .254 124, .130 66.0 FAS AS) 58.0 | 17.6

25 .163 .249 .O96 sLb3 65.3 74.2 57.4 | 16.8

26 .119 .186 050 136 65.4 75.8 56.6 | 19.2

27 .075 138 012 126 65.4 75.4 56.0 | 19.4

28 .O88 159 .035 124, 65.1 75 A 56.4 | 19.0

29 .023 113 | 29.952 .161 64.8 75.8 56.8 | 19.0

30 29.960 .033 .890 143 65.4 77 A 55.6 | 21.8

31 979 .049 934 is) aS: 67.1 77.0 58.0 | 19.0

The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb

shernoneren Means are derived, from the hourly observations, made during

e day.

xc Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

an the month of December 1866.

Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.—(Continued.)

fon

Bu ; 43 E 6 Beat.) Same gt

Bob loR |B | 8 aligesaletges Se

= Ee E g Se | Sge a=

= S E 5 - 6S | Saat oer

> om

ea 3 S 3 a es Se es ae

ee | 9 eS [Su thes (os Sees

sel adt2| en | Be | eC \eae

qj ; S = 1g;

$3 |p| — | pe | 8F | 84 | Ses] sek

= ents eh yen) bet = = a | =

oy) ) Co) Co) Inches. |. 'T. gr.) 3s

A 65.6 6.1 | 60.7 11.0 | 0.536 5.87 2.56 0.70

2 64.4 7.4 | 58.5 i3:3 498 45 3.00 .65

3 63.2 6.6 | 57.9 i? .488 .36 2.59 67

4 60.6 7.8 | 54.4 14.0 A434, 4.78 84 63

5 61.6 6.6 | 56.3 11.9 462 | 5.10 .48 .67

6 59.8 7.2 | 54.0 13.0 428 | 4.73 57 .65

Z |. 69.3 6.6 | 54.0 i BS) 428 74 32 .67

8 | 68.8 7.0 | 53.2 12.6 416 .62 42 .66

9 59.4 6.0 | 54.6 10.8 437 85 10 70

10 61.3 5.8 | 56.7 10.4 469 5.18 14 AE -

a1 62.7 5.2 | 58.5 9.4 498 00 .O1 73

12 61.9 5. | 3h.8 9.2 486 .38 1-92 74

is 61.5 6.0 | 56.7 10.8 469 Ay 2.25 .70

14 61.5 6.5 | 56.3 in ay 462 10 43 .68

15 61.0 6.2 | 56.0 11.2 458 .O7 .28 .69

16 61.6 6.3 | 56.6 11.3 467 16 9) .69

17 60.7 6.0 | 55.9 10.8 456 05 18 70

18 61.5 6.5 | 56.3 i We 462 .10 43 .68

19 60.9 6.6 | 55.6 is i) 452 .00 42 .67

20 60.1 6.8 | 54.7 12.2 438 4.85 43 .67

21 60.6 6.5 | 55.4 les 449 .96 .36. .68

22 60.8 6.3 | 55.8 11.3 455 5:04. P28 69

23 59.9 6.6 | 54.6 11.9 437 4.84, .00 67

24, 58.9 vipa es 12.8 416 .62 46 .65

25 58.3 70 | p24 12.6 409 55 38 66 |

26 58.1 13 |. d2.0 13.1, 404 49 46 68:

27 58.9 6.5 | 53.7 iW 423 70 .25 .68

28 59.3 5.8 | 54.7 10.4 438 .87 .O2 71

29 59.6 5.2 | 55.4 9.4 449 99 1.84 73

30 59.9 5.5 | 55.5 99 450 5.00 95 [2

31 61.6 5.5 | 57.2 9.9 476 .26 2.06 Jie

“All the H ygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants.

Meteorological Observations. XC1

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

im the month of December 1866,

Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.

Sa Range of the Barometer =. | Range of the Tempera-

£6 . for each hour during ms ture for each hour

Ce a the month. = during the month.

vo .

ef | Max. | Min. | Diff. | $3 | Max. | Min. | Diff

As ae |

Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. ) ) oO )

Mid-

night.| 30.082 | 30.205 | 29.958 | 0.247 63.2 68.6 58.6 | 10.0

%) 076 195 952 .243 62.6 68.4 58.4 | 10.0

2 .069 188 946 .242 61.9 68.0 58.2 9.8

3 .063 186 943 243 61.2 67.4 58.0 9.4

4 .060 .182 .940 242 60.6 67.0 57 A 9.6

5 070 196 949 247 60.0 66.3 56.7 9.6

6 O85 212 .968 244 59.2 65.0 56.4 8.6

5 103 231 .982 249 59.0 64.6 55.6 9.0

8 126 .253 993 .260 62.2 66.5 57.6 8.9

9 148 .266 | 30.033 233 65.9 69.8 62.6 7.2

10 .150 .273 O31 | .242 69.6 73.2 | 65.0| 8.2

11 131 209 008 251 12.6 76.4 69.2 fr

Noon. 097 231 | 29.973 .258 74.7 79.0 ZL0 8.0

1 O64 -186-) -~..930'| >, .256 75.8 80.0 | 73.2 | 6.8

2 .040 157 908 .249 76.8 81.2 74.2 7.0

3 .026 135 891 244, 76.8 82.0 74.1 ie)

4 021 124 .890 234 75.2 80.2 F290 7.3

5 .030 129 904 225 73.3 71.6 71.3 6.3

6 044 142 .914 .228 70.3 74.7 68.5 6.2

7 .960 162 932 .230 68.3 73.0 66.0 70)

8 .076 174 949 .225 66.9 72.0 64.2 7.8

9 UGE 194 .967 227 65.8 70.7 62.6 8.1

10 101 .221 -969 .252 64.9 69.8 59.9 9:9

11 .093 .212 961 201 64.1 692° 4739.0 | 10.2

The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb

Thermometer Means are derived from the observations made at the several

hours during the month. ;

x¢cll Meteoiologicul Observations,

ddbstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

tuken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

an the mouth of December 1866.

Hour) y Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements

dependent thereon.—(Continued.)

r | ‘ > ei | SS eee

Stl antag | | We eae Rd | S&¢| 8s

et a a $ >s | Sos fins .

rs SS = = os oO Taw CO Se

aa S S 3 2 $2 E =e 625

Hour.) = 3 B 3 6 ae Gok) ea

Se | oa | 8 | 2 ae... | os | "a. Simoes

Fe |} 2 tle | Bao) Be) BS See es

ge) + 8 48 fie lee | Siege

st | & | & | &e | ge | gs | Ses ous

o oO 0 ° Inches. | T. gr. | T. gr |

Mid- |

night.| 59.6 3.6| 56.4] 68 | 0464 | 5.17 1.32 | 0.80

l 59.1 3.5 | 55.9 6.7 ASG 09 28 80

2 58.6 | 3.3 | 55.6 6.3 452 06 17 81

3 58.1 3.1 | 55.3 5.9 4A7 Ol 09 82

A 57.6 3.0 | 54.9 5.7 AAL 4.94, O04 83

5 | 57.1 9.9 | 545 5.5 435 88 | 0.99 83

6 56.7 951 54.4} 4.8 434, 87 86 85

7 56.4 | 2.6 | 54.1 4.9 429 83 86 85

-8 57.9 4.3 | 54.0 8.2 AS? 78 1.51 76

9 59.9 6.0 | 58.1] 10.8 Add} | 98 2.13 70

10} — @iee 7.9| 5A] 142 449 94 96 63

rh 62.8 9.8 | 55.0| 17.6 AAQ 84 | 3.82 56

Noon.| 63.3 | 11.4] 55.3 | 19.4 AAT gg | 4.35 53

1 63.4 | 19.4 | 54.7] 21.1 438 76 78 50

2 63.8 | 13.0 | 54.71 229.1 438 5 5.08 48

3 63. 13.1] 545] 29.3 A35 72, 11 48

4 | 63.2 | 19.0} 648 | 20.4 AAO 78 | 4.59 51

5 63.8 95 | 56.2 17.1 A61 5.03 3.81 57

6 63.6 6.71 58.2 | 121 A93 42 | 2.66 67

‘ 62.9 5.4] 58.6 9.7 A99 51 09 73

8 62.1 4.8 | 58.3 8.6 AOA AG 1.82 75

9 61.6 4.2 | 58.2 7.6 A493 AG 58 78

10 '| ‘61.0 |°-3.0)) G70 7.0 488 Al 44, 79

11 60.3 3.8 | 56.9 ce. 472 25 42 79

All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants.

Meteorological Observations. x¢elll

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of December 1866.

Solar Radiation, Weather, &e.

——

€ |S5. ae

So 6 | are Prevailing FS

< - S & e A direction of the Pur | General aspect of the Sky.

— a o [_ & Wind. a 2

tae | a. Ss 4

a=fee a

o |Inches tb

eee... IN. by W.aN.N.W. Clear to 4 Pp. m. Scatd. \Wi to

8 p. M., clear afterwards.

2 | 141.2 N. & N. by W Clear to 7 a. M. \i & Uitos

p. M., clear afterwards.

3 | 143.4 N.& N. by E Clear to 11 a. M.\_ito3 P.M.,

clear afterwards.

4 | 138.4 W.N.W.&N.N.W Clear. Slightly foggy at 9 & 10

Pp. M.

5 | 138.0 W. by N. & N. W. Clear.

6 | 138.8 W.& W.N. W. Clear

7 | 139.0 N.W.&N.N. W. Clear. Foggy from 7 to 11 Pp. m.

8 | 138-0 N.N.E.&N.N.W. Clear.

9 | 135.0 vs: YY Clear

10 | 134.2 N.W.& W.&N. Clear.

11 | 136.0 IN. & NN: W. Clear. Slightly foggy at 7 p. m.

12 | 138.0 Ns aN. OW. Clear. Slightly foggy at 10 &

LPR. Bi

13 | 137.0 W.N.W.&W.S.W Clear. Foggy at6&7a4.m. &

from 7 to 1l Pp. M.

14, | 140.0 W.S. W.& variable. Clear.

15 | 131.2 N. by E.& W. by N. Clear. Slightly foggy from 7

0 10 P. ot.

16 | 138.0 N. & variable. Chiefly clear. Foggy from 7 t«

Io's. M.

17 | 135.5 N.by E& N. W Clear. Foggy at 64. m. & fron

7 toll P.M.

18 | 134.0 N. & N.N.E Clear to 54. mM. \i tol Pp. M.

clear afterwards. Foggy fron

Midnight to 44. m.& at 9 &

10 P. M.

19 | 189.0 N. by W. &N. Clear.

20 | 136.0 N. by W.&N.N. W. Clear.

21 | 133.0 NN. W..aN W. Clear.

22 | 135.0 N.byW.&N&NNW Clear to 9 a. m. Seatd. \i to €

Pp. M., clear afterwards.

23 | 136.0 N. by W. Clear to 6 a. m. Scatd. \i to (

p.M., clear afterwards. Fogg

at 8 & 9 Pp. M.

24 | 136.8 N. W. Clear.

25 | 133.0 N.N.W.&N.by W Clear.

26 | 137.6 N. Clear.

27 | 136.0 N. by W. Clear. Slightly foggy from 8 t

TPs.

28 | 135.2 N. by W.&N.N.W Clear. Foggy from Midnight t

& N. W. 2a.M. & from 7 toll P.M.

xeiv Meteorological Observations.

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,

in the month of December 1866.

Solar Radiation, Weather, &e.

rote aoa -- |

Mo cle ee KO

es | Ss Load Wind. a)

4 Snr. beef

o |Inches tb |

29/133.0) ... |N.W.&N.N.W.&N.| ... |Clear. Foggy from Midnight to

4 a.m. & from’8 to 11 P. m.

30 | 138.2) ... |W.N.W.&SSW.&S. Clear. Slightly foggy from Mid-

night to6a.m.&at8&9p.m.

31 | 138.0° S. Chiefly clear.

ma Cirri, —1i Strati,~i Cumuli,\—i Cirro-strati, ~i Cumulo strati,~i Nimbi,

“i Cirro cumuli. ;

Meteorological Observati Ons. xev

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations

taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, in the

month of December 1866.

Monrsuyuy ReEsutrs.

Inches.

Mean height of the Barometer for the month.. iv. SOLES

Max. height of the Barometer occurred at 10 a.m. on the 20th .. 80.273

Min. height of the Barometer occurred at 4p. M. on the 30th —... 29.890

Extreme range of the Barometer during the month ns ., Oe

Mean of the daily Max. Pressures... oy re i. BOnkou

~ Ditto ditto Min. ditto : m i. SOMITE

Mean daily range of the Barometer during the month ... 3, Ooi

oy)

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer for the month

Max. Temperature occurred at 3 p. M. on the Ist

Min. Temperature occurred at 7 4. M. on the 80th

Extreme range of the Temperature auntie the month

Mean of the daily Max. Temperature ..

Ditto ditto Min. ditto,

Mean daily range of the Temperature during the month..

mH orb or MD

QO CONT OD OVW sy

POoOoOkRaAOe

Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer for the month... 60.7

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer 6.4

Computed Mean Dew-point for the month , 55.6

Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above computed n mean Dew-point .. 11.5

nolo

Mean Elastic force of Vapour for the month ... os .. 0.452

Troy grain.

Mean Weight of Vapour os the month an 6083

Additional Weight of Vapour required for complete saturation ... 2.32

Mean degree of humidity for the month, complete saturation being unity 0.68

Inches.

Rained No. days,—Max. fall of rain during 24 hours... rh) or Nol

Total amount of rain during the month ws Nil

Total amount of rain indicated by the Gauge attached to the anemo-

meter during the month __. Nil

Prevailing direction of the Wind.. . N.&N.N.W.&N. W.

xevl

al Observations taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, in the month of Dec. 1866.

(1G

Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorolog

MontHiy RESULTS.

articular wind blew, together with the number of days on

lar wind was blowing, it rained.

which at the same hour, when any particu

Tables shewing the number of days on which at a given hour any p

Meteorological Observations.

‘UO ULB

"UO ULB

“MN UN

UO TRI

MUN

‘WO UIRyY

“MONT M

Be OD OO HOD HOD SO SO SH ee DN 2G SH OH OOD SO FD 19 109

O HANA OM OD 10 SH I OH 19 DH DO OD D210

aSsoqantnn es

‘uo UlBYy

“NAG AA

"WO UIRY

“MM

SS _ | _ 1

ANNTRAANAA

‘UO Uley

‘9 Aq “MA

"UO WIRY

MS" M

“uo ULB YT

“MS

10 ULe a |

Vel Sea) li

CD 6 69 OD OD MO OD GD SD St

Ssesqena Aaa eS

"M'S'S

‘UO UIRYy

MASS

uo UleYy

“UO ULb EY

‘a Aq 's

"UO ULV

LF re co el

Sm RR RNNANSN

‘W'S 8

“HO WIRY

“Ss

‘UO UIeY

mo ULE

“UO ULRT

‘UO Uiey

iioct GN

‘wo Urey

“a ON UN

“HO ULC

No.of days

imal eal ial AANTMANANS

ANNA TO

“a Aq “NT

“UO ULBY

ATT

“INO FP,

N NAN OD OD OD rH

HGS Hid 6 f= OC OD

Mid

night

)

ia! il

ADE

(mal fami le! Lea

ora et ann

ANH AIBA OoOrM ODO

‘

tat |

ee oe

ees

em sae

Soe Fwy

Pek ie de be dk be oe

Bree Dae Sees

e~geerne

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@o8~4-8-"*-8

dele be bead hel ' : : . . 7 Ps

i aty ey tO ~~ bmw ’ : . é - 6

prere er ree te nr ty Sr rt bee | - ~

b= 5m e -mEe o- 6 > -8 7 8- gen bmw ne

Seta esha eres e- " r i te

Serer ira Pre

4;ere

(2. Shye i

ity =

P Seok bt ke ete

eras o-4-+~ / e

2 = res yo a” 8 Foran k SE ~ Oe +1. S42) sho yee ee

egereses eee sa Sette ~ “ 48 Sy eee

aa oss ts ee 6-s e845 -

a eh OO 88 tO HE -t~ ee k~ se~ Ve Sete we

z 2 yrreererirr yr rte fe et bibl a oe 2 eer te ee eee oa

= af enh rane - \-e- - < - fn - hoe 8 She 958 te ee re we ee ee Bed " ae ares B-5es—

eee reer =e+6-6 =i OREM = ey . * rf - a Gt 18 wy hee B® be ete ee

rrr ers { . - aoe ha c . a A= 9-4 i 4-0-4 — hh 2 ee NS epee Perey

= wo - | - - , , eee - oe -* Lod ss

- nd . “ ‘ ‘ - Pe Bane ee bed

or ate t : . * ; ‘ , — ‘ arsé + 4~— 4S

Hen be RekER Ow ern oO 8 eee : . " . 7 =>

ee tn ne eae a

f << SR eee =

B50 shh Rd ry ORM h SPOHS ECHR 6 KR omy =F oF

peer eet ee bee ere ee bad

4 =P. a> 6-2) 270-2- es > ae

Lh Sear eerie he ee

Hate UH BR eta Gee: HS Kr EF ot

ons 6 ye hem

Shah 4 eareet= bs _ pt i

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ae 6.8 ' . ‘ +o & ao oK8

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seem

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[nd op aeRO bone

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pa ne ee mere iy:

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rye eek ew: rrr err et hr ne ek ed

Sip lucetes Se enerete

* eoh* 27 Bab ‘ , o-8 ona

stateeres tee, ther cana

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FADE HH HOO 8 Gos - Herm

ase:

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Sena i PR

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rl ech~2=

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east

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| bial

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e+" = " 2

ahr 2h tbs b= lee bw othe bh eh OO

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ag eeeare- a ae

PAPER prt ti

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fe yt Hk ee owe nk

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bk ite hed

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toto per

et ae = 8 ~ 9-8 om

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6518! wt Ste 46 mee

6 e5e- <=a-8

anes’

“OR t=

oP PY FEIT BETS ee

ee ee eee

es ~My Be

ae & reer prem =

6 ate= ‘ hay Oa dee

mrt 2 ; per pere te a

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re toe

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SPP 5eeH9“G

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a= oy

& 4%

a keee wee

PEt pel pe

218 8 oe 2-6 OF

ae y :

1<9—e-

Tae

e-aee

a beta pee paired = Seen

= oN 5 a @ ace ~ @rere

SEDER ey Ore ARS PA- BE Gonm—d-@

any een $ ~4+ 8-6 Re ~~ ee

da Wolpe dendgrty enh RE CRSeC iP mE eH Oe=

Se eee

Pw) eee hee

+ —h- o— — e- w

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thd SG Geeta soy sh ea™ teh

Oy ya To

saaleate =

was ebrg—y

~e- 26-2 sata —a>

per re Bs te he

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poe